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@@ -1,41 +1,4 @@ -Project Gutenberg's The Truth of Christianity, by William Harry Turton - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: The Truth of Christianity - Being an Examination of the More Important Arguments For - and Against Believing in that Religion - -Author: William Harry Turton - -Release Date: April 2, 2013 [EBook #42460] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE TRUTH OF CHRISTIANITY *** - - - - -Produced by Heiko Evermann, Quentin Johnson, Fox in the -Stars, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images -scanned by Fox in the Stars from the collection of Brays -Advent Christian Church in Iberia, Missouri) - - - - - - - - +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42460 *** OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. @@ -1883,7 +1846,7 @@ window, retrace its way, but will buzz helplessly against another which is shut. [Footnote 3: Encyc. Brit., 9th edit., vol. iii., pp. 490, 484. The -angles are 109 deg. 28' and 70 deg. 32'.] +angles are 109° 28' and 70° 32'.] Thirdly, the instincts of animals are practically the same, always and everywhere. They are not more advanced in some countries, than @@ -2835,7 +2798,7 @@ such small beginnings points to an end proportionately great, and this involves the immortality of man. On the whole, then, we may say in the words of Romanes, one of the great champions of evolution, that 'only by means of this theory of probation is it possible to -give any meaning to the world, _i.e._, any _raison d'etre_ of human +give any meaning to the world, _i.e._, any _raison d'être_ of human existence.'[8] [Footnote 8: Thoughts on Religion, 1895, p. 142.] @@ -3739,7 +3702,7 @@ about B.C. 20, who knew nothing of geology, ridicules the idea of the days of Genesis being literal, or representing any definite periods of time.[12] -[Footnote 12: Works of Philo Judaeus, First book of Allegories of the +[Footnote 12: Works of Philo Judæus, First book of Allegories of the Sacred Laws, Yonge's translation, 1854, vol. i., p. 52.] (3.) _Its gradual development._ @@ -4398,7 +4361,7 @@ nearly every incident in which shows a knowledge of ancient Egypt: found as early as the time of Joseph. [Footnote 30: H. E. Naville, Professor of Egyptology, at the - University of Geneva, 'Archaeology of the Old Testament,' 1913, + University of Geneva, 'Archæology of the Old Testament,' 1913, p. 80.] 49. Lastly, the usual Egyptian custom (as shown by the @@ -4452,7 +4415,7 @@ narrative seem so ridiculous. [Footnote 34: Gen. 43. 27-28.] -[Footnote 35: Chabas, Melanges Egyptologiques, Third Series, vol. +[Footnote 35: Chabas, Mélanges Égyptologiques, Third Series, vol. ii., Paris, 1873, p. 152.] (2.) _In the history of Moses._ @@ -5201,7 +5164,7 @@ courage, and ability, till the closing chapter of Deuteronomy. This was evidently written by someone else, and shows what we might have expected had the earlier part been the work of anyone but Moses himself. Nor is there anything surprising in his writing in the -third person, as numbers of other men--Caesar, for instance--have +third person, as numbers of other men--Cæsar, for instance--have done the same. But now comes the important point. Fortunately it can be stated in a @@ -5494,7 +5457,7 @@ of the book.[112] [Footnote 112: It is worth noting that this rationalistic theory, which was generally accepted by the so-called Higher Critics, has -now become so difficult to maintain in the face of archaeology that +now become so difficult to maintain in the face of archæology that Dr. Pinches, Lecturer in Assyriology at University College, London, said recently 'I am glad to think with regard to the Book of Daniel that the Higher Criticism is in fact buried.' Transactions of @@ -5906,7 +5869,7 @@ fulfilment; it is obvious to everyone. For two thousand years history has verified them. The utter desolation of these countries is without a parallel: the empires have vanished, the once populous land is deserted, and the cities are heaps of ruins, often the dens -of wild beasts,--lions, hyaenas, and jackals having all been seen +of wild beasts,--lions, hyænas, and jackals having all been seen among the ruins of Babylon. In short, the prophecies have been fulfilled in a manner which is, to say the least, very remarkable. @@ -7819,7 +7782,7 @@ THAT THE FOUR GOSPELS ARE GENUINE FROM EXTERNAL TESTIMONY. (_A._) THE UNDISPUTED TESTIMONY. - End of second century; Irenaeus, his evidence of great + End of second century; Irenæus, his evidence of great value. (_B._) THE ALMOST UNDISPUTED TESTIMONY. @@ -7870,7 +7833,7 @@ specially sought for, and destroyed. So the absence of earlier manuscripts though very unfortunate, is not perhaps unnatural; and it is anyhow no worse than in the case of classical works. I have seen it stated, for instance, that there are no manuscripts of -either Cicero, Caesar, Tacitus, or Josephus, within 800 years of +either Cicero, Cæsar, Tacitus, or Josephus, within 800 years of their time. @@ -7884,7 +7847,7 @@ ascribed to the authors we now ascribe them to; and they were always considered to be in some sense divinely inspired. As this is undisputed, we need not discuss the evidence; but one -writer deserves to be mentioned, which is _Irenaeus_, Bishop of +writer deserves to be mentioned, which is _Irenæus_, Bishop of Lyons. His works date from about A.D. 185; and he not only quotes the Gospels frequently (about 500 times altogether), but shows there were only _four_ of acknowledged authority. Since the fanciful @@ -7904,19 +7867,19 @@ how he would speak of his familiar intercourse with John, and with the rest of those who had seen the Lord; and how he would call their words to remembrance.'[182] -[Footnote 182: Irenaeus, Fragment of Epistle to Florinus. The +[Footnote 182: Irenæus, Fragment of Epistle to Florinus. The translations here and elsewhere are from the Ante-Nicene Christian Library.] The importance of this passage, especially in regard to the Fourth Gospel, can scarcely be exaggerated. For is it conceivable that -Irenaeus would have ascribed it to St. John, unless his teacher +Irenæus would have ascribed it to St. John, unless his teacher Polycarp had done the same? Or is it conceivable that Polycarp, who personally knew St. John, could have been mistaken in the matter? The difficulties of either alternative are very great; yet there is no other, unless we admit that St. John was the author. -It should also be noticed that Irenaeus, when discussing two readings +It should also be noticed that Irenæus, when discussing two readings of Rev. 13. 18, supports one of them by saying that it is found _in all the most approved and ancient copies_; and was also maintained by men _who saw John face to face_.[183] He had thus some idea as to @@ -7924,7 +7887,7 @@ the value of evidence; and he is not likely to have written as he did about the Four Gospels, unless he had seen of them equally _approved and ancient_ copies. -[Footnote 183: Irenaeus, Bk. 5. 30.] +[Footnote 183: Irenæus, Bk. 5. 30.] (_B._) THE ALMOST UNDISPUTED TESTIMONY. @@ -7974,7 +7937,7 @@ passage differently, it is clear that he was relying on his memory; and had not looked up the reference, which in those days of manuscripts, without concordances, must have been a tedious process. Also when quoting the Old Testament, he is almost equally -inaccurate. Moreover later writers, such as Irenaeus, who avowedly +inaccurate. Moreover later writers, such as Irenæus, who avowedly quoted from our Gospels, are also inaccurate in small details. It is hence practically certain that Justin was quoting from these Gospels. @@ -8014,9 +7977,9 @@ which is more or less disputed by some critics. And first as to Papias. He was bishop of Hierapolis in Asia Minor (about a hundred miles from Ephesus) early in the second century; and only a few fragments of his writings have been preserved by -Irenaeus and Eusebius. We learn from the former that he was a +Irenæus and Eusebius. We learn from the former that he was a disciple of St. John and a companion of Polycarp; and considering -that Irenaeus was himself Polycarp's pupil, there is no reason to +that Irenæus was himself Polycarp's pupil, there is no reason to doubt this.[187] Now Papias tells us himself what were his sources of information: 'If, then, anyone who had attended on the elders came, I asked minutely after their sayings,--what Andrew or Peter @@ -8026,7 +7989,7 @@ things Aristion and the presbyter John, the disciples of the Lord, say. For I imagined that what was to be got from books was not so profitable to me as what came from the living and abiding voice.' -[Footnote 187: Irenaeus, Bk. 5. 33.] +[Footnote 187: Irenæus, Bk. 5. 33.] He had thus very good means of knowing the truth, for though the Apostles themselves were dead, two of Christ's disciples (Aristion @@ -8077,7 +8040,7 @@ Paul;[189] and the writers of the so-called _Epistle of Barnabas_, and _Teaching of the Twelve Apostles_. Their dates are not known for certain, but it is now generally admitted by rationalists as well as Christians that they all wrote before A.D. 120, and probably before -110. Thus the _Encyclopaedia Biblica_ (article _Gospels_) dates their +110. Thus the _Encyclopædia Biblica_ (article _Gospels_) dates their works, Polycarp 110; Ignatius (7 Epistles) before 110; Barnabas, probably before 100; Clement 95; Teaching 80-100. @@ -8110,7 +8073,7 @@ instance, He came to those who were with Peter, He said to them, "Lay hold, handle Me, and see that I am not an incorporeal spirit."'[191] -[Footnote 191: Ignatius to Smyrnaeans, ch. iii.; Luke 24. 39.] +[Footnote 191: Ignatius to Smyrnæans, ch. iii.; Luke 24. 39.] _Barnabas._ 'Let us beware lest we be found, as it is written, Many are called, but few are chosen.'[192] @@ -8192,7 +8155,7 @@ prominent convert; and he must have known from whom the book came, even if for some reason this was not stated in the heading. And as he is not likely to have kept it secret, the authorship of the book must have been well known to Christians from the very beginning. -Therefore the testimony of early writers, like Irenaeus, who always +Therefore the testimony of early writers, like Irenæus, who always ascribed it to St. Luke, becomes of exceptional value; and makes it almost certain that he was the author. @@ -8451,7 +8414,7 @@ We now come to the _probable date_ of the first three Gospels; and there are strong reasons for fixing this before the fall of Jerusalem, in A.D. 70. In the first place several _subjects_ are discussed, such as the lawfulness of the Jews paying tribute to -Caesar,[207] which would have had no interest after that event. And +Cæsar,[207] which would have had no interest after that event. And that conversations on such subjects should have been composed in later days, or even thought worth recording, is most unlikely. Nor are Christ's instructions as to what persons should do when they @@ -8840,7 +8803,7 @@ We pass on now to the other argument. The Book of Revelation is generally admitted to be the work of St. John, and it is ascribed to him by Justin Martyr.[234] Its date is usually fixed at A.D. 68; though many critics prefer A.D. 95, which is the date given by -Irenaeus. +Irenæus. [Footnote 234: Dial., 81.] @@ -8943,7 +8906,7 @@ give three examples. We will commence with the _titles_ given to different rulers. As is well known, the Roman provinces were of two kinds, some belonging to the Emperor, and some to the Senate. The former were governed by -_propraetors_, or when less important by _procurators_, and the +_proprætors_, or when less important by _procurators_, and the latter by _proconsuls_, though they frequently changed hands. Moreover, individual places had often special names for their rulers; yet in every case the writer of the Acts uses the proper @@ -8987,18 +8950,18 @@ Testament, 1907, p. 80.] Again, Herod (_i.e._, Agrippa I.) shortly before his death, is styled _king_.[244] Now we learn from other sources that he had this title for the last three years of his government (A.D. 41-44), -though there had been no king in Judaea for the previous thirty +though there had been no king in Judæa for the previous thirty years, nor for many centuries afterwards. [Footnote 244: Acts 12. 1; Josephus, Antiq., xviii. 6, xix. 5.] Moreover, his son is also called _King_ Agrippa, though it is -implied that he was not king of Judaea, which was governed by Festus, +implied that he was not king of Judæa, which was governed by Festus, but of some other province. Yet, strange to say, he seems to have held some official position in regard to the Jews, since Festus _laid Paul's case before him_, as if he were in some way entitled to hear it.[245] And all this is quite correct; for Agrippa, though -King of Chalcis, and not Judaea, was yet (being a Jew) entrusted by +King of Chalcis, and not Judæa, was yet (being a Jew) entrusted by the Emperor with the management of the Jewish Temple and Treasury, and the choice of the High Priests, so he was a good deal mixed up in Jewish affairs.[246] And this, though only a trifle, is @@ -9130,7 +9093,7 @@ province to Illyricum, it exactly agrees with the Epistle.[255] We may now sum up the evidence as to the accuracy of the Acts. The above instances are only specimens of many which might be given. The writer knew about Jerusalem and Athens just as well as about -Ephesus. While his account of St. Paul's voyage from Caesarea to +Ephesus. While his account of St. Paul's voyage from Cæsarea to Italy, including as it does, references to a number of places; to the climate, and prevailing winds of the Mediterranean; and to the phrases and customs of seamen, is so accurate, that critics of all @@ -9172,7 +9135,7 @@ then. And as it seems to have been his rule only to record what he knew for certain, he might well have left out other and more important events, of which he had not such accurate knowledge.[258] And the earlier reference, which ends with the apparently pointless -remark that _Philip came to Caesarea_, without saying why or +remark that _Philip came to Cæsarea_, without saying why or wherefore, is also explained, since this was the place where the writer afterwards met him. It is then practically certain that the whole book was written by one man, and that he was a companion of @@ -9250,7 +9213,7 @@ next few years, about which the writer says nothing. And why should he go through the earlier stages of St. Paul's arrest and trial, so carefully, step by step, from Lysias to Felix, from Felix to Festus, and then to Agrippa, and on to Rome; and then when he comes to the -crisis, and the Apostle is about to appear before Caesar, suddenly +crisis, and the Apostle is about to appear before Cæsar, suddenly break off, without giving a hint as to which way it was decided? Everyone must feel how tantalising it is; and how unlikely he is to have stopped here, if he could have gone on. @@ -9264,7 +9227,7 @@ city. Secondly, the Roman judges and officials are always represented as treating the Christians with fairness, and even kindness; and the -writer leaves St. Paul appealing to Caesar, with every hope of a +writer leaves St. Paul appealing to Cæsar, with every hope of a favourable verdict. There is no sign of bitterness or ill-feeling anywhere. And all this would have been most unlikely after the great persecution in A.D. 64; when Christians regarded Rome with the @@ -9319,7 +9282,7 @@ date of St. John's Gospel. Wilkinson, 1911, pp. 99, 133, 134. Some writers would place them still earlier. Thus Canon Birks, dates them all between A.D. 42-51, and he gives strong reasons for thinking that St. Luke, and his -Gospel, are referred to in 2 Cor. 8. 18. (Horae Evangelicae, 1892, +Gospel, are referred to in 2 Cor. 8. 18. (Horæ Evangelicæ, 1892, edit., pp. 259, 281, 293); and Archdeacon Allen places the second Gospel, about A.D. 44, and the first about A.D. 50. (Introduction to the Books of the New Testament, 1913, p. 13.)] @@ -9557,7 +9520,7 @@ Apostles, and extended over eight days. Secondly a group in Galilee, the most important being that to the five hundred, which was a sort of _farewell_ to His Galilean disciples. And thirdly to a group back again at Jerusalem, chiefly to the Twelve, but including others, and ending -with the Ascension, or _farewell_ to His Judaean disciples. +with the Ascension, or _farewell_ to His Judæan disciples. TABLE OF CHRIST'S APPEARANCES. @@ -9635,7 +9598,7 @@ again to _all_ His disciples, and have taken leave of them; both those in Galilee, and those at Jerusalem, the Apostles themselves being of course present on each occasion. And as the words _when they were come together_ imply that the meeting in Jerusalem, like -that in Galilee, had been previously announced, all the Judaean +that in Galilee, had been previously announced, all the Judæan disciples may well have been there; and this we know was the case with Matthias, Justus, and others.[283] @@ -9762,7 +9725,7 @@ us)[293] _selected instances_. And in the present case their choice is quite intelligible. Thus St. Matthew closes his Gospel, which is concerned chiefly with the Galilean ministry, with the farewell meeting in Galilee; St. John, whose Gospel is concerned chiefly with -the Judaean ministry, ended his (before the last chapter was added, +the Judæan ministry, ended his (before the last chapter was added, which seems a sort of appendix) with some of the appearances in Jerusalem. While St. Luke, who was more of an historian, and wrote everything _in order_,[294] though he describes most in detail the @@ -11405,7 +11368,7 @@ _magic_; so they could consistently ascribe the miracles to some of these lesser deities; or, in popular language, to magic. And we have abundant evidence that they did so. As we have seen, it is expressly asserted by Justin, who in consequence preferred the argument from -prophecy; and Irenaeus did the same, and for avowedly the same +prophecy; and Irenæus did the same, and for avowedly the same reason.[359] [Footnote 359: Bk. ii. 32.] @@ -11452,7 +11415,7 @@ to be alluded to, such as the _darkness over all the land_ at the time of the Crucifixion. And if this extended over the whole of Palestine, it is certainly strange that it should not be noticed. But it may only refer to the neighbourhood of Jerusalem. Compare the -expression _all the country of Judaea_[362] (when referring to the +expression _all the country of Judæa_[362] (when referring to the people being baptized) which is evidently not meant to be taken literally. And if the darkness was limited to the neighbourhood of Jerusalem, there is nothing surprising in its not being recorded by @@ -11515,7 +11478,7 @@ others did the same, and thus everyone had a little. It seems scarcely necessary to discuss these theories in detail, as they are all most improbable. -[Footnote 364: This extraordinary theory was maintained by Renan in +[Footnote 364: This extraordinary theory was maintained by Rénan in the earlier editions of his _Life of Jesus_, though he afterwards abandoned it.] @@ -12312,7 +12275,7 @@ Jewish punishment, though dead bodies were sometimes hung on trees. Yet, as just said, verses 7-8 show that the Sufferer was put to death among his own nation. This strange anomaly of a Jew being put to death among Jews, though not in the Jewish manner by stoning, but -by crucifixion, exactly suits the time of Christ, when Judaea was a +by crucifixion, exactly suits the time of Christ, when Judæa was a Roman province, and crucifixion a Roman punishment. Many of the _details_ also are quite inapplicable. David, for @@ -13087,7 +13050,7 @@ _blasphemy_, and for nothing else. This is the teaching not of one Gospel alone, but of each of the four.[444] Every biography of Christ that we possess represents this as the real charge against Him; though, of course, when tried before the Roman governor that of -disloyalty to Caesar was brought forward as well. +disloyalty to Cæsar was brought forward as well. [Footnote 444: Matt. 26. 65; Mark 14. 64; Luke 22. 71; John 19. 7.] @@ -13281,7 +13244,7 @@ of high rank (as is shown by the title _Most excellent_), none of whom are likely to have accepted the religion of the Crucified, without very strong evidence.[447] And recent discoveries in the catacombs have made it probable that a distinguished Roman lady, -Pomponia Graecina (wife of the General Aulus Plautius) who Tacitus +Pomponia Græcina (wife of the General Aulus Plautius) who Tacitus says was accused in A.D. 57 of having adopted a _foreign superstition_, was also a Christian.[448] @@ -16581,7 +16544,7 @@ INDEX OF SUBJECTS. Apostasy, under trial, 475 Apostolic Fathers, 260 Aramaic words of Christ, 354 - Archaeology and O. Test, 172 + Archæology and O. Test, 172 Arianism, 475 Aristides, 259, 364 Aristion, 258, 305 @@ -16646,8 +16609,8 @@ INDEX OF SUBJECTS. Butler, 431 By-product, pain is a, 60 - Caesar, no early MSS., 253 - Caesarea, Philip at, 295 + Cæsar, no early MSS., 253 + Cæsarea, Philip at, 295 Calmness of Evangelists, 317 Canaan, its peculiarities, 148 Canaanites destroyed, 209 @@ -16862,7 +16825,7 @@ INDEX OF SUBJECTS. Elohim, plural word, 393 Embalming Christ's body, 334 Emperor called lord, 289 - Encyclopaedia Britannica, 15, 53 + Encyclopædia Britannica, 15, 53 End of the world, 437 Endless happiness, 470 ---- misery, 464 @@ -17130,7 +17093,7 @@ INDEX OF SUBJECTS. Instincts of animals, 52 Invertebrates, in Genesis, 131 Involution and evolution, 23 - Irenaeus and Gospels, 254 + Irenæus and Gospels, 254 ---- Polycarp, 254 ---- Papias, 258 ---- date of Revelation, 285 @@ -17527,7 +17490,7 @@ INDEX OF SUBJECTS. Polycarp of Smyrna, 254 ---- witness to Gospels, 261 Polytheism, 119, 212 - Pomponia Graecina, 419 + Pomponia Græcina, 419 Prayer, subject of, 437 ---- and experiment, 444 ---- and observation, 444 @@ -17563,7 +17526,7 @@ INDEX OF SUBJECTS. ---- Eusebius, 259, 364 ---- Huxley, 249 ---- Ignatius, 261 - ---- Irenaeus, 254 + ---- Irenæus, 254 ---- Justin, 365 ---- Lecky, 398 ---- Mill, 397 @@ -17734,7 +17697,7 @@ INDEX OF SUBJECTS. Synoptic Gospels, accuracy, 266 ---- discrepancies, 266 ---- sources, 269 - ---- ministry in Judaea, 282 + ---- ministry in Judæa, 282 ---- probable date, 272, 300 ---- authors, 275 ---- and Fourth, 280 @@ -17898,362 +17861,4 @@ OE ligatures have been changed to simple OE in this text version. 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Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm -concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared -with anyone. For forty years, he produced and distributed Project -Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. -unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily -keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. - -Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: - - www.gutenberg.org - -This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42460 *** diff --git a/42460-8.txt b/42460-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 57ec069..0000000 --- a/42460-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,18259 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's The Truth of Christianity, by William Harry Turton - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: The Truth of Christianity - Being an Examination of the More Important Arguments For - and Against Believing in that Religion - -Author: William Harry Turton - -Release Date: April 2, 2013 [EBook #42460] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE TRUTH OF CHRISTIANITY *** - - - - -Produced by Heiko Evermann, Quentin Johnson, Fox in the -Stars, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images -scanned by Fox in the Stars from the collection of Brays -Advent Christian Church in Iberia, Missouri) - - - - - - - - - -OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. - -=Secular.= - -'The book is a distinctly readable one.'--_Glasgow Herald_, -September 18, 1902. - -'Really excellent little work.'--_Daily News_, September 26, 1902. - -'We cannot commend it too highly.'--_Western Morning News_, January -2, 1903. - -'Carefully thought-out little work ... written with frank and -tolerant impartiality.'--_Standard_, May 26, 1905. - -'The arguments are admirably marshalled; difficulties are not -evaded, but met fairly.'--_Westminster Review_, August, 1905. - -'We welcome a new edition.... The appeal of the book is evidently -one to common sense, and the success it has met is fully deserved. -There is a healthy lay atmosphere about Colonel Turton's arguments -which renders them, we fancy, peculiarly effective.'--_Pall Mall -Gazette_, March 11, 1907. - -'It is difficult to know whether to admire most the logical -precision with which he marshals his facts, and enforces his -conclusions, or the charming candour, and freshness of style, which -make his book so readable.'--_Liverpool Daily Post_, March 14, 1907. - -'This is a new edition, thoroughly revised, of LIEUTENANT-COLONEL -TURTON'S famous book.... We are specially struck with the detached -manner in which he examines the case; he holds the scales evenly, -and is not rhetorical. Anyone who has any power of reasoning at all -can follow him clearly from start to finish.'--_Bristol Times and -Mirror_, February 18, 1907. - -'It is a book for the hour, and needs to be circulated by thousands -... straightforward, manly, and convincing.'--_Schoolmaster_, March -27, 1909. - - -=Church of England.= - -'The book is of considerable value to everyone who is concerned with -the controversy on Christian Evidences; it presents a perfect -storehouse of facts and the conclusions which may be legitimately -drawn from them.'--_Church Times_, November 2, 1900. - -'We have already expressed our high opinion of this work--the -author of which, it may be mentioned, is serving in South -Africa.'--_Guardian_, October 17, 1900. - -'This thoughtful and convincing treatise.... We are glad to be able -to give our good word for the book, which should be found in the -catalogue of every public library in the kingdom. It is a volume -admirably suited for a gift-book to young men. It furnishes an -armoury of invincible weapons against the scepticism and -semi-scepticism which are rampant among us.'--_English Churchman_, -November 1, 1900. - -'This very excellent volume.... We strongly recommend this book to -the clergy for their own use and for lending to thoughtful and -painstaking readers.'--_Church Union Gazette_, January, 1901. - -'It is one of the best books of its class, readable, candid, -convincing, and thorough. It would be cheering news to hear that it -had been widely read. The book will continue to make its way; and -all Christians will rejoice that it should do so.'--_Church -Intelligencer_, October, 1905. - -'We give a hearty welcome to this revised edition. It is admirably -suited for general use.'--_Churchman_, February, 1909. - -'This is a textbook on Christian Evidence we would readily place in -the hands of the lay worker as an essential part of his -equipment.'--_Lay Reader_, December, 1912. - -'There is no padding, and no unnecessary rhetoric. All the available -space is filled with good solid reasoning, put in simple language -which an intelligent artisan can follow as easily as an educated -person.'--_Church Family Newspaper_, October 3, 1902. - -'Throughout the book the reader will be delighted with the sanity -and level-headedness of the writer, whose frequent appeals to common -sense are remarkably telling and effective.'--_Birmingham Diocesan -Magazine_, October, 1907. - -'The brilliancy of the author does not consist in his rhetoric or -appeal, but in the really brilliant fairness which he displays -towards the other side, in the accuracy with which he analyses each -situation, and in the clear and simple arguments which he -adduces.'--_Church Standard_, January, 1906. - -'Personally, we have never met with any book which can be more -confidently recommended.'--_Church Army Review_, December, 1912. - -'This is the kind of book which strengthens believers and makes -converts. It is one which should be placed within the reach of every -lad at that period of his life when he begins to think for -himself.'--_The_ (Church Lads') _Brigade_, October, 1905. - - -=Roman Catholic.= - -'We most heartily wish that a copy of it could be found -in the library of every Catholic family, school, and -institution.'--_Catholic Times_, January, 1909 (sixth notice). - -'This excellent book, ... well written, attractive in its style, -clearly thought out, and convincing.'--_Tablet_, August 29, 1903. - -'This is a work of uncommon merit.... The style is clear and makes -for pleasant reading. We wish many of our Catholic young men would -try and analyse a chapter in COLONEL TURTON'S helpful defence of -Christianity.'--_Universe_, July 21, 1905. - -'Having read and thoroughly approved every page of the book, we can -well believe that many clergy and teachers are finding it a useful -compendium of replies to all the chief arguments advanced against -Christianity. Though written by a non-Catholic, we can most strongly -recommend it as a book of the highest merit.'--_Catholic Herald_, -February 19, 1909. - -'A capital book already much used by priests in this country, and to -be found upon the shelves of very many of our clerical libraries. -But we wish that the Catholic paterfamilias would procure it too, -and recommend it to his boys ... There is a masculine ring about it, -and no shuffling over difficulties.'--_Catholic Fireside_, March 23, -1907. - - -=Presbyterian.= - -'One does not know what to admire most in the book--the accurate -knowledge gathered from so many fields, the clear reasoning, -the sound judgment, or the fine spirit which animates the -whole.'--_Christian Leader_, June 15, 1905. - -'Admirably arranged and clearly expressed.'--_Weekly Leader_, -October 6, 1902. - -'One of the best books of its kind.'--_St. Andrew_, June 1, 1905. - -'This is an admirable summary. It is clear, simple, and -well arranged ... The style also makes it extremely -readable.'--_Presbyterian_, March, 1906. - - -=Nonconformist.= - -'He is eminently fair to opponents, clear in statement, and -convincing in argument for his own case, and his standpoint, is -unmistakably evangelical. His style suits his work, being calm, -lucid, and simple.'--_Methodist Times_, August 22, 1901. - -'Is a tried favourite, and has served the Kingdom in many lands. -There is no book of the class known to us so complete and -conclusive.'--_Methodist Recorder_, February 28, 1907. - -'It deserves all the good that has been said of it.'--_United -Methodist_, November 19, 1908. - -'One characteristic may be singled out for notice--the writer's -extraordinary alertness in the use of the most recent material. He -seems to be continually on the watch for discoveries and -suggestions, and to be able to utilise them promptly and -skilfully.'--_Baptist_, January 21, 1909. - -'On the whole, it is the best popular summary that we have met. It -excels in definiteness of purpose, in clearness of statement, in -moderation, and in conciseness.'--_Baptist Times_, October 24, 1902. - -'The book is one that every young man would do well to read. Its -absolute fairness, convincing logic, and withal extreme simplicity -are such as cannot fail to establish the faith of multitudes.' -_Y.M.C.A. Review_, December, 1912. - -'The author's line of argument is irresistible in its rugged force. -... A fascinating book.'--_Social Gazette_ (Salvation Army), April -27, 1907. - - -=Agnostic.= - -'Again, as in 1902, we commend LIEUTENANT-COLONEL TURTON'S book as a -handy epitome of nearly all conceivable arguments in support of -Christianity. The twenty-four chapters champion twenty-four -propositions, and the whole thing is worked out as systematically as -a problem in a successful student's honours paper. ...However, it is -of no avail to argue such points with our well-meaning and -unimaginative Lieutenant-Colonel; and we will merely remark that he -is quite a gentleman, and uses no disdainful language towards the -poor Agnostic.'--_Literary Guide and Rationalistic Review_, March, -1907. - -'This remarkable volume contains over 500 pages, with scarcely a -dull one among them. The author's easy flow of unlaboured thought, -his facility of expression, and his fine gift of exposition, carry -the reader on in spite of himself.... Differ as we may from much -that is in the gallant Colonel's volume, we gladly pay him the -respect due to frankness, cleverness, and transparency of mind and -motive, and thank him for putting his own side of a great -subject so simply and interestingly, and without prejudice or -bitterness.'--_New Age_, August 3, 1905. - - - - -THE TRUTH OF CHRISTIANITY - - - - - THE - - TRUTH OF CHRISTIANITY - - BEING AN - - Examination of the More Important Arguments - For and Against Believing in that Religion - - COMPILED FROM VARIOUS SOURCES BY - - LT.-COL. W. H. TURTON, D.S.O. - LATE ROYAL ENGINEERS - - NINTH EDITION FORTIETH THOUSAND - - (_Carefully revised throughout_) - - LONDON - WELLS GARDNER, DARTON & CO., LTD. - 3 AND 4, PATERNOSTER BUILDINGS, E.C. - AND 44, VICTORIA STREET, S.W. - 1919 - - - - - _First Edition published Oct., 1895. }1,000 copies._ - _Cheap " " Oct., 1897._ } - _Third " carefully revised " Sept., 1900._ 1,000 " - _Fourth " " " " Mar., 1902._ 2,000 " - _Fifth " " " " Mar., 1905._ 3,000 " - _Sixth " " " " Jan., 1907._ 5,000 " - _Seventh " " " " Nov., 1908._ 8,000 " - _Eighth " " " " Nov., 1912._ 10,000 " - _Ninth " " " " Oct., 1919._ 10,000 " - - - TRANSLATIONS: - - _Japanese Edition published Dec., 1910. 500 copies._ - _Italian " " Oct., 1915._ 1,000 " - _Chinese " shortened " June, 1919._ 1,000 " - _Arabic " " Oct., 1919._ 1,000 " - - - - -PREFACE TO NINTH EDITION. - - -I have again carefully revised the whole book. Some additions have -been made here and there, especially in Chapter XIX.; but as a rule -the alterations have been merely to shorten and condense the -arguments where this could be done without spoiling them, and to -simplify the language as much as possible. The book is thus shorter, -and I hope simpler than any previous edition. Another slight -improvement, which will commend itself to most purchasers, is -reducing the price to 2s. net. The work, as before stated, lays no -claim to originality, and I have not hesitated to borrow arguments -and illustrations from any source. The references to the Bible are -all to the Revised Version. - - W. H. T. - - 29, CALEDONIA PLACE, - CLIFTON, BRISTOL, - _October 1, 1919_. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - PART I. - - - _NATURAL RELIGION._ - - CHAPTER PAGE - - I. THAT THE UNIVERSE HAD A CREATOR 3 - - II. THAT THE CREATOR DESIGNED THE UNIVERSE 10 - - III. THAT THE EXISTENCE OF GOD IS EXTREMELY PROBABLE 30 - - IV. THAT MAN IS A FREE AND RESPONSIBLE BEING 38 - - V. THAT GOD TAKES AN INTEREST IN MAN'S WELFARE 57 - - VI. THAT GOD MIGHT MAKE SOME REVELATION TO MAN 82 - - VII. THAT A MIRACULOUS REVELATION IS CREDIBLE 98 - - - PART II. - - _THE JEWISH RELIGION._ - - VIII. THAT THE ACCOUNT OF THE CREATION WAS DIVINELY REVEALED 117 - - IX. THAT ITS ORIGIN WAS CONFIRMED BY MIRACLES 137 - - X. THAT ITS HISTORY WAS CONFIRMED BY MIRACLES 167 - - XI. THAT ITS HISTORY WAS CONFIRMED BY PROPHECIES 186 - - XII. THAT THE JEWISH RELIGION IS PROBABLY TRUE 201 - - - PART III. - - _THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION._ - - XIII. THAT THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION IS CREDIBLE 221 - - XIV. THAT THE FOUR GOSPELS ARE GENUINE FROM EXTERNAL TESTIMONY 252 - - XV. THAT THE GOSPELS ARE GENUINE FROM INTERNAL EVIDENCE 265 - - XVI. THAT THE GOSPELS ARE GENUINE FROM THE EVIDENCE OF THE ACTS 287 - - XVII. THAT THE RESURRECTION OF CHRIST IS PROBABLY TRUE 301 - - XVIII. THAT THE FAILURE OF OTHER EXPLANATIONS INCREASES THIS - PROBABILITY 324 - - XIX. THAT THE OTHER NEW TESTAMENT MIRACLES ARE PROBABLY TRUE 349 - - XX. THAT THE JEWISH PROPHECIES CONFIRM THE TRUTH OF - CHRISTIANITY 374 - - XXI. THAT THE CHARACTER OF CHRIST CONFIRMS THE TRUTH OF - CHRISTIANITY 396 - - XXII. THAT THE HISTORY OF CHRISTIANITY CONFIRMS ITS TRUTH 415 - - XXIII. THAT ON THE WHOLE THE OTHER EVIDENCE SUPPORTS THIS - CONCLUSION 436 - - XXIV. THAT THE THREE CREEDS ARE DEDUCIBLE FROM THE NEW - TESTAMENT 458 - - XXV. THAT THE TRUTH OF THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION IS EXTREMELY - PROBABLE 483 - - INDEX OF TEXTS 495 - - INDEX OF SUBJECTS 502 - - - - -PART I. - -_NATURAL RELIGION._ - - CHAP. I. THAT THE UNIVERSE HAD A CREATOR. - " II. THAT THE CREATOR DESIGNED THE UNIVERSE. - " III. THAT THE EXISTENCE OF GOD IS EXTREMELY PROBABLE. - " IV. THAT MAN IS A FREE AND RESPONSIBLE BEING. - " V. THAT GOD TAKES AN INTEREST IN MAN'S WELFARE. - " VI. THAT GOD MIGHT MAKE SOME REVELATION TO MAN. - " VII. THAT A MIRACULOUS REVELATION IS CREDIBLE. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -THAT THE UNIVERSE HAD A CREATOR - - (_A._) THE ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE. - - Explanation of the universe, its origin, a Free Force. - - (1.) The Philosophical Argument. If the universe had - not an origin, all events must have occurred before, - and this seems incredible. - (2.) The Scientific Argument. From the process of evolution - and the degradation of energy. - - (_B._) THE CREATOR OF THE UNIVERSE. - - The Single Supernatural Cause, which originated it. - - -It is proposed in this Essay to consider the reasons for and against -believing in the truth of Christianity, meaning by that term, as -will be explained later on (Chapter XIII.), the doctrines contained -in the Three Creeds. For convenience the subject has been divided -into three Parts, Natural Religion, the Jewish Religion, and the -Christian Religion; but the second of these may be omitted by anyone -not specially interested in that subject. At present we are -considering _Natural Religion_ only, which deals with the great -questions of the Existence of God, and the probability, or -otherwise, of His making some Revelation to man. And we will -commence at the very beginning, though the first chapter will -unfortunately have to be rather technical. - - -(_A._) THE ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE. - -Now by the universe is meant the _material_ universe, which includes -everything that exists (earth, sun, stars, and all they contain), -with the exception of immaterial or spiritual beings, if there are -any such. And by this universe having had an _origin_ is meant that -it was at some time acted on by a _Free_ Force, that is to say, by a -force which does not always act the same under the same -circumstances, but which can act or not as it pleases. No doubt such -a force would be totally different from all the known forces of -nature; but there is no difficulty in understanding what is meant by -the term, since man himself _seems_ to possess such a force in his -own free will. He _seems_ for instance to be able to raise his hand, -or not, as he likes. We are not, of course, assuming that man's will -is really free, but merely that the idea of a free force, able to -act or not as it pleases, is well known and generally understood. - -Hence the statement that the universe had an origin means that at -some time or other it was acted on by such a Free Force; in other -words, it has not existed for ever under the fixed and invariable -forces of nature, and without any external interference. We have now -to consider the two arguments in favour of this, which may be called -the Philosophical and the Scientific argument. - -(1.) _The Philosophical Argument._ - -By this is meant that, when we reflect on the subject, it seems -inevitable that if the universe had not an origin, all present -events must have occurred before. The reason for thinking this is, -that if all free force is excluded, it is plain that matter must be -eternal, since its coming into existence at any time could not have -been a necessity, and must therefore have been due to some free -force. It is equally plain that what we call the forces of nature -and the properties of matter must also be eternal, since any -alteration in them at any time would also have required a free -force. And from this it follows that no _new_ event can happen -_now_. For every event which the forces of nature could possibly -bring about of themselves would, since they have been acting from -eternity, have been brought about long ago. Therefore present events -are not new, but must have occurred before. - -This is no doubt a possible theory. For example, if we assume that -the universe will in process of time work itself back into precisely -the same condition in which it was long ago as a _nebula_ or -anything else, when it will begin again precisely the same changes -as before; then, and only then, is it possible that it has been -going on doing so from all eternity. But this theory, though -possible, is certainly not credible. For it requires that all -events, past, present, and future, down to the minutest detail, have -occurred, and will occur, over and over again. They must, in fact, -form a _recurring series_. And when applied to a single example, say -the history of the human race, this is seen to be quite incredible. - -We must hence conclude that the universe has not existed for ever -under the fixed forces of nature, and without any external -interference; in other words, that it had an origin. No doubt there -are difficulties in regard to this theory also, but they are mostly -due to our ignorance. We may not know, for instance, whether matter -itself is eternal. Nor may we know why, if a free force once acted -on the universe, it never apparently does so at present, and still -less can we picture to ourselves what such a force would be like; -though the difficulty here is no greater than that of picturing a -force which is not free, say gravity. - -But our ignorance about all this is no reason for doubting what we -do know. And it appears to the writer that we do know that, unless -present events have occurred before, which seems incredible, the -universe cannot have existed for ever without some _Free Force_ -having acted on it at some time. In short, it seems less difficult -to believe that the universe had an origin than to believe that it -had not. - -(2.) _The Scientific Argument._ - -And this conclusion is greatly strengthened by two scientific -theories now generally accepted--that of the process of evolution -and the degradation of energy; both of which seem to show that the -universe had a beginning. - -The first subject, that of _Evolution_, will be discussed more fully -in the next chapter. All that need be said here is, that the atoms -of the universe, with their evolving properties, cannot have existed -eternally; for then the course of evolution would have commenced in -the eternal past, and would therefore have been finished now. But -this is certainly not the case, and evolution is still in progress, -or at all events was so a few thousand years ago; and a state of -progress cannot be _eternal_. It thus differs from a mere state of -_change_ which as we have seen, might be eternal, if the changes -were recurring. But a state of _progress_, in which the changes are -not recurring, but all tend in one direction, can never be eternal. -It must have had a commencement. And this commencement cannot have -been a necessity, so it must have been due to some Free Force. In -short, evolution requires a previous _Evolver_; since it cannot have -been going on for ever, and it cannot have started itself. - -The other theory, that of the _Degradation of Energy_, is that all -energy (motion, etc.) tends to _heat_; the simplest instance being -that of two bodies hitting each other when a certain amount of -motion is lost, and a corresponding amount of heat is produced. And -heat tends to be equally distributed. The heat, for instance, which -is now stored up in the sun will in process of time be distributed -throughout space, and the same applies to the whole universe; so -that everything will eventually have the same temperature. And -though this may take millions of years, they are yet nothing to -eternity. Therefore, if the universe with all its present forces has -existed from eternity, and without any external interference, it -must have been reduced to this state long ago. So if this theory is -correct (and the only reason for doubting it, is the curious -behaviour of _radium_), it seems not only probable, but certain, -that the universe had an origin. - -But an objection has now to be considered. It may be said that the -above reasoning is merely another form of the old argument, -'Everything must have a cause, and therefore there must have been a -First Cause;' the obvious answer to which is, that then this First -Cause must also have had a cause, and so on indefinitely. But this -is not the case; for the alleged First Cause is of a different -_kind_ from all the others. It is a _Free_ Cause, whereas natural -causes are not free, but are themselves effects of other natural -causes; and these, again, of previous ones. What we want is a cause -which is _not_ also an effect, in other words, a cause which is not -moved by anything else, but is moved by itself, or _Free_. When once -we get to such a cause as this, there is no need for a previous one. - -This objection, then, cannot be maintained, and we therefore decide -that the universe had an origin. And all we know at present about -the Force which originated it, is that it was a Free Force. And the -conclusion at which we have arrived may be concisely expressed by -saying, that before all natural causes which acted necessarily, -there was a _First Cause_ which acted voluntarily. - - -(_B._) THE CREATOR OF THE UNIVERSE. - -We have next to consider what else we can ascertain in regard to -this First Cause. To begin with it can scarcely be disputed at the -present day that it was a _Single_ Cause, as modern science has -completely established the unity which pervades the universe. We -know for instance that the same materials are used everywhere, many -of the elements which exist on this earth being also found in the -sun and stars. Then there is the force of gravity, which is -all-embracing, and applies equally to the most distant stars, and -to the most minute objects on this earth; and many other examples -might be given. But it is scarcely necessary, as everyone now admits -that the universe (as the word implies) is one whole, and this -plainly points to a _Single_ First Cause. - -Nor can it be disputed that this First Cause was _Supernatural_, -which merely means that it differs from natural forces in being -_free_; for this is exactly what we have shown. It was thus no kind -of gravitation, or electricity, or anything of that sort. All these -and all similar forces would always act the same under the same -conditions; while the Force we are considering was of a different -kind. It was a _Free_ Force, a Force which voluntarily chose to -originate the universe at a certain time. And such a Force must -clearly have been Supernatural. - -In conclusion we will call this _Single Supernatural Cause_, which -originated the universe, its _Creator_. And if it be objected that -the universe may have had no _origin_, owing to some Free Force -having been always acting on it, such a Force must also be Single -and Supernatural, and may equally well be called its Creator. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -THAT THE CREATOR DESIGNED THE UNIVERSE. - -Design means voluntary action, combined with foreknowledge. - - (_A._) EVIDENCE OF DESIGN. - - Seems overwhelming throughout organic nature; and we - are not appealing to it to show the Creator's existence, - but merely His foreknowledge. - - (1.) The example of a watch: its marks of design show that - it had a maker who foresaw its use. - (2.) The example of an eye: this also has marks of design, - and must also have had a Designer. - (3.) The evidence cumulative. - - (_B._) THE EVOLUTION OBJECTION. - - (1.) The meaning of Evolution: it is a process, not a cause. - (2.) The effect of Evolution on the present argument: it - increases the evidence for design. - - (_C._) THE FREE WILL OBJECTION. - - (1.) Its great improbability: for several reasons. - (2.) Free Will and Foreknowledge not inconsistent; so - the chief argument in its favour cannot be maintained. - Conclusion. - - -Having decided that the universe had a Creator, we have next to -examine whether the Creator designed the universe. Now by _Design_ -is meant any voluntary action, combined with foreknowledge of the -results that will follow from such action. So when the Creator -originated the universe, if He foreknew the results of His action, -it would be to _design_ those results, as the word is here used. And -these include, either directly or indirectly, the whole course of -the universe, everything that exists, or that ever has existed in -the world. - -By the word _foreknew_ it is not meant that the Creator necessarily -_thought_ of all future events, however insignificant, such as the -position of the leaves on each tree; but merely that He was able to -foresee any of them He wished, and in this sense foreknew them. -Compare the case of memory; a man may be able to remember a thousand -events in his life; but they are not all before his mind's eye at -the same time, and the insignificant ones may never be. In the same -way the Creator may have been able to foresee all future events in -the world's history without actually thinking about them. At all -events, this is the kind of foresight, or rather foreknowledge, -which is meant to be included in the term _design_. - - -(_A._) EVIDENCE OF DESIGN. - -Passing on now to the evidence of design, this is of the most varied -kind, especially throughout organic nature, where we find countless -objects, which seem to point to the foresight of the Cause which -produced them. The evidence is indeed so vast that it is difficult -to deal with it satisfactorily. Perhaps the best way will be to -follow the well-known _watch_ argument of Paley, first showing by -the example of a watch what it is that constitutes marks of design; -next, how a single organ, say the human eye, possesses these marks; -and then, the cumulative nature of the evidence. - -(1.) _The example of a watch._ - -Now, when we examine a watch, we see that it has marks of design, -because the several parts are put together for a _purpose_. They are -so shaped and arranged as to produce motion, and this motion is so -regulated as to point out the hour of the day. While, if they had -been differently shaped or differently arranged, either no motion at -all would have been produced, or none which would have answered the -same purpose. And from this, we may infer two things. The first is -that the watch had a _maker_ somewhere and at some time; and the -second is that this maker understood its construction, and -_designed_ it for the purpose which it actually serves. - -These conclusions, it will be noticed, would not be altered by the -fact that we had never seen a watch made; never knew a man capable -of making one; and had no idea how the work could be done. All this -would only exalt our opinion of the unknown watchmaker's skill, but -would raise no doubt in our minds either as to his existence, or as -to his having made the watch for the purpose of telling the time. - -Nor should we feel that the watch was explained by being told that -every part of it worked in strict accordance with natural laws, and -could not possibly move otherwise than it did; in fact, that there -was no design to account for. We should feel that, though the action -of every part might be in strict accordance with law, yet the fact -that all these parts agreed in this one particular, that they all -helped to enable the watch to tell the time, did show design -somewhere. In other words, we should feel that the properties of -matter could only partly account for the watch, and that it required -a skilful watchmaker as well, who made use of these properties so as -to enable the watch to tell the time. - -Now suppose on further investigation we found that the watch also -possessed the unexpected property of producing in the course of its -movements another watch very like itself. It might, for instance, -contain a mould in which the new works were cast, and some machinery -which fitted them together. What effect would this have on our -former conclusions? It would plainly increase our admiration for the -watch, and for the skill of its unknown maker. If without this extra -property, the watch required a skilful maker, still more would it do -so with it. And this conclusion would not be altered by the fact -that very possibly the watch we were examining was itself produced -in this way from some previous one, and perhaps that from another. -We should feel that, though each watch might be thus produced from a -previous one, it was in no sense _designed_ by it. And hence this -would not in any way weaken our conviction as to the existence of a -watchmaker somewhere and at some time who designed the whole series. - -This, then, is the watch argument. Wherever we find marks of design, -there must be a designer somewhere; and this conclusion cannot be -altered by any other considerations whatever. If, then, we find in -nature any objects showing marks of design, the obvious inference is -that they also had a designer. And this inference, it should be -noticed, does not depend on any supposed _analogy_ between the works -of man and the works of nature. The example of the watch is merely -given _as an example_, to show clearly what the design argument is; -but the argument itself would be just as sound if man never had -made, and never could make, any object showing marks of design. - -Moreover, to complete the example, we must assume that the -_existence_ of the watchmaker, and the fact of his having made the -watch, are already admitted for other reasons. And we are only -appealing to these marks of design to show that _when_ he made the -watch, he must have known that it would be able to tell the time, -and presumably made it for that purpose. And in this case the -inference seems, if possible, to be still stronger. - -(2.) _The example of an eye._ - -We will next consider the _human eye_ as an example of natural -organs showing marks of design. It is a well-known instance, but -none the worse on that account. Now, in order to see anything -clearly, it is necessary that an image or picture of it should be -formed at the back of the eye, that is, on the _retina_ from whence -the impression is communicated to the brain. And the eye is an -instrument used for producing this picture, and in some respects -very similar to a telescope. And its marks of design are abundant -and overwhelming. - -To begin with, in both the eye and the telescope the rays of light -have to be _refracted_, so as to produce a distinct image; and the -lens, and humours in the eye, which effect this, somewhat resemble -the lenses of a telescope. While the _different_ humours through -which the rays pass, prevent them from being partly split up into -different colours. The same difficulty had of course to be overcome -in telescopes, and this does not seem to have been effected till it -occurred to some one to imitate in glasses made from different -materials the effect of the different humours in the eye.[1] - -[Footnote 1: Encyc. Brit., 9th edit., vol. xxiii., p. 137.] - -In the next place, the eye has to be suited to perceive objects at -different _distances_, varying from inches to miles. In telescopes -this would be done either by putting in another lens, or by some -focussing arrangement. In the eye it is effected by slightly -altering the _shape_ of the lens, making it more or less convex. A -landscape of several miles is thus brought within a space of half an -inch in diameter, though the objects it contains, at least the -larger ones, are all preserved, and can each be distinguished in its -size, shape, colour, and position. Yet the same eye that can do this -can read a book at the distance of a few inches. - -Again, the eye has to be adapted to different _degrees of light_. -This is effected by the _iris_, which is a kind of screen in the -shape of a ring, capable of expanding or contracting so as to alter -the size of the central hole or pupil, yet always retaining its -circular form. Moreover, it is somehow or other self-adjusting; for -if the light is too strong, the pupil at once contracts. It is -needless to point out how useful such a contrivance would be in -photography, and how much we should admire the skill of its -inventor. - -Again, the eye can perceive objects in different _directions_; for -it is so constructed that it can turn with the greatest rapidity -right or left, up or down, without moving the head. It is also -provided _in duplicate_, the two eyes being so arranged that though -each can see separately should the other get injured, they can, as a -rule, see together with perfect harmony. Lastly, our admiration for -the eye is still further increased when we remember that it was -formed _before birth_. It was what is called a _prospective_ organ, -of no use at the time when it was made; and this, when carefully -considered, shows design more plainly than anything else. - -On the whole, then, the eye appears to be an optical instrument of -great ingenuity; and the conclusion that it must have been made by -someone, and that whoever made it must have known and designed its -use, seems inevitable. - -These conclusions, it will be noticed, like the similar ones in -regard to the watch, are not affected by our ignorance on many -points. We may have no idea as to how an eye can be made, and yet -feel certain that, as it exists, it must have been made by someone, -and that its maker designed it for the purpose it serves. - -Nor should we feel that the eye is explained by being told that -every part of it has been produced in strict accordance with natural -laws, and could not have been otherwise; in fact, that there is no -design to account for. No doubt every single part has been thus -produced, and if it stood alone there might be little to account -for. But it does not stand alone. All the various and complicated -parts of the eye agree in this one remarkable point, and in this one -only, that they all help to enable man to see; and it is this that -requires explanation. We feel that there must be some connection -between the cause which brought all these parts together and the -fact of man's seeing. In other words, the result must have been -designed. - -Nor does the fact that every organism in nature is produced from a -previous one of the same kind alter this conclusion. Indeed, as was -shown with reference to the watch, it can only increase our -admiration for the skill which must have been spent on the first -organism of each kind. Moreover, no part of the design can be -attributed to the _parents_. If, for instance, the eyes of a child -show design, it is not due to the intelligence or designing power of -its father and mother. _They_ have not calculated the proper shape -for the lens, or the mechanism of the iris, and as a rule know -nothing whatever about it. And the same applies to _their_ parents, -so that our going back ever so far in this way brings us no nearer -to what we are in search of. The design is still unaccounted for, we -still want a designer. - -We hence conclude that the marks of design in the eye afford, at all -events, what seems to be a very strong argument in favour of a -_Designer_. And if only one eye existed in the universe, and there -were no other mark of design in nature, this conclusion would be -none the less clear. - -(3.) _The evidence cumulative._ - -But the argument is far stronger than this. It is cumulative in a -_triple_ sense. To begin with, an eye is found not in one man only, -but in millions of men, each separately showing marks of design, and -each separately requiring a designer. Secondly, the human eye is -only one example out of hundreds in the human body. The ear or the -mouth would lead to the same conclusion, and so would the lungs or -the heart. While, thirdly, human beings are but one out of many -thousands of organisms in nature, all bearing marks of design, and -showing in some cases an even greater ingenuity than in the human -eye. Of course, as a rule, the lower organisms, being less -complicated than the higher ones, have less striking marks of -design, but their existence is equally clear; the flowers of plants -affording some well-known examples. - -Nor is this all, for even the world itself bears traces of having -been designed. Had it been a mere chaos, we might have thought that -the Creator was unaware of what would be the result of His action. -But a planet like our earth, so admirably adapted for the support of -life, can scarcely have been brought about by accident. - -We conclude then, on reviewing the whole subject, that there are -countless objects in nature, more especially organs like the eye, -which bear strong marks of having been _designed_. And then the -Unity of Nature, and the fact that all its parts act on one another -in so many ways (the eye for instance being useless without light), -shows that if anything has been designed, everything has been -designed. Now there are two, and only two, important objections to -this argument, which may be called the _Evolution_ and the _Free -Will_ objection. - - -(_B._) THE EVOLUTION OBJECTION. - -The first objection is that the whole of nature has been brought -about in accordance with fixed laws by the process of _Evolution_. -Therefore, though it is possible the Creator may have foreseen -everything that exists; yet the apparent marks of design in nature, -being all the necessary results of these laws, do not afford any -evidence that He actually did so. And before discussing this -objection we must first consider what we mean by laws of nature and -natural forces. - -Now by a _law of nature_ is meant any regular, or uniform action -which we observe in nature. For example, it is called a law, or rule -of nature that (with certain exceptions) heat should expand bodies, -which merely means that we see that it does so. In other words, we -observe that heat is followed by expansion, and we therefore assume -that the one is the cause of the other. But calling it a law of -nature for heat to expand bodies, does not in any way account for -its doing so. And the same is true in other cases, so that a law of -nature _explains_ nothing, it is merely a summary of the facts to be -explained. - -It should also be noticed that a law of nature _effects_ nothing. It -has no coercive, or compelling power whatever. The law of -gravitation, for instance, has never moved a planet, any more than -the rules of navigation have steered a ship. In each case it is some -power or force acting according to law which does it. And _natural -forces_ are those which, as far as we know, _always_ act according -to some fixed law. They have no freedom of choice, they cannot act -or not as they like; they must always and everywhere act the same -under the same circumstances. We pass on now to the subject of -Evolution, first considering its meaning, and then its effect on the -present argument. - -(1.) _The meaning of Evolution._ - -Now by the term Evolution is meant to be included the processes of -Organic Evolution, Natural Selection, and the Survival of the -Fittest. The former may be described as meaning that all the -different forms of life now existing, or that ever have existed on -this earth, are the descendants of earlier and less developed forms, -and those again of simpler ones; and so on, till we get back to the -earliest form of life, whatever that may have been. - -And the theories of _Natural Selection_ and _the Survival of the -Fittest_ explain how this may have taken place. For among the slight -modifications that would most likely occur in every organism, those, -and only those, would be perpetuated which were of advantage to it -in the struggle for existence. And they would in time, it is -assumed, become hereditary in its descendants, and thus higher forms -of life would be gradually produced. And the value of these theories -is that they show how Organic Evolution may have taken place without -involving any sudden change, such as a monkey giving birth to a man. -We must remember, however, that the subject is far from settled; and -even now naturalists are beginning to doubt whether all the -modifications were in reality very slight. But still, speaking -broadly, this is the theory we have to discuss. - -It will, of course, be noticed that Evolution is thus a _process_, -and not a _cause_. It is the method in which certain changes have -been brought about, and not the cause which brings them about. Every -slight modification must have been caused somehow. When such -modifications were caused, then Natural Selection can explain how -the useful ones alone were perpetuated, but it cannot explain how -the modifications themselves arose. On the contrary, it supposes -them as already existing, otherwise there would be nothing to select -from. Natural Selection, then, rather weeds than plants, and would -be better described as Natural _Rejection_. It merely shows how, as -a rule, among the various modifications in an organism, some good -and some bad, the useless ones would disappear, and the useful ones -would remain; in other words, how the fittest would survive. But -this survival of the fittest does not explain in the slightest -degree how the fitness arose. If, as an extreme example, out of a -hundred animals, fifty had eyes and fifty had not, it is easy to -understand how those that had eyes would be more likely to have -descendants; but this does not explain how they first got eyes. And -the same applies in other cases. - -How, then, did the variations in each organism first arise? In -common language they may be ascribed to chance; but, strictly -speaking, such a thing is impossible. The word _chance_ is merely a -convenient term for the results of certain forces of nature when we -are unable to calculate them. Chance, then, must be excluded; and -there seem to be only two alternatives. Either the organisms in -nature possessed free will, and acted as they did _voluntarily_; or -else they did not possess free will, and acted as they did -_necessarily_. The former theory will be examined later on; the -latter is the one we are now considering. - -(2.) _The effect of Evolution._ - -How then would this theory affect our previous conclusion that the -Creator designed all the organs of nature, such as the eye, and -hence presumably the whole of the universe? As we shall see, it only -confirms it. For to put it plainly, if all free will on the part of -the organisms is excluded, so that they were all bound to act -exactly as they did, it is clear that the earth and all it contains -is like a vast mass of machinery. And however complicated its parts, -and however much they may act on one another, and however long they -may take in doing so, yet if in the end they produce an organ -showing design, this must have been foreseen and intended by the -Maker of the machinery. In the same way if a mass of machinery after -working for a long time eventually turned out a watch, we should -have no hesitation in saying that whoever made the machinery, and -set it going, intended it to do so. And is the inference less clear, -if it not only turned out a watch, but a watchmaker as well, and -everything else that exists on this planet? - -All then that evolution does is this. It shows that the whole of -nature forms such a long and continuous process; that if the end has -been foreseen at all, it must have been foreseen from the -beginning. In other words, just as the Unity of Nature shows that if -anything has been designed, everything has been designed; so -Evolution shows that if it has been designed at all, it has been -designed _from the beginning_. We must hence conclude that the -organs in nature, such as the eye, which undoubtedly show design, -were not designed separately or as _after-thoughts_, but were all -included in one grand design from the beginning. And this can only -increase our admiration for the Designer. Thus evolution, even in -its most extreme and automatic form, cannot get rid of a Designer. -Still less can it do so, if (as is probable) it is not automatic at -all; but is due to the _continuous_ action of the Creator, who is -what is called _immanent_ in nature, and directs every step. - -It should be noticed, moreover, that in one respect evolution rather -_increases_ the evidence of design. For if, to take a single -example, a human hand has been evolved from a monkey's foot merely -by the monkey using it as a hand, and taking hold of things; it -increases the amount of design which must have been spent on the -foot to enable it to do so. And if _all_ the organs in nature have -been evolved in this way from simpler ones, it increases the amount -of design which must have been spent on those simpler ones to an -extent which is practically infinite. - -Thus Evolution implies a previous _Involution_; since all forms of -life must have been involved in the first form before they could be -evolved from it; so that creation by evolution is more wonderful -than creation by direct manufacture. And it seems to many to be a -far nobler conception of the Creator that He should obtain all the -results He desired, by one grand system of evolution, rather than by -a large number of separate creations. For then the _method_ in which -the results were obtained would be as marvellous, and show as much -wisdom and foresight as the results themselves; and each would be -worthy of the other. Evolution, then, seems to be the highest form -of creation; and so far from destroying the present argument, it -only destroys its difficulties, by showing that every single part of -every single organism may have been _designed_, and yet in a manner -worthy of the great Creator. - -Nor is the conclusion altered if we carry back the process of -evolution, and assume that the earliest form of life was itself -evolved from some previous form of inanimate matter; and this again -from a simpler one, and so on till we get back to the original form -of matter, whatever that may have been. For if the results as we now -see them show design, then the argument for a Designer is not -weakened, but our ideas of His skill are still further increased, if -we believe that they were already secured when our earth was merely -a nebula. - - -(_C._) _The Free Will Objection._ - -We have, lastly, to consider the other, and more important -objection, that arising from _Free Will_. Why, it is urged, may not -all organisms in nature have possessed free will within certain -limits, and have selected those forms which suited them best? For -example, referring to the case of a watch, if telling the time were -of any advantage to the watch itself, and if the spring, wheels, and -hands possessed free will; then it might be thought that they had -formed themselves into that arrangement which suited them best. And -if so, the idea that the watchmaker foresaw and intended them to -adopt this arrangement seems unnecessary. - -Now, in the case before us, as the organs showing design in nature, -such as the eye, always conduce to the welfare of their possessor, -the objection is certainly worth considering. But as we shall see, -it is most improbable, while the chief argument in its favour cannot -be maintained. It need scarcely be pointed out that we are not -assuming that the organisms have free will, but merely admitting -that they may have it; and if anyone denies this, the objection, as -far as he is concerned, falls to the ground at once. - -(1.) _Its great improbability._ - -This is apparent because low down in the scale of nature (plants, -trees, etc.), the free will of the organisms, if they have any, must -be extremely limited; yet they bear unmistakable marks of design. -While, in higher beings which have (or may have) an undoubted free -will, it is hard to believe that it can effect anything like what is -required. Would, for instance, wishing to see or trying to see, even -if blind animals were capable of either, have ever given them eyes? -And the same applies in other cases. It is hence most improbable -that the marks of design in nature are due to the organisms -themselves, rather than to their Creator. - -But there is one important argument on the other side, which, if it -could be maintained, would be sufficient to outweigh all this -improbability. It is, that some beings, such as man, do, as a matter -of fact, possess a free will, and that man can and does alter his -condition, to a slight extent, by using that free will. Therefore, -it is said, it is impossible for the Creator to have foreknown what -man's condition would be, because free will and foreknowledge are -_necessarily_ inconsistent. But this latter point is disputed. - -(2.) _Free Will and Foreknowledge not inconsistent._ - -Now, although at first sight freedom of action seems inconsistent -with any foreknowledge of what that action will be, yet on closer -examination this will be found to be at least doubtful. For our own -experience seems to show that in some cases, at all events, it is -not in the nature of things impossible to know how a free being will -act. - -For example, I myself may know how, under given external conditions, -I will act to-morrow. Never being sure of these, I cannot be said to -actually foreknow the event; so that foreknowing with man is never -more than foreguessing. But I may be quite sure how, _under given -conditions_, I will act. For instance, I may know that, provided I -keep in good health, provided I receive no news from anyone, -provided, etc, I will go to my office some time to-morrow morning. - -Yet I feel equally sure that this foreknowledge of mine does not -prevent the act when it comes from being quite free on my part. My -knowing this evening what I will do to-morrow does not oblige me to -do it. My foreknowledge of the event does not bring the event -about. It is in no sense its _cause_. The act when it comes is due -to my own free will, I merely foreknow _what use I will make of my -freedom_. And these are probably the common feelings of mankind on -the subject. - -It seems, then, that my foreknowledge need not be inconsistent with -my free will. And hence, if I tell someone else how I will act, -_his_ foreknowledge would not be inconsistent with my free will. So -that in some cases, and under given conditions, it does not seem -impossible for a man to foreknow how another man will act, yet -without interfering with his freedom. In short, free will does not -seem to be _necessarily_ inconsistent with the foreknowledge even of -man, though it is always practically so, owing to man's imperfect -knowledge of the surrounding circumstances. But the Creator knows, -or may know, these circumstances fully, therefore it must be still -less inconsistent with _His_ foreknowledge. - -Of course it may be said that if the Creator foreknows how I will -act to-morrow, I am _certain_ to act in that way; and this is -doubtless true. But it does not follow that I _need_ act in that -way; for _certainty_ is not the same as _necessity_. This is obvious -enough in regard to a past event. I certainly did it, but I need not -have done it; and it may be equally true in regard to a future -event. I will certainly do it, but I need not do it. Therefore the -Creator may know that I will do it, though it will still be _free_ -on my part. - -And this is strongly confirmed when we reflect that the difficulty -of knowing how a free being will act, however great in itself, -seems as nothing compared with the difficulty of _creating_ a free -being. Apart from experience, we should probably have thought this -to be impossible. Yet man has been created somehow. Is it then -unlikely that the Being who was able to overcome the greater -difficulty, and create a free man, should also be able to overcome -the lesser difficulty, and foreknow how he would act? - -Moreover, if free will and foreknowledge are _always_ and -_necessarily_ inconsistent, then the Creator cannot have any -foreknowledge of _His Own_ acts, or else they are not free on His -part; neither of which seems at all probable. We are not, of course, -arguing from this that He actually does foreknow how He will act -Himself, or how a free man will act, but only that it is not in the -nature of things impossible that He should do so; in other words, -that free will and foreknowledge are not _necessarily_ inconsistent. - -And this is precisely what we had to show. The marks of design in -nature afford what seems to be overwhelming evidence in favour of -the foreknowledge of the Creator. The objection we are considering -is that, in spite of all this evidence, we must still deny it, -because some of the organisms in nature, such as man, possess a free -will; and therefore any foreknowledge is in the nature of things -impossible. And the instant it is shown that such foreknowledge is -not impossible, the objection falls to the ground. - -We may now sum up the argument in this chapter. We first explained -that by _Design_ was meant any voluntary action combined with -foreknowledge of the results of that action. We next considered the -evidence for design in nature, taking, as a single example, the -human eye. And this evidence appeared complete and overwhelming; -more especially as we were not appealing to it to show the existence -of a Creator, which is already admitted, but merely His -foreknowledge. And we have since considered the two apparent -objections to this argument arising from Evolution and Free Will. -But when carefully examined, the former only strengthens the -argument, while the latter does not weaken it. We therefore -conclude, on reviewing the whole subject, that the Creator _designed -the universe_. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -THAT THE EXISTENCE OF GOD IS EXTREMELY PROBABLE. - - (_A._) MEANING OF THE TERM GOD. - - The Personal Being who designed and created the universe. - - (_B._) TWO OF GOD'S ATTRIBUTES. - - Wisdom and Power. He is also Omnipresent. - - (_C._) THE OBJECTION THAT GOD IS UNKNOWABLE. - - This is partly true; but everything is unknowable in its - real nature, though in each case the partial knowledge - we can obtain is all we require. - - (_D._) SUMMARY OF ARGUMENT. - - -The position in the argument at which we have now arrived is this. -We showed in the last chapter that the Creator designed the -universe; in other words, that when he created it, He foreknew its -future history. And from this the next step, as to the existence of -God, is quite plain; in fact, it is merely a question of words. - - -(_A._) MEANING OF THE TERM GOD. - -Now any being who is able to design we will call a _personal being_. -And GOD is the name given to the Personal Being who designed and -created the universe. - -But it ought to be noticed, before we pass on, that the term -_personal being_ is also applied to _man_, and is said by many -writers to involve the three ideas of _thought_, _desire_, and -_will_. But these seem to be all included in design; for if I design -anything, I must first of all _think_ of it, then _wish_ it, and -then _accomplish_ it. - -We will examine in the next chapter whether man is a personal being -as we have used the term; but if we admit that he is, we have -another and independent argument in favour of the Creator being so -too. For the Creator has somehow or other produced man, with all his -attributes; so He cannot be a mere impersonal Being or Force, since -a cause must be able to account for its effect. And a free and -intelligent man cannot be due to a Force, which is neither free nor -intelligent. Therefore, if man is a personal being, it follows that -man's _Maker_ must be so too. - -It should also be noticed that man's mind and spirit, which make him -a personal being, cannot be discovered by any physical means. And -this meets the objection that we cannot discover God by any physical -means. It would be much more surprising if we could. But though the -telescope can find no God in the heavens, just as the microscope can -find no mind in man, the existence of each may be quite certain for -other reasons. In popular language, all we can see is the _house_, -not the _tenant_, in either case. - - -(_B_). TWO OF GOD'S ATTRIBUTES. - -We must next notice somewhat carefully two of God's attributes, -_Wisdom_ and _Power_. Both of these are involved in the idea of a -Personal Being able to design. For _design_, as used in this Essay, -means originating or freely doing anything, as well as previously -planning it. Therefore, if we use the word, as is often done, for -planning alone, we must remember that a personal being is one who -can both design and accomplish. The former implies a mind able to -form some plan, and the latter a free force, or will, able to carry -it out. So a personal being must of necessity have _wisdom_ to -design and _power_ to accomplish. And considering the vastness of -the universe and the variety of its organisms, it seems only -reasonable to conclude that the Creator possesses these attributes -to the greatest possible extent, so that He is both Omniscient and -Omnipotent. - -It is important, however, to notice the meaning given to these -words. By _Omniscient_, then, we mean possessing all possible -knowledge. Now the only knowledge which might be thought impossible -is how a free being would act in the future, and we have already -shown that such knowledge is not in the nature of things impossible; -so there does not seem to be any necessary restriction here. - -But with _Omnipotent_ the case is different. This means, as just -said, possessing all possible power; that is to say, being able to -do anything which is not impossible. Of course some Christians may -be inclined to answer, that _with God all things are possible_; but -as He who said so began one of His own prayers with the words _if it -be possible_, this cannot be taken in its widest sense.[2] And -provided the word _impossible_ is used in its strict meaning, we -have no reason for thinking that God could do impossible things; -such as make a triangle with the properties of a circle, or allow a -man a free choice between two alternatives, and yet force him to -choose one of them. These, then, are two of the great attributes of -God, Wisdom and Power. There is a third, which will be considered in -Chapter V. - -[Footnote 2: Matt. 19. 26; 26. 39.] - -It should also be noticed that besides being the Designer and -Creator of the universe in the past, God seems to be also its -_Preserver_ at the present, being, in fact, the _Omnipresent_ Power -which is still working throughout nature. That there is such a Power -can scarcely be denied (however hard it may be to realise), and that -it is the same as the Creating Power is plainly the most probable -view. God is thus the Cause of all natural forces now, just as He -was their Creator in times past; and what are called secondary or -natural causes, have probably no existence. They may, indeed, be -called secondary _forces_, but they are not _causes_ at all in the -strict sense; for a cause must be _free_, it must have the power of -initiative. Thus man's free will, if it is free, would be a real -secondary cause, but the forces of nature are mere links in a chain -of events, each of which is bound to follow the previous one. This -is often spoken of as the Divine _Immanence_ in nature, and means -little else than the Omnipresence of a Personal God--the -all-pervading influence of One 'who is never so far off as even to -be called near.' - - -(_C._) THE OBJECTION THAT GOD IS UNKNOWABLE. - -We must lastly consider an important objection which may be made to -the whole of these chapters. It may be said that the human mind is -unable to argue about the _First Cause_, because we have no -faculties for comprehending the Infinite; or, as it is commonly -expressed, because God is _Unknowable_. - -Now this objection is partly true. There is a sense in which all -will admit that God is Unknowable. His existence and attributes are -too great for any human mind to comprehend entirely, or for any -human language to express completely and accurately. Therefore our -statements on the subject are at best only approximations to the -truth. We can apprehend His existence, but we cannot comprehend it, -and God in His true nature is certainly _Unknowable_. - -But, strictly speaking, it is the same with everything. Man in his -true nature is also unknowable, yet we know something about man. So, -again, the forces of nature are all unseen and unknowable in -themselves, yet from their effects we know something about them. And -even matter when reduced to atoms, or electrons, or anything else, -is still a mystery, yet we know a good deal about matter. And in -each case this knowledge is not incorrect because it is incomplete. -Why, then, should the fact of God being in His true nature -unknowable prevent our having some real, though partial, knowledge -of Him? In short, we may know something about God, though we cannot -know everything about Him. - -And it should be noticed that Natural Religion and Natural Science -are alike in this respect--they are both founded on inferences drawn -from the observed facts of nature. For example, we observe the -motion of falling bodies, and infer the existence of some force, -gravity, to account for this. Similarly, we observe the marks of -design in nature, and infer the existence, or at least foresight, of -some Being who designed them. In neither case have we any direct -knowledge as to the cause of what we see. And in some respects -Religion is not so unknowable as Science. For our own, real or -apparent, mind and free will do give us some kind of idea as to the -existence of a personal being, apart from what he does; while of a -natural force, such as gravity, apart from its effects, we can form -no idea whatever. Thus our knowledge of every subject is but -partial, and it finally leads us into the Unknowable. - -But now comes the important point. This partial knowledge, which is -all we can obtain in either Science or Religion, is all we require. -It is not a perfect knowledge, but it is sufficient for all -practical purposes. Whatever the force of gravity may be in itself, -we know what it is _to us_. We know that if we jump off a cliff we -shall fall to the ground. And so in regard to Religion. Whatever God -may be in Himself, we know what He is _to us_. We know that He is -our Maker, and therefore, as will be shown in the next chapter, He -is the Being to whom we are responsible. This is the practical -knowledge which we require, and this is the knowledge which we can -obtain. - -Moreover, though our reason may be to some extent unfit to judge of -such matters, the vast importance of the subject seems to demand our -coming to some conclusion one way or the other. This is especially -the case because important results affecting a man's daily life -follow from his deciding that there is a God, and to leave the -question undecided is practically the same as deciding that there is -not a God. In the same way, if a ship were in danger of sinking, -and a steamer also in distress offered to take off the passengers, -for one of them to say that he did not know whether it was safer to -go in the steamer or not, and would therefore do nothing and stay -where he was, would be practically the same as deciding not to go in -the steamer. So in the case before us. To refuse to decide the -question because of the supposed inadequacy of human reason is -practically the same as to deny the existence of God. - -Still, it may be urged, granting that our reason must decide the -question one way or the other, and granting that our reason seems to -force us to conclude in the existence of God, are there not great -difficulties in honestly believing this conclusion? No doubt there -are, and no thoughtful man would think of ignoring them. But after -all it is only a choice of difficulties; and, as we have shown, -there is _less_ difficulty in believing what we have here maintained -than the contrary. It is less difficult, for instance, to believe -that the universe had an origin, than to believe that it had not. -Similarly as to the existence of God; the theory is not free from -difficulties, but, with all its difficulties, it is still by far the -most probable theory to explain the origin and present state of the -universe. We therefore decide, judging by reason alone (which is the -line adopted in this Essay), that the existence of God is _extremely -probable_. - - -(_D._) SUMMARY OF ARGUMENT. - -In conclusion, we will repeat very briefly, the main line of -argument thus far. To begin with, in the present universe we observe -a succession of changes. If these changes are not recurring, which -seems incredible, they must have had a commencement; and this is -supported by the theories of Evolution and the Degradation of -Energy. Therefore, as this commencement cannot have been a -necessity, it must have been due to some _Free Force_. And a Free -Force must be a _Supernatural_ Force, since natural forces are not -free, but always act according to some fixed law, while the unity of -nature points to its being a _Single_ Supernatural Force, which we -called the Creator. - -Next, it follows that the Creator must have foreknown the -consequences of His acts, judging by the marks of design which they -present. And this conclusion was shown to be not inconsistent with -either the process of evolution, or the existence of free will in -man or other beings. Hence He must have been a _Personal Being_, -possessing both Wisdom to design, and Power to accomplish. - -Or the whole argument may be repeated in an even shorter form. The -universe (in its present condition) has not existed always, it is -therefore an _effect_,--something that has been effected, or brought -about somehow; and therefore like every effect, it must have had a -_Cause_. Then since the effect shows a certain unity throughout, the -Cause must have been One. Since the effect shows in some parts -evidence of having been planned and arranged, the capacity for -planning and arranging must have existed in the Cause. In other -words, a universe showing marks of design is the effect, and nothing -less than a Personal Being who designed it can be the Cause. And GOD -is the name given to this Personal Being. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -THAT MAN IS A FREE AND RESPONSIBLE BEING. - - (_A._) MAN'S MENTAL ATTRIBUTES. - - Man possesses a mind as well as a body; the opposite - theory, materialism, has great difficulties. - - (_B._) MAN'S MORAL ATTRIBUTES. - - (1.) Man possesses a will. - (2.) Man's acts are partly determined by his will. - (3.) Man's will is _free_. - (4.) Man knows that his will is free; and this enables him - to design, and makes him a personal being. - (5.) Man's _responsibility_ for his acts. - (6.) Man's moral sense of right and wrong; which enables - him to distinguish the quality of acts, and makes - him a moral being. - (7.) Man's conscience, by which he can judge of this quality - in some cases. - - (_C._) DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ANIMALS AND MEN. - - There is a great mental difference, though probably only - of degree; and entire moral difference, since animals, - even if free, do not possess a _known_ freedom, and are - hence not personal beings. - - (_D._) CONCLUSION. - - Man consists of three parts, body, mind, and spirit: his - unique position. - - -Having decided on the Existence of God, which is the great truth of -_Natural_ Religion, the question now arises whether, if nature can -lead us so far, there is no means of getting further. No one will -deny that further knowledge is desirable, both as to God, ourselves, -and our future destiny, and is there no means of obtaining it? And -this brings us to the subject of _Revealed_ Religion, that is to -say, of God's making some Revelation to man. And the probability of -this will depend partly on the _character of man_--is he a being at -all worthy of a revelation; and partly on the _Character of God_--is -He a Being at all likely to make one? The former question alone will -be discussed in this chapter, and we will consider man's _mental_ -and _moral_ attributes separately. Nothing need be said about his -bodily or _physical_ characteristics, as they have no bearing on the -present argument. - - -(_A._) MAN'S MENTAL ATTRIBUTES. - -By these are meant man's thoughts and feelings, and that they are -different from the matter composing his body seems self-evident. -Matter possesses size, weight, colour, shape, and hardness. Mind -does not possess any of these. They have no conceivable meaning when -applied to thoughts and feelings. Yet both mind and matter exist in -man. We each feel conscious that we have something which _thinks_, -and which we call mind; as well as something which _moves_, and -which we call matter (_i.e._, our bodies); and that these are -absolutely distinct from one another. And from the nature of the -case this _inherent conviction_ is all we can appeal to. For mind, -if it exists at all, being different from matter, is beyond the -reach of ordinary scientific discovery. We cannot however be more -certain of anything than of these inherent convictions, which form -the basis of all our knowledge. Even the propositions of Euclid are -only deductions from some other of our convictions, such as that the -whole is greater than its part. - -Still the difficulty of understanding this compound nature in man, -part mind and part body, has led some persons to adopt the theory of -_materialism_. According to this there is no such thing as _mind_; -what we call thoughts and feelings being merely complicated motions -of the molecules of the brain. Now, that the mind and brain are -closely associated together none will deny, but it does not follow -that they are identical. The brain may be merely the instrument of -the mind through which it acts. And though, as far as we know, the -mind can never act without the brain, it may certainly have a -separate existence, and possibly, under different conditions, may be -able to act separately. It is in fact no more difficult to conceive -of thought without a brain, than to conceive of thought with a -brain. All we can say is, that within the range of our experience -the two seem to be somehow connected together. - -Recent investigations, however, in what is called _telepathy_ (or -thought-transference) seem to show that in some cases one mind can -influence another _at a distance_, and without any material -connection. And this (if admitted) proves that the mind is something -more than a mere collection of particles of matter. - -Moreover materialism, to be consistent, must deny not only that man -has a mind, but that he has anything immaterial at all; he must be -matter in motion, and nothing else. But this is disproved by our -_memory_, which convinces us that we are the _same_ persons now as -we were ten years ago; yet we know that every particle of our -bodies, including our brains, has changed in the interval. We must -then have something immaterial which survives, in spite of -everything material changing. - -The case, it should be noticed, is not like that of a tree, which -may be popularly said to be the same now as it was ten years ago, -though every particle of it has changed in the interval. For as far -as we know, the tree has nothing which connects its present state -with its former state, it has no memory of what happened to it then. -We _have_, that is just the difference. We can remember now what -happened to us ten years ago, though our bodies now do not contain a -single atom or molecule which they did then. We must, therefore, -have something else besides atoms and molecules, in other words, -something _immaterial_; and if so, there is an end of materialism in -its only logical form. - -This theory then cannot possibly be accepted, and we must abide by -our inherent conviction that we have a mind as well as a body. This -is an ultimate fact in human nature; and we are as certain of it as -we are of anything, though like some other ultimate facts it has to -be assumed, because it can be neither proved nor doubted. - - -(_B._) MAN'S MORAL ATTRIBUTES. - -We pass on now to man's moral attributes, which we will consider in -detail. - -(1.) _Man possesses a will._ - -In the first place man possesses what, in common language, is called -a _will_. Strictly speaking, of course, the will is not anything -independent of the man, which he _possesses_, as he might possess a -dog; it is the man himself _who wills_, or who possesses the power -of willing. But the common language is so generally understood, that -it will be used here. Now the chief reason for believing that man -has a will is his own inherent conviction. He feels certain that he -does possess a will which is distinct from his body and his mind, -though closely associated with both, and apparently to some extent -controlling both. For example, I may resolve to raise my hand, and -then do it; or I may resolve to think out a problem, and then do it. -In each case the will is felt to be something distinct from the -subsequent bodily or mental action. - -(2.) _Man's acts are partly determined by his will._ - -In the next place, a man's acts (and also his thoughts) are partly -determined by his will. By this is meant that a man's will is able -to move his limbs, so that, for instance, he can raise his hand when -he wishes, and this gives him the power of determining his acts. It -is not meant that a man's will can move his limbs directly; his -limbs are moved by his muscles, which are directed by his nerves, -and these by certain motions in the brain. All that the will can do -is to give a particular direction to these motions, which, combined -with various other forces, brings about the observed result. - -Now we have in favour of this action of the human will on the human -body the universal experience of mankind, which is that a man can -somehow or other move his limbs at pleasure. Indeed, the question -whether a man can walk across the room when he wishes, seems to most -people to admit of a convincing answer: _solvitur ambulando_. But -still, the action of will on matter seems so improbable, and so -difficult to understand, that attempts have naturally been made to -find some other explanation. - -But no satisfactory one can be suggested. For my wishing to move my -body, is followed by my moving it so frequently and so universally, -that there must be some connection between them. And though we -cannot imagine how a mere wish can move particles of matter (in the -brain or anywhere else), it is just as hard to imagine how the -movement of particles of matter can produce a wish. The latter -theory is no easier to understand than the other; and, as just said, -it is opposed to _the daily experience of mankind_, which is that a -man's will can, somehow or other, move his limbs, and hence -determine his acts. - -(3.) _Man's will is free._ - -It must next be noticed that man's will is a _free_ will, and this -is a most important point. It is quite distinct from the previous -question. Then we decided that a man's raising his hand, for -instance, was the result of his wishing to do so. We have now to -consider whether this wish was free on the man's part, or whether he -could not help it; the latter view being called that of _Necessity_, -or _Determinism_, and meaning that a man's acts are necessarily -determined, and not free. Of course everyone admits that there are -_limits_ to human freedom. A man cannot always raise his hand when -he likes, it may be paralyzed. The important point is whether he is -_ever_ free; and there are two main arguments on each side. - -Now the great argument in favour of free will is, again, our own -inherent conviction. It is one of the most universal, and one of the -most certain, beliefs of mankind that he has free will. This belief -is forced upon him by his own daily experience. He feels, for -instance, that he is free to raise his hand or not. And what is -more, he can verify the fact by actually raising it, whenever he -likes; so it is literally true to say that the conviction rests on -the daily experience of the human race. And to many, this argument -alone seems conclusive. - -But, as a matter of fact, it is fully confirmed by _human conduct_. -For a man's conduct is _variable_ and quite unlike the uniformity -which we find in chemistry and physics, where there is no free -force, and everything is brought about in accordance with fixed -laws. So we seem to require some free force in man to account for -his variable conduct. These, then, are the two arguments in favour -of free will--man's _inherent conviction_, confirmed by his -_variable conduct_; and no more powerful arguments can be imagined. - -On the other hand, the chief argument against human freedom is that -it would be an _anomaly_ in nature; since natural forces always act -in the same way, and any free force, able to act or not as it likes, -is quite unknown. If, then, man possesses such a force, no matter -how limited it may be, he is partly, at least, a _supernatural_ -being, not bound by fixed laws. - -Now all this may be admitted, but what then? Why should not man be a -partly supernatural being? God, Who has made man, is Supernatural; -He possesses free will, and He might, if He thought fit, bestow some -of this attribute on man, allowing him, that is to say, within -certain limits, to act in one way or another. No doubt, to persons -who study physical science alone, the existence of any free force in -man seems most improbable. But, on the other hand, to those who -study the actions of men, such as barristers, soldiers, or -politicians, the idea that man is a mere machine seems equally -improbable. - -And does not the same principle apply in other cases? Suppose, for -instance, that a man were to study inorganic chemistry alone, living -on an island where vegetation was unknown, would not a tree be a -complete anomaly to him? Yet trees exist and have to be allowed for. -In the same way man's free will may be an anomaly, but the evidence -for it is overwhelming. - -Moreover, the anomaly is greatly lessened by the fact that man -already occupies a very anomalous position. For as we have seen, his -acts are often determined by his _will_, and this is utterly unlike -anything that we find elsewhere in nature. Indeed the _action_ of a -will is as great an anomaly as its _freedom_; and with the possible -exception of animals (see further on) we have no experience whatever -of a will that can act and is _not_ free. Therefore claiming freedom -for a man, is not like claiming freedom for a mineral, or a plant. -He is anyhow a unique being, by far the highest and most important -on this planet; and that he should be partly supernatural as well -does not seem so very unlikely after all. - -We must also remember that we know more about ourselves where we are -conscious of freedom, than we do about the surrounding universe, -where we infer a rigid uniformity. Indeed, our own free will is the -only force of which we have any _direct_ knowledge, and the -so-called forces of nature, such as gravity, are, strictly speaking, -only assumptions which we make to account for observed facts. And, -as we have shown, even these forces seem to have originated in the -Free Will of the Creator; so as far as we can judge, _free will_, of -some kind is the ultimate cause of all force. - -The other important argument against free will is that it would be -inconsistent with what is called the _Conservation of Energy_, since -it is said any voluntary act would involve the creation of energy. -But this is at least doubtful; for the will might be free as to its -acts, were it only able to control energy without producing it. And -it could do this if it possessed the power of altering either the -time, or the direction of force; deciding, for instance, whether to -raise my hand now, or a minute hence, or whether to raise my right -hand or my left. And if it possessed either of these powers, it -could turn the latent force, which a man possesses, into actual -motion when and how it pleased. And it would thus be free as to its -acts, without creating any energy at all. - -We therefore decide on reviewing the whole subject, that man's will -is free; since this alone agrees with his own inherent _conviction_, -and fully accounts for his variable _conduct_. While, on the other -hand, though an _anomaly_ in nature, it is not on that account -incredible; nor is it inconsistent with the _conservation of -energy_. - -(4.) _Man knows that his will is free._ - -Having now decided that man's will is free, little need be said -about the next point, which is that man _knows_ that his will is -free, since, as we have shown, this is the chief argument for -admitting its freedom. There are, however, many other arguments for -proving that man believes that he has a free will, for it is shown -by his acts. It is this known freedom which enables a man to set -before him an end, and deliberately work towards it; in other words, -it enables him to _design_, and makes him a _personal being_, as we -have used the term. And it is needless to point out that the -evidence of human design is universal. Again, human language affords -a conclusive proof that man has always and everywhere believed -himself to be free; for such terms as _I will_, _I choose_, _I -decide_, exist in all languages. However, we need not pursue this -subject, since it is undisputed that man _believes_ that he has a -free will; and it is taken for granted in all human affairs. - -(5.) _Man's responsibility for his acts._ - -By this is meant that a man is responsible for the way in which he -uses his freedom; and this seems to follow at once from his knowing -that he is free. Moreover, a sense of responsibility is among the -inherent convictions of mankind. Of course, there may be exceptions -to this as to most other rules; but taking mankind as a whole, he -certainly believes in his own responsibility. - -He also believes that this responsibility is in the first place to -God, or some other supernatural Being. No doubt he is also -responsible to his fellow-men, more especially to those among whom -he is living; but a moment's reflection will show that this is not -the leading idea. For a man must in the first place be responsible -to his Maker rather than to his fellow-men. In the same way a child -is first of all responsible to his parents, and then, secondly and -consequently, to his brothers and sisters. Therefore, because God -has made us, we are responsible to Him; and because He has placed us -among other men, and presumably wishes us to take some part in human -society, we are in a lesser degree responsible to them also. So the -_brotherhood of man_, as it is called, naturally follows from the -Fatherhood of God. - -(6.) _Man's moral sense of right and wrong._ - -In the next place, man has the remarkable faculty of distinguishing -the _quality_ of acts which are free, regarding some as right and -others as wrong, the latter being called _sins_. And it may be -noticed in passing, that the existence of moral evil or sin seems to -many to be an additional argument in favour of man's freedom; -otherwise God would be the sole author of man's misdeeds. Of course, -in this case, they would not be really _sins_, for if man has no -free will, he is a mere machine, and can no more sin against God (or -man either) than a watch can sin against its maker. Such a man -might be imperfect, and so might a watch, but he could not be -_wicked_; yet few will say that there are no wicked men in the -world. Now we will call a being who is thus able to distinguish the -quality of acts a _moral being_. Man is therefore a moral being, -having this _moral sense_, as it is called, of distinguishing right -from wrong. - -It will perhaps make the meaning of this moral sense plainer if we -compare it with one of man's other senses, say that of sight. The -one, then, distinguishes right from wrong, just as the other -distinguishes red from yellow, or blue from green. And as man's -sense of colours is not disproved by one man thinking a colour blue -which another thinks green--or his sense of taste, by one man -thinking a taste nice, which another thinks nasty--so his moral -sense is not disproved by one man thinking an act right which -another thinks wrong. - -Moreover this sense of right and wrong is quite distinct from the -pleasant or unpleasant consequences which are associated with -certain acts. For instance, I may avoid putting my hand into hot -water, because I remember having done so before, and it was painful; -but this is quite different from avoiding an act because it is -_wrong_. It is also quite distinct from expediency, or the idea of -benefiting by an act. For an act may not benefit us at all, or may -even injure us, and yet it may be right. In short, 'fifty -experiences of what is pleasant or what is profitable do not, and -cannot, make one conviction of what is right'; the ideas differ in -kind; and not merely in degree. - -(7.) _Man's conscience._ - -Lastly, as to man's conscience. This is often confused with his -moral sense, but a little reflection will show that the two are -distinct. For a man might possess a moral sense, and be able to -classify acts as right or wrong, yet have no direct means of knowing -to which class any particular act belonged. He might have to work -this out by reasoning; and in difficult cases we sometimes do so. -But as a rule this is unnecessary. For mankind possesses a very -remarkable _something_, called a conscience, which tells him at -once, and without either argument or reasoning, that certain acts -are right and others wrong. Conscience is thus like an organ of the -moral sense, and may be compared to the eye or organ of sight; for -just as the eye perceives that certain colours are red and others -blue, so conscience perceives that certain acts are right and others -wrong. In each case the perception is almost instantaneous, and -quite distinct from any kind of reasoning. - -Conscience, it will be noticed, does not _make_ the act right or -wrong, any more than the eye makes the colour red or blue; it merely -tells us what acts are right and what wrong. It is thus an -_intermediary_ between Someone else and ourselves; and this Someone -else can only be God, Who gave us our conscience, so that in popular -language it may be called _the Voice of God_. And it tells us we -ought to act right, because this is the way in which God wishes us -to act. - -Now that mankind possesses a conscience is indisputable. It is -shared alike by young and old, rich and poor, educated and -uneducated. It has existed in all ages, countries and races. We all -have it, and what is very remarkable it seems to be independent of -our will, and not at our disposal. We do not correct it, but it -corrects us; for it not only tells us what acts are right and what -wrong, but it approves definitely of our doing the former, and -disapproves just as definitely of our doing the latter. Indeed, one -of the most striking effects of conscience is this feeling of -_remorse_ or self-condemnation after wrong-doing; and such a feeling -is practically universal. - -And if it be objected that one man's conscience may say that an act -is right, which another man's conscience says is wrong, we must -remember that the decision of a man's conscience, only refers to the -man himself. It tells a man what is right _for him_, with his -knowledge and surroundings, and it is quite possible that this may -be wrong for another man. - -These, then, are the moral attributes of the human race, and it -follows at once that man is a _free and responsible being_. But as -this conclusion is often disputed, because of the similarity between -animals and men, and the difficulty of admitting that they also are -free and responsible beings, or else of showing where the -distinction lies, we must examine this subject. - - -(_C._) DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ANIMALS AND MEN. - -Now the _bodily_ difference between certain animals and men is -admittedly small; and though the accompanying _mental_ difference is -enormous, it is probably only one of degree; for all animals seem, -to some slight extent, to possess a mind, which enables them at -least to feel conscious of pleasure and pain. We must therefore -pass on to the _moral_ attributes of animals; and as we know nothing -as to their feelings on the subject, it is difficult to say -(referring to the first three points) whether they have a _free -will_ or not. Of course, if they have _not_, that would be a clear -distinction between animals and men. But we have no right to assume -this, and there is a good deal to be said on the other side, at -least in regard to the higher animals, so the question had better be -left open. - -But with regard to the next point, that of _known_ freedom, we are -on surer ground; for the proof of man's _believing_ himself to be -free does not depend solely on his own feelings. It is shown by his -acts, as it enables him to _design_, and it is doubtful if there is -anything corresponding to this in animals. For though many of their -works show design somewhere, it does not seem to be due to _them_. -This kind of unconscious designing (which strange to say is most -apparent in the _lower_ forms of animal life) is called _instinct_, -and there are at least three reasons for thinking that it differs -from real design implying forethought. - -The first is, that, if these works were due to the design of the -animals themselves, they must possess intellectual powers of a very -high order. Take, for instance, the well known example of the _cells -of bees_. These are built on the most perfect mathematical -principles, the three rhombs which close the hexagonal columns -having the exact angles so as to contain the greatest amount of -honey, with the least expenditure of wax. And as we require advanced -mathematics and a book of logarithms to work out such problems, it -is hard to see how the bees can do it. Nor is heredity of any use, -for the bees which build cells are all _workers_ (as they are -called) and have no descendants; while those which have descendants -are either _drones_ or _queens_, and these do no building. Thus the -cells are built by bees, none of whose ancestors have ever built -cells; so the design cannot be ascribed to anything they have -inherited from their parents.