diff options
| -rw-r--r-- | 42761-0.txt | 396 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 42761-0.zip | bin | 88993 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 42761-8.txt | 4969 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 42761-8.zip | bin | 88991 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 42761-h.zip | bin | 475195 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 42761-h/42761-h.htm | 422 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 42761.txt | 4969 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 42761.zip | bin | 88957 -> 0 bytes |
8 files changed, 5 insertions, 10751 deletions
diff --git a/42761-0.txt b/42761-0.txt index b84531a..7a30c1d 100644 --- a/42761-0.txt +++ b/42761-0.txt @@ -1,39 +1,4 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Fables and Fabulists: Ancient and Modern, by -Thomas Newbigging - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Fables and Fabulists: Ancient and Modern - -Author: Thomas Newbigging - -Release Date: May 21, 2013 [EBook #42761] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FABLES, FABULISTS: ANCIENT, MODERN *** - - - - -Produced by David Edwards, Stephen Blundell and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42761 *** _FABLES AND FABULISTS._ @@ -4604,361 +4569,4 @@ Transcriber's Note: End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Fables and Fabulists: Ancient and Modern, by Thomas Newbigging -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FABLES, FABULISTS: ANCIENT, MODERN *** - -***** This file should be named 42761-0.txt or 42761-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/2/7/6/42761/ - -Produced by David Edwards, Stephen Blundell and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, -set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to -copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to -protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project -Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you -charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you -do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the -rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose -such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and -research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do -practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is -subject to the trademark license, especially commercial -redistribution. - - - -*** START: FULL LICENSE *** - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project -Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at - www.gutenberg.org/license. - - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy -all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. -If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the -terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or -entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement -and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" -or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the -collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an -individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are -located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from -copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative -works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg -are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project -Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by -freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of -this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with -the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by -keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project -Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in -a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check -the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement -before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or -creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project -Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning -the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United -States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate -access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently -whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, -copied or distributed: - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived -from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is -posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied -and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees -or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work -with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the -work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 -through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the -Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or -1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional -terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked -to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the -permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any -word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or -distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than -"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version -posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), -you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a -copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon -request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other -form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided -that - -- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is - owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he - has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the - Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments - must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you - prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax - returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and - sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the - address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to - the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." - -- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or - destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium - and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of - Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any - money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days - of receipt of the work. - -- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set -forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from -both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael -Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the -Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm -collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain -"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or -corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual -property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a -computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by -your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with -your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with -the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a -refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity -providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to -receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy -is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further -opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO OTHER -WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO -WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. -If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the -law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be -interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by -the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any -provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance -with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, -promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, -harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, -that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do -or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm -work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any -Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. - - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers -including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists -because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from -people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. -To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation -and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 -and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org - - -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive -Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent -permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. -Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered -throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at 809 -North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email -contact links and up to date contact information can be found at the -Foundation's web site and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact - -For additional contact information: - Dr. Gregory B. Newby - Chief Executive and Director - gbnewby@pglaf.org - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide -spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To -SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any -particular state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. -To donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate - - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works. - -Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm -concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared -with anyone. For forty years, he produced and distributed Project -Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. -unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily -keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. - -Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: - - www.gutenberg.org - -This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42761 *** diff --git a/42761-0.zip b/42761-0.