[3] Secondly, animals are only able to -design in a few special cases, and in other respects they often act -with the greatest stupidity. A bee, for example, with all its -mathematics, cannot very often, if it has flown in through an open -window, retrace its way, but will buzz helplessly against another -which is shut. - -[Footnote 3: Encyc. Brit., 9th edit., vol. iii., pp. 490, 484. The -angles are 109° 28' and 70° 32'.] - -Thirdly, the instincts of animals are practically the same, always -and everywhere. They are not more advanced in some countries, than -in others; or in some individuals, than in others. They are not even -more advanced as time goes on. The last cell built by a bee is no -better than the first, and no better, as far as we know, than cells -built by bees thousands of years ago; while the young of animals, -without any experience to guide them, have the same instincts as the -old. Clearly, then, an animal's instinct is born with it, and not -acquired; and therefore, any apparent design there may be in what is -done by instinct cannot be attributed to the animal itself, any more -than the design shown in its eyes, but to its Maker. - -So far all is plain. It may, however, be urged that in some of the -higher animals, especially those in contact with man, we do find -certain acts which seem to imply forethought and design. A dog, for -example, will bury a bone one day, and go and look for it the next. -But when once it is admitted that what are apparently far more -striking instances of design are to be explained by instinct, it -seems better to explain them all in the same way. - -And this is confirmed by the fact that even the higher animals do -not appear to have any idea of _responsibility_, or any sense of -_right_ and _wrong_, which in man are the result of his known -freedom. Of course, this also may be disputed, since as we punish a -dog for doing what we dislike, it looks as if we held it responsible -for the act. But this does not follow. We punish the dog to prevent -its repeating the act. And it may avoid doing so, because its memory -associates the act with _pain_, and not because it feels responsible -for it, or considers it to be _wrong_. While in the vast majority of -cases we never think of holding an animal responsible for its acts, -or look upon its injuring anyone as a sin. We conclude, then, that -_moral_ attributes form the great distinction between animals and -men; because though animals have, or may have, a free will, it is -not a _known_ freedom, so they are not able, like men, to _design_, -and are hence not _personal beings_. - -Two further remarks may be made before leaving this subject. The -first is, that though there are difficulties in placing this known -freedom as the difference between animals and men, there are as -great, if not greater, difficulties in placing it anywhere else. If -we say that an ape or a dog can design, the difficulty is not -lessened; it is merely transferred lower down the scale. Can a -jellyfish design? The momentous attribute of known freedom must -begin _somewhere_; and it seems less difficult to place it between -animals and men than anywhere else. - -The second and more important point is, that our ignorance about -animals is no reason for doubting what we do know about man. To do -this would be most illogical. Indeed, we might as well deny that a -man could see, or hear, because there are difficulties in deciding -where sight and hearing commence in the scale of animal life. - - -(_D._) CONCLUSION. - -We may now conclude this chapter. With regard to man, it is clear -that his bodily, mental, and moral attributes are quite distinct. A -man may be strong in body, yet of weak intellectual power; or he may -have a great intellect, yet be of weak moral character. This makes -it probable that human nature consists of three parts--_body_, -_mind_, and _spirit_; the mind corresponding to the mental reasoning -part of man, and the spirit to the free moral part, the word _soul_ -being often used for either of these latter. - -And the difference between animals and men is probably that the -former have no _spirits_, but only bodies and (undeveloped) -minds. All life on this planet would then form three great -groups--_vegetation_, consisting of matter alone; _animals_, of -matter and mind; _man_, of matter, mind, and spirit. And from this -it seems to follow that while a man's _body_ may (conceivably) have -been evolved from any other form of matter, and his _mind_ from any -other form of mind, yet his _spirit_ is essentially distinct, and -cannot have been evolved from anything else. - -Moreover, as a man's body and mind are both (to some extent) under -the known control of his free will, or spirit, this latter must be -looked upon as his real _self_. Thus he is not, strictly speaking, -an organism at all, but a free being served by organs both of body -and mind. They are _his_; they do not constitute _him_. He is the -personal being, who controls both. In other words man _is_ a spirit, -and _has_ a body and mind. - -And our present conclusion is quite plain. We have shown that man is -a _free_ being, his freedom distinguishing him from natural forces, -and making him in part supernatural. And he is a _responsible_ -being, his responsibility being due to his known freedom, and -distinguishing him from animals. He has thus a unique position. -Nothing else on this planet resembles him, and in his attribute of -known freedom which enables him to design, and makes him a _personal -being_, he resembles God alone. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -THAT GOD TAKES AN INTEREST IN MAN'S WELFARE. - - (_A._) THE EVIDENCE IN ITS FAVOUR. - - Since God is a _Moral_ as well as a Personal Being, He must - be capable of caring for all His creatures; and we have - abundant evidence that He does so, especially for man. - But there are two great difficulties. - - (_B._) THE INSIGNIFICANCE OF MAN. - - (1.) Some counter-arguments, showing that even if insignificant, - God might still care for him. - (2.) Man's real importance, due to his mind and spirit. - (3.) The supposed inhabitants of other planets. - - (_C._) THE EXISTENCE OF EVIL. - - (1.) Physical evil in animals. The objection that it is vast - in amount, wholly unmerited, and perfectly useless, - cannot be maintained. - (2.) Physical evil in man. Several ways of lessening the - difficulty. Its explanation seems to be that God's - designing evil does not mean His desiring it, as it is - essential for forming a man's character. - (3.) Moral evil in man. The possibility of this is essential - to free will; and wicked men are as necessary as any - other form of evil. - - (_D._) CONCLUSION. - - God's _Goodness_ includes Beneficence and Righteousness. - - -Having discussed in the last chapter the character of man, we have -next to consider, as far as we have any means of doing so, _the -Character of God_; more especially whether He seems to take any -interest in man's welfare. And we will first examine the evidence in -favour of this; then the two arguments on the other side from the -insignificance of man, and the existence of evil; and will conclude -by considering in what sense the term _Goodness_ can be ascribed to -God. - - -(_A._) THE EVIDENCE IN ITS FAVOUR. - -To begin with, God is certainly capable of taking an interest in -man's welfare, for He is not only a Personal Being, but also a Moral -Being. This follows at once from what may be called the _moral -argument_ for the Existence of God, or that depending on man's free -will. It is briefly this, that no combination of natural forces, -which are uniform and always act the same under the same -circumstances, can ever produce a _free_ force, able to act or not -as it likes. The idea seems inconceivable. If, then, man possesses -such a force, which we have already admitted, it cannot have come -from any natural forces, nor can it have made itself, so it must -have been derived from some _previous_ free force, and this, again, -from a previous one, and so on till we finally arrive at a _Free -Force_, which was _not_ derived from any other, but which existed -eternally. And this, it will be remembered, was precisely the -conclusion we reached in Chapter I., though from quite a different -argument. And then it follows that this Free Force, or Free Being, -must know that He is free; and must therefore be a _moral_ Being, -able to distinguish the quality of acts as right or wrong. Indeed, -the mere fact that man possesses this remarkable faculty makes it -certain that man's Maker must possess it too. - -Now a personal and moral God must clearly be able to take an -interest in the welfare of His creatures; and there is abundant -evidence that He actually does so. For everywhere in nature, and -especially in man, we meet with marks, not only of design, but of -_beneficent_ design--that is to say of design tending to the welfare -and happiness of the beings in question. Take, for instance, the -human eye, which we considered in Chapter II. Everyone will admit -that this conduces very greatly to man's happiness; and therefore -the conclusion that God, when He designed the eye, did so with the -object of benefiting man seems irresistible. Nor is this altered by -the fact that the eye has a few defects, in being liable to various -kinds of disease. For no one can think that it was made for the sake -of these defects. It was evidently made to see, and not to ache. -That it does ache now and then is in all probability due to its -being such a complicated instrument; and perhaps also to its being -often used too much. - -But it may be said, beneficial organs like the eye, though they -abound throughout nature, are not the only ones we meet with. There -are others, like the claws and teeth of wild animals, which are just -the opposite, and seem designed to give pain to other creatures. But -this is quite untenable. They were plainly designed to enable the -animal to secure its food, and are perhaps necessary for that -purpose, and they all tend to the welfare of their possessor, and -sometimes also to that of their victim, as it hastens death. There -is not, in fact, a single organ in nature the _object_ of which is -to produce pain. Where pain is produced it is merely a sort of -_by-product_. Thus far then, we are quite justified in concluding -that God takes an interest in man's welfare. But there are two great -difficulties. - - -(_B._) THE INSIGNIFICANCE OF MAN. - -The first is from the apparent _insignificance_ of man. For though -he is doubtless by far the most important being on this planet, and -endowed with some of the Divine attributes, yet, after all how -utterly insignificant he is in comparison with his Maker. This is no -new difficulty,[4] but modern science has increased its force by -showing that our earth is only one among the planets which go round -the sun, while the sun itself is only one among many millions of -stars. And, we may ask, is it likely that the God Who rules these -millions of stars should take any interest in the beings on a small -planet like our earth? - -[Footnote 4: Ps. 8. 3, 4.] - -This is the difficulty we have to face; but a good deal depends on -the way in which it is stated. Would it not be better to argue from -the known to the unknown, and ask--Is it likely that the God Who has -made this earth, and Who we know (from the marks of design) takes an -interest in its inhabitants, should be _also_ the Ruler of the -distant stars? And when so stated, the unity of nature compels us to -say that it is not only likely, but practically certain. However, we -will discuss the subject more in detail, first considering some -counter-arguments, which show that even if man were insignificant -God might still care for him; then man's real importance; and -lastly, the question of other planets being inhabited. - -(1.) _Some Counter-arguments._ - -To begin with, though it seems unlikely that God should take any -interest in such insignificant beings as us men, it also seems -unlikely that He should ever have designed and created such beings. -Yet He has done so. And having created them, there is at most only a -slight _additional_ improbability, if any at all, that He should -take an interest in their welfare. And this is especially the case -when we remember that man is not only the highest and noblest being -on this planet, but as far as we know on any planet. Therefore -though we may be quite unworthy of God's care, we do not know of any -other being who is more worthy of it. And it is most unlikely that a -Creator would not take an interest in _any_ of His works. - -Next, as to the analogy of nature. Here we find nothing resembling a -neglect of small things. On the contrary, everything, down to the -minutest insect, seems finished with as much perfection as if it -alone existed in the universe. And this is surely what we should -expect. For true greatness does not exist in despising that which is -small; and it may be a very part of God's infinite greatness that -nothing should be too small for Him to care about, just as nothing -is too large. And while a Being, Who can govern the universe, and -attend to its millions of stars, is no doubt great--inconceivably -great; yet He is surely greater still--_inconceivably greater_--if -He can _also_ attend to our little planet, and its inhabitants; and -can do this so thoroughly, as not only to take an interest in the -human race, but in the welfare of each one of its members. - -And the whole analogy of nature is in favour of His doing so; for -the forces of nature never deal with matter in bulk, but with each -particle separately. A stone, for instance, is attracted to the -ground, because, and only because, each particle of it is so -attracted. In the same way if God takes an interest in the human -race (and, as just said, it is hard to imagine His not doing so, -since it is His noblest work) it may be because, and only because, -He takes an interest in each individual member of it. - -Thirdly, the difficulty of thus believing that God takes an interest -in the daily life of an individual man, though undoubtedly great, is -really no more than that of believing that He knows about it. For if -He knows about it, why should He not care about it? Yet, as said in -Chapter II., a world like ours cannot have been made without both -knowledge, and foreknowledge, on the part of its Maker. And though -we might at first be inclined to limit this to important matters, a -little consideration will show that such a distinction is untenable; -and that if God knows anything, He knows everything. And if He knows -everything, why should He not care about everything? - -Fourthly, and this is very important, whether we are insignificant -or not, we are each of us _unique_. We are not like particles of -matter. Millions of these are (or may be) exactly alike, but no two -_men_ are exactly alike; not even to the same extent as plants and -animals. For each man is a separate spirit, a _personal being_ -distinct from all else in the world. And since he possesses a free -will, his character is also distinct; for this depends to a large -extent on how he uses his free will, what he says, and what he does, -day by day. So it is out of the question to think that any two men -are exactly alike. And this is the common belief of mankind, for -however much we may think other people alike, we each feel sure that -there is no one else in the world exactly like _ourselves_. - -Nor can there be. For though God might, if He chose, make two trees -exactly alike, or two men exactly alike in their external features, -He could not make them alike _in their character_. For this, as just -said, depends on their own free use of their own free will; and if -God were to force them to decide in the same way, they would cease -to be free. And from this it follows that each man is not only -unique, but _irreplaceable_. No other can be made like him. -Therefore, as we each have something special about us, God may take -a _special_ interest in each of us. Doubtless such an idea seems -very wonderful; but no one who has any knowledge of the marvels of -nature will think it, on that account, incredible. Indeed, from one -point of view, it is only what we should expect. For we all know how -a naturalist will value a unique specimen, which cannot be replaced, -in spite of its having some defects. And if each man is really -_unique_, and _irreplaceable_, why may not the God of Nature value -him too (in spite of his faults), and take an interest in his -welfare? - -Then, fifthly, as to the discoveries of science, there is here also -a good deal to be said on the other side. For though the telescope -has shown us that our world is like a mere drop in the ocean, the -microscope has shown us a new world in each drop; and the -_infinitely little_, as it is called, is as wonderful as the -infinitely great, and man still occupies a sort of central position. - -When, for instance, we examine a single organ, say the human eye, we -find that it consists of an immense number of parts, each of which -is seen to be more and more complicated the more we are able to -magnify it, and so on without apparently any limit. And this makes -it more than ever likely that the God, Who has shown such marvellous -skill in the various organs of a man's body, should care for the man -himself, the personal and moral being, who possesses these organs. -Nor is the argument weakened by the fact that the organs of animals -also show a wonderful amount of design, for as far as we know, in -their case, there is no personal and moral being to care about. - -Again, science has not only shown us the _magnitude_ of the -universe, and that there are millions of stars, millions of miles -apart, but it has also shown us its _unity_, and that all its parts -are closely connected together. And certainly the idea that the God, -Who rules these stars, should take an interest in us men, is no -harder to believe than that the gases, which are burning in these -stars, should influence our spectroscopes. Yet they do; so if this -were all, it would still lessen the difficulty a good deal. - -(2.) _Man's real importance._ - -But this is not all, for science has also taught us a great deal -about man himself, and his long development; which has a most -important bearing on the argument. For we now know that our earth -has existed for thousands of centuries, gradually evolving higher -and higher forms of life, all leading up to _man_, who is the heir -of all the ages, the inheritor of all that is useful and best in his -long line of ancestors. - -And (what is very important) organic evolution seems obliged to stop -here. Man is not merely a link in a series leading on to still more -perfect beings, but he is the _end_ of the series. In all -probability there will never be a higher being on the earth, for the -causes which have produced his evolution thus far, can carry it no -further. When, for instance, man acquired an erect position, there -was an end to any further improvement in that respect. When he took -to wearing clothes, there was an end to the body becoming hardier -and stronger through exposure. When he took to using weapons and -inventing machinery, mere physical strength was no longer essential, -and could no longer be increased. - -In short, when Evolution began to take a _mental_ turn, there was an -end to bodily development. Henceforth there was to be no evolution -of any higher being, but rather the gradual perfecting of this one -being, by mental and moral, and not physical improvements. Man is -thus not only the highest being that ever has been evolved, but, as -far as we can judge, the highest being that ever will be evolved on -this earth. So the vast scheme of evolution, inconceivable alike in -magnitude, in duration, and in complexity, is all seen to be one -plan, with _man_ apparently at the end of it. And consequently, as -everything was designed by God, he must have been the foreknown and -intended end, from the very beginning; the first thought in -creation, as well as the last. - -And when we thus regard man as the goal towards which nature has all -along tended, and therefore as the _chief_ object which God--the -Author of Nature--had in view all the time, it seems to increase his -importance tenfold; and shows conclusively that in God's sight he -must be anything but insignificant. - -Nor is it difficult to suggest a reason for this. For man, as we -know, has a _mind_, as well as a body; and though the discoveries of -science have in some respects lessened the importance of his _body_, -by showing its evolution from other animals; they have at the same -time increased that of his _mind_, for it is his mind that has -discovered them. And every fresh discovery man makes can only exalt -him still higher for making it; so that the mind of man now shows -him to be a far nobler being than could possibly have been imagined -some centuries ago. And certainly, a mind that can discover the -motions of distant stars, and the elements of which they are -composed, cannot be thought insignificant. In fact, in one respect -man is greater than any of the stars; for he can think about them, -but they cannot think about him. - -Moreover, man has not only a mind, but also a _spirit_, or free -will, able to act right or wrong. And even his acting _wrong_, -however sad it may be in other respects, is a powerful witness to -his greatness; for who but a great being could act in opposition to -the will of the Almighty? But then; if his acting _wrong_ proves his -greatness, still more does his acting _right_. Indeed (if we were -not so far from it ourselves) we should probably see that moral -perfection, or _always_ acting right, though one might act wrong, is -the noblest thing in the whole universe; and as far above mental -greatness, as this latter is above mere physical strength. - -But though _we_ cannot properly appreciate it, God can. He is -Himself a Spirit, and therefore, in His sight, a man possessing a -mind and spirit, and thus made to some extent in His own image, and -capable of developing moral perfection, may be of more value -(because more like Himself) than a universe of dead matter. In the -same way (to quote a well-known analogy) a king will value his child -more than his palace: for the simple reason that the child is more -like himself. Thus _persons_ are always more valuable than _things_. -And they are _incomparably_ more valuable, for they have nothing in -common by which they can be compared. We cannot class an astronomer -with his telescopes, or say that one geologist is worth so many -fossils, or one bricklayer so many bricks. And this being so, what -shall we say of the millions of men who have lived, and are now -living, on this earth? Surely _their_ welfare cannot be thought -insignificant by anyone, least of all by their Creator. - -(3.) _The supposed inhabitants of other planets._ - -But it may be said, what about other planets? Are not some of these -inhabited, and does not this weaken the argument a good deal, and -show that God cannot take any special interest in man, or other -beings on this earth? - -Now there is, of course, no reason why God should take any _special_ -interest in the beings on this planet, more than in similar beings -on other planets, if such exist; but this is very doubtful. For -modern science has shown that not only are the same _materials_ -found in the other planets (and also in the fixed stars) as are -found here; but that _natural laws_, such as those of gravity, -light, and heat, are the same throughout the entire universe. And -this makes it probable that the laws of life are also the same; so -that if living beings exist on other planets, we should expect them -to be somewhat similar to the living beings here; and to have been -evolved in a somewhat similar manner. And this requires that a large -number of favourable circumstances, such as a moderate temperature, -a suitable atmosphere, sufficient water, etc., should all be found -on some other planet, not only now, but during the long ages which -(judging by this earth) appear necessary for the development of the -higher forms of life; and this certainly seems unlikely. - -On the other hand, it is difficult to believe that God would create -an immense number of suns or stars, many of which have probably -planets round them, if only one out of the whole series was to be -inhabited by personal beings. But however strange this may seem to -us, it entirely agrees with God's methods in nature, where what -seems to be needless waste is the universal rule. So this is not an -insuperable difficulty. The question, however, may well be left -open, for even if other planets are inhabited, there is no reason -why God should not take an interest--and perhaps a great -interest--in their inhabitants, as well as in ourselves; since all -His capacities are boundless, and even the smallest part of -_infinity_ may be very large. - - -(_C._) THE EXISTENCE OF EVIL. - -We now come to the other, and perhaps more important, -difficulty--that arising from the _existence of evil_. This term in -its widest sense includes both _pain_, which affects a man's body; -_sorrow_, which affects his mind; and _sin_, which affects his -spirit. The two former may be called _physical evil_, and apply also -to animals; while the latter is _moral evil_, and applies only to -man. And as the world is full of pain, sorrow, and sin, one may -naturally ask how could it have been designed and created by a God -Who cares for the welfare of His creatures? Or, to put the objection -in other words, does not the existence of this evil show that God -either could not or would not prevent it? If He _could_ not, he is -not All-Powerful; if He _would_ not, He is not All-Good. This is an -undoubted difficulty; and we will examine it in detail, both as it -affects animals and men. - -(1.) _Physical evil in animals._ - -The objection here is that animals of all kinds suffer a vast -_amount_ of pain and misery, which is wholly _unmerited_ and -perfectly _useless_; since, having no moral nature, they can neither -deserve pain nor profit by it. We will consider these points in -turn. - -And first, as to the _amount_ which animals suffer. One animal does -not suffer more because a million suffer likewise, so we must -consider the suffering as it affects the individual, and not the -_total_ amount. And as to its extent we know but little. That -animals appear to suffer greatly, _e.g._, a mouse being caught by a -cat, is obvious; but how far they really suffer is doubtful, as -their feelings are probably far less sensitive than those of man; so -it is quite misleading to think what we should feel like in similar -circumstances. This is indeed evident when we reflect that suffering -is connected with the brain, as is shown by the fact that savages -suffer much less than civilised nations. And therefore we should -expect animals, whose mental development is far less advanced, to -suffer still less; while the lower forms of life we should not -expect to suffer at all. - -And this is confirmed by observation, as several facts have been -noticed which almost force us to this conclusion. A crab, for -instance, will continue to eat, and apparently relish, a smaller -crab, while being itself slowly devoured by a larger one; and this -shows that the crab can feel scarcely any pain, since the almost -universal effect of pain is to destroy the pleasure of eating. And -many other instances are known.[5] - -[Footnote 5: Transactions of Victoria Institute, vol. xxv., 1891, p. -257.] - -Moreover, animals, except domestic ones which are partly trained and -civilised, appear to have no anticipation of suffering, and no power -of concentrating their thoughts upon it, which increases it so -greatly in man. And assuming, with reference to the above example, -that the mouse is not to live for ever, its being destroyed by a -cat is at most a very short misery, and perhaps involving altogether -less pain than if it died from disease or old age. Indeed few things -could be worse than for old and weak animals to be left to -themselves, and gradually die of starvation. And we must remember, -in a state of nature, with uncertain meals the cat would never -_play_ at capturing the mouse, thus giving it needless and repeated -sufferings, but it would kill it at once. - -Then as to the so-called _struggle for existence_. It is nothing -like what is commonly supposed, as has been recognised by leading -naturalists. Thus _Darwin_ says:--'When we reflect on this struggle -we may console ourselves with the full belief that the war of nature -is not incessant, that no fear is felt, that death is generally -prompt, and that the vigorous, the healthy, and the happy survive -and multiply.' And _Wallace_ says:--'The popular idea of the -struggle for existence entailing misery and pain on the animal world -is the very reverse of the truth. What it really brings about is the -maximum of life, and of the enjoyment of life, with the minimum of -suffering and pain.'[6] On the whole, then, it seems probable that -pain among animals is far less than is commonly assumed, and in the -lower forms of life almost entirely absent. - -[Footnote 6: C. Darwin. Origin of Species. 6th edit., 1888, p. 96. -A. R. Wallace. Darwinism, 1889, p. 40.] - -Still it may be said, this only lessens the difficulty; for why -should animals suffer pain at all? As far as we can judge, it is -wholly _unmerited_, since, having no moral nature, and therefore no -responsibility, they cannot have done anything wrong to deserve it. -But then, the pleasure which they enjoy is also unmerited. The two -must in all fairness be taken together, and as a matter of fact, -animals seem to have a much greater amount of pleasure than of pain. -Their life (except when ill-treated by man) is, as a rule, one of -continual enjoyment, and probably, at any given moment, the number -of animals of any particular kind that are happy is incomparably -greater than those that are miserable. In short, health and -happiness is the rule, sickness and pain the exception. - -Nor can it be said that pain is _useless_ to animals; for though -they have no moral nature to be improved, they have a physical -nature to be preserved and transmitted, and the sense of pain may be -essential for this. It is indeed a kind of sentry, warning them of -dangers, which might otherwise lead to their destruction. If for -example, animals felt no pain from excessive heat, they might not -escape when a forest was burning; or, if they felt no pain from -hunger, they might die of starvation. Thus pain is, in reality, a -_preservative of life_; and it is often not an evil at all; so no -part of this objection can be maintained. - -(2.) _Physical evil in man._ - -We now pass on to the case of man. There is unfortunately no doubt -about the suffering which he endures. The struggling lives, the -painful diseases, the lingering deaths, not to mention accidents of -all kinds, are but too evident. And we may ask, would an Omnipotent -God, Who cared for man's welfare, have ever designed all this? - -Now it is important to remember that a great deal of physical evil -originates in _moral_ evil, which will be considered later on. By -far the greater part of the pain and misery which men endure is -brought about by their own wickedness and folly, or by that of their -fellow-men. The recent war--worse in _extent_, though not worse in -kind, than all previous wars--has been a terrible example of this. -But it was man's doing, not God's; and man alone must be blamed for -it. - -In the next place, many of the so-called evils of life do not -involve any actual suffering. If for instance a man loses the sight -of one eye, he need not have any pain; and were he originally blind -the possession of even one eye would have been thought a priceless -blessing. Again, however great may be the sufferings of life, they -cannot be as great as its _joys_, since nearly everyone wishes to go -on living. While it is undeniable that human pain, like that of -animals, is most useful, serving to warn men of dangers and -diseases, which would otherwise lead to their destruction. - -Moreover, in a material world like ours, if the forces of nature act -according to fixed laws, a certain amount of suffering seems -_inevitable_. If, for example, the force of gravity always acts as -it does, it will occasionally cause a tower to fall and injure -someone. Such an event could only be avoided by God's continually -interfering with these forces. But this would render all human life -a hopeless confusion. While, at present, owing to these forces being -invariable, a great deal of the evil which might otherwise result -from them can be foreseen and avoided. If, however, men will not -avoid it,--if, for instance, in spite of the numerous eruptions of -Vesuvius, they still choose to go and live on its slopes,--it is -hard to see how they can blame anyone but themselves. In the same -way, if a man chooses to sit on the safety valve of an engine, it is -his own fault if he gets blown up. - -And even in other cases, when the evil cannot be foreseen, as in an -unexpected earthquake, it is at least open to doubt whether it is -any worse for a number of men to die like this, suddenly and -together, than that they should all die in the usual way, slowly, -one by one, and often after a long illness. It of course appeals -more to the imagination, but it probably involves less suffering. - -Thus we may say that human suffering, excluding that due to man -himself, is by no means so great as it seems; that it is, as a rule, -more than counter-balanced by human happiness; and that a certain -amount seems not only useful, but in a world like ours inevitable. -But though all these considerations are undoubtedly true, and -undoubtedly lessen the difficulty, they do not remove it altogether. - -The following appears to be the true explanation: that though God -foreknew all this suffering when He created the world, and in this -sense _designed_ it, He need not have _desired_ it, but may have -desired something else, for the attainment of which, this suffering -was a necessary condition. And this _something else_ must obviously -have been the training and perfecting of man's character; for which, -some kind of suffering seems essential. - -For if there were no suffering in the world, there could be no -fortitude, no bravery, no patience, no compassion, no sympathy with -others, no self-sacrifice for their good--nothing, in fact, that -constitutes the highest type of man. In other words, a being such as -man, can only be made perfect through suffering. Therefore this -suffering implies no defect in God's design. It is a means, and, as -far as we can judge, the only possible means for developing the -highest and noblest character in man, such a character indeed as -alone makes him worthy of admiration. Moreover, a man's character -can only be formed by himself, it cannot be given him ready-made, -for then it would not be _his_ character at all; and it can only be -formed gradually, it cannot be done all at once. Therefore, if God -wishes a man to have the special character acquired by constantly -bearing suffering, it can only be obtained by constantly giving him -suffering to bear. - -Here, then, we have the most probable explanation of the physical -evils which man endures. Their object is to develop and perfect his -character; and as this is a good object, and as it cannot be -obtained in any other way, they may well have been designed by a -good God. - -(3.) _Moral evil in man._ - -But we now come to the most difficult part of the subject, the -existence of _moral evil_ in man. This, as before said, is the chief -cause of human misery, and might it not have been avoided? In other -words, could not all _sin_ have been excluded from the world? But -assuming man to be a _free being_, it could not have been avoided, -for freedom is always liable to abuse. Therefore, if God decided -that man was to be free in some cases to act right or wrong, it -necessarily follows that he may act wrong. No Omnipotence could -possibly alter this without destroying man's freedom. Hence, though -God designed all the moral evil in the world, He need not have -desired it, but (as before) may have desired some totally different -object, for the attainment of which, this evil was a necessary -condition. - -Nor, again, is it difficult to suggest what this object may have -been. For unless man is a free being, he can be little better than a -machine--a correctly-behaved machine, no doubt, and one able to talk -and think, but still only a machine. And God may not have wished -that man, who is, as far as we know, His highest and noblest work, -should be only a machine. Indeed, the superiority of free men who -act right, though they might act wrong, to mere machines is obvious -to everyone; and it may far outweigh the disadvantage that some of -them should act wrong. Therefore, though we have to pay dearly for -freedom, it is well worth the price; and the _infinite value of -goodness_, as it is called, may justify, though nothing else could, -the risks involved in giving man a free will. - -Nor is there anything unlikely in the Creator thus caring about the -conduct of His creatures. We certainly should not admire an earthly -ruler who regarded traitors to his cause, and his most faithful -adherents with the same indifference; or an earthly parent who did -not care whether his children obeyed him or not. Why, then, should -we think that God, Who has not only given us free will, but also a -conscience by which to know what is right (_i.e._, what is _His_ -will), should yet be indifferent as to whether we do it or not? -Everything points the other way, that God, Who is a Moral Being, and -Who has made us moral beings also, wishes us to freely act right. -Therefore He allows us to act wrong, with all the misery it -involves, in order to render possible our thus freely choosing to -act right. - -Or to put the argument in other words, a free being is far higher -than a being who is not free, and yet a free being cannot exist -without the possibility of his acting wrong. So, however strange the -conclusion appears, moral evil, or at least its possibility, is -essential to the universe, if it is to be worthy of its Creator, if, -that is, it is to contain beings of the highest order--_persons_ and -not _things_. Or, to put it still shorter, if God is good, it is -only natural that He should create beings capable of goodness, and -therefore of necessity capable of badness, for the two must go -together. - -And if it be still urged that, as God foreknew how men would use -their freedom, He need not have created those who would habitually -use it wrongly; in other words, there might be no _wicked men_ in -the world, the answer is obvious. Wicked men are as necessary as any -other form of evil to test a man's character, and to develop moral -perfection. For just as physical evil, pain, suffering, etc., can -alone render possible certain physical virtues, such as fortitude -and patience; so moral evil, or sin, can alone render possible -certain moral virtues. - -If, for instance, there were no sin in the world there could be no -forbearance with the faults of others, no moral courage in standing -alone for an unpopular cause, no forgiveness of injuries, nor (what -is perhaps the highest of all virtues) any rendering good for evil. -These require not merely the possibility, but the actual existence -of sin, and they would all be unattainable if we had nothing but -physical evils to contend with, and there were only good men in the -world. The case then stands thus. Evil men are essential to an evil -world. An evil world is essential to proving a man's character. -Proving a man's character is essential to his freely choosing to -serve God; and his freely choosing to serve God seems essential to -his being such a servant as God would care to have. - -One other point should be noticed before we conclude. It is that -with regard to the conduct of free beings, _foreknowing_ is not the -same as _foreordaining_. God may have foreknown how a man would use -or misuse his freedom, but without foreordaining or compelling him -to do either. In the same way, in human affairs it is possible in -some cases, and to some extent, to foreknow what a man will do, but -without in any way compelling him to do it. This is a most important -distinction, and we have no reason for thinking that God -foreordained any man to misuse his freedom, though He may have -foreknown that he would do so.[7] - -[Footnote 7: Of course if God creates a man, _foreknowing_ how he -will act, He may, in a certain sense, be said to _foreordain_ -it as well; compare Rom. 8. 29. "Whom He foreknew, He also -foreordained."] - -(_D._) CONCLUSION. - -We may now sum up the argument in this chapter. We first showed that -God is not only able to take an interest in man's welfare; but that -the marks of beneficent design afford abundant evidence that He -actually does so. On the other hand, the so-called _insignificance -of man_ is more apparent than real, since his position at the end of -evolution shows his great importance; while his mind and spirit -fully account for this, and prove him to be an altogether unique -being, certainly in regard to this earth, and perhaps in regard to -the universe. - -And as to the _existence of evil_, it is undeniable that God must -have foreknown all the evil in the world when He created it; and in -this sense He designed it. But He may also have foreknown that it is -only temporary, and that it will lead to a more than compensating -permanent good, which could not be obtained in any other way. For -the evils in this world need not be _ends_, but may be only _means_ -to ends; and, for all we know, they may be the very best means for -obtaining the very best ends. Indeed, as before said, they seem to -be not only the best, but the only possible means for developing all -that is highest and noblest in man. We conclude, then, that though -God designed both the evil and the good in the world, He need not -have desired both: and there are indications in nature sufficient to -show that the good is what He desired, and the evil is only its -inevitable companion. - -This conclusion is often expressed by saying that _Goodness_ is an -attribute of God; and the word may certainly be admitted. Indeed if -God is not _good_, He has made a being, in this respect, nobler than -Himself; since some men, in spite of their faults, are undoubtedly -good. But it is important to notice the sense in which the word is -used, and in which alone it is true. - -By God's _goodness_, then, or by His taking an interest in man's -welfare, is not meant a mere universal beneficence, or wishing to -make everyone as happy as possible, without regard to his conduct. -The existence of evil seems fatal to such a theory as this. But -rather God wishes to promote man's welfare in the truest and best -way, not by giving him everything he likes, but by training and -developing his character. God is thus not only _beneficent_, but -_righteous_ also. And He therefore wishes man to be not only happy, -but righteous also. And He therefore of necessity (as a man cannot -be made righteous against his will) gives him _free_ will, with the -option of being unrighteous, and consequently unhappy. So this view -of God's character, combining beneficence with righteousness, not -only accounts for the marks of beneficent design all through nature, -but also for the existence of evil, especially moral evil, in man, -and seems the only way of reconciling them. In short, beneficence -and righteousness are both good, and the Goodness of God includes -both. - -Now if we admit that goodness is an attribute of God, the analogy -from His other attributes would show that He possesses it in its -highest perfection. He is thus a Being not only of infinite _Power_ -and _Wisdom_, but also of perfect _Goodness_--the word 'perfect' -being obviously more suitable for a moral quality like goodness, -than 'infinite' would be. And it will be noticed that these three -great attributes of God correspond to the three chief arguments for -His existence. The first, or that from the universe requiring an -adequate Cause, proves an All-Powerful Creator; the second, or that -from its having been designed, proves that He is All-Wise; and the -third, or that from human nature, proves that He is All-Good. They -also correspond to some extent to the three aspects under which we -considered man's character in the last chapter; so we arrive at the -grand conclusion that God is physically _All-Powerful_, mentally -_All-Wise_, and morally _All-Good_. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -THAT GOD MIGHT MAKE SOME REVELATION TO MAN. - - This depends chiefly on man's future destiny. - - (_A._) THE IMMORTALITY OF MAN. - - By this is meant the personal immortality of man's spirit, - and there are four chief arguments in its favour: - - (1.) From his unique position. - (2.) From his unjust treatment. - (3.) From his vast capabilities. - (4.) From his inherent belief. - (5.) Counter-arguments. - - (_B._) THE PROBABILITY OF A REVELATION. - - (1.) From God's character; since He would be likely to - benefit man. - (2.) From man's character; since he desires it, and his - unique position makes him not altogether unworthy - of it. - (3.) Two difficulties: a revelation is said to be unjust, if - only given to certain men; and anyhow incredible - unless quite convincing. But neither of these can - be maintained. - - -We decided in the last two chapters that man is a free and -responsible being, and that God takes an interest in his welfare. We -now come to the subject of a _Revelation_, by which is meant any -superhuman knowledge directly imparted by God to man. And by -_superhuman_ knowledge is meant any knowledge which man could not -obtain for himself; such as God's object in creating him, His wishes -in regard to his conduct, or any past or future events of which he -would otherwise be ignorant. And that God could, if He chose, impart -such knowledge, either by visions, or dreams, or in some other way, -can scarcely be disputed. Nor will anyone affirm (least of all an -Agnostic) that we know enough about God to be quite sure that He -never would choose to do so. Therefore a revelation is certainly -_possible_; but is it at all _probable_? This is what we have to -examine. And as the answer to it will depend to a great extent on -man's future destiny, we will first consider the question of his -_Immortality_, and then the probability, or otherwise, of God's -making a _Revelation_ to him. - - -(_A._) THE IMMORTALITY OF MAN. - -By this is meant the immortality of man's _spirit_. And if we admit -(as was admitted in Chapter IV.) that man is a compound being, -consisting of a free and partly supernatural spirit, his real -_self_, which controls his body and mind; what becomes of this -spirit at death? We know what becomes of the body: the various -molecules are arranged in other groups, and the natural forces are -changed into other natural forces. Nothing is lost or annihilated. -But what becomes of the spirit? If this is a free supernatural -force, the idea that it should perish altogether, when the -accompanying natural forces are re-arranged at death, is most -unlikely. Indeed the apparent indestructibility of matter points to -a corresponding immortality of spirit. - -No doubt God could, _if He chose_, destroy either, just as He could -create either; but without some supernatural interference, the -creation or destruction of either seems incredible. Yet if a man's -spirit is not destroyed, it must survive; for it does not seem to -have any separate parts into which it can be split up like a man's -body. Therefore, as it cannot undergo the only kind of death of -which we have any knowledge (which is this re-arrangement of -separate parts), it may survive for ever. And there are four chief -arguments in favour of this personal immortality of man;--those -derived from his _unique position_; his _unjust treatment_; his -_vast capabilities_; and his _inherent belief_. We will consider -each in turn, and then see what can be said on the other side. - -(1.) _From his unique position._ - -The first argument is from man's _unique position_, more especially -when we regard him as the last and noblest result of the vast scheme -of evolution, which has been in progress here for so many thousands -of years. For such a vast scheme, like everything else, requires not -only a _cause_, but a _purpose_; and however much evolution can -explain, it cannot explain itself. Why should there have been any -evolution at all? Why should a universe of dead matter have ever -produced life? There must have been some motive in all this, and -what adequate motive can be suggested? - -We can only look for an answer in _man_, who is not only the highest -creature on this planet, but as far as we know on any planet; so -here if anywhere we must find the explanation. Evolution would then -have _God_ for its Cause, and _man_ for its purpose--an undoubtedly -adequate _Cause_, but is it an adequate _purpose_? For the human -race cannot exist for ever as it is. Everything points to this earth -sooner or later falling into the sun, when all forms of life must -cease. Therefore, if man is not immortal, the whole of evolution -which has led up to him as its final end will still have had no -_permanent_ result. And no result which is not permanent seems -altogether worthy of the Eternal God, the Author of this evolution. - -But if, on the other hand, man is immortal; and if this earth, with -its strange mixture of good and evil, is a suitable place in which -to test and form his character; and if perhaps God wishes hereafter -to be surrounded by men who have stood the test, and have formed -their character in accordance with His Will; then it may lead to a -_permanent_ result. And then its creation would not be such a -hopeless mystery as on the opposite theory; for the perfecting of -immortal beings seems an object worthy even of God. - -Thus if we deny the immortality of man, the whole of evolution -becomes meaningless, and nature is a riddle without a solution. But -if we admit it, there is at least the possibility of a satisfactory -answer. For then, as just said, nature is seen to be only _a means -to an end_--a temporary (though perhaps necessary) means to a -permanent end--the end being to produce _man_ (a free being), and -then to provide a suitable place for his moral training. And this -will enable him, if he wishes, from being a _free_ man, to become -also a _righteous_ man, that is, a man who acts right, though he -might act wrong, and thus to some extent worthy to share in his -Maker's immortality. And we must remember, man could not have been -created righteous, using the word in its strict sense. He might have -been created _perfect_ (like a machine), or _innocent_ (like a -child), but to be _righteous_ requires, as just said, his own -co-operation--his continually choosing to act right, though he might -act wrong. And this of necessity is a slow process, with some -failures. But the end aimed at is a permanent, and therefore perhaps -an adequate, end; and the present world seems exactly suited to -attain this end, as it affords a man boundless opportunities (every -day, if he likes to use them) of acting right, though he might act -wrong. - -We thus seem forced to the conclusion--however strange it may -appear--that the gradual training and perfecting of _man_ is the -only adequate explanation of the world, the real object of its long -evolution. Yet, if he is not _immortal_, this object can never be -attained, for no one reaches moral perfection here; while even if -they did, it would only last for a short time. And we may ask, is it -likely that such a vast scheme should end in failure, or at most in -only a temporary success? Is it not rather probable that if man is -the end of evolution, then God, the Author of evolution, must value -him; and if God values him, He is not likely to let him perish for -ever. In short (as it has been well put), such vast progress from -such small beginnings points to an end proportionately great, and -this involves the immortality of man. On the whole, then, we may say -in the words of Romanes, one of the great champions of evolution, -that 'only by means of this theory of probation is it possible to -give any meaning to the world, _i.e._, any _raison d'être_ of human -existence.'[8] - -[Footnote 8: Thoughts on Religion, 1895, p. 142.] - -(2.) _From his unjust treatment._ - -The second argument is from man's _unjust treatment_ in this world. -For as we saw in the last chapter, God is a Moral Being, able to -distinguish right from wrong; and, as far as we can judge, He is One -Who will always act right Himself. Yet His treatment of men in this -world seems most unjust. Wicked men are allowed to prosper by their -wickedness, good men suffer unjustly, while some men's lives seem to -be nothing but suffering; and how is this to be accounted for? - -There is here again one, and only one, satisfactory explanation, -which is that this life is not the whole of man's existence, but -only a preparation for a _future life_--a short trial for a long -hereafter. And, looked at from this point of view, the most -apparently miserable lives may afford as valuable training, perhaps -more so, than the outwardly happy ones. The temptation to -dishonesty, for example, can be as well resisted by a poor man who -is only tempted to steal sixpence, as by a rich man who is tempted -to embezzle a thousand pounds. - -And if resisting such a temptation helps to form a man's character, -as it certainly does, and hence, perhaps, to fit him for a better -life hereafter, this can be as well done in the one case as in the -other. And the same principle applies universally; even a child has -his temptations, which are very real _to the child_, though they may -seem ridiculous to us. So if this life is intended as a time of -probation in which to form a man's character, we cannot imagine a -better system or one more admirably adapted to the end in view. And -we must remember a man's _character_ is the thing most worth -forming, since (as far as we can judge) it is his only _permanent_ -possession. All else will be surrendered at death, but his character -will last as long as the man himself, and hence perhaps for ever. - -Nor is this all, for these trials and sufferings themselves may be -the very means of adding to man's future happiness. The joy of -having resisted temptation, for instance, would be impossible if men -were never tempted; and the joy of rescuing others from suffering -and sin, and thus perhaps making everlasting friendships, would be -impossible if there were no suffering, and no sin. And the same -applies in other cases. So man's probation in this life, with its -incessant battle against evil, may (for all we know) increase his -future happiness in a way which nothing else could possibly do, and -to an extent of which we can form no conception. No pain or -suffering, then, can be looked upon as useless, and no position in -this world as one to be despised; in short, to anyone who believes -in a future state, life is always worth living. And we may be sure -that in a future state every injustice will be made good, and all -wrongs will be righted. - -(3.) _From his vast capabilities._ - -The third argument is from man's _vast capabilities_. For he does -not seem adapted to this life only, but has aspirations and longings -far beyond it. His powers seem capable of continual and almost -endless development. Nearly all men wish for immortality. This life -does not seem to satisfy them entirely. For instance, men, -especially scientific men, have a longing after knowledge which can -never be fully realised in this world. A man's capacities are thus -out of all proportion to his destiny, if this life is all; and to -many it seems improbable that the Creator should have endowed men -with such needless and useless capacities. - -And this is strongly confirmed by the analogy of nature. For -example, a bird in an egg shows rudimentary organs which cannot be -used as long as it remains in the egg; and this of itself is a proof -that it is intended some day to leave the egg. On the other hand, a -full-grown bird seems to be entirely adapted to its present state, -and not to have any longing after, or capacity for, any higher -state; therefore we may infer that no higher state is intended for -it. And by the same reasoning we may infer that some higher state is -intended for man, as his mental and spiritual nature is not entirely -satisfied by his present life. In short, all animals seem made for -this world alone, and man is the only unsatisfied being in the -universe. - -Moreover, the period of preparation in a man's life seems out of all -proportion to the time prepared for, if death ends all. The -development in a man's moral character often continues till nearly -the close of his life. His character has then reached maturity. But -for what is it matured? Surely not for immediate destruction. Must -not the wise Creator, Who designed everything else with such -marvellous skill, have intended something better for His noblest -creatures than mere boundless capabilities, unsatisfied longings, -and a lifelong preparation all for nothing? - -(4.) _From his inherent belief._ - -The fourth argument is from man's _belief_ in immortality. For such -a belief has existed among men in nearly every age and country, -learned and ignorant, civilised and uncivilised. It was implied by -the pre-historic men who buried food and weapons with their dead, -and it was maintained by such philosophers as Socrates and Plato, -and how are we to account for it? It cannot have arisen from -experience; and the attempts to explain it as due to the desire -which men have for immortality, or to someone occasionally dreaming -that he sees a departed friend, are quite inadequate. Desire is not -conviction, and dreams are notoriously untrustworthy. They might -account for an individual here and there entertaining this belief, -but not for mankind always and everywhere doing so; especially in -face of the apparent contradiction afforded by every grave. - -The belief, then, seems intuitive, and an inherent part of human -nature; and we may ask, is it likely that God should have implanted -such a strange belief in man if it were erroneous? - -These, then, are the four great arguments in favour of man's -immortality--those derived from his unique position; his unjust -treatment; his vast capabilities; and his inherent belief. And with -the doubtful exception of the second, not one of them applies to -animals; so the common objection, that if man is immortal, animals -must be so too, is quite untenable. - -(5.) _Counter-arguments._ - -On the other hand, the great and only important argument _against_ -man's immortality is that his spirit seems to be inseparably -connected with his body. As far as we can judge, it is born with the -body; it often inherits the moral character of its parents, just as -the body inherits bodily diseases; it certainly develops and matures -with the body; and in most cases it seems to gradually decay with -the body; therefore it is inferred the two perish together. - -But this does not follow; since, as said in Chapter IV., it is not -the _same_ body (in the sense of the same material particles) with -which the spirit is united, even in this life. It is united to a -continually changing body, yet it always survives. So it is not -unlikely that it may survive the still greater change at death. -Moreover, it is united to the body as its _master_, not its servant. -It is, as already shown, a _free_ spirit; and it decides to a great -extent what the body shall say, and what it shall do. It thus uses -the body as a means, or instrument, by which to act in the outer -world; and therefore, of course, when the instrument gets out of -order, its actions will become confused, but without implying that -the spirit itself is so. In the same way, if we shut up a clerk in a -telegraph office, as soon as his instruments get out of order, the -messages he sends, which are his only means of communicating with -the outer world, will become confused, and finally cease, but -without implying that there is anything wrong with the clerk -himself. - -And this is confirmed by the fact that instances are known in which -a man's intellect and will have remained quite vigorous all through -a mortal sickness, and up to the very moment of death; so the -gradual decay of the body does not necessarily involve that of the -mind and spirit. While in states which somewhat resemble death, -when, for instance, the body is fast asleep, or rendered unconscious -by an accident, the mind and spirit are often peculiarly active, as -in dreams. Therefore, when the body is really dead, the spirit may -(for all we know) not only survive, but be endowed with still -greater powers. - -On the whole, then, this is not an insuperable difficulty; while the -previous arguments render the idea of a future life _distinctly -probable_. And this has, of course, a most important bearing on our -next question; indeed, it is scarcely too much to say that the -probability of a revelation depends on that of a future life. For if -death ends all, man's existence is so short that a revelation can -scarcely be thought probable; but if he is to live for ever, the -case is very different. - - -(_B._) THE PROBABILITY OF A REVELATION. - -Now (assuming man to be immortal) a revelation, from whichever side -we regard it, appears to be somewhat _probable_. For God is a Being, -Who seems likely to make a revelation; and man is a being exactly -fitted to receive one; so we will consider these points first, and -then the chief difficulties. - -(1.) _From God's character._ - -Now we have already shown that God takes an interest in man's -welfare, being not only beneficent, but _righteous_; and that He -apparently wishes to train and develop man's character, so that he -may be righteous also. And from this we may infer that if a -revelation would benefit man, and thus _help_ him to be righteous -also, it would not be improbable for God to make one. And that the -knowledge given by a revelation might influence him in this way -cannot be denied; for, as a matter of fact, such knowledge, either -real or pretended, has had precisely this effect on millions of men. - -We may also infer from God's methods in nature, which are those of -slow development, that if He made a revelation at all it would be -done _gradually_. At first it would be very simple, and such as -could be transmitted orally. Then when man acquired the art of -writing, and could thus hand it on accurately, a more definite -revelation might be given. And this again might become more and more -perfect, as man himself became more perfect. We obviously do not -know enough to speak with confidence, but still God's character, so -far as we can judge of it, seems to be in favour of His making some -revelation--and that a _progressive_ revelation--to man. - -(2.) _From man's character._ - -Passing on now to man's character, we find that he has been given a -nature exactly fitted to receive a revelation. For religion of some -kind is, and always has been, practically universal; and nearly all -important religions have rested on real or pretended revelations -from God, and have been accepted in consequence. In other words the -nature of man has everywhere led him to seek for, demand, and, if -need be, imagine a revelation from God. Nor is this in any way -surprising, for a thoughtful man cannot help _wishing_ to know why -he is placed in this world; why he is given free will; how he is -meant to use his freedom; and what future, if any, is in store for -him hereafter: in short, what was God's object in creating him. It -seems of all knowledge to be the highest, the noblest, the most -worth knowing. - -And therefore as this result of man's nature was not only brought -about by God, but must have been foreknown, and intended by Him, it -is not improbable that He should satisfy it; especially as it cannot -be satisfied in any other way, for the knowledge being superhuman, -is out of man's own reach. And it may be added, the more we realise -this, and feel that God is _Unknowable_, in the sense that we can -gain no satisfactory knowledge about Him by human science and -reasoning, so much the more likely does it seem that He should give -us such knowledge by revelation. - -And all this is strengthened when we consider man's _unique -position_ to which we have already alluded. For if we admit that the -creation and perfecting of man is the chief object the Creator had -in view for so many thousands of years, it does not seem unlikely -that He might wish to hold some communication with him. In fact, as -the whole of nature shows design or purpose; and as man occupies a -special place in nature; we may fairly conclude that God has some -special purpose in regard to man, and, for all we know, He may have -something special to tell him about it. - -We conclude then that man's character, and the unique position he -occupies on this earth, is a strong argument in favour of his -receiving some revelation from God. - -(3.) _Two difficulties._ - -But now for the other side. There are two chief difficulties. The -first is on the ground of _injustice_; since any revelation, it is -said, would imply a partiality to the men or nation to whom it was -given, and would therefore be unjust to the rest of mankind. But -this is quite untenable, for God's other benefits are not bestowed -impartially. On the contrary, pleasure and pain, good and evil, are -never equally distributed in this world. What seems to be partiality -and favouritism is the rule everywhere, and this without any -apparent merit on the part of the men concerned. Moreover, the -advantages of a revelation may not concern this world only. And all -who believe in a future life are convinced of God's justice, and -that men will only be judged according to the knowledge of His Will -which they possessed, or might have possessed had they chosen, and -not according to any higher standard which was out of their reach. - -The other and more important difficulty is, that if God gave a -revelation at all, it would be absolutely _convincing_. Everything -that God does He does well; and we cannot, it is urged, imagine His -making a revelation to man, and yet doing it so imperfectly as to -leave men in doubt as to whether He had done it or not. For this -would imply that He either could not, or would not, make the -evidence sufficient to ensure conviction, neither of which is -credible. - -Now, though all this seems very probable, a moment's reflection will -show that it is not conclusive; for exactly the same may be said in -regard to the whole of Natural Religion. Is it likely, for instance, -that God should create free and responsible men, and yet give them -such insufficient evidence about it, that while many are fully -convinced, others deny not only their own freedom and responsibility, -but even the existence of the God Who made them? Yet He has done so. -Therefore there is nothing improbable in the evidence for a revelation, -if one were given, being of a similar character. - -Indeed, there is much to be said in favour of its being so, since in -most other matters man is left a free choice. He is often able to -find out how he ought to think and how he ought to act, but he is -not forced to do either. And God may have wished that the same rule -should be followed in regard to a revelation, and that man should be -left free to believe it or not, just as he is left free to act on it -or not, if he does believe it, and just as he is left free to choose -right or wrong in other cases. Therefore we cannot say that no -revelation can come from God unless the evidence for it is -overwhelming. It would doubtless be sufficient to convince a man if -he took the trouble to examine it carefully; only it need not be -such as to compel conviction. What kind of evidence we may expect -will be considered in the next chapter. - -Neither of these difficulties, then, is at all serious; and we are -forced back to the conclusion that, provided man is immortal, a -revelation seems for several reasons to be somewhat probable. To put -it shortly, if God is good and really cares for man's welfare, it -seems unlikely that He should withhold from him that knowledge which -is the highest, the noblest, and the most longed for;--the knowledge -of Himself. While, if man is a free and immortal being, occupying a -unique position in the world, and intended to live for ever, it -seems unlikely that he should be told nothing, and therefore know -nothing, as to why he was created, or what is his future destiny. -Thus when we consider both God's character and man's character, it -seems on the whole to be somewhat _probable_, that God would make a -revelation to man; telling him how he ought to use his freedom in -this world, and possibly what future is in store for him hereafter. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -THAT A MIRACULOUS REVELATION IS CREDIBLE. - -A Divine messenger would probably have credentials. - - (_A._) SUPERHUMAN SIGNS. - - These include superhuman _knowledge_, afterwards verified - (such as prophecy), and superhuman _coincidences_; and - there is nothing incredible in either. - - (_B._) SUPERNATURAL SIGNS, or Miracles. - - These are 'marvels specially worked by God as signs to - confirm a revelation.' This definition is threefold, referring - to their outward appearance, cause, and purpose. - - (1.) _Miracles as marvels_: though they seem to be contrary - to experience, they are not really so, for we have no - experience of the proper kind to refer to. - (2.) _Miracles as special works of God_: they only interfere - with the uniformity of nature in the same way that - human works interfere with it. - (3.) _Miracles as signs_: there is nothing to show that they - are inconsistent with God's Character. - - -We decided in the last chapter that it was somewhat probable for God -to make a revelation to man, that is to say, to certain men, for -them to make known to others. And if so, it is also probable that -these men would have some means of showing that the knowledge had -come from God and not from themselves. In other words, if God sends -a message to man, it is probable that the messenger would have -_credentials_. And this is especially so when we remember that men -have often appeared in the world's history who professed to have a -revelation from God, and have misled mankind in consequence. Is it -not probable, then, that if God really did give a revelation, He -would take care that His true messengers should have credentials -which would distinguish them from all the others? - -These credentials, then, or _signs_, must plainly be such as could -not be imitated by man; and must therefore of necessity be -_superhuman_, if not _supernatural_. So we may divide them into -these two classes; and we have now to consider whether they are -_credible_. By this is meant something more than merely possible; -for the possibility of such signs follows at once from the existence -of God. But are they credible? is there, that is, at least a slight -chance that they would occur? - - -(_A._) SUPERHUMAN SIGNS. - -These include, to begin with, superhuman _knowledge_, which can be -afterwards verified, such as _prophecy_. And there is no difficulty -here, provided we admit a revelation at all. The only possible -objection refers to prophecies regarding human conduct; which it may -be said would interfere with man's freedom. But this is only part of -the more general objection that any foreknowledge on God's part -would interfere with man's freedom, which we have already considered -in Chapter II.; and there is no special difficulty in regard to -prophecies. In every case, as said before, God merely foreknows the -use man will make of his freedom. Therefore the event will not occur -_because_ it was foretold, but rather it was foretold because God -knew that it would occur. - -Superhuman _coincidences_ form another, and very important class of -superhuman signs. In these a man's acts or sayings are confirmed by -natural events _coinciding_ with them in a remarkable manner. For -example, suppose a prophet claimed to have a revelation from God; -and, as a proof of this, invited the people to witness a sacrifice -on a cloudless day. He then killed an animal, and placed it on an -altar of stones, but put no fire under it, and even threw water over -it. Suddenly, however, a thunderstorm arose, and the sacrifice was -struck by lightning. Now the thunderstorm might have arisen and the -lightning might have struck on that particular spot, in strict -accordance with natural laws. Yet the _coincidence_ of this -occurring just when and where the prophet wanted it, would tend -strongly to show that God, Who must have foreknown and designed the -coincidence, meant to confirm what the prophet said. - -Or, to put the argument in other words, the lightning would seem to -have struck the sacrifice _on purpose_; and therefore such events -have been popularly described as _natural forces acting rationally_. -Of course, as a rule, the forces of nature do not act rationally. A -falling meteorite, for instance, does not go a yard out of its way -to kill anyone, or to spare him. Man, on the other hand, does act -rationally. His acts are directed for a purpose, and thus show -design. And, in the events we are considering, the forces of nature -seem also to act with a purpose; and this makes it probable that -the Author of these forces was really acting with this purpose. In -short, the events seem to have been not only _superhuman_, but -_designed_ coincidences. And they present no difficulty whatever -from a scientific point of view, as they are part of the ordinary -course of nature. - -Of course, the value of such coincidences varies greatly according -to whether the event is of a usual or unusual character. In the -latter case, more especially if the event is very unusual or the -coincidence very striking, they are popularly called miracles. And -they may have considerable value, though there is always a slight -chance of the agreement being, as we might say, accidental. - - -(_B._) SUPERNATURAL SIGNS. - -We pass on now to supernatural signs or _Miracles_ in the strict -sense; which we will define as _marvels specially worked by God as -signs to confirm a revelation_. This definition has, of course, been -chosen so as to suit the miracles recorded in the Bible, and it is -really threefold. In the first place, a miracle is described as to -its outward _appearance_. It is a marvel--that is to say, a strange -and unusual event, which we cannot account for, and which thus -attracts attention. Secondly, it is described as to its _cause_. -This marvel is said to have been specially worked by God--that is to -say, by some action on His part different from His usual action in -nature. While, lastly, it is described as to its _purpose_; it is a -marvel worked by God as a sign to confirm a revelation. - -The first of these aspects is expressed in the Old Testament by the -word _wonder_, the second by such phrases as God's _mighty hand_ or -_outstretched arm_, and the third by the word _sign_; all these -terms being often used together. While in the New Testament the -words used are _wonders_, _mighty works_, and _signs_, which again -exactly correspond to these three aspects of the miracles. And it -should be noticed these aspects are not chosen merely to suit the -present argument, since other events can and ought to be looked at -in the same way, not as mere facts, but also with reference to their -alleged cause and purpose. And to show the great importance of this, -we will consider an event from modern history; and select the -well-known example of the Mont Cenis Tunnel. - -Suppose, then, that anyone heard of this as a _marvel_ only, the -cause and purpose being left out of account. Suppose, that is, he -heard that a small straight cavity of uniform size, and several -miles long, had been formed under a range of mountains; and that it -had begun as two cavities, one from each end, which after years of -growth, had exactly met in the middle. He would at once pronounce -the event incredible, for the cavity is quite unlike all natural -cavities. - -But now suppose the next point, as to its _cause_, to be introduced. -It is said to be something more than a natural cavity, and to be the -work of man. All previous difficulties would now vanish, but fresh -ones would arise. For numbers of men must have worked together for -years to excavate such a cavity, and from what we know of human -nature, men will only do this for commercial or profitable ends, and -not for boring useless holes through mountains; so the event is -still practically incredible. - -But now suppose the last point of _purpose_ to be introduced. It is -said that this is not a mere useless hole bored through a mountain; -but a hole bored for a particular purpose; it is, in fact, a railway -tunnel. Then all difficulties would disappear. Of course, whether we -believe the tunnel was actually made depends upon what evidence we -have; but it is clear that when we consider the _cause_ by which, -and the _purpose_ for which, it is said to have been made, there is -nothing incredible about it. - -Now a similar method must be adopted in regard to miracles. They -must not be regarded simply as _marvels_, but as marvels said to -have been brought about by an adequate _cause_, and for a sufficient -_purpose_. And it is just these elements of cause and purpose which -may make the marvels credible. We will consider these points in -turn. - -(1.) _Miracles as marvels._ - -The first aspect of miracles is that of marvels. As such, they are -events which seem to be _contrary to our experience_--contrary, that -is, to what our experience of apparently similar events would lead -us to expect. Suppose, for instance, it were stated that on one -occasion three men were thrown into a furnace, but instead of being -burnt to death they walked about, and in a few minutes came out -alive and unhurt. - -Such a marvel would be contrary to our experience, and that it would -be therefore _very improbable_ is obvious. But is this improbability -sufficient in all cases to make the event incredible, no matter -what testimony there may be in its favour? Hume's argument that it -is sufficient is well known. He says we can only judge of the -probability of anything, whether it be the occurrence of an event, -or the truthfulness of the narrator, by _experience_. And as it is -contrary to experience for miracles to be true, but not contrary to -experience for testimony to be false, the balance of probability -must always be against the miracle. - -But of course this reasoning, if true, must apply to all alleged -events which are contrary to experience; and yet such events have -occurred by the thousand. Let us take a single example. Everyone has -had some experience as to how far it is possible to hear the human -voice distinctly, and till the last half century, the limit has -always been fixed at a few hundred yards. Now, suppose anyone were -told for the first time that it was possible to speak right across -England, he would justly say that it was utterly contrary to -experience. No one, he would think, could possibly speak loud enough -to be heard even twenty miles away. But ought he to add that it was -therefore incredible? - -From this it is clear that there must be some flaw in Hume's -argument; and it is easily discovered. For the argument regards the -event only as a marvel, and _without reference to its cause_. But we -have no right to leave this out of account, nor do we in ordinary -affairs. When anyone first hears of a marvel, he does not merely -compare it with his previous experience, and then come to a -decision; in which case, as Hume supposes, it might be always -against the marvel. But he first inquires how this strange event is -said to have been brought about. For if any cause is stated to have -been at work as to the influence of which he knows nothing, then he -has no experience of the proper kind to appeal to. There is the -testimony in favour of the event as before; and if he disbelieves -it, he does so, not because it is contrary to his experience, but -because he thinks the supposed cause either did not exist, or would -not have had the effect asserted. - -A reference to the previous example will make this quite plain. When -the man first heard of persons talking across England, instead of at -once declaring it incredible, he would, if a reasonable man, inquire -as to the _cause_ of this. He would then be told that a wire was -stretched across England with an instrument called a telephone at -each end. Now, as to the possibility or adequacy of such a -contrivance he might doubt a good deal; but one thing would be quite -clear, that this was a case to which his experience, however large, -did not apply. - -Here, then, is the explanation of Hume's argument. So long as a -marvel, contrary to experience, is regarded _only_ as a marvel, the -probability must be always against its truth. But if we inquire as -to how it was brought about, and find that some _cause_ is said to -have been at work, as to the influence of which we are ignorant, -then the argument is no longer applicable. We have simply no -experience of the proper kind to appeal to. - -Now this is precisely the case with regard to miracles. As marvels -they seem contrary to experience; but they claim to have a special -_cause_, to be specially worked by God--that is to say, by some -action on His part different from His usual action in nature; and of -the influence of this cause we have no experience whatever. We may, -of course, deny its existence or doubt its adequacy; but the -argument, that the event is contrary to experience, vanishes. - -It is clear then that the fact of miracles appearing to be contrary -to experience is no reason for disbelieving _them_, though it might -be a reason for disbelieving other alleged marvels, because they -claim to have a special cause, by which to account for this special -character. We have now to examine whether this special cause really -existed--that is to say, we pass on to the second aspect of the -miracles; our conclusion thus far being that they are credible as -_marvels_, if it be credible that they were _specially worked by -God_. - -(2.) _Miracles as special works of God._ - -Now, any special action on God's part is often thought to present -great difficulties, as interfering with the uniformity of nature. -But, as we shall see, it would only interfere with it in the same -way that human action interferes with it. Neither of them violates -the laws of nature, though both are able to bring about results -which nature of itself could not have brought about. - -In the case of human action this is quite obvious. Suppose, for -example, a clock with an iron pendulum is placed on a table and -keeps perfect time. Suddenly, without anyone touching it, it begins -to gain rapidly, and then, after a short time, goes on as before. -To anyone unacquainted with the cause, this would appear a _marvel_: -and might even be thought incredible, as (assuming the clock to be -properly constructed) it would seem to imply some alteration in the -laws of motion, or the force of gravity. Yet we know a man can -easily produce such a marvel by holding a magnet under the table. -The disturbing cause, it will be noticed, was not really the magnet, -which always acts according to law; nor the hand which held it; but -the action of the _human will_ on matter. This took place in the -man's brain, and enabled him to move first his hand, and then the -magnet. Thus we may say the marvel was produced by _natural means -supernaturally applied_; for the magnet was undoubtedly a natural -means, yet nature of itself would never have used it in the way -described. It required something _above_ nature (something -_super_-natural) and this was the free will of man. - -Now, miracles claim to have been produced in a somewhat similar, -though to us unknown, manner by the action of God's Will on matter, -that is to say, by natural means supernaturally applied; and, if so, -they are certainly credible, under this head. For we know that God -has the power of acting on matter, and that He used it once in -creating the universe, so He might use it again if He thought fit. - -Moreover, God's knowledge of the laws of nature is complete, while -man's is only partial. As, then, man, with his limited power over -nature and partial knowledge of its laws, can produce marvels so -unlike nature's ordinary course (a steam engine, for instance), yet -without violating any of its laws; still more can God, Who has -complete power over nature, and complete knowledge of its laws. For -to deny this would be to deny to God the power which we concede to -man; and which we must remember, God Himself has given to man. And -this would lead to the strange conclusion that God has enabled man -to do what He cannot do Himself. No doubt we cannot imagine _how_ -God can exert His Will over matter, but neither can we imagine how -we can do it ourselves. The difficulty is as great in the one case -as in the other. - -From this it is clear that miracles need not violate natural laws. -And though at first one might be inclined to dispute this with -regard to particular miracles; the statement is quite correct, -provided we make due allowance for our own ignorance. Take, for -example, the supposed case of the men in the furnace. We certainly -do not know how their bodies were kept cool, but we cannot say it -was impossible. For extreme heat, and even _extreme_ cold, may be -very close together, as is shown by the well-known experiment of -freezing mercury inside a red-hot crucible. As a mere marvel this is -quite as wonderful as the men in the furnace; and an ignorant man -would probably pronounce both to be equally incredible. - -Or, to take another example, suppose it were said that on one -occasion a few loaves of bread were miraculously increased so as to -feed some thousands of persons: could we say that this must have -violated natural laws? Certainly not, for bread is composed of -carbon, and other elements, which were in abundance all round. And -though we only know one way of forming them into bread, which is by -means of a living plant, we cannot say that this is the only method. -Indeed, there is nothing incredible in substances like bread being -made artificially some day. Of course in all marvels produced by -_man_, we know the special cause at work, but this does not justify -us in saying that in a miracle, merely because we do not know it, -the laws of nature must be violated. - -Moreover there is much to be said in favour of what is usually -called God's _immanence_ in nature, but which would perhaps be -better described as _nature's immanence in God_.[9] This means that -all natural forces are due to the present and immediate action of -God's Will; and if it is correct, it greatly lessens the difficulty -as to miracles. For then there would be no interference with nature -at all, leave alone violating its laws, God would be working there -all the time, only in a miracle He would not be working in exactly -the same way as in ordinary events. - -[Footnote 9: Acts 17. 28; Col. 1. 17.] - -But in any case there is, as we have shown, nothing incredible in -the way in which miracles are said to be _caused_, provided it is -credible that God should wish to use His power over nature in the -assumed manner; for natural forces are anyhow His servants, not His -masters. And this brings us to the third aspect of the miracles; for -whether God would wish to act in a certain way depends of course on -what _purpose_ He had in doing so. - -(3.) _Miracles as signs._ - -Now the purpose for which miracles are said to be worked is as -_signs to confirm a revelation_. Therefore, since we have already -shown that it is somewhat probable that God would make a revelation, -we have now only to inquire whether miracles are suitable means for -confirming it. And they appear to be the most suitable means -possible; for they would both attract men's attention to the -revelation, and also convince them of its superhuman character; -which are precisely the two points required. - -It may still be objected, however, that God's character, as shown by -nature, is _Unchangeable_; and therefore it is most improbable that -He would at times act in a special manner with regard to natural -events. And the more nature is studied the stronger does this -objection appear; since there are thousands of cases, such as storms -and earthquakes, when it seems to us that a slight interference with -nature would be most beneficial to man, yet it never occurs. Or the -objection may be otherwise expressed by saying that a miracle would -reflect on either the Wisdom or the Power of God; since, if -All-Wise, He would have foreseen the occasion, and if All-Powerful, -He would have provided for it; so any subsequent interference with -nature is something like having to remedy a fault. - -This is no doubt the most serious objection to miracles, but it is -by no means insuperable. For, to begin with, God is a _Free Being_, -Who does not always act the same (Chapter I.). And when we turn to -the only other free being we know of, which is man himself, what do -we find? A man may, as a rule, act uniformly, yet on some special -occasion, and for some special reason, he may, and often does, act -differently; and why should not God do the same? Indeed the only -changelessness in a man which we could admire, would be that of -_moral character_, always and invariably acting right. And for all -we know the changelessness of God may be only of such a kind, and -this certainly would not prevent Him from acting in some special -manner, in order to obtain some special purpose. - -Secondly, in the case before us, it is even probable that He would -do so, since the chief object of the miracles could not have been -obtained by the ordinary course of nature, though their immediate -effects might have been. For example, instead of healing men -miraculously, they might be healed naturally; but then there would -be no evidence that the healer was sent by God, and was speaking in -His name. In short, the messenger would be without _credentials_; -and, as we have already shown, this seems unlikely. - -Thirdly, though miracles do not show God's changelessness in the -same manner as the unchanging course of nature, they are -not inconsistent with it. For no one supposes them to be -_after-thoughts_ with God, but to have been planned from the very -beginning. And if God always intended to make a revelation to man, -and always intended that when He did so, He would confirm it by -miracles, they would involve no inconsistency or change on His part. - -Fourthly, there may be some _other_ attributes of God which miracles -show, and which the ordinary course of nature does not; such as His -superiority over nature itself on the one hand, and the interest He -takes in man on the other. One object of a revelation might be to -convince man that though God was the Ruler of the Universe, He yet -cared for man's happiness and valued his affections. And how could -such a revelation _as this_, be better confirmed than by an -(apparent) interference with nature for the benefit of man. For this -would show, as nothing else could show, both that there was a Being -_above_ nature, and that He cared for man _more_ than He cared for -nature. - -And it entirely agrees with what we decided in the last chapter, -that the whole of nature seems to be only a means to an end, the end -being the moral training of man, enabling, that is, a free man to -become a _righteous_ man. And if so, it is out of the question to -think that _in order to further this end_--the very end for which -nature itself exists--God might not, if He thought fit, interfere -with the course of nature. We may therefore answer the objection in -one sentence, God is _All-Good_, as well as All-Wise, and -All-Powerful; and His Goodness might induce Him to use miracles, -though by His Wisdom and Power He might have dispensed with them. - -We may now sum up the present argument. We showed that miracles are -credible both as _marvels_ and as _special works of God_, if it be -credible that they were brought about as _signs to confirm a -revelation_. And we have now shown that, supposing God to make a -revelation, which we have already admitted, there is nothing -inconsistent with His character as far as we know it, and therefore -nothing in the slightest degree incredible, in His using such signs, -as one of the means of confirming its truth. On the whole, then, we -conclude that a Miraculous Revelation is certainly _credible_. -Whether one has ever been made will be discussed in the following -chapters. - - - - -PART II. - -_THE JEWISH RELIGION._ - - CHAP. VIII. THAT THE ACCOUNT OF THE CREATION WAS DIVINELY REVEALED. - " IX. THAT ITS ORIGIN WAS CONFIRMED BY MIRACLES. - " X. THAT ITS HISTORY WAS CONFIRMED BY MIRACLES. - " XI. THAT ITS HISTORY WAS ALSO CONFIRMED BY PROPHECIES. - " XII. THAT THE JEWISH RELIGION IS PROBABLY TRUE. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -THAT THE ACCOUNT OF THE CREATION WAS DIVINELY REVEALED. - - (_A._) ITS GENERAL PRINCIPLES. - - (1.) Its pure Monotheism; admittedly true. - (2.) Its seven days need not be taken literally. - (3.) Its gradual development; admittedly true. - - (_B._) ITS DETAILED ORDER. - - (1.) The earliest state of the earth. - (2.) Light. - (3.) The Firmament. - (4.) Dry Land. - (5.) Vegetation. - (6.) The Sun and Moon. - (7.) Fishes and Birds. - (8.) Land Animals. - (9.) Man. - - (_C._) CONCLUSION. - - The accuracy of the narrative points to its having been - Divinely revealed. - - -Having decided in the previous chapters on the Existence of God, and -that it was credible that He might make a miraculous Revelation to -man; we pass on now to the _Jewish Religion_, which (as well as the -Christian) actually claims to be such a Revelation. - -And the first argument we have to consider in its favour is that -afforded by the opening chapter of Genesis. It is urged that this -account of the Creation must have been _Divinely revealed_, since -it contains a substantially correct account of events which could -not have been otherwise known at the time. What then we have to -examine is, whether this narrative is nearer the truth, as we now -know it from geology and other sciences, than could have been the -case, if written by a man ignorant of these sciences. And the -ancient narratives of Babylonia, India, Persia, and elsewhere, show -how far from the truth mere human conjecture on such a subject is -likely to be. - -While if we admit a revelation at all, there is nothing improbable -in some account of the creation of the world having been revealed to -man very early in his history, and being accurately preserved by the -Jews, while only distorted versions of it occur among other nations. -Indeed considering the common custom among ancient nations of -worshipping the heavenly bodies, animals, etc., no subject could -have been more suited for a first revelation than the statement in -simple language that all these were created by one supreme God. We -will now consider the _general principles_ of the narrative, and -then its _detailed order_. - - -(_A._) ITS GENERAL PRINCIPLES. - -The most important of these are its pure Monotheism, its seven days, -and its gradual development, each of which we will notice in turn. - -(1.) _Its pure Monotheism._ - -This alone renders it almost, if not quite, unique among similar -narratives. According to the writer, the whole universe, including -sun, moon, and stars, was all due to _one_ God. And this is obvious -enough now, but it was not so when the narrative was written. For -other ancient accounts are either _Pantheistic_, and confuse God -with the universe; or _Dualistic_, and assume two eternal principles -of good and evil; or _Polytheistic_, and make the universe the work -of several gods. The Jewish writer, on the other hand, has kept -clear of all these theories; and he is admittedly right and all the -others wrong. - -(2.) _Its seven days._ - -Next as to the seven days. Now it is generally assumed, doubtless -from their being referred to in the Fourth Commandment, that the -writer intended these _days_ to be ordinary days of twenty-four -hours each, but this is at least doubtful. For ordinary days depend -on the _sun_, and would therefore have been impossible before the -formation of the sun on the _fourth_ day; as the writer himself -implies, when he says that the division of time into days and years -was due to the sun. - -Then there is the difficulty as to the _seventh_ day, when God -rested from all His work. This, it will be remembered had no close, -or _evening_, and it is implied that it has continued ever since. -For if God only rested for twenty-four hours, and then set to work -again it would not have been a rest from _all_ His work. But in this -case, the seventh day would represent a long period of time, and if -so the other days would probably do the same. Moreover the writer, -or compiler, of this very narrative, after describing the creation -in six days, says it all occurred in _one_ day,[10] so he could -scarcely have thought the days to be literal. - -[Footnote 10: Gen. 2. 4.] - -There are thus great difficulties from the narrative itself in -taking the word _day_ in its ordinary sense; and it seems better to -consider it (like so many terms in the Bible) as a human analogy -applied to God. Then God's _days_ must be understood in the same way -as God's _eyes_ or God's _hands_; and this removes all difficulties. - -None of these terms are of course literally true, but they represent -the truth _to man_ in such a way that he can to some extent -understand it. For example, the phrase that God gained the victory -_by His own right hand_ clearly means that He gained it not with the -assistance of others, or with the help of weapons, but simply by His -own unaided inherent strength. It was such a victory as might _in a -man_ be described as gained by his own right hand. And the same may -be said of the passage, _The eyes of the Lord are over the -righteous, and His ears are open unto their prayers_, and many -others which occur in the Bible. The terms hands, eyes, and ears, -when applied to God, are thus human analogies, which must not be -taken literally. - -And in one passage at least the word _day_ is used in a similar -sense; for we read "Hast thou eyes of flesh or seest thou as man -seeth? Are thy days as the days of man, or thy years as man's -days?"[11] Here it will be noticed _days_ and _years_ are applied to -God in precisely the same manner as _eyes_ and _seeing_. - -[Footnote 11: Job 10. 4, 5.] - -Moreover similar terms occur all through the present narrative. Even -the simple words _God said_ cannot be taken literally, for there was -no one to speak to. They must be meant in the sense that God -_thought_, or that God _willed_. And we have no more right to -suppose the days to be literal days than to suppose that God -literally spoke. What we are to suppose in the one case is that -God--the Almighty One, for whom nothing is too hard--created all -things in such a way as might _to man_ be best represented by a -simple word of command. And what we are to suppose in the other -case, is that God--the Eternal One, to whom a thousand years are but -as yesterday--created all things in such periods of time as might -_to man_ be best represented by six days. Vast as the universe was, -man was to regard it as being to God no more than a week's work to -himself. In short, the time of creation, however long in itself, was -utterly insignificant in its relation to God; to _Him_ each stage -was a mere day. - -And this it may be added, is not a purely modern theory, made to -reconcile the narrative with science; for the Greek Jew, Philo, born -about B.C. 20, who knew nothing of geology, ridicules the idea of -the days of Genesis being literal, or representing any definite -periods of time.[12] - -[Footnote 12: Works of Philo Judæus, First book of Allegories of the -Sacred Laws, Yonge's translation, 1854, vol. i., p. 52.] - -(3.) _Its gradual development._ - -Next, it must be noticed that, according to Genesis, God did not -create a perfect world all at once, but slowly built it up step by -step. At first the earth was waste and void, and only after it had -passed through several stages did it become fully inhabited. -Moreover, at every step (with two exceptions, the firmament and -man, noticed later on), God examined the work and pronounced it -_good_. He seems thus to have discerned a beauty and excellence in -each stage; though it was not till the close of the whole work that -He was completely satisfied, and pronounced it all _very_ good. - -And the narrative appears to be quite correct. For geology shows -that the formation of the earth, with its various inhabitants, was a -_gradual_ process, not accomplished all at once, but slowly step by -step, through successive ages. And it also shows that these ages -were of such magnitude and importance that we cannot regard them as -mere preparations for man's coming, but as having a beauty and -excellence of their own, so that they well deserved to be called -_good_. But we may ask, how did the writer of Genesis know all this? - -And then as to the way in which this development was brought about. -According to Genesis, each stage was due to what we may call a -_Special Divine force_, represented by a word of command from God. -And this also seems correct, for we cannot otherwise account for the -first appearance of the various groups, such as plants, animals, and -men. It is not disputed that these various stages may have been -evolved from the previous ones, _e.g._, the living from the -not-living, which the narrative itself suggests in the words, _Let -the earth put forth grass_; and also at its close, when it speaks of -_the generations_ of the heaven and of the earth; which implies some -kind of organic descent, or evolution. Indeed the common expression -that God _made_, is probably used in the sense of _evolved_; since -the same word is employed in ver. II of fruit-trees _making_ fruit -(translated _bearing_ or _yielding_ fruit); yet we know they do not -_make_ fruit suddenly out of nothing, but slowly produce it. - -What is disputed is, that this evolution took place merely under the -influence of natural development, and without the additional -influence of a new Divine force. And considering that all attempts -to effect a similar transition _now_ have failed completely, it is -not unreasonable to suppose that there was some other and special -Cause at work _then_. Nor is it easy to see how some of the changes -could have been otherwise produced. Take, for instance, this very -subject of the origin of life. As far as we know, the only natural -mode in which life can begin is from a living parent, yet there was -a time when there were no living parents on this earth. How, then, -could it have originated, except by some process other than natural, -_i.e._, supernatural? Or, again, to take another instance, when the -first _free being_, whether animal or man, appeared on this planet, -a force totally different from all natural forces was introduced, -and one which could not have been derived from them alone. - -And then there is another, and very interesting point, to notice. It -is that according to Genesis, these steps were not all of equal -importance. For while it describes most of them by the word _made_, -which, as just said, seems to mean here _evolved_; on three -occasions, and only three, it uses the word _create_. These refer to -the origin of the _universe_, of _animal life_ (fishes and birds), -and of _man_. And this is very significant, when we remember that -these correspond to the beginning of _matter_, _mind_, and -_spirit_; and are therefore (as said in Chapter IV.) just the three -places where something altogether _new_ was introduced; which could -not, as far as we can see, have been evolved from anything else. And -this double method of producing, partly by _creating_, and partly by -_making_ or evolving, is again referred to at the close of the -narrative, where we read that God rested from all His work, which He -had _created and made_. So much for the general _principles_ of the -narrative, we pass on now to its detailed _order_. - - -(_B._) ITS DETAILED ORDER. - -It will be remembered that in Genesis, after describing the earliest -state of the earth, there are eight stages in its development; two -of which occurred on the third, and two on the sixth, day. We have -thus altogether nine subjects to examine. - -(1.) _The earliest state of the earth._ - -Now according to Genesis, the earth was at first _waste and void_ -and in _darkness_, and apparently surrounded by _the waters_. And if -we adopt the usual nebula theory, and refer this to the first period -after it became a separate planet, and had cooled so as not to give -out any light itself, these statements seem quite correct. For we -know from geology that the earth was then waste and void as far as -any form of life was concerned, while it was probably surrounded by -a dense mass of clouds and vapours sufficient to produce darkness. -Genesis then starts from the right starting-point, but again we must -ask, how did the writer know this? - -(2.) _Light._ - -The first step in the development of the earth was, we are told, the -introduction of _light_. That this is what Genesis means seems -plain, for the _light_ must refer to the _darkness_ of the previous -verse, and that referred to the _earth_. As to whether light -previously existed in other parts of the universe, Genesis says -nothing, it is only concerned with this earth. And in the -development of this earth, _light_ (which in nature always includes -_heat_) must obviously have come first. For on it depend the changes -in temperature, which lead to the formation of winds, clouds, and -rain; while it also supplies the physical power that is necessary -for the life of plants and animals; so in placing _light_ as the -first step, Genesis is certainly correct. Of course, the _source_ of -light at this early period was the remainder of the nebula from -which our planet was thrown off. It was thus spread over an immense -space, instead of being concentrated like that of our present sun; -and probably only reached the earth through a partial clearing of -the clouds just alluded to. - -(3.) _The firmament._ - -The next step was separating the waters _above_ (_i.e._, these dense -clouds) from the waters _below_ which are stated to be the seas (v. -9-10) and forming between them a firmament or _expanse_ (see -margin), that is to say, the _air_. The idea that the writer thought -this expanse meant a solid plane holding up the waters above -(because it is perhaps derived from a word meaning firm or solid) is -scarcely tenable. For the firmament was called _heaven_, and the -upper waters, above this _heaven_, must mean the sources from which -the _rain_ usually comes, since it is called _rain from heaven_.[13] -And these sources are easily seen to be _clouds_; and no one could -have thought that a _solid_ firmament was between the clouds, and -the seas. - -[Footnote 13: Deut. 11. 11.] - -Moreover this same word _heaven_ (though used in various senses) is -translated _air_ later on in this very narrative when it speaks of -fowls of the _air_ (verses 26-28, 30). And it also occurs in other -passages, in some of which it cannot possibly mean anything but the -air, _e.g._, 'any winged fowl that flieth in the _heaven_,' and 'the -way of an eagle in the _air_,'[14] which is an additional reason for -thinking that it means the air here. - -[Footnote 14: Deut. 4. 17; Prov. 30. 19.] - -And the omission, before noticed, to say that God saw that the -firmament was _good_, is quite natural, if this means only the air, -_i.e._, the space between the clouds and the seas; just as an -artist, though he might examine his pictures to see that they were -_good_, would not examine the spaces between them. But it is -difficult to account for, if it means a _solid_ firmament, which -would seem to require God's approval like everything else. - -On the other side, we have the expression about opening the -_windows_ of heaven when it rained at the time of the Flood,[15] -which is sometimes thought to imply openings in a solid firmament. -But it need not be taken literally, any more than that about the -_doors_ of the sea;[16] especially as in another place the _heavens -dropping water_ is explained as meaning that the clouds dropped -it.[17] And since God promised that in future when a _cloud_ was -seen it should not cause another _flood_,[18] it is clear that the -flood was thought to have come from the clouds, and not from any -openings in a solid reservoir in the sky. - -[Footnote 15: Gen. 7. 11; 2 Kings 7. 2; Mal. 3. 10.] - -[Footnote 16: Job 38. 8-11.] - -[Footnote 17: Judges 5. 4 (R.V.).] - -[Footnote 18: Gen. 9. 14.] - -There is also the passage about the sun and moon being _set in the -firmament_. But the writer cannot have meant they were _fastened_ to -the firmament, since the moon keeps changing its position relatively -to the sun, just as a rainbow often does in regard to the cloud in -which it is also said to be _set_.[19] Of course their being in the -firmament at all, is not correct if this means only the air. But the -word may be used here in a wider sense, like the English word -_heaven_, to include both the air, and the space beyond. For we -speak of the clouds of heaven, and the stars of heaven, and in -neither case with any idea of their being _heaved up_, which is said -to be the literal meaning of the word. And in its primary sense, as -we have shown, the firmament or _expanse_ between the upper and -lower waters (the clouds and the seas) must mean the _air_. And the -order in which this is placed after light, and before plants and -animals is obviously correct. - -[Footnote 19: Gen. 9. 13.] - -(4.) _Dry land._ - -We now come to an important point, the appearance of _dry land_. -According to Genesis, there was not always dry land on the earth; -the whole of it was originally covered by the waters. And science -shows that this was probably the case; the earth being at first -surrounded by watery vapours, which gradually condensed and formed a -kind of universal ocean. And then, when the surface became -irregular, through its contracting and crumpling up, the water would -collect in the hollows, forming seas, and dry land would appear -elsewhere. But how was it possible for the writer of Genesis to know -all this? There is nothing in the present aspect of nature to -suggest that there was once a time when there was no _dry land_; and -if it was a guess on his part, it was, to say the least, a very -remarkable one. - -(5.) _Vegetation._ - -We next come to vegetation; and it is placed in exactly its right -position. For it requires four things: _soil_, _air_, _water_, and -_light_ including heat; and these were the four things which then -existed. The narrative, it will be noticed, speaks of three groups, -_grass_, _herbs_, and _fruit-trees_; and it seems to imply that they -appeared at the same time. But since its general plan is that of a -series of events, the other view, that they appeared successively, -is at least tenable. - -There is, however, this difficulty. None of these groups were -complete before the following periods. Some plants, for instance -(including both herbs and fruit-trees), appeared long after the -commencement of fishes and birds, and similarly some fishes and -birds after the commencement of land-animals. But the difficulty is -due to the fact that the classes _overlap_ to a large extent. And -the order given in Genesis is nearer the truth than any other would -be. Had the writer, for example, placed them plants, animals, birds, -fishes; he would have been quite wrong. As it is, by placing them -plants, fishes, birds, animals, he is as near the truth as he can -be, if classes which really overlap have to be arranged in a -consecutive narrative. - -(6.) _The sun and moon._ - -We next come to the formation (that is the _making_, or evolving) of -the sun and moon. The stars are also mentioned, but it is not said -that they were made on the fourth day, and they are not alluded to -in the opening command. Now, this alleged formation of the sun -_after_ that of light is certainly the most striking point in the -narrative, and was long thought to be a difficulty. But science has -now shown that it is correct. However strange we may think it, light -did undoubtedly exist long before the sun. In other words, the -original nebula of our solar system was luminous, and lighted the -earth, long before it contracted into a body with a definite -outline, and producing such an intense and concentrated light, as -could be called a sun. And since the earth would cool much quicker -than the large nebula from which it was thrown off, vegetation might -commence here before the nebula had become a sun, though this latter -point is doubtful. - -Two objections have now to be noticed. The first refers to the -_moon_, which must have been thrown off from the earth long before -the dry land and vegetation appeared; and being so small, would have -consolidated sooner. But when considered only as _lights_, as they -are in the narrative, it is quite correct to place the moon with -the sun; since moonlight is merely reflected sunlight, and must -obviously have commenced at the same time. The other objection is, -that according to Genesis, the earth seems to be the centre of -everything, and even the sun exists solely for the sake of lighting -the earth. But (as before pointed out) the narrative is only -concerned with this earth; and while we know that sunlight is of use -to the inhabitants of our planet, we do not know that it serves any -other useful purpose. - -These, however, are but minor matters; the important point, as -before said, is that Genesis places the formation of the sun _after_ -that of light. This must have appeared when it was written, and for -thousands of years afterwards, an obvious absurdity, since everyone -could see that the sun was the source of light. We now know that it -is correct. But how could the writer have known it, unless it had -been divinely revealed? - -(7.) _Fishes and birds._ - -We next come to fishes and birds, which formed the commencement of -animal life, and thus involved the beginning of _mind_ in some form; -so Genesis (as before said) appropriately uses the word _create_ in -regard to them. It is not clear whether the narrative means that -they appeared at the same time, or successively, though here, as in -other cases, the latter is the more probable. And science entirely -agrees in thus placing fishes before birds and both of these after -plants. This latter point indeed must be obvious to every -naturalist, since the food of all animals is derived, either -directly or indirectly, from the vegetable world. - -And Genesis is equally correct in emphasising the great abundance of -_marine_ life at this period--the waters were to _swarm with swarms -of living creatures_ (R.V. Margin), and also in specially alluding -to the great _sea-monsters_ (wrongly translated _whales_ in A.V.), -since these huge saurians were a striking feature of the time. The -Hebrew word is said to mean _elongated_ or stretched-out creatures, -and as several of them were over 50 feet long, no more suitable term -can be imagined. But again we must ask how did the writer know that -such creatures were ever plentiful enough, or important enough, to -deserve this special mention? - -What are called _invertebrate_ animals, such as insects, and -shell-fish, do not seem to be included in the narrative. But it -never claims to describe everything that was created; and its -extreme brevity, combined with the insignificance of these -creatures, may well account for their being omitted. - -(8.) _Land animals._ - -We next come to land animals, which we are told the earth was to -_bring forth_. As however it is said in the next verse that God -_made_ (or evolved) these creatures, this need not mean that they -were produced directly from the earth, as in the case of plants. And -the position in which they are placed, after fishes and birds and -before man, is again correct. It is true that a few animals such as -kangaroos, seem to have appeared as early as birds, but land animals -as a whole undoubtedly succeeded them. Three classes are mentioned, -_beasts of the earth_, _cattle_, and _creeping things_, probably -small animals, since another Hebrew word is used for them, later -on, which is said elsewhere to include weasels and mice.[20] - -[Footnote 20: Gen. 7. 21; Lev. 11. 29.] - -(9.) _Man._ - -Last of all we come to the creation of man. Four points have to be -noticed here. The first refers to the _time_ of man's appearance, -which everyone now admits was not till towards the close of the -Tertiary or most recent group of strata; so Genesis is quite correct -in placing him last of all. As to the actual date, it says nothing; -for its chronology only leads back to the creation of _Adam_ in -chapter 2, and not to that of the _human race_ (male and female) in -chapter 1. And it is implied in several places, that there were men -before Adam[21] and this was in consequence maintained by some -writers long before geology was thought of.[22] We need not -therefore discuss the difficulties connected with the story of Adam -and Eve, as to which the present writer has never seen a -satisfactory explanation. - -[Footnote 21: Gen. 4. 13-17, 26; 6. 2-4.] - -[Footnote 22: _E.g._, Peyreyrius, A.D. 1655, quoted in the Speaker's -Commentary.] - -Secondly, the creation of man is represented as of an altogether -_higher order_, than any of the previous ones, since God did not -say, "Let the earth bring forth a thinking animal" or anything of -that kind, but '_Let us make man_.' And this also is quite correct, -for man, as we know (Chapter IV.) has a _free will_, which makes him -a personal being, and therefore far above everything else on this -planet. - -And when we consider the vast possibilities, involved in the -creation of such a being,--able to act right or wrong, and -therefore able, if he wishes, to act in opposition to the will of -his Maker, thus bringing sin into the world with all its consequent -miseries,--it seems only suitable that such a momentous step should -have been taken with apparent deliberation and in a manner different -from all the others. - -And it explains why no such expression as _after its kind_, which is -so frequently used of plants and animals, is ever applied to man; -for he is not one of a kind in the same sense. Each man is _unique_, -a separate personal being, distinct from all else in the world, and -not (like a tree for instance) merely one example of a certain way -in which molecules may be grouped. - -It also explains why man (unlike plants, animals, etc.) is not said -to have been created _good_. For goodness in a free being must -include moral goodness, or _righteousness_; and, as explained in -Chapter VI., man could not have been _created_ righteous. He might -have been created _perfect_, like a machine, or _innocent_, like a -child, but to be _righteous_ requires his own co-operation, his -freely choosing to act right, though he might act wrong. No doubt he -was made in a condition perfectly suited for the _exercise_ of his -free choice; but this seems included in God's final approval of the -whole creation that it was all _very good_. - -Thirdly we are told that man (and man alone) was created _in the -image of God_. And once more the narrative is quite correct; for -that which distinguishes man from the rest of creation is his _free -will_, to which we have just alluded. And that which distinguishes -God's action from all natural forces is also His _freedom_, -(Chapter I.). So it is perfectly true to say that man was created -_in the image of God_, since the special attribute which separates -him from all else on this planet is precisely the attribute of God -Himself. - -And here we may notice in passing, that though God intended man to -be both in His image and _likeness_; He only created him in His -_image_ (vv. 26, 27). And the reason is probably that while image -means resemblance in _nature_ (possessing free will, etc.), likeness -means resemblance in _character_[23] (always acting right). -Therefore, of course, though God wished man to be both in His image -and likeness, He could only create him in His _image_; the other -point, that of _likeness_ in character, depending (as just said) on -the free will of the man himself. - -[Footnote 23: The Hebrew word appears to be sometimes used in this -sense. _E.g._, Ps. 58. 4; Isa. 13. 4. In one brief reference in Gen. -5. 1-2, when speaking of Adam, _likeness_ is used where we should -have expected _image_; though even here it is not said that man was -_created_ in God's likeness, but merely that he was so _made_.] - -The fourth, and last point is that though the writer assigns to man -this unique position, he does not give him, as we might have -expected, a _day_ to himself, but _connects him with land animals_, -as both appearing on the sixth day. And this also seems correct, for -in spite of his immense superiority, man, in his physical nature, is -closely connected with animals. Therefore the writer appropriately -uses both words, _made_ and _created_, in regard to him. The former -shows that in one respect (as to his body) he was evolved like the -rest of nature; the latter, that in another respect (as to his -spirit) he was essentially distinct. - - -(_C._) CONCLUSION. - -We have now discussed the narrative at some length, and (omitting -details) it shows three great periods of life. Each of these has a -leading characteristic; that of the third day being vegetation; that -of the fifth day fishes and birds, special mention being made of -great sea-monsters; and that of the sixth day land animals, and at -its close man. And though these groups _overlap_ to a large extent, -yet speaking broadly, the three periods in Geology have much the -same characteristics. The Primary is distinguished by its vegetation -(_e.g._, the coal beds); the Secondary by its saurians, or great -sea-monsters; and the Tertiary by its land animals, and at its close -(now often called the Quaternary) by man. The harmony between the -two is, to say the least, remarkable. - -And the theory of Evolution which like geology, was unknown when the -narrative was written, also supports it, as has been admitted by -some of its leading exponents. Thus Romanes once said, and as if the -fact was undisputed, 'The order in which the flora and fauna are -said, by the Mosaic account, to have appeared upon the earth -corresponds with that which the theory of Evolution requires, and -the evidence of geology proves.'[24] We decide, then, that the order -of creation, as given in Genesis, is in most cases certainly, and in -all cases probably, correct. - -[Footnote 24: _Nature_, 11th August, 1881.] - -And this is plainly of the utmost importance, for the points of -agreement between Genesis and science are far too many, and far too -unlikely to be due to accident. They are far too many; for the -chance against eight events being put down in their correct order by -guesswork is 40,319 to 1. And they are far too unlikely; for what -could have induced an ignorant man to say that light came before the -sun, or that the earth once existed without any dry land? - -Moreover, the general principles of the narrative, especially its -pure Monotheism and its gradual development, are very strongly in -its favour. And so are some individual points, such as the idea of -creation, in its strict sense, being limited to matter, mind, and -spirit. While our admiration for it is still further increased by -its extreme conciseness and simplicity. Seldom, indeed, has such a -mass of information been condensed into as few lines; and seldom has -such a difficult subject been treated so accurately yet in such -simple and popular language. - -Now what conclusion can be drawn from all this? There seem to be -only two alternatives: either the writer, whoever he was, knew as -much about science as we do, or else the knowledge was revealed to -him by God. And if we admit a revelation at all, the latter -certainly seems the less improbable. And this, it may be added, was -the opinion of the great geologist Dana, who said (after carefully -considering the subject) that the coincidences between the -narrative, and the history of the earth as derived from nature, were -such as to imply its Divine origin.[25] We therefore conclude that -this account of the creation was _Divinely revealed_. - -[Footnote 25: Bibliotheca Sacra, April, 1885, p. 224.] - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -THAT ITS ORIGIN WAS CONFIRMED BY MIRACLES. - -Importance of the Pentateuch, as the only record of the origin of -the Jewish Religion. - - (_A._) ITS EGYPTIAN REFERENCES. - - These are very strongly in favour of its early date; - - (1.) In the history of Joseph. - (2.) In the history of Moses. - (3.) In the laws and addresses. - - (_B._) ITS LAWS. - - These are also in favour of its early date: - - (1.) The subjects dealt with. - (2.) Their connection with the history. - (3.) Their wording. - - (_C._) THE THEORY OF A LATE-DATE. - - There are four chief arguments in favour of this, but they - are not at all convincing: - - (1.) The language of the Pentateuch. - (2.) Its composite character. - (3.) Its laws being unknown in later times. - (4.) The finding of Deuteronomy. - - (_D._) CONCLUSION. - - The Pentateuch was probably written, as it claims to be, - by Moses; and we must therefore admit the miracles - of the Exodus. - - -We pass on now to the _origin_ of the Jewish Religion--that is to -say, the events connected with the Exodus from Egypt. And as the -only account we have of these is contained in the _Pentateuch_, we -must examine this book carefully. Is it a trustworthy, and, on the -whole, accurate account of the events which it records? And this -depends chiefly on its _date_. Is it a _contemporary_ document, -written by, or in the time of, Moses? And modern discoveries have at -least shown that it may be so. For Egypt was then in such a -civilised state, that it is practically certain that Moses, and the -other leaders of Israel, could have written had they chosen. And as -they somehow or other brought the people out of Egypt, it is -extremely probable that they would have recorded it. But did they, -and do we possess this record in the Pentateuch? - -This is the question we have to decide; and we will first consider -the _Egyptian references_ in the Pentateuch, and then its _Laws_, -both of which are very strongly in favour of an early date. Then we -will see what can be said for the opposite theory, or that of a -_late-date_; and lastly, the _conclusion_ to be drawn from admitting -its genuineness. - - -(_A._) ITS EGYPTIAN REFERENCES. - -Now a considerable part of the Pentateuch deals with Egyptian -matters, and it appears to be written with correct details -throughout. This would of course be only natural in a contemporary -writer living in Egypt, but would be most unlikely for a late writer -in Canaan. The question is therefore of great importance in deciding -on the date of the book; so we will first consider these _Egyptian -references_ (as they are called) in the history of Joseph, then in -that of Moses, and then in the laws and addresses. They cannot of -course be properly appreciated without some knowledge of ancient -Egypt, but they are far too important to be omitted. It is -disappointing to have to add that the evidence is almost entirely -indirect, but up to the present no reference to either Joseph, or -Moses, has been found on the Egyptian monuments, and none to the -Israelites themselves that are at all conclusive. - -(1.) _In the history of Joseph._ - -To begin with, there are three cases where it is sometimes said that -the writer seems _not_ to have been a contemporary, since Egyptian -customs are there explained, as if unknown to the reader. These are -their eating at different tables from the Hebrews, their dislike of -shepherds, and their habit of embalming.[26] But the inference from -the first two is extremely doubtful; though that from the third is -rather in favour of a late date. There is not, however, a single -word here (or anywhere else) which is _incorrect_ for Egypt, or -which shows that the writer himself was unaware of its customs. - -[Footnote 26: Gen. 43. 32; 46. 34; 50. 3.] - -On the other hand, there is abundant evidence in favour of a -contemporary date. The Pharaoh is generally thought to be Apepi II., -who belonged to a _foreign_ dynasty of Shepherd Kings, probably -Asiatic tribes like the Israelites themselves. And this will explain -the evident surprise felt by the writer that one of his chief -officers should be an _Egyptian_, which seems so puzzling to the -ordinary reader.[27] It will also account for Joseph and his -brethren being so well received, and for their telling him so -candidly That they were _shepherds_, though they knew that -shepherds were hated by the Egyptians. Had the Pharaoh himself been -an Egyptian, this was hardly the way to secure his favour. - -[Footnote 27: Gen. 39. 1.] - -We will now consider a single chapter in detail, and select Gen. 41; -nearly every incident in which shows a knowledge of ancient Egypt: - - Ver. 1. To begin with, the words _Pharaoh_ and _the river_ - (_i.e._, the Nile), though they are the proper Egyptian names, - seem to have been adopted in Hebrew, and occur all through the - Old Testament; so they afford no indication of date. - - 2-4. The _dreams_, however, are peculiarly Egyptian. Cattle - along the river bank, and feeding on the _reed-grass_ (an - Egyptian word for an Egyptian plant), was a common sight in - that country, but must have been almost unknown in Canaan. And - their coming up _out of the river_ was specially suitable, as - they represented the years of plenty and famine, which in Egypt - depend entirely on the rise of the Nile. - - 5-7. In the same way wheat with _several ears_ is known to have - been produced in Egypt; but is nowhere mentioned as grown in - Canaan. - - 8. Moreover, we know that the Pharaohs attached great - importance to dreams, and used to consult their _magicians_ and - _wise men_ when in doubt; both these classes being often - mentioned--and mentioned together--on the monuments. - - 9-12. We also know that there were officials corresponding to - the _chief butler_ and the _chief baker_. And a reference has - even been found to the curious custom of the former giving the - King _fresh grape-juice_, squeezed into a cup (Gen. 40. 11), - which is not likely to have been known to anyone out of Egypt. - - 13. And hanging the chief baker evidently means, from Gen. 40. - 19, hanging up the dead body, after he had been _beheaded_; - which latter was an Egyptian, and not a Jewish, punishment. - - 14. Next we are told, that when Joseph was hurriedly sent for - by Pharaoh, he yet stopped to _shave_. And this was only - natural, as the upper class of Egyptians always shaved; but it - would scarcely have occurred to anyone in Canaan, as the - Israelites always wore beards.[28] - - [Footnote 28: 2 Sam. 10. 5.] - - 35. So again the custom of laying up corn in storehouses, to - provide against the frequent famines, and for taxation, was - thoroughly Egyptian, the Superintendent of the Granaries being - a well-known official. But as far as we know nothing of the - kind existed in Canaan. - - 39. We then come to the promotion of Joseph; and several - instances are known of foreigners, and even slaves, being - promoted to high offices in Egypt. - - 40. And the monuments show that it was the regular Egyptian - custom to have a Superintendent, who should _be over the - house_. - - 42. Joseph is then given Pharaoh's _signet ring_, the use of - which, at this early period, has been fully confirmed by the - inscriptions. And he also receives _fine linen_ (an Egyptian - word being used for this) and a _gold chain about his neck_. - This latter was a peculiarly Egyptian decoration, being called - _receiving gold_, and is continually alluded to on the - monuments. And a specimen may be seen in the Cairo Museum, - which happens to date from about the time of Joseph. - - 43-44. And the apparently insignificant detail that Joseph rode - _in a chariot_ (implying horses) is also interesting, since, as - far as we know, horses had only recently been introduced into - Egypt by the Shepherd Kings. And had they been mentioned - earlier--as, for instance, among the presents given to - Abraham[29]--it would have been incorrect. And the expression - _Abrech_, translated _Bow the knee_, is probably an Egyptian - word (Margin R.V.). - - [Footnote 29: Gen. 12. 16.] - - 45. We also know that when foreigners rose to great importance - in Egypt they were often given a new _name_. And Joseph's new - name, Zaphenathpaneah, (probably meaning Head of the College - of Magicians, a title he had just earned[30]) as well as - Asenath, and Potiphera, are all genuine Egyptian names; though - (with the exception of Asenath) they have not at present been - found as early as the time of Joseph. - - [Footnote 30: H. E. Naville, Professor of Egyptology, at the - University of Geneva, 'Archæology of the Old Testament,' 1913, - p. 80.] - - 49. Lastly, the usual Egyptian custom (as shown by the - monuments) of having a scribe to _count_ the quantity of corn - as it is stored, is incidentally implied in the statement that - on this occasion, owing to its great abundance, Joseph had _to - leave off numbering it_. - -Thus everything in this chapter, _and the same may be said of many -others_, is perfectly correct for Egypt; though much of it would be -incorrect for Canaan, and is not likely to have been known to anyone -living there. Yet the writer not only knows it, but _takes for -granted that his readers know it too_, as he never explains -anything. So the narrative is not likely to have been written after -the time of Moses, when the Israelites left Egypt. And this, it may -be added, is the opinion of many who have made a special study of -ancient Egypt. Thus Prof. Naville declares 'I do not hesitate to say -that he (Moses) was the only author who could have written the -history of Joseph, such as we have it.'[31] - -[Footnote 31: Transactions of Victoria Institute, vol. xlvii., 1915, -p. 355.] - -There is also evidence of quite another kind that this latter part -of Genesis was written in Egypt. This is afforded by six passages, -where, after the name of a place, is added some such phrase as -_which is in Canaan_.[32] Yet there do not appear to be any other -places of the same name liable to be confused with these. When then -would it be necessary to explain to the Israelites that these -places, Shechem, etc., were in Canaan? Certainly not after the -conquest, when they were living there, and it was obvious to -everyone; so we must refer them to the time when they were in Egypt. - -[Footnote 32: Gen. 23. 2, 19; 33. 18; 35. 6; 48. 3; 49. 30.] - -And this is strongly confirmed by a little remark as to the _desert -of Shur_, which lies between Egypt and Canaan, and which is -described as being _before Egypt as thou goest towards Assyria_.[33] -Clearly then this also must have been written in Egypt, since only -to a person living there would Shur be on the way to Assyria. - -[Footnote 33: Gen. 25. 18.] - -And the same may be said of the curious custom of first asking after -a person's health, and then, if he is still alive.[34] This was -thoroughly Egyptian, as some exactly similar cases have been found -in a papyrus dated in the eighth year of Menephthah, generally -thought to be the Pharaoh of the Exodus.[35] But it is scarcely -likely to have been adopted by a writer in Canaan, as it makes the -narrative seem so ridiculous. - -[Footnote 34: Gen. 43. 27-28.] - -[Footnote 35: Chabas, Mélanges Égyptologiques, Third Series, vol. -ii., Paris, 1873, p. 152.] - -(2.) _In the history of Moses._ - -Secondly, as to the history of _Moses_. The name itself is -Egyptian;[36] and his being placed in an ark of _papyrus_ smeared -with bitumen was quite suited to Egypt, where both materials were -commonly used, but would have been most unsuitable anywhere else. -And several of the words used here, as well as in other parts of -the Pentateuch, show that the writer was well acquainted with the -Egyptian _language_. In this single verse for instance, there are as -many as six Egyptian words, _ark_, _papyrus_, _pitch_, _flags_, -_brick_, and _river_; though some of these were also used in -Hebrew.[37] Then as to the Israelites making bricks with _straw_. -This is interesting, because we know from the monuments that straw -was often used for the purpose, the Nile mud not holding together -without it, and that its absence was looked upon as a hardship. So -here again the narrative suits Egypt, and not Canaan; where as far -as we know, bricks were never made with straw. And it so happens -that we have a little direct evidence here. For some excavations -were made at Tel-el-Muskhuta in 1883; which turns out to be -_Pithom_, one of the _store cities_ said to have been built by the -Israelites.[38] And nearly its whole extent is occupied by large -brick stores; some of the bricks being made with straw, some with -fragments of reed or stubble used instead, and some without any -straw at all. While, unlike the usual Egyptian custom, the walls are -built with mortar; all of which exactly agrees with the -narrative.[39] - -[Footnote 36: Driver's Exodus, 1911, p. 11.] - -[Footnote 37: Exod. 2. 3.] - -[Footnote 38: Exod. 1. 11. Transactions of Victoria Institute, vol. -xviii., p. 85.] - -[Footnote 39: Exod. 1. 14; 5. 12.] - -Next, as to the _Ten Plagues_. There is much local colouring here, -and hardly one of them would have been suitable in Canaan. Moreover, -the order in which they come is very significant, as it makes them -agree with the natural calamities of Egypt. - -(i.) The water being turned into blood cannot, of course, be taken -literally, any more than when Joel speaks of the moon being turned -into blood.[40] It refers to the reddish colour, which is often seen -in the Nile about the end of June; though it is not as a rule -sufficient to kill the fish, or render the water unfit to drink. And -the mention of _vessels of wood and stone_[41] is interesting, as it -was the custom in Egypt to _purify_ the Nile water by letting it -stand in such vessels; and the writer evidently knew this, and took -for granted that his readers knew it too, though it seems to have -been peculiar to that country. - -[Footnote 40: Joel 2. 31.] - -[Footnote 41: Exod. 7. 19.] - -(ii.) Frogs are most troublesome in September. - -(iii.) Lice, perhaps mosquitoes or gnats, and - -(iv.) Flies, are usually worst in October. - -(v.) Murrain among the cattle, and - -(vi.) Boils cannot be identified for certain, but their coming on -just after the preceding plagues is most natural, considering what -we now know, as to the important part taken by mosquitoes and flies -in spreading disease. - -(vii.) The hail must have occurred about the end of January, as the -barley was then in the ear, but the wheat not grown up; and severe -hailstorms have been known in Egypt at that time. - -(viii.) Locusts are known to have visited Egypt terribly in March, -which seems the time intended, as the leaves were then young. - -(ix.) The darkness _which might be felt_ was probably due to the -desert wind, which blows at intervals after the end of March, and -sometimes brings with it such clouds of sand as to darken the -atmosphere.[42] And curiously enough it often moves in a narrow -belt, so that the land may be dark in one place, and light in -another close by, as recorded in the narrative. - -[Footnote 42: I have noticed the same in the Transvaal, in -particular a sandstorm at Christiana, on 20th October, 1900, which -so darkened the sky that for about a quarter of an hour I had to -light a candle.] - -(x.) The death of the _firstborn_, which occurred in April (Abib), -was evidently not a natural calamity. But what is specially -interesting is the statement _against all the gods of Egypt I will -execute judgments_, without any explanation being given of what is -meant by this.[43] It refers to the Egyptian custom of worshipping -_living_ animals, the firstborn of which were also to die; but this -would only be familiar to a writer in Egypt, since, as far as we -know, such worship was never practised in Canaan. The agreement all -through is most remarkable, and strongly in favour of a contemporary -date. - -[Footnote 43: Exod. 12. 12; Num. 33. 4.] - -(3.) _In the laws and addresses._ - -And the same familiarity with Egypt is shown in the subsequent laws -and addresses of the Pentateuch. Thus we read of laws being written -on the doorposts and gates of houses, and on great stones covered -with plaster, both of which were undoubtedly Egyptian customs; and -the latter was not, as far as we know, common elsewhere.[44] -Similarly the Egyptian habit of writing persons' names on sticks, -was evidently familiar to the writer.[45] And so was the curious -custom of placing food _for the dead_,[46] which was common in -Egypt, though it never prevailed among the Israelites. - -[Footnote 44: Deut. 6. 9; 11. 20; 27. 2.] - -[Footnote 45: Num. 17. 2.] - -[Footnote 46: Deut. 26. 14.] - -Again the ordinary _food_ of the people in Egypt is given as fish, -cucumbers, melons, leeks, onions, and garlic, all of which were -commonly eaten there.[47] But as the Hebrew names of four out of the -five vegetables do not occur elsewhere in the Bible, they could -scarcely have been very common in Canaan; while none of the -characteristic productions of that land, such as honey, milk, -butter, figs, raisins, almonds, and olives, are mentioned. The list -is, as it ought to be, thoroughly Egyptian. - -[Footnote 47: Num. 11. 5.] - -It must next be noticed that a large part of the _religious worship_ -prescribed in the Pentateuch was obviously borrowed from Egypt; the -most striking instance being that of the _ark_. A sacred ark is seen -on Egyptian monuments long before the Exodus, and is sometimes -surmounted by winged figures resembling the cherubim.[48] And the -_materials_ said to have been used for this worship are precisely -such as the Israelites might have then employed. The ark, for -instance, and also the tabernacle were not made of cedar, or of fir, -or of olive, as would probably have been the case in Canaan (for -these were the materials used in the Temple)[49] but of shittim, -_i.e._, acacia which is very common near Sinai, though scarcely ever -used in Canaan. And the other materials were goats' hair, rams' -skins, sealskins (or porpoise skins) from the Red Sea, and gold, -silver, brass, precious stones, and _fine linen_ from the Egyptian -spoils; the latter, as before said, being an Egyptian word.[50] -There is no mistake anywhere, such as a late writer might have made. - -[Footnote 48: Comp. Exod. 25. 13-18.] - -[Footnote 49: 1 Kings 6. 14-36.] - -[Footnote 50: Exod. 25. 3-10.] - -Moreover, in other places, the writer of the Pentateuch frequently -assumes that his readers know Egypt as well as himself. Thus the -people are twice reminded of the _diseases_ they had in Egypt--'_the -evil diseases of Egypt which thou knowest_' or '_which thou wast -afraid of_'--and they are warned that if they deserve it, God will -punish them with the same diseases again.[51] But such a warning -would have been quite useless many centuries later in Canaan; just -as it would be useless to warn an Englishman now of the diseases of -Normandy, _which thou wast afraid of_, if this referred to some -diseases our ancestors had before they left Normandy in the eleventh -century. Such words must clearly have been written soon afterwards. -Similarly the people are urged to be kind to strangers, and to love -them as themselves, because _they knew the heart of a stranger_, -having been strangers in the land of Egypt. And this again could -scarcely have been written centuries after they left Egypt.[52] - -[Footnote 51: Deut. 7. 15; 28. 60.] - -[Footnote 52: Exod. 23. 9; Lev. 19. 34.] - -Elsewhere the writer describes the climate and productions of -Canaan; and with a view to their being better understood, he -contrasts them with those of _Egypt_.[53] Obviously, then, the -people are once more supposed to know Egypt, and not to know Canaan. -For instance, Canaan is described as a country of hills and -valleys, and consequently of running brooks; and not like Egypt -where they had to water the land with their _feet_. But no -explanation is given of this. It probably refers to the -_water-wheels_, which were necessary for raising water in a flat -country like Egypt, and which were worked by men's _feet_. But can -we imagine a late writer in Canaan using such a phrase without -explaining it? On the other hand, if the words were spoken by Moses, -all is clear; no explanation was given, because (for persons who had -just left Egypt) none was needed. - -[Footnote 53: Deut. 8. 7-10; 11. 10-12.] - -On the whole, then, it is plain that when Egyptian matters are -referred to in the Pentateuch, we find the most thorough familiarity -with native customs, seasons, etc., though these are often quite -different from those of Canaan. And we therefore seem forced to -conclude that the writer was a contemporary who lived in Egypt, and -knew the country intimately, and as we have shown, he evidently -wrote for persons who had only recently come from there. - - -(_B._) ITS LAWS. - -We pass on now to the Laws of the Pentateuch, which are found in the -middle of Exodus, and occupy the greater part of the remaining -books. And as we shall see, they also (quite apart from their -references to Egypt) bear strong marks of a contemporary origin. - -(1.) _The subjects dealt with._ - -In the first place several of the laws refer exclusively to the time -when the Israelites lived _in the desert_, and would have been of no -use whatever after they settled in Canaan. Among these are the laws -regarding the _camp_ and _order of march_.[54] Full particulars are -given as to the exact position of every tribe, and how the Levites -were to carry the Tabernacle. And what could have been the object of -inventing such laws in later times, when, as far as we know, the -people never encamped or marched in this manner? - -[Footnote 54: Num. 1. 47--4. 49.] - -Then there is the extraordinary law as to the _slaughter of -animals_. It is stated in Leviticus that every ox, lamb, or goat, -intended for food, was to be first brought to the Tabernacle, as a -kind of offering, and there killed. But plainly this could only have -been done, when the people were in the desert, living round the -Tabernacle. So when the law is again referred to in Deuteronomy, -just before they entered Canaan, it is modified by saying that those -living at a distance might kill their animals at home.[55] - -[Footnote 55: Lev. 17. 3; Deut. 12. 21.] - -Moreover, some of the other laws, though applicable to Canaan, are -of such a character as to be strongly in favour of an early date. -Take, for instance, the remarkable law about _land_, that every -person who bought an estate was to restore it to its original owner -in the year of Jubilee, the price decreasing according to the -nearness of this year.[56] How could anyone in later times have made -such a law, and yet assert that it had been issued by Moses -centuries before, though no one had ever heard of it? - -[Footnote 56: Lev. 25. 13.] - -Or take the law about the Levites.[57] They, it will be remembered, -had no separate territory like the other tribes, but were given some -special cities. And it is scarcely likely that such a curious -arrangement could have been made at any time except that of the -conquest of Canaan; still less that it could have been made -centuries afterwards, and yet ascribed to Moses, without everyone at -once declaring it to be spurious. - -[Footnote 57: Num. 35. 1-8.] - -(2.) _Their connection with the history._ - -It must next be noticed that the laws are not arranged in any -regular order, but are closely connected with the history; many of -them being _dated_, both as to time and place. For instance, 'The -Lord spake unto Moses in the Wilderness of Sinai, in the first month -of the second year after they were come out of the land of Egypt, -saying,' etc.[58] And several others are associated with the events -which led to their being made; and these are often of such a trivial -nature, that it is hard to imagine their being invented.[59] Thus -the Pentateuch shows, not a complete code of laws, but one that was -formed _gradually_, and in close connection with the history. - -[Footnote 58: Num. 9. 1; 1. 1; Deut. 1. 3; see also Lev. 7. 38; 16. -1; 25. 1; 26. 46; 27. 34; Num. 1. 1; 3. 14; 33. 50; 35. 1; Deut. 4. -46; 29. 1.] - -[Footnote 59: Lev. 24. 15; Num. 9. 10; 15. 35; 27. 8; 36. 8.] - -And this is confirmed by the fact that in some cases the same laws -are referred to both in Leviticus, (near the beginning) and in -Deuteronomy (at the end) of the forty years in the Desert, but with -slight differences between them. And these _exactly correspond_ to -such a difference in date. One instance, that referring to the -_slaughter of animals_, has been already alluded to. Another has to -do with the animals, which might, and might not, be _eaten_. -Leviticus includes among the former, several kinds of locusts, and -among the latter the mouse, weasel, and lizard; all of which -Deuteronomy omits. - -Clearly then, when Leviticus was written, the people were in the -desert, and there was a lack of animal food, which might tempt them -to eat locusts or mice; but when Deuteronomy was written, animal -food was plentiful, and laws as to these were quite unnecessary. - -In each of these cases, then, and there are others like them, the -differences must be due either to the various laws dating from the -times they profess to, when all is plain and consistent; or else to -the carefully planned work of some late writer, who was trying in -this way to pretend that they did. - -Still more important is the fact that in several places stress is -laid on the people's _personal knowledge_ of the events referred to; -_e.g._, 'The Lord made not this covenant with our fathers, but with -us, even us, who are all of us here alive this day.'[60] And what is -more, this personal knowledge is often appealed to as a special -reason for obeying the laws.[61] For instance, 'I speak not with -your children which have not known, and which have not seen the -chastisement of the Lord, ... but your eyes have seen all the great -work of the Lord which He did. _Therefore_ shall ye keep all the -commandments,' etc. Plainly this would have had no force in later -times; indeed it would have provided an excuse for _not_ obeying the -laws, since the people of those days had no personal knowledge of -the events referred to. And we may ask, is it likely that a late -author, who falsely ascribed his laws to Moses, in order to get them -obeyed, should yet put into the mouth of Moses himself an excuse for -not obeying them? - -[Footnote 60: Deut. 5. 3; 24. 9, 18, 22; 25. 17.] - -[Footnote 61: Deut. 11. 2-8; 4. 3-15; 29. 2-9.] - -Moreover, combined with this assumed personal knowledge on the part -of the people there is a clear indication of _personal authority_ on -the part of the writer. The later prophets always speak in God's -name, and such expressions as _Thus saith the Lord, Hear ye the word -of the Lord_, are extremely common, occurring altogether over 800 -times. But in the laws of the Pentateuch nothing of the kind is -found. They are delivered by Moses in his own name, often with the -simple words, _I command thee_, which occur thirty times in -Deuteronomy. And, of course, if the laws are genuine, there is -nothing surprising in this, as Moses had been the great leader of -the people, for forty years; but a late author would scarcely have -adopted a style so different from that of all the other prophets. - -(3.) _Their wording._ - -Lastly we must consider the _wording_ of the laws; and this also is -strongly in favour of a contemporary origin. Thus, as many as -sixteen of them, which have special reference to Canaan, begin with -some such phrase as _when ye be come into the land of Canaan_,[62] -which plainly supposes that the people were not there already. And -the same may be said of numerous other laws, which the people are -told to obey when they enter into Canaan; or are even urged to obey -in order that they may enter in, both of which again, imply that -they were not there already.[63] While several of the laws refer to -the _camp_, and sometimes to _tents_, in such a way as to show that -when they were written, the people were still living in a camp.[64] - -[Footnote 62: Exod. 12. 25; 13. 11; Lev. 14. 34; 19. 23; 23. 10; 25. -2; Num. 15. 2, 18; 35. 10; Deut. 7. 1; 12. 1, 10, 29; 17. 14; 18. 9; -26. 1.] - -[Footnote 63: _E.g._, Deut. 4. 1, 5, 14; 5. 31; 6. 1, 18; 8. 1.] - -[Footnote 64: _E.g._, Exod. 29. 14; Lev. 4. 12; 6. 11; 13. 46; 14. -3; 16. 26; 17. 3; Num. 5. 2; 19. 3, 14.] - -The wording, then, of all these laws bears unmistakable signs of -contemporary origin. Of course, these signs may have been inserted -in later laws to give them an air of genuineness, but they cannot be -explained in any other way. Therefore the laws must be either of -_contemporary date_, or else _deliberate frauds_. No innocent -mistake in ascribing old laws to Moses, can possibly explain such -language as this; either it was the natural result of the laws being -genuine, or else it was adopted on purpose to mislead. - -Nor can the difficulty be got over by introducing a number of -compilers and editors. For each individual law, if it falsely -_claims_ to date from before the conquest of Canaan (and, as we have -seen, numbers and numbers of laws do so claim, _When ye be come into -the land of Canaan_, etc.), must have been made by _someone_. And -this someone, though he really wrote it after the conquest of -Canaan, must have inserted these words to make it appear that it was -written before. - -Practically, then, as just said, there are but two -alternatives--that of genuine laws written in the time of Moses, and -that of deliberate frauds. And bearing this in mind, we must ask, -is it likely that men with such a passion for truth and -righteousness as the Jewish prophets--men who themselves so -denounced lying and deception in every form[65]--should have spent -their time in composing such forgeries? Could they, moreover, have -done it so _skillfully_, as the laws contain the strongest marks of -genuineness; and could they have done it so _successfully_ as never -to have been detected at the time? This is the great _moral_ -difficulty in assigning these laws to a later age, and to many it -seems insuperable. - -[Footnote 65: Jer. 8. 8; 14. 14; Ezek. 13. 7.] - -We have thus two _very strong_ arguments in favour of an early date -for the Pentateuch: one derived from its _Egyptian references_, the -other from its _Laws_. The former shows that no Israelite in later -times could have written the book; and the latter that he would not -have done so, if he could. - - -(_C._) THE THEORY OF A LATE DATE. - -We pass on now to the opposite theory, or that of a _late date_. -According to this the Pentateuch, though no doubt containing older -traditions, and fragments of older documents, was not written till -many centuries after the death of Moses. And the four chief -arguments in its favour are based on the _language_ of the -Pentateuch, its _composite character_, its laws being _unknown_ in -later times, and the _finding of Deuteronomy_ in the reign of -Josiah. We will examine each in turn. - -(1.) _The language of the Pentateuch._ - -Now in general character the language of the Pentateuch undoubtedly -resembles that of some of the prophets, such as Jeremiah; so it is -assumed that it must date from about the same time. But -unfortunately critics who maintain this view do not admit that we -have _any_ Hebrew documents of a much earlier date, with which to -compare it. Therefore we have no means of knowing how much the -language altered, so this of itself proves little. - -But it is further said that we have three actual _signs of late -date_. The first is that the word for _west_ in the Pentateuch -really means _the sea_, (_i.e._, the Mediterranean) and hence, it is -urged, the writer's standpoint must have been that of Canaan, and -the books must have been written after the settlement in that -country. But, very possibly the word was in use before the time of -Abraham, when the sea actually was to the west. And in later years a -Hebrew, writing in Egypt or anywhere else, would naturally use the -word, without thinking that it was inappropriate to that particular -place. The second expression is _beyond Jordan_, which is often used -to denote the _eastern_ bank; so here again, it is urged, the -writer's standpoint must have been that of Canaan. But this is also -untenable. For the same term is also used for the _western_ bank in -several places,[66] and sometimes for both banks in the same -chapter.[67] The third is Joseph's speaking of Canaan as the _land -of the Hebrews_, long before they settled there, which is difficult -to explain on any theory, but rather in favour of a late date.[68] - -[Footnote 66: _E.g._, Deut. 11. 30; Josh. 12. 7.] - -[Footnote 67: _E.g._, eastern in Deut. 3. 8; Josh. 9. 10; and -western in Deut. 3. 20, 25; Josh. 9. 1.] - -[Footnote 68: Gen. 40. 15.] - -On the other hand, the language contains several _signs of early -date_, though most of these can only be understood by a Hebrew -scholar, which the present writer does not profess to be. But a -couple of examples may be given which are plain to the ordinary -reader. Thus the pronoun for _he_ is used in the Pentateuch both for -male and female; while in the later writings it is confined to -males, the females being expressed by a derived form which is very -seldom used in the Pentateuch. Similarly, the word for _youth_ is -used in the Pentateuch for both sexes, though afterwards restricted -to males, the female being again expressed by a derived form. These -differences, though small, are very significant, and they clearly -show that the language was at a less developed, and therefore -earlier, stage in the Pentateuch than in the rest of the Old -Testament. - -(2.) _Its composite character._ - -The next argument is that the Pentateuch seems to have had _several -authors_; since the same words, or groups of words, occur in -different passages all through the book. And this, combined with -slight variations of style, and other peculiarities, have led some -critics to split up the book into a number of different writings, -which they assign to a number of unknown writers from the ninth -century B.C. onwards. For instance, to take a passage where only -three writers are supposed to be involved, Exod. 7. 14-25. These -twelve verses seem to the ordinary reader a straightforward -narrative, but they have been thus split up.[69] Verses 19, 22, and -parts of 20, 21, are assigned to P, the supposed writer of the -Priestly Code of Laws; v. 24 and parts of 17, 20, 21, to E; and the -remainder to J; the two latter writers being thus named from their -generally speaking of the Deity as _Elohim_ and _Jehovah_ -(translated _God_, and _Lord_) respectively. - -[Footnote 69: Driver's Introduction to Literature of Old Testament, -sixth edition, 1897, p. 24. A slightly different division is given -in his Exodus, 1911, p. 59.] - -Fortunately, we need not discuss the minute and complicated -arguments on which all this rests, for the idea of any writings -being so hopelessly mixed together is most improbable. While it has -been shown in recent years to be very doubtful whether these names, -_Elohim_ and _Jehovah_, occurred in the original Hebrew, in the same -places as they do now.[70] And if they did _not_, the theory loses -one of its chief supports. - -[Footnote 70: The Name of God in The Pentateuch by Troelstra; -translated by McClure, 1912] - -And in any case there are at least four plain and simple arguments -against it. The first is that the _Egyptian references_, to which we -have already alluded extend to all the parts J, E, and P; as well as -to Deuteronomy, which these critics assign to yet another author D. -They are thus like an Egyptian _water-mark_ running all through the -Pentateuch. And while it is difficult enough to believe that even -one writer in Canaan should have possessed this intimate knowledge -of Egypt, it is far more difficult to believe that _four_ should -have done so. - -The second is that all the writers must have been equally -_dishonest_, for they all contain passages, which they assert were -written by Moses (see further on). And here again it is hard to -believe, that even one writer (leave alone four) should have been -so utterly unscrupulous. - -The third is that the curious custom of God speaking of Himself in -the _plural_ number, which would be strange in any case, and is -especially so considering the strong Monotheism of the Jews, is also -common to both J and P.[71] And so is the puzzling statement that it -was God Himself Who hardened Pharaoh's heart, which is also found in -E.[72] - -[Footnote 71: Gen. 1. 26 (P): 3. 22 (J).] - -[Footnote 72: Exod. 4. 21 (E): 7. 3 (P.): 10. 1 (J).] - - -The fourth is that parallel passages to the supposed two narratives -of the Flood, ascribed to J and P (and which are thought to occur -alternately _nineteen_ times in Gen. 7. 8.) have been found -_together_ in an old Babylonian story of the Flood, centuries before -the time of Moses; and also in layers corresponding to J and P.[73] -And this alone seems fatal to the idea that J and P were originally -separate narratives that were afterward combined in our Genesis. - -[Footnote 73: Sayce's Monument Facts, 1904, p. 20; Driver's Book of -Genesis, 1905, pp. 89-95, 107.] - -Of course those who maintain that Moses wrote the Pentateuch, quite -admit that he made use of previous documents, one of which, the book -of the _Wars of the Lord_, he actually quotes.[74] Nor is it denied -that some _additions_ have been made since his time, the most -important being the list of kings, who are said to have reigned in -Edom _before there reigned any king over the children of -Israel_.[75] And this brings the passage down to the time of Saul at -least who was Israel's first king. But it is probably a later -insertion, since these kings are referred to in a different way from -the dukes, who precede and follow them. And the same may be said of -a few other passages[76] such as that _the Canaanite was then in the -land_, which must clearly have been written after the Israelites -conquered the country. But they can all be omitted without breaking -the continuity of the narrative. - -[Footnote 74: Num. 21. 14.] - -[Footnote 75: Gen. 36. 31-39.] - -[Footnote 76: Gen. 12. 6; 13. 7; Exod. 16. 36; Deut. 2. 10-12, -20-23; 3. 14.] - -(3.) _Its laws being unknown in later times._ - -Passing on now to the third argument for a late date, it is urged -that the laws of the Pentateuch cannot really have been written by -Moses, since, judging from the other Old Testament Books, they seem -to have been _unknown_ for many centuries after his time. But this -is scarcely correct, for even the earliest books, Joshua and Judges -contain some references to a _written_ law of Moses;[77] while both -in Judges and 1 Samuel there are numerous agreements between what is -described there, and what is commanded in the Pentateuch.[78] And -similar evidence is afforded by the later books, David, for -instance, alluding to the _written_ law of Moses, as if it was well -known.[79] So in regard to the prophets. Two of the earliest of -these are Hosea and Amos; and they both contain frequent points of -agreement;[80] as well as one reference to a large number of -_written_ laws.[81] - -[Footnote 77: Joshua 1. 7, 8; 8. 31, 32; 23. 6; 24, 26. Judges 3. -4.] - -[Footnote 78: Judges 20. 27, 28; 21. 19; 1 Sam. 2. 12-30; 3. 3; 4. -4; 6. 15; 14. 3.] - -[Footnote 79: 1 Kings 2. 3. 2 Kings 14. 6.] - -[Footnote 80: Hos. 4. 4-6; 8. 1, 13; 9. 4; 12. 9; Amos 2. 4, 11; 4. -4, 5; 5. 21-25; 8. 5.] - -[Footnote 81: Hos. 8. 12 (R.V.).] - -On the other side, we have the statement in Jeremiah, that God did -not command the Israelites concerning burnt-offerings, and -sacrifices, when He brought them out of Egypt.[82] But the next -verse certainly implies that it was placing these before obedience -that God condemned. And Hosea in a similar passage declares this to -be the case, and that God's not desiring sacrifice means His not -caring so much about it, as about other things.[83] It is also urged -that there were practices which are _inconsistent_ with these laws; -the most important being that the sacrifices were not limited to one -place, or the offerers to priests. As to the former, the principle -of the law was that the place of sacrifice should be of Divine -appointment, _where God had chosen to record His name_, (_i.e._, -where the _ark_ was), and not selected by the worshippers -themselves.[84] In Exodus it is naturally implied that there should -be many such places, as the Israelites were then only beginning -their wanderings; and in Deuteronomy that there should be only one, -as they were then about to enter Canaan. - -[Footnote 82: Jer. 7. 22.] - -[Footnote 83: Hosea 6. 6; 1 Sam. 15. 22.] - -[Footnote 84: Exod. 20. 24; Deut. 12. 5.] - -But for many years, owing to the unsettled state of the country, and -the ark having been captured by the Philistines, the law could not -be obeyed. When however, the people had rest from their enemies -(which was the condition laid down in Deuteronomy) and the temple -was built at Jerusalem, the law was fully recognised. After this the -worship at _high places_ is spoken of as a _sin_, while Hezekiah is -commended for destroying these places, and for keeping the -commandments _which the Lord commanded Moses_.[85] - -[Footnote 85: 1 Kings 3. 2; 22. 43; 2 Kings 18. 4-6.] - -The discovery, however in 1907, that there was a Jewish Temple of -Jehovah at Elephantine, near Assouan in Egypt, with sacrifices, as -early as the sixth century B.C., and that it had apparently the -approval of the authorities at Jerusalem, makes it doubtful if the -law as to the one sanctuary was ever thought to be absolutely -binding. - -As to the other point--the sacrifices not being offered only by -_priests_--there is an apparent discrepancy in the Pentateuch -itself; since Deuteronomy (unlike the other books) seems in one -passage to recognise that _Levites_ might perform priestly -duties.[86] Various explanations have been given of this, though I -do not know of one that is quite satisfactory. There are also a few -cases, where men who were neither priests, nor Levites, such as -Gideon, David, and Elijah, are said to have offered sacrifices.[87] -But these were all under special circumstances, and in some of them -the sacrifice was directly ordered by God. There is thus nothing -like sufficient evidence to show that the laws of the Pentateuch -were not known in later days, but merely that they were often not -obeyed. - -[Footnote 86: Deut. 18. 6-8.] - -[Footnote 87: _E.g._, Judges 6. 26; 2 Sam. 24. 18; 1 Kings 18. 32.] - -(4.) _The finding of Deuteronomy._ - -Lastly we have the finding of the _Book of the Law_ (probably -Deuteronomy) when the temple was being repaired in the reign of -Josiah, about 621 B.C., which is regarded by some critics as its -first publication.[88] But this is a needless assumption, for there -is no hint that either the king or the people were surprised at -such a book being found, but merely at what it contained. And as -they proceeded at once to carry out its directions, it rather shows -that they knew there was such a book all the time, only they had -never before read it. And this is easily accounted for, as most -copies would have been destroyed by the previous wicked kings.[89] -On the other hand, an altogether new book is not likely to have -gained such immediate and ready obedience; not to mention the great -improbability of such an audacious fraud never being detected at the -time. - -[Footnote 88: 2 Kings 22.] - -[Footnote 89: 2 Kings 21. 2, 21.] - -Nor is it easy to see why, if Deuteronomy was written at a late -date, it should have contained so many obsolete and useless -instructions; such as the order to destroy the Canaanites, when -there were scarcely any Canaanites left to destroy.[90] Yet the -people are not only told to destroy them, but to do it _gradually_, -so that the wild beasts may not become too numerous;[91] which shows -that the passage was written centuries before the time of Josiah, -when there was no more danger from wild beasts than from Canaanites. -Nor is it likely, if Deuteronomy was written at that time, when -Jerusalem claimed to be the central sanctuary, that the city itself -should never once be named in the book, or even alluded to. - -[Footnote 90: Deut. 7. 2; 20. 17.] - -[Footnote 91: Deut. 7. 22.] - -Moreover, discoveries in Egypt have shown that in early times -religious writings were sometimes buried in the foundations, or -lower walls of important temples; where they were found centuries -afterwards when the temples were being repaired; so the account, as -we have it in the Bible, is both natural and probable.[92] - -[Footnote 92: E. Naville, Discovery of the Book of the Law, 1911, -pp. 4-10.] - -On the whole, then, none of these arguments for a _late date_ are at -all conclusive, and we therefore decide that this theory is not only -very improbable in any case, but quite untenable in face of the -strong evidence on the other side. - - -(_D._) CONCLUSION. - -Having thus shown that the Pentateuch appears to date from the time -of Moses, it only remains to consider its authorship, and the -witness it bears to the miracles of the Exodus. - -Now that the greater part should have been written by Moses himself -is plainly the most probable view. And this is strongly confirmed by -the book itself; for a large part of it distinctly _claims_ to have -been written by Moses. It is not merely that this title is given in -a heading, or opening verse, which might easily have been added in -later times. But it is asserted, positively and repeatedly, all -through the book itself, both in Exodus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy, -that many of the events, and laws referred to (often including -several chapters) were actually _written down_ by Moses.[93] This is -an important point, and it must be allowed great weight. - -[Footnote 93: Exod. 17. 14; 24. 4; 34. 27; Num. 33. 2; 36. 13; Deut. -31. 9, 22, 24. The first two passages in Exod. are assigned to the -supposed E, the third to J, those in Num. to P, and those in Deut. -to D.] - -And the first passage, that Moses was to write the threat against -Amalek _in a book_, is specially interesting; because we cannot -think that the book contained nothing but this single sentence. It -evidently means in _the_ book (see American R. V.), implying that a -regular journal was kept, in which important events were recorded. -And this is confirmed by another of the passages, which says that -Moses wrote down something that occurred _the same day_;[94] and by -another which gives a long and uninteresting list of journeys in the -Desert,[95] which certainly looks like an official record kept at -the time. While the concluding passage relates how Moses, when he -had finished writing the book, gave it to the Levites to keep beside -the ark, in order to preserve it, and anything more precise than -this can scarcely be imagined.[96] - -[Footnote 94: Deut. 31. 22; comp. Exod. 24. 4.] - -[Footnote 95: Num. 33.] - -[Footnote 96: Deut. 31. 24-26.] - -Moreover, the frequent references of Moses to his own exclusion from -Canaan, and his pathetic prayer on the subject, have a very genuine -tone about them.[97] And his bitter complaint that God had broken -His promise, and not delivered the people,[98] could scarcely have -been written by anyone but himself; especially after the conquest of -Canaan, when it was so obviously untrue. - -[Footnote 97: _E.g._, Deut. 3. 23-26; 1. 37; 4. 21; 31. 2.] - -[Footnote 98: Exod. 5. 23.] - -And his authorship is further confirmed by the fact that so little -is said in his praise. His faults are indeed narrated quite -candidly, but nothing is said in admiration of the great leader's -courage, and ability, till the closing chapter of Deuteronomy. This -was evidently written by someone else, and shows what we might have -expected had the earlier part been the work of anyone but Moses -himself. Nor is there anything surprising in his writing in the -third person, as numbers of other men--Cæsar, for instance--have -done the same. - -But now comes the important point. Fortunately it can be stated in a -few words. If the Pentateuch is a contemporary document, probably -written by Moses, can we reject the miracles which it records? Can -we imagine, for instance, a _contemporary_ writer describing the Ten -Plagues, or the Passage of the Red Sea, if nothing of the kind had -occurred? The events, if true, must have been well known at the -time; and if untrue, no contemporary would have thought of inventing -them. We therefore conclude, on reviewing the whole chapter, that -the _origin_ of the Jewish religion _was confirmed by miracles_. - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -THAT ITS HISTORY WAS CONFIRMED BY MIRACLES. - - (_A._) THE LATER OLD TESTAMENT BOOKS. - - (1.) Undesigned agreements; the rebellion of Korah. - (2.) Alleged mistakes; unimportant. - (3.) Modern discoveries; these support their accuracy. - - (_B._) THE OLD TESTAMENT MIRACLES. - - (1.) Their credibility; this can scarcely be disputed, if - miracles at all are credible; the silence of the sun - and moon, two other difficulties. - (2.) Their truthfulness; list of eight public miracles, two - examples, Elijah's sacrifice on Mount Carmel, and - the destruction of the Assyrian army, considered in - detail; conclusion. - - -Having now examined the origin of the Jewish Religion, we have next -to consider its _history_; which also claims to have been confirmed -by miracles. So we will first notice (very briefly) the Old -Testament _Books_, from Joshua onwards; and then consider some of -the _Miracles_ which they record. - - -(_A._) THE LATER OLD TESTAMENT BOOKS. - -Now, the arguments for, and against the genuineness of these Books -need not be discussed at length, since we have already decided in -favour of that of the Pentateuch, and most critics who admit the -one, admit the other. But a few remarks may be made on three -subjects, those of _undesigned agreements_, the importance of which -is not obvious at first sight; the _alleged mistakes_ in the Old -Testament; and the effect of _modern discoveries_. - -(1.) _Undesigned agreements._ - -Now, if we find two statements regarding an event, or series of -events, which, though not identical, are yet perfectly consistent, -this agreement must be either _accidental_ or _not accidental_. And -supposing it to be too minute in detail to be accidental it shows -that the statements are somehow connected together. Of course, if -the events are true, each writer may know them independently, and -their statements would thus be in perfect, though unintentional -agreement. But if the events are not true, then either one writer -must have made his account agree with the other, or else both must -have derived their information from a common source. In the former -case, there would be intentional agreement between the writers; in -the latter, between the various parts of the original account. In -any case, there would be designed agreement somewhere; for, to put -it shortly, the events, being imaginary, would not fit together of -necessity, nor by accident, which is excluded, and hence must do so -by design. - -This has been otherwise expressed by saying that truth is -necessarily consistent, but falsehood is not so; therefore, while -consistency in truth may be undesigned, consistency in falsehood can -only result from design. And from this it follows that an -_undesigned agreement_ between two statements--provided of course it -is too minute to be accidental--is a sure sign of truthfulness. It -shows, moreover, that both writers had independent knowledge of the -event, and were both telling the truth. And of course the same -argument applies if the two statements are made by the same writer, -though in this case there is a greater probability that the -agreement is not undesigned. - -We will now consider a single example in detail, and select that -referring to the rebellion of Korah, Dathan, and Abiram, as it is -connected with an important miracle. Korah, we are told,[99] -belonged to the family of Kohath and the other two to that of -Reuben; and from incidental notices _in another part of the book_, -we learn the position of the _tents_ of these men. The former was to -the south of the central Tabernacle, or Tent of Meeting, on an inner -line of tents, while the latter were also to the south, though on an -outer line of tents. - -[Footnote 99: Num. 16; 2. 10, 17; 3. 29.] - -This explains how, when Moses was talking to Korah, he had to _send -for_ Dathan and Abiram, and how next morning he left the central -Tabernacle, where the men had assembled to offer incense, (and where -they were afterwards destroyed, probably by lightning) and _went -unto_ Dathan and Abiram (vv. 8-25). It explains how, later on, the -_tents_ of Dathan and Abiram are twice mentioned, while that of the -leading conspirator, Korah, is strangely omitted. It explains how -the _families_ of these two were destroyed, though no mention is -made of that of Korah; since the destruction was probably limited to -the tents of Dathan and Abiram, who were brothers, and the small -tabernacle they had erected alongside, and from which alone the -people were told to _depart_ (vv. 26, 27). We may therefore -conclude that Korah's _family_ was not destroyed, since their tent -was at some distance. And this accounts for what some have thought -to be a discrepancy in another passage, where we read that the -_sons_ of Korah did not die; as well as for Dathan and Abiram, being -mentioned alone later on.[100] In fact, the position of these tents -is the key to the whole narrative, though we are left to discover it -for ourselves. - -[Footnote 100: Num. 26. 11; Deut. 11. 6.] - -Now if the account is true and written by a contemporary, all is -plain; for truth, as said before, is necessarily consistent. But if -the story is a late fiction, all this agreement in various places -is, to say the least, very remarkable. Can we imagine a writer of -fiction _accidentally_ arranging these details in different parts of -his book, which fit together so perfectly? Or can we imagine his -doing so _intentionally_, and yet never hinting at the agreement -himself, but leaving it so unapparent that not one reader in a -thousand ever discovers it? This single instance may be taken as a -sample of numerous others which have been noticed all through the -Old Testament; and they certainly tend to show its accuracy. - -(2.) _Alleged mistakes._ - -We pass on now to the alleged mistakes in the Old Testament, and -considering the long period covered, and the variety of subjects -dealt with, and often the same subject by various writers, the -number of even apparent discrepancies is not very great. And it is -beyond dispute that many of these can be explained satisfactorily, -and doubtless many others could be so, if our knowledge were more -complete. Moreover, they are, as a rule, _numerical_ mistakes, such -as the incredibly large numbers in some places,[101] and the rather -discordant chronology in Kings and Chronicles. But the former may be -due to some error in copying, and the latter to the different ways -of counting a king's reign. - -[Footnote 101: Num. 26. 11; Deut. 11. 6.] - -The only mistake of any real importance refers to the large numbers -of the Israelites, who are said to have left Egypt,--some 600,000 -men, besides children, or probably over two million altogether. For -on two subsequent occasions, when the census of the tribes is given, -it totals up to about the same number.[102] This is no doubt a -serious difficulty; as anyone can see, who will take the trouble to -calculate the space they would require on the march, or in camp. If -we assume, for instance, that they crossed the arm of the Red Sea -in, say, _forty_ parallel columns, these would still have to be of -enormous length to contain 50,000 persons each, with their flocks -and herds. - -[Footnote 102: Exod. 12. 37. Num. 1. 26.] - -Perhaps the best explanation is that suggested by Professor -Flinders Petrie, that the word translated _thousands_ should be -_families_,[103] so that the tribe of Reuben, for instance,[104] -instead of having forty-six _thousand_ five hundred men, would have -forty-six _families_, (making about) five hundred men. The chief -arguments in favour of this are, first, that the same word is used -in Judges 6. 15, where it so obviously means family and not -thousand, that it is so translated in both the Authorised and -Revised Versions. - -[Footnote 103: Egypt and Israel, 1911, p. 43.] - -[Footnote 104: Num. 1. 21.] - -And secondly, it would account for the remarkable fact that though -there were twelve tribes, and they were each counted twice, yet the -number of the hundreds is never 0, 1, 8 or 9; but always one of the -other six digits. It is extremely unlikely (practically -incredible)[105] that this would occur in an ordinary census, but -the proposed theory explains it at once. For the hundreds could -scarcely be 0, or 1, as this would mean too few men in a family; or -8 or 9, which would mean too many; while the other digits always -work out to what (allowing for servants) is a reasonable proportion, -from 5 to 17. On this theory the number of men would be reduced to -5,600, which is much more intelligible. But some other passages -scarcely seem capable of this interpretation, so it must be admitted -that the number forms a difficulty, whatever view we adopt. - -[Footnote 105: The chance of its occurring would be only (6/10)^24 -or less than 1 in 200,000.] - -(3.) _Modern discoveries._ - -Lastly, as to the effect of modern discoveries on the accuracy of -the Old Testament. In the case of the Pentateuch, as we have seen, -there is very little _direct_ evidence either way; but it is -different in regard to some of the later books. - -In the first place, and this is very important, modern discoveries -have shown that the period of Jewish history from the time of Moses -onwards was distinctly _a literary age_. In Egypt, Babylonia, Syria, -and elsewhere, it was the custom, and had been for centuries, to -record all important events, at least all those that were creditable -to the people concerned; so it is almost certain that the Jews, like -the surrounding nations, had their historians. In every age -conquerors have loved to record their conquests, and why should the -Jews alone have been an exception? - -Yet the historical books of the Old Testament have no competitors. -If, then, we deny that these are in the main a contemporary record, -we must either assume that the Jews, unlike the surrounding nations, -had no contemporary historians, which is most unlikely; as well as -being contrary to the Books themselves, where the _recorders_ are -frequently mentioned, even by name.[106] Or else we must assume that -their works were replaced in later days by other and less reliable -accounts, which were universally mistaken for the originals, and -this seems equally improbable. - -[Footnote 106: _E.g._, 2 Sam. 8. 16; 2 Kings 18. 18; 2 Chron. 34. -8.] - -Passing on now to the evidence in detail, it may be divided into two -classes, geographical and historical. In the first place the -_geography_ of Palestine has been shown to be minutely accurate. But -this does not prove the Old Testament Books to be genuine, but -merely that they were written by Jews who knew the country -intimately. It helps, however, in some cases to remove apparent -difficulties. Thus the discoveries at Jericho, in 1908, have shown -that the place was merely a small fortified hill, the length of the -surrounding wall being about half a mile, so there was no difficulty -in the Israelites walking round it seven times in the day.[107] And -much the same may be said of the _historical_ notices. The -monumental records of the Kings of Judah and Israel have not at -present been discovered, but we can often check the history by the -records of other countries. And these are as a rule in perfect -agreement, not only as to the actual facts, but as to the society, -customs, and state of civilisation, of the period. Indeed, in some -cases where this was formerly disputed, as in the importance -assigned to the _Hittites_, it has been fully justified by modern -discoveries.[108] But this again does not prove the genuineness of -the Books, though it certainly raises a probability in their favour. - -[Footnote 107: Josh. 6. 15.] - -[Footnote 108: 1 Kings 10. 29; 2 Kings 7. 6.] - -Sometimes, however, the evidence is stronger than this, one of the -best known instances being Daniel's mention of _Belshazzar_.[109] He -states that the last king of Babylon was Nebuchadnezzar's son, or -grandson (margin, A.V.) called Belshazzar, who was slain at night -when the city was captured (about B.C. 538). But according to -Berosus, who wrote about the third century B.C., all this appears to -be wrong. The last king of Babylon was a usurper called Nabonidus, -and any such person as Belshazzar is quite unknown. And so matters -remained till some cuneiform inscriptions were discovered at Mugheir -in 1854. - -[Footnote 109: Dan. 5. 1.] - -From these it appears that Belshazzar was the eldest son of -Nabonidus, and was apparently associated with him in the government. -And an inscription recently found at Erech shows that this was the -case for several years.[110] There is no proof that he ever had the -title of _King_, unless he is the same as one _Mardukshazzar_, -about this time (not otherwise identified), which is not unlikely, -as we know Marduk was sometimes called _Bel_--_i.e._, Baal, or Lord. -And another inscription, somewhat mutilated, seems to show that he -was slain at Babylon in a night assault on the city (or some portion -of it) as described by Daniel, some months after Nabonidus had been -taken prisoner.[111] As to his relationship with Nebuchadnezzar -perhaps his mother (or grandmother) was a royal princess. And there -certainly seems to have been some connection between the families, -as we know from the inscriptions that he had a brother called -Nebuchadnezzar. - -[Footnote 110: Expository Times, April, 1915. Comp. Dan. 8. 1.] - -[Footnote 111: Transactions of Victoria Institute, vol. xxxviii., -1906, p. 28; vol. xlvi., 1914, p. 14.] - -Now, of course, if Daniel himself wrote the book, he would have -known all about Belshazzar, however soon afterwards it was -forgotten. But, if the book is a late fiction, written by a Jew in -Palestine about B.C. 160, which is the rationalistic theory, as the -wars between Egypt and Syria up to that date are clearly foretold, -how did he know the name of Belshazzar at all, or anything about -him, when such a person was unknown to previous historians? Plainly -then, this is a distinct argument in favour of the contemporary date -of the book.[112] - -[Footnote 112: It is worth noting that this rationalistic theory, -which was generally accepted by the so-called Higher Critics, has -now become so difficult to maintain in the face of archæology that -Dr. Pinches, Lecturer in Assyriology at University College, London, -said recently 'I am glad to think with regard to the Book of Daniel -that the Higher Criticism is in fact buried.' Transactions of -Victoria Institute, vol. xlix., 1917, p. 135.] - -And much the same may be said of Isaiah's mention of _Sargon_ of -Assyria, who is stated to have taken Ashdod. Yet the very existence -of such a king was unknown to secular history, till the last -century; when his palace was discovered at Khorsabad, with -inscriptions recording, among other things, his capture of -Ashdod.[113] - -[Footnote 113: Isa. 20. 1. Orr's Problem of Old Test., 1906, p. -399.] - -Two other cases are of special interest, because the monuments -seemed at first to show that the Bible was wrong. One of these -refers to a so-called _Pul_, King of Assyria;[114] but when the list -of Assyrian monarchs was discovered, no such king could be found. It -looked like a serious discrepancy, and was even spoken of as 'almost -the only important historical difficulty' between the Bible and the -monuments.[115] But it has now been discovered that _Pulu_ was the -original name of a usurper, who changed it to Tiglath Pileser III. -on ascending the throne; though he was still sometimes called -Pulu.[116] This not only removes the difficulty, but tends to show -the early date of the narrative; for a late writer would probably -have called him by his better-known name. - -[Footnote 114: 2 Kings 15. 19.] - -[Footnote 115: Rawlinson, Historical Illustrations of the Old -Testament, 1871, p. 121.] - -[Footnote 116: Hastings, Dict. of the Bible, vol. iv., p. 761.] - -The other instance refers to _Jehu_, who is stated in the Assyrian -inscriptions to be the son of Omri; though according to the Bible he -was no relation whatever. But it has now been shown that the words -translated _son of Omri_ may only mean _of the land or house of -Omri_, which is a common Assyrian name for the kingdom of -Israel.[117] - -[Footnote 117: Driver, Schweich Lecture, 1908, p. 17.] - -As a last example we will take the _dates_ given for the Fall of the -two capital cities, Samaria and Jerusalem. These were calculated -long ago (margin, A.V.) from a number of statements in the Bible, -giving the lengths of different reigns, etc., at B.C. 721 and 588 -respectively.[118] And now the inscriptions from Assyria and -Babylonia fix the former at _B.C._ 722 and the latter at 586.[119] -Everyone must admit that these are remarkable agreements, -considering the way in which they have had to be calculated. - -[Footnote 118: 2 Kings 17. 6; 25. 3.] - -[Footnote 119: Hastings, Dict. of the Bible, vol. i., p. 401.] - -We have now briefly considered the Books of the Old Testament, both -as to their _undesigned agreements_, which are very interesting; -their _alleged mistakes_, which are unimportant; and the effect of -_modern discoveries_, which has undoubtedly been to support their -accuracy. What, then, is the value of the evidence they afford as to -the history of the Jewish Religion having been confirmed by -miracles? - - -(_B._) THE OLD TESTAMENT MIRACLES. - -We will include under this term superhuman coincidences as well as -miracles in the strict sense; and they occur all through the -historical books of the Old Testament. A few of them have been -already noticed in the last chapter, but we must now discuss them -more fully, first considering whether they are credible, and then -whether they are true. - -(1.) _Their credibility._ - -Now this can scarcely be disputed, _provided miracles at all are -credible_, which we have already admitted, since scientific -difficulties affect all miracles equally; and of course the -Superhuman Coincidences have no difficulties of this kind whatever. -Among these may be mentioned most of the Ten Plagues, the -destruction of Korah, the falling of the walls of Jericho, probably -due to an earthquake; the lightning which struck Elijah's sacrifice; -and many others. - -The _Passage of the Red Sea_, for instance, almost certainly belongs -to this class. The water, we are told, was driven back by a strong -east wind, lasting all night; and this was doubtless due to natural -forces, though, in common with other natural events (such as the -growth of grass[120]), it is in the Bible ascribed to God. And the -statement, _the waters were a wall unto them_, need not be pressed -literally, so as to mean that they stood upright. It may only mean -here, as it obviously does in some other cases, that the waters were -a defence on each side, and secured them from flank attacks.[121] -And as they must have advanced in several parallel columns, probably -half a mile wide, this certainly seems the more likely view. - -[Footnote 120: Ps. 147. 8-9.] - -[Footnote 121: Exod. 14. 21, 22; Nahum 3. 8; 1 Sam. 25. 16.] - -And what makes it still more probable is that much the same thing -occurred in this very neighbourhood in recent times. For in January, -1882, a large expanse of water, about 5 feet deep, near the Suez -Canal, was exposed to such a strong gale (also from the east) that -next morning it had been entirely driven away, and men were walking -about on the mud, where the day before the fishing-boats had been -floating.[122] Moreover, on this theory, the miracle would not lose -any of its evidential value. For the fact of such a strip of dry -land being formed just when and where the Israelites so much wanted -it, and then being suddenly covered again, through the wind changing -round to the west (which it must have done for the dead Egyptians to -have been cast up on the _east_ side)[123], would be a coincidence -far too improbable to be accidental. - -[Footnote 122: Transactions of Victoria Institute, vol. xxviii., -1894, p. 268. It is vouched for by Major-General Tulloch, who was -there on duty at the time.] - -[Footnote 123: Exod. 14. 30.] - -Another well known miracle, which probably belongs to this class, is -the _'silence' (or standing still) of the sun and moon_.[124] This -is often thought to mean that the earth's rotation was stopped, so -that the sun and moon apparently stood still. But a miracle on so -vast a scale, was quite needless for the destruction of a few -Canaanites, and there is another, and far better explanation. - -[Footnote 124: Josh. 10. 12-14.] - -It is that the miracle, instead of being one of prolonged light, the -sun remaining visible after it should have set, was really one of -prolonged _darkness_. The sun, which had been hidden by thick -clouds, was just about to shine forth, when Joshua prayed to the -Lord that it might be _silent_, _i.e._, remain obscured behind the -clouds, which it did during the rest of the day. The Hebrew seems -capable of either meaning. For the important word translated _stand -still_ is literally _be silent_ (see margin), both in verses 12 -and 13; and while this would be most suitable to the sun's remaining -obscured by clouds during the day, it could scarcely be used of its -continuing to shine at night. - -On the other hand, the rest of the passage seems to favour the -ordinary view. But if we admit that this is what Joshua _prayed -for_, that the sun and moon should remain _silent_ or obscured, the -rest of the passage can only mean that this is what took place. And -it may be mentioned that, as early as the fourteenth century, a -Jewish writer Levi ben Gershon maintained that the words did not -mean that the sun and moon literally _stood still_, or in any way -altered their motion; though it is only fair to add that this was -not the general view.[125] - -[Footnote 125: Numerous quotations are given in 'A Misunderstood -Miracle,' by Rev. A. S. Palmer, 1887, pp. 103-107.] - -Moreover, even if the word did mean _stand still_, Joshua would only -be likely to have asked for the sun and moon to stand still, if they -were apparently _moving_. And they only move fast enough to be -apparent when they are just coming out from behind a dense bank of -clouds, due, of course, to the clouds really moving. And to _stand -still_ in such a case, would mean to stay behind the clouds, and -remain _obscured_, the same sense as before. And the words could -then have had an _immediate_ effect; visible at once to all the -people, which certainly seems implied in the narrative, and which -would not have been the case on the ordinary view. - -Assuming, then, that either meaning is possible, a prolonged -darkness is much the more probable for three reasons. To begin with, -the miracle must have occurred in the early _morning_, Gibeon, -where the sun was, being to the south _east_ of Beth-horon, the -scene of the incident. And it is most unlikely that Joshua, with the -enemy already defeated, and nearly all the day before him, should -have wished to have it prolonged. Secondly, just _before_ the -miracle there had been a very heavy thunderstorm, involving (as here -required) thick clouds and a dark sky; and this is stated to have -been the chief cause of the enemy's defeat. So Joshua is more likely -to have asked for a continuance of this storm, _i.e._, for prolonged -darkness, than for light. Thirdly, the moon is mentioned as well as -the sun, and, if Joshua wanted darkness, both would have to be -_silent_; but if he wanted light, the mention of the moon was quite -unnecessary. - -On the whole, then, the miracle seems to have been a superhuman -coincidence between a prayer of Joshua and an extraordinary and -unique thunderstorm, which caused the sun to remain _silent_ or -invisible all day. And if the Canaanites were sun-worshippers (as -many think probable), it was most suitable that at the time of their -great battle with the Israelites, the sun should have been obscured -the whole day, and it naturally led to their utter confusion. - -Before passing on, we may notice two objections of a more general -character, that are often made to the Jewish miracles. The first is -that some of them were very _trivial_, such as Elisha's purifying -the waters of Jericho, increasing the widow's oil, and making the -iron axe-head to float;[126] and hence it is urged they are most -improbable. And no doubt they would be so, if we regard them as mere -acts of kindness to individual persons. But if we regard them as so -many signs to the Israelites (and through them to the rest of the -world), that Elisha was God's prophet; and that God was not a -far-off God, but One Who knew about and cared about the every-day -troubles of His people, they were certainly not inappropriate. -Indeed, if this was the end in view, they were just the kind of -miracles most likely to attain it. - -[Footnote 126: 2 Kings 2. 22; 4. 6; 6. 6.] - -The second and more important objection would destroy, or at least -lessen, the value of all the miracles. They could not, it is urged, -have really confirmed a revelation from God, since the same writers -who describe them, also describe _other_ miracles, which, they say, -were worked in opposition to God's agents. But if we exclude some -doubtful cases, we have only one instance to judge by. It is that of -the _magicians of Egypt_, who imitated some of the earlier miracles -of Moses and Aaron; and here the inference is uncertain. For we are -told that this was due to their _enchantments_ (or _secret arts_, -margin R.V.), a term which might very possibly cover some feat of -jugglery; as they knew beforehand what was wanted, and had time to -prepare. While the fact that they tried and failed to imitate the -next plague, which they frankly confessed was a Divine miracle, -makes this a very probable solution.[127] - -[Footnote 127: Exod. 7. 11, 22; 8. 7, 18, 19.] - -We decide, then, that none of the Jewish miracles can be pronounced -_incredible_; though some of them no doubt seem, at first sight, -very improbable. - -(2.) _Their truthfulness._ - -Now, of course, the miracles vary greatly in evidential value, the -following being eight of the most important: - - The destruction of Korah, Num. 16. - - The passage of the Jordan, Josh. 3. 14-17. - - The capture of Jericho, Josh. 6. 6-20. - - Elijah's sacrifice on Mount Carmel, 1 Kings 18. 17-40. - - The cure of Naaman's leprosy, 2 Kings 5. 10-27. - - The destruction of the Assyrian army, 2 Kings 19. 35. - - The shadow on the dial, 2 Kings 20. 8-11. - - The three men in the furnace, Dan. 3. 20-27. - -We will examine a couple of instances in detail and select first -_Elijah's sacrifice on Mount Carmel_. This is said to have occurred -on the most public occasion possible, before the King of Israel and -thousands of spectators. And as a miracle, or rather _superhuman -coincidence_, it presents no difficulty whatever. The lightning -which struck the sacrifice was doubtless due to natural causes; yet, -as before explained (Chapter VII.), this would not interfere with -its evidential value. - -Moreover, it was avowedly a test case to definitely settle whether -Jehovah was the true God or not. The nation, we learn, had long been -in an undecided state. Some were worshippers of Jehovah, others of -Baal; and these rival sacrifices were suggested for the express -purpose of settling the point. So, if miracles at all are credible, -there could not have been a more suitable occasion for one; while it -was, for the time at least, thoroughly successful. All present were -convinced that Jehovah was the true God, and, in accordance with -the national law, the false prophets of Baal were immediately put to -death. - -Now could any writer have described all this, even a century -afterwards, if nothing of the kind had occurred? The event, if true, -must have been well known, and remembered; and if untrue, no one -living near the time and place would have thought of inventing it. -And (what renders the argument still stronger) all this is stated to -have occurred, not among savages, but among a fairly civilised -nation and in a literary age. - -Next as to _the destruction of the Assyrian army_. Here it will be -remembered that when Sennacherib came to attack Jerusalem, he -publicly, and in the most insulting manner, defied the God of Israel -to deliver the city out of his hand (probably about B.C. 701).[128] -We then read how Isaiah declared that God accepted the challenge, -and would defend Jerusalem, and would not allow it to be destroyed. -'_I will defend this city to save it, for mine own sake, and for my -servant David's sake._' And the sacredness of the city is very -strongly insisted on. - -[Footnote 128: 2 Kings 18. 28-35; 19. 10, 34.] - -Now it is inconceivable that this could have been written after -Jerusalem had been captured by Nebuchadnezzar in _B.C._ 598; though -there is no real inconsistency in God's preserving the city in the -one case, and not in the other. For Nebuchadnezzar is always -represented as being, though unconsciously, God's servant in -punishing the Jews; while Sennacherib openly defied Jehovah. - -Then comes the sudden destruction of the Assyrian army, probably by -pestilence;[129] and the extreme fitness of this, after -Sennacherib's challenge, must be obvious to everyone. Moreover, such -a very public event, if untrue, could not have been recorded till -long afterwards; yet, as we have seen, the narrative could not have -been written long afterwards. Sennacherib does not of course allude -to it himself in his inscriptions, for kings never like to record -their own defeats; but this is no reason for doubting that it -occurred, especially as it is confirmed by the Babylonian historian -Berosus.[130] And even Sennacherib himself, though he mentions the -campaign, and says that he shut up Hezekiah in Jerusalem, never -claims to have taken the city. - -[Footnote 129: Comp. 2 Kings 19. 35; 1 Chron. 21. 12.] - -[Footnote 130: Quoted by Josephus, Antiq. x. 1.] - -We need not examine the other miracles in detail, since the argument -is much the same in every case. They are all said to have occurred -on important and critical occasions when, if we admit miracles at -all, they would be most suitable. They are all said to have been -_public_ miracles, either actually worked before crowds of persons, -or else so affecting public men that their truth or otherwise must -have been well-known at the time. And they were all of such a kind -that any mistake or fraud as to their occurrence was out of the -question. It is, then, on the face of it, most unlikely that -miracles, _such as these_, should have been recorded unless they -were true. Indeed, if the Old Testament books were written by -contemporaries, or even within a century of the events they relate, -it is very difficult to deny their occurrence. We decide, therefore, -that the _history_ of the Jewish Religion was _confirmed by -miracles_. - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -THAT ITS HISTORY WAS CONFIRMED BY PROPHECIES. - - (_A._) GENERAL PROPHECIES. - - Three examples considered: - - (1.) The desolation of Assyria and Babylonia. - (2.) The degradation of Egypt. - (3.) The dispersion of the Jews, including the Roman siege - of Jerusalem. - - (_B._) SPECIAL PROPHECIES. - - List of eight important ones: a single example, the destruction - of Jerusalem by the Babylonians considered in - detail; some general remarks. - - (_C._) CONCLUSION. - - The cumulative nature of the evidence. - - -We pass on now to the Jewish Prophecies. It should be explained at -starting that the word _prophecy_ is used here in the sense of -_prediction_; and not as it often is, in the Bible, to include -various kinds of teaching. And the prophecies may be divided into -two classes, general and special. - - -(_A._) GENERAL PROPHECIES. - -We will consider the General Prophecies first, the most important of -which concern the Jews themselves, and their great neighbours -Assyria and Babylonia, on the one hand, and Egypt on the other. All -these nations had existed for centuries, and there was nothing to -indicate what was to be their future; yet the prophets foretold it, -and with remarkable accuracy. - -(1.) _The desolation of Assyria and Babylonia._ - -And first as to Assyria and Babylonia. The future of these countries -was to be utter _desolation_. The kingdoms were to be destroyed, the -land was to become a wilderness, and the cities to be entirely -forsaken. We read repeatedly that they were to be desolate _for -ever_; and though this cannot be pressed as meaning literally for -all eternity, it certainly implies a long duration.