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index b8e243e..0000000 --- a/42761-0.zip +++ /dev/null diff --git a/42761-8.txt b/42761-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 6a5e187..0000000 --- a/42761-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,4969 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Fables and Fabulists: Ancient and Modern, by -Thomas Newbigging - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Fables and Fabulists: Ancient and Modern - -Author: Thomas Newbigging - -Release Date: May 21, 2013 [EBook #42761] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FABLES, FABULISTS: ANCIENT, MODERN *** - - - - -Produced by David Edwards, Stephen Blundell and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - -Transcriber's Note: - - Minor typographical errors have been corrected without note. - Archaic and variant spellings have been retained. The following - non-standard characters are represented as shown: - - [=a] a with macron; - [=i] i with macron; - [oe] oe ligature. - - - - -_FABLES AND FABULISTS._ - - - - -[Device] - - - - -[Illustration: MERCURY BESTOWING ON THE YOUTHFUL ÆSOP THE INVENTION OF -THE APOLOGUE. (_See page 43._)] - - - - - FABLES AND FABULISTS: - _ANCIENT AND MODERN_. - - - BY - THOMAS NEWBIGGING, - _Author of - 'The History of the Forest of Rossendale,' 'Old Gamul,' etc._ - - - _CHEAP EDITION._ - - - LONDON: - ELLIOT STOCK, 62, PATERNOSTER ROW, E.C. - 1896. - - [_All rights reserved._] - - - - - 'I shall tell you - A pretty tale: it may be you have heard it; - But, since it serves my purpose, I will venture - To stale't a little more.' - - SHAKESPEARE: _Coriolanus_. - - - 'He sat among the woods; he heard - The sylvan merriment; he saw - The pranks of butterfly and bird, - The humours of the ape, the daw. - - 'And in the lion or the frog-- - In all the life of moor and fen, - In ass and peacock, stork and log, - He read similitudes of men.' - - ANDREW LANG. - - - 'The fables which appeal to our higher moral sympathies may - sometimes do as much for us as the truths of science.' - - MRS. JAMESON. - - - 'The years of infancy constitute, in the memory of each of us, the - fabulous season of existence; just as in the memory of nations, - the fabulous period was the period of their infancy.'--GIACOMO - LEOPARDI. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - CHAPTER PAGE - - I. DEFINITION OF FABLE 1 - - II. CHARACTERISTICS OF FABLES 7 - - III. THE MORAL AND APPLICATION OF FABLES 13 - - IV. FABULISTS AS CENSORS 19 - - V. LESSONS TAUGHT BY FABLES 25 - - VI. ÆSOP 33 - - VII. STORIES RELATED OF ÆSOP 42 - - VIII. THE ÆSOPIAN FABLES 52 - - IX. PHÆDRUS AND BABRIUS 63 - - X. THE FABLE IN HISTORY AND MYTH 68 - - XI. HINDOO, ARABIAN, AND PERSIAN FABLES.--PILPAY, - LOCMAN.--'THE GESTA ROMANORUM' 80 - - XII. MODERN FABULISTS: LA FONTAINE, GAY 96 - - XIII. MODERN FABULISTS: DODSLEY, NORTHCOTE 108 - - XIV. MODERN FABULISTS: LESSING, YRIARTE, KRILOF 115 - - XV. OTHER AND OCCASIONAL FABULISTS 125 - - XVI. CONCLUSION 143 - - INDEX 147 - - - - -_FABLES AND FABULISTS_ - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -DEFINITION OF FABLE. - - - 'Read my little fable, - He that runs may read.' - - TENNYSON: _The Flower_. - - - 'As clear as a whistle.' - - BYRON: _The Astrologer_. - - -The term 'fable' is used in two senses, with two distinctive meanings. - -First, as _fabulæ_, it is employed to denote the myths or fictions -which, by the aid of imagination and superstition, have clouded, or -have become blended with, the history of the remote past. Such are the -stories related of Scandinavian and Grecian heroes and gods; beings, -some of whom doubtless had an actual human existence, and were wise and -valiant and powerful, or the reverse, in their day, but around whose -names and persons have clustered all the marvellous legends that are to -be found in mythological lore. The better name for these is 'romance.' - -Secondly, as _fabellæ_, it is used to signify a special branch of -literature, in which the imagination has full play, altogether -unassisted by superstition in any shape or form. The fabulist -confers the powers or gifts of reason and speech on the humbler -subjects over whom he exercises sway, and so has ample scope for his -imaginative faculty; but there is no attempt on his part at any serious -make-believe in his inventions. On the contrary, there is a tacit -understanding between him and his hearers and readers, that what he -narrates is only true in the sense of its application to corresponding -circumstances in human life and conduct. - -It is with fable as understood in this latter sense that we propose to -deal. - -The Fable or Apologue has been variously defined by different writers. -Mr. Walter Pater, paraphrasing Plato's definition, says that 'fables -are medicinable lies or fictions, with a provisional or economized -truth in them, set forth under such terms as simple souls can best -receive.'[1] The sophist Aphthonius, taking the same view, defines the -fable as 'a false discourse resembling truth.'[2] The harshness of both -these definitions is scarcely relieved by their quaintness. To assert -that the fable is a lie or a falsehood does not fairly represent the -fact. A lie is spoken with intent to deceive. A fable, in its relation, -can bear no such construction, however exaggerated in its terms or -fictitious in its characters. The meanest comprehension is capable of -grasping the humour of the situation it creates. Even the moral that -lurks in the narration is often clear to minds the most obtuse. This is -at least true of the best fables. - -Dr. Johnson, in his 'Life of Gay,' remarks that 'A fable or epilogue -seems to be, in its genuine state, a narrative in which beings -irrational, and sometimes inanimate--_quod arbores loquantur, non -tantum feræ_[3]--are, for the purpose of moral instruction, feigned to -act and speak with human interests and passions.' - -Dodsley says that ''tis the very essence of a fable to convey some -moral or useful truth beneath the shadow of an allegory.'[4] Boothby -defines the fable as 'a maxim for the use of common life, exemplified -in a short action, in which the inhabitants of the visible world are -made the moral agents.' G. Moir Bussey states that 'the object of the -author is to convey some moral truth to the reader or auditor, without -usurping the province of the professed lecturer or pedant. The lesson -must therefore be conveyed in an agreeable form, and so that the -moralist himself may be as little prominent as possible.'[5] Mr. Joseph -Jacobs says that 'the beast fable may be defined as a short humorous -allegorical tale, in which animals act in such a way as to illustrate a -simple moral truth or inculcate a wise maxim.'[6] - -These various definitions or descriptions apply more especially to the -Æsopian fable (and it is with this that we are dealing at present), -which is _par excellence_ the model of this class of composition. -Steele declares that 'the virtue which we gather from a fable or an -allegory is like the health we get by hunting, as we are engaged in -an agreeable pursuit that draws us on with pleasure, and makes us -insensible of the fatigues that accompany it.'[7] This is applied to -the longer fable or epic, such as the 'Iliad' and 'Odyssey' of Homer, -or the 'Faerie Queen' of Spenser, rather than to the fable as the term -is generally understood, otherwise the simile is somewhat inflated. - -One more definition may be attempted: - -The Æsopian fable or apologue is a short story, either fictitious or -true, generally fictitious, calculated to convey instruction, advice or -reproof, in an interesting form, impressing its lesson on the mind more -deeply than a mere didactic piece of counsel or admonition is capable -of doing. We say a short story, because if the narration is spun out -to a considerable length it ceases to be a true fable in the ordinary -acceptation of the term, and becomes a tale, such, for example, as a -fairy tale. Now, a fairy or other fanciful tale usually or invariably -contains some romance and much improbability; it often deals largely in -the superstitious, and it is not necessarily the vehicle for conveying -a moral. The very opposite holds good of a fable. Although animals -are usually the actors in the fable, there is an air of naturalness -in their assumed speech and actions. The story may be either highly -imaginative or baldly matter-of-fact, but it never wanders beyond the -range of intuitive (as opposed to actual or natural) experience, and -it always contains a moral. In a word, a fable is, or ought to be, the -very quintessence of common sense and wise counsel couched in brief -narrative form. It partakes somewhat of the character of a parable, -though it can hardly be described as a parable, because this is more -sedate in character, has human beings as its actors, and is usually -based on an actual occurrence. - -Though parables are not fables in the strict and limited meaning of the -term, they bear a close family relationship to them. Parables may be -defined as stories in allegorical dress. The Scriptures, both old and -new, abound with them. The most beautiful example in the Old Testament -is that of Nathan and the ewe lamb,[8] in which David the King is made -his own accuser. This was a favourite mode of conveying instruction and -reproof employed by our Lord. Christ often 'spake in parables'; and -with what feelings of reverential awe must we regard the parables of -the Gospels, coming as they did from the lips of our Saviour! - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] 'Plato and Platonism,' by Walter Pater. London: Macmillan and Co., -1893, p. 225. - -[2] Aphthonius flourished at Antioch, at what time is uncertain. Forty -of his Æsopian fables, with a Latin version by Kimedoncius, were -printed from a MS. in the Palatine Library at the beginning of the -seventeenth century. 'The Æsopian Fable,' by Sir Brooke Boothby, Bart. -Edinburgh: Constable and Co., 1809. Preface, p. xxxi. - -[3] 'Even trees speak, not only wild beasts.'--Phædrus, Book i., -Prologue. - -[4] 'Essay on Fable.' - -[5] 'Fables Original and Selected,' by G. Moir Bussey. London: -Willoughby and Co., 1842. - -[6] 'The Fables of Æsop,' as first printed by William Caxton in 1484. -London: David Nutt, 1889, vol. i., p. 204. - -[7] 'The Tatler,' No. 147, vol. iii., p. 205. - -[8] 2 Samuel xii. 1-7. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -CHARACTERISTICS OF FABLES. - - - 'To hold, as 'twere, the mirror up to Nature.' - - SHAKESPEARE: _Hamlet_. - - -There is an archness about the best fables that creates interest and -awakens curiosity; and it is the quality of such that, whilst simple -enough as stories to be understood and enjoyed by the young, they are -at the same time calculated to interest, amuse, instruct and admonish -those more advanced in years. - -A fable should carry its moral without the telling; nevertheless the -application is often worth supplying, because it puts, or should put, -the lesson taught by the fable in a terse and impressive form. Above -and beyond all, a fable should possess the quality of simplicity, and -whilst easy to be understood, it should have force and appropriateness. - -Fables treat of the follies and weaknesses, and also of the nobler -qualities, of humankind, generally through the medium of the lower -animals and the members of the vegetable and natural kingdom. These are -made to represent the characters we find in human life. Curious, that -although it is chiefly the lower animals and inanimate things that are -made the vehicle of the instruction or reproof contained in the story, -we do not feel that there is any incongruity in these having the power -of speech. We willingly accept the circumstance of their faculty of -speech and reasoning as Gospel truth for the time being. It is natural -that they in the fable should speak as the heroes or actors, and we -listen to their words, whether wise or foolish, with deference or -contempt as the case may be. - -It is a question in casuistry how far justice and injustice are done to -the inferior animals and the members of the vegetable kingdom by this -liberty that is taken with them in the fable. If they had the knowledge -of the fact, and the power of remonstrance, it may be conceived that -some of them, at least, would repudiate the characters and propensities -which we in our superior conceit so glibly ascribe to them in the -fable. And, indeed, there is doubtless a good deal of unfairness -in our habit of stigmatizing this one with cunning, that one with -cowardice, and the other with cruelty, or stupidity, or dishonesty, -as suits our purpose. Possibly if some of the humbler creatures thus -branded were gifted with the power of writing fables for the benefit of -_their_ fellow creatures and associates, they might be able to point -to characteristics in the higher order of beings which it is desirable -to hold in reprobation, and this, too, with as much or more reason -and justice on their side than we have on ours. But, in truth, the -fabulists themselves tacitly admit the force of this argument, inasmuch -as the failings and defects and general qualities which they ascribe to -the characters in the fable are, of course, those of the human species. -A fable of Æsop, _The Man and the Lion_,[9] is very much to the point -here: - -'Once upon a time a man and a lion were journeying together, and came -at length to high words which was the braver and stronger of the two. -As the dispute waxed warmer they happened to pass by, on the road-side, -a statue of a man strangling a lion. "See there," said the man; "what -more undeniable proof can you have of our superiority than that?" -"That," said the lion, "is your version of the story; let us be the -sculptors, and for one lion under the feet of a man, you shall have -twenty men under the paw of a lion!" Men are but sorry witnesses in -their own cause.' - -A fable is generally a fiction, as has already been said. It is a -singular paradox, however, that nothing is truer than a good fable. -True to intuition, true to nature, true to fact. The great virtue of -fables consists in this quality of truthfulness, and their enduring -life and popularity are corroboration of it. If not true in the sense -of being reasonable, they are nothing, or foolish, and therefore -intolerable. We instinctively feel their truth, and are encouraged, -or amused, or conscience-smitten by the narration, for they deal with -principles which lie at the very root of our human nature. - -It is a remarkable feature of this species of composition that a -departure from the natural order of things loses its incongruity in -the fable; and although this view has been controverted, the argument -against it fails to carry conviction in face of the excellent examples -that can be adduced. By way of illustration, take the fable of the -man and his goose that laid the golden eggs. We don't remember ever -meeting with a goose of this particular breed out of the fable. There -are numberless geese in the world--human and other. But the goose that -lays a golden egg every morning is a _rara avis_. Nevertheless, she -has a veritable existence in the fable, and we would as soon think of -casting a doubt on our own identity as on that of the fabled bird. The -story has always been, and will continue to be, Gospel truth to us, and -we never recall it without commiserating the untimely end of the poor -obliging goose, and thinking, at the same time, what a goose its owner -must have been to kill it and cut it up, in expectation of finding in -its inside the inexhaustible treasure his impatient greed had pictured -as existing there. _Semper avarus eget._ Had _we_ been the fortunate -owner of such an uncommon fowl, one golden egg each day would have -contented us! - -Certain early authors, with the formalism which characterizes their -writings, have attempted an arrangement of fables under three -distinct heads or classes, designating them, respectively, Rational, -Emblematical, and Mixed. The Rational fable is held to be that in which -the actors are either human beings or the gods of mythology; or, if -beasts, birds, trees, and inanimate objects are introduced, the former -only are the speakers. The Emblematical fable has animals, members of -the vegetable kingdom, and even inanimate things for its heroes, and -these are accordingly gifted with the power of speech. The Mixed fable, -as the name implies, is that in which an association of the two former -kinds is to be found. The distinction, though perfectly accurate, -serves no useful purpose and need not be observed. As a matter of fact, -all fables are rational or reasonable from the fabulist's stand-point; -and all are emblematical or typical of moods, conditions, and possible -or actual occurrences in daily life, whoever and whatever be the actors -and speakers introduced. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[9] Quoted from James's 'Fables of Æsop.' Murray, 1848. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -THE MORAL AND APPLICATION OF FABLES. - - - 'Come, sir, lend it your best ear.' - - BEN JONSON: _Love Freed_. - - -Thus La Fontaine:[10] 'The fable proper is composed of two parts, of -which one may be termed the body and the other the soul. The body is -the subject-matter of the fable and the soul is the moral.' - -On the origin of the added morals to fables, Mr. Joseph Jacobs[11] -has the following appropriate remarks: 'The fable is a species of the -allegory, and it seems absurd to give your allegory, and then give in -addition the truth which you wish to convey. Either your fable makes -its point or it does not. If it does, you need not repeat your point: -if it does not, you need not give your fable. To add your point is -practically to confess the fear that your fable has not put it with -sufficient force. Yet this is practically what the moral does, which -has now become part and parcel of a fable. It was not always so; it -does not occur in the ancient classical fables. That it is not an -organic part of the fable is shown by the curious fact that so many -morals miss the point of the fables. How then did this artificial -product come to be regarded as an essential part of the fable? Now, -we have seen in the J[=a]takas what an important _rôle_ is played by -the _g[=a]thas_ or moral verses which sum up the whole teaching of -the J[=a]takas. In most cases I have been able to give the pith of -the Birth-stories by merely giving the _g[=a]thas_, which are besides -the only relics which are now left to us of the original form of the -J[=a]takas. Is it too bold to suggest that any set of fables taken from -the J[=a]takas or their source would adopt the _g[=a]tha_ feature, and -that the moral would naturally arise in this way? We find the moral -fully developed in Babrius and Avian, whom we have seen strong reason -for connecting with Kybises' Libyan fables. We may conclude the series -of conjectures by suggesting that the morals of fables are an imitation -of the _g[=a]thas_ of J[=a]takas as they passed into the Libyan -collection of Kybises.' - -Montaigne remarks that 'most of the fables of Æsop have diverse senses -and meanings, of which the mythologists chose some one that quadrates -well to the fable; but for the most part 'tis but the first face that -presents itself and is superficial only; there yet remain others more -vivid, essential and profound into which they have not been able to -penetrate.'