[131] A single -passage referring to each may be quoted at length. - -[Footnote 131: Isa. 13. 19-22; 14. 22, 23; Jer. 50. 13, 39, 40; 51. -26, 37, 43; Nahum 3. 7; Zeph. 2. 13-14.] - -Thus Zephaniah says of Assyria, 'And he will stretch out his hand -against the north, and destroy Assyria; and will make Nineveh a -desolation, and dry like the wilderness. And herds shall lie down in -the midst of her, all the beasts of the nations; both the pelican -and the porcupine shall lodge in the chapiters thereof [the capitals -of the fallen columns]: their voice shall sing in the windows; -desolation shall be in the thresholds: for he hath laid bare the -cedar work.' - -And Isaiah says of Babylon, 'And Babylon, the glory of kingdoms, the -beauty of the Chaldean's pride, shall be as when God overthrew Sodom -and Gomorrah. It shall never be inhabited, neither shall it be dwelt -in from generation to generation; neither shall the Arabian pitch -tent there; neither shall shepherds make their flocks to lie down -there. But wild beasts of the desert shall lie there; and their -houses shall be full of doleful creatures; and ostriches shall dwell -there, and satyrs [or goats] shall dance there. And wolves shall cry -in their castles, and jackals in the pleasant palaces: and her time -is near to come, and her days shall not be prolonged.' - -It seems needless to comment on prophecies so plain and -straightforward. Nor need we insist at any length on their exact -fulfilment; it is obvious to everyone. For two thousand years -history has verified them. The utter desolation of these countries -is without a parallel: the empires have vanished, the once populous -land is deserted, and the cities are heaps of ruins, often the dens -of wild beasts,--lions, hyænas, and jackals having all been seen -among the ruins of Babylon. In short, the prophecies have been -fulfilled in a manner which is, to say the least, very remarkable. - -(2.) _The degradation of Egypt._ - -Next as to Egypt. The future foretold of this country was not -desolation but _degradation_. Ezekiel tells us it was to become a -_base kingdom_, and he adds, 'It shall be the basest of the -kingdoms; neither shall it any more lift itself up above the -nations: and I will diminish them, that they shall no more rule over -the nations.'[132] And here also prophecy has been turned into -history. The permanent degradation of Egypt is a striking fact which -cannot be disputed. When the prophets wrote, Egypt had on the whole -been a powerful and independent kingdom for some thousands of years: -but it has never been so since. Persians, Greeks, Romans, Byzantine -Greeks, Saracens, Memlooks, Turks, and we may now add British, have -in turn been its masters; but it has been the master of no one. It -has never more _ruled over the nations_ as it used to do for so many -centuries. Its history in this respect has been unique--an -unparalleled period of prosperity followed by an unparalleled period -of degradation. - -[Footnote 132: Ezek. 29. 15.] - -With such an obvious fulfilment of the main prophecy, it seems -needless to insist on any of its details, though some of these are -sufficiently striking. Thus, we are told, _Her cities shall be in -the midst of the cities that are wasted_.[133] And though it is -doubtful to what period this refers, no more accurate description -can be given of the present cities of Egypt, such as Cairo, than -that they are in the midst of the cities that are wasted, such as -Memphis, Bubastis, and Tanis. While a few verses farther on we read, -_There shall be no more a prince out of the land of Egypt_; yet, -when this passage was written, there had been independent Egyptian -sovereigns, off and on, from the very dawn of history. But there -have been none since. Stress, however, is not laid on details like -these, some of which are admittedly obscure, such as the forty -years' desolation of the land with the scattering of its -inhabitants;[134] but rather on the broad fact that Egypt was not to -be destroyed like Assyria and Babylonia, but to be _degraded_, and -that this has actually been its history. - -[Footnote 133: Ezek. 30. 7, 13.] - -[Footnote 134: Ezek. 29. 11-13.] - -(3.) _The dispersion of the Jews._ - -Lastly, as to the Jews. Their future was to be neither desolation, -nor degradation, but _dispersion_. This is asserted over and over -again. They were to be scattered among the nations, and dispersed -through the countries; to be wanderers among the nations; sifted -among all nations; tossed to and fro among all the kingdoms of the -earth; and scattered among all peoples from one end of the earth -even unto the other end of the earth.[135] - -[Footnote 135: Ezek. 22. 15; Hos. 9. 17; Amos 9. 9; Deut. 28. 25, -64; see also Deut. 4. 27; Neh. 1. 8; Jer. 9. 16.] - -Moreover, in their dispersion they were to be subjected to continual -_suffering_ and _persecution_. They were to become a proverb, and a -byword among all people. Their curses were to be upon them, for a -sign and for a wonder, and upon their seed for ever. They were to -have a yoke of iron upon their necks; and to have the sword drawn -out after them in all lands, etc. Yet, in spite of all this, they -were not to be absorbed into other nations, but to remain -_distinct_. They and their seed _for ever_ were to be a separate -people, a sign and a wonder at all times; and God would never make a -full end of _them_, as He would of the nations among whom they were -scattered. Indeed heaven and earth were to pass away, rather than -the Jews cease to be a distinct people.[136] - -[Footnote 136: Deut. 28. 37, 46, 48; Lev. 26. 33; Jer. 24. 9; 29. -18; 30. 11; 31. 35-37.] - -And here again history has exactly agreed with prophecy. The fate of -the Jews, since the destruction of Jerusalem in A.D. 70, has -actually been _dispersion_, and this to an extent which is quite -unique. It has been combined, moreover, with incessant suffering and -persecution, yet they have always remained a separate people. The -Jews are still everywhere, though the Jewish nation is nowhere. They -are present in all countries, but with a home in none, having been -literally _scattered among the nations_. - -We will now examine a single passage in detail, and select the -latter part of Deut. 28. The whole chapter is indeed full of -prophecies as to the future condition of the Jews, some of which -seem to point to the Babylonian captivity, (_e.g._, v. 36); but -after this we come to another and final catastrophe in v. 49. This -evidently begins a fresh subject, which is continued without a break -till the end of the chapter. And it is specially interesting -because, not only is the world-wide dispersion of the Jews, and -their continual sufferings, clearly foretold; but also the _previous -war_ which led up to it. We have, as is well known, a full account -of this in the history of Josephus, and as he never alludes to the -prophecy himself (except in the most general terms), his evidence is -above suspicion. - - Ver. 49. First of all the conquerors themselves are described - as a nation _from far, from the end of the earth, as the eagle - flieth, a nation whose tongue thou shalt not understand_, etc. - And this is very applicable to the Romans, whose general, - Vespasian, had come from Britain, and their troops from various - countries, who had the eagle as their standard, and whose - language, Latin, was unknown to most of the Jews. - - 50. And the merciless way in which these fierce warriors were - to spare neither old nor young was painfully true in their - treatment of the Jews. - - 51. And they also of course destroyed or confiscated their - property. - - 52. Then the war is foretold as one of _sieges_ (he shall - _besiege_ thee in all thy gates), rather than of open battles. - And this was certainly the case, since a large number of - towns, including Jotapata, Gamala, Masada, and Jerusalem - itself, suffered terrible sieges. And these were to be - continued _till the high walls came down_, which is very - appropriate to the Roman battering rams that were actually used - at all these places. - - 53. Then we have the dreadful famine, due to the severity (or - _straitness_) of the siege, evidently the great siege, that of - Jerusalem. This is strongly insisted on, being repeated three - times, and it was to drive the wretched inhabitants to - cannibalism of the most revolting kind, which it actually did. - - 54. It was also to lead to considerable strife _within the - city_; even between members of the same family. And this, - though by no means common in all sieges, was abundantly - fulfilled in the case of Jerusalem. - - 55. And they were to grudge their nearest relatives a morsel of - food; which again exactly agrees with Josephus, who says that - parents would fight with their own children for pieces of food. - - 56. And all this was to be the fate, not only of the poor; but, - what is very remarkable, and perhaps unique in the world's - history, of the _wealthy_ also. It was even to include one - instance at least (perhaps several) of a lady of high position. - She is described as not _setting her foot upon the ground_; - which means that she was accustomed to be carried about in a - chair, or ride on an ass; and was therefore rich enough to buy - anything that could be bought. - - 57. And she was to _eat her own children secretly_. Here was - the climax of their sufferings. Yet this very detail, so - unlikely to have occurred, and so unlikely to have been - discovered if it did occur (as it was to be done secretly), is - fully confirmed by Josephus. For he mentions one instance that - actually was discovered, in which a lady _eminent for her - family and wealth_ (Mary, the daughter of Eleazar) had secretly - eaten half her own child.[137] - - [Footnote 137: Wars, vi. 3.] - - 58. And these miseries were to come upon the Jews for their - disobedience of God's laws; and again Josephus says that - their wickedness at this time was so great that if the Romans - had not destroyed their city, he thinks it would have been - swallowed up by the earth.[138] - - [Footnote: 138: Wars, v. 13.] - - 59. Moreover, the plagues of themselves, and of their seed, - were to be _wonderful, even great plagues, and of long - continuance_. And no one who has read the account of the siege, - and the subsequent treatment of the Jews, will think the - description at all exaggerated. - - 60. And the people are specially threatened with _the diseases - of Egypt, which thou wast afraid of_, and this, as said in - Chapter IX., implies that the passage was written soon after - the people left Egypt, and therefore centuries before any siege - or dispersion. - - 61. And it was to end, as it actually did end, in the - destruction of the nation, _until thou be destroyed_. - - 62. While the Jews that survived were to be left comparatively - _few in number_; which was certainly the case, even allowing - that the statement of Josephus that 600,000 perished in the - siege may be an exaggeration. - - 63. And these were to be forcibly expelled from the land of - Canaan, which they were just about to conquer. And they - actually were so expelled by the Romans, partly after this war, - and still more so after their rebellion in A.D. 134, when for - many centuries scarcely any Jews were allowed to live in their - own country, an event probably unique in history. - - 64. But instead of being taken away to a single nation, as at - the Babylonian captivity, they were now to be scattered over - the whole world, _among all peoples, from one end of the earth, - even unto the other end of the earth_. And how marvellously - this has been fulfilled is obvious to everyone. No mention is - made of a _king_ here, as in ver. 36; so while that suits the - Babylonian captivity, this suits the later dispersion, though - in each case there is a reference to their serving other gods, - for which it must be admitted there is very little evidence. - - 65. Then we have the further _sufferings_ that the Jews were to - undergo in their dispersion. Among these nations they were to - find _no ease, nor rest for the sole of their foot_, but were - to have _a trembling heart, and failing of eyes, and pining of - soul_. And here, again, the event is as strange as the - prophecy. Nowhere else shall we find a parallel to it. For - centuries the Jews were not only persecuted, but were often - expelled from one country to another, so that they found _no - rest_ anywhere, but were driven from city to city, and from - kingdom to kingdom. - - 66. And their life was to hang in doubt night and day; - - 67. And they were to be in a continual state of fear and alarm; - all of which was completely fulfilled. - - 68. Lastly, we read, that some of the Jews, instead of being - dispersed, were to be _brought to Egypt again with ships_, and - to be in bondage there. And this also came true, after the - siege, when many of the Jews were sold for slaves, and sent to - the mines in Egypt, probably in slave ships. - -Everyone must admit that the agreement all through is very -remarkable; in fact, the prophecies about the dispersion of the -Jews--and we have only examined a single instance in detail--are -even more striking than those about the desolation of Assyria and -Babylonia, or the degradation of Egypt. And to fully realise their -importance, let us suppose that anyone _now_ were to foretell the -future of three great nations, saying that one was to be utterly -destroyed, and the land desolated; another to sink to be a base -kingdom; and the third to be conquered and its inhabitants forcibly -expelled, and scattered over the whole world. What chance would -there be of any one of the prophecies (leave alone all three) coming -true, and _remaining true for two thousand years_? Yet this would be -but a similar case. - -What conclusion, then, must be drawn from all these prophecies, so -clear in their general meaning, so distinctive in their character, -so minute in many of their details, so unlikely at the time they -were written, and yet one and all so exactly fulfilled? There appear -to be only three alternatives. Either they must have been random -_guesses_, which certainly seems incredible. Or else they must have -been due to deep _foresight_ on the part of the writers, which seems -equally so; for the writers had had no experience of the permanent -desolation of great empires like Assyria and Babylonia, while as to -the fate of Egypt and the Jews themselves, history afforded no -parallel. Or else, lastly, the writers must have had _revealed_ to -them what the future of these nations would be; in which case, and -in which case alone, all is plain. - - -(_B._) SPECIAL PROPHECIES. - -We pass on now to the Special Prophecies. These are found all -through the Old Testament, the following being eight of the most -important. - -The fact that David's throne should always be held by his -descendants, _i.e._, till the captivity, about 450 years;[139] and -its fulfilment is specially remarkable when contrasted with the -rival kingdom of Samaria, where the dynasty changed eight or nine -times in 250 years. - -[Footnote 139: 2 Sam. 7. 12-16; 1 Kings 9. 4, 5.] - -The division of the kingdom into ten and two tribes, evidently -announced at the time, since Jeroboam had to go away in consequence, -and apparently the reason why the rebels were not attacked.[140] - -[Footnote 140: 1 Kings 11. 31, 40; 12. 24.] - -The destruction, rebuilding, and final destruction of the Temple; -the first of these prophecies being made so publicly that it caused -quite a commotion, and nearly cost the prophet his life.[141] - -[Footnote 141: Jer. 26. 8-16; Isa. 44. 28; Dan. 9. 26.] - -The destruction of the altar at Bethel, which was set up as a rival -to that at Jerusalem; publicly announced some centuries before, -including the name of the destroyer.[142] - -[Footnote 142: 1 Kings 13. 2; 2 Kings 23. 15, 16.] - -The destruction of Israel by the Assyrians.[143] - -[Footnote 143: 1 Kings 14. 15; Isa. 8. 4.] - -The destruction of Jerusalem by the Babylonians.[144] - -[Footnote 144: 2 Kings 20. 17.] - -The captivity of the Jews, including its duration of seventy years, -their most unlikely restoration, and the name of the restorer.[145] - -[Footnote 145: Jer. 29. 10; Isa. 44. 28.] - -The wars between Syria and Egypt.[146] - -[Footnote 146: Dan. 11.] - -We will examine a single instance in detail, and select that -referring to the _destruction of Jerusalem_ by the Babylonians, as -this is connected with one of the miracles mentioned in the last -chapter, _the shadow on the dial_. Now, it will be remembered that, -on one occasion, the Jewish King Hezekiah was seriously ill, and on -being told of his unexpected recovery, he naturally asked for a -_sign_. And then in accordance with his demand the shadow on his -dial went back ten _steps_.[147] - -[Footnote 147: 2 Kings 20. 8-11 (margin, R.V.); Isa. 38. 8.] - -This _dial_ was evidently a flight of steps, with some object on the -top, perhaps an obelisk, which threw a shadow on a gradually -increasing number of these as the sun set. And a sudden vibration -of the ground, due perhaps to an earthquake, and causing the obelisk -to slope to one side, would quite account for the shadow _going -backward_, and leaving some of the steps which it had covered. And -the narrative certainly implies that the effect was sudden, and -apparently limited to this one dial. - -It seems, however, to have attracted considerable attention; since -messengers came from Babylon to _enquire about it_, and to -congratulate the King on his recovery.[148] And if the sloping -obelisk, and perhaps broken steps, were still visible, this would be -much more natural than if there was nothing left for them to see. -Though in any case, as they called it the wonder that was done _in -the land_, it evidently was not noticed elsewhere, and must have -been due to some local cause. And we may ask, how could any writer -have asserted all this, even a century afterwards, if no such sign -had occurred? - -[Footnote 148: 2 Chron. 32. 24, 31.] - -We are then told that Hezekiah showed these messengers all his -treasures, which leads up to the _prophecy_ that the treasures -should be carried away and Jerusalem destroyed by these very -Babylonians. This is introduced in the most natural way possible, as -a rebuke to the king for his proud display; and it is difficult to -consider it a later insertion. Yet the event could not have been -humanly foreseen. For Babylon was then but a comparatively small and -friendly nation, shortly to be absorbed into Assyria (in B.C. 689), -and only when it regained its independence nearly a century later -did it become strong enough to cause any fear to the Jews. - -We need not discuss the other prophecies at length, since that they -all refer to the events in question is generally admitted. Indeed, -in some cases, owing to the mention of names and details, it can -scarcely be denied. Therefore those who disbelieve in prophecy have -no alternative but to say that they were all written _after the -event_. - -At this lapse of time it is difficult to prove or disprove such a -statement. But it must be remembered that to say that any apparent -prophecies were written after the event is not merely to destroy -their superhuman character, and bring them down to the level of -ordinary writings, but far below it. For ordinary writings do not -contain wilful falsehoods, yet every pretended prophecy written -after the event cannot possibly be regarded in any other light. The -choice then lies between _real prophecies_ and _wilful forgeries_. -There is no other alternative. And bearing this in mind, we must -ask, is it likely that men of such high moral character as the -Jewish prophets would have been guilty of such gross imposture? Is -it likely that, if guilty of it, they would have been able to pass -it off successfully on the whole nation? And is it likely that they -would have had any sufficient motive to induce them to make the -attempt? - -Moreover, many of these prophecies are stated to have been made _in -public_, and to have been talked about, and well known long before -their fulfilment. And it is hard to see how this could have been -asserted unless it was the case, or how it could have been the case -unless they were superhuman. - -It should also be noticed that in Deuteronomy the occurrence of some -definite and specified event is given as the _test_ of a prophet, -and one of the later prophets (Isaiah) appeals to this very test. -For he challenges the false prophets to foretell future events, and -repeatedly declares that this was the mark of a true prophet.[149] -And it is inconceivable that men should thus court defeat by -themselves proposing a test which would have shown that they were -nothing more than impostors. Yet this would have been the case if -all their so-called prophecies had been written after the events. - -[Footnote 149: Deut. 18. 22; Isa. 41. 22; 44. 8; 48. 3-5; see also -Deut. 13. 1-3.] - - -(_C._) CONCLUSION. - -In concluding this chapter, we must notice the _cumulative nature_ -of the evidence. The prophecies we have referred to, like the -miracles in the last chapter, are but specimens, a few out of many -which might be given. This is very important, and its bearing on our -present argument is naturally twofold. - -In the first place, it does not increase, and in some respects -rather decreases, the difficulty of believing them to be true, for -thirty miracles or prophecies, provided they occur on suitable -occasions, are scarcely more difficult to believe than three. And -the number recorded in the Old Testament shows that, instead of -being mere isolated marvels, they form a complete series. Their -object was to instruct the Jews, and through them the rest of the -world, in the great truths of Natural Religion, such as the -existence of One Supreme God, Who was shown to be _All-Powerful_ by -the miracles, _All-Wise_ by the prophecies, and _All-Good_ by His -rewarding and punishing men and nations alike for their deeds. And -when we thus regard them as confirming a Revelation, which was for -the benefit of the whole human race, they lose a good deal of their -improbability. Indeed many who now believe Natural Religion alone, -and reject all revelation, would probably never have believed even -this, but for the Bible. - -On the other hand, the number and variety of these alleged events -greatly increases the difficulty of any _other_ explanation; for -thirty miracles or prophecies are far more difficult to _disbelieve_ -than three. A successful fraud might take place once, but not often. -An imitation miracle might be practised once, but not often. -Spurious prophecies might be mistaken for genuine once, but not -often. Yet, if none of these events are true, such frauds and such -deceptions must have been practised, and practised successfully, -over and over again. In fact, the Old Testament must be a collection -of the most dishonest books ever written, for it is full of miracles -and prophecies from beginning to end; and it is hard to exaggerate -the immense _moral_ difficulty which this involves. - -Many of the Jewish prophets, as before said, teach the highest moral -virtues; and the Jewish religion, especially in its later days, is -admittedly of high moral character. It seems, then, to be almost -incredible that its sacred writings should be merely a collection of -spurious prophecies uttered after the event, and false miracles -which never occurred. We therefore decide in this chapter that the -_history_ of the Jewish religion _was confirmed by prophecies_. - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -THAT THE JEWISH RELIGION IS PROBABLY TRUE. - - Only two subjects remain to be discussed. - - (_A._) THE EXISTENCE OF ANGELS. - - No difficulty here, nor as to their influence. - - (_B._) THE CHARACTER OF GOD. - - The Jewish idea of God often thought to be defective. - - (1.) Its partiality; but any revelation must be more or - less partial. - (2.) Its human element; we must, however, use analogies - of some kind when speaking of God, and human - analogies are the least inappropriate. - (3.) Its moral defects; since God is shown as approving - of wicked men, ordering wicked deeds, and sanctioning - wicked customs; but these difficulties are not - so great as they seem. - (4.) Its general excellence. On the other hand, the Jews - firmly believed in Monotheism, and had the highest - mental and moral conception of God; so that their - God was the true God, the God of Natural Religion. - - (_C._) CONCLUSION. - - Four further arguments; the Jewish Religion is probably - true. - - -We have been considering in the previous chapters several strong -arguments in favour of the Jewish Religion; and before concluding we -must of course notice _any_ adverse arguments which we have not -already dealt with. The only two of any importance refer to the -Existence of Angels, and the Character ascribed to God; so we will -consider these first, and then conclude with some general remarks. - - -(_A._) THE EXISTENCE OF ANGELS. - -Now the Old Testament always takes for granted the existence and -influence of angels, yet at the present day this is often thought to -be a difficulty. But as to the mere _existence_ of angels, there is -no difficulty whatever. For the whole analogy of nature would teach -us that since there are numerous beings in the scale of life below -man, so there would be some beings above man--that is to say, -between him and the Supreme Being. And this is rendered still more -probable when we reflect on the small intervals there are in the -descending scale, and the immense interval there would be in the -ascending scale if man were the next highest being in the universe -to God. - -And that these higher beings should be entirely _spiritual_, _i.e._, -without material bodies, and therefore beyond scientific discovery, -is not improbable. Indeed, considering that man's superiority to -lower beings lies in this very fact of his having a partly spiritual -nature, the idea that higher beings may be entirely spiritual is -even probable. And though it is difficult for us to imagine how -angels can see, or hear without a material body, it is really no -more difficult than imagining how we can do it with a body. Take for -instance the case of seeing. Neither the eye nor the brain sees, -they are mere collections of molecules of matter, and how can a -molecule see anything? It is the _man himself_, the _personal -being_, who in some mysterious way sees by means of both eyes and -brain; and for all we know he might see just as well without them. -And the same applies in other cases. - -Then that angels should have as great, if not greater, intellectual -and moral faculties than man seems certain; otherwise they would not -be higher beings at all. And this necessitates their having _free -will_, with the option of choosing good or evil. And that, like men, -some should choose one, and some the other, seems equally probable. -Hence the _existence_ of both good and evil angels presents no -difficulty. And that the good angels should have a leader, or -captain (called in the Old Testament, Michael), and that the evil -angels should have one too (called Satan) is only what we should -expect. - -Next, as to their _influence_. Now that good angels should wish to -influence men for good, and might occasionally be employed by God -for that purpose, scarcely seems improbable. While, on the other -hand, that evil angels should wish to act, as evil men act, in -tempting others to do wrong, is again only what we should expect. -And that God should allow them to do so is no harder to believe than -that He should allow evil men to do the same. - -It may still be objected however that we have no actual _evidence_ -as to the influence of angels at the present day. But this is at -least doubtful. For what evidence could we expect to have? We could -not expect to have any physical sensation, or anything capable of -scientific investigation, for angels, if they exist at all, are -spiritual beings. If, then, they were to influence man, say, by -tempting him to do evil, all we could know would be the sudden -presence of some evil thought in our minds, without, as far as we -could judge, any previous cause for it. And who will assert that -this is an unknown experience? Yet if it is known, does it not -constitute all the proof we could expect of the action of an evil -spirit? And of course the same applies to good spirits. There is -thus no difficulty as to the existence, and influence of angels. - - -(_B._) THE CHARACTER OF GOD. - -We pass on now to the Character ascribed to God in the Old -Testament, first considering its difficulties, under the three heads -of its _partiality_, its _human element_, and its _moral defects_; -and then what can be said on the other side as to its _general -excellence_. - -(1.) _Its partiality._ - -The objection here is that God is the just God of all mankind, and -it is therefore incredible that He should have selected a single -nation like the Jews to be His special favourites, more particularly -as His alleged attempt to make them a holy people proved such a -hopeless failure. While it is further urged that the very fact of -the Jews believing Jehovah to be their special God shows that they -regarded Him as a mere national God, bearing the same relation to -themselves as the gods of other nations did to them. - -But, as said in Chapter VI., any revelation implies a certain -_partiality_ to the men or nation to whom it is given; though it is -not on that account incredible. And there is certainly no reason why -the Jews should not have been the nation chosen, and some slight -reason why they should; for their ancestor Abraham was not selected -without a cause. He did, partly at least, deserve it, since, judging -by the only accounts we have, he showed the most perfect obedience -to God in his willingness to sacrifice Isaac. It must also be -remembered that God's so-called partiality to the Jews did not imply -any indulgence to them in the sense of overlooking their faults. On -the contrary, He is represented all along as blaming and punishing -them, just as much as other nations, for their sins. - -Next, as to God's purpose in regard to the Jews having been a -_failure_. This is only partly true. No doubt they were, on the -whole, a sinful nation; but they were not worse than, or even so bad -as, the nations around them; it was only the fact of their being the -chosen race that made their sins so serious. They had free will, -just as men have now; and if they chose to misuse their freedom and -act wrong, that was not God's fault. - -Moreover, the Jewish nation was not selected merely for its own -sake, but for the sake of all mankind; as is expressly stated at the -very commencement, '_In thee shall all the families of the earth be -blessed_.'[150] Thus God did not select the Jews, and reject other -nations; but He selected the Jews in order that through them He -might bless other nations. The religious welfare of the whole world -was God's purpose from the beginning; and the Jews were merely the -means chosen for bringing it about. And to a great extent the -purpose has been fulfilled; for however sinful the nation may have -been, they preserved and handed on God's revelation, and the Old -Testament remains, and will always remain, as a permanent and -priceless treasure of religion. - -[Footnote 150: Gen. 12. 3.] - -The last part of the objection may be dismissed at once. For if the -Jews regarded Jehovah as their special God, it was merely because He -had specially _selected_ them to be His people. He must therefore -have had a power of choice, and might, if He pleased, have selected -some other nation, so He could not have been a mere national God, -but the God of all nations with power to select among them. And this -is distinctly asserted by many of the writers.[151] - -[Footnote 151: _E.g._, Exod. 19. 5; Deut. 32. 8; 2 Chron. 20. 6; -Isa. 37. 16.] - -We conclude, then, that God's so-called partiality to the Jews does -not, when carefully considered, form a great difficulty. To put it -shortly, if a revelation is given at all, some individuals must be -selected to receive it; if it is given gradually (and God's methods -in nature are always those of gradual development) these men would -probably belong to a single nation; and if one nation had to be -selected, there is no reason why the Jews should not have been the -one chosen. While, if they were selected for the purpose of handing -on God's revelation to the world at large, the purpose has been -completely successful. - -(2.) _Its human element._ - -The next difficulty, is that the Jewish idea of God was thoroughly -_human_, the Deity being represented as a great _Man_, with human -form, feelings, attributes, and imperfections. Thus He has hands -and arms, eyes and ears; He is at times glad or sorry, angry or -jealous; He moves about from place to place; and sometimes repents -of what He has done, thus showing, it is urged, a want of foresight, -on His part. And all this is plainly inconsistent with the character -of the immaterial, omnipresent, omniscient God of Nature. The answer -to this objection is twofold. - -In the first place, we must of necessity use analogies of some kind -when speaking of God, and _human_ analogies are not only the easiest -to understand, but are also the least inappropriate, since, as we -have shown, man resembles God in that he is a personal and moral -being. Therefore likening God to man is not so degrading as likening -Him to mere natural forces. Such expressions, then, must always be -considered as descriptions drawn from human analogies, which must -not be pressed literally. - -While, secondly, it is plain that the Jewish writers themselves so -understood them, for they elsewhere describe the Deity in the most -exalted language, as will be shown later on. And this is strongly -confirmed by the remarkable fact that the Jews, unlike other ancient -nations, had no material idol or representation of their God. Inside -both the tabernacle and the temple there was the holy of holies with -the mercy seat, but no one sat on it. An empty throne was all that -the shrine contained. Their Jehovah was essentially an invisible -God, who could not be represented by any human or other form; and -this alone seems a sufficient answer to the present objection. - -(3.) _Its moral defects._ - -Lastly as to the supposed moral defects in God's Character. The -three most important are that God is frequently represented as -approving of wicked men, as ordering wicked deeds, and even in His -own laws as sanctioning wicked customs. We will consider these -points in turn. - -And first as to God's _approving of wicked men_; that is, of men who -committed the greatest crimes, such as Jacob and David. This is -easily answered, since approving of a man does not mean approving of -_everything_ he does. The case of David affords a convincing example -of this; for though he is represented as a man after God's own -heart, yet we are told that God was so extremely displeased with one -of his acts that He punished him for it severely, in causing his -child to die. In the same way no one supposes that God approved of -Jacob because of his treachery, but in spite of it; and even in his -treachery, he was only carrying out (and with apparent reluctance) -the orders of his mother.[152] Moreover, in estimating a man's -character, his education and surroundings have always to be taken -into account. And if the conduct of one man living in an immoral age -is far better than that of his contemporaries, he may be worthy of -praise, though similar conduct at the present day might not deserve -it. - -[Footnote 152: Gen. 27. 8-13.] - -And if it be asked what there was in the character of these men, and -many others, to counterbalance their obvious crimes, the answer is -plain; it was their intense belief in the spiritual world. The -existence of One Supreme God, and their personal responsibility to -Him, were realities to them all through life; so, in spite of many -faults, they still deserved to be praised. - -Next as to God's _ordering wicked deeds_. In all cases of this kind -it is important to distinguish between a man's personal acts, and -his official ones. At the present day the judge who condemns a -criminal, and the executioner who hangs him are not looked upon as -murderers. And the same principle applies universally. Now in the -Old Testament the Jews are represented as living under the immediate -rule of God. Therefore when a man, or body of men, had to be -punished for their crimes, He commanded some prophet or king, or -perhaps the whole people, to carry out the sentence. And of course, -if they failed to do so they were blamed, just as we should blame a -hangman at the present day who failed to do his duty. Thus, in the -case of _destroying the Canaanites_, which is the instance most -often objected to, the people were told, in the plainest terms, that -they were only acting as God's ministers, and that if they became as -bad as the Canaanites, who were a horribly polluted race, God would -have them destroyed as well.[153] - -[Footnote 153: _E.g._, Lev. 18. 21-28; Deut. 9. 5.] - -A more serious objection is that God is occasionally represented as -if He Himself _caused_ men to do wrong, such as His _hardening -Pharaoh's heart_.[154] But, as we shall see later on, the Bible -often speaks of everything that occurs, whether good or evil, as -being, in a certain sense, God's doing. And since the writer -asserts more than once that Pharaoh hardened his own heart, there -can be little doubt that he intended the two expressions to mean the -same. Indeed the whole narrative represents Pharaoh as extremely -obstinate in the matter, refusing to listen even to his own -people.[155] - -[Footnote 154: _E.g._, Exod. 14. 4.] - -[Footnote 155: Exod. 8. 15, 32; 9. 34; 10. 3, 7.] - -Thirdly, as to God's _sanctioning wicked customs_. The most -important is that of _human sacrifice_; but it is very doubtful -whether the passages relied on do sanction this custom;[156] since -it is clearly laid down elsewhere that the firstborn of _men_ are -never to be sacrificed, but are always to be redeemed.[157] Moreover -human sacrifices among other nations are strongly condemned, in one -passage Jehovah expressly saying that they were not to be offered -to Him.[158] It is, however, further urged that we have two -actual instances of such sacrifices in regard to _Isaac_ and -_Jephthah_.[159] But Jephthah had evidently no idea when he made his -vow that it would involve the sacrifice of his daughter; and there -is nothing to show that it was in any way acceptable to God. - -[Footnote 156: Exod. 22. 29, 30; Lev. 27. 28, 29.] - -[Footnote 157: Exod. 13. 13; 34. 20; Num. 18. 15.] - -[Footnote 158: Deut. 12. 31.] - -[Footnote 159: Gen. 22; Judg. 11. 39.] - -In the case of _Isaac_ we have the one instance in which God did -order a human sacrifice; but then He specially intervened to prevent -the order from being carried out. And the whole affair, the command -and the counter-command, must of course be taken together. It was -required to test Abraham's faith to the utmost, therefore as he -most valued his son, he was told to offer him. And since children -were then universally regarded as property, and at the absolute -disposal of their parents, human sacrifices being by no means -uncommon, the command, however distressing to his heart, would have -formed no difficulty to his conscience. But when his faith was found -equal to the trial, God intervened, as He had of course intended -doing all along, to prevent Isaac from being actually slain. - -With regard to the other practices, such as _slavery_, and -_polygamy_, it is undisputed that they were recognised by the Jewish -laws; but none of them were _instituted_ by these laws. The -Pentateuch neither commands them, nor commends them; it merely -mentions them, and, as a rule, to guard against their abuse. Take, -for instance, the case of slavery. The custom was, and had been for -ages, universal. All that the laws did was to recognise its -existence and to provide certain safeguards; making kidnapping, for -instance, a capital offence, and in some cases ordering the release -of slaves every seventh year.[160] - -[Footnote 160: Exod. 21. 2, 16; Lev. 25. 41.] - -On the other hand, many _worse customs_ existed at the time which -the Jewish laws did absolutely forbid;[161] and they also introduced -a code of morals, summed up in the Decalogue, of such permanent -value that it has been practically accepted by the civilised world. -While the highest of all virtues, that of doing good to one's -_enemies_, which was scarcely known among other nations, is -positively enjoined in the Pentateuch.[162] - -[Footnote 161: _E.g._, Lev. 18-20.] - -[Footnote 162: Exod. 23. 4-5.] - -(4.) _Its general excellence._ - -Having now discussed at some length the alleged difficulties in -God's character, it is only fair to see what can be said on the -other side. And much indeed may be said; for the Jewish conception -of the Deity, when considered as a whole, and apart from these -special difficulties, was one of the noblest ever formed by man. - -To begin with, the Jews firmly believed in _Monotheism_, or the -existence of One Supreme God. This was the essence of their -religion. It is stamped on the first page of Genesis; it is implied -in the Decalogue; it occurs all through the historical books; and it -is emphasised in the Psalms and Prophets; in fact they were never -without it. And in this respect the Jews stood alone among the -surrounding nations. Some others, it is true, believed in a god who -was more or less Supreme; but they always associated with him a -number of lesser deities which really turned their religion into -Polytheism. With the Jews it was not so. Their Jehovah had neither -rivals nor assistants. There were no inferior gods, still less -goddesses. He was the one and only God; and as for the so-called -gods of other nations, they either did not believe in their -existence, or thought them utterly contemptible, and even ridiculed -the idea of their having the slightest power.[163] And it may be -added, this is a subject on which the Jews have become the teachers -of the world, for both the great monotheistic Religions of the -present day, Christianity and Mohammedanism, have been derived from -them. - -[Footnote 163: Deut. 4. 39; 1 Kings 18. 27; 2 Kings 19. 15-18; Ps. -115. 4-8.] - -Moreover, the great problem of the _Existence of Evil_ never led the -Jews, as it did some other nations, into Dualism, or the belief in -an independent Evil Power. Difficult as the problem was, the Jews -never hesitated in their belief that there was but One Supreme God, -and that everything that existed, whether good or evil, existed by -His permission, and was in a certain sense His doing.[164] And they -gave to Him the very highest attributes. - -[Footnote 164: Isa. 45. 7; Prov. 16. 4; Amos 3. 6.] - -They described Him as _Omnipotent_; the Creator, Preserver, and -Possessor of all things, the Cause of all nature, the Sustainer of -all life, Almighty in power, and for Whom nothing is too hard.[165] - -[Footnote 165: Gen. 1. 1; Neh. 9. 6; Gen. 14. 22; Amos 5. 8; Job 12. -10; 1 Chron. 29. 11; Jer. 32. 17.] - -They described Him as _Omniscient_; infinite in understanding, -wonderful in counsel, perfect in knowledge, declaring the end from -the beginning, knowing and foreknowing even the thoughts of -men.[166] - -[Footnote 166: Ps. 147. 5; Isa. 28. 29; Job 37. 16; Isa. 46. 10; -Ezek. 11. 5. Ps. 139. 2.] - -They described Him as _Omnipresent_; filling Heaven and earth, -though contained by neither, existing everywhere, and from Whom -escape is impossible.[167] - -[Footnote 167: Jer. 23. 24; 1 Kings 8. 27; Prov. 15. 3; Ps. 139. 7.] - -They described Him as _Eternal_; the Eternal God, the Everlasting -God, God from everlasting to everlasting, Whose years are -unsearchable, the First and the Last.[168] - -[Footnote 168: Deut. 33. 27; Gen. 21. 33; Ps. 90. 2; Job 36. 26; -Isa. 48. 12.] - -They described Him as _Unchangeable_; the same at all times, ruling -nature by fixed laws, and with Whom a change of purpose is -impossible.[169] - -[Footnote 169: Mal. 3. 6; Ps. 148. 6; Num. 23. 19.] - -And lastly, they described Him as in His true nature _Unknowable_; a -hidden God, far above human understanding.[170] This will be enough -to show the lofty _mental_ conception which the Jews formed of the -Deity. - -[Footnote 170: Isa. 45. 15; Job 11. 7.] - -Now for their _moral_ conception. They believed their God to be not -only infinite in power and wisdom, but, what is more remarkable, -they ascribed to Him the highest moral character. He was not only a -_beneficent_ God, Whose blessings were unnumbered, but He was also a -_righteous_ God. His very Name was Holy, and His hatred of evil is -emphasised all through to such an extent that at times it forms a -difficulty, as in the case of the Canaanites. Thus the _goodness_ -they ascribed to God was a combination of beneficence and -righteousness very similar to what we discussed in Chapter V. - -Moreover, in this respect the God of the Jews was a striking -contrast to the gods of other nations. We have only to compare -Jehovah with Moloch and Baal, or with the Egyptian gods, Ptah and -Ra, or with the classical gods, Jupiter and Saturn, and the -superiority of the Jewish conception of the Deity is beyond dispute. -In particular it may be mentioned that among other nations, even the -god they worshipped as Supreme always had a _female companion_. -Thus we have Baal and Astaroth, Osiris and Isis, Jupiter and Juno, -and many others. It is needless to point out how easily such an idea -led to immorality being mixed up with religion, a vice from which -the Jews were absolutely free. Indeed, few things are more -remarkable, even with this remarkable people, than that in the -innermost shrine of their temple, in the ark just below the -mercy-seat, there was a code of _moral laws_, the _Ten Commandments_. -This was the very centre of their religion, theirgreatest treasure; -and they believed them to have been written by God Himself. - -Nor can it be said that this high conception of the Deity was -confined to the later period of Jewish history. For the above texts -have been purposely selected from all through the Old Testament, and -even Abraham, the remote ancestor of the Jews, seems to have looked -upon it as self-evident that Jehovah, the _Judge of all the earth_, -should _do right_.[171] No wonder, then, believing in such a perfect -Being as this, the Jews, in contrast with most other nations, -thought that their first and great commandment was to _love_ God -rather than to _fear_ Him, that they were each individually -responsible to Him for their conduct, and that every sin was a sin -against God, Who was a Searcher of hearts, and the impartial Judge -of all men.[172] So much, then, for the Jewish conception of the -Deity when considered as a whole and apart from special -difficulties. - -[Footnote 171: Gen. 18. 25.] - -[Footnote 172: Deut. 6. 5; Eccles. 12. 14; Gen. 39. 9; 1 Chron. 28. -9; Job 34. 19.] - -And from this it follows that the Jewish God, Jehovah, was the true -God, the God of Natural Religion, the Being Who is All-Powerful, -All-Wise, and All-Good. Yet strange to say the Jews were not a more -advanced nation than those around them. On the contrary, in the arts -both of peace and war they were vastly inferior to the great nations -of antiquity, but in their conception of the Deity they were vastly -superior; or, as it has been otherwise expressed, they were men in -religion, though children in everything else. And this appears to -many to be a strong argument in favour of their religion. For unless -it had been revealed to them, it is not likely that the Jews alone -among ancient nations would have had such a true conception of the -Deity. And unless they were in some special sense God's people, it -is not likely that they alone would have worshipped Him. - -(_C._) CONCLUSION. - -Before concluding this chapter, we must notice four arguments of a -more general character; all of which are undisputed, and all of -which are distinctly in favour of the Jewish Religion. The first is -that the Jews are all descended from _one man_, Abraham. They have -always maintained this themselves, and there seems no reason to -doubt it. Yet it is very remarkable. There are now about _sixteen -hundred_ million persons in the world, and if there were at the time -of Abraham (say) _one_ million men (_i.e._, males), each of these -would, on an average, have 1,600 descendants now.[173] But the Jews -now number, not 1,600, but over 12,000,000. This extraordinary -posterity would be strange in any case, but is doubly so, -considering that it was foretold. It was part of the great promise -made to Abraham, for his great faith, that his seed should be as -_the stars of heaven_, and as _the sand which is upon the sea-shore_ -for multitude.[174] - -[Footnote 173: _I.e._, descendants in the male line; descendants -through daughters are of course not counted.] - -[Footnote 174: Gen. 22. 17.] - -The second is that the Jews are anyhow _a unique nation_. For -centuries, though scattered throughout the world, they have been -held together by their religion. And according to the Bible, their -religion was given them for this very purpose, it was to make them a -_peculiar people_, unlike everyone else.[175] If then it was, as far -as it went, the true religion, revealed by God, the fact is -explicable; but if it was nothing better than other ancient and -false religions, it is hopelessly inexplicable. - -[Footnote 175: Deut. 14. 2; 26. 18.] - -The third is that the early history of the Jews, either real or -supposed, has exerted a greater and more beneficial influence on the -world for the last thousand years, than that of all the great -nations of antiquity put together. Millions of men have been helped -to resist sin by the Psalms of David, and the stories of Elijah, -Daniel, etc., over whom the histories of Egypt and Assyria, Greece, -and Rome, have had no influence whatever. And the _effect_ of the -Religion being thus unique, makes it probable that its _cause_ was -unique also; in other words, that it was Divinely revealed. - -The fourth is that the Jews themselves always prophesied that their -God, Jehovah, would one day be universally acknowledged.[176] And -(however strange we may think it) this has actually been the case; -and the God of this small and insignificant tribe--_the God of -Israel_--is now worshipped by millions and millions of men -(Christians) of every race, language, and country, throughout the -civilised world. These are facts that need explanation, and the -Truth of the Jewish Religion seems alone able to explain them. - -[Footnote 176: _E.g._, Ps. 22. 27; 86. 9; Isa. 11. 9; Zeph. 2. 11.] - -In conclusion, we will just sum up the arguments in these chapters. -We have shown that there are strong reasons for thinking that the -account of the _Creation_ was Divinely revealed; that the _origin_ -of the Jewish religion was confirmed by miracles; and that its -_history_ was confirmed both by miracles and prophecies. And it -should be noticed, each of these arguments is independent of the -others. So the evidence is all cumulative and far more than -sufficient to outweigh the improbability of the religion, due to its -apparent _partiality_, which is the most important argument on the -opposite side. Moreover, we know so little as to why man was -created, or what future, God intended for him, that it is not easy -to say whether the religion is really so improbable after all. On -the other hand, the evidence in its favour is plain, direct, and -unmistakable. And we therefore decide that the _Jewish Religion is -probably true_. - - - - -PART III. - -_THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION_. - - CHAP. XIII. THAT THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION IS CREDIBLE. - " XIV. THAT THE FOUR GOSPELS ARE GENUINE FROM EXTERNAL TESTIMONY. - " XV. THAT THE GOSPELS ARE GENUINE FROM INTERNAL EVIDENCE. - " XVI. THAT THE GOSPELS ARE GENUINE FROM THE EVIDENCE OF THE - ACTS. - " XVII. THAT THE RESURRECTION OF CHRIST IS PROBABLY TRUE. - " XVIII. THAT THE FAILURE OF OTHER EXPLANATIONS INCREASES THIS - PROBABILITY. - " XIX. THAT THE OTHER NEW TESTAMENT MIRACLES ARE PROBABLY TRUE. - " XX. THAT THE JEWISH PROPHECIES CONFIRM THE TRUTH OF - CHRISTIANITY. - " XXI. THAT THE CHARACTER OF CHRIST CONFIRMS THE TRUTH OF - CHRISTIANITY. - " XXII. THAT THE HISTORY OF CHRISTIANITY CONFIRMS ITS TRUTH. - " XXIII. THAT ON THE WHOLE THE OTHER EVIDENCE SUPPORTS THIS - CONCLUSION. - " XXIV. THAT THE THREE CREEDS ARE DEDUCIBLE FROM THE NEW - TESTAMENT. - " XXV. THAT THE TRUTH OF THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION IS EXTREMELY - PROBABLE. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -THAT THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION IS CREDIBLE. - - By the Christian Religion is meant the Three Creeds, its four great - doctrines. - - (_A._) THE TRINITY. - - (1.) Its meaning; Three Persons in One Nature. - (2.) Its credibility; this must be admitted. - (3.) Its probability more likely than simple Theism. - - (_B._) THE INCARNATION. - - (1.) Its difficulties; not insuperable. - (2.) Its motive; God, it is said, loves man, and wishes man - to love Him, not improbable for several reasons. - (3.) Its historical position. - - (_C._) THE ATONEMENT. - - The common objections do not apply because of the - _willingness_ of the Victim. - - (1.) As to the Victim; it does away with the injustice. - (2.) As to the Judge; it appeals to His mercy not justice. - (3.) As to the sinner; it has no bad influence. - - (_D._) THE RESURRECTION. - - (1.) Christ's Resurrection; not incredible, for we have no - experience to judge by. - (2.) Man's resurrection; not incredible, for the same body - need not involve the same molecules. - - (_E._) CONCLUSION. - - Three considerations which show that the Christian - Religion, though improbable, is certainly not incredible. - - -We pass on now to the Christian Religion, by which we mean the facts -and doctrines contained in the _Three Creeds_, commonly, though -perhaps incorrectly, called the Apostles', the Nicene, and the -Athanasian. And, as these doctrines are of such vast importance, and -of so wonderful a character, we must first consider whether they are -_credible_. Is it conceivable that such doctrines should be true, no -matter what evidence they may have in their favour? In this chapter, -therefore, we shall deal chiefly with the difficulties of -Christianity. Now its four great and characteristic doctrines are -those of the Trinity, the Incarnation, the Atonement, and the -Resurrection. We will examine each in turn, and then conclude with a -few general remarks. - - -(_A._) THE TRINITY. - -To begin with, the Christian religion differs from all others in its -idea of the nature of God. According to Christianity, the Deity -exists in some mysterious manner as a _Trinity of Persons_ in a -_Unity of Nature_; so we will first consider the meaning of this -doctrine, then its credibility, and lastly its probability. It is -not, as some people suppose, a kind of intellectual puzzle, but a -statement which, whether true or false, is fairly intelligible, -provided, of course, due attention is given to the meaning of the -words employed. - -(1.) _Its meaning._ - -In the first place, we must carefully distinguish between _Person_ -and _Substance_; this is the key to the whole question. The former -has been already considered in Chapters III. and IV., though it must -be remembered that this term, like all others, when applied to God, -cannot mean exactly the same as it does when applied to man. All we -can say is that, on the whole, it seems the least inappropriate -word. The latter is a little misleading, since it is not the modern -English word _substance_, but a Latin translation of a Greek word, -which would be better rendered by _nature_ or _essence_. - -But though difficult to explain, its meaning is tolerably clear. -Take, for instance, though the analogy must not be pressed too far, -the case of three men; each is a distinct human _person_, but they -all have a common human _nature_. This human nature, which may also -be called human substance (in its old sense), humanity, or manhood, -has of course no existence apart from the men whose nature it is; it -is merely _that_ which they each possess in common, and the -possession of which makes each of them a man. And hence, any -attribute belonging to human nature would belong to each of the -three men, so that each would be mortal, each subject to growth, -etc. Each would in fact possess the complete human nature, yet -together there would not be three human natures, but only one. - -Bearing this in mind, let us now turn to the doctrine of the -Trinity. This is expressed in vv. 3-6 of the Athanasian Creed as -follows:-- - - 3. 'The Catholic Faith is this, that we worship one - God in Trinity, and Trinity in Unity. - - 4. 'Neither confounding the Persons, nor dividing - the Substance. - - 5. 'For there is one Person of the Father, another - of the Son, and another of the Holy Ghost. - - 6. 'But the Godhead of the Father, of the Son, - and of the Holy Ghost, is all one, the Glory equal, the - Majesty co-eternal.' - -Here, it will be noticed, vv. 5 and 6 give the _reasons_ for v. 4, -so that the Godhead in v. 6 is, as we should have expected, the same -as the Divine _Substance_ or Nature in v. 4. Thus the meaning is as -follows:-- - -We must worship one God (as to Nature) in Trinity (of Persons) and -Trinity (of Persons) in Unity (of Nature); neither confusing the -Persons, for each is distinct; nor dividing the Nature, for it is -all one. - -Thus far there is no intellectual difficulty in the statements of -the Creed. We do not mean that there is no difficulty in believing -them to be true, or in accurately defining the terms used; but that, -as statements, their meaning is quite intelligible. - -We now pass on to the following verses which are deductions from -this, and show that as each of the three Persons possesses the -Divine Nature, all attributes of the Godhead (_i.e._, of this one -Divine Nature) are possessed by each of the three. Each is therefore -_eternal_, and yet there is only _one_ eternal Nature. But this is -expressed in a peculiarly short and abrupt manner. No one, of -course, supposes that God is Three _in the same sense_ in which He -is One, but the Creed does not sufficiently guard against this, -perhaps because it never occurred to its author that anyone would -think it meant such an obvious absurdity. Moreover, even -grammatically the verses are not very clear. For the various terms -_uncreate_, _incomprehensible_ (_i.e._, boundless, or omnipresent), -_eternal_, _almighty_, _God_, and _Lord_ are used as if they were -adjectives in the first part of each sentence, and nouns in the -latter part. - -But we must remember these verses do not stand alone. If they did, -they might perhaps be thought unintelligible. But they do not. As -just said, they are deductions from the previous statement of the -doctrine of the Trinity; and, therefore, they must in all fairness -be interpreted so as to agree with that doctrine, not to contradict -it. And the previous verses (3-6) show clearly that where _three_ -are spoken of, it refers to Persons; and where _one_ is spoken of, -it refers to Substance or Nature. - -It must however be admitted that the _names_ of these Divine Persons -imply some closer union between them than that of merely possessing -in common one Divine Nature. For they are not independent names like -those of different men or of heathen gods, each of whom might exist -separately; but they are all _relative_ names, each implying the -others. Thus the Father implies the Son, for how can there be a -Father, unless there is a Son (or at least a child)? And of course -an Eternal Father implies an Eternal Son, so any idea that the -Father must have lived first, as in the case of a human father and -son, is out of the question. Similarly the Son implies the Father, -and the Spirit implies Him whose Spirit He is. And though these -names are no doubt very inadequate; they yet show that the three -Persons are of the same Nature, which is the important point. - -We conclude then that the Doctrine of the Trinity means the -existence of three Divine Persons, each possessing in its -completeness the one Divine Nature; and closely united together; -though in a manner, which is to us unknown. - -(2.) _Its credibility._ - -Having now discussed the meaning of the Christian doctrine, we have -next to consider whether it is credible. It must of course be -admitted that the doctrine is very mysterious, and though fairly -intelligible as a doctrine, is extremely hard to realise (indeed -some might say inconceivable) when we try to picture to ourselves -what the doctrine actually means. But we must remember that the -nature of God is anyhow almost inconceivable, even as simple Theism. -We cannot picture to ourselves a Being Who is omnipresent,--in this -room, for instance, as well as on distant stars. Nor can we imagine -a Being Who is grieved every time we commit sin, for if so, -considering the number of people in the world, He must be grieved -many thousands of times _every second_; as well as being glad -whenever anyone resists sin, also, let us hope, several thousand -times a second. All this may be true, just as the marvels of -science--the _ether_, for instance, which is also omnipresent, and -has millions of vibrations every second--may be true, but our minds -are quite unable to realise any of them. - -Thus, as said in Chapter III., though we have ample means of knowing -what God is _in His relation to us_ as our Creator and Judge, yet as -to His real nature we know next to nothing. Nor is this surprising -when we remember that the only being who in any way resembles God -is _man_; and man's nature, notwithstanding all our opportunities of -studying it, still remains a mystery. - -Now Christianity does attempt (in its doctrine of the Trinity) to -state what God is _in Himself_, and without any reference to -ourselves, or to nature; and that this should be to a great extent -inconceivable to our minds seems inevitable. For the nature of God -must be beyond human understanding, just as the nature of a man is -beyond the understanding of animals; though they may realise what he -is _to them_, in his power or his kindness. And for all we know, -Trinity in Unity, like omnipresence, may be one of the unique -attributes of God, which cannot be understood (because it cannot be -shared) by anyone else. Therefore the mysteriousness of the -Christian doctrine is no reason for thinking it incredible. - -Nor is it inconsistent with Natural Religion, for though this shows -the _Unity_ of God, it is only a unity of _outward action_. It does -not, and cannot tell us what this one God is _in Himself_, whether, -for instance, He exists as one or more Persons. In the same way (if -we may without irreverence take a homely illustration) a number of -letters might be so extremely alike as to show that they were all -written by one man. But this would not tell us what the man was _in -himself_, whether, for instance, he had a free will, as well as a -body and mind; or how these were related to one another. Hence -Natural Religion can in no way conflict with Christianity. - -(3.) _Its probability._ - -But we may go further than this, and say that the Christian doctrine -of _Three_ Divine Persons is (when carefully considered) _less_ -difficult to believe than the Unitarian doctrine of only _One_. For -this latter leads to the conclusion, either that God must have been -a solitary God dwelling alone from all eternity, before the creation -of the world; or else that the world itself (or some part of it) -must have been eternal, and have formed a kind of companion. And -each of these theories has great difficulties. Take for instance the -attributes of _Power_ and _Wisdom_, both of which, as we have seen, -must of necessity belong to God. How could a solitary God dwelling -alone before the Creation of the world have been able to exercise -either His Power or His Wisdom? As far as we can judge, His Power -could have produced nothing, His Wisdom could have thought of -nothing. He would have been a _potential_ God only, with all His -capacities unrealised. And such a view seems quite incredible. - -Yet the only alternative--that the world itself is eternal--though -it gets over this difficulty, is still inadequate. For as we have -seen God possesses _moral_ attributes as well, such as Goodness. And -all moral attributes--everything connected with right and wrong--can -only be thought of as existing between two _persons_. We cannot be -good to an atom of hydrogen, or unjust to a molecule of water. We -can it is true be kind to _animals_, but this is simply because they -resemble personal beings in having a capacity for pleasure and pain. -But moral attributes in their highest perfection can only exist -between two persons. Therefore as the eternal God possesses, and -must always have possessed, such attributes, it seems to require -some other eternal _Person_. - -The argument is perhaps a difficult one to follow, but a single -example will make it plain. Take the attribute of _love_. This -requires at least two persons--one to love, the other to be loved. -Therefore if love has always been one of God's attributes, there -must always have been some _other_ person to be loved. And the idea -that God might have been eternally _creating_ persons, like men or -angels, as objects of His love, though perhaps attractive, is still -inadequate. For love in its perfection can only exist between two -beings _of the same nature_. A man cannot love his dog, in the same -way that he can love his son. In short, _personality_, involving as -it does moral attributes like love, implies _fellowship_, or the -existence of other and _similar_ persons. - -Yet, when we think of the meaning of the term God, His omnipresence -and omnipotence, it seems impossible that there can be more than -one. We must then believe in at least two Eternal and Divine -Persons, yet in but one God; and the Christian doctrine of the -Trinity in Unity, with all its difficulties, still seems the _least_ -difficult explanation. - -But this is not all, for Natural Religion itself leads us to look -upon God in _three_ distinct ways, which correspond to the three -chief arguments for His existence. (Chaps. I., II., and V.) Thus we -may think of Him as the Eternal, Self-Existent One, altogether -independent of the world--the All-Powerful _First Cause_ required to -account for it. Or we may think of Him in His relation to the world, -as its Maker and Evolver, working everywhere, in everything and -through everything,--the All-Wise _Designer_ required by nature. Or -we may think of Him in His relation to ourselves as a Spirit holding -intercourse with our spirits, and telling us what is right--the -All-Good _Moral_ God required by conscience. And how well this -agrees with the Christian doctrine scarcely needs pointing out; the -Father the Source of all, the Son by Whom all things were made, and -the Spirit bearing witness with our spirits; and yet not three Gods, -but one God. - -On the whole, then, we decide that the Doctrine of the Trinity is -certainly credible and perhaps even probable. For to put it shortly, -Nature forces us to believe in a personal God; yet, when we reflect -on the subject, the idea of a personal God, Who is only one Person, -seems scarcely tenable; since (as said above) personality implies -fellowship. - - -(_B._) THE INCARNATION. - -We next come to the doctrine of the Incarnation; which however is so -clearly stated in the Athanasian Creed, that its meaning is quite -plain. God the Son, we are told, the second Person of the Trinity, -was pleased to become Man and to be born of the Virgin Mary, so that -He is now both _God_ and _Man_. He is God (from all eternity) of the -Substance or Nature of His Divine Father, and Man (since the -Incarnation) of the Substance or Nature of His human Mother. He is -thus complete God and complete Man; equal to the Father in regard to -His Godhead, for He is of the same Nature; and inferior to the -Father, in regard to His Manhood, for human nature must be inferior -to the Divine. Moreover, though He possesses these two Natures, they -are not changed one into the other, or confused together; but each -remains distinct, though both are united in His One Person. This is -in brief the doctrine of the Incarnation; and we will first consider -its difficulties, then its motive, and lastly its historical -position. - -(1.) _Its difficulties._ - -The first of these is that the Incarnation would be a _change_ in -the existence of God, Who is the changeless One. He, it is urged, is -always the same, while an Incarnation would imply that at some -particular time and place a momentous change occurred, and for ever -afterwards God became different from what He had been for ever -before. - -This is no doubt a serious difficulty, but it must not be -exaggerated. For an Incarnation would not, strictly speaking, -involve any change in the Divine Nature itself. God the Son remained -completely and entirely God all the time, He was not (as just said) -in any way changed into a man, only He united to Himself a human -nature as well. And perhaps if we knew more about the nature of God, -and also about that of man (who we must remember was made to some -extent in God's image, and this perhaps with a view to the -Incarnation), we should see that it was just as natural for God to -become Man, as it was for God to create man. We have really nothing -to argue from. An Incarnation seems improbable, and that is all we -can say. - -But if it took place at all, there is nothing surprising in this -planet being the one chosen for it. Indeed, as far as we know, it is -the only one that could be chosen, since it is the only one which -contains personal beings in whom God could become incarnate. Of -course other planets _may_ contain such beings; but as said before -(Chapter V.) this is only a conjecture, and in the light of recent -investigations not a very probable one. While if they do contain -such beings, these may not have sinned, in which case our little -world, with its erring inhabitants, would be like the lost sheep in -the parable, the only one which the Ruler of the Universe had come -to save. - -The second difficulty is, that the Incarnation would lead to a -_compound Being_, who is both Divine and human at the same time, and -this is often thought to be incredible. But here the answer is -obvious, and is suggested by the Creed itself. Man himself is a -compound being; he is the union of a material body and an immaterial -spirit, in a single person. His spirit is in fact _incarnate_ in his -body. We cannot explain it, but so it is. And the Incarnation in -which Christians believe is the union of the Divine Nature and the -human nature in a single Person. Both appear equally improbable, and -equally inconceivable to our minds, if we try and think out all that -they involve; but as the one is actually true, the other is -certainly not incredible. - -The third and last of these difficulties refers to the miraculous -_Virgin-birth_. But if we admit the possibility of an Incarnation, -no method of bringing it about can be pronounced incredible. The -event, if true, is necessarily unique, and cannot be supposed to -come under the ordinary laws of nature. For it was not the birth of -a _new_ being (as in the case of ordinary men), but an already -existing Being entering into new conditions. And we have no -experience of this whatever. Indeed, that a child born in the usual -way should be the Eternal God, is just as miraculous, and just as -far removed from our experience, as if He were born in any other -way. While considering that one object of the Incarnation was to -promote moral virtues in man, such as purity, the virgin-birth was -most suitable, and formed an appropriate beginning for a sinless -life. - -(2.) _Its motive._ - -But we now come to a more important point, for the Incarnation, if -true, must have been the most momentous event in the world's -history; and can we even imagine a sufficient reason for it? God we -may be sure does not act without motives, and what adequate motive -can be suggested for the Incarnation? Now the alleged motive, indeed -the very foundation of Christianity, is that God _loves_ man; and as -a natural consequence wishes man to love Him. Is this then -incredible, or even improbable? Certainly not, for several reasons. - -To begin with, as we have already shown, God is a Personal and Moral -Being, Who cares for the welfare of His creatures, more especially -for man. And this, allowing for the imperfection of human language, -may be described as God's _loving_ man, since disinterested love for -another cannot be thought an unworthy attribute to ascribe to God. -On the other hand, man is also a personal and moral being, able to -some extent to love God in return. And to this must be added the -fact that man, at least some men, do not seem altogether unworthy of -God's love, while we certainly do not know of any other being who is -more worthy of it. - -Moreover, considering the admitted resemblance between God and man, -the analogy of human parents loving their children is not -inappropriate. Indeed it is specially suitable, since here also we -have a relationship between two personal and moral beings, one of -whom is the producer (though not in this case the creator) of the -other. And human parents often love their children intensely, and -will sometimes even die for them; while, as a rule, the better the -parents are the more they love their children, and this in spite of -the children having many faults. Is it, then, unlikely that the -Creator may love His children also, and that human love may be only -a reflection of this--another instance of how man was made in the -image of God? The evidence we have may be slight, but it all points -the same way. - -Now, if it be admitted that God loves man, we have plainly no means -of estimating the _extent_ of this love. But by comparing the other -attributes of God, such as His wisdom and His power, with the -similar attributes of man, we should expect God's love to be -infinitely greater than any human love; so great indeed that He -would be willing to make any sacrifice in order to gain what is the -object in all love, that it should be returned. Might not then God's -love induce Him to become man, so that He might the more easily win -man's love? - -And we must remember that man's love, like his will, is _free_. -Compulsory love is in the nature of things impossible. A man can -only love, what he can if he chooses hate. Therefore God cannot -force man to love Him, He can only induce him; and how can He do -this better than by an Incarnation? For it would show, as nothing -else could show, that God's love is a self-sacrificing love; and -this is the highest form of love. Indeed, if it were not so, in -other words, if God's love cost Him nothing, it would be _inferior_ -in this respect to that of many men. But if, on the other hand, -God's love involved self-sacrifice;--if it led to Calvary--then it -is the highest possible form of love. And then we see that God's -attributes are all, so to speak, on the same scale; and His Goodness -is as far above any human goodness, as the Power which rules the -universe is above any human power; or the Wisdom which designed all -nature is above any human wisdom. Hence, if the Incarnation still -seems inconceivable, may it not be simply because the love of God, -like His other attributes, is so inconceivably greater than anything -we can imagine? - -Moreover a self-sacrificing love is the form, which is most likely -to lead to its being returned. And experience proves that this has -actually been the case. The condescending love of Christ in His -life, and still more in His death, forms an overpowering motive -which, when once realised, has always been irresistible. - -But more than this. Not only does the Incarnation afford the -strongest possible motive for man to love God, but it _enables_ him -to do so in a way which nothing else could. Man, it is true, often -longs for some means of intercourse, or communion with his Maker, -yet this seems impossible. The gulf which separates the Creator from -the creature is infinite, and can never be bridged over by man, or -even by an angel, or other intermediate being. For a bridge must of -necessity touch _both sides_; so if the gulf is to be bridged at -all, it can only be by One Who is at the same time both God and Man. -Thus the Incarnation brings God, if we may use the expression, -within man's reach, so that the latter has no mere abstract and -invisible Being to love, but a definite Person, Whose Character he -can appreciate, and Whose conduct he can to some extent follow. In -short, the Incarnation provides man with a worthy Being for his love -and devotion, yet with a Being Whom he can partly at least -understand and partly imitate. And he is thus able to become in a -still truer sense a _child of God_; or, as it is commonly expressed, -God became Man in order that man might become as far as possible, -like God. - -And this brings us to another aspect of the Incarnation. Christ's -life was meant to be an _example_ to man, and it is clear that a -_perfect_ example could only be given by a Being Who is both God and -Man. For God alone is above human imitation, and even the best of -men have many faults; so that from the nature of the case, Christ, -and Christ alone, can provide us with a perfect example, for being -Man He is capable of imitation, and being God He is worthy of it. - -Now what follows from this? If Christ's life was meant to be an -example to man, it was essential that it should be one of -_suffering_, or the example would have lost more than half its -value. Man does not want to be shown how to live in prosperity, but -how to live in adversity, and how to suffer patiently. The desertion -of friends, the malice of enemies, and a cruel death are the -occasional lot of mankind. They are perhaps the hardest things a man -has to bear in this world, and they have often had to be borne by -the followers of Christ. Is it incredible, then, that He should have -given them an example of the perfect way of doing so; gently -rebuking His friends, praying for His murderers, and acting -throughout as only a perfect man could act? No doubt such a life and -death seem at first sight degrading to the Deity. But strictly -speaking, suffering, if borne voluntarily and for the benefit of -others, is not degrading; especially if the benefit could not be -obtained in any other way. - -When we consider all this, it is plain that many reasons can be -given for the Incarnation. Of course it may be replied that they are -not adequate; but we have no means of knowing whether God would -consider them adequate or not. His ideas are not like ours; for what -adequate motive can we suggest for His creating man at all? Yet He -has done so. And having created him and given him free will, and -man having misused his freedom, all of which is admitted, then that -God should endeavour to restore man cannot be thought incredible. -Indeed it seems almost due to Himself that He should try and prevent -His noblest work from being a failure. And if in addition to this -God loves man still, in spite of his sins, then some intervention on -his account seems almost probable. - -(3.) _Its historical position._ - -It may still be objected that if the above reasons are really -sufficient to account for the Incarnation, it ought to have taken -place near the commencement of man's history. And no doubt when we -contemplate the great antiquity of man, this often seems a -difficulty. But we have very little to judge by, and that little -does not support the objection. For in nature God seems always to -work by the slow and tedious process of evolution, not attaining -what He wanted all at once, but by gradual development. Therefore, -if He revealed Himself to man, we should expect it to be by the same -method. At first it would be indistinctly, as in _Natural Religion_; -which dates back to pre-historic times, since the burial customs -show a belief in a future life. Then it would be more clearly, as in -the _Jewish Religion_; and finally it might be by becoming Man -Himself, as in the _Christian Religion_. - -According to Christianity, the whole previous history of the world -was a preparation for the Incarnation. But only when the preparation -was complete, _when the fullness of the time came_, as St. Paul -expresses it,[177] did it take place. And it has certainly proved, -as we should have expected, an epoch-making event. In all -probability the history of the world will always be considered -relatively to it in years B.C. and A.D. And very possibly it has a -significance far beyond man or even this planet. For we must -remember, man is not merely a link in a series of created beings -indefinitely improving, but, as shown in Chapter V., he is the _end_ -of the series, the last stage in evolution, the highest organised -being that will ever appear on this planet, or, as far as we know, -on any planet. - -[Footnote 177: Gal. 4. 4.] - -Therefore, man's rank in the universe is not affected by the -insignificance of this earth. Where else shall we find a personal -being with attributes superior to those of man? Where else indeed -shall we find a personal being at all? The only answer Science can -give is _nowhere_. But if so, man's position in the universe is one -of unique pre-eminence. And it is this inherent greatness of man, as -it has been called, which justifies the Incarnation. _He is worthy -that Thou should'st do this for him._ - -Moreover when we consider God the Son as the Divine Person who is -specially _immanent_ in nature, and who has been evolving the -universe through countless ages from its original matter into higher -and higher forms of life, there seems a special fitness in its -leading up to such a climax as the Incarnation. For then by becoming -Man, He united Himself with matter in its highest and most perfect -form. Thus the Incarnation, like the Nebula theory in astronomy, or -the process of Evolution, if once accepted, throws a new light on -the entire universe; and it has thus a grandeur and impressiveness -about it, which to some minds is very attractive. On the whole, -then, we decide that the doctrine is certainly not incredible, -though it no doubt seems improbable. - - -(_C._) THE ATONEMENT. - -We pass on now to the doctrine of the Atonement, which is that -Christ's death was in some sense a sacrifice for sin, and thus -reconciled (or made 'at-one') God the Father and sinful man. And -though not actually stated in the Creeds, it is implied in the -words, _Was crucified also for us_, and _Who suffered for our -salvation_. - -The chief difficulty is of course on moral grounds. The idea of -atonement, it is said, or of one man being made to suffer as a -substitute for another, and thus appeasing the Deity, was well-nigh -universal in early times, and is so still among savage nations. Such -a sacrifice, however, is a great injustice to the _victim_; it -ascribes an unworthy character to God, as a _Judge_, Who can be -satisfied with the punishment of an innocent man in place of the -guilty one; and it has a bad influence on the _sinner_, allowing him -to sin on with impunity, provided he can find another substitute -when needed. - -The answer to this difficulty is, that it takes no account of the -most important part of the Christian doctrine, which is the -_willingness_ of the Victim. According to Christianity, Christ was a -willing Sacrifice, Who freely laid down His life;[178] while the -human sacrifices just alluded to were not willing sacrifices, since -the victims had no option in the matter. And, as we shall see, this -alters the case completely both in regard to the victim himself, the -judge, and the sinner. - -[Footnote 178: _E.g._, John 10. 18.] - -(1.) _As to the Victim._ - -It is plain that his willingness does away with the injustice -altogether. There is no injustice in accepting a volunteer for any -painful office, provided he thoroughly knows what he is doing, for -he need not undertake it unless he likes. If, on the other hand, we -deny the voluntary and sacrificial character of Christ's death, and -regard Him as merely a good man, then there certainly was -injustice--and very great injustice too, that such a noble life -should have ended in such a shameful death. - -(2.) _As to the Judge._ - -Next as to the Judge. It will be seen that a willing sacrifice, -though it does not satisfy his _justice_, makes a strong appeal to -his _mercy_; at least it would do so in human cases. Suppose for -instance a judge had before him a criminal who well deserved to be -punished, but a good man, perhaps the judge's own son, came forward, -and not only interceded for the prisoner, but was so devotedly -attached to him as to offer to bear his punishment (pay his fine, -for instance), this would certainly influence the judge in his -favour. It would show that he was not so hopelessly bad after all. -Mercy and justice are thus both facts of human nature; and it is -also a fact of human nature, that the voluntary suffering, or -willingness to suffer, of a good man for a criminal whom he deeply -loves, does incline man to mercy rather than justice. - -Now, have we any reason for thinking that God also combines, in -their highest forms, these two attributes of mercy and justice? -Certainly we have; for, as shown in Chapter V., the goodness of God -includes both _beneficence_ and _righteousness_; and these general -terms, when applied to the case of judging sinners, closely -correspond to mercy and justice. God, as we have seen, combines -both, and both are required by the Christian doctrine. Mercy alone -would have forgiven men without any atonement; justice alone would -not have forgiven them at all. But God is both merciful and just, -and therefore the idea that voluntary atonement might incline Him to -mercy rather than justice does not seem incredible. - -And this is precisely the Christian doctrine. The mercy of God the -Father is obtained for sinful man by Christ's generous sacrifice of -Himself on man's behalf; so that, to put it shortly, _God forgives -sins for Christ's sake_. And it should be noticed, the idea of sins -being _forgiven_ which occurs all through the New Testament, and is -alluded to in the Apostles' Creed, shows that Christ's Atonement was -not that of a mere substitute, for then no forgiveness would have -been necessary. If, for example, I owe a man a sum of money, and a -friend pays it for me, I do not ask the man to forgive me the debt; -I have no need of any forgiveness. But if, instead of paying it, he -merely intercedes for me, then the man may forgive me the debt for -my friend's sake. - -And in this way, though Christ did not, strictly speaking, bear -man's _punishment_ (which would have been eternal separation from -God), His sufferings and death may yet have procured man's _pardon_; -He suffered on our behalf, though not in our stead. And some -Atonement was certainly necessary to show God's _hatred for sin_, -and to prevent His Character from being misunderstood in this -respect. And it probably would have been so, if men had been -forgiven without any Atonement, when they might have thought that -sin was not such a very serious affair after all. - -(3.) _As to the sinner._ - -Lastly, the willingness of the victim affects the sinner also. For -if the changed attitude of the judge is due, not to his justice -being satisfied, but to his mercy being appealed to, this is plainly -conditional on a _moral change_ in the sinner himself. A good man -suffering for a criminal would not alter our feelings towards him, -if he still chose to remain a criminal. And this exactly agrees with -the Christian doctrine, which is that sinners cannot expect to avail -themselves of Christ's Atonement if they wilfully continue in sin; -so that _repentance_ is a necessary condition of forgiveness. -Therefore instead of having a bad influence on the sinners -themselves; it has precisely the opposite effect. - -And what we should thus expect theoretically has been amply -confirmed by experience. No one will deny that Christians in all -ages have been devotedly attached to the doctrine of the Atonement. -They have asserted that it is the cause of all their joy in this -world, and all their hope for the next. Yet, so far from having -had a bad influence, it has led them to the most noble and -self-sacrificing lives. It has saved them from _sin_, and not only -the penalties of sin, and this is exactly what was required. The -greatness of man's sin, and the misery it causes in the world, are -but too evident, apart from Christianity. Man is indeed both the -glory and the scandal of the universe--the _glory_ in what he was -evidently intended to be, and the _scandal_ in what, through sin, he -actually became. And the Atonement was a 'vast remedy for this vast -evil.' And if we admit the _end_, that man had to be redeemed from -sin, impressed with the guilt of sin, and helped to resist sin; we -cannot deny the appropriateness of the _means_, which, as a matter -of fact, has so often brought it about. - -This completes a brief examination of the moral difficulties -connected with the Atonement; and it is clear that the _willingness_ -of the Victim makes the whole difference, whether we regard them as -referring to the Victim himself, the Judge, or the sinner. - - -(_D._) THE RESURRECTION. - -The last great Christian doctrine is that of the Resurrection. -According to Christianity, all men are to rise again, with their -bodies partly changed and rendered incorruptible; and the -Resurrection of Christ's Body was both a pledge of this, and also to -some extent an example of what a risen body would be like. He was -thus, as the Bible says, the _firstborn_ from the dead.[179] Now -this word _firstborn_ implies, to begin with, that none had been so -born before, the cases of Lazarus, etc., being those of -_resuscitation_ and not _resurrection_; they lived again to die -again, and their bodies were unchanged. And it implies, secondly, -that others would be so born afterwards, so that our risen bodies -will resemble His. The Resurrection of Christ is thus represented -not as something altogether exceptional and unique, but rather as -the first instance of what will one day be the universal rule. It -shows us the last stage in man's long development, what he is -intended to become when he is at length perfected. We will therefore -consider first Christ's Resurrection, and then man's resurrection. - -[Footnote 179: Col. 1. 18; Rev. 1. 5; 1 Cor. 15. 20; Acts. 26. 23.] - -(1.) _Christ's Resurrection._ - -Now according to the Gospels, Christ's Risen Body combined material -and immaterial properties in a remarkable manner. Thus He could be -touched and eat food, and yet apparently pass through closed doors -and vanish at pleasure; and this is often thought to be incredible. -But strictly speaking it is not _incredible_; since no material -substance (a door or anything else) is _solid_. There are always -spaces between the molecules; so that for one such body to pass -through another is no more difficult to imagine, than for one -regiment to march through another on parade. And if a regiment -contained anything like as many men, as there are molecules in a -door, it would probably look just as solid. - -Moreover Christ's risen Body, though possessing some material -properties, is represented to have been _spiritual_ as well. And the -nearest approach to a spiritual substance of which we have any -scientific knowledge is the _ether_, and this also seems to combine -material and immaterial properties, being in some respects more like -a solid than a gas. Yet it can pass through all material substances; -and this certainly prevents us from saying that it is incredible -that Christ's spiritual Body should pass through closed doors. - -Indeed for all we know, it may be one of the properties of spiritual -beings, that they can pass through material substances (just as the -X-rays can) and be generally invisible; yet be able, if they wish, -to assume some of the properties of matter, such as becoming visible -or audible. In fact, unless they were able to do this, it is hard to -see how they could manifest themselves at all. And a slight -alteration in the waves of light coming from a body would make it -visible or not to the human eye. And it is out of the question to -say that God--the Omnipotent One--could not produce such a change in -a spiritual body. While for such a body to become tangible, or to -take food, is not really more wonderful (though it seems so) than -for it to become visible or audible; since when once we pass the -boundary between the natural and the supernatural everything is -mysterious. - -It may of course be replied that though all this is not perhaps -incredible, it is still most improbable; and no doubt it is. But -what then? We have no adequate means of judging, for the fact, if -true, is, up to the present, unique. It implies a _new_ mode of -existence which is neither spiritual nor material, though possessing -some of the properties of each, and of which we have no experience -whatever. So we are naturally unable to understand it. But assuming -the Resurrection of Christ to be otherwise credible, as it certainly -is if we admit His Incarnation and Death, we cannot call it -incredible, merely because the properties of His risen Body are said -to be different from those of ordinary human bodies, and in some -respects to resemble those of spirits. It is in fact only what we -should expect. - -(2.) _Man's Resurrection._ - -Next as to man's resurrection. The Christian doctrine of the -resurrection of the _body_ must not be confused with that of the -immortality of the _spirit_, discussed in Chapter VI., which is -common to many religions, and is certainly not improbable. But two -objections may be made to the resurrection of the body. - -The first is that it is _impossible_, since the human body -decomposes after death, and its molecules may afterwards form a part -of other bodies; so, if all men were to rise again at the same time, -those molecules would have to be in two places at once. But the -fallacy here is obvious, for the molecules composing a man's body -are continually changing during life, and it is probable that every -one of them is changed in a few years; yet the identity of the body -is not destroyed. This identity depends not on the identity of the -molecules, but on their relative position and numbers so that a -man's body in this respect is like a whirlpool in a stream, the -water composing which is continually changing, though the whirlpool -itself remains. Therefore the resurrection need not be a -resurrection of _relics_, as it is sometimes called. No doubt in the -case of Christ it was so, and perhaps it will be so in the case of -some Christians, only it _need_ not be so; and this removes at once -the apparent impossibility of the doctrine. - -Secondly, it may still be objected that the doctrine is extremely -_improbable_. And no doubt it seems so. But once more we have no -adequate means of judging. Apart from experience, how very unlikely -it would be that a seed when buried in the ground should develop -into a plant; or that plants and trees, after being apparently dead -all through the winter, should blossom again in the spring. Thus -everything connected with life is so mysterious that we can decide -nothing except by experience. And therefore we cannot say what may, -or may not happen in some future state, of which we have no -experience whatever. Indeed, if man's spirit is immortal, the fact -that it is associated with a body during its life on this earth -makes it not unlikely that it will be associated with a body of some -kind during its future life. And that this body should be partly -spiritual, and so resemble Christ's risen body, is again only what -we should expect. Thus, on the whole, the doctrine of the -Resurrection is certainly credible. - - -(_E._) CONCLUSION. - -We have now examined the four great doctrines of Christianity, the -others either following directly from these, or not presenting any -difficulty. And though, as we have shown, not one of these doctrines -can be pronounced _incredible_, yet some of them, especially those -of the Incarnation and the Atonement, certainly seem _improbable_. -This must be fully and freely admitted. At the same time, it is only -fair to remember that this improbability is distinctly lessened by -the three following considerations. - -First, in regard to all these doctrines we have no _adequate_ means -of deciding what is or is not probable. Reason cannot judge where it -has nothing to judge by; and apart from Christianity itself, we know -next to nothing as to what was God's object in creating man. If, -then, these doctrines are true, their truth depends not on reason, -but on revelation. All reason can do is to examine most carefully -the evidence in favour of the alleged revelation. Of this we should -expect it to be able to judge, but not of the doctrines themselves. -We are hence in a region where we cannot trust to our own sense of -the fitness of things; and therefore the Christian doctrines must -not be condemned merely because we think them contrary to our -reason. Moreover many thoughtful men (including Agnostics) do not -consider them so. Thus the late Professor Huxley once wrote, 'I have -not the slightest objection to offer _a priori_ to all the -propositions of the Three Creeds. The mysteries of the Church are -child's play compared with the mysteries of Nature.'[180] - -[Footnote 180: Quoted with his permission in Bishop Gore's Bampton -Lectures, 1891, p. 247, 1898 edition.] - -And this brings us to the next point, which is that many _other_ -facts which are actually true appear equally improbable at first -sight; such, for instance, as the existence of the ether, or the -growth of plants. Apart from experience, what an overwhelming -argument could be made out against such facts as these. Yet they -concern subjects which are to a great extent within our -comprehension, while Christianity has to do with the nature and -character of a God Who is admittedly beyond our comprehension. May -not the difficulties in both cases, but especially in regard to the -latter, be due to our _ignorance_ only? The Christian doctrines, we -must remember, do not claim to have been revealed in all their -bearings, but only in so far as they concern ourselves. - -Thirdly, it should be noticed that, though individually these -doctrines may seem improbable, yet, when considered as a whole, as -in all fairness they ought to be, there is a complete harmony -between them. Their improbability is not _cumulative_. On the -contrary, one often helps to explain the difficulties of another. -This has been recognised by most writers, including many who can -scarcely be called theologians. Thus the great Napoleon is reported -to have said, 'If once the Divine character of Christ is admitted, -Christian doctrine exhibits the precision and clearness of algebra; -so that we are struck with admiration at its scientific connection -and unity.'[181] - -[Footnote 181: Beauterne, Sentiment de Napoleon 1^er sur le -Christianisme, new edition, Paris, 1864, p. 110.] - -In conclusion, it must be again pointed out that we are only now -considering the _credibility_ of Christianity, and not trying to -make out that it appears a probable religion, at first sight, which -it plainly does not. Only its improbability is not so extremely -great as to make it useless to consider the evidence in its favour. -This is especially so when we remember that this improbability must -have seemed far greater when Christianity was first preached than it -does now, when we are so accustomed to the religion. Yet, as a -matter of fact, the evidence in its favour did outweigh every -difficulty, and finally convince the civilised world. What this -evidence is we proceed to inquire. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV. - -THAT THE FOUR GOSPELS ARE GENUINE FROM EXTERNAL TESTIMONY. - - (_A._) THE UNDISPUTED TESTIMONY. - - End of second century; Irenæus, his evidence of great - value. - - (_B._) THE ALMOST UNDISPUTED TESTIMONY. - - (1.) Justin Martyr, A.D. 150, refers to some Apostolic - _Memoirs_, which were publicly read among Christians; - and his quotations show that these were our - Four Gospels. - (2.) Tatian, Justin's disciple, A.D. 175, wrote the Diatessaron, - or harmony of Four Gospels. - (3.) Marcion, A.D. 140, wrote a Gospel based on St. Luke's. - - (_C._) THE DISPUTED TESTIMONY. - - (1.) Papias, mentions the first two Gospels by name. - (2.) Aristides, A.D. 125, alludes to some Gospel as well - known. - (3.) The Apostolic Fathers, Polycarp, Ignatius, Clement, - Barnabas, and the Teaching of the Twelve, seem to - contain references to our Gospels. - - -Having shown in the last chapter that the Christian Religion is -_credible_, we have next to consider what evidence there is in its -favour. Now that it was founded on the alleged miracles and teaching -of Christ, and chiefly on His Resurrection, is admitted by everyone. -So we must first examine whether we have any trustworthy testimony -as to these events; more especially whether the Four Gospels, which -appear to contain such testimony, are genuine. By the _Four -Gospels_, we of course mean those commonly ascribed to SS. Matthew, -Mark, Luke, and John; and by their being _genuine_, we mean that -they were written, or compiled by those persons. And we will first -consider the _external testimony_ borne by early Christian writers -to these Gospels, leaving _the internal evidence_ from the Books -themselves for the next chapter. - -It may be mentioned at starting that we have no complete manuscripts -of the Gospels earlier than the beginning of the fourth century; but -there is nothing surprising in this, as for the first two centuries -books were generally written on _papyrus_, an extremely fragile -material. Therefore, with the exception of some fragments preserved -in Egypt, all documents of this period have entirely perished. A -much better material, _vellum_, began to take the place of papyrus -in the third century; but did not come into common use till the -fourth. Moreover, during the persecutions, which occurred at -intervals up to the fourth century, all Christian _writings_ were -specially sought for, and destroyed. So the absence of earlier -manuscripts though very unfortunate, is not perhaps unnatural; and -it is anyhow no worse than in the case of classical works. I have -seen it stated, for instance, that there are no manuscripts of -either Cicero, Cæsar, Tacitus, or Josephus, within 800 years of -their time. - - -(_A._) THE UNDISPUTED TESTIMONY. - -Passing on now to the testimony of early writers; we need not begin -later than the end of the second century; since it is admitted by -everyone that our Four Gospels were then well known. They were -continually quoted by Christian writers; they were universally -ascribed to the authors we now ascribe them to; and they were always -considered to be in some sense divinely inspired. - -As this is undisputed, we need not discuss the evidence; but one -writer deserves to be mentioned, which is _Irenæus_, Bishop of -Lyons. His works date from about A.D. 185; and he not only quotes -the Gospels frequently (about 500 times altogether), but shows there -were only _four_ of acknowledged authority. Since the fanciful -analogies he gives for this, likening the four Gospels to the four -rivers in Paradise, and the four quarters of the globe, render it -certain that the fact of there being four, neither more nor less, -must have been undisputed in his day. - -Moreover he had excellent means of knowing the truth; for he was -born in Asia Minor, about A.D. 130, and brought up under Polycarp, -Bishop of Smyrna. And in later years he tells us how well he -remembered his teacher. 'I can even describe the place where the -blessed Polycarp used to sit and discourse--his going out, too, and -his coming in--his general mode of life and personal appearance, -together with the discourses which he delivered to the people; also -how he would speak of his familiar intercourse with John, and with -the rest of those who had seen the Lord; and how he would call their -words to remembrance.'[182] - -[Footnote 182: Irenæus, Fragment of Epistle to Florinus. The -translations here and elsewhere are from the Ante-Nicene Christian -Library.] - -The importance of this passage, especially in regard to the Fourth -Gospel, can scarcely be exaggerated. For is it conceivable that -Irenæus would have ascribed it to St. John, unless his teacher -Polycarp had done the same? Or is it conceivable that Polycarp, who -personally knew St. John, could have been mistaken in the matter? -The difficulties of either alternative are very great; yet there is -no other, unless we admit that St. John was the author. - -It should also be noticed that Irenæus, when discussing two readings -of Rev. 13. 18, supports one of them by saying that it is found _in -all the most approved and ancient copies_; and was also maintained -by men _who saw John face to face_.[183] He had thus some idea as to -the value of evidence; and he is not likely to have written as he -did about the Four Gospels, unless he had seen of them equally -_approved and ancient_ copies. - -[Footnote 183: Irenæus, Bk. 5. 30.] - - -(_B._) THE ALMOST UNDISPUTED TESTIMONY. - -We next come to the testimony of some earlier writers, which was -formerly much disputed, but is now admitted by nearly all critics. - -(1.) _Justin Martyr._ - -By far the most important of these is _Justin Martyr_; whose -works--two _Apologies_ (or books written in defence of Christianity) -and a _Dialogue_--date from about A.D. 145-50. He was no ordinary -convert, but a philosopher, and says that before he became a -Christian, he studied various philosophical systems and found them -unsatisfactory; so we may be sure that he did not accept -Christianity without making some inquiries as to the facts on which -it rested.[184] And as his father and grandfather were natives of -Palestine, where he was born, he had ample means of finding out the -truth. - -[Footnote 184: Dial., 2.] - -Now Justin does not allude to any of the Evangelists by name, but he -frequently quotes from the '_Memoirs of the Apostles_,' which he -says were sometimes called _Gospels_,[185] and were publicly read -and explained in the churches, together with the Old Testament -Prophets. And he gives no hint that this was a local or recent -practice, but implies that it was the universal and well-established -custom. These Memoirs, he tells us,[186] were written _by the -Apostles and their followers_, which exactly suits our present -Gospels, two of which are ascribed to Apostles (St. Matthew and St. -John), and the other two to their immediate followers (St. Mark and -St. Luke). And as Justin was writing for unbelievers, not -Christians, there is nothing strange in his not mentioning the names -of the individual writers. - -[Footnote 185: Apol. 1. 66; Dial., 100.] - -[Footnote 186: Dial., 103.] - -He has altogether about sixty quotations from these Memoirs, and -they describe precisely those events in the life of Christ; which -are recorded in our Gospels, with scarcely any addition. Very few of -the quotations however are verbally accurate, and this used to be -thought a difficulty. But as Justin sometimes quotes the same -passage differently, it is clear that he was relying on his memory; -and had not looked up the reference, which in those days of -manuscripts, without concordances, must have been a tedious -process. Also when quoting the Old Testament, he is almost equally -inaccurate. Moreover later writers, such as Irenæus, who avowedly -quoted from our Gospels, are also inaccurate in small details. It is -hence practically certain that Justin was quoting from these -Gospels. - -(2.) _Tatian._ - -And this is strongly confirmed by Justin's disciple, _Tatian_. He -wrote a book about A.D. 175, discovered last century, called the -_Diatessaron_, which, as its name implies, was a kind of harmony of -_Four_ Gospels. It was based chiefly on St. Matthew's, the events -peculiar to the others being introduced in various places. And its -containing nearly the whole of _St. John's_ Gospel is satisfactory; -because it so happens that Justin has fewer quotations from that -Gospel, than from the other three. We may say then with confidence, -that our four Gospels were well known to Christians, and highly -valued by them, in the middle of the second century. - -(3.) _Marcion._ - -Another important witness is Marcion. He wrote (not later than A.D. -140), a kind of Gospel, so similar to St. Luke's that one was -evidently based on the other. And though his actual work is lost, -Tertullian (about A.D. 200) quotes it so fully that it is fairly -well-known; and that St. Luke's is the earlier is now admitted by -critics of all schools. Therefore as Matthew and Mark are generally -allowed to be earlier than Luke, this shows that all these Gospels -were in circulation before A.D. 140. - - -(_C._) THE DISPUTED TESTIMONY. - -We pass on now to the testimony of still earlier writers, all of -which is more or less disputed by some critics. - -(1.) _Papias._ - -And first as to Papias. He was bishop of Hierapolis in Asia Minor -(about a hundred miles from Ephesus) early in the second century; -and only a few fragments of his writings have been preserved by -Irenæus and Eusebius. We learn from the former that he was a -disciple of St. John and a companion of Polycarp; and considering -that Irenæus was himself Polycarp's pupil, there is no reason to -doubt this.[187] Now Papias tells us himself what were his sources -of information: 'If, then, anyone who had attended on the elders -came, I asked minutely after their sayings,--what Andrew or Peter -said, or what was said by Philip, or by Thomas, or by James, or by -John, or by Matthew, or by any other of the Lord's disciples: which -things Aristion and the presbyter John, the disciples of the Lord, -say. For I imagined that what was to be got from books was not so -profitable to me as what came from the living and abiding voice.' - -[Footnote 187: Irenæus, Bk. 5. 33.] - -He had thus very good means of knowing the truth, for though the -Apostles themselves were dead, two of Christ's disciples (Aristion -and the presbyter John) were still alive when he made his inquiries. -And he refers to the first two Gospels by name. He says, 'Matthew -put together the oracles in the Hebrew language, and each one -interpreted them as best he could.' And 'Mark, having become the -interpreter of Peter, wrote down accurately whatsoever he -remembered. It was not, however, in exact order that he related the -sayings or deeds of Christ. For he neither heard the Lord nor -accompanied Him. But afterwards, as I said, he accompanied -Peter.'[188] - -[Footnote 188: Eusebius, Hist., iii. 39.] - -And his testimony in regard to _St. Matthew_ is specially important, -because in the passage just quoted he says that he had spoken to -those who had known St. Matthew personally; and had carefully -questioned them about what he had said. And this makes it difficult -to believe that he should have been mistaken as to his having -written the Gospel. Nor is it likely that the work of St. Matthew -known to Papias was different from the Gospel which we now have, and -which was so frequently quoted by Justin a few years later. Whether -Papias was acquainted with the Third and Fourth Gospels cannot be -decided for certain, unless his works should be recovered; but there -are slight indications that he knew them. - -(2.) _Aristides._ - -Next as to Aristides. He was a philosopher at Athens, and addressed -an Apology to the Emperor, Hadrian, in A.D. 125, which was recovered -in 1889. He has no _quotation_ from the Gospels, but what is equally -important, he gives a summary of Christian doctrine, including the -Divinity, Incarnation, Virgin-Birth, Resurrection and Ascension of -Christ; and says that it is _taught in the Gospel_, where men can -_read_ it for themselves. And this shows that some Gospel, -containing this teaching, was then in existence, and easily -accessible. - -(3.) _The Apostolic Fathers._ - -The last group of writers to be examined are those who lived soon -after the Apostles. The chief of these are _Polycarp_ of Smyrna, the -disciple of St. John, martyred in A.D. 155, when he had been a -Christian 86 years; _Ignatius_ of Antioch, also martyred in his old -age, about A.D. 110; _Clement_ of Rome, perhaps the companion of St. -Paul;[189] and the writers of the so-called _Epistle of Barnabas_, -and _Teaching of the Twelve Apostles_. Their dates are not known for -certain, but it is now generally admitted by rationalists as well as -Christians that they all wrote before A.D. 120, and probably before -110. Thus the _Encyclopædia Biblica_ (article _Gospels_) dates their -works, Polycarp 110; Ignatius (7 Epistles) before 110; Barnabas, -probably before 100; Clement 95; Teaching 80-100. - -[Footnote 189: Phil. 4. 3.] - -Now none of these writers mention the Gospels by _name_; but this is -no argument to show that they were not quoting them, because the -same writers, when admittedly quoting St. Paul's Epistles, also do -it at times, without in any way referring to him. And later -Christian writers do precisely the same; the Gospels are often not -quoted by name, but their language is continually employed, much as -it is by preachers at the present day. If, then, we find in these -writers passages similar to those in our Gospels, the inference is -that they are quoting from them; and, as a matter of fact, we do -find such passages, though they are not numerous. A single example -may be given from each. - -_Polycarp._ 'But being mindful of what the Lord said in His -teaching; Judge not, that ye be not judged; forgive, and it shall be -forgiven unto you; be merciful, that ye may obtain mercy; with what -measure ye mete, it shall be measured to you again; and once more, -Blessed are the poor, and those that are persecuted for -righteousness' sake, for theirs is the kingdom of God.'[190] - -[Footnote 190: Polycarp, ch. ii.; Luke 6. 36-38; Matt. 5. 3, 10.] - -_Ignatius._ 'For I know that after His Resurrection also, He was -still possessed of flesh, and I believe that He is so now. When, for -instance, He came to those who were with Peter, He said to them, -"Lay hold, handle Me, and see that I am not an incorporeal -spirit."'[191] - -[Footnote 191: Ignatius to Smyrnæans, ch. iii.; Luke 24. 39.] - -_Barnabas._ 'Let us beware lest we be found, as it is written, Many -are called, but few are chosen.'[192] - -[Footnote 192: Barnabas, ch. iv.; Matt. 22. 14.] - -_Clement._ 'Remember the words of our Lord Jesus Christ, how He -said, Woe to that man! It were better for him that he had never been -born, than that he should cast a stumbling-block before one of my -elect. Yea, it were better for him that a millstone should be hung -about (his neck), and he should be sunk in the depths of the sea, -than that he should cast a stumbling-block before one of my little -ones.'[193] - -[Footnote 193: Clement, ch. xlvi.; Luke 17. 1. 2.] - -_Teaching._ 'Having said beforehand all these things, baptize ye in -the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost in -living water.'[194] - -[Footnote 194: Teaching, ch. vii.; Matt. 28. 19.] - -The passage from Barnabas deserves special mention, since here we -have words which only occur in our Gospels, introduced with the -phrase _as it is written_, which is only used of Scripture -quotations. And this shows conclusively that at the time of the -writer, some Gospel containing these words must have been well -known, and considered of high authority. And the attempts to explain -it away as being from the Book of Esdras,[195] where the words are, -'There be many created, but few shall be saved;' or else as an error -on the part of the writer, who thought they came somewhere in the -Old Testament, are quite inadmissible. - -[Footnote 195: 2 Esdr. 8. 3.] - -But it may be said, may not all these quotations be from some _Lost -Gospel_? Of course they may. It is always possible to refer -quotations not to the only book in which we know they do occur, but -to some imaginary book in which they might occur. There is, however, -no need to do so in this case, as all the evidence points the other -way. Though, even if we do, it does not materially affect the -argument; for while it weakens the evidence for our Gospels, it -increases that for the _facts_ which they record; and this is the -important point. - -Suppose, for instance, the passage in Ignatius was not taken from -St. Luke's, but from some _Lost_ Gospel. It could not then be quoted -to show that St. Luke's Gospel was known to Ignatius. But it would -afford additional evidence that Christ really did rise from the -dead, that when He appeared to His Apostles, they at first thought -He was a spirit; and that He took the obvious means of convincing -them, by asking them to handle His Body. All this would then be -vouched for, not only by St. Luke's Gospel; but also by some _other_ -early Christian writing, which as Ignatius quotes it in A.D. 110 -must certainly have been written in the first century, and must have -been considered by him as conclusive evidence. For he is careful to -distinguish between what he thus _knows_ (that Christ had a Body -after His Resurrection) and what he merely _believes_ (that He has -one now). And the same applies in other cases. - -And if it be further urged that these writers would have referred -more frequently to the Gospels, had they really known them, we must -remember that their writings are generally short; and while a single -quotation proves the previous existence of the document quoted, ten -pages without a quotation do not disprove it. Moreover when they -refer to the sayings of Christ, or the events of His life, they -always do so without the slightest hesitation; as if everyone -acknowledged them to be true. And as we have seen, their allusions -often begin with the words _remember_ or _be mindful of_, clearly -showing that they expected their readers to know them already. Hence -some books must then have existed which were well known, containing -a life of Christ; and the improbability of these having perished, -and a fresh set of Gospels having been published in a few years, is -very great. - -And the evidence in regard to the _Third_ Gospel is particularly -strong, since it was addressed to Theophilus, who was clearly a -prominent convert; and he must have known from whom the book came, -even if for some reason this was not stated in the heading. And as -he is not likely to have kept it secret, the authorship of the book -must have been well known to Christians from the very beginning. -Therefore the testimony of early writers, like Irenæus, who always -ascribed it to St. Luke, becomes of exceptional value; and makes it -almost certain that he was the author. - -We may now sum up the _external testimony_ to the Four Gospels. It -shows that at the _beginning_ of the second century they were well -known to Christian writers, and this alone would necessitate their -having been written in the first century, or at all events before -A.D. 110. And thanks to modern discoveries, especially that of the -_Diatessaron_, this is now generally admitted. It may indeed be -considered as one of the definite results of recent controversies. -But if so, it is, to say the least, distinctly probable that they -were written by the men to whom they have been universally ascribed. -We have thus strong external testimony in favour of the genuineness -of the Four Gospels. - - - - -CHAPTER XV. - -THAT THE GOSPELS ARE GENUINE FROM INTERNAL EVIDENCE. - - (_A._) THE FIRST THREE GOSPELS. - - (1.) Their general accuracy; this is shown by secular - history, where they can be tested. - (2.) Their sources; the triple tradition; other early documents. - (3.) Their probable date; before the destruction of Jerusalem, - A.D. 70. - - (_B._) THE FOURTH GOSPEL. - - (1.) Its authorship. The writer appears to have lived in - the first century, and to have been an eye-witness - of what he describes; so probably St. John. - (2.) Its connection with the other Gospels. It was meant - to supplement them; and it does not show a different - Christ, either in language or character. - (3.) Its connection with the Book of Revelation. This - admitted to be by St. John, and the Gospel was - probably by the same author. - - -Having decided in the last chapter that the Four Gospels are -probably genuine from _external testimony_, we pass on now to the -_internal evidence_, which, it will be seen, strongly supports this -conclusion. For convenience we will examine the first Three, -commonly called the _Synoptic_ Gospels, separately from the Fourth, -which is of a different character. - - -(_A._) THE FIRST THREE GOSPELS. - -In dealing with these Gospels, we will first consider their general -accuracy, then their sources, and then their probable date. - -(1.) _Their general accuracy._ - -It is now admitted by everyone that the writers show a thorough -acquaintance with Palestine both as to its geography, history, and -people, especially the political and social state of the country in -the half-century preceding the fall of Jerusalem (A.D. 70). The -Jewish historian Josephus, who wrote about A.D. 95, gives us a vivid -description of this; and everything we read in the Gospels is in -entire agreement with it. - -In regard to the actual events recorded, we have, as a rule, no -other account, but where we have, with the doubtful exception of the -enrolment under _Quirinius_, their accuracy is fully confirmed. -According to St. Luke[196] this enrolment occurred while Herod was -king, and therefore not later than what we now call B.C. 4, when -Herod died; but, according to Josephus and other authorities, -Quirinius was Governor of Syria, and carried out his taxing in A.D. -6. - -[Footnote 196: Luke 2. 2 (R.V.).] - -This used to be thought one of the most serious mistakes in the -Bible, but modern discoveries have shown that it is probably -correct. To begin with, an inscription was found at Tivoli in 1764, -which shows that Quirinius was _twice_ Governor of Syria, or at -least held some important office there. And this has been confirmed -quite recently by an inscription found at Antioch, which shows that -the former time was about B.C. 7.[197] There is thus very likely an -end of that difficulty, though it must be admitted that it would -place the birth of Christ a little earlier than the usually accepted -B.C. 4, which however some critics think probable for other reasons. - -[Footnote 197: Ramsay, 'Bearing of Recent Discovery on New -Testament.' 1915, p. 285-292.] - -Next it will be noticed that St. Luke says that this was the _first_ -enrolment, implying that he knew of others; and discoveries in Egypt -have confirmed this in a remarkable manner. For they have shown that -it was the custom of the Romans to have a _periodical_ enrolment of -that country (and therefore presumably of the adjacent country of -Syria) every fourteen years. Some of the actual census papers have -been found for A.D. 20, 48, 62, 76, etc., and it is extremely -probable that the system started in B.C. 9-8, though the first -enrolment may have been delayed a few years in Palestine, which was -partly independent. - -And St. Luke's statement that everyone had to go to _his own city_, -which was long thought to be a difficulty, has been partly confirmed -as well. For a decree has been discovered in Egypt, dated in the -seventh year of Trajan (A.D. 104), ordering all persons to return to -their own districts before the approaching census,[198] which is -worded as if it were the usual custom. The next census in A.D. 6, -which is the one referred to by Josephus, is also mentioned by St. -Luke;[199] but he knew, what his critics did not, that it was only -one of a series, and that the _first_ of the series took place at an -earlier date. - -[Footnote 198: Ramsay, p. 259.] - -[Footnote 199: Acts. 5. 37.] - -Curiously enough, there used to be a very similar error, charged -against St. Luke, in regard to Lysanias; whom he says was tetrarch -of Abilene, a district near Damascus, in the fifteenth year of -Tiberius, about A.D. 27.[200] Yet the only ruler of this name known -to history in those parts was a king, who was killed in B.C. 34. But -inscriptions found at Baalbec, and Abila (the latter dating -somewhere between A.D. 14-29) show that there was a second Lysanias, -hitherto unknown, who is expressly called the _tetrarch_ and who is -now admitted to be the one referred to by St. Luke.[201] On the -whole then, these Gospels, wherever we have any means of testing -them by secular history, appear to be substantially accurate. - -[Footnote 200: Luke 3. 1.] - -[Footnote 201: Boeckh's Corp. Ins. Gr., No. 4523; Ramsay, 'Bearing -of Recent Discovery on New Testament.' 1915, p. 298.] - -But it may be said, do not the Gospels themselves contradict one -another in some places, and if so they cannot all be correct? Now -that there are some apparent contradictions, especially in the -narratives of the Resurrection (see Chapter XVII.), must of course -be admitted; but many of these can be explained satisfactorily, and -those which cannot are as a rule quite trivial. For example,[202] -St. Matthew relates that at Christ's Baptism the Voice from Heaven -said, '_This_ is my beloved Son in _whom_ I am well pleased;' and -the other Evangelists, '_Thou_ art my beloved Son, in _thee_ I am -well pleased.' There is a clear verbal discrepancy, whatever words -were used, or in whatever language they were spoken. Again, St. -Matthew records the passage about the Queen of the South as being -spoken just after, and St. Luke as just before, the similar passage -about the men of Nineveh, though both can hardly be correct. Such -mistakes as these, however, do not interfere with the substantial -accuracy of the narratives. - -[Footnote 202: Matt. 3. 17; 12. 42; Mark 1. 11; Luke 3. 22; 11. 31.] - -(2.) _Their sources._ - -Now the first three Gospels have, as is well known, a number of -identical passages, which must plainly be due to _copying_ in some -form, either two Evangelists copying the third, or all three some -earlier document. The portion they have in common (often called the -_Triple Tradition_) includes some of the parables of Christ, and -several of His miracles, such as calming the storm, feeding the five -thousand, curing the man at Gadara, and raising the daughter of -Jairus. If, as is probable, it represents the testimony of a single -witness, there is little difficulty in identifying him with St. -Peter. - -But it is _most unlikely_ for the _whole_ of this earlier document -to have been included in three separate Gospels; it is sure to have -contained something that was only copied by one or two. Therefore -most scholars are now of opinion that the so-called Triple Tradition -was merely our St. Mark's Gospel, practically all of which was -copied, either by St. Matthew or St. Luke, if not by both. And this -is certainly probable, for the many graphic details in this Gospel -show that it must date from an extremely early time; so it was most -likely known to the other Evangelists. It would also agree with the -statement of Papias (quoted in the last chapter) that St. Mark got -his information from St. Peter. And as some of it has to do with -events, such as the Transfiguration, when St. Peter was present, and -St. Matthew was not, there is nothing improbable in St. Matthew (as -well as St. Luke) including part of it in his Gospel. - -This however is not all; for our first and third Gospels also -contain a good deal in common, which is not in Mark, and this looks -like another older document, often called 'Q' from the German -_Quelle_, meaning '_source_.' It consists chiefly of discourses and -parables, though including at least one miracle, that of healing the -centurion's servant, and is admitted by most critics to date from -before A.D. 50. - -But here again, it is unlikely for the _whole_ of this earlier -document to have been included in two separate Gospels, it is sure -to have contained something else besides. Moreover, _as thus -restored_ (from Matthew and Luke) it is obviously incomplete. It -contains scarcely any narrative to explain how the discourses arose, -and of necessity it omits everything in Christ's life which is -recorded by St. Mark as well, for this has been already assigned to -the so-called Triple Tradition. Therefore when it was complete, it -must have contained a good deal more, which may well have been the -remainder of our St. Matthew's Gospel. St. Luke would then have only -included _a part_ of what St. Matthew wrote, just as they both only -included a part of what St. Mark wrote. And the supposed second -document would be our St. Matthew's Gospel, just as the supposed -Triple Tradition is now thought to be our St. Mark's Gospel. There -are difficulties on every theory, but on the whole this seems as -satisfactory as any other, and it accounts fairly well for the first -two Gospels. - -But the third Gospel requires further explanation, for besides what -is copied from the other two, it contains a good deal of additional -matter, such as the parable of the Prodigal Son, which St. Luke must -have got from some other source. While he expressly says that _many_ -had written before himself; so there were several such sources in -existence. And this was only natural, for the Christian religion -spread rapidly, and St. Luke himself shows us what its converts were -taught. For he says that he only wrote his Gospel to convince -Theophilus of the things about which he had already been -instructed.[203] Clearly then the course of instruction must have -included what the Gospel included; and this was the whole of -Christ's life, from His Virgin-Birth to His Ascension. It is hence -probable that from the very first Christian teachers had some -account of that life. - -[Footnote 203: Luke 1. 1-4.] - -And this probability becomes almost a certainty in the light of -modern discoveries. For quantities of old _papyri_ have been found -in Egypt, which show that at the time of Christ, writing was in -common use among all classes; soldiers, farmers, servants, -schoolboys, were all accustomed to write. Therefore, as it has been -well said, 'so far as antecedent probability goes, founded on the -general character of preceding and contemporary society, the first -Christian account of the circumstances connected with the death of -Jesus must be presumed to have been written in the year when Jesus -died.'[204] And since St. Luke, when he was at Jerusalem met several -of the _elders_ there, including Christ's brother, St. James,[205] -he probably had access to all existing documents. - -[Footnote 204: Ramsay, Transactions of Victoria Institute, vol. -xxxix., 1907, p. 203.] - -[Footnote 205: Acts 21. 18.] - -There is thus no reason to doubt his own statement, that he had -ample means of knowing the truth, _from the beginning_. And this, he -says, was the very reason why he determined to write; so a more -trustworthy historian can scarcely be imagined.[206] Fortunately, -however, though dividing the Gospels into their original parts is an -interesting study, it is in no way essential to our present -argument. - -[Footnote 206: Luke 1. 2-3.] - -(3.) _Their probable date._ - -We now come to the _probable date_ of the first three Gospels; and -there are strong reasons for fixing this before the fall of -Jerusalem, in A.D. 70. In the first place several _subjects_ are -discussed, such as the lawfulness of the Jews paying tribute to -Cæsar,[207] which would have had no interest after that event. And -that conversations on such subjects should have been composed in -later days, or even thought worth recording, is most unlikely. Nor -are Christ's instructions as to what persons should do when they -bring their gifts to the altar, likely to have been recorded after -the altar, and everything connected with it, had been totally -destroyed.[208] - -[Footnote 207: Matt. 22. 17.] - -[Footnote 208: Matt. 5. 24.] - -Secondly, nearly all the _parables_ of Christ have very strong marks -of truthfulness, as they are thoroughly natural in character, and -suit the customs and scenery of Palestine. Moreover, they are unique -in Christian literature. However strange we may think it, the early -Christians never seem to have adopted Christ's method of teaching by -parables. Yet, if they had composed these parables, instead of -merely recording them, they would doubtless have composed others -like them. It is hence probable that these discourses are genuine; -and, if so, they must obviously have been written down very soon -afterwards. - -Thirdly, there are a few passages which deserve special mention. Two -of these are Christ's saying that (apparently) there would not be -time to go through the cities of Israel before His Second Coming; -and that some of His hearers would not die till the end of the -world.[209] That such statements should have been composed in later -years is out of the question; so we can only conclude that they were -actually spoken by Christ. And they show that the Gospels must not -only have been written when some of Christ's hearers were still -alive, but that they could not have been revised afterwards; or the -passages would not have been allowed to remain as they are. - -[Footnote 209: Matt. 10. 23; 16. 28; Mark 9. 1; Luke 9. 27; but some -other texts imply the contrary--_e.g._, Matt. 21. 43; Mark 13. 7, -10; 14. 9; Luke 21. 24.] - -Another is the statement that the potter's field was called the -field of blood _unto this day_;[210] which could scarcely have been -written when the whole city was little more than a heap of ruins. Of -course, on the other hand, it could not have been written -immediately after the time of Christ, but twenty years would -probably be a sufficient interval. - -[Footnote 210: Matt. 27. 8; see also 28. 15.] - -Fourthly, there is the prophetic description of the _fall of -Jerusalem_ itself, which seems confused by the Evangelists with that -of the Day of Judgment, St. Matthew saying, and both the others -implying, that the one would immediately follow the other.[211] Had -the Gospels been written after the former event, it is almost -certain that the writers would have distinguished between the two; -indeed, their not doing so is scarcely intelligible, unless we -assume that when they wrote, both events were still future. - -[Footnote 211: Matt. 24. 3, 29; Mark 13. 24; Luke 21. 27.] - -And this is confirmed by the curious hint given to the readers both -in Matthew and Mark to _understand_, and act on Christ's advice, and -leave the city and go to the mountains, before the siege became too -severe.[212] Plainly such a warning could not have been written -_after_ the siege, when it would have been useless. It must have -been written _before_; so if it is a later insertion, as it seems to -be, it proves a still earlier date for the rest of the chapter. -Moreover, none of the Evangelists have altered the passage, as later -writers might have done, to make it agree with the event; since as -far as we know, the Christians did not go to _the mountains_, but -to Pella, a city in the Jordan valley.[213] - -[Footnote 212: Matt. 24. 16; Mark 13. 14; Luke 21. 21.] - -[Footnote 213: Eusebius, Hist., iii. 5.] - -St. Luke, it will be noticed, omits the hint just referred to, and -as his account of Christ's prophecy of the siege is rather more -detailed than the others, it is sometimes thought to have been -written _after_ the event. But this is a needless assumption, for -the hint would have been quite useless to Theophilus, to whom the -Gospel was addressed; and the prophecy is anyhow no closer than that -in Deut. 28., which everyone admits was written centuries before -(Chapter XI.). - -On the whole, then, everything points to our first three Gospels -having been written some years before the destruction of Jerusalem, -A.D. 70; and most likely by the Evangelists, to whom they have been -universally ascribed. - -It may also be added, in regard to the Evangelists themselves, _St. -Matthew_ the Apostle was a publican or tax-collector, so just the -sort of person to keep records, in either Greek or Hebrew.[214] _St. -Mark_ came of a wealthy family, as his relative, Barnabas, had some -property; and his mother, Mary, had a large house at Jerusalem, -where Christians used to assemble, and where it has been thought the -Last Supper was held.[215] And the _young man_ who followed from -here to Gethsemane was probably St. Mark himself, or he would not -have recorded such a trivial incident.[216] - -[Footnote 214: Matt. 9. 9.] - -[Footnote 215: Acts 4. 37; 12. 12; 1. 13; Col. 4. 10.] - -[Footnote 216: Mark 14. 51.] - -And _St. Luke_, as we shall see in the next chapter, was a doctor, -who says he got his information from _eye-witnesses_. And if he was -the companion of Cleopas, as is perhaps probable (for such a graphic -narrative must have come from one who was present, yet the language -is thoroughly that of St. Luke), he would also have had some slight -knowledge of Christ himself.[217] And in similar cases where St. -John speaks of two disciples, but gives the name of only one, it is -practically certain that he himself was the other.[218] Moreover St. -Luke says that his Gospel, which only goes as far as the Ascension, -was about _those matters which have been fulfilled among us_[219] -(_i.e._, which have _occurred_ among us), and this implies that it -was written in Palestine at a very early date, and that St. Luke -himself was there during at least part of the time referred to. - -[Footnote 217: Luke 24. 18; _Expositor_, Feb., 1904.] - -[Footnote 218: John 1. 40; 18. 15.] - -[Footnote 219: Luke 1. 1. (R.V.). A short paper on _Fulfilled among -us_, by the present writer, appeared in the _Churchman_, Aug. 1914.] - -All three must thus have been well-educated men, and quite in a -position to write Gospels if they wanted to. While as none of them -seem to have taken a prominent part in the founding of Christianity, -there was no reason for ascribing the Gospels to them, rather than -to such great men as St. Peter and St. Paul, unless they actually -wrote them. - - -(_B._) THE FOURTH GOSPEL. - -We pass on now to the Fourth Gospel, and will first examine the -internal arguments as to its authorship, which are strongly in -favour of its being the work of St. John; and then the two arguments -on the opposite side, said to be derived from its connection with -the other Gospels, and the Book of Revelation. - -(1.) _Its authorship._ - -To begin with, the writer appears to have lived in the _first -century_. This is probable from his intimate acquaintance with -Jerusalem, and as before said that city was only a heap of ruins -after A.D. 70. Thus he speaks of Bethesda, the pool near the -sheep-gate, having five porches; of Solomon's porch; of the pool of -Siloam; and of the Temple, with its treasury; its oxen, sheep, and -doves for sacrifice; and its money-changers for changing foreign -money into Jewish, in which alone the Temple tax could be paid. And -his mention of Bethesda is specially interesting as he uses the -present tense, _There is in Jerusalem_, etc., implying that the gate -and porches were still standing (and therefore the city not yet -destroyed) when he wrote.[220] - -[Footnote 220: John 5. 2.] - -Secondly, the writer appears to have been an _eye-witness_ of what -he describes. He twice asserts this himself, as well as in an -Epistle which is generally admitted to be by the same writer, where -he declares that he had both seen, heard, and touched his -Master.[221] So, if this is not true, the work must be a deliberate -forgery; which is certainly improbable. Moreover, he frequently -identifies himself with the Twelve Apostles, recording their -feelings and reflections in a way which would be very unlikely for -any late writer to have thought of. Would a late writer, for -instance, have thought of inventing questions which the Apostles -wanted to ask their Master, but were afraid to do so? Or would he -have thought it worth repeating so often that they did not -understand at the time the real significance of the events they took -part in?[222] - -[Footnote 221: John 1. 14; 19. 35; 1 John 1. 1.] - -[Footnote 222: _E.g._, John 2. 17, 22; 4. 27; 13. 28; 16. 17.] - -The author is also very particular as to times and places. Take, for -instance, the passage 1. 29-2. 12, with its expressions _On the -morrow_, _Again on the morrow_, _About the tenth hour_, _On the -morrow_, _And the third day_, _And there they abode not many days_. -It reads like extracts from an old diary, and why should all these -insignificant details be recorded? What did it matter half a century -later whether it was the same day, or on the morrow, or the third -day; or whether they stayed many days in Capernaum, or only a few; -as no hint is given as to why they went there, or what they did? The -only reasonable explanation is that the writer was present himself -(being of course the unnamed companion of St. Andrew); that this was -the turning-point in his life when he first saw his Lord; and that -therefore he loved to recall every detail. - -And it may be noticed in passing that this passage explains an -apparent difficulty in the other Gospels, where it is stated that -these Apostles were called to follow Christ, after the death of St. -John the Baptist; though with a suddenness and ready obedience on -their part, which is hard to believe.[223] But we here learn that -they had already been with Christ some months before, in company -with the Baptist, so they were doubtless prepared for the call when -it came. And the passage, like many others, bears internal marks of -truthfulness. In particular may be mentioned the words of Nathanael, -_Thou art the Son of God, thou art the King of Israel_, implying -that the latter title was at least as honourable as the former. No -Christian in later times, when Christ was obviously not the King of -Israel (except in a purely spiritual sense), and when the title _Son -of God_ had come to mean so much more than it ever did to the Jews, -would have arranged it thus. - -[Footnote 223: _E.g._, Mark 1. 14-20.] - -Lastly, if we admit that the writer was an eye-witness, it can -hardly be disputed that he was the Apostle _St. John_. Indeed, were -he anyone else, it is strange that an Apostle of such importance -should not be once mentioned throughout the Gospel. It is also -significant that the other John, who is described in the first three -Gospels as John the _Baptist_, to distinguish him from the Apostle, -is here called merely _John_. No confusion could arise if, and only -if, the writer himself were the Apostle John. While still more -important is the fact that at the close of the Gospel, we have a -solemn declaration made by the author's own friends that he was the -_disciple whom Jesus loved_ (admitted by nearly everyone to be St. -John), that he had witnessed the things he wrote about, and that -what he said was true. And testimony more ancient or more conclusive -can scarcely be imagined. - -With regard to the _date_ of the book, we can say little for -certain. But the extreme care which is taken in these closing verses -to explain exactly what Christ did, and did not say, as to St. -John's dying, before His coming again, seems to imply that the -matter was still undecided, in other words that St. John was still -alive, though very old, when they were written. And if so the Gospel -must have been _published_ (probably in some Gentile city, like -Ephesus, from the way the Jews are spoken of)[224] towards the close -of the first century; though a large part of it may have been -_written_ in the shape of notes, etc., long before. - -[Footnote 224: _E.g._, John 2. 13; 5. 1; 6. 4.] - -(2.) _Its connection with the other Gospels._ - -But, as before said, there are two arguments against the genuineness -of this Gospel. The first is that the Christ of the Fourth Gospel is -almost a different person from the Christ of the other three. The -_events_ of His life are different, His _language_ is different, and -His _character_ is different; while, when the Gospels cover the same -ground, there are _discrepancies_ between them. But every part of -this objection admits of a satisfactory answer. - -To begin with, the fact that the Fourth Gospel narrates different -_events_ in the life of Christ from what we find in the other three -must of course be admitted. But what then? Why should not one -biography of Christ narrate certain events in His life, which the -writer thought important, but which had been omitted in previous -accounts? This is what occurs frequently at the present day, and why -should it not have occurred then? The Fourth Gospel may have been -written on purpose to _supplement_ some other accounts. - -And there is strong evidence from the book itself that this was -actually the case. For the writer refers to many events without -describing them, and in such a way as to show that he thought his -readers knew about them. He assumes, for instance, that they know -about St. John the Baptist being imprisoned, about Joseph being the -supposed father of Christ, and about the appointment of the -Twelve.[225] It is probable then that the Gospel was written for -well-instructed Christians, who possessed some other accounts of -Christ's life. And everything points to these being our first three -Gospels. - -[Footnote 225: John 3. 24; 6. 42, 70.] - -Then as to the _language_ ascribed to Christ in the Fourth Gospel -being different from that in the others. This is no doubt partly -true, especially in regard to His speaking of Himself as _the Son_, -in the same way in which God is _the Father_. But it so happens that -we have in these other Gospels at least three similar passages[226] -which show that Christ did occasionally speak in this way. And there -is no reason why St. John should not have preserved such discourses -because the other Evangelists had omitted to do so. On the other -hand, the title _Son of Man_ (applied to Christ) occurs repeatedly -in all the Gospels, though strange to say only in the mouth of -Christ Himself. This is a striking detail, in which St. John -entirely agrees with the other Evangelists. - -[Footnote 226: Matt. 11. 25-27; 24. 36; 28. 19; Mark 13. 32; Luke -10. 21, 22.] - -The next part of the objection is that the _Character_ assigned to -Christ in the Fourth Gospel is different from that in the other -three; since instead of teaching moral virtues as in the Sermon on -the Mount, He keeps asserting His own Divine nature. And this also -is partly true, for the Fourth Gospel shows the Divinity of Christ -more directly than the others, which only imply it (Chapter XXI.). -And very probably the writer did so on purpose, thinking that this -aspect of Christ's character had not been sufficiently emphasised in -the previous accounts. Indeed, he implies it himself, for he says -that he omitted much that he might have inserted, and merely -recorded what he did in order to convince his readers that Jesus was -the Christ, the Son of God.[227] - -[Footnote 227: John 20. 31.] - -But no argument for a late date can be drawn from this. Because four -of St. Paul's Epistles (_i.e._ Rom.; 1 Cor.; 2 Cor.; and Gal.) which -have been admitted to be genuine by critics of all schools, describe -exactly the same Christ as we find in the Fourth Gospel, speaking of -His Divinity, Pre-existence, and Incarnation (Chapter XXI.). And -from the way in which St. Paul alludes to these doctrines he -evidently considered them the common belief of all Christians when -he wrote, about A.D. 55. So the fact of the Fourth Gospel laying -stress on these doctrines is no reason whatever against either its -genuineness or its early date. Indeed, it seems to supply just those -discourses of Christ which are necessary to account for St. Paul's -language. - -Lastly, as to the _discrepancies_. The one most often alleged is -that according to the first three Gospels (in opposition to the -Fourth) Christ's ministry never reached Jerusalem till just before -His death. But this is a mistake, for though they do not relate His -attendance at the Jewish feasts, like St. John does, they imply by -the word _often_ ('How _often_ would I have gathered thy -children,'[228] etc.) that He had frequently visited the city, and -preached there. And one of them also refers to an earlier visit of -Christ, to Martha and Mary, which shows that He had been to Bethany -(close to Jerusalem) some time before.[229] - -[Footnote 228: Matt. 23. 37; Luke 13. 34.] - -[Footnote 229: Luke 10. 38.] - -Another difficulty (it is scarcely a discrepancy) is the fact that -such a striking miracle as the raising of Lazarus, which is -described in the Fourth Gospel, should have been _omitted_ in the -other three. It is certainly strange, but these Evangelists -themselves tell us there were _other_ instances of raising the dead, -which they do not record,[230] and they probably knew of it, as it -alone explains the great enthusiasm with which Christ was received -at Jerusalem. This they all relate, and St. Luke's saying that it -was due to the _mighty works_, which the people had _seen_, implies -that there had been some striking miracles in the neighbourhood.[231] - -[Footnote 230: Matt. 10. 8; 11. 5; Luke 7. 22.] - -[Footnote 231: Luke 19. 37.] - -On the other hand, there are several _undesigned agreements_ between -the Gospels, which are a strong argument in favour of their -accuracy. Take, for instance, the accusation brought against Christ -of destroying the Temple, and rebuilding it in three days. This is -alluded to both by St. Matthew and St. Mark; but St. John alone -records the words on which it was founded, though he does not -mention the charge, and quotes the words in quite a different -connection.[232] - -[Footnote 232: Matt. 26. 61; Mark 14. 58; John 2. 19.] - -Or take the Feeding of the five thousand.[233] St. Mark says that -this occurred in a desert place, where Christ had gone for a short -rest, and to avoid the crowd of persons who were _coming and going_ -at Capernaum. But he gives no hint as to why there was this crowd -just at that time. St. John says nothing about Christ's going to the -desert, nor of the crowd which occasioned it; but he happens to -mention, what fully explains both, that it was shortly before the -Passover. Now we know that at the time of the Passover numbers of -people came to Jerusalem from all parts; so Capernaum, which lay on -a main road from the north, would naturally be crowded with persons -_coming and going_. And this explains everything; even St. Mark's -little detail, as to the people sitting on the _green_ grass, for -grass is only green in Palestine in the spring, _i.e._, at the time -of the Passover. But can anyone think that the writer of the Fourth -Gospel purposely made his account to agree with the others, yet did -this in such a way that not one reader in a hundred ever discovers -it? The only reasonable explanation is that the event was true, and -that both writers had independent knowledge of it. - -[Footnote 233: Matt. 14. 13; Mark 6. 31; Luke 9. 10; John 6. 4.] - -The objection, then, as to the connection of the Fourth Gospel with -the other three must be put aside. It was plainly meant to -_supplement_ them; and it shows not a different Christ, either in -_language_ or _character_, but merely a different aspect of the -same Christ, while the slight _discrepancies_, especially when -combined with the undesigned coincidences, rather support its -genuineness. - -(3.) _Its connection with the Book of Revelation._ - -We pass on now to the other argument. The Book of Revelation is -generally admitted to be the work of St. John, and it is ascribed to -him by Justin Martyr.[234] Its date is usually fixed at A.D. 68; -though many critics prefer A.D. 95, which is the date given by -Irenæus. - -[Footnote 234: Dial., 81.] - -Yet it is said it cannot be by the same writer as the Fourth Gospel -because the _Greek_ is so different, that of the Revelation being -very abrupt, with numerous faults of grammar, while the Gospel is in -good Greek. Therefore it is urged that a Galilean fisherman like St. -John, though he might have been sufficiently educated to have -written the former, as his father was well off and kept servants, -and he himself was a friend of the High Priest,[235] could scarcely -have written the latter. Various explanations have been given of -this. Perhaps the best is that the Revelation was written by St. -John himself, since he is not likely to have had friends in Patmos; -and that when writing the Gospel he had the assistance of a Greek -disciple. - -[Footnote 235: Mark 1. 20; John 18. 15.] - -On the other side, it must be remembered that though the two books -are different in language, they are the same in their _teaching_; -for the great doctrine of the Fourth Gospel, that of the Divinity of -Christ, is asserted almost as plainly in the Revelation. And even -the striking expression that Christ is the _Logos_, or _Word_, -occurs in both books, though it is not found elsewhere in the New -Testament, except in one of St. John's Epistles.[236] And the same -may be said of another striking expression, that Christ is the -_Lamb_, which also occurs in the Gospel and Revelation, though not -elsewhere in the New Testament.[237] This similarity in doctrine is -indeed so marked that it strongly suggests the same authorship; and -if so, it makes it practically certain that the Fourth Gospel was -written by St. John. - -[Footnote 236: John 1. 1; 1 John 1. 1; Rev. 19. 13.] - -[Footnote 237: John 1. 29, 36; Rev. 6. 1; 14. 1.] - -On the whole, then, these objections are not serious; while, as -already shown, the Fourth Gospel has very strong internal marks of -genuineness. And when we combine these with the equally strong -external testimony, it forces us to conclude that St. John was the -author. This Gospel, then, like the other three, must be considered -_genuine_; indeed, the evidence in favour of them all is -overwhelming. - - - - -CHAPTER XVI. - -THAT THE GOSPELS ARE GENUINE FROM THE EVIDENCE OF THE ACTS. - -Importance of the Acts, as it is by the writer of the Third Gospel. - - (_A._) ITS ACCURACY. - - Three examples of this: - - (1.) The titles of different rulers. - (2.) The riot at Ephesus. - (3.) The agreement with St. Paul's Epistles. - - (_B._) ITS AUTHORSHIP. - - The writer was a companion of St. Paul, and a medical - man; so probably St. Luke. - - (_C._) ITS DATE. - - There are strong reasons for fixing this at the close of - St. Paul's imprisonment at Rome, about A.D. 60; and - this points to an earlier date for the first three Gospels. - - -We have next to consider an argument of great importance derived -from the Acts of the Apostles. This book is universally admitted to -be by the same writer as the Third Gospel, as is indeed obvious from -the manner in which both are addressed to Theophilus, from the -_former treatise_ being mentioned in the opening verse of the Acts, -and from the perfect agreement in style and language. Hence -arguments for or against the antiquity of the Acts affect the Third -Gospel also, and therefore, to some extent, the First and Second as -well. So we will consider first its _accuracy_, then its -_authorship_, and lastly its _date_. - - -(_A._) ITS ACCURACY. - -Now, this book, unlike the Gospels, deals with a large number of -public men and places, many of which are well known from secular -history, while inscriptions referring to others have been recently -discovered. It is thus liable to be detected at every step if -inaccurate; yet, with the doubtful exception of the date of the -rebellion of Theudas, and some details as to the death of Herod -Agrippa, no error can be discovered. As this is practically -undisputed, we need not discuss the evidence in detail, but will -give three examples. - -(1.) _The titles of different rulers._ - -We will commence with the _titles_ given to different rulers. As is -well known, the Roman provinces were of two kinds, some belonging to -the Emperor, and some to the Senate. The former were governed by -_proprætors_, or when less important by _procurators_, and the -latter by _proconsuls_, though they frequently changed hands. -Moreover, individual places had often special names for their -rulers; yet in every case the writer of the Acts uses the proper -title. - -For example, the ruler at Cyprus is rightly called _proconsul_.[238] -This used to be thought a mistake, but we now know that it is -correct; for though Cyprus had previously belonged to the Emperor, -it had been exchanged with the Senate for another province before -the time in question. And an inscription[239] found there at Soli -has the words in Greek, _Paulus proconsul_, probably the Sergius -Paulus of the Acts. Cyprus, it may be added, subsequently changed -hands again. - -[Footnote 238: Acts. 13. 7.] - -[Footnote 239: Cyprus, by Cesnola (London, 1877), p. 425.] - -In the same way Gallio is correctly described as _proconsul_ of -Achaia.[240] For though this province belonged to the Emperor for -some years before A.D. 44, and was independent after A.D. 66, it -belonged to the Senate in the interval, when the writer referred to -it. And an inscription, recently found at Delphi, shows that Gallio -was proconsul in A.D. 52, which agrees well with the chronology of -the Acts.[241] Equally correct is the title of _governor_ or -_procurator_, applied to both Felix and Festus.[242] While it is -satisfactory to add that the title _lord_, addressed to the Emperor -Nero, which used to be thought rather a difficulty, as it was not -known to have been adopted till the time of Domitian (A.D. 81-96), -has now been found in papyri of the age of Nero.[243] - -[Footnote 240: Acts 18. 12.] - -[Footnote 241: Palestine Exploration Quarterly, July, 1913.] - -[Footnote 242: Acts 19. 38; 23. 26; 26. 30.] - -[Footnote 243: Acts 25. 26; Deissman, New Light on the New -Testament, 1907, p. 80.] - -Again, Herod (_i.e._, Agrippa I.) shortly before his death, is -styled _king_.[244] Now we learn from other sources that he had this -title for the last three years of his government (A.D. 41-44), -though there had been no king in Judæa for the previous thirty -years, nor for many centuries afterwards. - -[Footnote 244: Acts 12. 1; Josephus, Antiq., xviii. 6, xix. 5.] - -Moreover, his son is also called _King_ Agrippa, though it is -implied that he was not king of Judæa, which was governed by Festus, -but of some other province. Yet, strange to say, he seems to have -held some official position in regard to the Jews, since Festus -_laid Paul's case before him_, as if he were in some way entitled to -hear it.[245] And all this is quite correct; for Agrippa, though -King of Chalcis, and not Judæa, was yet (being a Jew) entrusted by -the Emperor with the management of the Jewish Temple and Treasury, -and the choice of the High Priests, so he was a good deal mixed up -in Jewish affairs.[246] And this, though only a trifle, is -interesting; because a late writer, who had taken the trouble to -study the subject, and find out the position Agrippa occupied, is -not likely to have shown his knowledge in such a casual way. -Scarcely anyone notices it. And equally correct is the remarkable -fact that his sister _Bernice_ used to act with him on public -occasions.[247] - -[Footnote 245: Acts 25. 13, 14.] - -[Footnote 246: Josephus, Antiq., xx., 1, 8, 9.] - -[Footnote 247: Acts 25. 23; Josephus, Wars, ii. 16; Life, xi.] - -Again at Malta we read of the _chief-man_ Publius; the accuracy of -which title (for it is a _title_, and does not mean merely the most -important man) is also proved by inscriptions, though as far as we -know it was peculiar to that island.[248] At Thessalonica, on the -other hand, the magistrates have the curious title of _politarchs_, -translated 'rulers of the city.'[249] This name does not occur in -any classical author in this form, so the writer of the Acts used to -be accused of a blunder here. His critics were unaware that an old -arch was standing all the time at this very place, the modern -Salonica, with an inscription containing this very word, saying it -was built when certain men were the politarchs. The arch was -destroyed in 1876, but the stone containing the inscription was -preserved, and is now in the British Museum.[250] And since then -other inscriptions have been found, showing that the term was in use -all through the first century. - -[Footnote 248: Acts 28. 7; Boeckh's Corp. Ins. Lat. X., No. 7495; -Corp. Ins. Gr., No. 5754.] - -[Footnote 249: Acts 17. 6.] - -[Footnote 250: In the Central Hall, near the Library.] - -Nor is this accuracy confined to well-known places on the coast; it -extends wherever the narrative extends, even to the interior of Asia -Minor. For though the rulers there are not mentioned, the writer was -evidently well acquainted with the places he refers to. Take -_Lystra_, for instance.[251] According to the writer, it was a city -of Lycaonia, though the adjacent town of Iconium was not, and this -has been recently proved to be correct. And it is interesting, -because many classical authors wrongly assign Iconium to Lycaonia; -while Lystra, though belonging to that province in the first -century, was separated from it early in the second; so a late -writer, or one ignorant of the locality, might easily have made a -mistake in either case. And an inscription found near Lystra, in -1909, shows that the two gods, Jupiter and Mercury (_i.e._, Zeus and -Hermes) were commonly associated together by the inhabitants, as -they are represented to be in the Acts. - -[Footnote 251: Acts 14. 1-12; Ramsay, Bearing of Recent Discovery on -New Testament, 1915, pp. 48-63.] - -(2.) _The riot at Ephesus._ - -As a second example we will take the account of the _riot at -Ephesus_. All the allusions here to the worship of Diana, including -her image believed to have fallen from heaven (perhaps a meteorite -roughly cut into shape), her magnificent shrine, the small silver -models of this, her widespread worship, and the fanatical devotion -of her worshippers, are all in strict agreement with what we know -from other sources. - -Moreover, inscriptions discovered there have confirmed the narrative -to a remarkable extent. They have shown that the _theatre_ was the -recognised place of public meeting; that there were certain officers -(who presided at the games, etc.) called _asiarchs_; that another -well-known Ephesian officer was called the _town-clerk_; that -Ephesus had the curious designation of _temple-keeper_ of Diana -(long thought to be a difficulty); that _temple-robbing_ and -_blasphemy_ were both crimes which were specially recognised by the -Ephesian laws; and that the term _regular assembly_ was a technical -one in use at Ephesus.[252] The reference to the _town-clerk_ is -particularly interesting, because what is recorded of him is said to -agree with the duties of the town-clerk at Ephesus, though not with -those of the same official elsewhere.[253] All this minute accuracy -is hard to explain unless the narrative came from one who was -present during the riot, and recorded what he actually saw and -heard. - -[Footnote 252: _Comp._ Acts 19. 29-39; with inscriptions found in -the Great Theatre. Wood's Discoveries at Ephesus, 1877, pp. 43, 47, -53, 51, 15, 39.] - -[Footnote 253: Harnack, The Acts of the Apostles, translated by -Wilkinson, 1909, p. 63.] - -(3.) _The agreement with St. Paul's Epistles._ - -Our third example shall be of a different kind. It is that if we -compare the biography of St. Paul given in the Acts with the letters -of that Apostle, many of them written to the very Churches and -persons described there, we shall find numerous _undesigned -agreements_ between them. And these, as before explained (Chapter -X.) form a strong argument in favour of the accuracy of both. Take, -for instance, the Epistle to the Romans. Though not dated, it was -evidently written at the close of St. Paul's second visit to Greece; -and therefore, if mentioned in the Acts, it would come in at Chapter -20. 3. And the following are two, out of the numerous points of -agreement. - -The first is St. Paul's saying that he was going to Jerusalem, with -alms from Macedonia and Achaia for the poor in that city. Now in the -Acts it is stated that St. Paul had just passed through these -provinces, and was on his way to Jerusalem, though there is no -mention about the alms there. But it happens to be alluded to some -chapters later, without, however, mentioning then where the alms -came from.[254] The agreement is complete though it is certainly not -designed. - -[Footnote 254: Rom. 15. 25, 26; Acts 19. 21; 24. 17.] - -The other refers to St. Paul's travels, which he says extended from -Jerusalem as far as _Illyricum_. Now Illyricum is not once mentioned -in the Acts; so there can be no intentional agreement here. And yet -there is agreement. For we learn from various places that St. Paul -had gone from Jerusalem all through what we now call Asia Minor, and -just before the date of this Epistle had passed through Macedonia, -which was his limit in this direction. And as this was the next -province to Illyricum, it exactly agrees with the Epistle.[255] - -[Footnote 255: Rom. 15. 19; Acts 20. 2.] - -We may now sum up the evidence as to the accuracy of the Acts. The -above instances are only specimens of many which might be given. The -writer knew about Jerusalem and Athens just as well as about -Ephesus. While his account of St. Paul's voyage from Cæsarea to -Italy, including as it does, references to a number of places; to -the climate, and prevailing winds of the Mediterranean; and to the -phrases and customs of seamen, is so accurate, that critics of all -schools have admitted that he is describing a voyage he had actually -made. In short, the Book of the Acts is full of correct details -throughout, and it is hard to believe that anyone but a contemporary -could have written it. - - -(_B._) ITS AUTHORSHIP. - -Now if we admit the general accuracy of the book, there is little -difficulty in deciding on its _authorship_. As is well known, -certain portions of it (describing some of St. Paul's travels, -including his voyage to Italy) are written in the first person -plural, and are commonly called the "_We_" sections.[256] This shows -that the writer was a _companion_ of St. Paul at that time; and -then the great similarity in _language_, between these sections and -the rest of the book, shows that they had the same author. For they -are both written in the same style, and they both contain over forty -important words and expressions, which do not occur elsewhere in the -New Testament, except in the Third Gospel. This is indeed so -striking that it practically settles the point.[257] - -[Footnote 256: Acts 16. 9-40; 20. 5-21. 18; 27. 1-28. 16.] - -[Footnote 257: Harnack, Luke the Physician, translated by Wilkinson, -1907, p. 53.] - -But there are also slight _historical_ connections between the two -portions. For example, in the earlier chapters some incidents are -recorded, in which a certain Philip (one of the _Seven_) was -concerned; and why should these have been selected? The writer was -not present himself, and many far more important events must have -occurred, of which he gives no account. But a casual verse in the -_We_ sections explains everything: the writer, we are told, stayed -_many days_ with Philip, and of course learnt these particulars -then. And as it seems to have been his rule only to record what he -knew for certain, he might well have left out other and more -important events, of which he had not such accurate knowledge.[258] -And the earlier reference, which ends with the apparently pointless -remark that _Philip came to Cæsarea_, without saying why or -wherefore, is also explained, since this was the place where the -writer afterwards met him. It is then practically certain that the -whole book was written by one man, and that he was a companion of -St. Paul in many of his travels. - -[Footnote 258: Acts 6. 5; 8. 5, 26, 40; 21. 10.; Luke 1. 3.] - -It is also practically certain that he was a _medical man_. The -evidence for this is overwhelming, but as the fact is generally -admitted, we need not discuss it at length. All we need say is that -201 places have been counted in the Acts, and 252 in the Third -Gospel, where words and expressions occur which are specially, and -many of them exclusively, used by Greek medical writers, and which, -with few exceptions, do not occur elsewhere, in the New -Testament.[259] For instance, we read of the many proofs of the -Resurrection; the word translated _proofs_ being frequently used by -medical writers to express the infallible symptoms of a disease, as -distinct from its mere signs, which may be doubtful, and they -expressly give it this meaning. And we read of the restoration of -all things; the word translated _restoration_ being the regular -medical term for a complete recovery of a man's body or limb.[260] - -[Footnote 259: Hobart's Medical Language of St. Luke (1882); some of -his examples are rather doubtful.] - -[Footnote 260: Acts 1. 3; 3. 21.] - -We conclude then, from the book itself, that the writer was an -intimate friend of St. Paul and a medical man; and from one -of St. Paul's Epistles we learn his name, _Luke the beloved -physician_.[261] And this is confirmed by the fact that both this -Epistle and that to Philemon, where St. Paul also names Luke as his -companion, appear to have been written from Rome, when, as we know, -the writer of the Acts was with him. And he seems to have remained -with him to the last, _only Luke is with me_.[262] Yet this beloved -and ever-faithful friend of St. Paul is not once named in the Acts, -which would be most unlikely unless he were the author. - -[Footnote 261: Col. 4. 14; Philemon 24.] - -[Footnote 262: 2 Tim. 4. 11.] - - -(_C._) ITS DATE. - -The _date_ of the book can also be fixed with tolerable certainty. -It is implied in its abrupt ending. The last thing it narrates is -St. Paul's living at Rome, two years before his expected trial (A.D. -58-60).[263] It says nothing about this trial, nor of St. Paul's -release, nor of his subsequent travels, nor of his second trial and -martyrdom (probably under Nero, A.D. 64); though had it been written -after these events, it could hardly have failed to record them. This -is especially the case as the martyrdom of St. Peter and St. Paul, -which, according to early authorities, occurred together at Rome, -would have formed such a suitable conclusion for a work chiefly -concerned with their labours. - -[Footnote 263: Rackham's Commentary on the Acts, 1901, p. lxvii; -many place it a year or two later, some a little earlier.] - -On the other hand, the abrupt ending of the book is at once -accounted for if it was written at that time, about A.D. 60, by St. -Luke, who did not relate anything further, because nothing further -had then occurred. And it is obvious that these two years would not -only have formed a most suitable period for its compilation, but -that he is very likely to have sent it to his friend Theophilus just -before the trial, perhaps somewhat hurriedly, not knowing whether it -might not involve his own death, as well as that of St. Paul. - -This would also account for the great prominence given to the -events of the immediately preceding years in Chapters 20. to 28., -which is quite unintelligible, unless the book was written soon -afterwards. They were nothing like as important as the events of the -next few years, about which the writer says nothing. And why should -he go through the earlier stages of St. Paul's arrest and trial, so -carefully, step by step, from Lysias to Felix, from Felix to Festus, -and then to Agrippa, and on to Rome; and then when he comes to the -crisis, and the Apostle is about to appear before Cæsar, suddenly -break off, without giving a hint as to which way it was decided? -Everyone must feel how tantalising it is; and how unlikely he is to -have stopped here, if he could have gone on. - -This abrupt ending, then, is the great argument for dating the book -about A.D. 60; but it is supported by several others. In the first -place, the journey to Rome itself, especially the shipwreck, is -described with such minute and graphic details, that it seems likely -to have been written down very soon afterwards, probably in that -city. - -Secondly, the Roman judges and officials are always represented as -treating the Christians with fairness, and even kindness; and the -writer leaves St. Paul appealing to Cæsar, with every hope of a -favourable verdict. There is no sign of bitterness or ill-feeling -anywhere. And all this would have been most unlikely after the great -persecution in A.D. 64; when Christians regarded Rome with the -utmost horror.[264] Compare the somewhat similar case of the Indian -Mutiny. Can we imagine an Englishman in India writing soon after the -Mutiny a history, say of Cawnpore, up to 1854, and then closing it, -without ever letting a hint fall that he was aware of the terrible -tragedy which happened in 1857, or showing the slightest ill-feeling -towards its perpetrators? The only reasonable conclusion would be -that such a history must have been written _before_ the Mutiny. In -the same way the Acts must have been written _before_ Nero's great -persecution. - -[Footnote 264: _E.g._, Rev. 17. 6.] - -Thirdly, the same sort of argument is afforded by the destruction of -Jerusalem in A.D. 70. Had the book been written after this, it is -strange that the writer should seem to be entirely unaware of it; -more especially as it had so close a bearing on the events described -in the Acts, such as the Jewish law not being binding on Gentile -Christians. And it is the more significant, because he records the -prophecy of the event in his Gospel,[265] but nowhere hints that the -prophecy had been fulfilled. - -[Footnote 265: Luke 19. 43.] - -Lastly, an early date is implied by the passage, where St. Paul -tells his friends near Ephesus, that they would not see him again. -It was quite natural for him to have said so at the time, as his -feelings were very despondent; but no one, writing many years later, -would have recorded it _without comment_; since it is almost certain -that St. Paul, after his release from Rome, did revisit -Ephesus.[266] - -[Footnote 266: Acts 20. 25, 38; 2 Tim. 4. 20.] - -On the whole, then, there is very strong evidence in favour of the -Acts of the Apostles having been written by St. Luke about A.D. 60; -and this of course proves an earlier date for _St. Luke's Gospel_. -And this again proves a still earlier one for _St. Mark's Gospel_, -which is now generally admitted to have been written before St. -Luke's; and probably for _St. Matthew's_ as well. The evidence of -the Acts, then, while confirming our previous conclusion that the -first three Gospels were certainly written before A.D. 70, enables -us to add with some confidence that they were also written before -A.D. 60. And, it may be added, Prof. Harnack, who long maintained -the opposite view, has at last accepted this early date for all -these Gospels.[267] The book has of course no direct bearing on the -date of St. John's Gospel. - -[Footnote 267: Date of Acts, and Synoptic Gospels, translated by -Wilkinson, 1911, pp. 99, 133, 134. Some writers would place them -still earlier. Thus Canon Birks, dates them all between A.D. 42-51, -and he gives strong reasons for thinking that St. Luke, and his -Gospel, are referred to in 2 Cor. 8. 18. (Horæ Evangelicæ, 1892, -edit., pp. 259, 281, 293); and Archdeacon Allen places the second -Gospel, about A.D. 44, and the first about A.D. 50. (Introduction to -the Books of the New Testament, 1913, p. 13.)] - - - - -CHAPTER XVII. - -THAT THE RESURRECTION OF CHRIST IS PROBABLY TRUE. - - (_A._) ITS IMPORTANCE. - - The third day, the empty tomb. - - (_B._) THE NARRATIVES. - - The various accounts, table of Christ's appearances, the - three groups, the double farewell. - - (_C._) THEIR DIFFICULTIES. - - (1.) Discrepancies; often due to the appearances being - placed together; the disciples going to Galilee. - (2.) Omissions; the Gospels only record selected instances, - and St. Paul refers to them in groups. - - (_D._) THEIR TRUTHFULNESS. - - (1.) Agreements; very important. - (2.) Mutual explanations; very numerous. - (3.) Signs of early date; very interesting. - - Conclusion, the narratives appear to be thoroughly trustworthy. - - -We decided in the previous chapters that the Four Gospels, and also -the Acts of the Apostles, were _genuine_; that is to say, they were -written by the persons to whom they are commonly ascribed. And to -these may be added the four great Epistles of St. Paul, and the -Revelation of St. John, which, as before said, are admitted to be -genuine by critics of all schools. We have thus direct testimony -as to the life of Christ, that is to say, the testimony of -contemporaries, some of whom must have known Him well. St. Matthew -and St. John were two of His Apostles; St. Mark and St. Luke had -exceptionally good means of knowing the truth, and may perhaps have -had some slight knowledge of Christ themselves, as had also St. -Paul.[268] We have now to examine the value of this testimony, more -especially as to the _Resurrection of Christ_. So in the present -chapter we will consider the _importance_ of the Resurrection, and -the _narratives_ we have of it; both as to their _difficulties_, and -their _truthfulness_; and in the next the various alternative -theories. - -[Footnote 268: 2 Cor. 5. 16.] - - -(_A._) ITS IMPORTANCE. - -In the first place, we cannot overestimate the importance of the -Resurrection, for this fact, either real or supposed, was the -foundation of Christianity. This is plain not only from the Gospels, -but still more from the Acts, where we have numerous short speeches -by the Apostles, given under various circumstances, and to various -audiences, including Jewish Councillors, Greek philosophers, and -Roman governors. And in nearly all of them the Resurrection of -Christ is not only positively asserted, but is emphasised as a fact -established by indisputable evidence and as being the foundation of -Christianity.[269] It is even said that it was the special duty of -an apostle to bear witness to it; and St. Paul seems to have been -aware of this, since, when claiming to be an apostle, he is careful -to show that he was thus qualified. And for himself he makes it the -basis of all his teaching, _if Christ hath not been raised, then is -our preaching vain_.[270] It is certain, then, that the first -preachers of Christianity preached the Resurrection of Christ. - -[Footnote 269: Acts 2. 24; 4. 10; 5. 30; 10. 40; 13. 30; 17. 31; 26. -23.] - -[Footnote 270: Acts 1. 22; 1 Cor. 9. 1; 15. 14-17.] - -It is equally certain that they preached that it occurred on the -_third day_, counting from the Crucifixion.[271] This also is stated -not only in the Gospels, but by St. Paul; who in one place bases his -whole argument on the fact that the Body of Christ (unlike that of -David) _saw no corruption_, a point also alluded to by St. Peter, -and implying a Resurrection in a few days.[272] While if further -evidence is required, the fact that this third day (the first day of -the week) became _the Lord's Day_--the Christian Sunday--seems to -put the matter beyond dispute. - -[Footnote 271: Sometimes described as _after three days_, but that -the two expressions are intended to mean the same is clear from -Matt. 27. 63-64, where Christ's saying that He would rise again -_after three days_ is given as the reason for guarding the sepulchre -_until the third day_. In the same way _after eight days_ evidently -means _on the eighth day_ (John 20. 26).] - -[Footnote 272: 1 Cor. 15. 4; Acts 13. 35-37; 2. 31.] - -Once more it is certain that the Christians believed that this -Resurrection was one of Christ's _Body_, not His _Spirit_. This -again is clear not only from the Gospels, which all speak of the -_empty tomb_; but also from St. Paul's Epistles. For when he says -that Christ _died_, and was _buried_, and was _raised on the third -day_, and _appeared_ to Cephas, etc., he must mean Christ's _Body_ -(for a Spirit cannot be _buried_); and he must mean that it was the -_same_ Body that died and was buried, that was afterwards raised, -and appeared to them, including himself.[273] Christ's being -_raised_, it will be noticed, was distinct from, and previous to, -His _appearing_ to anyone, just as in the Gospels the empty tomb is -always mentioned _before_ any of the appearances. - -[Footnote 273: 1 Cor. 15. 3-5.] - -And even in the one case, where St. Paul alludes to what he saw as a -_heavenly vision_, he refers to it in order to prove that it is not -incredible that God should _raise the dead_;[274] which again shows -that he thought it was a _Body_, for a _Spirit_ cannot be raised -from the _dead_. And his specifying _the third day_ makes this (if -possible) still plainer, for the life of the spirit after death does -not commence on the third day; nor would it have prevented Christ's -Body from seeing corruption. - -[Footnote 274: Acts 26. 19, 8.] - -From all this it is abundantly clear that St. Paul, like the Four -Evangelists, and the other Apostles, believed in what is called the -_physical_ Resurrection, in the sense that Christ's Body was -restored to life, and left the tomb. Though like them, he also -believed that it was no longer a _natural_ body, bound by the -ordinary laws of nature, but that it had been partly changed as -well, so that it shared to some extent the properties of spirits. - -Nor is his statement that _flesh and blood_ cannot inherit the -Kingdom of God, opposed to this.[275] For when he uses the same -expression elsewhere (_e.g._, _I conferred not with flesh and -blood_)[276] it is evidently not used in a literal sense. It does -_not_ mean flesh and blood, in the same way in which we might speak -of bones and muscles. It means _men_. So his meaning here is -probably that mere men--human beings as such--cannot inherit the -future life of glory. Their bodies will first have to be changed, -and made incorruptible; but they will still be _bodies_. And as just -said, St. Paul is quite definite as to its being the Body of Christ -that was _buried_, that was afterwards raised on the third day. - -[Footnote 275: Cor. 15. 50.] - -[Footnote 276: Gal. 1. 16; Eph. 6. 12; comp. Matt. 16. 17.] - -We may say, then, with confidence, that wherever the Resurrection -was believed, the fact that it occurred on the third day, and the -fact that it was a physical Resurrection, involving the empty tomb, -was believed also. The three invariably went together. But was this -belief justified? This is the question we have to discuss. - - -(_B._) THE NARRATIVES. - -Now we have five different accounts of the Resurrection; and these -are so thoroughly independent that not one of them can be regarded -as the source of any of the others. Little stress, however, can be -laid on the latter part of St. Mark's account, as the genuineness of -the last twelve verses is doubtful; but it anyhow represents a very -early Christian belief, Aristion being sometimes named as the -author. And even the earlier part is conclusive as to the empty -tomb, and the promised appearance in Galilee. On the other hand, St. -Paul's account, which is perhaps the strongest, is universally -allowed to have been written within thirty years of the event; the -most probable date for which is A.D. 29 or 30, and for the Epistle -A.D. 55. And it should be noticed that St. Paul reminds the -Corinthians that what he here says about the Resurrection is what he -preached to them on his first visit (about A.D. 50), and that as -they had _received_ it from him, so he had himself _received_ it -from others at a still earlier date.[277] - -[Footnote 277: 1 Cor. 15. 1-3.] - -And we can even fix this date approximately, for two of the -appearances he records were to St. Peter and St. James; and he -happens to mention elsewhere[278] that these were the two Apostles -he met at Jerusalem, three years after his conversion (A.D. 35, or -earlier); so he doubtless heard the whole account then, even if he -had not heard it before. And this was certainly within _ten -years_--probably within _seven_ years--of the Crucifixion. More -ancient testimony than this can scarcely be desired. And if anything -could add to its importance it would be St. Paul's own statement -that in this respect his teaching was the same as that of the -original Apostles: _Whether then it be I or they, so we preach and -so ye believed_.[279] - -[Footnote 278: Gal. 1. 19.] - -[Footnote 279: 1 Cor. 15. 11.] - -We need not quote the various accounts here, but the accompanying -table gives them in a convenient form for reference. Altogether -Christ seems to have been seen on thirteen different occasions; and -there may have been others, which are not recorded, though they are -perhaps hinted at.[280] - -[Footnote 280: Acts 1. 3; 13. 31; John 20. 30.] - -It is doubtful however if the eighth appearance was separate from -the ninth, for St. Matthew says that when the Eleven saw Him, on the -mountain in Galilee, as He had appointed, _they_ worshipped Him, -but _some_ doubted. This _some_ can scarcely mean some of the -Eleven, who had just worshipped. It probably refers to some others -who were present (_i.e._, some of the five hundred) who doubted at -first if it was really He, as He was some way off, and it was before -He _came_ to them. And since the command to preach the Gospel to all -the world, which St. Matthew records, was probably addressed to the -Eleven only, it will account for his not mentioning that others were -present. In the same way St. Luke relates the Ascension, as if only -the Eleven were there, though it is clear _from his own narrative_ -that he knew there were others with them; since he afterwards -records St. Peter as saying so.[281] - -[Footnote 281: Acts 1. 1-13; 22-23.] - -On the other hand, the appearance to the five hundred must have -been on a _mountain_, or some other open space, as a room would not -have been large enough. It must have been in _Galilee_, as there -were not so many disciples in Jerusalem.[282] It must have been _by -appointment_, as they could hardly have come together by accident; -and they are not likely to have come together at all unless the -_Eleven_ had collected them. And all this is an additional reason for -identifying it with that recorded by St. Matthew. - -[Footnote 282: Acts 1. 15.] - -It must next be noticed that the appearances form _three groups_. -First a group in or near Jerusalem, which was chiefly to the Twelve -Apostles, and extended over eight days. Secondly a group in Galilee, -the most important being that to the five hundred, which was a sort of -_farewell_ to His Galilean disciples. And thirdly to a group back again -at Jerusalem, chiefly to the Twelve, but including others, and ending -with the Ascension, or _farewell_ to His Judæan disciples. - -TABLE OF CHRIST'S APPEARANCES. - - +-----------------------+--------+-------+--------+---------+---------+ - | |_1 Cor._|_Matt._| _Mark._| _Luke._ | _John._ | - +-----------------------+--------+-------+--------+---------+---------+ - | | | | | | | - |Empty tomb visited }| | | {|24. 1-11,|} | - | by women }| .. |28. 1-8|16. 1-8{| 22-23 |}20. 1-2 | - | | | | | | | - | And by Apostles | .. | .. | .. | 12, 24 | 3-10| - | | | | | | | - |An appearance in }| | | | | | - | Galilee foretold }| .. | 7| 16. 7 | .. | .. | - | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - |Then Christ was seen | | | | | | - | _In or near | | | | | | - | Jerusalem, by_ | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (i.) Mary Magdalene | .. | .. | 9-11 | .. | 11-18| - | | | | | | | - | (ii.) The two Marys | .. | 9-10| .. | .. | .. | - | | | | | | | - | (iii.) St. Peter | 15. 5 | .. | .. | 34 | .. | - | | | | | | | - | ( iv.) Cleopas and }| | | | | | - | another, }| | | | | | - | perhaps St. }| | | | | | - | Luke, at }| | | | | | - | Emmaus }| .. | .. | 12-13 | 13-35 | .. | - | | | | | | | - | (v.) The Apostles }| | | | | | - | and others }| | | | | | - | (without }| | | | | | - | St. Thomas) }| 5 | .. | 14 | 36-43 | 19-25| - | | | | | | | - | (vi.) The Apostles }| | | | | | - | (with St. }| | | | | | - | Thomas) }| .. | .. | .. | .. | 26-29| - | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - |_In Galilee, by_ | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (vii.) Seven Apostles}| | | | | | - | on the Lake }| .. | .. | .. | .. | 21. 1-23| - | | | | | | | - |(viii.) The Apostles }| | | | | | - | on the }| | | | | | - | mountain }| .. | 16-20| 15-18 | .. | .. | - | | | | | | | - | (ix.) Over 500 }| | | | | | - | persons }| 6 | .. | .. | .. | .. | - | | | | | | | - | (x.) St. James | 7 | .. | .. | .. | .. | - | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - |_Back at Jerusalem, by_| | | | | | - | | | | | | _Acts._ | - | (xi.) The Apostles }| | | | | | - | at Jerusalem}| .. | .. | .. | 44-49 | 1. 4-5| - | | | | | | | - | (xii.) The Apostles }| | | | | | - | and others }| | | | | | - | at Bethany }| 7 | .. | 19-20 | 50-53 | 6-11, 22| - | | | | | | | - |(xiii.) St. Paul | 8 | .. | .. | .. | 9. 3-9| - | | | | | | | - +-----------------------+--------+-------+--------+---------+---------+ - -And though this _double_ farewell is sometimes thought to be a -difficulty, yet as Christ's Resurrection was meant to be the proof -of His mission, it seems only natural that He should have appeared -again to _all_ His disciples, and have taken leave of them; both -those in Galilee, and those at Jerusalem, the Apostles themselves -being of course present on each occasion. And as the words _when -they were come together_ imply that the meeting in Jerusalem, like -that in Galilee, had been previously announced, all the Judæan -disciples may well have been there; and this we know was the case -with Matthias, Justus, and others.[283] - -[Footnote 283: Acts 1. 6, 22.] - - -(_C._) THEIR DIFFICULTIES. - -Passing on now to the difficulties in the narratives; they may be -conveniently placed under the two heads of _discrepancies_ and -_omissions_. - -(1.) _Discrepancies._ - -These seem to be chiefly due to two of the Evangelists, St. Mark and -St. Luke, recording separate appearances as if they were continuous. -But it so happens that they do much the same in the rest of their -Gospels, often recording separate sayings of Christ as if they were -one discourse; and even in closely-connected passages a break has -sometimes to be assumed.[284] While in these very narratives, St. -Luke describes an appearance at Jerusalem in Acts 1. 4, and -continues without any change of place till v. 12, when he says -_they returned to Jerusalem_. Plainly he is here grouping together -words spoken on different occasions. - -[Footnote 284: _E.g._, in Luke 14. 21-22.] - -Therefore he may have done the same at the end of his Gospel. -Indeed, it is almost certain that he did, otherwise we should have -to place the Ascension in the middle of the night, which is scarcely -probable. Moreover, in the Acts he expressly says that the -appearances lasted _forty days_; and he quotes St. Paul, as saying -that they lasted _many days_.[285] He seems to have thought it -unnecessary in his Gospel to explain that they were at different -times; and if St. Mark did the same, it would account for most, -though not all, of the discrepancies between them. - -[Footnote 285: Acts 1. 3; 13. 31.] - -These discrepancies, however, are often much exaggerated. Take for -instance the fifth appearance in the previous list. St. Luke and St. -John evidently refer to the same occasion, as it was on the evening -of Easter Day; yet one says the Apostles were _terrified_, and -thought they saw a spirit; while the other says they were _glad_. -Can both be true? Certainly they can, if we assume (as is most -natural) that the Apostles were _at first_ terrified, and thought -they saw a spirit; but were afterwards glad, when on Christ's -showing them His hands and side, they were convinced that it was -really Himself. And He may then have reproached them for their -unbelief as recorded by St. Mark. - -Or take the case of the Angels at the Tomb. These are referred to by -every Evangelist, though some call them men (in white or dazzling -apparel) and others angels. But as St. Luke uses both words,[286] -and as angels are not likely to have appeared in any but a human -form, there is no real difficulty here. While if the second angel -was not always visible, it would account for some of the Evangelists -speaking of only one. And it may be mentioned in passing, that one -of the angels is said to have been seen by the Roman soldiers as -well, who went and told the Jews about it.[287] And this is not -likely to have been asserted within twenty years unless it had been -the case, as the Jews would have contradicted it. Yet if it was the -case, it affords an additional argument for the Resurrection, and -one derived from Christ's enemies, not His friends. - -[Footnote 286: Luke 24. 4, 23. Similarly Gabriel is called a _man_ -in Dan. 9. 21, and an _angel_ in Luke 1. 25.] - -[Footnote 287: Matt. 28. 4, 11.] - -A more important difficulty is caused by Christ's command to the -women, that they and the Apostles were to proceed to Galilee to meet -Him, when, as He knew, He was going to appear to them in Jerusalem -the same day. The most probable explanation is that the meeting in -Galilee was the one _intended_ all along, in fact we are definitely -told so.[288] But when the women, in consequence of the Angel's -message, and after they had recovered from their fright (which at -first made them run away and say nothing to anyone),[289] went and -told the Apostles to go there, they were _disbelieved_.[290] This -naturally made the women doubt too, so they returned to the grave to -make further inquiries, none of them having the slightest intention -of going to Galilee. - -[Footnote 288: Mark 14. 28.] - -[Footnote 289: Mark 16. 8.] - -[Footnote 290: Luke 24. 11.] - -Under these circumstances, something more was necessary, so Christ -appeared first to Mary Magdalene, and then to her with the other -Mary, when He told them Himself to warn the Apostles to proceed to -Galilee, which they again did, and were again _disbelieved_.[291] -Then He appeared to the two disciples on the way to Emmaus, and when -they came back, and told the rest, they were also at first -_disbelieved_; the Apostles, though now admitting that Christ had -been seen by St. Peter, still denying such a bodily resurrection -(able to eat food, etc.) as they described.[292] - -[Footnote 291: Mark 16. 11.] - -[Footnote 292: Mark 16. 13; Luke 24. 34.] - -After this there was nothing for it, but for Christ to appear to the -Apostles Himself, and convince them personally by eating food in -their presence, which He did, when most of them were assembled -together the same evening. And He may then have told them to remain -in Jerusalem till they were _all_ convinced, as they could scarcely -have been expected to collect the five hundred for the meeting in -Galilee, so long as they kept disputing among themselves as to -whether He had really risen. And it was thus another week before the -last sceptic (St. Thomas) was convinced, and they finally started -for Galilee. These discrepancies then are not nearly so serious as -is commonly supposed. - -(2.) _Omissions._ - -With regard to the _omissions_, none of our lists are at all -complete, and this is often thought to be a difficulty. But as far -as the _Gospels_ are concerned, the writers nowhere profess to give -a complete list of Christ's appearances, any more than of His -parables, or His miracles; they only record (as one of them tells -us)[293] _selected instances_. And in the present case their choice -is quite intelligible. Thus St. Matthew closes his Gospel, which is -concerned chiefly with the Galilean ministry, with the farewell -meeting in Galilee; St. John, whose Gospel is concerned chiefly with -the Judæan ministry, ended his (before the last chapter was added, -which seems a sort of appendix) with some of the appearances in -Jerusalem. While St. Luke, who was more of an historian, and wrote -everything _in order_,[294] though he describes most in detail the -appearance to the two disciples at Emmaus (which is only natural if -he was one of them), is yet careful to carry his narrative right on -to the Ascension. Therefore, though they only record certain -appearances, they may well have known of the others; and there can -be little doubt that they did. - -[Footnote 293: John 20. 30.] - -[Footnote 294: Luke 1. 3.] - -Thus, St. Matthew speaks of the Eleven meeting Christ by -_appointment_, so he must have known of some interview when this -appointment was made, (perhaps the one on the Lake), as the messages -to the women did not fix either the time or place.[295] In the same -way St. Mark must have known of a meeting in Galilee, as he refers -to it himself, and St. Luke of an appearance to St. Peter.[296] -While St. John, though he does not record the Ascension, must -certainly have known of it, as he refers to it twice in the words, -_if ye should behold the Son of Man ascending_, and _I ascend unto -My Father_, the former passage clearly showing that it was to be a -visible ascent, and that the Apostles were to see it.[297] Plainly, -then, the Evangelists did not relate every appearance they knew of, -and the objection as far as they are concerned, may be dismissed at -once. - -[Footnote 295: Matt. 28. 16, 7, 10.] - -[Footnote 296: Mark 16. 7; Luke 24. 34.] - -[Footnote 297: John 6. 62; 20. 17.] - -On the other hand, _St. Paul's list_ certainly looks as if it were -meant to be complete; and this is no doubt a real difficulty. -Surely, it is said, if the other appearances had occurred, or were -even supposed to have occurred, when St. Paul wrote, he would have -heard of them; and if he had heard of them, he would have mentioned -them, as he was evidently trying to make out as strong a case as he -could. He might perhaps have omitted the appearances to _women_, as -their testimony was not considered of much value at the time; and -they were not witnesses of the Resurrection, in the sense he alludes -to--_i.e._, persons who went about preaching it;[298] but why should -he have omitted the rest? - -[Footnote 298: 1 Cor. 15. 11.] - -There is however a fairly good explanation. The appearances it will -be remembered form _three groups_. Now St. Paul mentions two -appearances to individual Apostles--St. Peter and St. James; and -this was doubtless because he had had such vivid accounts of them -from the men themselves, when he met them at Jerusalem. For we may -be sure that if they had not told him, he would not have accepted it -from anyone else. But he seems to refer to the others _in these -groups_, first to the Twelve (at Jerusalem), then to the five -hundred (in Galilee), and then to all the Apostles, evidently -meaning more than the Twelve (back again at Jerusalem). But by so -doing, he does not limit it to only one appearance in each group. In -the same way a man might say that on returning to England he saw -first his parents, then his brothers, then his cousins; though he -had seen his parents on two days a week apart, his brothers for only -a few hours, and his cousins for several successive days. - -And the fact that St. Paul, in one of his speeches in the Acts,[299] -expressly says that Christ was seen for _many days_ at Jerusalem, -strongly confirms this view. We conclude, then, that in his Epistle -he is mentioning the appearances by groups, rather than every single -one; wishing to emphasise the number of men who had seen Christ, -rather than the number of times they had seen Him; and if so it does -away with the difficulty. None of these objections, then, are of -much importance. - -[Footnote 299: Acts 13. 31.] - - -(_D._) THEIR TRUTHFULNESS. - -Turning now to the other side, the narratives bear abundant marks of -truthfulness. These we will consider under the three heads of -_agreements_, _mutual explanations_, and _signs of early date_. - -(1.) _Agreements._ - -In the first place it is important to notice that in spite of the -discrepancies and omissions just alluded to, there is an -extraordinary amount of _agreement_ in the narratives. For all the -more important points--the third day, the empty tomb, the visit of -the women, the angelic message, the first appearance being in -Jerusalem, the incredulity of some of the disciples, and Christ's -not only appearing, but speaking as well, and this in the presence -of all the Apostles--are _all_ vouched for by _every_ Evangelist. - -They also agree in saying that the Apostles _remained in Jerusalem_ -after Christ's arrest, and did not as we might have expected return -at once to Galilee? For the last two Gospels expressly state that -they were in Jerusalem on Easter Day; and the first two imply it, or -how could the women have been told to take them a message to _go_ to -Galilee? - -Further they all agree in _not_ giving (what imaginary accounts -might well have contained) any description of the Resurrection -itself, any appearance of Christ to His enemies; or any information -as to the other world, though this last would have been so eagerly -welcomed, and could have been so easily invented. - -Moreover the _order_ in which the appearances are placed is also the -same in every account, that to Mary Magdalene for instance (wherever -it occurs) being, always placed first, that to St. Peter next, that -to Cleopas next, then that to the Twelve, etc. And this is the more -remarkable because the narratives are so obviously independent, and -the order is not at all a likely one. Writers of fiction, for -instance, would never have made Christ first appear to so little -known a person as Mary Magdalene, rather than to His Mother or His -Apostles. - -Once more the narratives all agree in the extreme _calmness_ with -which they are written. One would have thought it almost impossible -for anyone after relating the story of the Cross, to have avoided -some word of triumph, or exultation, in regard to the Resurrection -and Ascension. But nothing of the kind is found. The writers record -them, like the rest of the history, as simple matters of fact, -apparently regarding them as the natural close for such a Life, and -calling for no comment. How unlikely this would be in legendary -accounts scarcely needs pointing out. - -It may also be added (though it does not concern these actual -narratives) that the Evangelists all agree in saying that Christ had -_prophesied_ His own Resurrection.[300] And while this does not of -course prove it to have been true, it yet forms a difficulty on any -other theory. - -[Footnote 300: _E.g._, Matt. 16. 21; Mark 9. 31; Luke 18. 33; John -2. 19-21.] - -(2.) _Mutual explanations._ - -In the next place it is surprising to find how often a slight remark -in one of the narratives will help to explain some apparent -improbability, or difficulty in another. And since, as just said, -the narratives are quite independent, and were certainly not written -to explain one another; such indications of truthfulness are of -great value. We will therefore consider several examples.[301] - -[Footnote 301: These and some others are discussed in a paper in the -_Expositor_, May, 1909, by the present writer.] - -To begin with, St. John records Mary Magdalene as visiting the empty -Tomb, and then telling the disciples _we know not where they have -laid Him_. But to whom does the _we_ refer, as she was apparently -alone all the time? St. John does not explain matters; but the other -Evangelists do. For they say that though Mary Magdalene was the -leader of the party, and is always named first, yet as a matter of -fact there were other women with her; and this accounts for the -_we_. Later on no doubt she was alone; but then she uses the words -_I know not_.[302] - -[Footnote 302: John 20. 2, 13.] - -Secondly, St. Luke says that _Peter_ was the disciple who ran to the -tomb on hearing of the Angel's message, without however giving any -reason why he should have been the one to go. But St. Mark, though -he does not mention the visit of Peter, records that the message had -been specially addressed to him; and St. John says that Mary -Magdalene had specially informed him; and this of course explains -his going. St. Luke, it may be added, in the subsequent words, -_certain of them that were with us_,[303] implies that at least one -other disciple went with him, which agrees with St. John. - -[Footnote 303: Luke 24. 24.] - -St. Luke then says that when Peter arrived at the tomb, he saw the -linen cloths _by themselves_, and went home _wondering_. This seems -only a trifle, but what does it mean? St. Luke does not explain -matters, but St. John does; for he describes how the cloths were -arranged. This was in a way which showed that the Body could not -have been hurriedly stolen, but had apparently vanished without -disturbing them. It convinced St. John that the disappearance was -supernatural, and would quite account for St. Peter's wondering.[304] - -[Footnote 304: Luke 24. 12; John 20. 6-8.] - -Again, St. Matthew narrates that when Christ appeared to Mary -Magdalene, and the other Mary, He was at once recognised, held by -the feet, and worshipped. And they do not seem to have been at all -surprised at meeting Him near the tomb, in spite of the Angel's -message that they should go to Galilee to see Him. Evidently -something must have occurred between, making a break in the -narrative after v. 8, which is quite possible, for the words, _And -behold_ (Rev. Vers.) do not always imply a close connection.[305] -And from the other Evangelists we learn what this was. For St. John -describes an appearance to Mary Magdalene _alone_, when she was -rebuked for wishing to touch Him, apparently in the old familiar -way, and without any act of reverence; and St. Mark says this was -the _first_ appearance. If then a few minutes later, she, in company -with the other Mary, saw Christ again, it would quite account for -their not being surprised at meeting Him, and also for their altered -behaviour in prostrating themselves to the ground, and being in -consequence permitted to hold Him by the _feet_, and worship Him. - -[Footnote 305: _E.g._, Matt. 2. 1.] - -Once more St. Luke says that when Christ appeared to the Apostles in -the evening, He was mistaken for a _spirit_; but he gives no reason -for this, and it was apparently the only occasion on which it -occurred. St. John however, though he does not mention the incident, -fully explains it; for he says that _the doors were shut_ for fear -of the Jews; and obviously if Christ suddenly appeared within closed -doors, it would account for their thinking that He must be a -spirit. On the other hand, St. John speaks of Christ's showing them -His hands (and also His side) though without giving any reason for -this. But St. Luke's statement that they at first took Him for a -spirit, and that He did this to convince them of His identity, quite -accounts for it; so each of the narratives helps to explain the -other. - -But this is not all, for St. Luke then adds that as they still -disbelieved, Christ asked if they had anything to eat (_i.e._, if -they would give _Him_ something to eat) and they at once offered Him -a piece of broiled fish. But he gives no hint as to why they -happened to have any fish ready. St. Mark however, though he does -not mention either the request, nor its response, fully explains -both; for he says they were _sitting at meat_ at the time, probably -just concluding their evening meal. And all this still further -explains St. John's narrative, that Christ said to them _again_, the -second time, _Peace be unto you_; which would be much more natural -if something had occurred between, than if (as St. John implies) it -was just after the first time. - -Again, St. Mark records Christ as saying, after His command to -preach the Gospel to all the world, 'He that believeth _and is -baptised_ shall be saved,' though without any previous reference to -baptism. But St. Matthew says the command was not only to make -disciples of all nations, but to _baptise_ them as well, and this of -course explains the other passage, though curiously enough St. -Matthew himself does not refer to it. - -And then as to the appearance to the five hundred recorded by St. -Paul. None of the Evangelists mention this, but it explains a good -deal that they do mention. Thus St. John alludes to the Apostles -being in _Galilee_, (instead of staying in Jerusalem) after the -Resurrection, but he gives no hint as to why they went there. Nor do -St. Matthew and St. Mark, who say Christ told them to go there, give -any hint as to why He told them; but this appearance to the five -hundred, who had to be collected in Galilee, explains everything. It -also accounts for St. Matthew's curious remark (before noticed) that -when the Eleven saw Christ in Galilee, _they worshipped Him, but -some doubted_. And it probably explains St. Luke's omission of -Galilee among the places where the Apostles themselves had to preach -the Resurrection; as there were so many witnesses there -already.[306] - -[Footnote 306: Acts 1. 8.] - -Now of course too much stress must not be laid on small details like -these, but still the fact that such short and independent accounts -should explain one another in so many ways is a distinct evidence of -truthfulness. Legendary accounts of fictitious events would not be -likely to do so. - -(3.) _Signs of early date._ - -In conclusion, it is interesting to note that these accounts, -especially those in the first three Gospels, show signs of an -extremely early, if not a _contemporary_ date. Thus St. Peter is -still called by his old name of _Simon_,[307] and it is the last -occasion when that name is used, without explaining to whom it -refers; St. Paul, some years later, though alluding to this same -appearance, calling him by what was then his usual name of Cephas or -Peter. Whilst St. John, writing many years afterwards, though he is -equally accurate as to Simon being the name in use at the time, -thinks it necessary to explain who was meant by it ('Jesus saith to -Simon _Peter_, Simon son of John, lovest thou Me?').[308] - -[Footnote 307: Luke 24. 34.] - -[Footnote 308: John 21. 15; comp. Acts. 15. 7, 14.] - -Similarly the Apostles are still spoken of as _the Eleven_, though -they could only have had this title for _just these few weeks_.[309] -And the fact of their having had it seems to have been soon -forgotten. For St. Paul even when alluding to this very time prefers -to call them by the familiar title of _the Twelve_, which was -equally correct, as we are specially told that St. Matthias, who was -afterwards chosen as the twelfth, had been with them all along.[310] - -[Footnote 309: Mark 16. 14; Luke 24. 9, 33.] - -[Footnote 310: Acts 1. 22; 1 Cor. 15. 5.] - -There are also some incidental remarks in the narratives, which seem -so natural, and yet so unlikely to have been invented. Thus we read -that on one occasion after Christ appeared to the Apostles, they -still disbelieved _for joy_; and on another, that though they knew -it was the Lord, they yet wanted to ask Him _Who art Thou?_[311] -Such bewildered feelings are quite intelligible at the time, but are -not likely to have been thought of afterwards. - -[Footnote 311: Luke 24. 41; John 21. 