[12] - -If this be so, it is an argument against the common practice of -limiting their significance to the one moral that is often given as an -appendage to the fable. It is worthy of note that Æsop did not supply, -either orally or in writing, the separate moral to any of his fables. -They were left to speak for themselves and produce their unaided -effect. The moral or application appended to or introducing a fable -(for both practices are followed), is an innovation, as appears from -what has already been advanced, probably intended to make clear what -was obscure in the apologue. - -The true moral is contained in the fable itself. The application may, -and often does, vary with the idiosyncrasies of the commentator. -Besides the moral and application there is in some collections of -fables what is designated 'The Remark,' and 'The Reflection,' in which -the commentator tries, as it were, to drive home the application of the -story with an additional blow. Our own experience as a youth was that -all these appendages to the fable were invariably skipped. - -From all which it would appear that the moral and the so-called -application of a fable are not one and the same thing. In point of -fact, the latter may and does vary according to the peculiar views -of the commentator. An exemplification of this may be found in the -applications of Sir Roger L'Estrange and Dr. Samuel Croxall, the -latter taking it upon him to stigmatize in strong language the twist -which he asserted the former gave to the morals of the fables in his -collection. L'Estrange, who was a Catholic, concerned himself in -helping the restoration of Charles II., and was a devoted adherent -of his successor, James, from whom he received place and emoluments. -In publishing his version of Æsop, his object, as he affirms in his -preface, was to influence the minds of the rising generation, 'who -being as it were mere blank paper, are ready indifferently for any -opinion, good or bad, taking all upon credit.' Whereupon Croxall -observes: 'What poor devils would L'Estrange make of the children who -should be so unfortunate as to read his book and imbibe his pernicious -principles--principles coined and suited to promote the growth and -serve the ends of Popery and arbitrary power,' and more to the same -purpose. - -The question as to whether the moral or application, if any is -supplied, should be placed at the beginning or end of a fable has -sometimes been discussed. On this head Dodsley has some pertinent -remarks that may be quoted. He says: 'It has been matter of dispute -whether the moral is better introduced at the end or beginning of a -fable. Æsop universally rejected any separate moral. Those we now find -at the close of his fables were placed there by other hands. Among the -ancients Phædrus, and Gay among the moderns, inserted theirs at the -beginning; La Motte prefers them at the conclusion, and La Fontaine -disposes them indifferently at the beginning or end, as he sees -convenient. If,' he adds, 'amidst the authority of such great names I -might venture to mention my own opinion, I should rather prefer them -as an introduction than add them as an appendage. For I would neither -pay my reader nor myself so bad a compliment as to suppose, after he -had read the fable, that he was not able to discover its meaning. -Besides, when the moral of a fable is not very prominent and striking, -a leading thought at the beginning puts the reader in a proper track. -He knows the game which he pursues; and, like a beagle on a warm scent, -he follows the sport with alacrity in proportion to his intelligence. -On the other hand, if he have no previous intimation of the design, he -is puzzled throughout the fable, and cannot determine upon its merit -without the trouble of a fresh perusal. A ray of light imparted at -first may show him the tendency and propriety of every expression -as he goes along; but while he travels in the dark, no wonder if he -stumble or mistake his way.' If it be considered necessary or desirable -to give the moral separately, or to apply the fable, Dodsley's argument -here seems to us to be incontrovertible. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[10] Preface, 'Fables,' 1668. - -[11] 'History of the Æsopic Fable,' p. 148. - -[12] Essay: 'Of Books.' - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -FABULISTS AS CENSORS. - - - 'Mark, now, how a plain tale shall put you down.' - - SHAKESPEARE: _King Henry IV_. - - -Fabulists as censors have always been not only tolerated, but -patronized and encouraged, even in the most despotic countries, and -when they have exposed wickedness and folly in high places with an -unsparing hand. Æsop among the ancients, and Krilof amongst the -moderns, are both striking examples of this. The fables of antiquity -may indeed be truly said to have been a natural product of the times -in which they were invented. In the early days, when free speech was -a perilous exercise, and when to declaim against vice and folly was -to court personal risk, the fable was invented, or resorted to, by -the moralist as a circuitous method of achieving the end he desired -to reach--the lesson he wished to enforce. The entertainment afforded -by the fable or apologue took off the keen edge of the reproof; and, -whilst the censure conveyed was not less pointed and severe, the device -of making the humbler creatures the scapegoat of human weakness or vice -mollified its bitterness. The very indirectness of the fable had the -effect of making the sinner his own accuser. Whom the cap fitted was at -liberty to don it. - -Phædrus, in the prologue to his third book, thus gives his view of the -origin and purpose of fables: - - 'Here something shortly I would teach - Of fables' origin. To reach - The potent criminal, a slave - To beasts and birds a language gave. - Wishing to strike, and yet afraid, - Of these his instruments he made: - For all that dove or lamb might say, - Against them no indictment lay.'[13] - -The fable saves the self-love of the person to whom it is applicable. -It enables him to stand aside, as it were, and become a spectator of -the effect produced by his own conduct. In this way he is impressed -and humbled without being affronted. When one, even though guilty, is -openly and directly reproved for a misdeed, the stigma often raises a -rebellious spirit, which either suggests a hundred justifiable reasons -for his action or begets a defiant mood, driving him to persist in his -evil courses. - -Listening to the fable, 'we see nothing of the satirist, who probes -only to heal us, and who does not exhibit any of the personal spleen -and ill-humour which meet and put us out of countenance with ourselves -and each other in the invectives of those who sometimes set up for -moralists without the essential qualification of good nature. The -fable gives an agreeable hint of the duties and relations of life, -not a harangue on our want of sense or decorum. We feel none of the -superiority of the fabulist, who, indeed, generally leaves us to make -the application of his instructive story in our own way; and if we do -sometimes prefer to apply it to our neighbour's case instead of our -own, we are still improved and amended, inasmuch as we have learned to -despise some vice or folly which our unassisted judgment might have -regarded more leniently.'[14] Dodsley, again, puts the matter finely -when he says:[15] 'The reason why fable has been so much esteemed -in all ages and in all countries, is perhaps owing to the polite -manner in which its maxims are conveyed. The very article of giving -instruction supposes at least a superiority of wisdom in the adviser--a -circumstance by no means favourable to the ready admission of advice. -'Tis the peculiar excellence of fable to waive this air of superiority; -it leaves the reader to collect the moral, who, by thus discovering -more than is shown him, finds his principle of self-love gratified, -instead of being disgusted. The attention is either taken off from the -adviser, or, if otherwise, we are at least flattered by his humility -and address. Besides, instruction, as conveyed by fable, does not only -lay aside its lofty mien and supercilious aspect, but appears dressed -in all the smiles and graces which can strike the imagination or engage -the passions. It pleases in order to convince, and it imprints its -moral so much the deeper in proportion that it entertains; so that we -may be said to feel our duties at the very instant we comprehend them.' - -The humour of a good fable is a fine lubricant to the temper. Sarcasm, -irony, even direct criticism, are in place in the fable, but humour is -its saving grace. Without this it cannot be classed in the first order. -Wanting in this quality, the fables of some writers who have attempted -them are flat, stale and unprofitable. Humour in the fable is the -gilding of the pill. It is like the effervescing quality in champagne, -the subtle flavour in old port. - -It may be questioned whether a fable has ever the full immediate effect -intended. Men are loath to apply the moral to their own case, though -they have no difficulty in applying it to the case of others--even to -their best acquaintances and friends. For example, take the present -company, the present company of my readers--it is usual, by the way, to -except 'the present company,' but we will be rash enough, even at the -risk of castigation, to break the rule--take, then, the present company -in illustration of our point. Who among us would admit for a moment -that we are the counterpart or human representative of the fox with its -low cunning, the loquacious jackdaw, the silly goose, the ungrateful -viper, the crow to be cajoled by flattery, not to mention the egregious -donkey? 'Satire,' says an acute writer,[16] 'is a sort of glass -wherein beholders do generally discover everybody's face but their -own.' Or, to parody a line of Young, 'All men think all men peccable -but themselves.' To be sure, we might be willing, modestly perhaps, -to admit that we who are singers can emulate the nightingale; that we -even possess some of the--call it shrewdness, of the fox; the faithful -character of the honest dog; vie in dignity of manners and bearing with -the stately lion. But all that is a matter of course; the noble traits -we possess are so self-evident that none excepting the incorrigibly -blind or prejudiced will be found to dispute them! So that the -admonishing fable contains no lesson for any of us, but should be -seriously taken to heart, with a view to their reformation, by certain -persons whom we all know. That view of the question, however, need not -be further pursued. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[13] Boothby's translation. - -[14] G. Moir Bussey: Introduction to 'Fables.' - -[15] 'Essay on Fable.' - -[16] Swift: Preface to 'The Battle of the Books.' - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -LESSONS TAUGHT BY FABLES. - - - 'The tale that I relate - This lesson seems to carry.' - - COWPER: _Pairing Time Anticipated_. - - -In the earlier ages of the world's history fables were invented for -the edification of men and women. This was so in the palmiest days of -Greek, Roman and Arabian or Saracenic civilization. In these later days -fables are generally assumed to be more for the delectation of children -than adults. This change of auditory need not be regretted; it has its -marked advantages. The lesson which the fable inculcates is indelibly -stamped on the mind of the child, and has an influence, less or more, -on his or her career during life. - -Jean Jacques Rousseau is the only writer of eminence who has inveighed -against this use of the fable, but his remarks are by no means -convincing. He accounted them lies without the 'medicinable quality,' -and reprobated their employment in the instruction of youth. 