12.] - -Moreover the _kind_ of Resurrection asserted (though no doubt -presenting great difficulties) is strongly in favour of a -contemporary date. For it was not (as said in Chapter XIII.) a mere -resuscitation of Christ's natural body, but His rising again in a -body which combined material and spiritual properties in a -remarkable manner. And there was nothing in the Old Testament, or -anywhere else, to suggest such a Resurrection as this; it was quite -unique. Indeed the _combination_ of these properties--and they occur -in the same Gospel--is so extremely puzzling, that it is hard to see -how anything but actual experience (or what they believed to be -such) could ever have induced men to record it. And much the same -may be said of their ascribing an _altered appearance_ to Christ's -Body, so that He was often not recognised at first. Late writers are -not likely to have imagined this. - -Lastly, the utter absence of any attempt at harmonising the -narratives, or avoiding the apparent discrepancies between them, -also points to their extreme antiquity. The writers in fact seem to -narrate just what they believed to have happened, often mentioning -the most trivial circumstances, and without ever attempting to meet -difficulties or objections. And while such disconnected accounts -might well have been written by the actual witnesses of a wonderful -miracle, they are not such as would have been deliberately invented; -nor are they like subsequent legends and myths. - -These narratives then appear throughout to be thoroughly -trustworthy; and we therefore decide that the _Resurrection of -Christ is probably true_. In the next chapter we will consider the -various alternative theories. - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII - -THAT THE FAILURE OF OTHER EXPLANATIONS INCREASES THIS PROBABILITY. - - The first witnesses of the Resurrection. The value of all testimony - depends on four questions about the witnesses, and here the denial - of each corresponds to the four chief alternative theories. - - (_A._) THE FALSEHOOD THEORY. - - This would be to deny their _veracity_, and say that they - did not speak the truth, as far as they knew it. But - it is disproved by their motives, their conduct, and their - sufferings. - - (_B._) THE LEGEND THEORY. - - This would be to deny their _knowledge_, and say that they - had not the means of knowing the truth. But amply - sufficient means were within their reach, and they were - quite competent to use them. - - (_C._) THE VISION THEORY. - - This would be to deny their _investigation_, and say that - they were too excited to avail themselves of these - means. But this theory has immense difficulties. - - (1.) Arguments in its favour. - (2.) Arguments against it. - (3.) Its failure to account for the facts. - (4.) The theory of real visions. - - (_D._) THE SWOON THEORY. - - This would be to deny their _reasoning_, and say that they - did not draw the right conclusion, since Christ's appearances - were due to His not having died. But this theory - also has immense difficulties. - - (_E._) CONCLUSION. - - The alleged difficulties of the Christian Theory, extremely - strong argument in favour of the Resurrection. - - -We decided in the last chapter that the Resurrection of Christ was -_probably true_; that is to say, we carefully examined the various -narratives, and came to the conclusion that they had every -appearance of being candidly and truthfully written. We have now to -consider, more in detail, _the testimony of its first witnesses_. -And, as we shall see, this affords strong additional evidence in its -favour; since all attempts to account for this testimony, without -admitting its truth, fail hopelessly. - -By the _first witnesses_, we mean those persons who saw, or said -they saw, Christ alive after His Crucifixion. This will include the -twelve Apostles, and over 500 other Christians, most of whom St. -Paul says were still alive when he wrote. It will also include two -persons, who at the time were _not_ Christians,--St. Paul himself, -an avowed enemy, and St. James who, though he was Christ's brother, -does not seem to have believed in Him.[312] - -[Footnote 312: John 7. 5.] - -And before discussing the value of their testimony, it may be well -to glance at some general rules in regard to all testimony. If, -then, a person plainly asserts that a certain event took place, -before we believe that it did take place, we must inquire first as -to his _Veracity_: did he speak the truth as far as he knew it? Next -as to his _Knowledge_: had he the means of knowing the truth? Next -as to his _Investigation_: did he avail himself of those means? And -lastly, as to his _Reasoning_: did he draw the right conclusion? And -all possible ways of denying the truth of a man's statement can be -brought under one or other of these heads. For if it is not true, it -must be either:-- - - Intentionally false = want of Veracity. - { had not the } - { means of } - or { knowing the } = want of Knowledge. - { truth } - { - Unintentionally { - false, in which { or { did not } = want of Investigation. - case he either { { use them } - { had the means,{ or - { and either { used them } - { { wrongly } = want of Reasoning. - -From this it is clear that for anyone to deny a man's statement, -without disputing either his veracity, knowledge, investigation, or -reasoning, is very like denying that one angle is greater than -another, without disputing that it is neither equal to it, nor less -than it. We have now to apply these general rules to the testimony -in favour of the Resurrection of Christ. And, as we shall see, the -denial of these four points corresponds to the four chief -alternative theories, which, may be called the _Falsehood_, the -_Legend_, the _Vision_, and the _Swoon_ Theory. - - -(_A._) THE FALSEHOOD THEORY. - -We will begin with the Falsehood Theory. This would be to deny the -_veracity_ of the witnesses, and say that though they asserted that -Christ rose from the dead, and appeared to them, they did not really -believe it. In other words they were deliberate impostors, who, -knowing that their Master did not rise from the dead, yet spent -their whole lives in trying to persuade people that He did. And, as -we shall see, their _motives_, their _conduct_, and their -_sufferings_, are all strongly opposed to such a theory. - -And first as to their _motives_, had they any interest in asserting -that Christ rose from the dead unless they really believed it? -Clearly they had _not_, for they were so few or so faint-hearted -that they could not prevent their Master being crucified. What -chance was there then of persuading the world that He had risen from -the dead, and why should they have embarked on such a hopeless -scheme? Nothing indeed but the most firm conviction of their Lord's -Resurrection, and therefore of supernatural assistance, would ever -have induced men to have ventured on it. If they believed the -Resurrection to be true, then, and only then, would they have had -any motive whatever for preaching it. - -Next as to their _conduct_, did this show that they really believed -what they preached? And here also the evidence is overwhelming. When -their Master was crucified His followers were naturally filled with -gloom and despair; but in a few days this was changed to intense joy -and confidence. They preached the Resurrection in the very place -where He was crucified, and boldly went forth to convert the world -in His name. It is clear that before such a marvellous change could -take place they must at least have thought they had, what St. Luke -asserts they actually did have, _many proofs_ of the Resurrection.[313] -To them, at all events, the evidence must haveseemed conclusive, or -Christianity would have perished on Calvary. - -[Footnote 313: Acts 1. 3.] - -Lastly as to their _sufferings_. This is the most important point, -since voluntary suffering in any form, but especially in its extreme -form of martyrdom, seems conclusive as to a man's veracity. Persons -do not suffer for what they believe to be false; they must have -believed it to be true, though this does not of course prove that it -actually was true. And here is the answer to the common objection, -that since all religions have had their martyrs, this kind of -evidence proves nothing. On the contrary, it does prove something, -though it does not prove everything. It does not prove that what the -man died for was true, but it does prove that he believed it to be -true. It is therefore a conclusive test as to his _veracity_. - -What evidence have we, then, that the first witnesses suffered for -the truth of what they preached? And once more the evidence is -complete and overwhelming, both from the Acts and St. Paul's -Epistles. We need only refer to these latter, as their genuineness -is undisputed. St. Paul then, in one place, gives a list of the -actual sufferings he had undergone; he alludes to them in numerous -other places, and often as if they were the common experience of all -Christians at the time; and in one passage he expressly includes the -other Apostles with himself in the long list of sufferings he -describes. While he elsewhere declares that at a still earlier time, -before his conversion, he himself persecuted the Christians _beyond -measure_.[314] - -[Footnote 314: 2 Cor. 11. 24-27; Rom. 8. 35; 1 Cor. 4. 9-13; Gal. 1. -13.] - -There can thus be no doubt as to the continual sufferings of the -first witnesses, and, as just said, it is a decisive proof of their -veracity. We conclude therefore that when they asserted that Christ -rose from the dead, they were asserting what they honestly believed -whether rightly or wrongly, to be true. And as this belief was due, -simply to the witnesses believing that they saw Christ alive after -His death; we must further conclude that they honestly believed in -the appearances of Christ as recorded by themselves, and their -friends, in the New Testament. In other words, these accounts are -not _intentionally_ false. - -So much for the _veracity_ of the witnesses. It is not, as a rule, -denied by modern opponents of the Resurrection; but in early times, -when men ought to have known best, it was evidently thought to be -the only alternative. St. Paul declares emphatically that unless -Christ had risen, he and the other Apostles were _false witnesses_, -in plain words _liars_.[315] That was the only choice. They were -either saying what they knew to be true, or what they knew to be -false. And the idea of there being some _mistake_ about it, due to -visions, or swoons, or anything else, never seems to have occurred -to anyone. - -[Footnote 315: 1 Cor. 15. 15.] - - -(_B._) THE LEGEND THEORY. - -We pass on now to the Legend Theory. This would be to deny the -_knowledge_ of the witnesses: and say that our Gospels are not -genuine, but merely record subsequent legends; so we cannot tell -whether the first witnesses had, or had not, the means of knowing -the truth. But if we admit the genuineness of our Gospels, and the -veracity of their writers (both of which have been admitted), the -Legend Theory is out of the question. - -They asserted, it will be remembered, that Christ's _Body_, not His -Spirit, appeared to them, after the crucifixion; and from their own -accounts it is clear that they had ample means of finding out if -this was true. Whether they used these means, and actually did find -out, is, of course, another question; but as to sufficient means -being available, and their being quite competent to use them if they -liked, there can be no doubt whatever. As has been well said, it was -not one person who saw Him, but many; they saw Him not only -separately, but together; not only for a moment, but for a long -time; not only by night, but by day; not only at a distance, but -near; not only once, but several times. And they not only saw Him, -but they touched Him, walked with Him, conversed with Him, ate with -Him, and examined His Body to satisfy their doubts. In fact, -according to their own accounts, Christ seems to have convinced them -in every way in which conviction was possible that He had really -risen from the dead. - -And even apart from our Gospels, the Legend Theory is still -untenable. For St. Paul mentions several of the appearances, and as -this was within a few years of the events, there was no time for the -growth of legends. Moreover he heard of them direct from those who -saw them, St. Peter, St. James, etc., so he must have known the -circumstances under which they occurred, and, being an educated man, -is not likely to have been taken in by any imposture. While his -saying that some of the five hundred had died, though most of them -were still alive when he wrote, implies that he had also made some -enquiries about that appearance. His testimony is thus very valuable -from every point of view, and absolutely fatal to the Legend -Theory. - - -(_C._) THE VISION THEORY. - -We now come to the Vision Theory. This would be to deny the -_investigation_ of the witnesses; and say that they were so excited, -or so enthusiastic, or perhaps so stupid, that they did not avail -themselves of the ample means they had of finding out the truth. In -other words they so expected their Lord to appear to them after His -death, and kept so dwelling on the thought of Him, as though unseen, -yet perhaps very near to them, that after a time they fancied they -actually saw Him, and that He had risen from the dead. The wish was, -in fact, father to the thought; so that when a supposed appearance -took place, they were so filled with joy at their Master's presence, -that they neglected to ascertain whether the appearance they saw was -real, or only due to their own fancy. - -Such is the theory; though it is often modified in regard to -particular appearances, by ascribing them to dreams, or to someone -being mistaken for Christ. And as it is at present the favourite one -with those who reject the Resurrection, we must examine it -carefully; first considering the arguments in its favour, then those -against it, then its failure to account for the facts recorded, and -lastly what is known as the theory of real visions. - -(1.) _Arguments in its favour._ - -Now we must at once admit that it is possible for an honest man to -mistake a phantom of his own brain, arising from some diseased state -of the mind or body, for a reality in the outer world. Such -_subjective_ visions, as they are called, are by no means unheard -of, though they are not common. And of course the great, if not the -only argument in its favour is that it professes to account for the -alleged Resurrection, without on the one hand admitting its truth, -or on the other that the witnesses were deliberate impostors. Here, -it is urged, is a way of avoiding both difficulties, by allowing -that the witnesses honestly believed all they said, only they were -_mistaken_ in supposing the appearances to be real, when they were -merely due to their own imagination. And undoubtedly the fact that -men have often thought they saw ghosts, visions, etc., when there -was really nothing to see, gives it some support. - -(2.) _Arguments against it._ - -Let us now consider how this Vision Theory would suit the accounts -of the Resurrection written by the witnesses themselves, and their -friends. As will be seen, we might almost imagine that they had been -written on purpose to contradict it. - -To begin with, the writers were not unacquainted with visions, and -occasionally record them as happening to themselves or others. But -then they always use suitable expressions, such as falling into a -trance.[316] No such language is used in the Gospels to describe -the appearances of Christ, which are always recorded as if they were -actual matters of fact. While as to St. Paul, he never confuses the -revelations and visions, which he sometimes had, with the one great -appearance of Christ to him near Damascus, which qualified him to be -an Apostle.[317] - -[Footnote 316: _E.g._, Acts 10. 10; 9. 10; 16. 9.] - -[Footnote 317: 1 Cor. 9. 1; 15. 8; Gal. 1. 16-17.] - -Secondly, the appearances did not take place (as visions might have -been expected to do, and generally did)[318] when the disciples were -engaged in prayer, or in worship. But it was during their ordinary -everyday occupations; when for instance they were going for a walk, -or sitting at supper, or out fishing. And they were often simple, -plain, and almost trivial in their character, very different from -what enthusiasts would have imagined. - -[Footnote 318: _E.g._, Acts 10. 30; 11. 5; 22. 17.] - -Thirdly, subjective visions due to enthusiasm, would not have -started so soon after the Crucifixion as the _third_ day. It would -have required a much longer time for the disciples to have got over -their utter confusion, and to have realised (perhaps by studying the -old prophecies) that this humiliation was, after all, part of God's -scheme, and was to be followed by a Resurrection. Nor again would -such visions have only lasted for a short time; yet with the single -exception of that to St. Paul, they were all over in a few weeks, -though the enthusiasm of the witnesses lasted through life. - -Fourthly, it is plain from all the accounts that the Apostles did -not _expect_ the Resurrection, and were much surprised at it, -though they afterwards remembered that Christ had foretold it. This -is shown, not only by the Christians bringing spices, to embalm the -Body, and persons do not embalm a body unless they expect it to -remain in the grave; but also by the account of the appearances -themselves. For with the exception of the two farewell meetings (and -possibly that to the two Marys), Christ's appearance was wholly -unexpected. No one was looking for it, no one was anticipating it. -When for instance Mary Magdalene found the tomb empty, it never even -occurred to her that He had come to life again, she merely thought -the Body had been removed. - -Fifthly, and this is very remarkable, when Christ did appear, He was -often _not recognised_. This was the case with Mary Magdalene, with -Cleopas and his companion, and with the disciples at Tiberias. But -it is plain that, if they so hoped to see their risen Master, that -they eventually fancied they did see Him, they would at once have -recognised Him; and their not doing so is quite inconsistent with -the Vision Theory. - -Sixthly, we are repeatedly told that at first some of the disciples -_disbelieved_ or _doubted_ the Resurrection.[319] This is an -important point, since it shows that opinions were divided on the -subject, and therefore makes it almost certain that they would have -used what means they had of finding out the truth. And a visit to -the grave would have shown them at once whether the Body was there, -or not: and they are not likely to have preached the Resurrection, -without first ascertaining the point. Moreover, some of them -remained doubtful even after the others were persuaded, St. Thomas -in particular requiring the most convincing proof. His state of mind -was certainly not that of an enthusiast, since, instead of being so -convinced of the Resurrection as to have imagined it, he could with -great difficulty be got to believe it. Indeed, according to these -accounts, scarcely one of the witnesses believed the Resurrection -till the belief was almost forced on him. - -[Footnote 319: Matt. 28. 17; Mark 16. 11-14; Luke 24. 11, 37; John -20. 25.] - -Seventhly, subjective visions do not occur to different persons -_simultaneously_. A man's private illusions (like his dreams) are -his own. A number of men do not simultaneously dream the same dream, -still less do they simultaneously see the same subjective vision--at -least a vision like that here referred to, of a person moving about -among them, and speaking to them. This is quite different from -Constantine's army thinking that they saw a luminous cross in the -sky, or a body of Spanish troops that they saw their patron (St. -James) riding at their head, or anything of that kind; several -instances of which are known. But a subjective vision, at all -resembling what is described in the Gospels, is extremely rare. It -may perhaps happen to one person in ten thousand once in his life. -It is difficult to believe that even two persons should have such an -experience at the same time, while the idea that a dozen or more men -should simultaneously see such a subjective vision is out of the -question. And the Gospels, it may be added, always imply that -Christ was visible _to all present_ (though some of them doubted as -to His identity), which was not, as a rule, the case in other -alleged visions. - -Eighthly, how are we to account for visionary _conversations_? Yet -these occurred on _every_ occasion. Christ never merely appeared, -and then vanished. He always spoke, and often for a considerable -time, giving detailed instructions; and can we imagine anyone -believing a mere vision to have done all this? Is it possible, for -instance, for St. Thomas to have believed that Christ conversed with -him, and for the other Apostles, _who were all present_, to have -believed it too, if the whole affair was only a vision? Indeed, -conversations _in the presence of others_ seem peculiarly hard to -explain as visions, yet they are mentioned more than once. - -For all these reasons then--because the appearances are not -described in suitable language, did not occur on suitable occasions, -began and ended too soon, were not expected, were not recognised, -were not believed, occurred simultaneously, and always included -conversations as well--the Vision Theory is to say the least -extremely improbable. - -(3.) _Its failure to account for the facts._ - -But this is not all; the Theory is not only improbable, it does not -account for the actual _facts_ recorded--facts concerning which, -unless the writings are intentionally false, there could be no doubt -whatever. A vision, for instance, could not have rolled away the -stone from the door of the tomb, yet this is vouched for by _every_ -Evangelist. Again, persons could not have honestly believed that -they went to the tomb, and found it empty, if the Body was there all -the time. And this also is vouched for by _every_ Evangelist. Nor -could they have thought that they _touched_ their Master, _i.e._, -took hold of His feet, if He existed only in their imagination; for -the attempt to touch Him would at once have shown them their -mistake.[320] Nor could they have seen Him _eat food_, for a vision, -like a dream, would not explain the disappearance of the food. Nor -again could a mere vision take bread, and on another occasion bread -and fish, and give it them to eat.[321] In regard to all these -particulars, then, the Vision Theory is hopelessly untenable. - -[Footnote 320: Matt. 28. 9.] - -[Footnote 321: Luke 24. 30, 43; John 21. 13; Acts 10. 41.] - -There is also the great difficulty as to what became of the _dead -Body_ of Christ. For if it was still in the grave, the Jews would -have produced it, rather than invent the story about its being -stolen; and if it was not in the grave, its removal could not have -been due to visions. With regard to this story it may be noticed -that St. Matthew says it was _spread abroad_ among the Jews; and -Justin Martyr, himself a native of Palestine, also alludes to it. -For he says that the Jews sent men all over the world to proclaim -that the disciples _stole_ the Body at _night_;[322] so there can be -no doubt that some such story existed. - -[Footnote 322: Matt. 28. 15; Justin, Dial., 108.] - -But its weakness is self-evident. For if the soldiers (who were -probably posted on the Saturday evening, and thus not known to the -women) were, as they said, _asleep_ at the time, how could they -tell whether the disciples had stolen the Body, or whether Christ -had come forth of His own accord? Moreover that Roman soldiers, with -their strict discipline, who were put there on purpose to keep the -Body, should really have gone to sleep, and allowed it to be stolen, -is _most improbable_. And though it seems unlikely that they could -have been bribed to say they were asleep, if they were not, as it -was a capital offence; we must remember that they were _already_ -liable to death; since they had left the tomb, and the Body was -gone. So whether they were asleep, or awake, at the time mattered -little. And in any case, the fact of their having left it (which is -plain from all the accounts) shows that something very extraordinary -must have happened. - -All, then, that the story proves is this (but this it does prove -unquestionably), that though the Body was guarded, yet when it was -wanted it was gone, and could not be found. And this is a strong -argument not only against the Vision Theory, but against every -theory except the Christian one. For when the Resurrection was first -announced, the most obvious and decisive answer would have been for -the Jews to have produced the dead Body; and their not doing this -strongly supports the Christian account. Indeed, the _empty tomb_, -together with the failure of all attempts to account for it, was -doubtless one of the reasons why the Apostles gained so many -converts the first day they preached the Resurrection.[323] - -[Footnote 323: Acts 2. 41.] - -Lastly, we must remember that this gaining of converts, _i.e._, the -_founding of Christianity_, is, after all, the great fact that has -to be explained. And even if the Vision Theory could account for the -Apostles themselves believing that they had seen Christ, it would -not account for their being able to convince others of this belief, -especially if the Body was still in the tomb. For a mere vision, -like a ghost story, would begin and end in nothing; and if the -Resurrection also began in nothing, how are we to account for its -ending in so much? - -Summing up these arguments, then, we conclude that the Vision Theory -is most improbable in any case; and can only be accepted at all by -admitting that nearly the whole of our accounts are not only untrue, -but intentionally so. But then it is quite needless. Its object was -to explain the alleged Resurrection without disputing the _veracity_ -of the writers, and this it is quite unable to do. In short, if the -writers honestly believed the accounts as we have them, or indeed -any other accounts at all resembling them, the Vision Theory is out -of the question. - -It does not even account satisfactorily for the one appearance, that -to St. Paul, which it might be thought capable of explaining. For -his _companions_ as well as himself saw the Light and (apparently) -heard the Voice, though not the actual words.[324] And how could a -subjective vision of St. Paul have thus affected all his companions? -Moreover physical blindness does not result from such a vision, and -to say that in his case the wish was father to the thought, and -that his expectation and hope of seeing Christ eventually made him -think that he did see Him, is absurd. For even when he did see Him, -he did not recognise Him; but had to ask _Who art Thou, Lord?_ Here -then was the case of an avowed enemy, and a man of great -intellectual power, who was converted, and that against his will, -solely by the appearance of Christ. And as he had access to all -existing evidence on both sides, and had everything to lose and -nothing to gain from the change, his conversion alone is a strong -argument in favour of the Resurrection, more especially as the fact -itself is beyond dispute. - -[Footnote 324: Acts 9. 7; 22. 9; 26. 13, 14.] - -(4.) _The Theory of real visions._ - -Before passing on, we must just glance at a modification of the -Vision Theory, that has been suggested in recent years; which is -that the Apostles saw _real_ visions, miraculously sent by God, to -persuade them to go on preaching the Gospel. And no doubt this -theory avoids many of the difficulties of the ordinary Vision -Theory, especially in regard to the appearances beginning so soon as -the third day, their not being expected, and their occurring -simultaneously. But it has even greater difficulties of its own. For -it admits the supernatural, and yet these divinely sent visions were -such as to _mislead_ the Apostles, and to make them think that -Christ's Body had risen from the grave, and saw no corruption, when -in reality it was still decaying in the tomb. - -And this alone is fatal to the theory. For if God gave a -supernatural vision, it would certainly be to convince men of what -was true, not of what was false. And even a real miracle is easier -to believe, than that God should found His Church on a false one. -Moreover supernatural visions are just as unable as natural ones to -account for the facts recorded, such as the rolling away of the -stone, the empty tomb, the holding of Christ by His feet, or the -disappearance of the food. While the great difficulty as to what -became of the dead Body, applies to this as much as to the ordinary -Vision Theory. - - -(_D._) THE SWOON THEORY. - -Lastly we come to the Swoon Theory. This would be to deny the -_reasoning_ of the witnesses; and say that though they saw Christ -alive after His Crucifixion, they did not draw the right conclusion -in thinking that He had risen from the dead, since as a matter of -fact He had never died, but had only fainted on the Cross. - -And in support of this, it is urged that death after crucifixion did -not generally occur so quickly, since Pilate _marvelled if He were -already dead_; and that He might easily have been mistaken for dead, -as no accurate tests were known in those days. While the blood -coming out of His side is also appealed to, because blood does not -flow from a dead body. Moreover, as He was then placed in a cool -rock cave, with aromatic spices, He would probably recover -consciousness; when He would come forth and visit His friends, and -ask for something to _eat_: which is what He did according to St. -Luke. And they, superstitious men, looking upon their Master as in -some sense Divine, and perhaps half expecting the Resurrection, -would at once conclude that He had risen from the dead; especially -if they had already heard that the tomb was empty. - -And the chief argument in favour of the theory is, of course, the -same as that in favour of the Vision Theory. It professes to account -for the recorded appearances, without admitting either the truth of -the Resurrection, or deliberate falsehood on the part of the -witnesses; who, according to this theory, were themselves mistaken -in thinking that Christ had risen from the dead, when in reality He -had never died. They could not therefore have helped in restoring -Him; He must have recovered by Himself. This is essential to the -theory; so it is quite unlike a case recorded by Josephus, where a -man who had been crucified, and taken down alive, was gradually -restored by a doctor.[325] - -[Footnote 325: Josephus, Life, 75.] - -How then would this theory suit the facts of the case? While -admitting its possibility, it is hard to find words to express its -great _improbability_. It has immense difficulties, many of them -peculiarly its own. And first as to Christ Himself. He must have -been extremely exhausted after all the ill-treatment He had -received, yet He is supposed not only to have recovered -consciousness, but to have come out of the tomb by Himself, rolling -away the large stone. And then, instead of creeping about weak and -ill, and requiring nursing and medical treatment, He must have -walked over twelve miles--and this with pierced feet[326]--to -Emmaus and back. And the same evening He must have appeared to His -disciples so completely recovered that they, instead of looking upon -Him as still half-dead, thought that He had conquered death, and was -indeed the Prince of Life. All this implies such a rapid recovery as -is quite incredible. - -[Footnote 326: The feet being pierced is often disputed, but St. -Luke (who probably knew more about crucifixion than we do) evidently -thought they were; for he records Christ as saying, _See my hands -and my feet that it is I myself_, which implies that His hands and -feet would identify Him.] - -Next as to the piercing of His side with a spear.[327] This is -recorded by an eye-witness, and would doubtless of itself have -caused death, though St. John's statement that He was dead already -seems the more probable. Nor did the blood coming out, in any way, -disprove this. For blood (as long as it remains liquid) will of -course flow out _downwards_ from any body, just as other liquids -would do. Only when a person is alive, the action of the heart will -make it flow out upwards as well. - -[Footnote 327: John 19. 34.] - -Again, it is most unlikely that so many persons, both friends and -foes, should have mistaken Christ for dead. Yet according to this -theory the _soldiers_ entrusted with the execution, who must have -had a good deal of experience in such matters; the _centurion_, who -was sent for by Pilate on purpose to ascertain this very point; the -_Christians_, who took down the Body and wrapped it in linen cloths; -and the _Jews_, who are not likely to have left their Victim without -making sure of the fact, must all have honestly believed that -Christ was dead when He was not. Moreover, the tomb was carefully -guarded by His enemies for the express purpose of securing the Body. -How then did they let it escape? If they were not asleep at the -time, they must either have done this _willingly_, because they were -bribed; or _unwillingly_, because they could not help it, being -overcome by some supernatural Power; and either alternative is fatal -to the Swoon Theory. - -This theory also requires not only that the Apostles should have -been mistaken in thinking that Christ had risen from the dead, but -that Christ Himself should have countenanced the mistake; or He -would have explained the truth to His disciples. He is thus made to -be a deceiver instead of His Apostles, which all will admit to be -most improbable. - -And then, what became of Him afterwards? If He died again within a -few weeks, His disciples could scarcely have thought Him the Prince -of Life, who had the keys of Death and of Hades;[328] and if He -continued to live, where did He go to? Moreover He must have died -again at some time, and His real tomb is sure to have been much -venerated by His followers; and it would have prevented any belief -in the Ascension. Yet as said before (Chapter XV.), this seems to -have formed a part of Christian instruction from the very first. - -[Footnote 328: Acts 3. 15; Rev. 1. 18.] - -But perhaps the chief argument against this theory is that it does -not account for many of the actual _facts_ recorded; such as Christ -passing through closed doors, His vanishing at pleasure, and His -Ascension. These details present no difficulty on the Vision Theory, -nor on that of deliberate falsehood; but they are inconsistent with -the present one. And though it accounts to some extent for the empty -tomb; it does not account for the _angels_ being there, announcing -the Resurrection. - -Nor does it account for the _grave-clothes_ being so carefully left -behind. For if Christ had come out of the tomb by Himself, He could -scarcely have left His clothes behind; not to mention the difficulty -of taking them off, caused by the adhesive myrrh, which would have -stuck them together, and to the Body. These grave-clothes are thus -fatal to this, as to every other theory, except the Christian one; -yet it was a simple matter of fact, as to which there could be no -possible _mistake_. Either the clothes were there, or else the -persons who said they saw them were telling a falsehood. Moreover, -in any case Christ could not have walked to Emmaus and back, or -appeared to the Apostles, or to anyone else, in His _grave-clothes_, -so He must have obtained some others, and how did He get them? His -enemies are not likely to have supplied them, and if His friends -did, they must have been aware of the fraud. - -On the whole then, we decide that the _Swoon Theory_, like the -Vision Theory, is very improbable in any case, and only tenable at -all by supposing a large part of our narratives to be intentionally -false. But then it is quite needless. - - -(_E._) CONCLUSION. - -Before concluding this chapter a few remarks may be made on the -alleged difficulties of the _Christian_ theory. There are only two -of any importance. The first is that the Resurrection would be a -_miracle_, and probably nine out of ten men who disbelieve it, do so -for this reason. It is not that the evidence for it is insufficient -(they have perhaps never examined it) but that no conceivable -evidence would be sufficient to establish such an event. Miracles, -they say, are incredible, _they cannot happen_, and that settles the -point; for it is of course easier to believe _any_ explanation, -visions, swoons, or anything else, than the occurrence of that which -cannot happen. - -But we have already admitted, in Chapter VII., that miracles -are _not_ incredible. And though no doubt, _under ordinary -circumstances_, a dead man coming to life again would be so -_extremely_ improbable as to be practically incredible; yet these -were not ordinary circumstances, and Christ was not an ordinary man. -On the contrary, as we shall see, He was an absolutely unique Man, -claiming moreover to be Divine, and having a mass of powerful -evidence both from His own Character, from previous Prophecies, and -from subsequent History, to support His claims. Therefore that He -should rise from the dead, as a proof that these claims were -well-founded, does not seem so very improbable after all. - -The other difficulty refers to Christ's not appearing _publicly_ to -the Jews. Why, it is asked, did He only appear to His own disciples? -Surely this is very suspicious. If He really did rise from the -dead, and wished the world to believe it, why did He not settle the -point by going publicly into Jerusalem? - -But we cannot feel sure that this would have _settled the point_. No -doubt the Jews who saw Him would have been convinced, but the nation -as a whole might, or might not, have accepted Christianity. If they -did _not_, saying for instance it was due to a pretender, it would -have been worse than useless. While if they did, the Romans would -very likely have looked upon it as a national insurrection, and its -progress would have been more than ever difficult. It would also -have greatly weakened the force of _Prophecy_; since, in the absence -of ancient manuscripts, people might think that the old Jewish -prophecies had been tampered with, to make them suit their Christian -interpretation. But now these prophecies, having been preserved by -men who are opposed to Christianity, are above suspicion. - -Moreover, to get the world to believe in the Resurrection required -not only evidence, but _missionaries_, that is to say, men who were -so absolutely convinced of its truth, as to be willing to spend -their whole lives in witnessing for it, in all lands and at all -costs. And the chief object of the appearances may have been to -produce such men; and it is obvious that (apart from a miraculous -conversion like St. Paul's) there could not have been more than a -few of them. - -For only a _few_ could have conversed with Christ, and eaten with -Him after His death, so as to be quite certain that He was then -alive; only a _few_ could have known Him so intimately before, as -to be quite certain that it was really He, and only a _few_ had -loved Him so dearly as to be willing to give up everything for His -sake. In short, there were only a few _suitable_ witnesses -available. And Christ's frequently appearing to these few--the -_chosen witnesses_ as they are called[329]--in the private and -intimate manner recorded in the Gospels, was evidently more likely -to turn them into ardent missionaries (which it actually did) than -any public appearance. Indeed it so often happens that what -everybody should do, nobody does; that it may be doubted whether -Christ's publicly appearing to a number of persons in Jerusalem -would have induced even one of them to have faced a life of -suffering, and a death of martyrdom, in spreading the news. This -objection, then, cannot be maintained. - -[Footnote 329: Acts 10. 41.] - -In conclusion, it seems scarcely necessary to sum up the arguments -in this chapter. We have discussed at some length the veracity, -knowledge, investigation, and reasoning of the _first witnesses_ of -the Resurrection; and as we have seen, not one of these points can -be fairly doubted. In fact the evidence in favour of each is -overwhelming. Therefore the alternative theories--the Falsehood, the -Legend, the Vision, and the Swoon Theory--which are founded on -denying these points, are all untenable. And this greatly supports -the conclusion we arrived at in the last chapter; so that combining -the two; we have an _extremely strong_ argument in favour of the -Resurrection of Christ. - - - - -CHAPTER XIX. - -THAT THE OTHER NEW TESTAMENT MIRACLES ARE PROBABLY TRUE. - - (_A._) THEIR CREDIBILITY. - - They present few difficulties; the casting out of evil spirits. - - (_B._) THEIR TRUTHFULNESS. - - (1.) General marks of truthfulness. - (2.) Special marks of truthfulness. - - (_C._) THEIR PUBLICITY. - - (1.) They occurred in public. - (2.) They were publicly appealed to. - (3.) They were never disputed. - (4.) The silence of classical writers. - - (_D._) CONCLUSION. - - Futile attempts to explain them away, the subject of - modern miracles. - - -Having discussed in the last two chapters the Resurrection of -Christ, we pass on now to the other New Testament miracles, and will -consider in turn their _credibility_, their _truthfulness_, and -their _publicity_. - - -(_A._) THEIR CREDIBILITY. - -Now with one exception, the casting out of evil spirits, the -miracles present scarcely any difficulty provided miracles at all -are credible, which we have already admitted. Most of them, -especially those of healing, were very suitable from a moral point -of view, while that they were meant to confirm Christ's teaching and -claims is beyond dispute. Not only do all the Evangelists declare -this, but Christ Himself though He refused to work a miracle when -challenged to do so--He would not work one _to order_, as we might -say--yet appealed to His _public_ miracles in the most emphatic -manner. - -Thus, when St. John the Baptist sent messengers to inquire whether -He was the Messiah, His only answer was, 'Go your way, and tell John -the things which ye do hear and see; the blind receive their sight, -and the lame walk, the lepers are cleansed, and the deaf hear, and -the dead are raised up,'[330] etc. And this is specially important -because Christians would not have _invented_ an incident which shows -that Christ's own messenger had (apparently) lost faith in Him. Yet -it is not easy to separate his question from the reply which it -received; while if we admit that Christ gave this reply, it seems to -settle the question as to His working miracles. - -[Footnote 330: Matt. 11. 4; Luke 7. 22; see also Mark 2. 10; John 5. -36.] - -And He afterwards condemned Chorazin, and other cities, in the -strongest terms, because, although He had done so many miracles -there, they had not repented; which again shows both the publicity -of the miracles, and their intended evidential value.[331] And this -passage also is very important, since its genuineness is confirmed -by the fact that not a single miracle is recorded as having been -worked at Chorazin. Yet, if the Evangelists (or anyone else) had -invented the saying, they would surely have invented some miracles -there to justify it. If on the other hand, they did not invent it, -and the words were actually spoken by Christ, is it conceivable that -He should have blamed these cities for not believing on Him in spite -of His miracles, if He had done no miracles? - -[Footnote 331: Matt. 11. 21-24; Luke 10. 13-15. Both this passage, -and the last, belong to Q, the supposed earliest source of our -Gospels.] - -We pass on now to the _casting out of evil spirits_, which implies -that persons may sometimes be _possessed_ by such spirits, and this -is often thought to be a difficulty. But though our ignorance on the -subject is undoubtedly great, there is nothing incredible here. For -we have already admitted the _influence_ of such spirits (Chapter -XII.), and what is called _possession_ is merely an extreme form of -influence. Indeed, the accounts of mesmerism at the present day, -though they cannot always be trusted, seem to show that even one man -may so entirely _possess_ the mind and will of another as to make -him do whatever he wishes. And it is certainly no more difficult to -believe that this power may in some cases be exercised by an evil -spirit. With regard to the outward symptoms mentioned in the -Gospels, they seem to have resembled certain forms of madness; -though, as the patients are now kept under restraint in civilised -countries, they have not the same notoriety. - -But it may be said, why ascribe this madness to an evil spirit? But -why not? Madness often follows the frequent yielding to certain -temptations, such as drunkenness or impurity; and that it may really -be due to the action of an evil spirit (an _unclean_ spirit is the -significant term used in the Gospels) and be the appropriate -punishment for yielding to _his_ temptation, is certainty not -incredible. And if so, considering the immoral state of the world at -the time of Christ, we cannot be surprised at such cases being far -more common then than now. And the writers, it may be added, do not -(like some early nations) attribute _all_ maladies to evil spirits, -for we read of men having fever and palsy, as well as being blind, -lame, deaf, and dumb, without any hint of its being due to an evil -spirit; so they were quite able to distinguish between the two. - -There is, however, one instance--the swine at Gadara--of _animals_ -being thus afflicted,[332] which undoubtedly forms a difficulty, and -I have never seen a satisfactory explanation of it. But still our -ignorance about animals, combined with the fact that they resemble -man in so many respects, prevents us from saying that it is -absolutely incredible. And as to the alleged _injustice_ of the -miracle (which is often objected to) we must remember that if Christ -were the Divine Being He claimed to be, the world and all it -contained belonged to Him; so His allowing the swine to be destroyed -by evil spirits was no more unjust to their owners, than if He had -allowed them to die by disease. - -[Footnote 332: Matt. 8. 30-32; Mark 5. 11-13; Luke 8. 32-33.] - -Lastly, all the Christian miracles lose a great deal of their -improbability when we consider the _unique position of Christ_. And -what would be incredible, if told of another man who had done -nothing to alter the history of the world, may easily be credible of -_Him_. We decide, then, that all the New Testament miracles are -_credible_: we have next to consider whether they are _true_. - - -(_B._) THEIR TRUTHFULNESS. - -Now the testimony in favour of these miracles is very similar to -that in favour of the Resurrection of Christ. They are recorded by -the same writers and in the same books, and everything points to -these accounts being trustworthy. To put it shortly, the writers had -no motive for recording the miracles unless they believed them to be -true, and they had ample means of finding out whether they were true -or not; while many of them are such as cannot possibly be explained -by want of investigation, or an error in reasoning. Moreover, as we -shall see, they contain numerous marks of truthfulness. These may be -divided into two classes, _general_, or those which concern the -miracles as a whole; and _special_, or those which concern -individual miracles, or sayings about them; and we will consider -each in turn. - -(1.) _General marks of truthfulness._ - -Among these we may notice first the extremely _simple and graphic_ -way in which many of the miracles are described, such as the curing -of the man who was born blind, with the repeated questioning of the -man himself.[333] Then there is the raising of the daughter of -Jairus, and the curing of the man who was deaf and had a difficulty -in speaking, both of which are described with the most minute -details, including the actual Aramaic words spoken by Christ.[334] -It is difficult to think that they do not come from eye-witnesses. -And the same may be said of a large number of the miracles. - -[Footnote 333: John 9. 8-34.] - -[Footnote 334: Mark 5. 41; 7. 34.] - -Secondly, the _kind_ of miracles ascribed to Christ seem (as far as -we can judge) to be worthy of Him. They were not for His own -benefit, but for that of other people, and they are a great contrast -to the imaginary miracles ascribed to Him in the Apocryphal Gospels, -most of which are extremely childish. When for instance Christ was a -boy, we read of His making clay birds fly; of His turning children -into kids for refusing to play with Him; and of His cursing another -boy who had run against Him, and who in consequence fell down -dead.[335] How different such miracles are from those in our Gospels -scarcely needs pointing out. Nor is the case of the _barren -fig-tree_, so often objected to, an exception. For the tree itself -could have felt no injury, and as far as we know, its destruction -injured no one else. - -[Footnote 335: Gospel of the Infancy, chapters xv., xvii., xix.] - -Thirdly, the miracles are closely connected with the _moral -teaching_ of Christ, and it is difficult either to separate the two, -or to believe the whole account to be fictitious. His wonderful -works, and His wonderful words involve each other, and form together -an harmonious whole, which is too life-like to be imaginary. Indeed, -a life of Christ without His miracles would be as unintelligible as -a life of Napoleon without his campaigns. And it is interesting to -note in this connection that our earliest Gospel, St. Mark's, -contains (in proportion to its length) the most miracles. As we -should expect, it was Christ's miracles, rather than His moral -teaching, which first attracted attention. - -Fourthly, the miracles were as a rule miracles of _healing_: that is -to say, of restoring something to its natural state, such as making -blind eyes see; and not doing something unnatural, such as giving a -man a third eye. Miracles of either kind would of course show -superhuman power; but the former are obviously the more suited to -the God of Nature. And this _naturalness_ of the miracles, as we may -call it, seems to many a strong argument in their favour. - -Fifthly, there were an immense _number_ of miracles, the ones -recorded being mere _examples_ of those that were actually worked. -Thus in St. Mark's Gospel we are told that on one occasion, Christ -healed _many_ who were sick with _divers_ diseases; on another that -He had healed so _many_, that those with plagues pressed upon Him to -touch Him; and on another that everywhere He went, into the -villages, cities, or country, the sick were laid out, so that they -might touch His garment, and _as many as touched Him were made -whole_.[336] - -[Footnote 336: Mark 1. 34; 3. 10; 6. 56] - -Sixthly, there was a great _variety_ in the miracles. They were of -various kinds, worked in various places, before various witnesses, -and with various details and characteristics. They occurred in -public as well as in private; in the towns as well as in the -country; at sea as well as on land; in groups as well as singly; at -a distance as well as near; after due notice as well as suddenly; -when watched by enemies as well as among friends; unsolicited as -well as when asked for; in times of joy, and in times of sorrow. -They were worked on the blind as well as the deaf; the lame as well -as the dumb; the leprous as well as the palsied; the dead as well as -the living. They concerned men as well as women; the rich as well as -the poor; the educated as well as the ignorant; the young as well as -the old; multitudes as well as individuals; Gentiles as well as -Jews; nature as well as man--in fact, according to our accounts, it -is difficult to imagine any miracles that could have been more -absolutely convincing. - -Seventhly, the miracles of Christ were (with trifling exceptions) -worked _suddenly_. They were not like gradual cures, or slow -recoveries, but they were done in a moment. The blind man -_immediately_ received his sight; the palsied _immediately_ took up -his couch: the leper was _straightway_ cleansed; the infirm was -_straightway_ made whole; the dead _immediately_ rose up, etc.[337] -This was evidently a striking feature in the miracles, and the -Evangelists seem to have been much impressed by it. - -[Footnote 337: Luke 18. 43; 5. 25; Mark 1. 42; Matt. 8. 3; John 5. -9; Luke 8. 55.] - -Eighthly, many of the miracles were of a _permanent_ character, and -such as could be examined again and again. When, for instance, a man -who had long been lame, or deaf, or blind, was restored to health, -the villagers, as well as the man himself, could certify to the -cure for years to come. And miracles such as these are obviously of -much greater value than what we may call _momentary_ miracles (such -as Christ's calming the storm) where the only possible evidence is -that of the actual spectators. - -Lastly, and this is very remarkable, the Evangelists nearly always -relate that Christ worked His miracles _by His own authority_: while -the Old Testament prophets, with scarcely an exception, worked -theirs by calling upon God. Take for instance the similar cases of -raising a widow's son.[338] Elijah prays earnestly that God would -restore the child to life; Christ merely gives the command, _I say -unto thee, Arise_. The difference between the two is very striking, -and is of itself a strong argument in favour of Christ's miracles; -for had the Evangelists invented them, they would certainly have -made them resemble those of the Old Testament. But instead of this, -they describe them as worked in a new and unprecedented manner, and -one which must at the time have seemed most presumptuous. - -[Footnote 338: 1 Kings 17. 21; Luke 7. 14.] - -The Gospel miracles then, from the simple and graphic way in which -they are described; their not containing anything childish or -unworthy; their close connection with the moral teaching of Christ; -their naturalness; their number; their variety; their suddenness; -their permanence; and above all from the authoritative way in which -they are said to have been worked; have every appearance of being -truth fully recorded. - -(2.) _Special marks of truthfulness._ - -Moreover several individual miracles, and sayings about them, are of -such a kind as could scarcely have been invented. Take, for -instance, the raising of the daughter of Jairus.[339] Now of course -anyone, wishing to magnify the power of Christ, might have invented -this or any other miracle. But if so, he is not likely to have put -into the mouth of Christ Himself the words, _The child is not dead -but sleepeth_. These words seem to imply that Christ did not -consider it a miracle; and though we may be able to explain them, by -the similar words used in regard to Lazarus,[340] they certainly -bear the marks of genuineness. - -[Footnote 339: Mark 5. 39.] - -[Footnote 340: John 11. 11.] - -We are also told, more than once, that Christ's power of working -miracles was _conditional_ on the faith of the person to be healed, -so that in one place He could do scarcely any miracles _because of -their unbelief_.[341] This is not the sort of legend that would have -grown up round a glorified Hero; it bears unmistakably the mark of -truthfulness. But then if the writer had good means of knowing that -Christ could do no miracles in one place, because of their unbelief; -had he not equally good means of knowing that Christ could, and did, -do miracles in other places? - -[Footnote 341: Matt. 13. 58; Mark 6. 5-6; Luke 18. 42.] - -And what shall we say of Christ's frequent commands to keep His -miracles _secret_?[342] There were doubtless reasons for this in -every case; but Christ's followers, who presumably recorded the -miracles in order to get them known, are not likely to have -invented, and put into His mouth the command to keep them secret. -Nor is Christ likely to have given it, had there been no miracles to -keep secret. Nor again is anyone likely to have added, unless it was -the case, that the command was generally _disobeyed_. This seems -surprising, yet it is very true to human nature that a man who had -been suddenly cured of a long complaint, should insist on talking -about it. - -[Footnote 342: _E.g._, Mark 3. 12; 5. 43; 7. 36.] - -In the same way the discussions about working miracles _on the -Sabbath Day_ have a very genuine tone about them and it is difficult -to imagine them to be inventions.[343] Yet such discussions could -not have arisen, if there had been no miracles on the Sabbath, or -any other day. - -[Footnote 343: Mark 3. 1-5; Luke 13. 10-17; John 5. 9-16; 9. 14-16.] - -Then there is the striking passage where Christ warned His hearers -that even working miracles in His name, without a good life, would -not ensure their salvation.[344] This occurs in one of His most -characteristic discourses, the Sermon on the Mount, and it is hard -to doubt its genuineness. But even if we do, it is not likely that -Christ's followers would have invented such a warning, if as a -matter of fact no one ever did work miracles in His name. - -[Footnote 344: Matt. 7. 22.] - -And much the same may be said of another passage where Christ is -recorded as saying that _all_ believers would be able to work -miracles.[345] If He said so, He must surely have been able to work -them Himself; and if He did not say so, His followers must have -been able to work them, or their inventing such a promise would -merely have shown that they were not believers. On the whole, then, -as said before, the accounts of the New Testament miracles have -every appearance of being thoroughly truthful. - -[Footnote 345: Mark 16. 17.] - - -(_C._) THEIR PUBLICITY. - -But the most important point has still to be noticed, which is the -alleged _publicity_ of these miracles; and as this renders the -testimony in their favour peculiarly strong, we must examine it at -some length. - -(1.) _They occurred in public._ - -To begin with, according to our Gospels, all the miracles of Christ -occurred during His _public ministry_, when He was well known, that -at Cana being definitely called the first.[346] And as they were -meant to confirm His teaching and claims, it was only natural for -them to begin when His teaching began. But if they had been -invented, or had grown up as legends, some at least would have been -ascribed to His earlier years (as they are in the Apocryphal -Gospels) when there was less chance of their being disputed. - -[Footnote 346: John 2. 11.] - -Moreover, many of them are stated to have been worked openly, and -before crowds of people, including Scribes, Pharisees, and -lawyers.[347] And the _names_ of the places where they occurred, and -even of the persons concerned, are given in some cases. Among these -were _Jairus_, a ruler of the synagogue; _Lazarus_, a well known man -at Bethany; _Malchus_, a servant of the High Priest; and the -_centurion_ at Capernaum, who, though his name is not given, must -have been well known to the Jews, as he had built them a synagogue. -While the miracles recorded in the Acts concern such prominent -persons as the _proconsul_, Sergius Paulus, at Cyprus, and the -_chief man_, Publius, at Malta. And it is hard to overestimate the -immense difficulty of thus asserting _public_ miracles, with the -names of persons, and places, if none occurred; yet the early -Christians asserted such miracles from the very first. - -[Footnote 347: _E.g._, Luke 5. 17-21.] - -Take for instance the feeding of the five thousand, near the Lake of -Galilee. This is recorded in the earliest Gospel, St. Mark's, and -must therefore have been written down very soon after the event, -when a large number of the five thousand were still alive. Now is it -conceivable that anyone would have ventured to make up such an -account, even twenty years afterwards, if nothing of the kind had -occurred? And if he had done so, would not his story have been -instantly refuted? Or take the case of healing the centurion's -servant at Capernaum. This, as before said, belongs to Q, the -supposed source common to Matthew and Luke, and admitted by most -critics to date from before A.D. 50. And how could such a story have -been current within twenty years of the event, if nothing of the -kind had occurred? - -It is also declared that the miracles were much talked about at the -time, and caused widespread astonishment. The people _marvelled_ at -them, they _wondered_, they were _amazed_, they were _beyond measure -astonished_, there had been nothing like them _since the world -began_.[348] The miracles were in fact the talk of the whole -neighbourhood. And we are told that in consequence several of those -which occurred at Jerusalem were at once officially investigated by -the Jewish rulers, who made the most searching inquiries about -them;[349] and in two instances, at least, publicly admitted them to -be true.[350] And this also is not likely to have been asserted, -unless it was the case; and not likely to have been the case, if -there had been no miracles. - -[Footnote 348: Matt. 9. 33; 15. 31; Mark 5. 42; 7. 37; John 9. 32.] - -[Footnote 349: _E.g._, John 9. 13-34; Acts 4. 5-22.] - -[Footnote 350: John 11. 47; Acts 4. 16.] - -(2.) _They were publicly appealed to._ - -Moreover, these public miracles were _publicly appealed to_ by the -early Christians. According to the _Acts_, this was done in the very -first public address, that at Pentecost, by St. Peter, who reminds -his hearers that they had themselves seen the miracles (_even as ye -yourselves know_), as well as in one other speech at least.[351] And -this is important, because even those critics, who deny the -genuineness of the Acts, yet admit that these speeches date from a -very early time. And if so, it shows conclusively that some of -Christ's immediate followers not only believed themselves that He -had worked miracles, but spoke as if their opponents believed it -too. - -[Footnote 351: Acts 2. 22; 10. 38.] - -That they are not more frequently alluded to in the Acts is not -surprising, when we remember that, according to the writer,--and he -was an _eye-witness_ in some cases, as they occur in the _We_ -sections,[352]--the Apostles themselves worked miracles. There was -thus no occasion for them to appeal to those of Christ as proving -the truth of what they preached; their own miracles being quite -sufficient to convince anyone who was open to this kind of proof. -But still the important fact remains that in the first recorded -Christian address the public miracles of Christ were publicly -appealed to. And this was within a few months of their occurrence; -and at Jerusalem, where the statement, if untrue, could have been -more easily refuted than anywhere else. - -[Footnote 352: Acts 16. 18, 26; 28. 6, 8-9.] - -Passing on to _St. Paul's Epistles_; it is true that they do not -contain any reference to Christ's miracles, except of course the -Resurrection. But as they were not written to convert heathens, but -to instruct those who were already Christians, there is nothing -surprising in this; and they do not mention any of His parables -either. On the other hand, they do contain direct reference to -_Apostolic_ miracles. St. Paul in two of his undisputed Epistles -positively asserts that he had worked miracles himself; and he uses -the same three words, _signs_, _wonders_, and _mighty works_, which -are used in the Gospels to describe the miracles of Christ.[353] - -[Footnote 353: Rom. 15. 18, 19; 2 Cor. 12. 12.] - -The second passage is extremely important, since he speaks of them -as the _signs of an apostle_; and calls upon his opponents at -Corinth to admit that he was an apostle _because_ he had worked -these miracles. And this implies not only that the miracles were -done in public, but that his readers as well as himself believed -that the power of working miracles belonged to all the Apostles. And -it will be noticed that he is addressing the very persons among -whom he declares he had worked the miracles; which makes it almost -inconceivable that his claim was unfounded, quite apart from the -difficulty of believing that such a man as St. Paul would wilfully -make a false statement. - -From all this it follows that the first preachers of Christianity -not only appealed to Christ's miracles; but also to their own, in -support of their claims. And, as just said, how they could have done -so, if they worked no miracles, is not easy to understand. - -We next come to a class of writings where we should expect to find -Christ's miracles alluded to, and these are the first Christian -_Apologies_. Nor are we disappointed. The three earliest, of which -we have any knowledge, were by Quadratus, Aristides, and Justin; the -first two being presented to the Emperor Hadrian, when he visited -Athens, A.D. 125. - -_Quadratus_, in a passage preserved by Eusebius, lays stress on what -we have called the _permanent_ character of Christ's miracles. He -says: 'The works of our Saviour were always conspicuous, for they -were real; both they that were healed and they that were raised from -the dead were seen, not only when they were healed or raised, but -for a long time afterwards; not only whilst He dwelt on this earth, -but also after His departure, and for a good while after it, -insomuch that some of them have reached to our times.'[354] - -[Footnote 354: Eusebius, Hist., iv. 3.] - -_Aristides_ bases his defence of Christianity on its moral -character, and does not appeal to any public miracles, though as -before said (Chapter XIV.) he asserts the Divinity, Incarnation, -Virgin-birth, Resurrection, and Ascension of Christ. - -Lastly, _Justin_, about A.D. 150, not only specifies many of -Christ's miracles; but also says in general terms that He 'healed -those who were maimed, and deaf, and lame in body from their birth, -causing them to leap, to hear, and to see by His word. And having -raised the dead, and causing them to live, by His deeds He compelled -the men who lived at that time to recognise Him. But though they saw -such works, they asserted it was magical art.'[355] Justin, however, -does not base his argument on miracles, but on prophecy, because, as -he tells us again, the former might be ascribed to magic. - -[Footnote 355: Dial., 69; Apol. 1. 30.] - -But still, the actual occurrence of the miracles, he evidently -thought to be indisputable. He even says that the Emperor and Senate -can learn for themselves that Christ worked miracles (healing the -lame, dumb, and blind, cleansing the lepers, and raising the dead) -by consulting the _Acts of Pilate_.[356] And this certainly implies -that such a document, whether genuine or not, then existed in Rome; -and that it contained an account of the miracles. Thus two out of -the three earliest writers in defence of Christianity appealed to -Christ's miracles, in the most public manner possible, when -addressing the Emperor. - -[Footnote 356: Apol. 1. 48, 35.] - -(3.) _They were never disputed._ - -But now comes another important point. Though these public miracles -were publicly appealed to by the early Christians, and though -written accounts of them were in circulation very soon after they -are stated to have occurred; yet, as far as we know, they were -_never disputed_. And this is the more remarkable, since they are -said to have been worked among enemies as well as friends. They were -thus peculiarly open to hostile criticism; and we may be sure that -the bitter opponents of Christ, who had brought about His death, -would have exposed them if they could. Yet, as just said, they were -never disputed, either by Jews or Gentiles; though, of course, they -both denied their evidential value. - -The _Jews_--that is to say the Scribes and Pharisees--did this, by -ascribing them to the Evil One. And though this was a very strange -expedient, as their effect was obviously good, and not evil, they -had really no alternative. The common people were much impressed by -the miracles, and were anxious to welcome Christ as their -Messiah;[357] yet the Pharisees decided that such a man as this--so -unlike what they expected--could not possibly be their Messiah. They -had then to explain away the miracles somehow. And since they denied -that they were worked by God, they were bound to ascribe them to the -Devil, for these were the only supernatural powers they believed in; -though of course both of these had subordinate angels under them. -But we may ask, would the Jews have adopted such an expedient had -there been any possibility of denying that the miracles occurred? -Yet that they did adopt it can scarcely be disputed. It is -positively asserted in each of the first three Gospels;[358] and -Christians are not likely to have reported such a horrible -suggestion as that their Master was an agent of the Evil One, unless -it had been made. - -[Footnote 357: John 6. 15; Mark 11. 10.] - -[Footnote 358: Matt. 9. 34; 12. 24; Mark 3. 22; Luke 11. 15.] - -The _Gentiles_ on the other hand, believed in a variety of gods, -many of whom were favourable to mankind, and could be invoked by -_magic_; so they could consistently ascribe the miracles to some of -these lesser deities; or, in popular language, to magic. And we have -abundant evidence that they did so. As we have seen, it is expressly -asserted by Justin, who in consequence preferred the argument from -prophecy; and Irenæus did the same, and for avowedly the same -reason.[359] - -[Footnote 359: Bk. ii. 32.] - -Moreover, _Celsus_, the most important opponent of Christianity in -the second century, also adopted this view. His works are now lost, -but Origen in answering him frequently and positively asserts it; -saying that he often spoke of the miracles as _works of -sorcery_.[360] And though Celsus lived some years after the time in -question, it is most unlikely, if the early opponents of -Christianity had denied that the miracles occurred, that its later -opponents should have given up this strong line of defence, and have -adopted the far weaker one that they did occur, but were due to -magic. We are quite justified, then, in saying that Christ's -miracles were not disputed at the time, and considering their -alleged publicity, this is a strong additional argument in their -favour. - -[Footnote 360: Origen cont. Cels., i. 38; ii. 48.] - -(4.) _The silence of classical writers._ - -All that can be said on the other side is from the _silence_ of -classical writers. Had the miracles really occurred, it is said, -especially in such a well-known place as Palestine, the writers of -the day would have been full of them. Yet, with the single exception -of Tacitus, they do not even allude to Christianity; and he -dismisses it with contempt as a _pernicious superstition_.[361] - -[Footnote 361: Tacitus Annals. Bk. xv., ch. 44.] - -Now these words of Tacitus show that he had never studied the -subject, for whatever may be said against the religion, it certainly -was not pernicious; so he must have rejected Christianity _without -examination_. And if the other classical writers did the same, there -is nothing remarkable in their not alluding to it. Alleged marvels -were common enough in those days, and they probably did not think -the Christian miracles worth inquiring about. But we do not know of -any writer who did inquire about them, and was not convinced of -their truth. - -It may, of course, be replied that some of the events ought anyhow -to be alluded to, such as the _darkness over all the land_ at the -time of the Crucifixion. And if this extended over the whole of -Palestine, it is certainly strange that it should not be noticed. -But it may only refer to the neighbourhood of Jerusalem. Compare the -expression _all the country of Judæa_[362] (when referring to the -people being baptized) which is evidently not meant to be taken -literally. And if the darkness was limited to the neighbourhood of -Jerusalem, there is nothing surprising in its not being recorded by -any except Christians, for whom of course it had a special -significance. - -[Footnote 362: Mark 1. 5.] - -It should also be noticed that in some respects the testimony of -Christian writers is _more_ valuable than that of either Jews or -Gentiles: since none of the writers of that country were brought up -as Christians. They were all unbelievers before they were believers; -and if such testimony from unbelievers would be valuable, it is -still more so from those who showed how thoroughly convinced they -were of its truth by becoming believers. Indeed, the best Jewish or -Gentile evidence conceivable is that of well-educated men, like St. -Paul and St. Luke, who, on the strength of it, became Christians. - -Lastly, it must be remembered that the argument from silence is -proverbially unsound. We have, for instance, over two hundred -letters of the younger Pliny, and in only one of these does he -mention Christianity. Suppose this one had been lost, what a strong -argument could have been formed against the spread of Christianity -from the silence of Pliny, yet this one shows its marvellous -progress (see Chapter XXII.). This objection, then, is quite -insufficient to outweigh the positive testimony in favour of the -miracles, to which we have already alluded. - - -(_D._) CONCLUSION. - -In conclusion we must notice certain rationalistic explanations -which have been given of the miracles. It was hardly to be expected -that, with such strong evidence in their favour, the modern -opponents of Christianity would merely assert that the accounts -were pure fiction from beginning to end. Attempts have of course -been made to explain the miracles in such a way that, while -depriving them of any supernatural character, it may yet be admitted -that some such events occurred, which gave rise to the Christian -accounts. - -The miracles of _healing_ are perhaps the easiest to explain in this -way, as some wonderful instances of sudden, though natural, cures -have been known. But it is doubtful whether any of Christ's miracles -were of such a kind, for St. Paul is careful to distinguish between -_gifts of healing_ and _working of miracles_.[363] Both were -evidently known to the early Church, and known to be different. - -[Footnote 363: 1 Cor. 12. 9-10, 28.] - -And of course no such explanations will apply to most of the -miracles, which have to be got rid of in various other ways. Thus -Christ's walking on the sea is explained as His walking on a ridge -of sand or rock running out just under the water; the raising of -Lazarus as his having had himself buried alive, so that when Christ -came, there might be a pretended miracle;[364] and feeding the five -thousand as nothing more than the example of Christ and His friends, -who so freely shared their small supply with those around them, that -others did the same, and thus everyone had a little. It seems -scarcely necessary to discuss these theories in detail, as they are -all most improbable. - -[Footnote 364: This extraordinary theory was maintained by Rénan in -the earlier editions of his _Life of Jesus_, though he afterwards -abandoned it.] - -Moreover, their difficulties are all _cumulative_. The Christian -explanation has but _one_ difficulty for all the miracles, which is -that they _are_ miracles, and involve the supernatural. Once admit -this, and twenty miracles (provided they occur on suitable -occasions) are no more difficult to believe than two. But the -difficulties of these explanations are all cumulative. If for -instance, the raising of Lazarus is explained by his having been -buried alive, it does not account for Christ's walking on the sea. -If this is explained by the supposed ridge of sand, it does not -account for feeding the five thousand, etc. Thus each difficulty has -to be added to all the others, so taken together they are quite -insuperable. - -One other point has still to be considered, which is the subject of -modern miracles. Why, it is said, are there no miracles _now_, when -they could be properly tested? If they were really employed by God -as helps to the spread of His religion, why should they not have -accompanied it at intervals all along, as it is said they did the -Jewish religion? They are surely wanted for the support of -Christianity at the present day; and if God were, _after due -warning_, to work a public and indisputable miracle every -half-century, all the other evidences of Christianity might be -dispensed with. - -The answer to this objection is that the Christian revelation does -not claim to be a gradual one, like the Jewish; but a final and -complete revelation, made once for all through Christ and His -Apostles. Therefore, as there is to be no fresh revelation, there -can be no fresh miracles to confirm it. The question of _other_ -miracles, such as those which are said to have been worked by -Christians at various periods, need not be considered here. If -_true_, they would of course tend to prove the New Testament ones; -while, if _untrue_, they would not disprove them, any more than -imitation diamonds would disprove the existence of real diamonds. - -Of course, it may be replied that God might still work a miracle now -by a man, who stated that it was not to confirm anything that he -said himself, but merely what the Founder of Christianity had said; -and this is no doubt possible. But it would be a different method -from that recorded in the Bible, where a messenger from God always -brings his own credentials, even though, as in the case of a -prophecy, they may not be verified till afterwards. And what reason -have we for thinking that God would change His method now? It is -also very doubtful whether a public miracle at the present day, -would convince everybody. - -This objection, then, must be put aside, and we therefore conclude, -on reviewing the whole subject, that the New Testament miracles are -not only _credible_, but that there is extremely strong evidence in -their favour. Indeed their marks of _truthfulness_, combined with -their alleged _publicity_, form together a very powerful argument. -And it is rendered all the stronger by their having been so -thoroughly successful. Their object was to establish the truth of -Christianity, and this is precisely what they did. The evidence they -afforded was so decisive, that a hostile world found it -irresistible. - -Moreover it is doubtful whether any other religion, except, of -course, the Jewish, has ever claimed to have been confirmed by -public miracles. Christianity thus rests upon a unique foundation. -Unlike other religions, it appealed at first not to abstract -reasoning, or moral consciousness, or physical force, but to -miraculous events, of the truth or falsehood of which others could -judge. They did judge, and they were convinced. We decide, then, -that the New Testament miracles are probably true. - - - - -CHAPTER XX. - -THAT THE JEWISH PROPHECIES CONFIRM THE TRUTH OF CHRISTIANITY. - - (_A._) ISAIAH'S PROPHECY OF THE LORD'S SERVANT. - - (1.) The historical agreement, very striking. - (2.) The doctrinal agreement, equally so. - (3.) The modern Jewish interpretation, quite untenable. - - (_B._) THE PSALM OF THE CRUCIFIXION. - - (1.) Its close agreement, all through. - (2.) Two objections, unimportant. - - (_C._) THE DIVINITY OF THE MESSIAH. - - At least three prophecies of this; it is also involved in some - hints as to the Doctrine of the Trinity. - - (_D._) CONCLUSION. - - Why are not the prophecies plainer? Cumulative nature - of the evidence. - - -We propose to consider in this chapter what is called the argument -from _Prophecy_, using the word, as we did in Chapter XI., in the -sense of _prediction_. Now it is a remarkable and undisputed fact -that for many centuries before the time of Christ, it was foretold -that a member of the Jewish nation--small and insignificant though -it was--should be a blessing _to all mankind_. This promise is -recorded as having been made both to Abraham, to Isaac, and to -Jacob;[365] and as a matter of fact, Christianity was founded by a -Jew, and has undoubtedly been a blessing to the human race. This is -at least a remarkable coincidence. And as we proceed in the Old -Testament, the statements about this future Messiah become clearer -and fuller, till at last, in the Prophets, we find whole chapters -referring to Him, which Christians assert were fulfilled in Christ. - -[Footnote 365: Gen. 22. 18; 26. 4; 28.14.] - -This argument is plainly of the utmost importance. Fortunately it is -much simplified by the question of _dates_ being altogether -excluded. As a rule, the most important point in an alleged prophecy -is to show that it was written before its fulfilment. But here this -is undisputed, since everyone admits that the whole of the Old -Testament, except some of the apocryphal books, was written before -the time of Christ. And as the writings have been preserved by the -Jews themselves, who are opposed to the claims of Christianity, we -may be sure that not a single alteration in its favour has been made -anywhere. - -We will now examine a few of the strongest prophecies, avoiding all -those that were only fulfilled in a figurative, or spiritual sense; -and selecting whole passages rather than single texts. For though -many of these latter are very applicable to Christ, they might also -be applicable to someone else. So we will first discuss somewhat -fully Isaiah's prophecy of the Lord's Servant, and the Psalm of the -Crucifixion; and then examine more briefly a group of prophecies -referring to the Divinity of the Messiah. - - -(_A._) ISAIAH'S PROPHECY OF THE LORD'S SERVANT (52. 13-53. 12). - -It may be pointed out at starting that no one denies the antiquity -of the passage, even if it was not written by Isaiah. And it forms a -complete whole, closely connected together and not mixed up with any -other subject. So in regard to its fulfilment, most of the details -mentioned occurred within a few hours. We will consider first the -historical, and then the doctrinal agreement. - -(1.) _The Historical Agreement._ - -With regard to this, the following is the translation from the -Revised Version, together with the corresponding events. It will be -observed that the sufferings of the Servant are usually expressed in -the past tense, and his triumph in the future, the prophet placing -himself, as it were, between the two. But the Hebrew tenses are -rather uncertain, and what is translated as _past_ in the Revised -Version is translated as _future_ in the Authorised (_e.g._, 53. 2). - - 52. 13. 'Behold, my servant shall - deal wisely, he shall be exalted - and lifted up, and shall be - very high. - - The excellence of Christ's - teaching and conduct is now - generally admitted; while as to - His exalted position, He is worshipped - by millions of men. - - 14. 'Like as many were astonied - at thee (his visage was so - marred more than any man, and - his form more than the sons of - men) so shall he sprinkle many - nations; - - Yet at the time of His death, - which was public so that _many_ - saw Him, the cruel treatment He - had received must have terribly - disfigured His face and body. - - 15. 'Kings shall shut their - mouths at him: for that which - had not been told them shall - they see; and that which they had - not heard shall they understand. - - But now even Kings are silent - with reverence,[366] when contemplating - such a wonderful life. - - [Footnote 366: _Comp._ Job 29. 9.] - - 53. 1. 'Who hath believed our - report? - - 'and to whom hath the arm - of the Lord been revealed? - - Indeed what the prophet is - about to declare, is so marvellous - that it can scarcely be believed. - - The Arm of the Lord evidently - means some instrument, - or Person, which God uses for - His work, as a man might use - his arm.[367] And here it must be - a _Person_, from the following - words, 'For _he_ grew up,' etc. It - is thus a most suitable term for - the Messiah, who was to be - recognised by hardly anyone. - - 2. 'For he grew up before him - as a tender plant, and as a root - out of a dry ground: - - he hath no form nor comeliness; - and when we see him, there is no - beauty that we should desire - him. - - This was because He lived at a - place (Nazareth) which was always - regarded as _dry ground_ so - far as anything good was concerned.[368] - - Moreover, His appearance was - humble, and when at His trial, - Pilate presented Him to the - people, they did not desire Him. - - 3. 'He was despised, and rejected - of men; a man of sorrows, - and acquainted with grief: and - as one from whom men hide their - face he was despised, and we - esteemed him not. - - But they at once rejected Him - as they had done often before. - - 4. 'Surely he hath borne our - griefs, and carried our sorrows: - yet we did esteem him stricken, - smitten of God, and afflicted. - - While His life was not only one - of grief and sorrow, but such a - death seemed to show that He - was accursed of God, for the - Jews so regarded anyone who - was crucified.[369] - - 5. 'But he was wounded for - our transgressions, he was bruised - for our iniquities: the chastisement - of our peace was upon him; - and with his stripes we are healed. - - The scourging and other ill-treatment - is here referred to; - including probably the nails, - and spear, for the word translated - _wounded_ is literally _pierced_. - - [Footnote 367: _Comp._ Isa. 40. 10; 51. 9.] - - [Footnote 368: John 1. 46.] - - [Footnote 369: Deut. 21. 23; Gal. 3. 13.] - - 6. 'All we like sheep have - gone astray; we have turned - every one to his own way; and - the Lord hath laid on him the - iniquity of us all. - - 7. 'He was oppressed, yet he - humbled himself and opened not - his mouth; as a lamb that is - led to the slaughter, and as a - sheep that before her shearers is - dumb; yea, he opened not his - mouth. - - Christ, who is sometimes called - the Lamb of God, not only bore - His ill-treatment patiently, but - refused to plead at either of His - trials (the verse repeats twice _He - opened not His mouth_) to the - utter astonishment of His judges.[370] - - 8. 'By oppression and judgment - he was taken away; and as - for his generation, who among - them considered that he was cut - off out of the land of the living? - for the transgression of my - people was he stricken. - - He was not killed accidentally, - or by the mob, but had a - judicial trial; and was most - unjustly condemned. While - few, if any, of His contemporaries - understood the real meaning - of His death. - - 9. 'And they made his grave - with the wicked, and with the - rich in his death (i.e., _when he - was dead_. Comp. Ps. 6. 8); - - although he had done no violence, - neither was any deceit in - his mouth. - - He was appointed to die between - two robbers, and would - doubtless have been buried with - them, had not Joseph of Arimathea - intervened; when, in - strange contrast with His ignominious - death, He was honourably - buried, with costly spices, - and in a rich man's tomb. - - Although His judge repeatedly - declared that He was innocent. - - 10. 'Yet it pleased the Lord - to bruise him; he hath put him - to grief: when thou shalt make - his soul an offering for sin, he - shall see his seed, he shall prolong - his days, and the pleasure - of the Lord shall prosper in his - hand. - - Yet after His death He was to - see His seed, and _prolong His - days_, _i.e._, rise again from the - dead. The word _seed_ cannot - mean here, actual children,[371] since - He was to obtain them by His - death. But it may well refer to - the disciples, whom Christ saw - after His Resurrection, and called - His _children_.[372] - - [Footnote 370: Matt. 26. 62; 27. 14.] - - [Footnote 371: _Comp._ Isa. 1. 4.] - - [Footnote 372: Mark 10. 24; John 21. 5.] - - 11. 'He shall see of the travail - of his soul, and shall be satisfied: - by his knowledge shall my righteous - servant justify many: and - he shall bear their iniquities. - - And this is confirmed by their - being spoken of as _the travail of - His soul_, not body. While the - latter expression also implies - that He had had some intense - mental struggle comparable to - the bodily pains of childbirth; - which is very suitable to His - mental agony in the Garden and - on the Cross. - - 12. 'Therefore will I divide - him a portion with the great, - and he shall divide the spoil with - the strong; - - because he poured out his soul - unto death, - - and was numbered with the - transgressors: yet he bare the - sin of many, and made intercession - for the transgressors.' - - His subsequent triumph in - the Christian Church is here alluded - to. - - This implies that His sufferings - were of some duration; and is thus - very appropriate to a lingering - death like crucifixion. - - While the closing words exactly - agree with His dying a - shameful death between two robbers; - yet praying for His murderers, - 'Father, forgive them.' - -It seems hardly necessary to insist on the agreement shown above; it -is indisputable. The sufferings and the triumph of the Lord's -Servant are foretold with equal confidence and with equal clearness, -though they might well have seemed incompatible. - -(2.) _The Doctrinal Agreement._ - -But the significance of the passage does not depend on these -prophecies alone, though they are sufficiently remarkable, but on -the _meaning_ which the writer assigns to the great tragedy. It is -the Christian doctrine concerning Christ's death, and not merely the -events attending it, which is here insisted on. This will be best -shown by adopting the previous method of parallel columns, showing -in the first the six chief points in the Christian doctrine, and in -the other the prophet's words corresponding to them. - - All mankind are sinners. - - 'All we like sheep have gone - astray.' - - Christ alone was sinless. - - 'My righteous servant.' - - 'He had done no violence, - neither was any deceit in his - mouth.' - - He suffered not for His own - sins, but for those of others. - Nor was this the mere accidental - suffering of an innocent man for - a guilty one; it was a great - work of _atonement_, an offering - for sin. This is the central - feature of the Christian doctrine, - and it is asserted over and over - again in the prophecy, which is - above all that of a _Saviour_. - - 'Surely he hath borne our - griefs, and carried our sorrows.' - - 'He was wounded for our - transgressions, he was bruised - for our iniquities; the chastisement - of (_i.e._, which procured) - our peace was upon him; and - with his stripes we are healed.' - - 'The Lord hath laid on him - the iniquity of us all.' - - 'For the transgression of my - people was he stricken.' - - 'Thou shalt make his soul an - offering for sin.' - - 'He shall bear their iniquities.' - - 'He bare the sin of many.' - - And this Atonement was the - fulfilment of the old Jewish - sacrifices; especially that of the - Paschal Lamb; so there was a - special fitness in Christ's being - put to death at the time of the - Passover. - - This is shown by the language - employed, the _offering for sin_ - being the same word as that used - for the old _guilt-offering_.[373] And - the curious expression _So shall he - sprinkle many nations_ evidently - refers to the sprinkling of the - blood in the Jewish sacrifices, as - the same word is used, and - means cleansing them from sin.[374] - - Yet it availed not only for - the Jews, but for all mankind. - - The _many nations_ must include - Gentiles as well as Jews. - - Lastly, Christ's sacrifice was - _voluntary_; He freely laid down - - 'He poured out his soul unto - death,' implies that the act was - - [Footnote 373: _E.g._, Lev. 7. 1.] - - [Footnote 374: _E.g._, Lev. 16. 19.] - - His life, no one took it from Him - (John 10. 18). - - _voluntary_, and this is rendered - still clearer from the context; - for it was _because_ He did this that - He was to divide the spoil, etc. - And the words _He humbled Himself_, - also imply that the humiliation - was voluntary. - -All this, it is plain, exactly suits the Christ in whom Christians -believe; and it does not and cannot suit anyone else, since several -of the Christian doctrines are quite unique, and do not occur in the -Jewish or any other religion. This is indeed so striking, that if -anyone acquainted with Christianity, but unacquainted with Isaiah, -came across the passage for the first time, he would probably refer -it to one of St. Paul's Epistles. And every word of it might be -found there with perfect fitness. - -(3.) _The modern Jewish interpretation._ - -Now, what can be said on the other side? Many of the ancient Jews -interpreted the passage as referring to their future Messiah;[375] -but the modern Jews (and most critics who disbelieve in prophecy) -refer it to the Jewish nation, or to the religious part of it, which -they say is here personified as a single man, the Servant of the -Lord. And it must of course be admitted that Isaiah does frequently -speak of the Jews as God's _servant_ (_e.g._, 'But thou Israel, my -servant, and Jacob whom I have chosen,')[376] though he nowhere else -uses the term 'my _righteous_ servant,' which he does here, and -which would have been inapplicable to the nation. - -[Footnote 375: References are given in Edersheim's 'Life and Times -of Jesus the Messiah,' 1901, vol. ii., p. 727.] - -[Footnote 376: Isa. 41. 8.] - -But it is important to remember that this prophecy does not stand -alone, and a little before, we read in a similar passage, 'It is too -light a thing that thou shouldest be my servant to raise up the -tribes of Jacob, and to restore the preserved of Israel: I will also -give thee for a light to the Gentiles, that thou mayest be my -salvation unto the end of the earth. Thus saith the Lord, the -Redeemer of Israel, and his Holy One, to him whom man despiseth, to -him whom the nation abhorreth, to a servant of rulers: Kings shall -see and arise; princes, and they shall worship.'[377] - -[Footnote 377: Isa. 49. 6-7; comp. 42. 1-6.] - -Here it will be noticed the Lord's _servant_ is clearly -distinguished from both Jacob and Israel, and evidently means the -Messiah. While His bringing salvation to the Gentiles, as well as to -the Jews; His humiliation in being despised by men and hated by the -Jewish nation; and His subsequent triumph, even Kings submitting -themselves to Him; are all alluded to, much as they are in the -present passage. - -No doubt there is a difficulty in the prophet thus passing from one -meaning of the word _servant_ to another (especially, in a closely -connected passage),[378] and various attempts have been made to -explain it; but it does not alter the fact that he does so. Perhaps -the best explanation is that Israel was _intended_ to be God's -Servant, but owing to their sins became unfitted; when God promised -in the future to raise up a _righteous_ servant, who should do all -His pleasure and atone for Israel's failure. And, it may be added, -the term _Servant_ is applied to the Messiah both by Ezekiel and -Zechariah, as well as in the New Testament.[379] - -[Footnote 378: Isa. 49. 3, 5.] - -[Footnote 379: Ezek. 34. 23; Zech. 3. 8; Acts 3. 13 (R.V.).] - -Moreover, the Jewish interpretation not only leaves all the details -of the prophecy unexplained and inexplicable, but ignores its very -essence, which, as before said, is the atoning character of the -sufferings. No one can say that the sufferings of the Jews were -voluntary, or that they were not for their own sins, but for those -of other people, which were in consequence atoned for. Or, to put -the argument in other words, if the _He_ refers to the Jewish -nation, to whom does the _our_ refer in such sentences as _He was -wounded for our transgressions_? While v. 8 expressly says that the -Jews (God's people) were not the sufferers, but those for whom He -suffered. (For the transgression of _my people_ was _he_ stricken.) -This interpretation then is hopelessly untenable, and the passage -either means what Christians assert, or it means nothing. - -In conclusion, it must be again pointed out that all these minute -historical details attending Christ's death, and all these -remarkable Christian doctrines concerning it, are all found within -fifteen verses of a writing many centuries older than the time of -Christ. It would be hard to over-estimate the great improbability of -all this being due to chance; indeed, such a conclusion seems -incredible. - - -(_B._) THE PSALM OF THE CRUCIFIXION (Ps. 22).[380] - -[Footnote 380: This is discussed more fully in an article in the -_Churchman_, April, 1912, by the present writer.] - -We pass on now to another most remarkable prophecy; for this -well-known Psalm describes what can only be regarded as a -_crucifixion_. The decisive verse is of course, _They pierced my -hands and my feet_; but even apart from this, the various sufferings -described cannot all be endured in any other form of death, such as -stoning or beheading. And the Psalm agrees with the Death of Christ, -both in its numerous details, and in its whole scope and meaning. We -will therefore consider this close agreement first, and then some of -the objections. - -(1.) _Its close agreement._ - -We need not quote the Psalm, as it is so well known; but will point -out the agreement verse by verse. - - Ver. 1. His feeling forsaken by God, and using these actual - words: 'My God, my God, why hast thou forsaken me?' - - 2. as well as praying for deliverance during the previous - night; - - 3. though in spite of His sufferings, He casts no reproach upon - God. - - 4. His belonging to God's chosen people, the Jews, so that He - could speak of _our_ fathers; - - 5. who had so often been helped by God before. - - 6. His pitiable condition in being exposed to the scorn and - reproach of men, and despised by the people. - - 7. His being lifted up to die in public, so that those who - passed by could see Him; and the way in which they mocked Him, - shaking their heads, etc. - - 8. The exact words they used: _He trusted on the Lord that He - would deliver him, let Him deliver him seeing He delighteth in - him_ (margin). These words show that the speakers themselves - were Jews, and that He was thus put to death among His own - nation. And the last clause can only be meant ironically in the - sense that the Sufferer _claimed_ that God delighted in him, - claimed, that is, in some special sense to be beloved by God. - - 9. And, as a matter of fact, God had always watched over Him, - and had saved Him in His infancy from being slain by Herod. - - 10. And in return His whole life had been dedicated to God; so - that He could say that God had been _His_ God, even from His - birth. - - 11. His being abandoned by His disciples, and left without a - helper; - - 12. though surrounded by His enemies, described as _bulls of - Bashan_. This curious term is used elsewhere for the unjust - rulers of the people,[381] and was therefore very applicable to - the chief priests and rulers, who had so unjustly condemned - Him, and now stood round the Cross reviling Him. - - [Footnote 381: Amos. 4. 1.] - - 13. And they continually insulted Him, _gaping with the mouth_ - being a common expression of contempt;[382] _ravening_ - appropriate to the way in which they had thirsted for His blood - before Pilate; and _roaring_ to the great noise and tumult made - at the time. - - [Footnote 382: _E.g._, Job 16. 10.] - - 14. His side being pierced, so that there poured out a quantity - of watery fluid (mixed with clots of blood), the probable cause - of this--the rupture of the heart[383]--being also hinted at; - while His bones were nearly out of joint, through the weight of - the suspended Body. - - [Footnote 383: See 'The Physical Cause of the Death of Christ,' - by Dr. Symes Thompson, 1904.] - - 15. His suffering extreme weakness, and extreme thirst, - immediately before His death.[384] - - [Footnote 384: Lam. 4. 4; John 19. 28-30.] - - 16. His being crucified (_i.e._, His hands and feet being - pierced), the men who did this being here called _dogs_. They - seem to have been a special set of men, different from the Jews - who had before been mocking Him. And as this was the very term - used by Christ Himself for the Gentiles, in distinction to the - Jews,[385] it was peculiarly appropriate to the Gentile (Roman) - soldiers who crucified Him. - - [Footnote 385: Matt. 15. 26.] - - 17. And they also exposed and stretched out His Body, so that - the bones stood out in relief. And they then stood watching - Him; - - 18. and divided His garments among them, casting lots for one - of them. - - 19. Then follows a short prayer. - - 20. The term _sword_, like the _dog_, the _lion's mouth_, and - the _wild oxen_, need not be pressed literally; but may be used - here (as in other places)[386] for any violent death. And in - the New Testament it seems employed for all punishments, - including probably a death by crucifixion (St. Peter's).[387] - - [Footnote 386: _Comp._ 2 Sam. 11. 24; 12. 9.] - - [Footnote 387: Rom. 13. 4; Matt. 26. 52.] - - 21. Yet in spite of His troubles, and even death, He feels sure - of deliverance. - - 22. And now the strain suddenly changes, the Sufferer is - restored to life and freedom and at once declares God's name - unto His brethren. And this exactly agrees with Christ's now - declaring for the first time God's complete _Name_ of, Father, - Son, and Holy Ghost, unto His _brethren_, as He calls them, the - Apostles.[388] While if we identify this appearance with that - to the five hundred, it was literally _in the midst of the - congregation_--in the presence, that is, of the first large - Christian assembly. - - [Footnote 388: Matt. 28. 10, 19.] - - 23. Moreover, His deliverance is of world-wide significance, - and great blessings are to follow from it. These commence with - the Jews, who were to _praise_ and glorify God; though with a - strange feeling of _awe_ and fear; all of which was exactly - fulfilled.[389] - - [Footnote 389: Acts 2. 43-47.] - - 24. And the blessings are somehow connected with God's not - having despised, but having accepted, His sufferings. - - 25. And they include a reference to some _vows_ (meaning - uncertain); - - 26. and to a wonderful feast generally thought to refer to the - Holy Communion. - - 27. And the blessings then extend to the Gentile nations also, - even to the most distant parts of the world, who are now to - become worshippers of the true God, Jehovah. And, as a matter - of fact, Christians exist in all known countries, and wherever - there are Christians, Jehovah is worshipped. - - 28. To Whom the whole earth, both the Jewish kingdom and the - Gentile nations, really belongs. - - 29. And to Whom everyone will eventually bow down. - - 30. After this we read of a _seed_ serving Him, probably used - here, as in Isaiah, for disciples, each generation of whom is - to tell of this wonderful deliverance to the next. And this - they have been doing for eighteen centuries. - - 31. And so they will continue doing to generations that are yet - unborn. While the closing words, _He hath done it_ (R.V.) are - often taken as referring to the whole Psalm, meaning that the - work of suffering and atonement was now complete, _It is - done_;[390] and they would thus correspond to Christ's closing - words on the Cross, _It it finished_. - - [Footnote 390: Hengstenberg, Commentary on Psalms, 1867, vol. - i., 396.] - -Everyone must admit that the agreement all through is very -remarkable; though there are two slight objections. - -(2.) _Two objections._ - -The first is that there is nothing to show that the writer meant the -Psalm to refer to the Messiah at all, though, strange to say, some -of the Jews so interpreted it;[391] therefore if there is an -agreement, it is at most only a chance coincidence. But the idea of -_all_ these coincidences being due to chance is most improbable. And -there certainly is some indication that it refers to the Messiah, -since, as we have seen, it leads up to the conversion of the -Gentiles, which the other Jewish prophets always associate with the -times of the Messiah. - -[Footnote 391: Edersheim, 1901, vol. ii., 713.] - -Moreover, if the Psalm does not refer to Christ, it is difficult to -see to whom it does refer, since it is quite inapplicable to David, -or Hezekiah, or anyone else at that time; as crucifixion was not a -Jewish punishment, though dead bodies were sometimes hung on trees. -Yet, as just said, verses 7-8 show that the Sufferer was put to -death among his own nation. This strange anomaly of a Jew being put -to death among Jews, though not in the Jewish manner by stoning, but -by crucifixion, exactly suits the time of Christ, when Judæa was a -Roman province, and crucifixion a Roman punishment. - -Many of the _details_ also are quite inapplicable. David, for -instance, never had his garments divided among his enemies; yet -(even apart from our Gospels) there can be little doubt that the -garments of Christ were so divided, as the clothes of a prisoner -were usually taken by the guard who executed him. - -And any such reference (to David, etc.) is rendered still more -improbable, because the sufferer appears to have no sense of _sin_, -and never laments his own wickedness, as the writers so frequently -do when speaking about themselves. And here also the Psalm is -entirely applicable to Christ, since (as we shall see in the next -chapter) His sinlessness was a striking feature in His character. -Nor again did the deliverance of David in any way lead to the -_conversion of the Gentiles_, which, as just said, is the grand -climax of the Psalm, and excludes all other interpretations. - -But in any case this objection (which is also made to other Old -Testament prophecies) cannot be maintained; for _who_, we must ask, -was their real author? Was it the human prophet, or was it God Who -inspired the prophet to write as he did? And the prophets themselves -emphatically declared that it was the latter. The word of the Lord -came unto them, or a vision was granted unto them, and they had to -proclaim it, whether they liked it or not. In fact, as St. Matthew -says, it was not really the prophet who spoke, but God, who spoke -_through the prophet_.[392] There is thus no reason for thinking -that they either knew, or thought they knew, the whole meaning of -their prophecies; and the objection may be dismissed at once. - -[Footnote 392: _E.g._, Matt. 1. 22.] - -The second objection is, that some of the events fulfilling this, -and other Old Testament prophecies, never occurred, but were -purposely invented. This, however, destroys altogether the moral -character of the Evangelists, who are supposed to tell deliberate -falsehoods, in order to get a pretended fulfilment of an old -prophecy. And the difficulty of admitting this is very great. -Moreover, such explanations can only apply to a very few cases; -since, as a rule, the events occurred in _public_, and must -therefore have been well known at the time. - -And even in those cases where the event was so trivial, that it -might possibly have been invented, such an explanation is often -untenable. Take, for example, the manner in which Christ on the -cross was mocked by His enemies, who said, 'He trusted in God, let -him deliver him now if he desireth him.'[393] A more probable -incident under the circumstances can scarcely be imagined, the chief -priests quoting the familiar language (just as men sometimes quote -the Bible now) without thinking of its real significance. But, -supposing the words were never uttered, is it conceivable that the -Evangelist (or anyone else) would have invented them in order to get -a pretended fulfilment of this Psalm, where the Crucified One is -mocked with almost identical words; yet have never pointed out the -fulfilment himself, but have trusted to the chance of his readers -discovering it? - -[Footnote 393: Matt. 27. 