'Fables,' -says Rousseau, 'may amuse men, but the truth must be told to children.' -His animadversion had special reference to the fables of La Fontaine, -and doubtless some of these, and the morals deduced from them, are -open to objection; but to condemn fables in general on this account is -surely the height of unreason. - -A greater than Rousseau had, long before, given expression in cogent -language to the worth of the fable as a vehicle of instruction for -youth. Plato, whilst excluding the mythical stories of Hesiod and Homer -from the curriculum of his 'Republic'--that perfect commonwealth, -in depicting which he lavished all the resources of his wisdom and -genius--advised mothers and nurses to repeat selected fables to their -children, so as to mould and give direction to their young and tender -minds. - -Phædrus, again, in the prologue to his fables, says-- - - ''Tis but a play to form the youth - By fiction in the cause of truth,' - -so that his view of the question also was just the very antipodes of -that of the French philosopher. - -Quintilian urges[17] that 'boys should learn to relate orally the -fables of Æsop, which follow next after the nurse's stories.' True, he -recommends this with a view to initiating them in the rudiments of the -art of speaking; but he would not have inculcated the use of fables for -children for even this secondary purpose, if he had dreamt for a moment -they would have had a bad effect on their minds. - -Rousseau, with all his knowledge of human character and his power of -imagination, had a matter-of-fact vein running through his mind, which -led him to entertain the mistaken view that the influence of fables on -the juvenile mind was objectionable. Cowper, who was no mean writer of -fables himself, with his clear common sense, broad natural instincts, -and mother wit--in which Rousseau was lacking--saw the unwisdom of the -philosopher's conclusions, and satirized his views in the well-known -lines: - - 'I shall not ask Jean Jacques Rousseau - If birds confabulate or no; - 'Tis clear that they were always able - To hold discourse, at least in fable; - And e'en the child, who knows no better - Than to interpret by the letter - A story of a cock and bull, - Must have a most uncommon skull.'[18] - -It is no exaggeration to assert that the effect which fables and their -lessons have had on the people is incalculable. They have been read -and rehearsed and pondered in all ages, and by thousands whom no other -class of literature could attract. The story and its moral (in the -Æsopian fable at least) are obvious to the dullest comprehension, and -they cling to the memory like the limpet to the rock, and find their -application in all the concerns of daily life. - -But it is not the illiterate alone that have profited by the fable; -all classes have been affected by its lesson. We are all apt scholars -when the fable is the schoolmaster. There is no class of the community -that has not come under its sway. It has penetrated to the highest -stratum of society equally with the humblest, and may be credited with -an influence as wide and far-reaching as the sublimest moral treatise -which the human intellect has produced. - -The epic and the novel (fables of a kind), like some paintings, cover -a wide canvas, and the details are not always easily grasped and -remembered; but the true fable is a story in miniature which we take -in at a glance, and stow away for after use in a small corner of our -memory. - -We have the 'successful villain' in the fable as sometimes on the -stage; and it may be a question whether the tendency of this is not -rather to encourage dissimulation in certain ill-constituted minds, -than to inculcate virtue. One of Northcote's fables, _The Elephant and -the Fox_, will exemplify what we mean. - -'A grave and judicious elephant entering into argument with a pert fox, -who insisted upon his superior powers of persuasion, which the elephant -would not allow, it was at length agreed between them that whichever -attracted the most attention from his auditors by his eloquence should -be deemed the victor. At a certain appointed time a great assembly -of animals attended the trial, and the elephant was allowed to speak -first. He with eloquence spoke of the high importance of ever adhering -with strictness to justice and to truth; also of the happiness which -resulted from controlling the passions, of the dignity of patience, the -inhospitable and hateful nature of selfishness, and the odiousness of -cruelty and carnage. - -'The pert fox, perceiving the audience not to be much amused by the -discourse of the elephant, made no ceremony, but interrupted the -oration by giving a farcical account of all his mischievous tricks -and hairbreadth escapes, the success of his cunning, and his adroit -contrivances to extricate himself from harm--all which so delighted the -assembly, that the elephant was soon left, in the midst of his wise -advice, without a single auditor near him; for they one and all with -eagerness thronged to hear the diverting follies and knaveries of the -fox, who, of course, was in the end declared the victor.' - -It might almost appear that a fable of this kind is an error of -judgment, and that it is calculated to do harm rather than good, -inasmuch as it exhibits the triumph of duplicity and the defeat of -wisdom. True, the author of the fable tries to recover the lost ground -in the application, by mildly holding up the fox to reprobation, thus: - -'Application: The effect these two orators had on the perceptions of -their audience was exactly the reverse one to the other. That of the -elephant touched the guilty, like satire, with pain and reproach; even -the most innocent was humbled, as none were wholly free from vice, and -all felt themselves lowered even in their own opinion, and heard the -admonition as an irksome duty, but still with little inclination to -undergo the difficult task of amendment. But when the fox began, all -was joy; the innocent felt all the gratification which proceeds from -the consciousness of superiority, and the guilty to find their vices -and follies treated only as a jest; for we all have felt how much more -pleasure we enjoy laughing at a fool than in being scrutinized by the -sage. From this cause it is that farce of the most grotesque and absurd -kind is tolerated and received, and not without some degree of relish, -even by the good and the wise, as we all want comfort.' - -In spite of the application--nay, rather to some extent by reason of -it, for the anti-climax is extraordinary in a fable--it may be doubted -whether our sympathies are not with the fox rather than with the -elephant. We feel that the latter, with all his wisdom and good advice, -is somewhat of a bore; whilst the fox, rake and wastrel though he be, -has that touch of nature that makes him kin. - -Æsop's well-known fable of _The Fox and the Crow_ is also an example of -the success of the scoundrel, but mark the difference: here there is -the obvious reproof of the vain and silly bird, deceived by flattering -words, till, in attempting to sing, she drops into the mouth of the fox -the savoury morsel she held in her beak! Here our verdict is: 'Served -her right!' In Northcote's fable, clever though it is as a narration, -this climax is altogether wanting. - -It has been suggested that there is a closer natural affinity than at -first sight appears between man and the lower animals, and that the -recognition of this contact at many points would suggest the idea of -conferring the power of speech upon the latter in the fable. In the -higher reason and its resultant effects they differ fundamentally; mere -animals are wanting discourse of reason, but the purely animal passions -of cunning, anger, hatred, and even revenge and love of kind, and the -nobler characteristics of faithfulness and gratitude prevail in the -dispositions of both. These similarities would strike observers in the -pastoral ages of the world with even greater force than in later times. - -The ineradicable impression which certain fables have made upon -the mind through uncounted generations by their self-evident -appropriateness and truth, is well exemplified in _The Wolf and the -Lamb_; _The Fox and the Grapes_; _The Hare and the Tortoise_; _The Dog -and the Shadow_; _The Mountain in Labour_; _The Fox without a Tail_; -_The Satyr and the Man_, who blew hot and cold with the same breath, -and others. It is safe to assert that nothing in literature has been -more quoted than the fables named. We could not afford to lose them; -their absence would be a distinct loss--literature and life would be -the poorer without them; and, such being the fact, we are justified in -holding those writers in esteem who have contributed to the instruction -and entertainment of mankind in the fables they have invented. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[17] 'Institutes of Oratory,' book i., chap. ix. - -[18] 'Pairing Time Anticipated.' - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -ÆSOP. - - - 'Nature formed but one such man.' - - BYRON. - - - 'The hungry judges soon the sentence sign.' - - POPE. - - -Æsop is justly regarded as the foremost inventor of fables that -the world has seen. He flourished in the sixth century before -Christ. Several places, as in the case of Homer, are claimed as his -birthplace--Sardis in Lydia, Ammorius, the island of Samos, and -Mesembra, a city of Thrace; but the weight of authority is in favour of -Cotiæum, a city of Phrygia in the Lesser Asia,[19] hence his sobriquet -of 'the Phrygian.' - -Whether he was a slave from birth is uncertain, but if not, he became -such, and served three masters in succession. Demarchus or Caresias -of Athens was his first master; the next, Zanthus or Xanthus, a -philosopher, of the island of Samos; and the third, Idmon or Jadmon, -also of Samos. His faithful service and wisdom so pleased Idmon that he -gave Æsop his freedom. - -Growing in reputation both as a sage and a wit, he associated with -the wisest men of his age. Amongst his contemporaries were the seven -sages of Greece: Periander, Thales, Solon, Cleobulus, Chilo, Bias -and Pittacus; but he was eventually esteemed wiser than any of them. -The humour with which his sage counsels were spiced made these more -acceptable (both in his own and later times) than the dull, if weighty, -wisdom of his compeers. - -He became attached by invitation of Cr[oe]sus, the rich King of Lydia, -to the court at Sardis, the capital, and continued under the patronage -of that monarch for the remainder of his life. Cr[oe]sus employed him -in various embassies which he carried to a successful issue. The last -he undertook was a mission to Delphi to offer sacrifices to Apollo, and -to distribute four minæ[20] of silver to each citizen. To the character -of the Delphians might with justice be applied the saying of a later -time: 'The nearer the temple and the farther from God.' Familiarity -with the Oracle, as is the case in smaller matters, bred contempt, -for the meanness of their lives was due to the circumstance that the -offerings of strangers coming to the temple of the god enabled them to -live a life of idleness, to the neglect of the cultivation of their -lands. - -Æsop upbraided them for this conduct, and, scorning to encourage them -in their evil habits, instead of distributing amongst them the money -which Cr[oe]sus had sent, he returned it to Sardis. This, as was -natural with persons of their mean character, so inflamed them against -him that they conspired to compass his destruction. Accordingly (as -the story goes), they hid away amongst his baggage, as he was leaving -the city, a golden goblet taken from the temple and consecrated to -Apollo. Search being made, and the vessel discovered, the charge of -sacrilege was brought against him. His judges pronounced him guilty, -and he was sentenced to be precipitated from the rock Hyampia. -Immediately before his execution he delivered to his persecutors the -fable of _The Eagle and the Beetle_,[21] by which he warned them that -even the weak may procure vengeance against the strong for injuries -inflicted. The warning was unheeded by his murderers. The shameful -sentence was carried out, and so Æsop died, according to Eusebius, in -the fourth year of the fifty-fourth Olympiad, or 561 years before the -Christian era. The fate of poor Æsop was like that of a good many other -world-menders! - -According to ancient chroniclers, the death of Æsop did not go -unavenged. Misfortunes of many kinds overtook the Delphians; pestilence -decimated them; such of their lands as they tried to cultivate were -rendered barren, with famine as the result, and these miseries -continued to afflict them for many years. At length, having consulted -the Oracle, they received as answer that which their secret conscience -affirmed to be true, that their calamities were due to the death of -Æsop, whom they had so unjustly condemned. Thereupon they caused -proclamation to be made in all public places throughout the country, -offering reparation to any of Æsop's representatives who should appear. -The only claimant that responded was a grandson of Idmon, Æsop's former -master; and having made such expiation as he demanded, the Delphians -were delivered from their troubles. - -Not only was Æsop unfortunate in his death: his personal appearance has -suffered disparagement. The most trustworthy chroniclers in ancient -times describe him as a man of good appearance, and even of a pleasing -cast of countenance; whereas in later years he has been portrayed -both by writers and in pictures as deformed in body and repellent in -features. Stobæus, it is true, who lived in the fifth century A.D., had -written disparagingly of 'the air of Æsop's countenance,' representing -the fabulist as a man of sour visage, and intractable, but he goes no -farther than that. - -It is to Maximus Planudes, a Constantinople monk of the fourteenth -century, nearly two thousand years after the time of Æsop, that the -burlesque of the great fabulist is due. Planudes appears to have -collected all the stories regarding Æsop current during the Middle -Ages, and strung them together as an authentic history. Through -ignorance, or by intention, he also confounded the Oriental fabulist, -Locman,[22] with Æsop, and clothed the latter in all the admitted -deformities of the other. He affirmed him as having been flat-faced, -hunch-backed, jolt-headed, blubber-lipped, big-bellied, baker-legged, -his body crooked all over, and his complexion of a swarthy hue. Even -in recent years, accepting the description of the monk, Æsop has -been thus depicted in the frontispiece to his fables. This writer is -untrustworthy in other respects, for in his pretended life of the sage -he makes him speak of persons who did not exist, and of events that did -not occur for eighty to two hundred years after his death. - -That the story of Æsop's hideous deformity is untrue is clear from -evidence that is on record. Admitted that this evidence is chiefly of -a negative kind, it is sufficiently strong to refute the statements -of the monk. In the first place, Planudes, as we have seen, is an -untrustworthy chronicler in other respects, and an account of Æsop, -written after the lapse of two thousand years, could only be worthy of -credence issuing from a truthful pen, and based on documentary or other -unquestionable evidence. Of such evidence the Constantinople monk had -probably none. - -Again, it is related that during the years of his slavery Æsop had as -mate, or wife, the beautiful Rhodope,[23] also a slave--an unlikely -circumstance, assuming him to have been as repulsive in bodily -appearance as has been asserted. At all events, any incongruous -association of this kind would have been remarked and commented on by -earlier writers. - -Further, none of Æsop's contemporaries, nor any writers that -immediately followed him, make mention of his alleged deformities. On -the contrary, the Athenians, about two hundred years after his death, -in order to perpetuate his memory and appearance, commissioned the -celebrated sculptor Lysippus to produce a statue of Æsop, and this they -erected in a prominent position in front of those of the seven sages, -'because,' says Phædrus,[24] 'their severe manner did not persuade, -while the jesting of Æsop pleased and instructed at the same time.' It -is improbable that the figure of a man monstrously deformed as Æsop -is said to have been would have proved acceptable to the severe taste -of the Greek mind. An epigram of Agathia, of which the following is a -translation,[25] celebrates the erection of this statue: - - -'TO LYSIPPUS. - - 'Sculptor of Sicyon! glory of thy art! - I laud thee that the image thou hast placed - Of good old Æsop in the foremost part, - More than the statues of the sages graced. - Grave thought and deep reflection may be found - In all the well-respected rolls of these; - In wisdom's saws and maxims they abound, - But still are wanting in the art to please: - Each tale the gentle Samian well has told, - Truth in fair fiction pleasantly imparts; - Above the rigid censor him I hold - Who teaches virtue while he wins our hearts.' - -Philostratus, in an account of certain pictures in existence in the -time of the Antonines, describes one as representing Æsop with a -pleasing cast of countenance, in the midst of a circle of the various -animals, and the Geniuses of Fable adorning him with wreaths of flowers -and branches of the olive. - -Dr. Bentley, in his 'Dissertation,' ridicules the account of Æsop's -deformity as given by Planudes in face of all the evidence to the -contrary. 'I wish,' says he, 'I could do that justice to the memory -of our Phrygian, to oblige the painters to change their pencil. For -'tis certain he was no deformed person; and 'tis probable he was very -handsome. For whether he was a Phrygian or, as others say, a Thracian, -he must have been sold into Samos by a trader in slaves; and 'tis well -known that that sort of people commonly bought up the most beautiful -they could light on, because they would yield the most profit.' - -Bentley's conjecture that Æsop was 'very handsome' does not find -general acceptance; it has, nevertheless, a solid foundation in the -fact that the Greeks confined art to the imitation of the beautiful -only, reprobating the portrayal of ugly forms, whether human or other. -It is not to be believed, therefore, that the chisel of Lysippus -was employed in the production of a statue to a deformed person, -which not even the gift of wisdom would have rendered acceptable to -the severe taste of his countrymen. Without going so far, however, -as to accept the view of the learned Master of Trinity, that Æsop -was probably _very_ handsome, we may with safety conclude that the -objectionable portrait of the sage as drawn by the Byzantine is without -justification. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[19] Suidas. - -[20] The mina was twelve ounces, or a sum estimated as equal to £3 15s. -English. - -[21] See _post_, p. 76. - -[22] Spelt variously Locman, Lôqman, Lokman. - -[23] This woman is notorious in history as a courtesan who essayed to -compound for her sins by votive offerings to the temple at Delphi. She -is also said to have built the Lesser Pyramid out of her accumulated -riches, but this is denied by Herodotus, who claims for the structure a -more ancient and less discreditable foundation, being the work, as he -asserts, of Mycerinus, King of Egypt (Herod., ii. 134). - -[24] Phædrus, Epilogue, book ii. - -[25] Boothby, Preface, p. xxxiv. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -STORIES RELATED OF ÆSOP. - - - 'I cannot tell how the truth may be; - I say the tale as 'twas said to me.' - - SCOTT: _The Lay of the Last Minstrel_. - - - 'Such the simple story told, - By a sage[26] renowned of old, - To a king[27] whose fabled gold - Could not procure him learning.' - - JAMES CLERK MAXWELL. - - -There are numerous tales told of Æsop, some of which are obviously -mythical; others, though their actual parentage may be doubtful, are -entirely in keeping with his reputation for common, or uncommon, -sense and ready wit. Phædrus has several of these, and Planudes, an -untrustworthy chronicler, as we have seen, has many more. Some of the -stories of the latter are absurd enough, and bordering perhaps on -the foolish; but, on the other hand, he tells several that may be -pronounced excellent in every sense, and whatever the shortcomings of -the monk in other respects, he deserves credit for having rescued these -from the oblivion which otherwise might have been their fate. - -Most writers, especially modern writers, on Æsop, have scouted with an -unnecessary display of eclecticism the whole of the stories collected -by Planudes regarding his hero; but in this they show a want of -discrimination. Whether the stories are true of Æsop or not, and I -know of no character on whom they may be more aptly fathered, they are -as ripe in wisdom as are many of the best of the fables, and their -pedigree is quite as authentic. - -Philostratus, in his life of Apollonius Tyaneus, gives the following -mythical account of the youthful Æsop: When a shepherd's boy, he fed -his flock near a temple of Mercury, and frequently prayed to the god -for mental endowments. Many other supplicants also came and laid rich -presents upon the altar, but Æsop's only offering was a little milk and -honey, and a few flowers, which the care of his sheep did not allow him -to arrange with much art. The mercenary god disposed of his gifts in -proportion to the value of the offerings. To one he gave philosophy, to -another eloquence, to a third astronomy, and to a fourth the poetical -art. When all these were given away he perceived Æsop, and recollecting -a fable which the Hours had related to him in his infancy, he bestowed -upon him the invention of the Apologue. - -Even when a slave, readiness of resource was a characteristic of Æsop, -and often stood him in good stead. His first master, Demarchus, one -day brought home some choice figs, which he handed to his butler, -telling him that he would partake of them after his bath. The butler -had a friend paying him a visit, and by way of entertainment placed -the figs before him, and both heartily partook of them. Fearing the -displeasure of Demarchus, he resolved to charge Æsop with the theft. -Having finished his ablutions, Demarchus ordered the fruit to be -brought; but the butler had none to bring, and charged Æsop with having -stolen and eaten them. The slave, being summoned, denied the charge. It -was a serious matter for one in his position. To be guilty meant many -stripes, if not death. He begged to have some warm water, and he would -prove his innocence. The water being brought, he took a deep drink; -then, putting his finger down his gullet, the water--the sole contents -of his stomach--was belched. Demarchus now ordered the butler to do the -same, with the result that he was proved to be both thief and liar, -and was punished accordingly. - -Æsop going on a journey for his master, along with other slaves of the -household, and there being many burdens to carry, he begged they would -not overload him. Looking upon him as weak in body, his fellow-slaves -gave him his choice of a load. On this, Æsop selected the pannier of -bread, which was the heaviest burden of all, at which his companions -were amazed, and thought him a fool. Noon came, however, and when they -had each partaken of its contents, Æsop's burden was lightened by one -half. At the next meal all the bread was cleared out, leaving Æsop with -only the empty basket to carry. At this their eyes were opened, and -instead of the fool they at first thought him, he was seen to be the -wisest of them all. - -The second master who owned Æsop as a slave was Zanthus, the -philosopher. Their meeting was in this wise: Æsop being in the -marketplace for sale along with two other slaves, Zanthus, who was -looking round with a view to making a purchase, asked them what they -could do. Æsop's companions hastened to reply, and between them -professed that they could do 'everything.' On Æsop being similarly -questioned, he laughingly answered, 'Nothing.' His two fellow-slaves -had forestalled him in all possible work, and left him with nothing to -do. This reply so amused Zanthus that he selected Æsop in preference to -the others who were so boastful of their abilities. - -Zanthus once, when in his cups, had foolishly wagered his land and -houses that he would drink the sea dry. Recovering his senses, he -besought Æsop his slave to find him a way out of his difficulty. This -Æsop engaged to do. At the appointed time, when the foolish feat was to -be performed, or his houses and lands forfeited, Zanthus, previously -instructed by Æsop, appeared at the seaside before the multitude which -had assembled to witness his expected discomfiture. 'I am ready,' cried -he, 'to drain the waters of the sea to the last drop; but first of all -you must stop the rivers from running into it: to drink these also is -not in the contract.' The request was admitted to be a reasonable one, -and as his opponents were powerless to perform their part, they were -covered with derision by the populace, who were loud in their praises -of the wisdom of Zanthus. - -Philosopher notwithstanding, Zanthus appears to have been often in hot -water. On another occasion his wife left him, whether on account of her -bad temper (as the report goes), or from his too frequent indulgence in -liquor (as is not unlikely), matters little. He was anxious that she -should return, but how to induce her was a difficulty hard to compass. -Æsop, as usual, was equal to it. 'Leave it to me, master!' said he. -Going to market, he gave orders to this dealer and that and the other, -to send of their best to the residence of Zanthus, as, being about to -take unto himself another wife, he intended to celebrate the happy -occasion by a feast. The report spread like wildfire, and coming to -the ears of his spouse, she quickly gathered up her belongings in the -place where she had taken up her abode, and returned to the house of -her lord and master. 'Take another wife, say you, Zanthus! Not whilst I -am alive, my dear!' And so the ruse was successful, for, as the story -affirms, she settled down to her duties, and no further cause for -separation occurred between them ever after. - -Phædrus relates several stories showing the characteristic readiness -of the sage. A mean fellow, seeing Æsop in the street, threw a stone -at him. 'Well done!' was his response to the unmannerly action. 'See! -here is a penny for you; on my faith it is all I have, but I will -tell you how you may get something more. See, yonder comes a rich and -influential man. Throw a stone at him in the same way, and you will -receive a due reward.' The rude fool, being persuaded, did as he was -advised. His daring impudence, however, brought him a requital he did -not hope for, though it was what he deserved, for, being seized, he -paid the penalty. Æsop in this incident exhibited not only his ready -wit, but his deep craft, inasmuch as he brought condign punishment upon -his persecutor by the hand of another, though he himself, being only a -slave, might be insulted with impunity. - -An Athenian, seeing Æsop at play in the midst of a crowd of boys, -stopped and laughed and jeered at him for a madman. The sage, a laugher -at others rather than one to be laughed at, perceiving this, placed -an unstrung bow in the middle of the road. 'Hark you, wise man,' said -he; 'unriddle what this means.' The people gathered round, whilst the -man tormented his invention for a long time, trying to frame an answer -to the riddle; but at last he gave it up. Upon this the victorious -philosopher said: 'The bow will soon break if you always keep it bent, -but relax it occasionally, and it will be fit for use, and strong, when -it is wanted'--a piece of sound advice which others than the wiseacre -chiefly concerned would find it advantageous to practise. - -A would-be author had recited some worthless composition to Æsop, -in which was contained an inordinate eulogy of himself and his own -powers, and, desiring to know what the sage thought about it, asked: -'Does it appear to you that I have been too conceited? I have no empty -confidence in my own capacity.' Worried to death with the execrable -production, Æsop replied: 'I greatly approve of your bestowing praise -on yourself, for it will never be your lot to receive it from another.' - -In the course of a conversation, being asked by Chilo (one of the wise -men of Greece), 'What is the employment of the gods?' Æsop's answer -was: 'To depress the proud and exalt the humble.' And in allusion to -the sorrows inseparable from the human lot, his explanation, at once -striking and poetical, was that 'Prometheus having taken earth to form -mankind, moistened and tempered it, not with water, but with tears.' - -Apart from wisdom in the highest sense, Æsop possessed no little -share of worldly wisdom, or political wisdom--often only another name -for chicane--and exercised it as occasion served. It is related by -Plutarch, in the 'Life of Solon,' that 'Æsop being at the Court of -Cr[oe]sus at a time when the seven sages of Greece were also present, -the King, having shown them the magnificence of his Court and the -vastness of his riches, asked them, "Whom do you think the happiest -man?" Some of them named one, and some another. Solon (whom without -injury we may look upon as superior to all the rest) in his answer -gave two instances. The first was that of one Tellus, a poor Athenian, -but of great virtues, who had eminently distinguished himself by his -care and education of his family, and at last lost his life in fighting -for his country. The other was of two brothers who had given a very -remarkable proof of their filial piety, and were in reward for it taken -out of this life by the gods the very night after they had performed -so dutiful an action. He concluded by adding that he had given such -instances because no one could be pronounced happy before his death. -Æsop perceived that the King was not well satisfied with any of their -answers, and being asked the same question, replied "that for his part -he was persuaded that Cr[oe]sus had as much pre-eminence in happiness -over all other men as the sea has over all the rivers." - -'The King was so much pleased with this compliment that he eagerly -pronounced that sentence which afterwards became a common proverb, -"The Phrygian has hit the mark." Soon after this happened, Solon took -his leave of Cr[oe]sus, and was dismissed very coolly. Æsop, on his -departure, accompanied him part of his journey, and as they were on -the road took an opportunity of saying to him, "Oh, Solon, either we -must not speak to kings, or we must say what will please them." "On -the contrary," replied Solon, "we should either not speak to kings -at all, or we should give them good and useful advice." So great was -the steadiness of the chief of the sages, and such the courtliness of -Æsop.'