43.] - -Neither of these objections, then, is of much importance; while the -agreement of the Psalm with the events attending the death and -Resurrection of Christ, seems, as in the previous case, to be far -too exact to be accidental. - - -(_C._) THE DIVINITY OF THE MESSIAH. - -Our last example shall be of a different kind from the others. It is -that the Old Testament contains several passages which show that the -future Messiah was to be not only Superhuman, but Divine. And -considering the strong Monotheism of the Jews this is very -remarkable. The following are three of the most important:-- - -'For unto us a child is born, unto us a son is given; and the -government shall be upon his shoulder: and his name shall be called -Wonderful, Counsellor, Mighty God, Everlasting Father, Prince of -Peace.'[394] Here we have a plain statement of the Divinity of One -Who should be born a child. The two words translated _Mighty God_ -are incapable of any other translation, and no other is suggested -for them in the margin of either the Authorised or Revised Version; -while the same two words occur in the next chapter, where they -plainly mean _Mighty God_ and nothing else. Moreover, the term -_Everlasting Father_ is literally _Father of Eternity_ (see margin) -and means the Eternal One. This is another divine title, and does -not conflict with the Christian doctrine that it was the Son, and -not the Father, Who became Incarnate. While the following words, -that of the increase of His government _there shall be no end_, and -that it should be established _for ever_, also point to a Divine -Ruler, in spite of the reference to David's throne. And it is -significant that a few verses before it is implied that the Ministry -of this future Messiah should commence in the land of Zebulon, and -Naphtali, by the Sea of Galilee; where, as a matter of fact, -Christ's Ministry did commence. - -[Footnote 394: Isa. 9. 6; 10. 21; 9. 1-2.] - -'But thou, Bethlehem Ephrathah, which art little to be among the -thousands of Judah, out of thee shall one come forth unto me that is -to be ruler in Israel; whose goings forth are from of old, from -everlasting.'[395] Here we have a prophecy of the birth of One who -had existed _from everlasting_; thus showing the Pre-existence and -apparent Divinity of the Messiah, who was to be born at Bethlehem, -where, again, as a matter of fact, Christ actually was born. - -[Footnote 395: Mic. 5. 2.] - -'Awake, O sword, against my shepherd, and against the man that is -my fellow, saith the Lord of hosts.'[396] The word translated -_fellow_ is only found elsewhere in Leviticus, where it is usually -translated _neighbour_, and always implies an equality between the -two persons.[397] Thus God speaks of the Shepherd who was to be -slain with the sword (a term, as before said, used for any violent -death), as equal with Himself, and yet at the same time Man; so no -one but a Messiah who is both God and Man--_Fellow-God_ as well as -_fellow-man_--can satisfy the language. - -[Footnote 396: Zech. 13. 7.] - -[Footnote 397: Lev. 6. 2; 18. 20; 19. 11, 15, 17; 24. 19; 25. 14, -15, 17.] - -And here again the reference to Christ is confirmed by the fact that -several incidents in His Passion are alluded to, in some of which -His Divinity is likewise asserted. The most important are the way in -which He (the Just Saviour) rode into Jerusalem on an ass; and the -rejoicing with which He was received, when the people welcomed Him -as their _King_. And the fact that He (the Lord Jehovah) should be -sold for thirty pieces of silver, the money being cast down in the -House of the Lord, and afterwards given to the potter; and also that -He (again the Lord Jehovah) should be pierced.[398] These are, it is -true, expressed in figurative language, and often mixed up with -other subjects; so no instance by itself, affords a strong argument. -But still their all occurring so close together, and all leading up -to the violent death of a _man_, who was yet the _fellow_, or -_equal_, with God, can scarcely be accidental. While the prophecy, -like so many others, ends with the conversion of the Gentiles, the -Lord Jehovah being recognised as King over all the earth; which -seems to place the Messianic character beyond dispute. - -[Footnote 398: Zech. 9. 9; 11. 12-13; 12. 10; 14. 9; Luke 19. -37-38.] - -The Divinity of the Messiah is also involved in some hints which -occur in the Old Testament as to the doctrine of the _Trinity_. For -instance, the Hebrew word for God, _Elohim_, is a plural word, -though, strange to say, it generally takes a singular adjective, and -verb. Thus if we tried to represent it in English, the first verse -of the Bible would read, 'In the beginning the Gods, He created the -heaven and the earth.' Attempts have of course been made to reduce -the significance of this by pointing out that a few other Hebrew -words, such as _lord_ and _master_, sometimes do the same; or by -regarding it as a survival from some previous polytheistic religion; -or else as being what is called the plural of Majesty, a sort of -royal _We_. This, however, does not seem to have been in use in -early times, and never occurs in the Bible, where kings always speak -of themselves in the singular.[399] Anyhow it is very remarkable -that the Jews should have used a plural word for God with a singular -verb; especially as the same word, when used of false gods, takes a -plural verb. - -[Footnote 399: _E.g._, Gen. 41. 41; Ezra 6. 12; 7. 21; Dan. 4. 6.] - -Moreover, God is at times represented as speaking in the -plural,[400] saying, for instance, _Let us make man in our image_, -as if consulting with other Divine Persons; since it is obvious that -the expression cannot refer to angels, who are themselves created, -and not fellow Creators. Yet just afterwards we read, 'God created -man in _his_ own image,' thus implying that there is still but one -God. Another and even more remarkable expression is, _Behold, the -man is become as one of us_. This cannot possibly be the plural of -Majesty; for though a king might speak of himself as _We_ or _Us_, -no king ever spoke of himself as _one of Us_. Such an expression can -only be used when there are other persons of similar rank with the -speaker; therefore when used by God, it shows conclusively that -there are other Divine Persons. So again when God says, 'Whom shall -_I_ send, and who will go for _us_?' it implies that He is both one, -and more than one; which the previous _thrice_ Holy, points to as -being a Trinity.[401] The existence of such passages seems to -require some explanation, and Christianity alone can explain them. - -[Footnote 400: Gen. 1. 26; 3. 22; 11. 7.] - -[Footnote 401: Isa. 6. 8.] - - -(_D._) CONCLUSION. - -Before concluding this chapter there is still one objection to be -considered. Why, it is said, if these prophecies really refer to -Christ, are they not plainer? Surely if God wished to foretell the -future, He would have done it better than this: and a few words -added here and there would have made the reference to Christ -indisputable. No doubt they would; but possibly God did not wish to -make the reference indisputable. Moreover, if the prophecies had -been plainer, they might have prevented their own fulfilment. Had -the Jews known for certain that Christ was their Messiah, they -could scarcely have crucified Him; and it seems to many that the -prophecies are already about as plain as they could be without doing -this. The important point, however, is not whether the prophecies -might not have been plainer, but whether they are not already too -plain to be accidental. - -Lastly, we must notice the cumulative nature of the evidence. We -have only examined a few instances, but, as said before, Messianic -prophecies of some kind more or less distinct, occur at intervals -all through the Old Testament. And though some of those commonly -brought forward seem weak and fanciful, there are numbers of others -which are not. And here, as elsewhere, this has a double bearing on -the argument. - -In the first place, it does not at all increase the difficulty of -the _Christian_ interpretation; for twenty prophecies are -practically no more difficult to admit than two. Indeed, the fact -that instead of being a few isolated examples, they form a complete -series, rather lessens the difficulty than otherwise. - -On the other hand, it greatly increases the difficulty of _any -other_ interpretation; for twenty prophecies are far more difficult -to deny than two. If one is explained as a lucky coincidence, it -will not account for the next; if that is got rid of by some -unnatural interpretation of the words, it will not account for the -third, and so on indefinitely. The difficulties are thus not only -great in themselves, but are all cumulative; and hence together they -seem insuperable. Anyhow, it is clear that these Prophecies form -another strong argument in favour of Christianity. - - - - -CHAPTER XXI. - -THAT THE CHARACTER OF CHRIST CONFIRMS THE TRUTH OF CHRISTIANITY. - - The character of Christ can only be deduced from the New Testament, - any other Christ being purely imaginary. - - (_A._) THE TEACHING OF CHRIST. - - (1.) Its admitted excellence. - (2.) Two objections. - (3.) His sinlessness. - - (_B._) THE CLAIMS OF CHRIST. - - (1.) His claim to be Superhuman--declaring that He was - the Ruler, Redeemer, and final Judge of the world. - (2.) His claim to be Divine--declaring His Equality, Unity, - and Pre-existence with God. - (3.) How these claims were understood at the time, both - by friends and foes. - - (_C._) THE GREAT ALTERNATIVE. - - Christ cannot, therefore, have been merely a good man; - He was either _God_, as He claimed to be, or else a _bad_ - man, for making such claims. But the latter view is - disproved by His Moral Character. - - -In this chapter we propose to consider the Character of Christ, and -its bearing on the truth of Christianity. Now our knowledge of -Christ's character can only be derived from the four Gospels; -indeed, a Christ with any other character assigned to Him is a -purely imaginary being, and might as well be called by some other -name. Taking, then, the Gospels as our guide, what is the character -of Christ? Clearly this can be best deduced from His own _teaching_ -and _claims_, both of which are fortunately given at some length; so -we will consider these first, and then the _great alternative_ which -they force upon us. - - -(_A._) THE TEACHING OF CHRIST. - -Under this head, we will first notice the admitted excellence of -Christ's teaching, then some objections which are often made, and -lastly His sinlessness. - -(1.) _Its admitted excellence._ - -To begin with, the excellence of Christ's moral teaching hardly -needs to be insisted on at the present day, and rationalists as well -as Christians have proclaimed its merits. For instance, to quote a -few examples:-- - -'Religion cannot be said to have made a bad choice in pitching on -this man as the ideal representative and guide of humanity; nor even -now would it be easy, even for an unbeliever, to find a better -translation of the rule of virtue from the abstract into the -concrete, than to endeavour so to live that Christ should approve -our life.'--_J. S. Mill_.[402] - -[Footnote 402: Nature, the Utility of Religion and Theism, 2nd -edit., 1874, p. 255.] - -'Jesus remains to humanity an inexhaustible source of moral -regenerations.' And again, 'In Him is condensed all that is good and -lofty in our nature.'--_E. Renan_.[403] - -[Footnote 403: Life of Jesus, translated by Wilbour, New York, 1864, -pp. 370, 375.] - -'It was reserved for Christianity to present to the world an ideal -character, which, through all the changes of eighteen centuries, -has inspired the hearts of men with an impassioned love; has shown -itself capable of acting on all ages, nations, temperaments, and -conditions; has been not only the highest pattern of virtue, but the -strongest incentive to its practice; and has exercised so deep an -influence that it may be truly said that the simple record of three -short years of active life has done more to regenerate and to soften -mankind than all the disquisitions of philosophers, and all the -exhortations of moralists.'--_W. E. H. Lecky_.[404] - -[Footnote 404: History of European Morals, 3rd edit., 1877, vol. -ii., p. 8.] - -These quotations are only examples of many which might be given; but -it is practically undisputed that the morality taught by Christ is -the best the world has ever seen. It is also undisputed that His -life was in entire harmony with His teaching. He lived, as far as we -can judge, a holy and blameless life, and His character has never -been surpassed either in history or fiction. - -(2.) _Two objections._ - -There are, however, two slight objections. The first is that -Christ's teaching was not _original_; and, strictly speaking, this -is perhaps true. Something similar to all He taught has been -discovered in more ancient times, either in Egypt, India, China, or -elsewhere. But this hardly affects the argument. An unlearned Jew -living at Nazareth cannot be supposed to have derived his teaching -from these sources; and it is a great improvement on all of them put -together. The important point is, that there was nothing among the -Jews of His own time which could have produced, or even have -invented, such a character. He was immeasurably better than His -contemporaries, and all of them put together have not exerted an -influence on the world a thousandth part that of Christ. - -The second objection refers to _certain portions_ of Christ's -teaching. For example, He urges men not to resist evil, and seems to -place virginity above marriage to an exaggerated extent.[405] I have -never seen a satisfactory explanation of the latter passage; but it -is obvious on the face of it that it cannot be meant for universal -application, or it would lead to the extinction of the human race. - -[Footnote 405: Matt. 5. 39; 19. 12.] - -Again, several of the _parables_ are said to be unjust such as that -of the workmen in the vineyard, the unrighteous steward, and the -wedding garment. But parables must not be pressed literally, and -very different interpretations have been put on these. However, we -will consider the two last, which are those most often objected to. - -With regard to the _Unrighteous Steward_, though apparently he had -been guilty of dishonesty, we are told that his lord _commended_ -him, because he had done wisely.[406] But no one can think that his -lord commended him, because he had just cheated him. So if his -conduct was really dishonest (about which scholars are by no means -agreed) we can only suppose that _in spite of this_, his lord -commended him, because of his wisdom. In the same way, if an -ingenious robbery were committed at the present day, even the man -robbed, might say that he could not help admiring the scoundrel for -his cleverness. The meaning then appears to be that _wisdom_ is so -desirable that it is to be commended even in worldly matters, and -even in a bad cause; and therefore of course still more to be aimed -at in religious matters, and in a good cause. - -[Footnote 406: Luke 16. 8.] - -Next as to the _Wedding Garment_. It is distinctly implied that -there was only _one_ man without it,[407] so obviously the first -point to determine is how the other men got their garments. They -could not have had them out in the roads, and there was no time to -go home and get them, even if they possessed any. It follows then -that they must each have been provided with a suitable garment -(probably a cloak, worn over their other clothes) when they reached -the palace. This appears to have been an eastern custom,[408] and if -one of them refused to put it on, he would certainly deserve to be -excluded from the feast. Thus the object of the parable seems to be -to show that God's blessings can only be obtained on God's terms -(_e.g._ _forgiveness_ on _repentance_), though there is no hardship -in this, as He has Himself given us grace to comply with these -terms, if we like. Neither of these objections, then, is of much -importance. - -[Footnote 407: Matt. 22. 11.] - -[Footnote 408: Archb. Trench, Notes on the Parables, 1870, p. 234.] - -(3.) _His sinlessness._ - -A most remarkable point has now to be noticed. It is that, -notwithstanding His perfect moral teaching, there is not in the -character of Christ the slightest consciousness of _sin_. In all His -numerous discourses, and even in His prayers, there is not a single -word which implies that He thought He ever had done, or ever could -do, anything wrong Himself. He is indeed most careful to avoid -implying this, even incidentally. Thus He does not tell His -disciples, 'If _we_ forgive men their trespasses,' etc., but 'If -_ye_,' as the former might imply that He, as well as they, had need -of the Father's forgiveness.[409] Nor did He ever regret anything -that He had done, or ever wish that He had acted otherwise. And -though He blamed self-righteousness in others, and urged them to -repentance, He never hinted that He had any need of it Himself; in -fact, He expressly denied it, for He said that He _always_ did those -things that were pleasing to God.[410] - -[Footnote 409: Matt. 6. 14.] - -[Footnote 410: John 8. 29.] - -And this is the more striking when we reflect that good men are, as -a rule, most conscious of their faults. Yet here was One who carried -moral goodness to its utmost limit, whose precepts are admittedly -perfect, but who never for a moment thought that He was not -fulfilling them Himself. Such a character is absolutely unique in -the world's history. It can only be explained by saying that Christ -was not merely a good man, but a _perfect_ man, since goodness -without perfection would only have made Him more conscious of the -faults He had. Yet if we admit this, we must admit more; for -perfection is not a human attribute, and a _sinless life_ needs a -good deal to account for it. - - -(_B._) THE CLAIMS OF CHRIST. - -We pass on now to the _claims_ of Christ; and His high moral -character would plainly lead us to place the utmost confidence in -what He said about Himself. And as we shall see He claimed to be -both _Superhuman_ and _Divine_; and this is how all His -contemporaries, both friends and foes, understood Him. And though it -is impossible to add to the marvel of such claims, yet the fact that -nothing in any way resembling them is to be found among the Jewish -Prophets helps us, at least, to realise their uniqueness. Many of -them are spoken concerning the _Son of Man_; but there can be no -doubt whatever that by this title Christ means Himself.[411] - -[Footnote 411: _E.g._, Matt. 16. 13, 16.] - -(1.) _His Claim to be Superhuman._ - -This is shown by three main arguments, for Christ declared that He -was the Ruler, Redeemer, and final Judge of the world. In the first -place, He claimed to be the _Ruler_ of the world, saying in so many -words that all things had been delivered unto Him, and that He -possessed all authority, both in heaven and on earth.[412] Moreover, -His dominion was to be not only universal, but it was to last for -ever; since after this world had come to an end, the future Kingdom -of Heaven was still to be _His_ Kingdom, its angels were to be _His_ -angels, and its citizens _His_ elect.[413] - -[Footnote 412: Matt. 11. 27; 28. 18; Luke 10. 22.] - -[Footnote 413: Matt. 13. 41; 24. 31.] - -Secondly, Christ claimed to be the _Redeemer_ of the world. He -distinctly asserted that He came to give His life a ransom for many, -and that His blood was shed for the remission of sins. And the -importance He attached to this is shown by the fact that He -instituted a special rite (the Holy Communion) on purpose to -commemorate it.[414] - -[Footnote 414: Matt. 20. 28; 26. 28; Mark 10. 45; 14. 24; Luke 22. -19.] - -Thirdly, Christ claimed to be the final _Judge_ of the world. This -tremendous claim alone shows that He considered Himself quite above -and distinct from the rest of mankind. While they were all to be -judged according to their works, He was to be the Judge Himself, -coming in the clouds of heaven with thousands of angels. And His -decision was to be final and without appeal. Moreover, this -astonishing claim does not depend on single texts or passages, but -occurs all through the first three Gospels.[415] During the whole of -His Ministry--from His Sermon on the Mount to His trial before -Caiaphas--He persistently asserted that He was to be the final Judge -of the world. It is hardly credible that a mere man, however -presumptuous, should ever have made such a claim as this. Can we -imagine anyone doing so at the present day? and what should we think -of him if he did? - -[Footnote 415: Matt. 7. 22; 10. 32; 13. 41; 16. 27; 19. 28; 24. 30; -25. 31-46; 26. 64; and similar passages in the other Gospels.] - -(2.) _His Claim to be Divine._ - -Like the preceding, this is shown by three main arguments; for -Christ declared His Equality, Unity, and Pre-existence with God. In -the first place, Christ claimed _Equality_ with God. He said that -the same honour should be given to Himself as to God the Father; -that men should believe in Him as well as in God; that He and the -Father would together dwell in the souls of men; and that He, like -the Father, had the power of sending the Holy Spirit of God.[416] He -also commanded men to be baptized into His Name as well as into -that of the Father; and promised that whenever and wherever His -disciples were gathered together, He would be in the midst of them, -even unto the end of the world, which, cannot be true of anyone but -God.[417] - -[Footnote 416: John 5. 23; 14. 1, 23; 16. 7.] - -[Footnote 417: Matt. 18. 20; 28. 19, 20.] - -Secondly, Christ claimed _Unity_ with God. He did not say that He -was another God, but that He and the Father were _One_; that He was -in the Father, and the Father in Him; that whoever beheld Him beheld -the Father; that whoever had seen Him had seen the Father.[418] -These latter texts cannot, of course, be pressed literally, as few -would maintain that Christ was really God _the Father_. But just as -if a human father and son were _extremely_ alike, we might say that -if you had seen the son, you had seen the father; so if Christ was -truly God--God the Son--the _very image_ of His Father,[419] the -same language might be used. It would at least be intelligible. But -it would be quite unintelligible, if Christ had been merely a _good -man_. Can we imagine the best man that ever lived saying, If you -have seen me, you have seen God? - -[Footnote 418: John 10. 30; 17. 21; 12. 45; 14. 9.] - -[Footnote 419: Heb. 1. 3.] - -Thirdly, Christ claimed _Pre-existence_ with God. He said that He -had descended out of heaven; that He had come down from heaven; that -He came out from the Father and was come into the world; and that -even before its creation He had shared God's glory.[420] While in -another passage, '_Before Abraham was, I am_,'[421] He not only said -that He existed before Abraham, but by using the words _I am_ -instead of _I was_, He seemed to identify Himself with Jehovah, the -great _I am_, of the Old Testament.[422] - -[Footnote 420: John 3. 13; 6. 38; 16. 28; 17. 5.] - -[Footnote 421: John 8. 58.] - -[Footnote 422: Exod. 3. 14.] - -Turning now to the other side, there are four passages in which -Christ seems to _disclaim_ being Divine. The most important is where -He says that the Son (_i.e._ Himself) does not know the time of the -future Judgment;[423] and the present writer has never seen a really -satisfactory explanation of this. But it may be pointed out that if -we admit that Christ was both Divine and human, it is only fair to -refer any particular statement to that nature, to which it is -applicable; even though the wording seems to suggest the opposite. -In the same way, the passage, that the _Lord of Glory_ was -crucified[424] can only refer to Christ in His _human_ nature, and -not in His Divine nature, as the Lord of Glory. And in His human -nature Christ may have been ignorant of the time of the future -Judgment, just as in His human nature He increased in wisdom and -stature.[425] - -[Footnote 423: Mark 13. 32.] - -[Footnote 424: 1 Cor. 2. 8.] - -[Footnote 425: Luke 2. 52.] - -Then we have the passage where a ruler addresses Christ as '_Good_ -Master,' and Christ demurs to this, saying that the word was only -applicable to God.[426] And how, it is asked, could He have done so, -if He had been both good and God? The best explanation seems to be -that among the Jews, it was the custom never to address a Teacher -(or Rabbi) as _Good_. They said God was 'the _Good One_ of the -world'; it was one of _His_ titles.[427] Therefore as the ruler had -no means of knowing that Christ was God, he was not justified in -thus addressing Him as _Good_. - -[Footnote 426: Mark 10. 18.] - -[Footnote 427: Edersheim's Life and Times of the Messiah, vol. ii., -p. 339.] - -The remaining two passages, 'I go unto the Father; for the Father is -greater than I'; and 'I ascend unto my Father and your Father, and -my God and your God,'[428] are easier to explain, since here it is -obvious that they refer to Christ's _human_ nature alone, as it was -in His human nature alone that He was ever absent from the Father. -And even here He carefully distinguishes His own relationship to God -from that of His disciples. For though He teaches them to say _our -Father_, yet when including Himself with them, He does not here or -anywhere else say _our_ Father, or _our_ God; but always emphasises -His own peculiar position. While we may ask in regard to the first -passage, would anyone but God have thought it necessary to explain -that God the Father was greater than Himself? Anyhow, these passages -do not alter the fact that Christ did repeatedly claim to be both -superhuman and Divine. - -[Footnote 428: John 14. 28; 20. 17.] - -(3.) _How these Claims were understood at the time._ - -We have now to consider how these claims were understood at the -time. And first, as to _Christ's friends_. We have overwhelming -evidence that after His Resurrection all the disciples and early -Christians believed their Master to be both superhuman and Divine. -And to realise the full significance of this, we must remember that -they were not polytheists, who did not mind how many gods they -believed in, and were willing to worship Roman Emperors or anyone -else; but they were strict monotheists. They firmly believed that -there was only one God, yet they firmly believed that Christ was -Divine. This is shown throughout the New Testament. - -Thus the writers of the _first three Gospels_, though they usually -record the events of Christ's life without comment, yet in one -passage identify Him with the God of the Old Testament, referring -the prophecy about the messenger of the _Lord our God_ to the -messenger of _Christ_.[429] And as to the _Fourth Gospel_, it begins -with asserting Christ's Divinity in the plainest terms, saying that -_the Word_, who afterwards became flesh, _was God_. And it -appropriately ended, before the last chapter was added, with St. -Thomas declaring this same belief, when he addressed Christ as _my -Lord and my God_, which titles He fully accepted.[430] Yet -immediately afterwards, the author says he wrote his Gospel to -convince men that Jesus was the Christ, the Son of God. Evidently -then this expression, _the Son of God_, meant to him, and therefore -presumably to other New Testament writers, who use it frequently, -that Christ was truly God--God the Son--_my Lord and my God_--in the -fullest and most complete sense. - -[Footnote 429: Isa. 40. 3; Matt. 3. 3; Mark 1. 3; Luke 3. 4.] - -[Footnote 430: John 1. 1; 20. 28.] - -With regard to the _Acts_ an argument on the other side is sometimes -drawn from St. Peter's speaking of Christ as 'a _man_ approved of -God unto you by mighty works,' thus implying, it is urged, that St. -Peter did not know Him to be more than man.[431] But since he says -he was only appealing to what his _hearers_ knew to be true (_even -as ye yourselves know_), how else could he have put it? His hearers -did not know that Christ was God; they did know that He was _a man -approved of God_ by many wonderful miracles, because they had seen -them. Moreover, in other places the Acts bear strong witness to the -Divinity of Christ, as for instance when St. Paul speaks _of the -Church of God which He purchased with His own blood_, or St. Stephen -says _Lord Jesus receive my spirit_; or when the Apostles are -represented as working their miracles, not in the name of God the -Father, but in that of Christ.[432] - -[Footnote 431: Acts 2. 22.] - -[Footnote 432: Acts 20. 28; 7. 59; 3. 6; 4. 10.] - -Next, as to the Book of _Revelation_. The evidence this affords is -important, because nearly all critics admit that it was written by -St. John. And if so, it shows conclusively that one at least of -Christ's intimate followers firmly believed in His Divinity. For he -not only speaks of Him as being universally worshipped both in -heaven and on earth, but describes Him as _the First and the Last_, -which is a title used by God in the Old Testament, and is plainly -inapplicable to anyone else.[433] And we may ask, is it conceivable -that an intimate friend of Christ should have believed Him to be the -Everlasting God, unless He had claimed to be so Himself, and had -supported His claim by working miracles, and rising from the dead? -Is it not, rather, certain that nothing but the most _overwhelming_ -proof would ever have convinced a Jew (of all persons) that a fellow -Man, with whom he had lived for years, and whom he had then seen put -to death as a malefactor, was Himself the Lord Jehovah, _the First -and the Last_? - -[Footnote 433: Rev. 5. 11-14; 1. 17, 18; 2. 8; 22. 13; Isa. 44. 6.] - -But it is urged on the other side, that the writer also calls Him -_the beginning of the Creation of God_, as if He had been merely the -first Being created.[434] But the previous passages clearly show -that this was not his meaning. It was rather that Christ was the -_beginning_ of creation, because He was its Source and Agent; He by -whom, as the same writer declares, _all things were made_. And -elsewhere a similar title is given Him for this identical reason, as -He is called _the first-born of all creation_, because _all things -have been created through Him_.[435] - -[Footnote 434: Rev. 3. 14;] - -[Footnote 435: John 1. 3; Col. 1. 15, 16.] - -Equally important evidence is afforded by _St. Paul's Epistles_. For -though he is not likely to have known Christ intimately, he must -have been acquainted with numbers who did, including, as he says, -_James the Lord's brother_.[436] And his early conversion, before -A.D. 35, together with the fact that he had previously persecuted -the Church at Jerusalem, and afterwards visited some of the Apostles -there, must have made him well acquainted with the Christian -doctrines from the very first. Moreover he tells us himself that the -faith which he taught was the same as that which he had previously -persecuted; and that when he visited the Apostles he _laid before -them_ the Gospel he preached, evidently to make sure that it agreed -with what they preached.[437] - -[Footnote 436: Gal. 1. 19.] - -[Footnote 437: Gal. 1. 23; 2. 2.] - -There can thus be no doubt that the Christianity of St. Paul was -the same as that of the Twelve. And all through his Epistles he -bears witness to the _superhuman_ character of Christ; declaring, -among other things, His sinlessness, and that He is the Ruler, -Redeemer, and final Judge of the world.[438] - -[Footnote 438: 2 Cor. 5. 21; Rom. 14. 9; 1 Cor. 15. 3; 2 Cor. 5. -10.] - -He also bears witness to His _Divine_ character, saying in so many -words that He is over all, God blessed for ever; that we shall all -stand before the Judgment-seat of God, which elsewhere he calls the -Judgment-seat of Christ; that He was originally in the form of God -(_i.e._, in a state of Deity), and on an equality with God, before -He became incarnate, and took the form of Man; that in Him dwells -all the fullness of the Godhead bodily; that He is our great God and -Saviour Jesus Christ, Who gave Himself for us; and that the Psalmist -prophesied of Him when he said, 'Thy throne, O God, is for ever and -ever.'[439] This last passage, from the _Hebrews_, was perhaps not -written by St. Paul, but this makes it all the more valuable, as the -Epistle is generally dated, from internal evidence, before the -destruction of Jerusalem, A.D. 70; and we have thus _another_ early -witness to the Divinity of Christ. - -[Footnote 439: Rom. 9. 5; 14. 10; 2 Cor. 5. 10; Phil. 2. 6; Col. 2. -9; Titus 2. 13; Heb. 1. 8.] - -The most important text on the other side is where St. Paul says -there is _one God the Father_, and _one Lord Jesus Christ_,[440] -which is quoted in the Nicene Creed. But though the statement is a -difficult one, it cannot be pressed as implying that Christ is not -_God_; for if so it would equally imply that the Father was not -_Lord_, which few would contend was St. Paul's meaning. - -[Footnote 440: 1 Cor. 8. 6; _Comp._ Eph. 4. 4-6.] - -With regard to the above passages, it is important to notice that -the allusions are all incidental. St. Paul does not attempt to prove -the superhuman and Divine character of Christ, but refers to it as -if it were undisputed. He evidently believed it himself, and took -for granted that his readers did so too. And his readers included -not only his own converts at Corinth and elsewhere, but the converts -of other Apostles at Rome, which was a place he had not then -visited, and a strong party of opponents in Galatia, with whom he -was arguing. It is clear, then, that these doctrines were not -peculiar to St. Paul, but were the common property of all Christians -from the earliest times. And when combined with the previous -evidence, this leaves no doubt as to how Christ's _friends_ -understood His claims. Whatever they may have thought of them before -the Resurrection, that event convinced them that they were true, and -they never hesitated in this belief. - -Next as to _Christ's foes_. The evidence here is equally convincing. -In St. John's Gospel we read that on several occasions during His -life, when Christ asserted His superhuman and Divine character, the -Jews wanted to kill Him in consequence; often avowing their reason -for doing so with the utmost frankness. 'For a good work we stone -thee not, but for blasphemy and because that thou, being a man, -makest thyself God.'[441] And in thus doing they were only acting -in accordance with their law, which commanded a blasphemer to be -stoned.[442] - -[Footnote 441: John 10. 33; 5. 18; 8. 59; 11. 8.] - -[Footnote 442: Lev. 24. 16.] - -In none of these instances did Christ repudiate the claims -attributed to Him, or say He had been misunderstood. In fact, only -once did He offer any explanation at all. He then appealed to the -passage in the Old Testament, 'I said, Ye are gods,'[443] and -asserted that He was much better entitled to the term, since He was -sent into the world by the Father, and did the works of the Father. -After which He again asserted His unity with the Father, which was -the very point objected to by the Jews. - -[Footnote 443: Ps. 82. 6.] - -Moreover, not only during His life did Christ make these claims to -be Divine, but He persevered with them even when it brought about -His death. It is undisputed that the Jews condemned Him for -_blasphemy_, and for nothing else. This is the teaching not of one -Gospel alone, but of each of the four.[444] Every biography of -Christ that we possess represents this as the real charge against -Him; though, of course, when tried before the Roman governor that of -disloyalty to Cæsar was brought forward as well. - -[Footnote 444: Matt. 26. 65; Mark 14. 64; Luke 22. 71; John 19. 7.] - -There is only one conclusion to be drawn from all this. It is that -Christ did really claim to be both superhuman and Divine; that He -deliberately and repeatedly asserted these claims during His life; -that this provoked the hostility of the Jews, who frequently wanted -to kill Him; that He never repudiated these claims, but persevered -with them to the end; and was finally put to death in consequence. - - -(_C._) THE GREAT ALTERNATIVE. - -We pass on now to the _great alternative_, which is forced upon us -by combining the teaching and the claims of Christ. Before pointing -out its importance we must notice a favourite method of trying to -get out of the difficulty, which is by saying that the teaching of -Christ occurs in the _first three Gospels_, and the claims in the -_Fourth_; so if we deny the accuracy of this single Gospel the -difficulty is removed. But unfortunately for this objection, though -the Divine claims occur chiefly in the Fourth Gospel, the superhuman -ones are most prominent in the other three; and we have purposely -chosen all the passages illustrating them from these Gospels -_alone_. And what is more, they occur in all the supposed _sources_ -of these Gospels--the so-called Triple Tradition, the source common -to Matthew and Luke, etc. Everywhere from the earliest record to the -latest, Christ is represented as claiming to be superhuman. And such -claims are equally fatal to His moral character if He were only a -man. For no good man, and indeed very few bad ones, could be so -fearfully presumptuous as to claim to be the absolute Ruler of the -world, still less to be its Redeemer, and, least of all, to be its -one and only Judge hereafter. - -This objection, then, cannot be maintained, and we are forced to -conclude that the perfect moral teaching of Christ was accompanied -by continual assertions of His own superhuman and Divine character. -And as this was a point about which He must have known, it is clear -that the statements must have been either true or intentionally -false. He must, therefore, have been Divine, or else a deliberate -impostor. In other words, the Christ of the Gospels--and history -knows of no other--could not have been merely a good man. He was -either _God_ as He claimed to be, or else a _bad man_ for making -such claims. This is the _Great Alternative_. - -Moreover, it is absolutely unique in the world's history. Nowhere -else shall we find a parallel to it. In Christ--and in Christ -alone--we have a Man Whose moral character and teaching have -fascinated the world for centuries; and yet Who, unless His own -claims were true, must have been guilty of the greatest falsehood, -and blasphemy. This is the only logical conclusion to be drawn from -the facts we have been considering, and all attempts to avoid it -fail hopelessly. - -Now what effect has this on our present inquiry as to the truth of -Christianity? Plainly it forms another strong argument in its -favour. For the moral teaching of its Founder is shown to be not -only the most perfect the world has ever seen, but it is combined -with a sense of entire sinlessness which is absolutely unique among -men. Both of these, however, are also combined with claims to a -superhuman and Divine character, which, if they are not correct, can -only be described as impious, and profane. Therefore, unless -Christianity is true, its Founder must have been not only the very -_best_ of men; but also one of the very _worst_; and this is a -dilemma from which there is no escape. - - - - -CHAPTER XXII. - -THAT THE HISTORY OF CHRISTIANITY CONFIRMS ITS TRUTH. - - (_A._) ITS EARLY TRIUMPHS. - - (1.) Its immense difficulties. - (2.) Its marvellous success. - (3.) The so-called _natural_ causes of success: they all imply - the truth of the Religion. - (4.) Contrast with Mohammedanism. - - (_B._) ITS LATER HISTORY. - - (1.) Its vitality in the past; very remarkable. - (2.) Its effect at the present; very beneficial. - (3.) Its prospects in the future; very hopeful. - (4.) The spread of _Rationalism_; but this is no new difficulty, - while it shows the strength of Christianity, and being - only destructive, can never take its place. - - (_C._) CONCLUSION. - - The history of Christianity, which seems to have been - foreknown to its Founder, forms another strong argument - in its favour. - - -The argument we have next to consider is that derived from the -_History of Christianity_. This religion, it must be remembered, -originated, spread over, and finally conquered the civilised world -in an historical age. And since the fact of this conquest can -neither be disputed nor ignored, it must be accounted for. How is it -that an obscure Jewish Peasant, who was crucified as a malefactor, -some nineteen centuries ago, should now be worshipped, by over five -hundred million persons, including all the most civilised nations of -the world? As a mere historical problem, this requires some -solution, for an effect in history, as elsewhere, must have an -adequate cause. And it is scarcely too much to say that this is the -most remarkable effect in the history of mankind. Here, then, is the -subject we have to discuss; and we will first consider the _early -triumphs_ of Christianity, and then its _later history_. - - -(_A._) ITS EARLY TRIUMPHS. - -Now it seems hard to exaggerate either the immense difficulties the -religion had to overcome, or its marvellous success in overcoming -them. - -(1.) _Its immense difficulties._ - -In the first place, we must consider the immense difficulties of -founding such a religion as Christianity. Our familiarity with the -subject prevents us from fully realising this, so perhaps an analogy -will help to make it clear. Suppose, then, that missionaries _now_ -appeared in the cities of Europe, in London and Edinburgh, for -example, and preached that an obscure peasant, who had been put to -death somewhere in Persia as a malefactor, had risen from the dead, -and was the God of heaven and earth. What chance would they have of -making a single convert? Yet the first preaching of Christianity at -Rome or Athens must have been very similar to this, only far more -dangerous. Indeed, it is hard to over-estimate the difficulties of -founding a religion, the principal doctrine of which,--and one that -the Christians so boldly proclaimed,--was that of a crucified -Saviour.[445] - -[Footnote 445: 1 Cor. 1. 23.] - -And all this took place among civilised nations, and in a literary, -one might almost say a rationalistic, age; when the old pagan -religions were being abandoned, because men could no longer believe -in them. What, then, must have been the difficulty of introducing a -new religion, which was (apparently) more absurd than any of them, -and which worshipped One Who had been crucified? Christianity had, -of course, many other difficulties to contend with especially in -regard to its absolute claims; for it was a religion which could -stand no rival, and its success meant the destruction of every -heathen altar. But these sink into insignificance, compared with the -great difficulty of the Cross. - -(2.) _Its marvellous success._ - -Yet, in spite of every difficulty, Christianity prevailed. The new -religion spread with great rapidity. This we learn not only from -Christian writers, who might be thought to exaggerate; but from -impartial men such as _Suetonius_ and _Tacitus_. The former says -that in the reign of Claudius (A.D. 41-54) the Jews in Rome, -_stirred up by one Chrestus_ (_i.e._, Christian Jews), were so -numerous that the Emperor thought it expedient to banish them; and -the latter that at the time of the great fire (A.D. 64) _large -numbers_ of Christians were discovered at Rome. While some years -later _Pliny_, one of the Roman governors in Asia Minor, complained -to the Emperor Trajan that the Christians were so numerous that the -temples had long been deserted, though at the time he wrote (A.D. -112) they were being frequented again. He also bears witness to the -exemplary lives of the Christians, their steadfastness in their -religion, and the divine worship they paid to Christ. And as the -religion did not originate in either Rome or Asia Minor, Christians -were presumably as numerous elsewhere. - -Nor can it be said that they were only to be found among the poor -and ignorant. For Pliny himself admits that they included men of -_every rank_ in life; and the undisputed Epistles of St. Paul, such -as that to the Romans (about A.D. 55), show that he thought his -readers well educated, and quite able to follow a difficult -argument. Moreover, according to the Acts, the people were by no -means willing to accept Christianity without inquiry; and St. Paul -was obliged in consequence to have long discussions on the subject. -This was especially the case at Ephesus, where he _reasoned daily_ -in one of the schools, for about _two years_,[446] which does not -look as if his followers were only among the poor and ignorant. -While elsewhere we have the names of some eminent converts. - -[Footnote 446: Acts 19. 9-10; 17. 17.] - -Among these may be mentioned _Erastus_ the treasurer of the city at -Corinth; and _Crispus_, the ruler of the Synagogue there; -_Dionysius_, the Areopagite at Athens; _Manaen_, the foster-brother -of Herod the tetrarch; _Apollos_, a learned Jew of Alexandria, who -had made a special study of the Scriptures; and _Theophilus_, a man -of high rank (as is shown by the title _Most excellent_), none of -whom are likely to have accepted the religion of the Crucified, -without very strong evidence.[447] And recent discoveries in the -catacombs have made it probable that a distinguished Roman lady, -Pomponia Græcina (wife of the General Aulus Plautius) who Tacitus -says was accused in A.D. 57 of having adopted a _foreign -superstition_, was also a Christian.[448] - -[Footnote 447: Rom. 16. 23; Acts 18. 8; 17. 34; 13. 1; 18. 24; 1. 1; -_comp._ 23. 26; 24. 3.] - -[Footnote 448: J. Orr, Hist. and Lit. of early Church, 1913, p. 43. -Tacitus, Annals, Bk. xiii., ch. 32.] - -Now what was the cause of this wonderful progress? It is easy to say -what was _not_ its cause. Physical force and the authority of the -Government had nothing to do with it. Its missionaries did not -preach with sword in hand, nor were they backed up by the civil -power. All they did, all they could do, was to appeal to man's -reason and conscience, and this appeal was successful. And we learn -from the Christians' themselves, _e.g._, in the Acts, that there -were two main reasons for this. The first was the confident appeal -to the facts of Christianity, such as the Resurrection of Christ, as -undisputed and indisputable; and the second was the occasional aid -of miracles. And the more we reflect on the subject, the more -difficult it is to account for it, without at least one of these -causes. For the spread of Christianity was not like that of a mere -philosophy, or system of morals. It depended entirely on certain -alleged _matters of fact_, which facts were quite recent at the time -of its origin, occurred at the very place where it was first -preached, and were open to the hostile criticism of an entire -nation. This, it is needless to say, is without a parallel in -history. - -But it may be said, notwithstanding this rapid progress at first, -Christianity took nearly three centuries to conquer the civilised -world. Undoubtedly it did, but the significance of the conquest is -not diminished by this. It is rather increased when we remember that -at intervals all through this period the Religion suffered the -fiercest persecution. That it should have survived such a fearfully -prolonged struggle, and have finally conquered, does but show its -inherent strength. We may look in vain for anything like this in the -rest of history. No other religion has ever withstood such -persistent attacks; no other religion has ever obtained such a -complete and almost incredible triumph, the Emperor of the civilised -world being brought to worship One Who had been put to death as a -malefactor. In short, the progress of Christianity was as unique as -its origin, and can only be satisfactorily accounted for by its -truth. - -(3.) _The so-called natural causes of success._ - -We must next glance at some natural causes which have been alleged -as accounting for the wonderful spread of Christianity. Those -brought forward by Gibbon in his _Decline and Fall of the Roman -Empire_ (Chapter XV.) are five in number. The first is the _intense -zeal_ of the early Christians. And doubtless this was a most -important element in spreading their religion. But what gave them -this intense zeal? What was it that made them so fearfully in -earnest about their new religion, that they faced a life of -suffering, and a death of martyrdom in preaching it? There can be -but one answer. It was because they were so absolutely convinced of -its truth. It was vouched for by what they considered overwhelming -evidence, so they willingly risked everything for it. Their zeal, -then, is but evidence for their conviction, and their conviction is -but evidence for the truth of what they were convinced of; and -valuable evidence too, for they plainly had much better means of -knowing about it, than any that we can have. - -Secondly, there is the doctrine of a _future life_; and doubtless -this also had much to do with the success of Christianity. A longing -for immortality seems inherent in man, and the vague guesses of -philosophers were quite unable to satisfy this. It _might_ be true -that men should live again, but that was all they could say. -Christianity alone, resting on the actual fact of Christ's -Resurrection, said it _was_ true; so here men found the assurance -they wanted. But is it likely that Christianity should have so -thoroughly satisfied them in this respect, had there been any real -doubt as to Christ's Resurrection? - -Thirdly, we have the _miracles_ ascribed to the early Christians. -Gibbon's argument here is more difficult to follow. Of course if -these miracles were true, they would have greatly assisted the new -religion; but then they would have been, not a natural but a -supernatural cause of success. If on the other hand, the miracles -were false, it is hard to see how the early Christians could have -helped their religion by claiming miraculous powers which they did -not possess, and which their contemporaries must have known that -they did not possess. - -Fourthly, we have the _pure morality_ taught and practised by the -early Christians. And no doubt this had something to do with helping -their religion. But again we must ask, what was it that enabled the -Christians alone in that age of vice and wickedness to lead pure -lives? They ascribed it themselves to the example and power of their -Founder, and nothing else can account for it. Christian morality -cannot be a stream without a source, and no other source can be -assigned to it. But could a mere human Teacher have had this more -than human influence over thousands of converts, most of whom had -never seen him? - -Lastly, comes the _union_ and _discipline_ of the early Church. This -may have helped Christianity in the later stages of the struggle, -but could obviously have been of little use at the commencement. -Moreover, why should Christians of various nations and classes have -been so thoroughly united on this one subject, unless they were -convinced of its overwhelming importance? On the whole, then, these -so-called natural causes of success are at most only _secondary_ -causes; the truth of the religion is what they all imply, and this -is the real cause which alone can account for its success. - -A better way of explaining the spread of Christianity, which is now -often adopted, is by saying that it arose _at a favourable crisis_. -The dispersion of the Jews throughout the known world would, it is -urged, have facilitated the spread of a religion founded by Jews. -The speculations of the Greeks as to a Divine Word, or _Logos_, -would have prevented the doctrines of the Trinity, and the -Incarnation, from forming any great difficulty to the learned -classes. While the mass of the people were disgusted with the old -mythologies of Greece and Rome. These were dying out, because they -failed to satisfy human nature, and men were longing for something -better. They wanted, as men always will want, a religion; but they -wanted it free from the absurdities and immoralities of Pagan -worship. Christianity then appeared, and as it was found by many to -meet the demand, it naturally succeeded. - -In answer to this it must be remembered that Christianity was not a -religion founded at Rome or Athens, in which case it might perhaps -be said that the demand caused the supply; but it arose as a small -Jewish sect in Palestine. While the fierce persecutions it had to -endure show that it did not obviously meet the requirements of the -day, even apart from the tremendous difficulties involved in the -worship of the Crucified. But now suppose, for the sake of argument, -that this had been otherwise, and that the world was so suited to -receive Christianity as to account for its rapid spread; would the -inference be against its Divine origin? Certainly not; for the -agreement in this case would be far too close to be accidental. It -must have been _designed_. And it would thus show that the God Who -rules in history, is also the God Who introduced Christianity. So -here again the proposed explanation, even if admitted, does but -imply the truth of the religion. - -(4.) _Contrast with Mohammedanism._ - -And this conclusion is rendered still stronger when we contrast the -progress of Christianity with that of Mohammedanism. For here we -have the one example that history affords of the spread of a -religion which can be compared with that of Christianity. Yet the -contrast between the two is very marked, whether we consider the -means by which they were spread, or their alleged evidence of -truthfulness. For Mohammed did not appeal to reason, but to _force_, -and all we have to account for is that he should be able to collect -an army, that this army should conquer, and that the conquered -should adopt the religion of their conquerors, about which they were -often given no option. In the spread of Christianity, on the other -hand, no force whatever was employed, and it had immense -difficulties to contend with. In fact it carried a cross instead of -a sword. Thus the contrast between the two is just what we should -expect between the natural and the supernatural spread of a -religion, the one advancing by worldly power, the other in spite of -it. - -But an even greater contrast has still to be noticed, which is that -Mohammed did not appeal to any _miracles_ in support of his -claims--that is, to outward matters of fact which could be judged of -by other people. And this is the more remarkable since he refers to -the miracles of previous prophets, including those of Christ, as -authentic,[449] but never claims to have worked any himself. The -obvious conclusion is that he felt, as all men must feel, the -overwhelming difficulty of asserting public miracles if none -occurred, and he therefore appealed to force, because he had nothing -better to appeal to. Yet, as we have seen, the early Christians -asserted such miracles from the first. They were not advocates of a -creed, but witnesses for certain facts, such as the Resurrection and -other miracles which they believed they actually saw; and there is -nothing corresponding to this in regard to Mohammedanism, or any -other religion. It may of course be said that Mohammedanism shows -that a religion can make rapid progress without miracles. No doubt -it does; and so does Buddhism, which also spread rapidly. But it -does not show that a religion which, like Christianity, claims to -rest on miracles, can make its way if those miracles are false. - -[Footnote 449: Koran, Sura v.] - - -(_B._) ITS LATER HISTORY. - -We pass on now from the early triumphs of Christianity to its later -history, and will consider in turn its past vitality, its present -effect, and its future prospects. - -(1.) _Its vitality in the past._ - -To begin with, a strong argument in favour of Christianity is its -vitality. It has survived in spite of external assaults and internal -divisions; and its spread and continuity can only be satisfactorily -accounted for by its truth. This is an argument the force of which -increases as times goes on, and fresh difficulties are encountered -and overcome. Moreover, the social state of the world has changed -immensely, yet Christianity has always kept in touch with it. It has -shown itself suitable for different ages, countries, and social -conditions; and, unlike other religions, is still in sympathy with -the highest forms of civilisation. In short, Christianity has kept -possession of the civilised world for sixteen centuries, and is as -vigorous in its age as in its youth. - -Its long reign is indeed so familiar to us that there is a danger of -not noticing its importance. Can we imagine a man _now_ who should -found a religion, which nearly two thousand years hence should be -still flourishing, still spreading, and still recognising him not -only as its founder but its God? Yet this would be but a similar -case to that of Christianity. Amid all the changes in history it -alone has remained unchanged. Its doctrines, at least the essential -ones, contained in the Creeds, have been the same, century after -century, and its Founder is still worshipped by millions. - -(2.) _Its effect at the present._ - -In close connection with the history of Christianity comes its -effect on the world. A religion which has reigned so long, and over -the most civilised nations, must of necessity have had some -influence for good or evil. And with regard to Christianity there -can be little doubt as to the answer. The present state of the -civilised world is a standing witness to its benefits, since nearly -all our moral superiority to the nations of old is due to this -religion. - -For example, it has entirely altered the position of _women_, who -are no longer looked down upon as they used to be. It has also -altered the position of _children_, who were formerly considered as -property, and at the disposal of their parents, infanticide being of -course common. Again, it has changed our ideas as to the _sick_, a -hospital being almost entirely a Christian institution. It has also -changed our ideas about _work_. In all the nations of antiquity, and -in heathen countries at the present day, a workman is looked down -upon. But to Christians, who believe that God Himself worked in a -carpenter's shop, all work is ennobled. Once more, it has created a -respect for _human life_ as such, and apart from the position of the -individual person, which was unknown in ancient times. In short, our -acknowledgement of what are called the _rights of man_ is almost -entirely due to Christianity. Nor is there anything surprising in -this; for the common Fatherhood of God and the common love of Christ -naturally afford the strongest argument for the common rights of -man. In Christ, as St. Paul expresses it, there can be _neither -bond, nor free_; _male nor female_; for all are equal.[450] The good -which Christianity has done is thus indisputable. - -[Footnote 450: Gal. 3. 28.] - -But it may be said, has it not also done some _harm_? What about the -religious wars and persecutions in the Middle Ages? With regard to -the wars, however, religion was, as a rule, the excuse rather than -the cause; for had Christianity never been heard of, there would -doubtless have been wars in the Middle Ages, as in all other ages. -With regard to the persecutions, they must be both admitted and -deplored; but we may ask, what religion except Christianity could -have been mixed up with such persecutions, and yet have escaped the -odium of mankind? Christianity has done so, because men have seen -that it was not the religion itself, but its false friends who were -responsible for the persecutions. The important point is that the -New Testament, unlike the Koran,[451] does not authorise, still less -command, the employment of force in gaining converts. - -[Footnote 451: Koran, Sura viii. 12; ix. 5; xlvii. 4.] - -We now turn to another aspect of the subject. Not only has -Christianity done much good in the past, but it is doing much good -at the present. This also is beyond dispute; anyone can verify the -fact for himself. Thousands of men and women spend their lives in -self-sacrifice among the poor and sick solely for the sake of -Christ. Of course, it may be said that all this is folly and that we -ought to try and benefit our fellow-men for their own sake or for -the sake of the State. But, whether folly or not, the fact remains. -The vast majority of those who visit the poor and sick (Sisters of -Mercy for instance) do not do so for the sake of the State, or even -mainly for the sake of the poor themselves, but from avowedly -Christian motives. They believe that Christ loves these poor, and -therefore they love them too, and willingly spend their lives in -trying to help them. - -It is also a fact that this strange _attraction_ which Christ -exercises, over the hearts of men is unique in history. Can we -imagine anyone spending his life in visiting the sick in some large -town, and saying that he is doing it for the love of David, or of -Plato, or of Mohammed? Yet all through the civilised world thousands -are doing it for the love of Christ. And this influence, be it -observed, is not like that of other great men, local and temporary, -but world-wide and permanent. Christ is thus not only, as we saw in -the last chapter, the _holiest_ of men, but the _mightiest_ of men -also; the Man in short who has most influenced mankind. And, with -trifling exceptions, few will dispute that this influence has been -wholly for good. So judged by its fruits, Christianity is a religion -which might very reasonably have had a Divine origin. - -On the other hand, it must be admitted that though Christianity has -done so much good, it has not entirely reformed the world,--it has -not even stopped wars among Christian nations--and its failure to do -this, after trying for so many centuries, is thought by some to be -adverse to its claims. But others think that its partial success and -partial failure are just what we should expect if it were true. And -what is more to the point, this seems to have been expected by its -Founder, for He always implied that the good and the evil--the wheat -and the tares--were to be mixed together until the end of the world. -Moreover, its failure has been due almost entirely to the -_inconsistency_ of its adherents. If all men were Christians, and -all Christians lived up to the religion they professed, there would -be little to complain of, even in this imperfect world. - -On the whole, then, the _effect_ of Christianity is distinctly in -its favour. It has done much good, and will probably do more as time -goes on; though it has not entirely reformed the world, and probably -never will. But the good it has done is an actual fact which cannot -be disputed, while the argument that it ought to have done more good -is at least open to doubt. - -(3.) _Its prospects in the future._ - -Lastly, the spread of Christianity seems likely to continue, and -some day we may expect to see it universally professed in the world, -as it is in Western Europe at the present time, though, of course, -there will always be individuals who dissent from it. The reasons -for this confident hope are, that, speaking broadly, Christian -nations alone are extending their influence. Japan may, of course, -be quoted as an exception, but strange to say Japan seems to be -becoming Christian. - -And to this must be added the fact that Christian _missions_ are now -being revived to a large extent; and, though they are not always -successful, yet, taken together, they secure a good many converts. -Moreover, there is no other side to this argument. It is not that -Christianity is being adopted in some countries but renounced in -others. The gains, whether great or small, are all _net profits_. -With one exception, there is not a single instance for many -centuries of a nation or tribe which once adopted Christianity -changing its religion to anything else. And the exception, that of -France at the time of the Revolution, strikingly proves the rule; -for the change could not be maintained, and in a few years -Christianity again asserted itself throughout the country. - -(4.) _The spread of Rationalism._ - -But an important objection has now to be examined. It is said that -even in Christian countries an increasingly large number of men -either openly reject Christianity, or give it at most a mere nominal -approval. This may be called the objection from the spread of -_Rationalism_, and it is an important one, because it is an attempt -to meet Christianity with its own weapons, by appealing to reason. -Of course it must be remembered that a great deal of the infidelity -of the present day is not due to reasoning at all, but to the want -of it; and it is hopeless to argue against this. For how can men be -convinced of Christianity, or anything else, if they will not take -the trouble to examine its claims? - -But putting aside this class, there are still many men who may -fairly be called Rationalists--men, that is, who have studied _both_ -sides of the subject, and whose reasoning leads them to reject -Christianity. They admit that there is evidence in its favour, but -they say that it is far from convincing. And it is believed by many -that Rationalism is spreading at the present day, and will -eventually become common among thoughtful men. Now, of course, the -whole of this _Essay_ is really an attempt to meet this objection, -and to show that, when carefully considered, the arguments in favour -of Christianity far outweigh those against it. But three additional -remarks may be made here. - -The first is, that this is no _new_ difficulty. Rationalism has -existed ever since the Middle Ages, and was most aggressive and most -confident in the eighteenth century, as a single quotation will -show. Bishop Butler in the preface to his _Analogy of Religion_, -1736, says, 'It has come, I know not how, to be taken for granted, -by many persons, that Christianity is not so much as a subject of -inquiry, but that it is now at length discovered to be fictitious. -And accordingly they treat it as if, in the present age, this were -an agreed point among all people of discernment; and nothing -remained but to set it up as a principal subject of mirth and -ridicule, as it were by way of reprisals for its having so long -interrupted the pleasures of the world.' It is now nearly two -centuries since these words were written, and Christianity is still -flourishing! Therefore, as all previous attacks have proved futile, -there is no reason to believe that the present one will be more -successful. - -Secondly, these continued assaults on Christianity afford in one -respect additional evidence in its favour; since they show, as -nothing but repeated attacks could show, its _indestructibility_. -Had Christianity never been assailed, its strength would never have -been apparent; but now we know that, try as men will for centuries, -they cannot get rid of this religion. - -Thirdly, it must be remembered that Rationalism is all destructive -and not constructive. It can show many reasons for _not_ believing -in Christianity, but it can give the world nothing which can in any -way take its place. It has no satisfactory solution for the great -problems of life. Why does man exist at all? Why has he got free -will? What is the meaning of sin? Is there any forgiveness for sin? -What is the meaning of death? Is there any life beyond death? Is -there a judgment? Can we dare to face it? Shall we recognise those -whom we have loved on earth? In short, what is man's destiny here -and hereafter? These are the questions which always have interested, -and always will interest, mankind. Rationalists may say that the -Christian answer to them is incorrect; but they can offer no other -which is worth a moment's consideration. - - -(_C._) CONCLUSION. - -Before concluding this chapter one other point of some importance -has to be noticed. It is that the early history of Christianity with -its continual triumph amidst continual persecution, seems to have -been foreknown to its Founder; as well as His own marvellous -influence in the world. - -These _prophecies_ of Christ concerning His own religion are -certainly very striking. We find, on the one hand, a most absolute -conviction as to the triumph of His Church. It was to spread far and -wide; its missionaries were to go into _all the world_ and make -disciples _of all the nations_, and its enemies would never _prevail -against it_.[452] And on the other, there is an equally certain -conviction as to the constant sufferings of its members, who were to -expect life-long persecution and the universal hatred of -mankind.[453] - -[Footnote 452: Mark 16. 15; Matt. 28. 19; 16. 18.] - -[Footnote 453: _E.g._, Matt. 10. 17, 22.] - -Yet these strange prophecies of continual success amidst continual -suffering were for three centuries as strangely fulfilled, including -even the little detail that Christ's followers were to be hated for -His _name's_ sake.[454] Since as a matter of fact they were often -persecuted for the mere _name_, and it was this that made them so -indignant. Thus Justin says, 'You receive the _name_ as proof -against us.... If any deny the _name_ you acquit him as having no -evidence against him.'[455] As Christ foretold, it was literally for -His _name's_ sake. - -[Footnote 454: Mark 13. 13.] - -[Footnote 455: Justin, Apol. 1. 4; 1 Peter 4. 14.] - -Moreover, Christ's assertions regarding His own influence in the -world are equally remarkable. We will give but two examples.[456] He -said, _And I, if I be lifted up from the earth, will draw all men -unto Myself_. He was lifted up on the cross, and, however strange we -may think it, millions of men have in consequence been drawn to Him -with passionate devotion. Again, He said, _I am the light of the -world_. And now, after nearly nineteen centuries, both friends and -foes admit that His is the teaching which has enlightened and -purified mankind. Had He been a mere Jewish peasant, His making such -prophecies as these seems almost as incredible as their fulfilment. -But what shall we say when they were both made _and_ fulfilled? Have -we not here a powerful argument in favour of Christianity? Nor can -we get out of the difficulty by denying the genuineness of the -passages; for they would be quite as remarkable if invented by an -evangelist, as if spoken by Christ Himself. - -[Footnote 456: John 12. 32; 8. 12.] - -We may now sum up this chapter on the _History of Christianity_. We -have considered in turn, both its early triumphs, and its later -history; and each of these is, strictly speaking, unique, and each -is inexplicable on purely natural grounds. But undoubtedly the more -important is the marvellous success of Christianity at first, in -spite of the immense difficulties it had to encounter; and, as we -have seen, all natural explanations of _this_ fail hopelessly. - -The historical argument, then, leads us back to _miracles_; for -every other explanation of the first triumph of Christianity is -found to be inadequate. While, on the other hand, the establishment -of the Christian religion is just what we should expect if the -miracles were true. And of course true miracles, not false ones, are -required to account for it. The most holy and the most powerful -religion the world has ever seen cannot have been founded on -falsehood or fable. In other words, if we deny that the Christian -miracles occurred, and take from Christ all that is superhuman, we -cannot imagine Him as the Founder of Christianity. There would be an -obvious want of proportion between cause and effect. And, as a -matter of fact, it was not a natural Christ, but a supernatural -Christ--_the Christ of the Gospels_--who won the heart of mankind, -and conquered the world. We seem thus forced to the conclusion that -the only thing which can account for the history of Christianity is -its _truth_. Anyhow, it is plain that its _History_ forms another -strong argument in its favour. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIII. - -THAT ON THE WHOLE THE OTHER EVIDENCE SUPPORTS THIS CONCLUSION. - - Additional arguments for and against Christianity. - - (_A._) CHRISTIANITY AND PRAYER. - - Its universality. There are, however, three difficulties: - - (1.) Scientific difficulty; said to be incredible, as interfering - with the course of nature. - (2.) Moral difficulty; said to be wrong, as inconsistent with - the power, wisdom, and goodness of God. - (3.) Practical difficulty; said to be useless, as shown by - observation; but none of these can be maintained. - - (_B._) CHRISTIANITY AND HUMAN NATURE. - - It is adapted to human nature; for it meets to a great - extent the inherent cravings of mankind, especially in - regard to sorrow and sin, death and eternity. The - objection as to selfishness. - - (_C._) CHRISTIANITY AND OTHER RELIGIONS. - - Their comparative study; the Krishna myth; the Horus - myth. Conclusion. - - -We propose in this chapter to consider some of the remaining -arguments for and against Christianity. Fortunately, there are only -three of anything like sufficient importance to affect the general -conclusion. These arise from the relation of Christianity to prayer, -to human nature, and to other religions; and we will examine each in -turn. - -We need not discuss mere _Bible difficulties_, as they are called; -for though some of these are fatal to the theory of Verbal -Inspiration, or that every word of the Bible is true; this is now -held by scarcely anyone. And if the Book is as trustworthy a record -of the facts it relates, as an ordinary History of England, that is -amply sufficient to prove Christianity. - -Nor, on the other hand, need we discuss further evidence in favour -of the Bible. But as we considered what it says about the creation -of the world, we may just notice in passing what it says about its -end. There will be a _great noise_, the elements will be _dissolved -with fervent heat_, and the earth, and all it contains will be -_burned up_.[457] Everyone now admits that this is true, for our -planet will, sooner or later, fall into the sun, when all these -results will follow. But (apart from Revelation) how could the -writer have known it? There is nothing in the present aspect of the -earth to suggest that it will one day be _burned up_, and -considering the amount of water it contains, the idea might well -seem incredible. We pass on now to the subject of Prayer. - -[Footnote 457: 2 Peter 3. 10.] - - -(_A._) CHRISTIANITY AND PRAYER. - -Now the Christian, in common with most other religions, asserts the -value of prayer not only for obtaining what are called spiritual -blessings, but also as a means of influencing natural events. Yet -prayer with such an object is said by many to be scientifically -_incredible_, morally _wrong_, and practically _useless_. So we will -first glance at the universality of the custom, and then consider -these difficulties. - -Now, prayer of some kind is, and always has been, the universal rule -in almost every religion. It is found wherever mankind is found. No -one can point to its inventor, no one can point to a time when men -did not pray. Missionaries have not to teach their converts to pray, -but merely to _Whom_ to pray. In short, prayer of some kind seems -universal, just as man's sense of right and wrong is universal, -though each is capable of being trained and perfected. Nor is it in -any way like an animal's cry of pain when hurt, which, though -universal, means nothing; for this of course resembles a man's cry -of pain, and has no connection with prayer whatever. - -If, then, prayer is a delusion, it is to say the least a very -remarkable one, especially as in most ancient religions prayer was -made to false gods who could not answer it; yet in spite of every -failure, the belief in prayer has always remained. Men have always -preferred to think that the failure was due to their own -unworthiness, rather than give up the belief in a God Who answers -prayer. And this _universality_ of the custom is a strong argument -in its favour; for it seems most unlikely that God should have -implanted in mankind a universal habit of asking if He never -intended to answer. We pass on now to the difficulties. - -(1.) _Scientific difficulty._ - -In the first place, it is said that answers to prayer are -scientifically _incredible_, since they would involve God's -interfering with the course of nature, or, in popular language, -working miracles. The most probable explanation is, that they are -only a particular class of _superhuman coincidences_ (Chapter VII.). -According to this theory, God, knowing beforehand that the prayer -would be offered, arranged beforehand to answer it. Thus the prayer -was not a direct cause of the event which fulfilled it, but it may -still have been an indirect cause. For had the man not prayed, God, -foreknowing this, might not have arranged for the event to have -happened. - -And the same is true even when the prayer is made _after_ the event. -Suppose, for instance, a man heard of the loss of a ship in which -his son was travelling, and prayed for his safety. That safety, as -far as the shipwreck was concerned, must have been decided before -the father prayed. Yet, as everything was foreknown to God, his -subsequent prayer might not have been useless; since, if God had not -known that the father would have prayed, He might not have brought -about the son's safety. - -Of course, it may be said that this is making the cause come after -the effect, and is therefore absurd. No doubt it would be so if -merely physical forces were involved; but when we are dealing with -personal beings, able to foresee and act accordingly, there is -nothing impossible in a cause happening after what was in a certain -sense its effect. For instance, my going for a holiday next week may -be the cause of my working hard this; though, strictly speaking, it -is my _foreknowledge_ of the intended holiday, that leads to my -working hard. So in the case before us. It is God's _foreknowledge_ -that the prayer will be offered, that leads Him to answer it; but -for all practical purposes this is the same as if the prayer itself -did so. - -Therefore this theory does not detract from the value and importance -of prayer any more than God's foreknowledge in other respects makes -human conduct of no importance. In every case God foreknows the -result, not in spite of, but because He also foreknows, the man's -conduct on which it depends. While if we admit what is called God's -_Immanence_ in nature, and that everything that occurs is due to the -present and immediate action of His Will (Chapter VII.), it greatly -lessens any remaining difficulty there may be in regard to prayer. - -From this it is plain that answers to prayer may, without losing -their value, be regarded as superhuman coincidences; and, if so, -they do not involve any interference with the ordinary course of -nature, and all scientific difficulties are at an end. - -(2.) _Moral difficulty_. - -In the next place, prayer is said to be morally _wrong_, since it is -inconsistent with each of the three great attributes of God. It is -inconsistent with His _Power_, by implying that He is partly under -the control of men; with His _Wisdom_, by implying that He has to be -informed of what we want; and with His _Goodness_, by implying that -He cannot be trusted to act for the best, without our interference. - -But with regard to God's _Power_, no one who prays supposes that God -is under the control of his prayers, but merely that He may freely -choose to be influenced by them. Insignificant as man is in -comparison with his Maker, we have already shown that God takes an -interest in his welfare. And admitting this, there is nothing -improbable in His being influenced by a man's prayer. Nor is this in -any way trying to persuade Him to change His Will, since as -everything was foreknown to God, the prayer with all it involved, -may have been part of His Will from all eternity. Nor does it -reflect on His _Wisdom_, for no one who prays supposes that prayer -is for the information of God, but merely that it is the way in -which He wishes us to show our trust in Him. - -And then, as to God's _Goodness_. As a matter of fact, God does not -wait for us to pray before sending most of His blessings; but a few -of them are said to be conditional on our praying. And this is quite -consistent with perfect goodness. Human analogy seems decisive on -the point. A father may know what his child wants, may be quite -willing to supply that want, and may yet choose to wait till the -child asks him. And why? Simply because supplying his wants is not -the whole object the father has in view. He also wishes to train the -child's character; to teach him to rely upon and trust his father, -and to develop his confidence and gratitude. And all this would be -unattainable if the father supplied his wants as a machine would do; -in which case the child might perhaps forget that his father was not -a machine. - -Now, for all we know, precisely the same may be the case with regard -to prayer. God may wish not only to supply man's wants, but also to -train and develop his character. Indeed, as shown in Chapter V., -the existence of evil seems to force us to this very conclusion. And -if so, it is out of the question to say that His not giving some -blessings till they are asked for is inconsistent with perfect -goodness. It may be a very proof of that goodness. For, as already -said, God's goodness does not consist of simple beneficence, but -also of righteousness. And, as a general rule, it certainly seems -right that those who believe in God, and take the trouble to ask for -His blessings, should be the ones to receive them. - -And here we may notice another moral difficulty, which is sometimes -felt in regard to prayers _for others_. They are said to be -_unjust_, since one man's success would often mean another's -failure. Suppose, for instance, a man is going in for a competitive -examination, say a scholarship or a clerkship; and a friend of his -prays that he may get it. Of course in most cases this will not -affect the issue; but all who believe in the power of prayer must -admit that in _some_ cases it will. Yet is not this hard on the next -competitor, who loses the scholarship in consequence? - -It certainly seems so. But it is only part of a more general -difficulty. For suppose the man's friend instead of praying for him, -sent him some money to enable him to have a tutor. Is not this -equally hard on the other man? Yet no one will say that his having -the tutor could not affect the result; or that his friend acted -unfairly in sending him the money. So in regard to prayer. Indeed of -all ways of helping a friend, praying for him seems the fairest; -since it is appealing to a Being, Who we know will always act -fairly; and will not grant the petition, unless it is just and right -to do so. The objection, then, that prayer is morally wrong cannot -be maintained from any point of view. - -It is, however, only fair to add that a certain class of prayers -would be wrong. We have no right to pray for _miracles_, _e.g._, for -water to run uphill, or for a dead man to come to life again; though -we have a right to pray for any ordinary event, such as rain or -recovery from sickness. The reason for this distinction is obvious. -A miracle is, in popular language, something contrary to the order -of nature; and as the order of nature is merely the Will of Him who -ordered nature, it would be contrary to God's Will. And we must not -ask God to act contrary to what we believe to be His Will. - -Of course it may be said that to pray for rain, when otherwise it -would not have rained, really involves a miracle. But here -everything depends on the words _when otherwise it would not have -rained_. If we knew this for certain, it would be wrong to pray for -rain (just as it would be wrong for the father to pray for his son's -safety after hearing that he had been drowned) not knowing it for -certain, it is not wrong. Therefore as we do know for certain that -water will not run uphill without a miracle, it is always wrong to -pray for that. In the same way we may pray for fruitful crops, -because it is plainly God's Will that mankind should be nourished; -but we may not pray to be able to live without food, since this is -plainly not God's Will. No doubt, in the Bible, miracles were -sometimes prayed for, but only by persons who acted under special -Divine Guidance; and this affords no argument for our doing so. - -(3.) _Practical difficulty._ - -Lastly, it is said, even admitting that prayers might be answered, -yet we have abundant evidence that they never are; so that prayer at -the present day is _useless_. But several points have to be noticed -here; for no one asserts that _all_ prayers are answered. Various -conditions have to be fulfilled. A person, for instance, must not -only believe in God, and in His power and willingness to answer -prayers; but the answer must be of such a kind that it would be -right to pray for it. Moreover, he must be trying to lead such a -life as God wishes him to lead; and also be honestly exerting -himself to gain the required end, for prayer cannot be looked upon -as a substitute for work. - -And this prevents our deciding the question by _experiment_, as is -sometimes urged. Why not, it is said, settle the question once for -all by a test case? But this is impossible, since in the vast -majority of cases we cannot say whether the above conditions are -fulfilled or not; and even if we could, it would still be -impracticable. For prayer is the earnest entreaty that God would -grant something we earnestly desire; and if used as an experiment, -it ceases to be genuine prayer altogether. - -But it is further urged that though we cannot decide by experiment -we can by _observation_. The facts, however, can be explained on -either theory. Suppose, for instance, an epidemic breaks out, and -prayer is at once made that it may cease; but instead of ceasing, it -continues for a week, and kills a hundred persons. How do we know -that but for the prayers it might not have continued for a month and -killed a thousand? And the same argument applies in other cases. - -Against these various objections we must remember that an immense -number of men of many ages and countries, and of undoubted honesty -and intelligence have asserted that their prayers have been -answered; and the cumulative value of this evidence is very great. -While, to those who possess it, the conviction that certain events -happened, not accidentally, as we might say, but in answer to some -prayer, is absolutely convincing. - -None of these difficulties, then, can be maintained. There is -nothing _incredible_ in prayers being answered, they are not -_wrong_, and many of those who ought to know best (_i.e._, those who -pray) assert that they are not _useless_. - - -(_B._) CHRISTIANITY AND HUMAN NATURE. - -The next subject we have to consider is a very important one, the -_adaptation_ of Christianity to human nature. To begin with, it is -undeniable that Christianity appeals very strongly to some, at -least, among every class of men. The poor value it as much as the -rich, the ignorant as much as the learned; children can partly -understand it, and philosophers can do no more. And this is not only -the case at the present time, but it has been so among all the -changing conditions of society for eighteen centuries. - -Now, when we inquire into the reason of this powerful hold which -Christianity has on so many men, we find it is because it meets -certain inherent cravings of human nature. Some of these, such as -man's belief in prayer, and his sense of responsibility, are of -course satisfied by any form of Theism. So also is his idea of -justice, which requires virtue and vice to be suitably rewarded -hereafter, since they are not here. But man's nature has many other -cravings besides these; yet Christianity seems to satisfy it -everywhere. - -We will consider four points in detail and select _Sorrow_ and -_Sin_, _Death_ and _Eternity_. The first three, and possibly the -fourth, all have to be faced; they are the common heritage of all -mankind. And while Rationalism does not help us to face any of them, -and Natural Religion leaves much in uncertainty, Christianity meets -the needs of mankind throughout, or at all events far better than -any other religion. - -And first, as to _Sorrow_. It is indisputable that in this life man -has to bear a great deal of sorrow and suffering; and it is also -indisputable that when in sorrow he longs for someone who can both -sympathise with him, and help him. An impersonal God can, of course, -do neither; indeed, we might as well go for comfort to the force of -gravity. And though a personal God can help us, we do not feel sure -that He can sympathise with us. On the other hand, fellow-men can -sympathise, but they cannot always help. In Christ alone we have a -Being Who entirely satisfies human nature; for being Man, He can -sympathise with human sorrow, and being God, He can alleviate it. -So here Christianity supplies a universal want Of course, the -doctrine of the _Incarnation_ also satisfies mankind in other -respects, especially in presenting him with a worthy Being for his -affections, and with a perfect Example; but these points have been -already noticed in Chapter XIII. - -Next, as to _Sin_. Here again the facts are practically undisputed. -Man's sense of sin is universal, so also is his belief in the -justice of God; and therefore in all ages man has longed for some -means of appeasing the Deity. The widespread custom of sacrifice is -a conclusive proof of this. Yet, wherever Christianity has been -accepted, such sacrifices have been abandoned. It is scarcely -necessary to point out the reason for this. The Christian doctrine -of the _Atonement_ entirely satisfies these cravings of mankind. It -admits the fact of sin; it provides a sufficient Sacrifice for sin, -which man could never provide for himself, and it thus assures him -of complete forgiveness. Yet, as shown in Chapter XIII., it does all -this without in any way lessening the guilt of sin, or allowing man -to sin on with impunity; for it makes _repentance_ an essential -condition of forgiveness. - -Moreover, Christianity proves that sin is not a necessity in human -nature; for it alone of all religions can point to One Who, though -tempted as we are, was yet without sin. And Christ's temptations -were probably greater than any that we can have. For it is only when -a man _resists_ a temptation that he feels its full force, just as -only those trees that were _not_ blown down, felt the full force of -the gale. Therefore Christ alone, because He was sinless, can have -felt the full force of every temptation. And Christians assert, and -they surely ought to know best, that this example of Christ is a -strong help in enabling them to resist temptation. - -Next, as to _Death_. Here again the facts are undisputed. Few -persons like to contemplate their own death, yet it is the one event -to which we may look forward with certainty. But is there a life -after death? Most men long for it, and most religions have tried to -satisfy this longing in one way or another, but only with partial -success. The higher nature of man revolts against any mere material -or sensual heaven, while a purely spiritual heaven does not satisfy -him either; for a man longs to know that he will be able to -recognise again those whom he has loved on earth. This is indeed one -of our deepest, strongest, and most universal longings (who is there -that has not felt it?), yet there must always be some doubt as to -recognising a spirit. - -And here again the Christian doctrine of the _Resurrection of the -Body_ alone satisfies the cravings of mankind; for all doubt is now -at an end. The risen body will define and localise man's spirit -then, just as the natural body does now; and though there will be a -great change, it will not prevent recognition. Even the Apostles, -though unprepared for it, and though themselves unaware of what a -risen body was like, were soon able to recognise Christ after His -Resurrection. - -There is, of course, the well-known difficulty as to the _period of -life_ of the risen body. A man, it is said, would only be recognised -by his grandfather, if he remained a child; and by his grandson, if -he were an old man. But the difficulty is not so great as it seems; -for in this life a man who has not seen his son, since he was a -child, may not be able to recognise him in later years, in the sense -of knowing him by sight. But he may be immensely pleased to meet him -again, and live near him, especially if in the meanwhile the son had -done well, and been a credit to his father. Moreover, the risen body -will show us, for the first time, what a man really is, when his -accidental surroundings, such as wealth or poverty, have been -removed; and his character is at length perfected. And perhaps we -shall then see that all that is best in the various states in which -he has lived here--the affection of childhood, the activity of -boyhood, and the mature judgment of manhood--will be combined in the -risen body. - -And though it is somewhat tantalising not to know more about this -future life, very possibly we are not told more, because we should -not be able to understand it if we were. Even in this world it is -doubtful if a savage or a young child could understand the -intellectual life of a civilised man, however carefully it might be -explained to him; and practically certain that an ape could not. And -for all we know our own future life may be as far beyond our present -understanding. It is the _Great Surprise_ in store for us all. But -however much we may be changed, our personal identity will still -remain, _I shall be I, and you will be you_, with much the same -characters as we have at present. This is the important point, and -of this we may be quite sure. - -Lastly, as to _Eternity_. Christianity, it is true, can say little -here, but that little is full of hope. It opens up boundless -possibilities, far more than any other religion. For by the -Incarnation human nature has been united to the Divine, and thus -raised to a position second only to that of God Himself. No destiny, -then, that can be imagined is too great for man. Created in the -image of the Triune God, with a supernatural freedom of choice; his -nature united to God's by the Incarnation; his sins forgiven through -the Atonement; his body purified and spiritualised at its -Resurrection--surely the end of all this cannot be any mere -monotonous existence, but rather one of ceaseless joy and activity. -Heaven has been called the _last act_ in God's drama of the -universe. And considering the magnitude of the previous acts--the -formation of the solar system, the development of organic life, -etc.--we should expect this last act to be on a scale equally vast -and magnificent, and as far above anything we can imagine as the -life of a butterfly is above the imagination of a chrysalis. - -Now the conclusion to be drawn from all this is quite plain. -Christianity is so adapted to man's nature that it probably came -from the Author of man's nature; just as if a complicated key fits a -complicated lock, it was probably made by the same locksmith. And -since Christianity is meant for all mankind, and the vast majority -of men have neither time nor ability to examine its proofs, the -fact of its thus appealing direct to human nature is certainly a -strong argument in its favour. - -But we must now consider an objection. It is, that Christianity is -really a _selfish_ religion, looking only for future rewards, and -teaching men to follow virtue, not for virtue's sake, but solely -with a view to their own advantage. But this is an entire mistake, -though a very common one. The Christian's motive, in trying to lead -such a life as God wishes him to lead, is simply _love_. He has, as -already said, an overwhelming sense of God's love to him. And -though, doubtless, leading a good life will bring with it some -future reward, yet this is not the true motive for leading it. -Compare the case of a young child trying to please his parents -simply because he loves them. It would be unjust to call this -selfishness, though it may be quite true that the parents will do -much for the child later on in life, which they would not have done -had the child never shown them any affection. - -Nor, to take another example, is it selfishness for a young man to -put aside a certain amount of his earnings for his old age, when he -will be unable to work, though it will certainly be to his own -advantage. Selfishness is having regard to one's self, _at the -expense of other people_. But this does not apply to a Christian -striving after his own salvation. The _Great Ambition_, as it is -called, is one which all may entertain, all may work for, and all -may realise. - -Still, it may be asked, is not the hope of future reward meant to -influence men at all? No doubt it is to some extent. But what then? -Hope is undoubtedly a powerful motive in human nature, and therefore -Christianity, by partly appealing to this motive, does but show how -fully adapted it is to human nature. It provides the highest motive -of _love_ for those able to appreciate it; the lower motive of -_hope_ of future reward for the many who would not be reached by the -former; and we may add, the still lower motive of _fear_ of future -punishment for those who could not be otherwise influenced. This -objection, then, as to selfishness is quite untenable. - - -(_C._) CHRISTIANITY AND OTHER RELIGIONS. - -We have lastly to consider the relation in which Christianity stands -to other religions; since an argument against Christianity is often -drawn from their _comparative study_. In far more ancient religions, -it is alleged, we find similar doctrines to those of the Trinity, -the Incarnation, the Atonement, and the Resurrection; and this is -fatal to the claim of Christianity to be the one and only true -Religion. - -But as to the doctrine of the _Trinity_, it is really unique. Some -other religions, it is true, had a group of three gods; but this was -merely a form of Polytheism. And though these gods were often -addressed by the same titles, there does not appear to have been -anything resembling the Christian idea of the Triune God. - -Next, as to the _Incarnation_. This is said to resemble similar -doctrines of other ancient religions, more especially the -incarnation of _Krishna_. For though he was not (as is sometimes -asserted) born of a virgin, being the eighth son of his -parents;[458] he is yet believed to have been in some sense an -incarnation of the supreme god Vishnu. And he is recorded to have -worked various miracles similar to those of Christ, and to have -claimed an equally absolute devotion from his followers. Most -scholars, however, now place these legends some centuries later -than the Christian era; and considering the early spread of -Christianity in India, and the similarity in name between Krishna -and Christ, they may be only distorted versions of the Gospel story. - -[Footnote 458: Tisdall, Christianity and Other Faiths, 1912, p. 89.] - -But even were they earlier than Christianity, it seems impossible -for them to have influenced it. For not only is India many hundreds -of miles from Palestine, but there is also a great moral difficulty. -Since the miracles and occasional lofty teaching of Krishna are -associated all along with a most immoral character. In the Gospels, -on the other hand, they occur among suitable surroundings, and form -perfect parts of a perfect whole. A single example will illustrate -this difference. On one occasion, Krishna is related to have healed -a deformed woman, very similar to the story in Luke 13. But it is -added he made her beautiful as well as whole, and subsequently spent -the night with her in immorality. Few will contend that this was the -origin of the Gospel story; and it is but one instance out of -many.[459] - -[Footnote 459: Transactions of Victoria Institute, vol. xxi., p. -169.] - -Any resemblance, then, there may be between the Incarnation of -Krishna and that of Christ cannot be due to Christianity having -borrowed from the other religion. A far better explanation is to be -found in the fact that man has almost always believed that God takes -an interest in his welfare. And this inherent belief has naturally -led him to imagine an incarnation, since this was the most fitting -method by which God could make Himself known to man. And then this -supposed incarnation was of course attended by various miracles of -healing, somewhat similar to those of Christ, though often mixed up -with immoral ideas, from which the Christian doctrine is entirely -free. - -Next, as to the _Atonement_, especially the position of Christ, as -the _Mediator_ between God and man. This also is said to resemble -far older legends, such as the _Horus_ myth of ancient Egypt. The -leading idea here seems to have been that Horus was the only son of -the supreme God Osiris, and came on earth long ago, before the time -of man. He was always looked upon as the champion of right against -wrong, and nothing but lofty and noble actions are ascribed to him. -With regard to mankind, he became their deliverer and justifier. The -soul after death was supposed to pass through a sort of Purgatory; -where various dangers were overcome by the help of Horus; and -finally, when judged before Osiris, he interceded for the faithful -soul and ensured its salvation. And what makes the resemblance to -Christianity all the more striking are the titles ascribed to Horus; -such as _the Only Begotten Son of the Father_, _the Word of the -Father_, _the Justifier of the Righteous_, and _the Eternal_ -_King_. But the titles of Horus are very numerous, and very -contradictory; therefore, while some of them bear such a striking -resemblance to those of Christ, others do not; and many of them are -also applied to the other gods.[460] - -[Footnote 460: Transactions of Victoria Institute, vol. xii., p. -52.] - -But still the position of Horus, as a mediator between God and man, -undoubtedly resembles that of Christ. But what is the cause of this -similarity? Not surely that the Christian doctrine was founded on -that of Horus. As in the previous case, there is another and far -better solution. For what was the origin of the Egyptian doctrine -itself? It was simply this. The ancient Egyptians firmly -believed in the _justice_ of God; the _immortality_ of man; his -_responsibility_, involving a future judgment; and his _sinfulness,_ -which naturally made him long for some mediator with the just Judge -he would have to face hereafter. Given these four ideas--and they -all belong to Natural Religion--and Horus was merely an imaginary -being, who was thought to satisfy them. Hence, if these ideas are -true, and if Christianity is the true religion, which really does -satisfy them, that Horus should to some extent resemble Christ seems -inevitable. Thus the Horus myth only proves how deeply rooted in the -human mind is the idea of a _mediator_ between God and man. - -Lastly, as to the doctrine of the _Resurrection_, more especially -that of Christ. Numerous analogies have been suggested for this, but -none of them are at all satisfactory. Thus the Egyptian god Osiris -is recorded as doing a great deal after his death; but he is only -supposed to have done this by living on in the _spirit_, and there -is no hint that his _body_ was restored to life, in the sense in -which Christ's was; and the same may be said in other cases.[461] -While the way in which the educated Athenians (who must have known a -good deal about heathen religions) treated St. Paul, when he -proclaimed the Resurrection of Christ, shows how absolutely novel -they considered the doctrine.[462] - -[Footnote 461: Tisdall, Christianity and Other Faiths, 1912, p. -153.] - -[Footnote 462: Acts 17. 19, 32; 26.8.] - -We must also remember that the Christian doctrines of the -Incarnation, the Atonement, and the Resurrection, were not slowly -evolved, but were essential features in Christianity from the very -first. They are all strongly insisted on by St. Paul. And this alone -seems fatal to the idea of their having been derived from the myths -of India, Egypt, and elsewhere. - -On the whole, then, it is evident that the _comparative study_ of -religions, instead of being against Christianity, is distinctly in -its favour; for it shows, as nothing but a comparative study could -show, its striking superiority. Human nature is always the same, and -in so far as other religions have satisfied human nature, they have -resembled Christianity. On the other hand, Christianity differs -from them in being free from their various absurdities and -contradictions, as well as from their tendency to degenerate; and -having instead a moral character of admitted excellence, and -powerful evidence by which to establish its actual truth. In short, -other religions are _human_; and therefore, as man is a mixture of -good and evil, they contain some good (what we now call Natural -Religion) and some evil. But Christianity is _superhuman_; and -therefore contains all the good they do, with much more besides, and -with none of their evil. This completes a brief examination of the -more important additional arguments for and against Christianity. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIV. - -THAT THE THREE CREEDS ARE DEDUCIBLE FROM THE NEW TESTAMENT. - - Only three Doctrines can be disputed. - - (_A._) THE DOCTRINE OF THE TRINITY. - - In addition to belief in God the Father, the New Testament - teaches-- - - (1.) The Divinity of Christ. - (2.) The Divinity of the Holy Spirit; so there are - (3.) Three Divine Persons and yet but One God. - - (_B._) THE FINAL STATE OF THE WICKED. - - The only alternatives are: - - (1.) Their endless misery: very strong texts in favour of - this; its difficulties considered. - (2.) Their endless happiness: most improbable. - (3.) Their destruction: more likely than the last, but still - improbable. On the whole the statement of the - Creed seems fully justified. - - (_C._) THE IMPORTANCE OF A TRUE BELIEF. - - This is strongly insisted on in the warning clauses of the - Athanasian Creed. - - (1.) Their meaning. - (2.) Their truthfulness: they merely repeat similar warnings - in the New Testament. - (3.) The objection as to dogmatism. - - -We have now reached the last stage in our inquiry. We have shown in -the previous chapters that there is very strong evidence in favour -of what may be called in a general sense, Christianity or the -Christian Religion--_i.e.,_ the Religion founded by Christ and -taught in the New Testament. We have, lastly, to inquire, is this -Religion correctly summarised in the doctrines and statements of the -_Three Creeds_? And the only doctrines that can be disputed, are -found in the Athanasian Creed, and refer to the _Trinity_; the -_Final State of the Wicked;_ and the importance of a _True Belief_: -each of which we will examine in turn. - - -(_A._) THE DOCTRINE OF THE TRINITY. - -Now, although there are no statements in the New Testament identical -with those in the Creed, yet the latter are merely logical -deductions from the former. For the New Testament asserts that, -besides God the Father, there are two other Divine Persons, Christ -and the Holy Spirit, and yet but one God. - - -(1.) _The Divinity of Christ_. - -This has already been discussed in Chapter XXI., where we showed -that Christ claimed to be not only Superhuman, but Divine; and that -this is how His contemporaries, both friends and foes, understood -Him. The doctrine is also asserted by St. Paul, as well as by St. -John, who in the opening verse of his Gospel, states it very -concisely, saying that the Word (_i.e._, Christ) _was with God_, -implying a distinction of Persons, and _was_ God, implying a unity -of Nature; which is the exact doctrine of the Creed. - - -(2.) _The Divinity of the Holy Spirit._ - -This also follows at once from the New Testament. For the Holy -Spirit is called by Divine names, such as God and Lord; He is given -Divine attributes, such as Eternity and Omniscience; and He is -identified with Jehovah, the Lord of Hosts, of the Old Testament.[463] - -[Footnote 463: Acts 5. 3, 4; 2 Cor. 3.17; Heb. 9. 14; 1 Cor. 2. 10; Acts -28. 25; Isa. 6. 5-10.] - -And yet, He is a distinct _Person_: for, to quote a decisive -text,[464] Christ prays the Father to send His disciples _another_ -Comforter when He goes away; thus showing that the Holy Spirit is a -different Person, both from the Father and the Son. And elsewhere we -are told that the Spirit _makes intercession for us_, which again -shows that He must be a different Person from the Father, with Whom -He intercedes.[465] While in another passage blasphemy against the -Holy Ghost is said to be the worst of all sins;[466] which shows -both that He is a _Person_, or He could not be blasphemed; and that -He is _God_, or blasphemy against God would be a greater sin. - -[Footnote 464: John 14. 16, 26; 15. 26.] - -[Footnote 465: Rom. 8. 26.] - -[Footnote 466: Matt. 12. 31, 32; Mark 3. 28, 29.] - -No doubt the actual word _Person_ is not applied to the Holy Spirit -in the New Testament, just as it is not applied to either the Father -or the Son, but it cannot be thought inappropriate, provided it is -not taken in a literal, or human sense. For the relations between -Them closely _resemble_ those between human persons, as They love -one another, speak to one another, and use the personal pronouns I, -Thou, He, and We. - - -(3.) _Three Divine Persons and yet but One God._ - -It is clear, then, from the New Testament, that the Father, the Son, -and the Holy Spirit are all Persons, and all Divine; and yet the -fact of there being but one God is at times plainly asserted.[467] -Now the only means of reconciling all this is by the doctrine of -the Trinity in Unity. And this is plainly hinted at in the New -Testament itself, for the Three Persons are often closely associated -together, as for instance in the text just alluded to, where -_Christ_ prays _the Father_ to give His disciples _another -Comforter_. - -[Footnote 467: Mark 12. 29; 1 Cor. 8. 4.] - -Quite naturally, then, just before His Ascension, Christ completed -this earlier teaching by finally, and for ever, joining the Three -Persons together, when He commanded Christians to be baptized _into -the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost_.[468] -And this alone is sufficient to prove the doctrine, for it shows -that there are _Three_ distinct Persons, and that each is _Divine_, -for who but God could be thus associated with God? While the -expression into the _name_ and not _names_, implies a unity in this -Trinity. - -[Footnote 468: Matt. 28. 19.] - -And we happen to have indirect evidence from the _Acts_, that -baptism was administered in this way. For when St. Paul found some -disciples, who said they knew nothing about the Holy Ghost; he at -once asked, 'Into what then were ye _baptized_?'[469] Obviously, -then, the baptism to which St. Paul was accustomed must have been -into the name of the Holy Ghost, as well as into that of Christ; and -the Father's name could scarcely have been omitted. Yet immediately -afterwards we are told that they were baptized _into the Name of the -Lord Jesus_. In the same way the 'Teaching of the Twelve' once -speaks of baptism as _into the Name of the Lord_; and twice as _into -the Name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy -Ghost_.[470] The former seems to have been only a short way of -describing Christian baptism, (in distinction from that of the Jews, -or of St. John the Baptist), while the latter represented the actual -words used.[471] - -[Footnote 469: Acts 19. 3.] - -[Footnote 470: Teaching, chaps. vii. and ix.] - -[Footnote 471: _Comp._ Acts 2. 38; 8. 16; 18. 25; I Cor. 10. 2.] - -Similarly St. Paul sometimes closes his Epistles with the shorter -form of blessing. _The grace of the Lord Jesus Christ be with you_; -once with an intermediate form, naming the Father and Christ; and -once with the longer form, _The Grace of the Lord Jesus Christ, and -the love of God, and the communion of the Holy Ghost be with you -all_.[472] This latter passage, the genuineness of which is -undisputed, is of course extremely important, in fact like the -preceding one it is practically conclusive; for again we must ask, -who but God could be thus associated with God? If Christ were a mere -human prophet, like Isaiah for instance; and the Holy Spirit a mere -influence for good; what strange language it would be. Can we -imagine anyone blessing his converts with, The grace of Isaiah, the -love of God, and the fellowship of a holy influence--God, it will be -noticed, being placed _between_ the other two, so there can be no -ascending or descending scale, they must all be equal? - -[Footnote 472: 1 Cor. 16. 23; Gal. 6. 18; Eph. 6. 23; 2 Cor. 13. -14.] - -And as St. Paul takes for granted that his readers would understand -his meaning, it implies that they had had some previous teaching on -the subject, which must clearly have been given them by St. Paul -himself on his first visit. And at that early date (about A.D. 50) -such teaching could scarcely have originated except from what Christ -Himself had taught. This passage, then, implies more than it says, -and needs explanation; and as far as we know the former one alone -can explain it. - -And of course the same is true, though to a lesser degree, of -numerous other Trinitarian passages which occur all through the -Epistles, including the earliest (1 Thess., about A.D. 50).[473] -Nowhere do the writers seem to be explaining anything new to their -converts; but merely to be touching on a truth, with which all -Christians were of course familiar. Indeed, the very fact of their -never attempting to explain or defend the doctrine, shows -conclusively that it did not originate with _them_. Persons do not -preach a new doctrine without a word of explanation or comment, as -if every one already believed it. - -[Footnote 473: _E.g._, Rom. 15. 30; Eph. 4. 4-6; 1 Thess. 1. 3-5; 1 -Peter 1. 2; Jude 20-21.] - -Thus, to put it shortly, according to the New Testament, there are -_Three_ distinct Persons; each is God, each is Lord, each is -Eternal, each is Omniscient, into the Name of each converts are -baptized, each is referred to in Blessing; and yet there is but -_One_ God. This is what the Bible says, and the Creed says the same, -though it says it in more logical language. - - -(_B._) THE FINAL STATE OF THE WICKED. - -We pass on now to what is perhaps the most difficult of all -subjects, the final state of the wicked. The Creed asserts that all -men are to rise again with their bodies, and be judged according to -their _works_; and that then, _they that have done good shall go -into life everlasting; and they that have done evil into everlasting -fire_. This latter expression can scarcely be taken literally, since -it is associated in the Bible with another--_the worm that dieth -not_--which cannot be literal, as worms do not live for ever, and -cannot live at all in fire. While it is said to have been prepared -for evil spirits who have no material bodies. Moreover, the joys of -heaven are also represented by terms which are clearly not literal; -such as attending a wedding, feasting with Abraham, and wearing -crowns. Probably we are not at present able to understand the -realities in either case, so figures of some kind have to be used; -and those associated with gladness and happiness are of course -chosen for the one, and those with pain and woe for the other. - -But the language certainly implies some form of _endless misery_; -and as there are obvious difficulties in accepting such a view, we -must discuss the subject carefully. It may be pointed out at -starting that we have only three theories to choose from; for unless -the wicked are to be in a continual state of change, which seems -almost incredible (for a state of change cannot go on for ever, -unless it is recurring) they must finally either exist for ever in -_misery_, or exist for ever in _happiness_, or be _destroyed_, and -not exist for ever. - -(1.) _Their endless misery._ - -It would be difficult to exaggerate the strength of the texts in -favour of this. We are told that the wicked, or at all events some -of them, are to awake to shame and everlasting contempt; that they -are to be cast into the eternal fire; that they are to depart into -the eternal fire prepared for the devil and his angels; that they -are to go away into _eternal punishment_; that they are guilty of an -eternal sin; that their worm dieth not and the fire is not quenched; -and that they are to be cast into the lake of fire, there to be -tormented day and night for ever and ever.[474] The fourth of these -texts is perhaps the most important, since Christ uses the same word -for _eternal_ punishment as for _eternal_ life; therefore, though -the Greek word does not necessarily mean _endless_, it certainly -seems to do so here. Similarly in Daniel the same Hebrew word is -used for the _everlasting_ life of the righteous, as for the -_everlasting_ contempt of the wicked. Moreover the doctrine is -_implied_ in numerous other passages;[475] so altogether the New -Testament teaching on the subject seems about as plain as it can be. - -[Footnote 474: Dan. 12. 2; Matt. 18. 8; 25. 41, 46; Mark 3. 29; 9. -48; Rev. 14. 11; 20. 15.] - -[Footnote 475: _E.g._, Matt. 7. 13, 23; 8. 12; 10. 33; 12. 32; 13. -42, 50, etc.] - -Yet everyone must admit that there are great difficulties in -accepting it. For the _endless misery_ of the wicked appears to be -inconsistent with the great attributes of God, especially His power, -His justice, and His mercy; as well as with the endless happiness of -the righteous. We will consider these points in turn. - -And first as to God's _power_. The eternal existence of sinners -against God means, it is said, a never-ending conflict between good -and evil; and this is most improbable. No doubt it seems so, but -then the existence of evil at all is a difficulty; yet as shown in -Chapter V. it is essential for free will. And the final state of the -wicked is but one out of many difficulties connected with human -freedom. That God could create a free man at all; that He could -foresee how he would use his freedom; that He should allow him to -use it wrongly, thus involving himself and others in misery; and -that this misery should last for ever; are all to a great extent -beyond our comprehension. But as the first three must be admitted, -the last is certainly not incredible. - -The second and commonest objection refers to God's _justice_. The -suffering, it is said, would be out of all proportion to the -offence. Man's life is brief at the most, and every sin in this -world cannot deserve countless years of misery in the next. In -short, a man's sin here must anyhow be finite, while endless misery, -however slight, would be infinite. But very possibly, being sinners -ourselves, we do not realise the magnitude of sin, more especially -its far-reaching and _permanent_ effect on the character of others, -who in their turn may influence others also, and so on indefinitely. -In this way the consequences of even a single sin may be _endless_, -and therefore infinite, and if so its guilt may be infinite too. And -this also agrees with the analogy of nature. For in nature nothing -is forgotten, and even a small act, like planting a flower has -(almost) endless consequences, since the ground will _never_ be -exactly the same as if it had not been planted. - -Moreover, we need not assume that endless misery is for a man's sins -here only. Why may not the wicked go on sinning for ever? They must -certainly have the power of doing so, for the option of acting, or -at all events of thinking right or wrong, is essential to free will; -and if we deny them their free will, they are no longer men but mere -machines. And it even seems probable that they would do so; for all -our experience of human character is that it tends to a final -permanence, of good or bad, which nothing can alter. By doing good, -men become good--evil gradually loses its influence over them. And -then, when their character is fixed, they will cease to be -_attracted_ by evil; and they will in consequence remain (and this -without any effort or struggle on their part) for ever good, and -therefore for ever happy. Similarly with regard to the wicked. By -committing sin men become sinful, and then, when their character is -fixed, they may remain for ever sinful, and therefore for ever -miserable. In each case the man's conduct will be always _free_; but -his character, and therefore the use which he makes of his freedom, -will have become fixed. And perhaps one of the strongest motives for -leading a good life here, and thus forming a good character, is the -knowledge that, whether good or bad, it will be _our_ character for -all eternity. - -No doubt it is an overwhelming thought that a man's endless -happiness, or misery should depend on his short probation in this -world; yet as he is given free will with the option of choosing one -or the other, there is nothing _unjust_ in the results being so -permanent. And it entirely agrees with God's methods in nature, -where, for instance, the shape of a tree for centuries is fixed -during the short time it is growing. - -Nor does the fact of God's _foreknowledge_ as to how each man will -act alter the case or cause any injustice, since, as said in Chapter -II., it does not interfere with man's freedom. God merely foreknows -the use man will make of his freedom. Therefore His knowing -beforehand that a man will commit a murder does not make it unjust -to punish him for doing so. And the same rule applies universally; -so that although God foreknows that the wicked will be lost, they -will not be lost _because_ God foreknows it. They will be lost -because of their own wilful abuse of their own free will; and God -foreknows both this, and its consequences. - -The third objection refers to God's _mercy_. Surely, it is said, God -would never punish men unless there were a chance of improving them; -so it is incredible that He should go on punishing them for ever. -But perhaps the future misery of the wicked may not be a punishment -at all, in the sense of being inflicted by God; it may be the -necessary result of their own acts,--the _consequence_ rather than -the punishment of sin. Or if we still use the word punishment, we -may say that they will be punished, not so much for doing what they -have done, as by being what they have become. It will be _according -to_ their works rather than _because_ of them.[476] - -[Footnote 476: Matt. 16. 27; Rom. 2. 6.] - -And there is much to be said in favour of this view, since it is the -way in which God punishes men in this world. Suppose, for instance, -a man repeatedly gives way to drink, he will have the natural -punishment (which is really God's punishment, Who is the Author of -Nature) of being what he has become, an habitual drunkard, and very -possibly miserable for the rest of his life. It is the necessary -consequence of his sin; and the extent of his misery will, as a -rule, be in exact proportion to the extent of his sin. Therefore, if -a man is to suffer hereafter for other sins, we should expect this -suffering to come in the same way; and to be the natural, and -perhaps unavoidable, consequence of the sin itself. - -Nor is it difficult to suggest how this may be. For the endless -misery of the wicked may be to a great extent mental, rather than -bodily--_shame and everlasting contempt_, as Daniel calls it. They -may be tormented by remorse and regret at having made themselves -unfit to share in the joys of heaven. And until we know the -greatness of those joys, we cannot know the greatness of this -suffering. But if the joys of heaven are endless, and if the -existence of the wicked outside heaven is also endless, it must -plainly be an _endless_ source of misery. While, in conclusion, the -fact that it is the same Christ who has taught us (more than anyone -else) the mercy and love of God, who has also taught us the endless -misery of the wicked, is an additional reason for thinking that the -two cannot really be inconsistent. - -The fourth and last objection refers to _man_ rather than God. It is -that the endless misery of the wicked would destroy the happiness of -the righteous; for how could a man enjoy heaven if he knew that his -own father and mother were in endless and hopeless misery elsewhere? -Of course, if we deny him his memory, and say he does not remember -them, it destroys his identity, and for all practical purposes, he -is a different man. I have not met with any satisfactory answer to -this difficulty. But it may be pointed out that if he knows his -parents' fate, he will certainly know their character too, and that -their fate was deserved. And this may alter his feelings in regard -to them, as it often does now, if we find that one of our friends -has behaved in a mean, and disgraceful manner. - -Reviewing all these objections, it must be admitted that the endless -misery of the wicked seems improbable, but it is certainly not -_incredible_. For, to put it shortly, our knowledge of human nature -convinces us that, out of a large number of wicked men, some at all -events will continue to be wicked, _i.e._ to commit sin as long as -they live. Hence, if they live for ever, they will sin for ever. And -if they sin for ever, it is not only just, but perhaps inevitable, -that they should be miserable for ever. And if so, the endless -misery of the wicked does not reflect on either the power, justice, -or mercy of God, and, as said above, is certainly not incredible. - -(2.) _Their endless happiness._ - -We pass on now to the next theory, that of their _endless -happiness_. According to this, all the wicked (after some suitable -punishment) will at last be reconciled to God, and in popular -language, go to heaven. And there are several texts which are more -or less in favour of this view.[477] But how are we to reconcile -these with the far stronger ones before alluded to? The most -probable explanation is that they are merely general statements, -indicating the final destiny of the vast majority of mankind, but -that there are exceptions to this as to most other rules. And the -Creed nowhere implies that most men will be lost; it may be only a -few obstinate sinners. - -[Footnote 477: _E.g._, Col. 1. 20; 1 Tim. 4. 10; 1 John 2. 2; Rev. -5. 13.] - -Moreover, we cannot think that the wicked will be allowed to go on -sinning in heaven, so if they go there, they must finally cease to -commit sin. Many may do this voluntarily, but what about the -remainder? If they _must_ finally forsake sin, whether they like it -or not, it destroys their free will, and leads to _compulsory -goodness_, which is very like a contradiction in terms. For goodness -cannot be ascribed to mere machines without free will, which only -act under compulsion; yet on this theory the men would be nothing -more. In fact, the wicked _men_ would in reality have been -destroyed, and a good piece of mechanism created instead; which -scarcely seems a probable theory. - -Then there is this further difficulty: what is to become of the evil -angels? If we have to admit endless misery for these, why not for -man? Yet the Bible gives no hint that the Devil will in the end be -reconciled to God, and go to heaven. - -(3.) _Their destruction._ - -Lastly, as to the other and only possible alternative, the -_destruction_ of the wicked. This may be better described as their -failure to obtain everlasting life; which is here regarded not as -the attribute of all men, but as being _conditional_ on a man's -fulfilling certain duties and developing a certain character in this -life. And the wicked, not having done this, will eventually be -destroyed and cease to exist. Numerous texts can be quoted in favour -of this theory.[478] And it is also supported by the analogy of -nature: for if an organism or a species is a failure, it eventually -_ceases to exist_; it is not kept alive for ever as a disfigurement -to the world. - -[Footnote 478: _E.g._, John 6. 51; Rom. 6. 23; Matt. 10. 28.] - -This theory, no doubt, presents less moral difficulties than either -of the others, but it is not free from them. For are the wicked to -be _punished_ after death previous to their destruction? If they are -not, justice is not satisfied; and while excessive punishment seems -a reflection on God's character, no punishment at all for sinners -who have been successful in this world, seems equally so. Yet, on -the other hand, any punishment which precedes destruction seems -merely vindictive, and of no possible use. - -Each of these theories, then, appears improbable, but the _endless -misery_ of the wicked is scarcely more so than the others, and -therefore, as it is the one most strongly supported by the Bible, we -seem bound to accept it. - -One remark may however be made in conclusion, and it brings a little -comfort into this saddest of all truths. It is that whatever doubt -may exist as to the future state of the wicked, of one thing we may -be quite sure--that their punishment will not be in excess of what -they deserve. They will be treated fairly; and every merciful -allowance will be made for circumstances, including the inherent -weakness of human nature. Christianity indeed seems to emphasise -this more than any other religion, since men are to be judged not by -the Father, but by the Son; apparently for this very reason that, -being Man, He can sympathise with human weakness.[479] And after the -judgment, persons will enjoy heaven just in proportion as their -lives on earth have rendered them capable of doing so, while the -misery of the lost will also be in exact proportion to what they -deserve. - -[Footnote 479: John 5. 27.] - - -(_C._) THE IMPORTANCE OF A TRUE BELIEF. - -The last doctrine to be considered is the importance of a True -Belief, that is of believing the _truth_ in regard to matters of -religion. This is strongly insisted on in the _warning clauses_ of -the Athanasian Creed; so we will first consider their meaning, then -their truthfulness, and lastly, the objection as to dogmatism. - -(1.) _Their meaning._ - -Before discussing this, it may be pointed out that they are often -called the _damnatory_ or _uncharitable_ clauses; but both these -terms are somewhat misleading. For the Creed does not condemn anyone -by these clauses, it merely declares that certain persons will be -condemned by God, which is a very different thing. No one desires -their condemnation, but the contrary; therefore, believing the -danger to be a fact, it is stated in the hope that persons will in -consequence avoid it. - -An analogy may help to illustrate this distinction. Suppose a -despotic ruler in some island were to put up a notice that anyone -walking along a certain part of the coast would be arrested and -shot; this might well be called uncharitable. But now, suppose the -notice was that, owing to their being quicksands along that part of -the coast, anyone walking there would be drowned; this might be -untrue, but it could scarcely be called uncharitable. So in regard -to the Creed. Its warnings (whether true or false) are in no sense -uncharitable; and it no more _consigns men to perdition_ (as it is -sometimes called) for denying the faith, than a doctor consigns men -to die of fever for drinking bad water. In each case they merely -state what they believe will (unfortunately) be the result. - -Its warnings are also quite different from the _Let him be anathema_ -of St. Paul, as well as from some of the Psalms, where the writer -does not merely state that the wicked will be miserable, but prays -that they may be so.[480] This no doubt seems uncharitable, but -there is nothing like it in the Creed. - -[Footnote 480: _E.g._, Gal. 1. 8-9; Ps. 69.] - -What the Creed says is that holding, or _holding fast_,[481] the -Catholic Faith, especially the doctrines of the Trinity and the -Incarnation, is necessary to salvation (vv. 1, 28, 29, 42); and that -those who do _not_ keep (or hold fast) this Faith will _perish_ -everlastingly (v. 2). The word _keep_, it should be noticed, -implies previous possession, since a man cannot keep what he never -had; so these verses are inapplicable to heathens, infidels, or even -nominal Christians who have never really held the Faith. They refer -only to apostates--to those who, having once held the Faith, do not -_keep_ it. - -[Footnote 481: It is so translated in the revised version, issued in -November, 1909, by a Committee, under the Archbishop of Canterbury.] - -Moreover, there can be little doubt that the apostasy here referred -to was not that due to intellectual doubt, but to giving way, _under -persecution_. For the Gothic conquerors of Southern Europe, where -the Creed was composed about the fifth century, were _Arians_, and -they much persecuted the Catholics. So a statement of what the -Catholic Faith really was (in opposition to Arianism) might well -contain warnings as to the great danger of abandoning it under trial -and persecution. In the same way Christ warned His followers that if -they denied Him before men, He would also deny them before His -Father. - -And a time of persecution is distinctly implied in the Creed itself. -For in ver. 30 we are told that it is not enough to believe the -faith, it must be publicly _confessed_; and even in ver. 1, the -_holding_ or _holding fast_, suggests a temptation to surrender. -Compare the passage: _Thou holdest fast my name, and didst not deny -my faith_:[482] where in the Latin translation (the Vulgate) the -same word is used for _hold fast_, as occurs in the Creed. - -[Footnote 482: Rev. 2. 13, 25; 3. 11; 2 Tim. 1. 13.] - -Next as to the meaning of to _perish_. This is no doubt much -disputed, both here, and in the similar passage in the Gospel, -where Christ says that all who believe on Him shall _not perish, but -have eternal (or everlasting) life_; which certainly implies that -those who disbelieve, or cease to believe, _shall_ perish, -and shall _not_ have everlasting life, _i.e._, shall perish -everlastingly.[483] But whatever Christ meant by these words, the -Creed means too, neither more nor less. Taken by themselves, they -seem to point to the destruction of the wicked; or perhaps only to -their failure to obtain the joys of heaven, without actually ceasing -to exist. - -[Footnote 483: John 3. 16.] - -But however this may be, one thing is plain; that, according to the -Creed, those who have been taught the truth about God, (_i.e._, the -Catholic Faith), must both _lead a good life_, (fighting against -sin, etc.), and also _hold fast_, or _keep this faith_, if they wish -to be saved. And St. Paul evidently regarded these as the two -essentials; for at the close of his life, he rejoiced because he had -_fought the good fight_, and _kept the faith_.[484] - -[Footnote 484: 2 Tim. 4. 7.] - -(2.) _Their truthfulness._ - -Having thus shown what the warning clauses actually mean, we have -next to consider whether they are true. Now, it is plain from the -nature of the case that we can know nothing on such a subject, -except what is revealed by God. Is then, this doctrine stated or -implied in the New Testament? Certainly it is, since belief in -Christ is everywhere laid down as _necessary_ to salvation. He is -not one Saviour among many, nor is Christianity one means among many -of getting to heaven. But Christianity is always represented as the -_only_ means, and Christ as the _only_ Saviour. - -We have already alluded to one text on this subject, that about the -_perishing_; and we will now quote five others, each from a -different writer, thus showing that the doctrine was not peculiar to -any one Apostle or Evangelist. We are told then, that while he that -believeth and is baptized shall be saved, he that disbelieveth shall -be condemned; that unless men believe in Christ they shall die in -their sins; that His is the only Name under heaven wherein men can -be saved; that public confession of Him as Lord, together with -belief in His Resurrection, leads to salvation; and that His Blood -alone can redeem us from our sins.[485] - -[Footnote 485: Mark 16. 16; John 8. 24; Acts 4. 12; Rom. 10. 9; 1 -Pet. 1. 19.] - -And the early Christians acted in entire accordance with this. When, -for instance, the gaoler at Philippi asked St. Paul, _What must I do -to be saved?_ the answer was, _Believe on the Lord Jesus, and thou -shalt be saved_.[486] Repentance, baptism, and amendment of life, -would of course follow in due time; but first of all, before all -other things, it was necessary that he should _believe in Christ_. -This was the great essential. - -[Footnote 486: Acts 16. 31.] - -Now it is obvious that the belief in Christ, which is thus -everywhere insisted on, must mean believing the truth about Christ, -and not a false belief. If, then, the statements in the Creed -represent the truth about Christ, as we have shown they do, then -belief in these is necessary to salvation. And the Bible, like the -Creed, expressly says that the great and fundamental truth about -Christ, which we must both believe and _confess_, is His -Incarnation, that He _is come in the flesh_.[487] And this involves -His relationship to God the Father, and the doctrine of the Trinity. -Thus the warning clauses as to the importance of a true belief, -especially in regard to these two great doctrines, seem fully -justified. - -[Footnote 487: 1 John 4. 2-3.] - -Three further remarks may be made before leaving this subject. The -first is that the Creed is addressed to _Christians_ only. This is -clear from its opening sentence, _Quicunque vult salvus esse_, which -means literally, 'Whoever _wishes_ to be saved'; and this takes for -granted that the persons addressed have heard of salvation. And, as -we have shown, the following words, that they must _hold fast_ or -_keep_ the Faith, also imply that they have been already taught it. -The Creed cannot therefore be held to refer to any but Christians, -no matter how general the language may be. - -Secondly, among Christians the Creed is meant chiefly for -_theologians_. This is plain from its technical language, which is -so worded as to prevent a recurrence of several old errors. And it -seems only fair to assume that children and unlearned persons -belonging to a Church holding these doctrines would be considered as -believing them. But though a child's belief,[488] which is merely -trust and love, may be sufficient _for a child_, something more may -reasonably be expected from well-instructed Christians. And this is -that they should believe these doctrines _rightly_ (v. 29), though -this is a most unfortunate translation of the Latin word -_fideliter_, as it seems to connect it with the _right_ faith -(_fides recta_) of the following verse. It would be better rendered -by _faithfully_, as it is in v. 24, or _heartily_. Thus a _heartfelt -belief_ in the doctrines of the Trinity and the Incarnation--a -belief which leads at once to _worship_, for 'the Catholic Faith is -that we _worship_ one God':--is what the Creed says is so essential. - -[Footnote 488: Matt. 18. 6.] - -Lastly, all these statements, like so many passages in the -Bible,[489] are only _general rules_; to which there are often some -exceptions. And in the present case, we may feel sure (from other -passages)[490] that God will make exceptions, wherever unbelief or -misbelief has not been due to a person's own fault. Our conclusion, -then, as to the _warning clauses_ is this; that if the other -statements of the Creed are _true_ (as we have shown they are), -these clauses do not present any great difficulty. - -[Footnote 489: _E.g._, 1 Cor. 6. 12.] - -[Footnote 490: _E.g._, 1 Tim. 1. 13.] - -(3.) _The objection as to dogmatism._ - -An important objection has still to be considered. It is that the -Athanasian Creed _dogmatises_ too much. Granting, it is said, that -all its doctrines are contained in the New Testament, yet why not be -content with the _simpler_ statements in the Apostles' and Nicene -Creeds? These were _sufficient_ for the Church for several -centuries, so why not leave other matters open for discussion, -instead of treating them as _closed questions_? We will consider -these points in turn. - -And first as to _dogmatism_; by which is meant the exact statement -of any truth. Now on all other subjects which influence our -conduct, such as diseases or science, it is admitted to be of great -importance that we should know the truth, and act accordingly. Why, -then, should it be thought that in Religion alone this is -immaterial, and that a false Creed is as good as the true one, if a -man honestly believes it? - -Moreover, a certain amount of dogmatism in matters of Religion seems -essential. No one can intelligently serve or pray to a God of Whose -Nature he has formed no idea, and the moment he begins to form such -an idea he is involved in difficulties. Take for example what some -will consider a very simple prayer, _May God forgive my sins for -Christ's sake_. Who, we may ask, is God; who is Christ; what is the -relation between them; why should One be asked to forgive for the -sake of the Other; and what would happen if the sins were not -forgiven? Such difficulties cannot be avoided; and if the statements -in the Athanasian Creed are their true explanation, the more clearly -this is stated the better. - -In the next place, it is very doubtful whether the earlier Creeds -are _simpler_ and more easy to believe than the Athanasian. To a -thoughtful reader it may well seem otherwise. For example, referring -to the Trinity, the Apostles' Creed teaches us to believe in God the -Father, in His Son Jesus Christ, and in the Holy Ghost, but it does -not attempt to answer the simplest questions concerning Them. Are -They, for instance, all three Persons? if so, are They all three -Divine? and if so, are They three Gods? And the Nicene Creed is even -more puzzling, for it first says that there is one God the Father, -and soon afterwards that the Son is also God. So in regard to the -Holy Spirit, He is called the Lord, yet it has been already stated -that there is only one Lord Jesus Christ. How can all this be -reconciled? And much the same applies to the future state of the -wicked. The two earlier Creeds speak of the life everlasting (for -the good), but what is to become of the bad? These and many other -questions are suggested by the earlier Creeds, and answered by the -Athanasian. And to many it seems easier to believe the Creed which -answers difficulties, than those which merely suggest them. - -And it was for this very purpose of answering difficulties, not -making them, that the Athanasian Creed was composed. Its object was -not to assert any new doctrines, or to suggest that those previously -received were not _sufficient_, but merely to explain them, and to -prevent them from being misunderstood. All the doctrines, as we have -seen, are contained in the New Testament, and they were in -consequence always believed by Christians. But it was not till after -much controversy that men learnt to express this belief with -clearness and precision. - -Lastly, as to these doctrines being _closed questions_. They are -closed questions in much the same way as the fact that the earth -goes round the sun, and not the sun round the earth, is a closed -question in astronomy. That is to say, they have been thoroughly -discussed, and (to those who believe the New Testament) the evidence -in their favour is overwhelming. Of course anyone may go over the -proofs again for himself, and if he wants to have an intelligent -belief he should do so; but as a rule of conduct the subject cannot -be re-opened. - -And it should be noticed that the Church, in thus treating certain -questions as closed for its members, is only acting as other -societies would do. Would a society of engineers, for instance, -allow one of its members to construct an iron bridge on the -supposition that the expansion of iron by heat was an open question; -which he might, or might not, think worth allowing for? Or would a -society of doctors allow one of its members to attend patients if he -asserted that whether scarlet fever was infectious or not was an -open question; which each patient might decide for himself? In -short, well-ascertained truth, or what is believed to be such, in -every department of knowledge is looked upon as a closed question; -and it must remain so, unless some important fresh evidence is -produced. But with regard to the Creeds, no fresh evidence can be -produced, unless God were to give a fresh Revelation; so, from the -nature of the case, they are closed questions in an even stricter -sense than ascertained truths on other subjects. - -This concludes a brief examination of the doctrines of the Three -Creeds, and, as we have seen, they are all either contained in, or -logically deducible from, the New Testament. - - - - -CHAPTER XXV. - -THAT THE TRUTH OF THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION IS EXTREMELY PROBABLE. - - (_A._) THE EVIDENCES OF CHRISTIANITY. - - One remaining objection, why are there so many difficulties, - and no more obvious proof? considered in detail. - - (_B._) SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION. - - -We have now examined all the more important arguments for and -against the Truth of Christianity. Many of them, as we have seen, -involve a good deal of study, and we have often been obliged to -consider a few examples only of various classes of facts; but it is -hoped that no important argument on either side has been entirely -overlooked. One remaining objection has still to be considered. - - -(_A._) THE EVIDENCES OF CHRISTIANITY. - -Does not, it is urged, this very fact of itself form a difficulty? -Can an ordinary man be expected to ponder over arguments, -objections, and counter-arguments by the dozen, even supposing the -balance of probability to be in favour of the Religion? Surely, if -Christianity were true, and God wished men to believe it, there -would not be so many difficulties. He would have provided an easier -way of proving it than this; or, at all events, if this elaborate -argument were examined, the inference in its favour would be simply -overwhelming. This is a difficulty felt perhaps by some who have -read the present _Essay_; fortunately it can be answered -satisfactorily. - -And first, as to there being so many difficulties. Several of these -are simply due to the evidence in favour of Christianity being so -strong. If, for instance, we had only one Gospel instead of four, -the difficulties caused by the discrepancies between them would -disappear, but the argument in favour of Christianity would not be -strengthened in consequence. Still putting aside these, it must be -admitted that there are many difficulties connected with the -Religion. - -But what is the cause of this? It is the very magnitude of the -Christian Religion which opens the way for so many attacks. A -religion which claims to be the only true one in the world; to have -been founded by God Himself; to have been prepared for by prophecies -and introduced by miracles; to be the centre of the world's history, -all previous history leading up to it, and all subsequent history -being influenced by it; to be suitable for all ages and countries; -to hold the key to all mental and moral problems; to be man's guide -and comfort in this life, and his only hope for the next;--such a -religion _must_ be assailable at a great many points. But -provided all these assaults can be repelled, provided this long -_frontier-line_, so to speak, can be properly defended, it does not -show the weakness of the religion; on the contrary, it shows its -enormous strength. A religion which made less claims would, no -doubt, have less difficulties; but it would be less likely to be the -true one. If God became Incarnate, no claims can be too vast for the -Religion He founded. And to many, this unspeakable grandeur of -Christianity, so far from being a difficulty, constitutes one of its -greatest charms. - -Next, as to there being no _easier_ means of proof. It is a simple -matter of fact that the vast majority of men, both educated and -uneducated, who believe in Christianity, have not arrived at this -belief by a long line of reasoning, such as we have examined. They -assert that there is an easier way. They say that God has given them -a faculty of _Faith_, which, though it may be hard to explain, just -as man's free will is hard to explain, yet gives them the most -certain conviction of the truth of Christianity. And starting with -this inward conviction, they say it is confirmed by their daily -experience, just as a man's belief in his free will is confirmed by -his daily experience. Of course, this appeal to faith is no argument -to those who do not possess it. On the other hand, to those who do -possess it, no arguments can really weaken or strengthen it. It is a -thing by itself, and absolutely convincing. - -It may be pointed out, however, that if man is a partly spiritual as -well as a partly material being, which we have already admitted; -then the existence of some spiritual sense, or faculty, by which to -perceive spiritual truths, just as the body has material senses by -which to perceive material objects, cannot be thought incredible. -And this is what faith claims to be; it is a means to spiritual -discernment, and may be compared to eyesight. It does not enable us -to believe what we might otherwise think to be untrue; but it -enables us to know for certain, what we might otherwise think to be -only probable (_e.g._, the existence of God). In the same way a -blind man might, by feeling, think it probable that there were a -certain number of pictures in a room, but if he could _see_, he -would know for certain. And, just as a man, who had always been -blind, ought not to reject the testimony of those who see, so a man -who has no faith ought not to reject the testimony of those who -have. And the existence of such a faculty will account for the very -different views taken of Christianity by men of apparently equal -intelligence and candour. - -Still, it may be asked, why should some persons be given this -faculty of faith, while others are not? The subject is no doubt a -difficult one. But very possibly the faculty is _latent_ in every -one, only it needs (like other faculties) to be exercised and -developed. And the man himself may be responsible for whether he -takes suitable means (prayer, etc.) for doing this. However, we need -not pursue this subject, since, as said above, no arguments can -prove, or disprove Christianity to those who believe by faith. - -But now comes the most important part of the objection. Granting, it -is said, that the subject is a difficult one, and demands a long -investigation, yet when we do go through the arguments on both sides -the conclusion is not irresistible. In short, why are not the -evidences in favour of Christianity _stronger_? Of course they might -be so, but we have no reason for thinking that they would be. In -our ordinary daily life we have never absolute certainty to guide -us, but only various degrees of probability. And even, in Natural -Religion, the reasons for believing in a Personal God and the -freedom and responsibility of man, though to most people quite -convincing, are certainly not irresistible; since, as a matter of -fact, some men resist them. - -And if God intends us to act on such evidence in common life, and -also with regard to the great truths of Natural Religion, why should -He not do the same with regard to Christianity? He seems, if we may -use the word, to _respect_ man's momentous attribute of free will -even in matters of Religion; therefore in His sight a right belief, -like right conduct, may be of no value unless it is more or less -voluntary. It is to be a virtue, rather than a necessity. And this -fully accounts for the evidences of Christianity not being -overwhelming. They are amply sufficient to justify anyone in -believing it; but they are not, and were probably never meant to be, -sufficient to compel him to do so. - -If, however,--and this is a matter of practical importance--they are -strong enough to show that the Religion is _probably_ true, a man -who admits this is obviously bound to accept it. He cannot adopt a -neutral attitude, because the evidence is not conclusive; since, as -just said, in every other subject we have only probability, not -certainty, to guide us; and why should religion alone be different? -Then, if he accepts it, he is obviously bound to try and live -accordingly, no matter what the sacrifice may be; for Christianity, -if it is worth anything, is worth everything. Such tremendous truths -cannot be half acted on if believed, any more than they can be half -believed; it must be a case of all for all. And then, if he tries to -live accordingly, he may find (as Christians in all ages have found) -that for himself the probability becomes a certainty. - -Lastly, it may be pointed out that though perhaps the evidences of -Christianity are not so strong as we should expect, they are -precisely of such a _kind_ as we should expect; for they exhibit -each of the three great attributes of God. His Omnipotence is shown -in the miracles, His Omniscience in the prophecies, and His perfect -Goodness in the Character of Christ; so that, judged by its -evidences, Christianity is a Religion which might very reasonably -have come from the God Who is All-Powerful, All-Wise, and All-Good. - - -(_B._) SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION. - -It now only remains to give a summary of the previous chapters, and -then point out the final choice of difficulties. - -In Chapter XIII. we considered the _credibility_ of the Christian -Religion, and decided that some of its leading doctrines, especially -those of the Incarnation and the Atonement, seemed very improbable. -All that can be said on the other side is practically this, that we -have no adequate means of judging; and that when we apply similar -reasoning to subjects about which we do know, such as the freedom of -man or the existence of evil, it generally leads us wrong. But -still the fact remains that the Religion appears, at first sight, -very improbable. - -In Chapter XIV. we considered the _external testimony_ to the _Four -Gospels_, and decided that this was very strongly in their favour. -At the close of the second century they held the same position among -Christians as they do at present; during the middle of that century -Justin shows that they were publicly read, together with the Old -Testament Prophets; while the few earlier writers whose works have -come down to us also seem to have known them. - -In Chapter XV. we considered their _internal evidence_, and found -that it strongly supported the above conclusion; so combining the -two, we have an almost overwhelming argument in favour of their -genuineness. - -In Chapter XVI. we considered an additional argument of great -importance, derived from the _Acts of the Apostles_. There are -strong reasons for dating this book about A.D. 60; and if so it -proves a still earlier date for the first three Gospels. - -In Chapter XVII. we considered the _Resurrection of Christ_, and the -accounts we have of it in the Four Gospels. And we decided that -these Narratives, in spite of some obvious discrepancies and -omissions had every appearance of being thoroughly trustworthy. -Indeed their complete agreement in important points, their mutual -explanations, and their signs of early date are all strongly in -their favour. - -In Chapter XVIII. we considered the testimony of the First -Witnesses, and examined in detail their veracity, knowledge, -investigation, and reasoning; and each seemed to be supported by -irresistible evidence. Therefore the opposite theories, which are -based on denying these points, and are called respectively the -_Falsehood_, the _Legend_, the _Vision_, and the _Swoon_ Theory, are -quite untenable. So we must either accept the Resurrection of -Christ; or deny it, in spite of all the evidence, and solely because -of the miraculous nature of the event. - -In Chapter XIX. we considered the other New Testament _Miracles_, -and came to the conclusion that they also occurred. Indeed their -marks of truthfulness, and their publicity together with the fact -that they were never disputed at the time, make the evidence in -their favour extremely strong. - -In Chapter XX. we considered the argument from _Prophecy_; and -discussed in detail Isaiah's Prophecy of the Lord's Servant, and the -Psalm of the Crucifixion, and then glanced at several others. And we -pointed out how completely these prophecies were fulfilled in -Christ, and how utterly hopeless it was to find any other fulfilment -of them. So here again the choice lies between either accepting -these prophecies, or disputing them simply because they are -prophecies, and imply superhuman knowledge. In other words, we must -either admit the marvel of a Divine Revelation, or else we must face -the _mental_ difficulty of believing that all these coincidences -were due to chance, the improbability of which can scarcely be -calculated. - -In Chapter XXI. we considered the _Character of Christ_; and the -admitted excellence of His moral teaching seems quite inconsistent -with deliberate falsehood on His part. Yet He kept asserting His -superhuman and Divine Nature, and was finally put to death in -consequence. So here once more we have a similar choice before us. -We must either accept the Divinity of Christ, with all the wonders -it involves; or else we must face the _moral_ difficulty of -believing that the best moral teaching the world has ever had, was -given by One, whose own life was full of falsehood and presumption. - -In Chapter XXII. we considered the _History of Christianity_, and -found that its marvellous progress at first, in spite of its immense -difficulties, and without the use of any force, could only be -accounted for by its truth. So here for the last time we have the -same alternatives to choose from. We must either admit the -supernatural origin and spread of Christianity; or else we must face -the _historical_ difficulty of believing that its first preachers -were able to convince men without evidence, conquer them without -force, and found the greatest religion the world has ever seen on -claims which at the time everyone must have known to be untrue. - -In Chapter XXIII. we considered the _other evidence_ on the subject, -and briefly examined various arguments for and against Christianity, -such as its connection with prayer; its adaptation to human nature, -and its relation to other religions; but all of comparative -unimportance. - -Lastly, in Chapter XXIV. we decided that the _Three Creeds_ were -deducible from the New Testament; so the religion which has all this -evidence in its favour is the _Christian Religion_, as we have used -the term. - -From the above summary it will be seen that the arguments against -Christianity are all what may be called _antecedent_ (or _a priori_) -ones. The Religion itself, its doctrines, its claims, its miraculous -origin, all seem most improbable. Thus the objections to -Christianity all lie on the surface. They are obvious and palpable -to everyone. - -On the other hand, the arguments in its favour have often to be -sought for; but when found they are seen to be stronger and stronger -the more they are examined. There are four main arguments. These are -of a widely different character, and each appeals most strongly to a -certain class of minds, so each is often said to be the chief -argument for Christianity, but they are probably of equal value. -They may be conveniently called the argument from _Miracles_, -including of course the Resurrection of Christ; from _Prophecy_; -from _Christ's Character_; and from _History_. And it should be -noticed in passing, that they mutually support one another. -Miracles, for instance, are less difficult to believe when it is -seen that they were to establish a religion which has for centuries -exercised a greater influence on mankind than anything else; and -prophecies become stronger when it is seen that the Life foretold -was one that had such supreme and far-reaching effects. - -Now, it is important to remember that the actual facts on which -these arguments rest are in each case absolutely _unique_. Once, -and only once in the history of the world, have men appeared who -asserted that they were actual witnesses of miracles, and who faced -all forms of suffering and death solely in consequence of this. -Again, once, and only once in the history of the world, has a long -series of prophecies, uttered many centuries apart, united in a -single Person, in whom they one and all find a complete fulfilment. -Yet again, once, and only once in the history of the world, has a -Man appeared of faultless moral character, who asserted that He was -also God, and who boldly claimed all that this tremendous assertion -involved, and submitted to the consequences. While, lastly, once, -and only once in the history of the world, has a Religion, most -improbable in itself, and without using any force, succeeded in -conquering nation after nation. - -These, then, are the four chief arguments on the subject, and in -every case we have the same choice before us. We must either face -the antecedent (or _a priori_) difficulties in accepting -Christianity, or the mental, moral and historical difficulties in -rejecting it. There is no neutral ground, no possibility of avoiding -both sets of difficulties. But the difficulties on the one side -concern what we do _not_ know--God's purpose in creating man--and -may be due to our ignorance only. The difficulties on the other side -concern what we _do_ know. They are practical, they are derived from -experience. We do know that men will not lay down their lives for -what they believe to be false, and that the first preachers of -Christianity must have known whether it was false or not. We do -know that prophecies uttered at random through centuries would not -all unite in a single Person. We do know that even moderately good -men do not make extravagant claims. And we do know that no natural -causes can account for such a religion as Christianity obtaining -such a triumph as it did. - -The choice, then, seems to lie between what we may call _unknown_ -difficulties and _known_ ones. The unknown difficulty of believing -that the Eternal God could so love man as to humble Himself even to -death to win man's love; and the known difficulty of believing that -evidence so vast and so various, so cumulative and so apparently -irresistible, could all unite in making a monstrous falsehood appear -to be a momentous truth. Between these two sets of difficulties we -have to make our choice. But to those who agree with the previous -chapters, the choice cannot be doubtful; for however hard it is to -believe Christianity, it is, as we have shown, harder still to -disbelieve it. This, then, is our final conclusion, that the truth -of the Christian religion is _extremely probable_, because, to put -it shortly, though the difficulties of accepting Christianity are -great, the difficulties of rejecting it are far greater. - - - - -INDEX OF TEXTS. - - - PAGE - - GENESIS. - - 1. 117 - " 1 213 - " 26 159, 393 - 2. 132 - " 4 119 - 3. 22 159, 393 - 4. 13-17, 26 132 - 5. 1-2 134 - 6. 2-4 132 - 7. 11 126 - " 21 132 - 7-8. 159 - 9. 13-14 127 - 11. 7 393 - 12. 3 205 - " 6 160 - " 16 141 - 13. 7 160 - 14. 22 213 - 18. 25 215 - 21. 33 213 - 22. 210 - " 17 217 - " 18 374 - 23. 2, 19 142 - 25. 18 143 - 26. 4 374 - 27. 8-13 208 - 33. 18 142 - 35. 6 142 - 36. 31-39 159 - 39. 1 139 - " 9 215 - 40. 11, 19 140 - " 15 156 - 41. 140 - " 41 393 - 43. 27-28 143 - " 32 139 - 46. 34 139 - 48. 3 142 - 49. 30 142 - 50. 3 139 - - EXODUS. - - 1. 11 144 - " 14 144 - 2. 3 144 - 3. 14 405 - 4. 21 159 - 5. 12 144 - " 23 165 - 7. 3 159 - " 11, 22 182 - " 14-25 157 - " 19 145 - 8. 7, 18, 19 182 - " 15, 32 210 - 9. 34 210 - 10. 1 159 - " 3, 7 210 - 12. 12 146 - " 25 153 - " 37 171 - 13. 11 153 - " 13 210 - 14. 4 209 - " 21, 22 178 - " 30 179 - 16. 36 160 - 17. 14 164 - 19. 5 206 - 20. 24 161 - 21. 2, 16 211 - 22. 29, 30 210 - 23. 4-5 211 - 23. 9 148 - 24. 4 164, 165 - 25. 3-10 148 - " 13-18 147 - 29. 14 154 - 34. 20 210 - " 27 164 - - LEVITICUS. - - 4. 12 154 - 6. 2 392 - " 11 154 - 7. 1 380 - " 38 151 - 11. 29 132 - 13. 46 154 - 14. 3 154 - " 34 153 - 16. 1 151 - " 19 380 - " 26 154 - 17. 3 150, 154 - 18-20. 211 - 18. 20 392 - " 21-28 209 - 19. 11, 15, 17 392 - " 23 151 - " 34 412 - 23. 10 153 - 24. 15 151 - " 16 412 - 24. 19 392 - 25. 1 151 - " 2 153 - " 13 150 - " 14, 15, 17 392 - " 41 211 - 26. 33 190 - 26. 46 151 - 27. 28, 29 210 - " 34 151 - - NUMBERS. - - 1. 171 - " 1 151 - " 21 171 - " 47-4, 49 150 - 2. 10, 17 169 - 3. 14 151 - " 29 169 - 5. 2 154 - 9. 1 151 - " 10 151 - 11. 5 147 - 15. 2, 18 153 - " 35 151 - 16. 169, 183 - 17. 2 147 - 18. 15 210 - 19. 3, 14 154 - 21. 14 159 - 23. 19 214 - 26. 171 - " 11 170 - 27. 8 151 - 33. 165 - " 2 164 - " 4 146 - " 50 151 - 35. 1 151 - " 1-8 150 - " 10 153 - 36. 8 151 - " 13 164 - - DEUTERONOMY. - - 1. 3 151 - " 37 165 - 2. 10-12 160 - " 20-23 160 - 3. 8, 20, 25 156 - " 14 160 - " 23-26 165 - 4. 1, 5, 14 154 - " 3-15 152 - " 17 126 - " 21 165 - " 27 190 - " 39 212 - 4. 46 151 - 5. 3 152 - " 31 154 - 6. 1, 18 154 - " 5 215 - " 9 146 - 7. 1 153 - " 2 163 - " 15 148 - " 22 163 - 8. 1 154 - " 7-10 148 - 9. 5 209 - 11. 2-8 152 - " 6 170 - " 10-12 148 - " 11 126 - " 20 146 - " 30 156 - 12. 1, 10, 29 153 - " 5 161 - " 21 150 - " 31 210 - 13. 1-3 199 - 14. 2 216 - 17. 14 153 - 18. 6-8 162 - " 9 153 - " 22 199 - 20. 17 163 - 21. 23 377 - 24. 9, 18, 22 152 - 25. 17 152 - 26. 1 153 - " 14 147 - " 18 216 - 27. 2 146 - 28. 191 - " 25, 64 190 - " 37, 46, 48 190 - " 60 148 - 29. 1 151 - " 2-9 152 - 31. 2, 22, 24-26 165 - " 9, 22, 24 164 - 32. 8 206 - 33. 27 123 - - JOSHUA. - - 1. 7, 8 160 - 3. 14-17 183 - 6. 6-20 183 - 6. 15 173 - 8. 31, 32 160 - 9. 1, 10 156 - 10. 12-14 179 - 12. 7 156 - 23. 26 160 - 24. 26 160 - - JUDGES. - - 3. 4 160 - 5. 4 127 - 6. 15 171 - " 26 162 - 11. 39 210 - 20. 27, 28 160 - 21. 19 160 - - I. SAMUEL. - - 2. 12-30 160 - 3. 3 160 - 4. 4 160 - 6. 15 160 - " 19 171 - 14. 3 160 - 15. 22 161 - 25. 16 178 - - II. SAMUEL. - - 7. 12-16 195 - 8. 16 173 - 10. 5 141 - 11. 24 386 - 12. 9 386 - 24. 18 162 - - I. KINGS. - - 2. 3 160 - 3. 2 161 - 6. 14-36 147 - 8. 27 213 - 9. 4, 5 195 - 10. 29 174 - 11. 31, 40 195 - 12. 24 195 - 13. 2 196 - 14. 15 196 - 17. 21 357 - 18. 27-40 183 - " 27 212 - " 32 162 - 20. 30 171 - 22. 43 161 - - II. KINGS. - - 2. 22 181 - 4. 6 181 - 5. 10-27 183 - 6. 6 181 - 7. 2 126 - " 6 174 - 14. 6 160 - 15. 19 176 - 17. 6 177 - 18. 4-6 161 - " 28-35 184 - " 18 173 - 19. 10, 34 184 - " 15-18 212 - " 35 183, 184 - 20. 8-11 183, 196 - " 17 196 - 21. 2, 21 163 - 22. 162 - 23. 15, 16 196 - 25. 3 177 - - I. CHRONICLES. - - 21. 12 184 - 28. 9 215 - 29. 11 213 - - II. CHRONICLES. - - 14. 8, 9 171 - 20. 6 206 - 32. 24, 31 197 - 34. 8 173 - - EZRA. - - 6. 12 393 - 7. 21 393 - - NEHEMIAH. - - 1. 8 190 - 9. 6 213 - - JOB. - - 10. 4, 5 120 - 11. 7 214 - 12. 10 213 - 16. 10 385 - 29. 9 376 - 34. 19 215 - 36. 26 213 - 37. 16 213 - 33. 8-11 127 - - PSALMS. - - 8. 3, 4 60 - 22. 384 - 22. 27 218 - 58. 4 134 - 69. 474 - 82. 6 412 - 86. 9 218 - 90. 2 213 - 115. 4-8 212 - 139. 2 213 - " 7 213 - 147. 5 213 - " 8-9 178 - 148. 6 214 - - PROVERBS. - - 15. 3 213 - 16. 4 213 - 30. 19 126 - - ECCLESIASTES. - - 12. 14 215 - - ISAIAH. - - 1. 4 378 - 6. 5-10 460 - " 8 394 - 8. 4 196 - 9. 1-2 390 - " 6 390 - 10. 21 390 - 11. 9 218 - 13. 4 134 - " 19-22 187 - 14. 22, 23 187 - 28. 29 213 - 37. 16 206 - 38. 8 196 - 40. 3 407 - " 10 377 - 41. 8 381 - " 22 199 - 42. 1-6 382 - 44. 6 408 - " 8 199 - " 28 196 - 45. 7 213 - " 15 214 - 46. 10 213 - 48. 3-5 199 - " 12 213 - 49. 3-5 382 - " 6-7 382 - 51. 9 377 - 52. 13-53, 12 376 - - JEREMIAH. - - 7. 22 161 - 8. 8 155 - 9. 16 190 - 14. 14 155 - 23. 24 213 - 24. 9 190 - 26. 8-16 196 - 29. 10 196 - " 18 190 - 30. 11 190 - 31. 35-37 190 - 32. 17 213 - 50. 13, 39, 40 187 - - LAMENTATIONS. - - 4. 4 385 - - EZEKIEL. - - 11. 5 213 - 13. 7 155 - 22. 15 190 - 29. 11-13 189 - " 15 188 - 30. 7, 13 189 - 34. 23 383 - - DANIEL. - - 3. 20-27 183 - 4. 6 393 - 5. 1 174 - 8. 1 174 - 9. 21 311 - 9. 26 196 - 11. 196 - 12. 2 465 - - HOSEA. - - 4. 4-6 160 - 6. 6 161 - 8. 1, 12, 13 160 - 9. 4 160 - " 17 190 - 12. 9 160 - - JOEL. - - 2. 31 145 - - AMOS. - - 2. 4, 11 160 - 3. 6 213 - 4. 1 385 - " 4, 5 160 - 5. 8 213 - " 21-25 160 - 8. 5 160 - 9. 9 190 - - MICAH. - - 5. 2 391 - - NAHUM. - - 3. 7 187 - " 8 178 - - ZEPHANIAH. - - 2. 11 218 - 2. 13-14 187 - - ZECHARIAH. - - 3. 8 383 - 9. 9 392 - 11. 12-13 392 - 12. 10 392 - 13. 7 392 - 14. 9 392 - - MALACHI. - - 3. 6 214 - " 10 126 - - II. ESDRAS. - - 8. 3 262 - - MATTHEW. - - 1. 22 389 - 2. 1 318 - 3. 3 407 - " 17 268 - 5. 3, 10 261 - " 24 273 - " 39 398 - 6. 14 401 - 7. 13, 23 465 - 7. 22 359, 403 - 8. 3 356 - " 12 465 - " 30-32 352 - 9. 9 275 - " 33 361 - " 34 367 - 10. 8 283 - " 17, 22 433 - " 28 472 - " 32 403 - " 33 465 - 11. 21-24 350 - " 4 350 - " 5 283 - " 25-27 281 - " 27 402 - 12. 24 367 - " 31, 32 460 - " 32 465 - " 42 268 - 13. 41 402, 403 - " 42, 50 465 - " 58 358 - 14. 13 284 - 15. 26 386 - 16. 13-16 402 - " 17 304 - " 18 433 - " 21 317 - " 27 403, 468 - " 28 273 - 18. 6 478 - " 8 465 - " 20 404 - 19. 12 399 - " 26 32 - " 28 403 - 20. 28 402 - 21. 43 273 - 22. 11 400 - " 14 261 - " 17 272 - 23. 37 283 - 24. 3, 29 274 - " 16 274 - " 30 403 - " 31 402 - " 36 281 - 25. 31-46 403 - " 41, 46 465 - 26. 28 402 - " 39 32 - " 52 386 - " 61 284 - " 62 378 - " 64 403 - " 65 412 - 27. 8 274 - " 14 378 - 27. 43 390 - " 63-64 303 - 28. 4, 11 311 - " 16, 7, 10 313 - " 9 337 - " 10, 19 386 - " 15 274, 337 - " 17 334 - " 18 402 - " 19, 20 404 - " 19 262, 281, 433, 461 - - MARK. - - 1. 3 407 - " 5 368 - " 11 268 - " 14-20 278 - " 20 285 - " 34 355 - " 42 356 - 2. 10 350 - 3. 1-5 359 - " 10 355 - " 12 358 - " 22 367 - " 28, 29 460 - " 29 465 - 5. 11-13 352 - " 39 358 - " 41 354 - " 42 361 - " 43 358 - 6. 5-6 358 - " 31 284 - " 56 355 - 7. 34 354 - " 36 358 - " 37 361 - 9. 1 273 - " 31 317 - " 48 465 - 10. 18 405 - 10. 24 378 - " 45 402 - 11. 10 366 - 12. 29 460 - 13. 7, 10 273 - " 13 433 - " 14 274 - " 24 274 - " 32 281, 405 - 14. 9 273 - " 24 402 - " 28 311 - " 51 275 - " 58 284 - " 64 412 - 16. 7 313 - " 8 311 - " 11 312 - " 11-14 334 - " 13 312 - " 14 322 - " 15 433 - " 16 477 - " 17 359 - - LUKE. - - 1. 1 276 - " 1-4 271 - " 2-3 272 - " 3 295,313 - " 25 311 - 2. 2 266 - " 52 405 - 3. 1 268 - " 4 407 - " 22 268 - 5. 17-21 360 - " 25 356 - 6. 36-38 261 - 7. 14 357 - " 22 283, 350 - 8. 32-33 352 - " 55 356 - 9. 10 284 - " 27 273 - 10. 13-15 350 - " 21, 22 281 - " 22 402 - " 38 283 - 11. 15 367 - " 31 268 - 13. 453 - " 10-17 359 - " 34 283 - 14. 21-22 309 - 16. 8 399 - 17. 1-2 261 - 18. 33 317 - " 42 358 - " 43 356 - 19. 37 283 - " 37-38 392 - " 43 299 - 21. 21 274 - " 24 273 - " 27 274 - 22. 19 402 - " 71 412 - 24. 4, 23 311 - " 9, 33 322 - " 11 311 - " 11, 37 334 - " 12 318 - " 18 276 - " 24 318 - " 30, 43 337 - " 34 312, 313, 321 - " 41 322 - " 39 261 - - JOHN. - - 1. 1 286, 407 - " 3 409 - " 14 277 - " 29-2, 12 278 - " 29, 36 286 - " 40 276 - " 46 377 - 2. 11 360 - " 13 280 - " 17, 22 278 - " 19 284 - " 19-21 317 - 3. 13 404 - " 16 476 - " 24 281 - 4. 27 278 - 5. 1 280 - " 2 277 - " 9 356 - " 9-16 359 - " 18 411 - 5. 23 403 - " 27 473 - " 36 350 - 6. 4 280, 284 - " 15 366 - " 38 404 - " 42, 70 281 - " 51 472 - " 62 314 - 7. 5 325 - 8. 12 434 - " 24 477 - " 29 401 - " 58 404 - " 59 411 - 9. 8-34 353 - " 13-34 362 - " 14-16 359 - " 32 361 - 10. 18 241, 381 - " 30 404 - " 33 411 - 11. 8 411 - " 11 358 - " 47 362 - 12. 32 434 - " 45 404 - 13. 28 278 - 14. 1, 23 403 - " 9 404 - " 16, 26 460 - " 28 406 - 15. 26 460 - 16. 7 403 - " 17 278 - " 28 404 - 17. 5 404 - " 21 404 - 18. 15 276, 285 - 19. 7 412 - " 28-30 385 - " 34 343 - " 35 277 - 20. 2, 13 318 - " 6-8 318 - " 17 314, 406 - " 25 334 - " 26 303 - " 28 407 - " 30 306, 313 - " 31 282 - 21. 5 378 - 21. 12 322 - " 13 337 - " 15 322 - - ACTS. - - 1. 1 419 - " 1-13 307 - " 3 296, 306, 310, 327 - " 6 309 - " 8 321 - " 13 275 - " 15 307 - " 22 303, 309, 322 - " 22-23 307 - 2. 22 362, 407 - " 24 302 - " 31 303 - " 38 462 - " 41 338 - " 43-47 386 - 3. 6 408 - " 13 383 - " 15 379, 344 - " 21 296 - 4. 5-22 362 - " 10 302, 408 - " 12 477 - " 16 362 - " 37 275 - 5. 3, 4 460 - " 30 302 - " 37 267 - 6. 5 295 - 7. 59 408 - 8. 5, 26, 40 295 - " 16 462 - 9. 7 339 - " 10 332 - 10. 10 332 - " 30 333 - " 38 362 - " 40 302 - " 41 337, 348 - 11. 5 333 - 12. 1 289 - " 12 275 - 13. 1 419 - " 7 288 - " 30 302 - " 31 306, 310, 315 - " 35-37 303 - 14. 1-12 291 - 15. 7, 14 322 - 16. 9 332 - " 9-40 294 - " 18, 26 362 - " 31 477 - 17. 6 290 - " 17 418 - " 19, 32 456 - " 28 109 - " 31 302 - " 34 419 - 18. 8, 24 419 - " 12 289 - " 25 462 - 19. 3 461 - " 9-10 418 - " 21 293 - " 29-39 292 - " 38 289 - 20. 2 294 - " 5-21, 18 294 - " 25, 38 299 - " 28 408 - 21. 10 295 - " 18 272 - 22. 9 339 - " 17 333 - 23. 26 289, 419 - 24. 3 419 - " 17 293 - 25. 13, 14, 23 290 - " 26 289 - 26. 23 302 - " 8 456 - " 19, 8 304 - " 13, 14 339 - " 23 245 - " 30 289 - 27. 1-28, 16 294 - 28. 6, 8, 9 362 - " 7 290 - " 25 460 - - ROMANS. - - 2. 6 468 - 6. 23 472 - 8. 26 460 - " 8, 29 78 - " 35 328 - 9. 5 410 - 10. 9 477 - 13. 4 386 - 14. 9 410 - " 10 410 - 15. 18, 19 363 - " 19 294 - " 25, 26 293 - " 30 463 - 16. 23 419 - - I. CORINTHIANS. - - 1. 23 417 - 2. 8 405 - " 10 460 - 4. 9-13 328 - 6. 12 479 - 8. 4 460 - 8. 6 410 - 9. 1 303, 333 - 10. 2 462 - 12. 9-10, 28 370 - 15. 1-3 306 - " 3 410 - " 4 303 - " 3-5 304 - " 5 322 - " 8 333 - " 11 306, 314 - " 14-17 303 - " 15 329 - " 20 245 - " 50 304 - 16. 23 462 - - II. CORINTHIANS. - - 3. 17 460 - 5. 10 410 - " 16 302 - " 21 410 - 8. 18 300 - 11. 24-27 328 - 12. 12 363 - 13. 14 462 - - GALATIANS. - - 1. 8-9 474 - " 13 328 - " 16 304 - " 16-17 333 - " 19 306, 409 - " 23 409 - 2. 2 409 - 3. 13 377 - " 28 427 - 4. 4 239 - 6. 18 462 - - EPHESIANS. - - 4. 4-6 410, 463 - 6. 12 304 - " 23 462 - - PHILIPPIANS. - - 2. 6 410 - 4. 3 260 - - COLOSSIANS. - - 1. 15-16 409 - " 17 109 - " 18 245 - " 20 471 - 2. 9 410 - 4. 10 275 - " 14 296 - - I THESSALONIANS. - - 1. 3-5 463 - - I TIMOTHY. - - 1. 13 479 - 4. 10 471 - - II TIMOTHY. - - 1. 13 475 - 4. 7 476 - " 11 296 - " 20 299 - - TITUS. - - 2. 13 410 - - PHILEMON. - - 24 296 - - HEBREWS. - - 1. 3 404 - " 8 410 - 9. 14 460 - - I PETER. - - 1. 2 463 - " 19 477 - 4. 14 434 - - II PETER. - - 3. 10 437 - - I JOHN. - - 1. 1 277, 286 - 2. 2 471 - 4. 2-3 478 - - JUDE. - - 20-21 463 - - REVELATION. - - 1. 5 245 - " 17, 18 408 - " 18 344 - 2. 8 408 - " 13, 25 475 - 3. 11 475 - " 14 409 - 5. 11-14 408 - " 13 471 - 6. 1 286 - 13. 18 255 - 14. 1 286 - " 11 465 - 17. 6 298 - 19. 13 286 - 20. 15 465 - 22. 13 408 - - - - -INDEX OF SUBJECTS. - - - PAGE - - Abila, inscription at, 268 - Abraham, trust in God, 205, 210 - ---- promises to, 374 - Account of creation, 117 - Acts of Apostles, 287 - ---- accuracy, 288 - ---- authorship, 294 - ---- medical language, 296 - ---- date, 297 - ---- and Christ's Divinity, 407 - ---- of Pilate, 365 - Adam and Eve, 132 - Additions to Pentateuch, 159 - Agreements, undesigned, 168 - ---- in Gospels, 315 - Agrippa, called King, 289 - Amalek, threat against, 164 - Ambition, the great, 451 - Amos, 160 - Analogies and illustrations: - ---- watch showing design, 12 - ---- mass of machinery, 22 - ---- house and tenant, 31 - ---- ship in distress, 36 - ---- king and child, 67 - ---- bird in egg, 89 - ---- telegraph clerk, 91 - ---- Mont Cenis tunnel, 102 - ---- telephone, 105 - ---- clock and magnet, 107 - ---- artist and pictures, 126 - ---- diseases of Normandy, 148 - ---- similar letters, 227 - ---- man's nature, 232 - ---- parents and children, 234 - ---- paying a debt, 242 - ---- regiments crossing, 245 - ---- whirlpool, 248 - ---- Indian Mutiny, 299 - ---- ingenious robbery, 399 - ---- founding a religion, 416 - ---- going for a holiday, 439 - ---- prayer to a father, 441 - ---- trees and storm, 447 - ---- key fitting lock, 450 - ---- planting a flower, 466 - ---- quicksands, 474 - ---- doctor and fever, 474 - ---- scarlet fever, 482 - ---- long frontier line, 484 - Angels, their existence, 202 - ---- their influence, 203 - ---- at tomb, 310, 345 - ---- seen by the women, 310 - ---- and by soldiers, 311 - ---- not fellow-creators, 394 - ---- seeing and hearing, 202 - ---- are Christ's angels, 402 - ---- casting out evil, 351 - Animals, their creation, 131 - ---- difference from man, 51 - ---- cannot know man, 227 - ---- not immortal, 91 - ---- their sufferings, 69 - Antioch, inscription at, 267 - Antiquity of man, 132 - Apocryphal Gospels, 354 - Apollos of Alexandria, 418 - Apostasy, under trial, 475 - Apostolic Fathers, 260 - Aramaic words of Christ, 354 - Archæology and O. Test, 172 - Arianism, 475 - Aristides, 259, 364 - Aristion, 258, 305 - Ark, 147 - Arm of the Lord, 377 - Artist and pictures, 126 - Ascension, the, 314 - ---- and early converts, 344 - Ashdod, taken by Sargon, 176 - Assyria, prophecies as to, 187 - ---- army destroyed, 184 - Athanasian Creed, warnings, 473 - Athanasian Creed, implies persecution, 475 - ---- dogmatism, 479 - Atonement, doctrine of, 240 - ---- prophecies as to, 379 - ---- and human nature, 447 - ---- and other religions, 454 - - Baal and Jehovah, 183 - Baalbec, inscription at, 268 - Babylonia, prophecies, 187 - ---- messengers from, 197 - Baker, the chief, 140 - Baptismal formula, 461 - ---- witness of St. Paul, 461 - ---- of Teaching, 262, 461 - Baptist (see John), 279 - Barnabas, epistle of, 261 - Bashan, bulls of, 385 - Battering-rams, 192 - Beauterne as to Napoleon, 251 - Bees, cells of, 52 - ---- not due to heredity, 53 - Belief, importance of true, 473 - ---- virtue not necessity, 487 - Belshazzar, 174 - Beneficence in nature, 59 - ---- and righteousness, 80 - ---- in Jewish Religion, 214 - ---- and in Christian, 242 - Bernice, 290 - Berosus, as to Nabonidus, 174 - ---- as to Sennacherib, 185 - Bethany, 283 - Bethel, altar at, 196 - Bethesda, pool at, 277 - Bethlehem, Birth at, 391 - 'Beyond Jordan', 156 - Bible, mistakes in O. Test., 170 - ---- in N. Test., 268 - ---- inspiration, 437 - Bible and Nat. Religion, 200 - Blasphemy against Spirit, 460 - ---- Christ charged with, 412 - Blood and water, 343, 385 - Book of the Law, 162 - Books buried in temples, 163 - Bread, miracle as to, 108 - Bricks with straw, 144 - Brotherhood of man, 48 - Butler, 431 - By-product, pain is a, 60 - - Cæsar, no early MSS., 253 - Cæsarea, Philip at, 295 - Calmness of Evangelists, 317 - Canaan, its peculiarities, 148 - Canaanites destroyed, 209 - ---- but done gradually, 163 - Cannibalism at Jerusalem, 192 - Capernaum, centurion at, 360 - Cats and mice, 70 - Cause, must be free, 33 - Cells of bees, 52 - ---- built by workers, 53 - Celsus, Christ's miracles, 367 - Cenis, tunnel in Mont, 102 - Census of Israelites, 171 - ---- at Christ's birth, 266 - Centurion at Capernaum, 360 - Certainty not necessity, 27 - Chabas, 143 - Chance, really impossible, 21 - Change of place in Acts I, 310 - Changelessness, moral, 111 - Character of God, 58 - ---- of man, 39 - ---- its permanence, 88 - Chiefman of Malta, 290, 361 - Child of God, man is a, 236 - Child's belief, 478 - ---- temptations, 87 - Chorazin, its significance, 350 - Christ, His character, 396 - ---- teaching, 397 - ---- sinlessness, 400 - ---- in Old Test, 380, 388 - ---- always pleasing God, 401 - ---- claims, 401 - ---- sufferings unmerited, 241 - ---- His temptations, 447 - ---- foretold Resurrection, 317 - ---- beginning of creation, 409 - ---- seeing Him seeing God, 404 - ---- influence in world, 434 - ---- prophecies as to, 374 - ---- the perfect Example, 236 - ---- the Jewish Messiah, 375 - ---- the Paschal Lamb, 380 - ---- the One Mediator, 454 - ---- the only Saviour, 476 - ---- (see Divinity), 403, 459 - Christiana, sand storm, 146 - Christianity, meaning of, 3, 221 - ---- its leading doctrines, 222 - ---- its improbability, 249, 488 - Christianity, preparation for, 422 - ---- based on miracles, 435 - ---- and the Resurrection, 302 - ---- its early triumphs, 416 - ---- its later history, 425 - ---- effect on world, 426 - ---- future prospects, 430 - ---- its indestructibility, 432 - ---- and prayer, 437 - ---- and human nature, 445 - ---- and other religions, 452 - ---- its evidences, 483 - ---- unspeakable grandeur, 485 - ---- no half measures, 488 - Classical writers, miracles, 368 - ---- no early MSS., 253 - Clement of Rome, Gospels, 261 - Cleopas, 276 - Clock and magnet, 107 - Closed questions, 481 - Coincidences, superhuman, 100 - Communion, Holy, 386, 402 - Conscience, man has a, 50 - ---- the Voice of God, 50 - Conservation of energy, 46 - Constantine's vision, 335 - Conversion, St. Paul's, 306 - ---- effect on companions, 339 - ---- Christ unrecognised, 340 - Converts, early, 418 - Crabs, and sense of pain, 70 - Creation, 4 - ---- account of, in Genesis, 117 - ---- days of, 119 - ---- on three occasions, 123, 136 - ---- and evolution, 24 - Creator, meaning of term, 8 - Credentials, of messenger, 98 - Credible, meaning of, 99 - Creeping things, 131 - Crispus of Corinth, 418 - Crucifixion, Psalm of the, 384 - ---- no Jewish punishment, 388 - Cyprus, proconsul at, 288 - Cyrenius (see Quirinius), 266 - - Damnatory clauses, 473 - Dana on Genesis I, 136 - Daniel, Book of, 174 - Darkness over land, 368 - Darwin, 71 - David, his character, 208 - ---- not subject of Ps. 22, 388 - Days of creation, 119 - Dead body of Christ, 337 - ---- offerings for, 147 - Death, 448 - Decalogue, its excellence, 211 - ---- preserved in temple, 215 - Definitions, credible, 99 - ---- design, 10 - ---- dogmatism, 479 - ---- evolution, 20 - ---- free force, 4 - ---- instinct, 52 - ---- law of nature, 19 - ---- material universe, 4 - ---- miracles, 101 - ---- natural force, 20 - ---- omnipotence, 32 - ---- omniscience, 32 - ---- origin, 4 - ---- personal being, 30 - ---- revelation, 82 - ---- supernatural force, 9 - Degradation of energy, 7 - Delphi, inscription at, 289 - Demoniacal possession, 351 - Desert, of Shur, 143 - ---- laws suitable for, 149 - ---- journeys in, 165 - ---- wind, 145 - Design, meaning of, 10 - ---- evidence in a watch, 12 - ---- in an eye, 14 - ---- throughout nature, 18 - ---- beneficent, 59 - ---- need not be desire, 74 - ---- man can, 47 - ---- animals cannot, 52 - ---- and instinct, 52 - Destruction of Canaanites, 209 - ---- done gradually, 163 - ---- of wicked, 471 - Determinism, 43 - Deuteronomy, finding of, 162 - Dial, shadow on, 196 - Diana of Ephesus, 292 - Diatessaron of Tatian, 257 - Diet in Egypt, 147 - Difficulties not explained - ---- as to Adam and Eve, 132 - ---- number of Israelites, 171 - ---- swine at Gadara, 352 - ---- vows in Ps. 22, 386 - ---- virginity, 399 - Difficulties, endless misery, 470 - ---- known and unknown, 494 - Dionysius the Areopagite, 418 - Discoveries, modern, 172 - Discrepancies in Gospels, 268 - ---- in Fourth Gospel, 282 - ---- as to Resurrection, 309 - ---- essential agreement, 315 - Diseases of Egypt, 148, 193 - Dishonesty in E, J, P, and D, 158 - Dispersion of Jews, 189, 217 - Divinity of Christ, 403, 459 - ---- witness of Synoptists, 407 - ---- of St. John, 407 - ---- of Acts, 407 - ---- of Revelation, 408 - ---- of St. Paul's Epistles, 409 - ---- of Hebrews, 410 - ---- of Aristides, 365 - ---- of Christ's foes, 411 - ---- of Pliny, 418 - ---- of Jewish prophecies, 390 - ---- of Holy Spirit, 459 - Dogmatism, objection to, 479 - Dogs, term for Gentiles, 385 - Doors of the sea, 126 - Doubts of Resurrection, 334 - Dreams, 92 - ---- of Pharaoh, 140 - Driver, 157, 159 - Dry land, appearance of, 127 - Dualism in old religions, 119 - ---- unknown to Jews, 213 - ---- and endless misery, 466 - - Eagle, Roman ensign, 191 - Earth likened to machine, 22 - Earthquakes, 74 - Edersheim and Isaiah, 53, 381 - ---- and Psalm 22, 387 - Edomite kings, list of, 159 - Effect, the world is an, 37 - Egypt, prophecies as to, 188 - ---- magicians of, 182 - ---- diseases of, 148, 193 - ---- gods of, 146 - ---- religion of, 454 - ---- and the Pentateuch, 138 - ---- return of Jews to, 194 - ---- periodical census, 267 - Elephantine, temple at, 162 - Eleven, the, ancient term, 322 - Elijah's sacrifice, 100, 183 - Elisha, trivial miracles of, 181 - Elohim, plural word, 393 - Embalming Christ's body, 334 - Emperor called lord, 289 - Encyclopædia Britannica, 15, 53 - End of the world, 437 - Endless happiness, 470 - ---- misery, 464 - Enemies, doing good to, 211 - Energy, degradation of, 7 - ---- conservation of, 46 - Ephesus, riot at, 292 - ---- St. Paul's discussions, 418 - ---- farewell to friends, 299 - Epistles of St. Paul, four admittedly genuine, 282 - ---- accuracy of Acts, 293 - ---- the Resurrection, 303 - ---- St. Paul's sufferings, 328 - ---- Christian miracles, 363 - ---- Divinity of Christ, 410 - ---- doctrine of Trinity, 462 - ---- spread of Christianity, 418 - Erastus of Corinth, 418 - Erech, inscription at, 174 - Erect position, man's, 65 - Eternal punishment, 464 - Eternity, 450 - Ether, 226, 246 - Euclid, 40 - Eusebius, as to Papias, 259 - ---- Quadratus, 364 - ---- Jews going to Pella, 275 - Evangelists educated, 275 - ---- had known Christ, 302 - Everlasting Father and Son, 225 - ---- in Isaiah, 391 - Everyone's work no one's, 348 - Evidences, Christian, 483 - Evil, existence of, 69 - ---- physical, 69, 72 - ---- moral, 75 - ---- Jewish idea of, 213 - ---- men, 77 - ---- spirits, 351 - Evolution, meaning of, 20 - ---- requires a Cause, 7 - ---- requires a Designer, 23 - ---- requires a motive, 84 - ---- implies involution, 23 - Evolution and mind, 65 - ---- and immortality, 85 - ---- a form of creation, 24 - ---- leads up to man, 65 - ---- and the Incarnation, 239 - ---- in revelation, 93, 206 - ---- in prophecies, 375 - ---- in account of Creation, 122 - Experience and miracles, 103 - Eye, its marks of design, 14 - ---- shows beneficence, 59 - Ezekiel, prophecy of Egypt, 188 - - Faith, faculty of, 485 - ---- and miracles, 358 - Falsehood Theory, the, 326 - ---- not now adopted, 329 - Famines in Egypt, 141 - ---- at Jerusalem, 192 - Farewell, Christ's double, 309 - Feeding the 5,000 credible, 108 - ---- in triple tradition, 269 - ---- undesigned coincidence, 284 - ---- public miracle, 361 - ---- rationalistic view, 370 - Feet pierced, 343 - Felix and Festus, 289 - 'Fellow,' meaning of, 392 - Fellowship and personality, 229 - Fig-tree, the barren, 354 - Final state of wicked, 463 - Firmament, or expanse, 125 - Firstborn from dead, 245 - ---- of Creation, 409 - ---- death of the, 146 - First Cause single, 8 - ---- supernatural, 9 - ---- needed no cause, 8 - First Witnesses, the, 325 - Fishes and birds, 130 - Five hundred, appearance, 307 - ---- explains Gospels, 321 - Flesh and blood, 304 - Flood, parallel passages, 159 - Forces and causes, 33 - Foreknowledge, free will, 26 - ---- and omniscience, 32 - ---- and prophecies, 99 - ---- and prayer, 439 - ---- and endless misery, 468 - ---- differs from foresight, 11 - ---- from foreordaining, 78 - ---- in man, foreguessing, 26 - Forgiveness of sins, 242 - Fourth Gospel, authorship, 277 - ---- and other three, 280 - ---- and Revelation, 285 - Free force, meaning of a, 4 - Free will, foreknowledge, 26 - ---- of man, 43 - ---- of animals, 52 - ---- of angels, 203 - ---- source of all force, 46 - ---- its introduction, 123 - ---- makes evil possible, 76 - ---- difficulties as to, 466 - ---- in religious belief, 487 - Fruit-trees making fruit, 122 - Fulfilled among us, 276 - Future life (_see_ Immortality and Resurrection). - - Gabriel, man and angel, 311 - Gadara, miracle at, 269, 352 - Galilee, appearance in, 307 - Gallio, proconsul, 289 - Generations, meaning, 122 - Genesis, the Creation in, 117 - ---- refers to Egypt, 138 - ---- partly written there, 142 - Gentiles, conversion, 380, 388, 393 - ---- called dogs, 385 - Geography of Palestine, 173 - Gibbon and Christianity, 420 - Gifts brought to the altar, 272 - God, meaning of term, 30 - ---- argument from causation, 4 - ---- from design, 10 - ---- moral argument, 58 - ---- three combined, 81, 229 - ---- no physical proof, 31 - ---- a Personal Being, 30 - ---- who loves man, 234 - ---- Power, 32, 213, 228, 440, 465 - ---- Wisdom 32, 213, 228, 441 - ---- Goodness, 79, 214, 228, 242, 441 - ---- bearing on miracles, 112 - ---- and on the Trinity, 229 - ---- emphasized by Christianity, 235 - ---- three attributes combined, 80, 112, 199, 235, 488 - ---- Justice, 204, 466 - God, and Mercy, 468 - ---- bearing on Atonement, 241 - ---- Love, 229 - ---- bearing on Trinity, 229 - ---- Greatness, 61 - ---- Omnipresence, 33, 213 - ---- Unknowable, 33, 214, 226 - ---- bearing on revelation, 94 - ---- Unchangeable, 110, 214 - ---- bearing on miracles, 110 - ---- and the Incarnation, 231 - ---- Omnipotent, 32 - ---- Eternal, 213 - ---- Creator of Universe, 8 - ---- and its Preserver, 33 - ---- Jewish idea of, 204 - ---- faith in, 486 - ---- (_see_ Immanence) - ---- (_see_ Trinity) - Goodness, God's, 80, 214, 228 - ---- not below man's, 80, 235 - ---- man's, 48 - ---- depends on free will, 76 - ---- its infinite value, 76 - Gospels, the Four, 252 - ---- external testimony, 252 - ---- internal evidence, 265 - ---- evidence of Acts, 287 - ---- probable date, 300 - ---- (_see_ Synoptics, Fourth) - Governor, title of, 289 - Grape-juice in Egypt, 140 - Grave-clothes at tomb, 345 - ---- by themselves, 318 - Gravity, force, universal, 8 - ---- known by effects, 35 - ---- an assumption, 46 - Great ambition, 451 - ---- alternative, 413 - ---- surprise, 449 - Greek philosophy, 423 - Green grass, mentioned, 284 - Guard at the tomb, 337 - - Harnack, unity of Acts, 295 - ---- date of Gospels, 300 - ---- as to Town Clerk, 292 - Healing, gifts of, 370 - Hebrews, Christ's Divinity, 410 - ---- land of the, 156 - Hengstenberg, 387 - Herod, Agrippa, death of, 288 - Herod, called king, 289 - Hezekiah, his sickness, 196 - ---- not subject of Ps. 22, 388 - Hittites, 174 - Holy Communion, 386, 402 - Holy Spirit, the, 230 - ---- Divinity of, 459 - Horses, time of Joseph, 141 - Horus myth, and Christ, 454 - Human sacrifices in O.T., 210 - ---- and Atonement, 240 - Hume on experience, 104 - Hurtful organs in nature, 59 - Huxley on the Creeds, 249 - - Iconium, 291 - Ignatius, 261 - ---- knowing, believing, 263 - Illusions, not simultaneous, 335 - Illyricum, 293 - Image and likeness, 134 - Immanence, God's, 109 - ---- and Evolution, 23 - ---- and secondary forces, 33 - ---- and miracles, 109 - ---- and the Incarnation, 239 - ---- and prayer, 440 - Immortality, man's, 83 - ---- from unique position, 84 - ---- unjust treatment, 87 - ---- vast capabilities, 88 - ---- inherent belief, 90 - ---- counter-arguments, 91 - ---- and human nature, 448 - ---- in Egyptian religion, 455 - Incarnation, doctrine of, 230 - ---- its difficulties, 231 - ---- its motive, 233 - ---- historical position, 238 - ---- and evolution, 239 - ---- and human nature, 447 - ---- and other religions, 452 - Indian Mutiny, 299 - Infinitely little, 64 - Inhabitants, other planets, 67 - Inherent convictions, man's, 39 - ---- as to mind, 41 - ---- free will, 44 - ---- responsibility, 47 - ---- sin, 48 - ---- immortality, 90 - ---- prayer, 438 - Inscriptions at Erech, 174 - Inscriptions, at Mugheir, 174 - ----Khorsabad, 176 - ---- Tivoli, 266 - ---- Antioch, 267 - ---- Baalbec, 268 - ---- Abila, 268 - ---- Soli, Cyprus, 289 - ---- Delphi, 289 - ---- Malta, 290 - ---- Thessalonica, 290 - ---- Lystra, 291 - ---- Ephesus, 292 - Insignificance of man, 60 - ---- counter-arguments, 61 - ---- real importance, 64 - Instincts of animals, 52 - Invertebrates, in Genesis, 131 - Involution and evolution, 23 - Irenæus and Gospels, 254 - ---- Polycarp, 254 - ---- Papias, 258 - ---- date of Revelation, 285 - ---- value of prophecy, 367 - Isaac, sacrifice of, 210 - Isaiah, mentions Sargon, 176 - ---- test of a prophet, 199 - ---- prophecy of Babylon, 187 - ---- of Jerusalem, 196 - ---- of the Messiah, 377 - ---- of His Divinity, 391 - ---- implies the Trinity, 394 - Israel, God's selection of, 204 - ---- going through cities of, 273 - Israelites, great number, 171 - - Jacob's character, 208 - Jairus' daughter, 353, 358, 360 - James, St., Christ's brother, 272 - ---- unbeliever, 325 - Japan, becoming Christian, 430 - Jehovah adored by millions, 218 - ---- identified with Christ, 407 - ---- and with Holy Spirit, 460 - Jehu not son of Omri, 176 - Jephthah's daughter, 210 - Jericho, discoveries at, 173 - Jeroboam's rebellion, 195 - Jerusalem, first destruction foretold, 196 - ---- accuracy of date, 177 - ---- and second, 191, 274 - ---- later than Gospels, 275 - Jerusalem, later than Acts, 299 - ---- hint to leave, 274 - Jewish Prophecies, Egypt, 188 - ---- Assyria, 187 - ---- Babylonia, 187 - ---- dispersion of Jews, 189 - ---- the Messiah, 374 - Jewish Religion, its origin, 137 - ---- its partiality, 204 - ---- its miracles, 177 - ---- its prophecies, 186 - ---- influence in world, 217 - ---- and Natural Religion, 216 - Jews, dispersion of, 189 - ---- a peculiar people, 217 - ---- all from one man, 216 - ---- use of term, 280 - John, St., his call, 278 - ---- author of Gospel, 279 - ---- the Baptist, 279 - ---- and Christ's miracles, 350 - Jordan, beyond, 156 - Joseph in Egypt, 139 - Josephus, witness to Acts, 289 - ---- as to Sennacherib, 185 - ---- as to crucifixion, 342 - ---- siege of Jerusalem, 191 - ---- date of the taxing, 266 - Josiah and Deuteronomy, 162 - Journeys in Desert, 165 - Jubilee, year of, 150 - Judges and Pentateuch, 160 - Justice, God's, 204, 466 - Justin, witness to Gospels, 255 - ---- Book of Revelation, 285 - ---- guard at tomb, 337 - ---- Christ's miracles, 365 - ---- prefers prophecy, 365 - ---- the Name, persecuted, 434 - ---- Acts of Pilate, 365 - - King of the Jews, 392 - Kings did not use plural, 393 - Korah, rebellion of, 169 - Koran, Christ's miracles, 424 - ---- authorises force, 428 - Krishna myth, and Christ, 452 - - Lamb of God, 286 - ---- Paschal, 380 - Land animals, 131 - Laws, of nature, 19 - ---- in Pentateuch, 149 - Laymen offering sacrifice, 162 - Lazarus, raising of, 370 - ---- only in one Gospel, 283 - ---- well-known man, 360 - ---- case of resuscitation, 245 - Lecky, on Christ's teaching, 398 - Legend Theory, the, 329 - ---- disproved by Gospels, 329 - ---- and St. Paul's Epistles, 330 - Legislation, Jewish, 149 - Levi ben Gershon, 180 - Levites, 150, 162 - Life, origin of, in Genesis, 128 - ---- science and, 122 - ---- forms three groups, 55 - Light before the sun, 129 - Logos in Revelation, 286 - ---- among Greeks, 423 - Lord, and God, 407 - ---- title or emperor, 289 - Lord's Day, 303 - ---- Servant, the, 376 - Lost Gospel, 262 - Love, of God, 229 - ---- must be free, 235 - ---- motive of Religion, 451 - Luke, St., a doctor, 296 - ---- wrote Gospel, 275 - ---- wrote Acts, 294 - ---- perhaps at Emmaus, 276 - ---- witnessed miracles, 362 - Lycaonia, the cities of, 291 - Lysanias, 268 - Lystra, inscriptions at, 291 - - Magicians of Egypt, 182 - Magnet and clock, 107 - Mohammedanism, 213 - ---- unlike Christianity, 424 - ---- and Christ's miracles, 424 - ---- authorises force, 428 - Malchus, 360 - Malta, title 'chiefman', 290 - Man, mental attributes, 39 - ---- moral attributes, 41 - ---- memory, 41 - ---- free will, 43 - ---- responsibility, 47 - ---- moral sense, 48 - ---- conscience, 50 - ---- personal being, 47 - Man, moral being, 49 - ---- bearing on Christianity, 239 - ---- his Unique position, 45, 65 - ---- due to mind, and spirit, 66 - ---- greater than stars, 66 - ---- bearing on revelation, 94 - ---- each man unique, 62, 133 - ---- and irreplaceable, 63 - ---- character, permanent, 88 - ---- tripartite nature, 55 - ---- end of creation, 65, 84 - ---- also its first thought, 66 - ---- his probation, 85 - ---- scandal of universe, 244 - ---- seems insignificant, 60 - ---- real importance, 64 - ---- bearing on Incarnation, 239 - ---- immortality of spirit, 83 - ---- resurrection of body, 247 - ---- creation in Genesis, 132 - ---- not created good, 86, 133 - ---- antiquity, 132 - ---- differs from animals, 51 - ---- his erect position, 65 - ---- resembles God, 56, 133, 234 - ---- child of God, 236 - ---- bearing on Incarnation, 232 - ---- his ignorance, 6, 17, 34 - ---- bearing on miracles, 108 - ---- and on Christianity, 249 - Manaen, 418 - Marcion, Luke's Gospel, 257 - Mardukshazzar, 175 - Mark, St., wrote Gospel, 275 - ---- interpreter of Peter, 259 - ---- earliest of Four, 269 - ---- at Gethsemane, 275 - ---- witness to miracles, 355 - ---- their sitting at meat, 320 - Martha, 283 - Mary Magd. first witness, 316 - ---- not expecting it, 334 - Material universe, meaning, 4 - Materialism, 40 - Materials, same everywhere, 68 - Matter, perhaps eternal, 6 - ---- certainly a mystery, 34 - ---- indestructible, 83 - ---- not solid, 245 - Matthew, St., wrote Gospel, 275 - Mediator, Christ the, 454 - Medical language in Acts, 296 - Memory, and materialism, 41 - ---- in heaven, 470 - Menephthah, 143 - Mercy, God's, 468 - Mesmerism, 351 - Messiah, Jewish, 374 - Meteorite, 100, 292 - Micah, prophecy of, 391 - Michael, 203 - Microscope, 64 - Mill, on Christ's teaching, 397 - Mind of man, 39 - ---- shows his importance, 66 - Miracles, 101 - ---- as marvels, 103 - ---- and experience, 103 - ---- as special works, 106 - ---- as signs, 110 - ---- not mere wonders, 101, 103 - ---- natural means supernaturally applied, 107 - ---- in Jewish religion, 177 - ---- to benefit mankind, 200 - ---- their publicity, 185 - ---- some seem trivial, 181 - ---- in Christian religion, 349 - ---- their credibility, 349 - ---- not worked to order, 350 - ---- their truthfulness, 353 - ---- their naturalness, 355 - ---- their number, 355 - ---- their variety, 355 - ---- their suddenness, 356 - ---- their permanence, 356 - ---- order to keep secret, 358 - ---- on the Sabbath, 359 - ---- their publicity, 360 - ---- names often given, 360 - ---- caused astonishment, 361 - ---- peculiarity of Christ's, 357 - ---- conditional on faith, 358 - ---- publicly admitted, 362 - ---- St. Peter's appeal to, 362 - ---- and Acts of Pilate, 365 - ---- how explained away, 369 - ---- Apostolic, St. Paul's, 363 - ---- witnessed by St. Luke, 362 - ---- in Christ's name, 408 - ---- helped Christianity, 421 - ---- Mohammed did none, 424 - Miracles, not to be prayed for, 443 - ---- later Christian, 371 - Missionaries and prayer, 438 - ---- of the Resurrection, 347 - Missions, 430 - Mistakes in O. Test., 170 - ---- in N. Test., 268 - Monkey and evolution, 23 - Monotheism, of Jews, 212 - ---- in account of creation, 118 - Moral sense, 48 - ---- perfection, 67 - ---- difficulties in O. Test., 208 - ---- in N. Testament, 399 - Morality, Christian, 422 - Moses wrote Pentateuch, 164 - ---- an Egyptian name, 143 - Mugheir, inscription at, 174 - Mutiny, Indian, 299 - Mutual explanations, 317 - Myrrh, 345 - - Nabonidus, 174 - Name of Christ persecuted, 434 - Names, Egyptian, 142 - ---- of God in O. Test., 158 - ---- in N. Test. miracles, 360 - ---- of eminent converts, 418 - ---- and titles in Acts, 288 - Napoleon, on Christianity, 251 - Nathaniel, 279 - Natural means, supernaturally applied, 107 - Natural forces, 20 - ---- Selection, 20 - ---- Rejection, 21 - ---- Religion, depends on, probability, 36, 96, 487 - ---- only partly known, 35 - ---- in Jewish religion, 216 - ---- in Egyptian religion, 455 - ---- in other religions, 457 - ---- in prehistoric times, 238 - ---- moral difficulties, 69 - ---- and the Bible, 200 - ---- and unity of God, 227 - ---- leads to Revelation, 39 - Nature, its unity, 8, 18 - ---- its laws, 19 - ---- its forces, 20 - ---- acting rationally, 100 - ---- its uniformity, 106 - Nature, its mysteries, 250 - ---- its perfection, 61 - ---- care of individuals, 62 - ---- a means to an end, 85 - ---- bearing on miracles, 112 - ---- immanence in God, 109 - ---- forgets nothing, 466 - ---- analogy, as to angels, 202 - ---- man's future life, 89 - ---- man's resurrection, 247 - ---- short probation, 468 - ---- his destruction, 472 - Naville, 164 - ---- unity of Genesis, 142 - Nazareth, dry ground, 377 - Nebuchadnezzar, 174, 184 - Nebula theory, 124 - Necessity, doctrine of, 43 - ---- and certainty, 27 - Nero addressed as Lord, 289 - ---- his persecution, 298 - Nineveh, men of, 269 - Numbers in O. Test., 171 - - Obedience and sacrifice, 161 - Old Testament, genuine, 167 - ---- alleged mistakes, 170 - ---- miracles, 177 - ---- prophecies, 186 - ---- moral defects, 208 - Omnipotence, 32, 213 - Omnipresence, 33, 213 - Omniscience, 32, 213 - Origen and Celsus, 367 - Origin of universe, 4 - ---- in Genesis, 118 - ---- of life, 123 - ---- of Jewish religion, 137 - ---- of Christian religion, 301 - Osiris, 454 - - Pain, 69, 71 - ---- not always an evil, 72 - Paley, watch argument, 11 - Pantheism, 119 - Papias as to Gospels, 258 - Papyri, Egyptian, 271, 289 - Papyrus used for writing, 253 - Parables, teaching by, 273 - ---- some objected to, 399 - ---- Unrighteous Steward, 399 - ---- Wedding Garment, 400 - Partiality in revelation, 95 - Partiality to Jews, 204 - Paul, St., conversion, 305, 339 - ---- teaching not new, 409 - ---- the two essentials, 476 - ---- (_see_ Epistles) - Peace be unto you, twice, 320 - Peculiar people, Jews a, 217 - Pella, Christians go to, 275 - Pentateuch, importance, 138 - ---- claims to be Mosaic, 164 - ---- language, 155 - ---- Egyptian references, 138 - ---- laws, 149 - ---- date and author, 164 - ---- excellent morality, 211 - ---- theory of late date, 155 - Perish, its meaning, 475 - Persecution for Name, 434 - Persecutions, religious, 427 - ---- of Jews, 190 - ---- of Christians, 328 - ---- implied in Creed, 475 - Person, not in N. Test, 460 - Personal Being, meaning, 30 - ---- God is a, 30 - ---- man is a, 47 - ---- animals are not, 54 - ---- implies fellowship, 229 - Persons and things, 67 - Peter, St., called Simon, 321 - ---- connection with Mark, 259 - ---- appeal to miracles, 362, 408 - Petrie, as to Exodus, 171 - Peyreyrius, 132 - Pharaoh's dreams, 140 - ---- heart hardened, 209 - Philip, one of the Seven, 295 - Philippi, gaoler at, 477 - Philo, days of Genesis, 121 - Pilate, Acts of, 365 - Pinches, Book of Daniel, 175 - Pithom, discoveries at, 144 - Plagues, the ten, 144 - ---- superhuman coincidences, 178 - ---- and magicians, 182 - Planets, inhabited (?), 67 - ---- not by sinners (?), 232 - Pliny, numerous letters, 369 - ---- spread of Christianity, 418 - ---- Christ's Divinity, 418 - Plural of majesty, 393 - ---- in P and J, 159 - Politarchs, 290 - Polycarp of Smyrna, 254 - ---- witness to Gospels, 261 - Polytheism, 119, 212 - Pomponia Græcina, 419 - Prayer, subject of, 437 - ---- and experiment, 444 - ---- and observation, 444 - ---- a simple, 480 - ---- after the event, 439 - ---- for others, 442 - Pre-existence of Christ, 404 - ---- in O. Test., 391 - Prehistoric men, future life, 90, 238 - Priests and Levites, 162 - Probability, guide of life, 487 - Proconsul and other terms, 288 - Prophecy, credible, 99 - ---- in Old Testament, 186 - ---- word of Jehovah, 389 - ---- as to Christ, 374 - ---- His Resurrection, 317 - ---- why not plainer, 394 - ---- His own influence, 434 - Prospective organs, 16 - Psalm of the Crucifixion, 384 - Publius, chief man, 290, 361 - Pul of Assyria, 176 - - 'Q' (Quelle) and Gospels, 270, 350, 361 - Quadratus, as to miracles, 364 - Quirinius, his census, 266 - Quotations, Barnabas, 261 - ---- Butler, 431 - ---- Clement, 261 - ---- Dana, 136 - ---- Darwin, 71 - ---- Eusebius, 259, 364 - ---- Huxley, 249 - ---- Ignatius, 261 - ---- Irenæus, 254 - ---- Justin, 365 - ---- Lecky, 398 - ---- Mill, 397 - ---- Napoleon, 250 - ---- Naville, 142 - ---- Papias, 258 - ---- Pinches, 175 - ---- Polycarp, 261 - ---- Quadratus, 364 - ---- Ramsay, 272 - ---- Renan, 397 - ---- Romanes, 87, 135 - ---- Teaching of Twelve, 261 - ---- Wallace, 71 - - Radium, 7 - Ramsey, as to the census, 267 - ---- Lysanias, 268 - ---- early Gospels, 272 - ---- Lycaonia, 291 - Rationalism, spread of, 430 - ---- and miracles, 369 - Rawlinson, 176 - Reason cannot judge of Christian doctrines, 249 - Recognition, hereafter, 448 - Recorders in O. Test., 173 - Recurring series of events, 5 - Red Sea, passage of, 178 - Relics, resurrection of, 248 - Remorse, 51 - Renan, raising of Lazarus, 370 - ---- Christ's character, 397 - Repentance, 243 - Responsibility of man, 47 - Resurrection, doctrine of, 244 - ---- applies to a body, 303 - ---- not resuscitation, 245, 323 - ---- Christ's, 301 - ---- falsehood theory, 326 - ---- legend theory, 329 - ---- vision theory, 331 - ---- swoon theory, 341 - ---- wanted missionaries, 347 - ---- a physical fact, 304 - ---- not really unique, 245 - ---- table of appearances, 308 - ---- three groups, 307 - ---- the narratives, 305 - ---- their discrepancies, 309 - ---- their agreements, 315 - ---- omissions, 312 - ---- signs of early date, 321 - ---- the real difficulty, 346 - ---- in other religions, 455 - ---- man's, 247 - ---- need not be of relics, 248 - ---- the period of life, 449 - ---- the great surprise, 449 - ---- and human nature, 448 - ---- terms not literal, 464 - Resuscitation, 245, 323 - Revelation, meaning of, 82 - ---- possible, 83 - ---- probable, 92 - ---- progressive, 93 - ---- after writing, 93 - ---- must be partial, 95, 204 - ---- evidence inconclusive, 95 - ---- miraculous, 98 - ---- Book of, and Gospel, 285 - ---- Divinity of Christ, 408 - Risen Body difficulties, 245 - ---- record of eyewitnesses, 323 - Roman provinces, 288 - ---- siege of Jerusalem, 191 - ---- State and Christians, 298 - Romanes, man's probation, 87 - ---- accuracy of Genesis, 135 - - Sabbath, miracles on, 359 - Sacrifices, heathen, 447 - ---- human, in O. Test., 210 - Salvation, not selfishness, 451 - Samaria, date of fall, 177 - Samuel and Pentateuch, 160 - Sanctuary, the one, 161 - Sand-storms and darkness, 146 - Sargon, named in Isaiah, 176 - Satan, 203 - Saurians, 131 - Secondary forces, 33 - Secrecy in Christ's miracles, 358 - Seed, may be disciples, 378, 387 - Selfishness, objection as to, 451 - Sennacherib, 184 - Sentry, pain a kind of, 72 - Sergius Paulus, 289, 361 - Servant, the Lord's, 376 - Seventh day, the, 119 - Shadow on dial, 196 - Shaving in Egypt, 141 - Shepherd, the Lord's, 391 - ---- kings, foreign, 139 - Shur, desert of, 143 - Siege of Jerusalem foretold by Moses, 191 - ---- and by Christ, 274 - Signet ring, in Egypt, 141 - Signs, superhuman, 99 - ---- supernatural, 101 - Silence, argument from, 368 - ---- of sun and moon, 179 - Simon, shows early date, 321 - Simultaneous visions, 335 - Sin, its meaning, 48 - ---- reason for it, 76 - ---- necessary for some virtues, 78 - ---- its universality, 447 - ---- its remedy, 244 - ---- eternal, 467 - Sinai, 147 - Sinlessness of Christ, 400 - ---- foretold by Isaiah, 380 - ---- implied in Ps. 22, 388 - Slaughter of animals, 150 - Slavery in early times, 211 - Soli, inscription at, 289 - Son of God, means God the Son, 407 - ---- of Man in Gospels, 281 - Sorrow, human, 446 - Sources of Gospels, 269, 413 - South, Queen of the, 269 - Spectroscopes, 64 - Spirit, man's, 55, 66 - ---- master of body, 91 - Spiritual beings, 202, 351 - Standing still of sun, 179 - Steward, the Unrighteous, 399 - Stone at Tomb, 336 - Straw in brick making, 144 - Struggle for life, 71 - Substance, meaning of, 222 - Suetonius, 417 - Sufferings of animals, 69 - ---- of men, 72 - ---- and future happiness, 88 - ---- of Jews, 190 - ---- of Christians, 328 - Sun and moon formation, 129 - ---- silence of, 179 - Sunday, 303 - Superhuman signs, 99 - ---- coincidences, 100 - ---- passage of Red Sea, 178 - ---- destruction of Korah, 169 - ---- of Assyrian army, 184 - ---- silence of sun, 179 - ---- Elijah's sacrifice, 183 - ---- shadow on dial, 196 - ---- and prayer, 439 - Supernatural, force, 9 - ---- man partly, 45 - ---- signs, 101 - Surprise, the great, 449 - Survival of fittest, 20 - Swine at Gadara, 269, 352 - Swoon Theory, the, 341 - Sword, any violent death, 386 - Synoptic Gospels, accuracy, 266 - ---- discrepancies, 266 - ---- sources, 269 - ---- ministry in Judæa, 282 - ---- probable date, 272, 300 - ---- authors, 275 - ---- and Fourth, 280 - - Table of Appearances, 308 - Tacitus, and Christianity, 417 - ---- his contempt for it, 368 - Tatian, the Diatessaron, 257 - Teaching of Twelve, 261 - ---- and the Trinity, 461 - Tel-el-Muskhuta, ruins, 144 - Telepathy, 40 - Telephone, 105 - Telescope and eye, 14 - ---- discoveries of, 64 - Ten, Commandments, 211 - ---- Plagues, 144 - ---- superhuman coincidences, 178 - ---- and the magicians, 182 - Tertullian, 257 - Testimony and experience, 104 - ---- its value, 325 - Theophilus and Gospel, 275 - ---- and Acts, 297 - ---- things taught to, 271 - ---- prominent convert, 418 - Thessalonica, politarchs, 290 - Theudas, date of, 288 - Third Day, importance, 303 - Thomas, St., Resurrection, 336 - ---- Christ's Divinity, 407 - Thousands or families, 171 - Three, Creeds, 458 - ---- men in furnace, 103 - Tisdall, 453, 456 - Titles of various rulers, 288 - Tomb, the empty, 338 - ---- visit of disciples, 318 - ---- guard at, 337 - ---- angels at, 310, 345 - Town Clerk of Ephesus, 292 - Trajan, decree of, 267 - Transfiguration, 270 - Trials here, future reward, 88 - Trinity, doctrine of the, 222 - ---- its probability, 228 - ---- peculiarly Christian, 452 - ---- hinted at in Old Test., 393 - ---- contained in N. Test., 459 - ---- implied by Teaching, 461 - Triple tradition in Gospels, 269 - Troelstra, 158 - True belief, importance, 473 - ---- a virtue, 487 - - Undesigned agreements, 168 - ---- examples, Korah, 169 - ---- call of St. John, 278 - ---- destroying temple, 283 - ---- feeding the 5,000, 284 - ---- Acts and Epistles, 293 - ---- mocking the Crucified, 390 - ---- baptismal formula, 461 - Uniformity of nature, 106 - ---- and prayer, 438 - Uniqueness of man, 65 - ---- of each man, 62 - ---- of the Incarnation, 233 - Unitarianism, 228 - Unity of nature, 8 - Universalism, 470 - Universe, its origin, 4, 118 - ---- its magnitude, 64 - ---- bearing on man, 60 - ---- an effect, 37 - Unknowable, everything is, 34 - Unrighteous Steward, 399 - - Vellum used for writing, 253 - Veracity of the witnesses, 326 - Verbal inspiration, 437 - Vessels of wood, 145 - Vesuvius, eruption of, 74 - 'Victoria Institute,' pain, 70 - ---- Pithom, 144 - ---- Belshazzar, 175 - ---- Red Sea, 179 - ---- earliest Gospel, 272 - ---- Horus myth, 455 - ---- Krishna myth, 453 - Virgin Birth, unique, 233 - ---- and Aristides, 365 - ---- not said of Krishna, 452 - Virtue, the highest, 78, 211 - Vision Theory, the, 331 - ---- arguments in favour, 332 - ---- arguments against, 332 - ---- does not explain facts, 336 - ---- real visions, 340 - Voice from heaven, 268 - Voyage, St. Paul's, 294 - - Walking on sea, Christ's, 370 - Wallace, 71 - Warnings of the Creed, 473 - Wars of the Lord, quoted, 159 - Waste and void, in Gen., 124 - Waste in nature, 68 - Watch showing design, 12 - Water-wheels, Egyptian, 149 - 'We' sections of Acts, 294 - Wedding Garment, the, 400 - West, use of term, 156 - Wheat, several ears, 140 - Whirlpool, 248 - Wicked men, their use, 77 - ---- not machines, 48 - ---- final state, 463 - Will, man's, its action, 42, 45 - ---- its freedom, 43 - Windows of heaven, 126 - Wisdom, God's, 32, 213, 441 - Word or Logos in Revelation, 286 - ---- among Greeks, 423 - World, creation of the, 4, 117 - ---- end of the, 437 - Wounded means pierced, 377 - Writing, early use of, 138, 172 - ---- wanted for revelation, 93 - - X-rays, 246 - - Zeal of early Christians, 420 - Zebulon, prophecy as to, 391 - Zechariah, prophecies of, 392 - Zeus and Hermes, 291 - - - PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN. 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H. Turton @@ -421,48 +421,7 @@ div.tnotes { </style> </head> <body> - - -<pre> - -Project Gutenberg's The Truth of Christianity, by William Harry Turton - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: The Truth of Christianity - Being an Examination of the More Important Arguments For - and Against Believing in that Religion - -Author: William Harry Turton - -Release Date: April 2, 2013 [EBook #42460] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE TRUTH OF CHRISTIANITY *** - - - - -Produced by Heiko Evermann, Quentin Johnson, Fox in the -Stars, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images -scanned by Fox in the Stars from the collection of Brays -Advent Christian Church in Iberia, Missouri) - - - - - - -</pre> - +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42460 ***</div> <div class="tnotes covernote"> <p>Transcriber's Note</p> @@ -18705,383 +18664,6 @@ LTD., LONDON.</p> paragraphs in which they appear.</p> </div> - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's The Truth of Christianity, by William Harry Turton - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE TRUTH OF CHRISTIANITY *** - -***** This file should be named 42460-h.htm or 42460-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/2/4/6/42460/ - -Produced by Heiko Evermann, Quentin Johnson, Fox in the -Stars, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images -scanned by Fox in the Stars from the collection of Brays -Advent Christian Church in Iberia, Missouri) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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