[28] - -It will be noticed that this reply of Æsop to the question of the King -was evasive, though the vanity of the latter probably prevented his -remarking it. He does not declare the King to be the happiest man, but -leaves it to be inferred that, assuming happiness to be attained by -men during life (which Solon denied), then was Cr[oe]sus pre-eminent -over all others in that respect. It must be admitted that the answer -does not display the character of Æsop in the best light as a moralist, -however much it may exalt his reputation as a courtier. There probably -was a good deal of the fox in his nature, and this, not less than his -wisdom, enabled him to maintain his position at the Court of this vain -and wealthy potentate. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[26] Solon. - -[27] Cr[oe]sus. - -[28] Quoted from the 'Life of Æsop' in the introduction to Dodsley's -'Select Fables.' - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -THE ÆSOPIAN FABLES. - - - 'Brevity is the soul of wit.' - - SHAKESPEARE: _Hamlet_. - - -It has been asserted that this same Æsop, if not a mythical personage, -is at least credited with much more than is his due, and that it is -only around his name that have clustered the various fables attributed -to him, like rich juicy grapes round their central stalk, or, to use -a more appropriate image, like swarming bees round a pendent branch. -Others have endeavoured, with less or more feasibility, to prove -that most of what are called Æsopian fables had their origin in the -far East--'The inquisitive amongst the Greeks,' say they, 'travelled -into the East to ripen their own imperfect conceptions, and on their -return taught them at home, with the mixture of fables and ornaments -of fancy'[29]--that the ideas first propounded in India and Arabia -were thus carried westward; that Æsop appropriated them and gave them -forth in a modified form and in a new dress. Scholars and investigators -differ in their views regarding the truth, or the extent of the truth, -of these allegations, and display much erudition in their attempts to -settle the question. It would appear that Æsop has indubitably the -credit of certain fables of which he was not the inventor, as they were -in vogue at a period anterior to the era in which he flourished. It -is equally proved, on the other hand, that genuine Æsopian or Grecian -fables have been attributed to Eastern sources, and are found included -in collections of Eastern fables compiled in the earlier years of the -Christian era. All this is only what might be expected, and does not -affect to any serious extent the credit for ingenuity and originality -of either Æsop or other early fabulists. Doubtless Æsop did get some of -the subjects of his fables from foreign sources, but he melted them in -the crucible of his mind--he distilled their very essence, and handed -us the precious concentrated spirit. If he had done nothing more, that -was good. - -It is well known, of course, that there were fables of a very excellent -kind before the time of Æsop. Amongst the Æsopian fables supposed to be -borrowed from the J[=a]takas are _The Wolf and the Crane_, _The Ass in -the Lion's Skin_, _The Lion and Mouse_, and _The Countryman, his Son -and the Snake_. And Plutarch[30] asserts that the language of Hesiod's -nightingale to the hawk (spoken three hundred years before the era of -Æsop) is the origin of the beautiful and instructive wisdom in which -Æsop has employed so many tongues. Thus: - - 'Poor Philomel, one luckless day, - Fell in a hungry falcons way. - "If he her life," she said, "would spare, - He should have something choice and rare." - "What's that?" quoth he. "A song," she says, - "Melodious as Apollo's lays, - That with delight all nature hears." - "A hungry belly has no ears," - Replied the hawk, "I first must sup," - And ate the little siren up. - When strength and resolution fail, - Talents and graces nought avail.'[31] - -Archilochus also wrote fables before Æsop;[32] and even anterior to -these is the fable of _The Belly and the Members_, and those given in -Holy Scripture. But, without question, Æsop was a true inventor of -fables, for it is not to be believed for a moment that Greek genius -(and this was the genius of Æsop, whatever his parentage) was not equal -to such a task. - -Doubtless many later, as well as earlier, fables are included under -the general designation of 'Æsopian,' by virtue of their resembling in -the characteristics of brevity, force and wit the inventions of the -sage. - -Æsop in all probability did not write out his fables; they were handed -down by word of mouth from generation to generation. At length they -were collected together, first by Diagoras (400 B.C.), and later by -Demetrius Phalereus, the Tyrant of Athens (318 B.C.), under the title -of 'The Assemblies of Æsopian Fables,' long after the sage's death. -This collection was made use of both by the Greek freedman Phædrus, -during the reign of Augustus, in the early years of the Christian era, -and later by Valerius Babrius, the Roman (230 A.D.). Later again, -towards the end of the fourth century, a number of them were translated -into Latin by Avienus. - -The Æsopian fables are distinguished by their simplicity, their -mother-wit and natural humour. A score of examples exhibiting these -qualities might be cited. A few, not the best known, will suffice: - -_The Wolf and the Shepherds._--'A wolf peeping into a hut where -a company of shepherds were regaling themselves with a joint of -mutton--"Lord," said he, "what a clamour would these men have raised if -they had caught _me_ at such a banquet!"' - -The compression and humour of this fable are remarkable, and the -obvious moral is: 'That men are apt to condemn in others what they -practise themselves without scruple.' - -_The Dog and the Crocodile_ bids us be on our guard against associating -with persons of an ill reputation. 'As a dog was coursing the banks of -the Nile, he grew thirsty; but fearing to be seized by the monsters -of that river, he would not stop to satiate his drought, but lapped -as he ran. A crocodile, raising his head above the surface of the -water, asked him why he was in such a hurry. He had often, he said, -wished for his acquaintance, and should be glad to embrace the present -opportunity. "You do me great honour," returned the dog, "but it is to -avoid such companions as you that I am in so much haste."' - -Again, _The Snake and the Hedgehog_. 'By the intreaties of a hedgehog, -half starved with cold, a snake was once persuaded to receive him -into her cell. He was no sooner entered than his prickles began to -be very annoying to his companion, upon which the snake desired he -would provide himself another lodging, as she found, upon trial, the -apartment was not large enough to accommodate both. "Nay," said the -hedgehog, "let them that are uneasy in their situation exchange it; for -my own part, I am very well contented where I am; if you are not, you -are welcome to remove whenever you think proper!"' - -The fable (or rather story, for it is more an anecdote than a fable) -of _Mercury and the Sculptor_ reads like a joke of yesterday. In Mr. -Cross's 'Life of George Eliot,' it is recorded that the great novelist -(in a conversation with Mr. Burne-Jones) recalled her passionate -delight and total absorption in Æsop's fables, the possession of which, -when a child, had opened new worlds to her imagination, and she laughed -till the tears ran down her face in recalling her infantine enjoyment -of the humour of this story, as follows: - -'Mercury once determined to learn in what esteem he was held among -mortals. For this purpose he assumed the character of a man, and -visited in this disguise the studio of a sculptor. Having looked at -various statues, he demanded the price of two figures of Jupiter and -Juno. When the sum at which they were valued was named, he pointed to -a figure of himself, saying to the sculptor: "You will certainly want -much more for this, as it is the statue of the messenger of the gods, -and the author of all your gain." The sculptor replied, "Well, if you -will buy these, I'll fling you that into the bargain."' - -Again, take _The Bull and the Gnat_, intended to show that the least -considerable of mankind are seldom destitute of importance: - -'A conceited gnat, fully persuaded of his own importance, having -placed himself on the horn of a bull, expressed great uneasiness lest -his weight should be incommodious; and with much ceremony begged the -bull's pardon for the liberty he had taken, assuring him that he would -immediately remove if he pressed too hard upon him. "Give yourself no -uneasiness on that account, I beseech you," replied the bull, "for as -I never perceived when you sat down, I shall probably not miss you -whenever you think fit to rise up."' - -Here, again, the humour is exquisite; but, indeed, that is a -characteristic of nearly all the fables ascribed to Æsop. - -The fable does not readily lend itself to the expression of pathos. -Perhaps the only really pathetic fable is that of _The Wolf and -the Lamb_, and it is also one of the very best. In this there is a -touch of genuine pathos, unique in its character. Hesiod's _Hawk and -Nightingale_,[33] and _The Old Woodcutter and Death_, as told by La -Fontaine, are not wanting in pathos. - -The applicability of the fables of Æsop to the circumstances and -occurrences of every-day life, in the highest walks as in the -humblest--for the nature in both is human, after all--gives them -peculiar value. This, and their epigrammatical character, so -conspicuous in the best, combined with the humorous turn that is given -to them, impresses them upon the memory. - -In such repute have the Æsopian fables always been held, that the -most learned men in all ages have occupied themselves in translating -and transcribing them. Socrates relieved his prison hours in turning -some of them into verse.[34] In the days of ancient Greece, not to be -familiar with Æsop was a sign of illiteracy.[35] - -We have seen how other of the ancients collected and disseminated them. -Coming down to later times, one of the first printed collections was by -Bonus Accursius (1489,) from a MS. in the Ambrosian Library at Milan. -To this was prefixed the Life by Planudes, written a century before. -Another edition of the same was published by Aldus in 1505. The edition -of Robert Stephens, published in Paris in 1546, followed; then came the -enlarged collection by Neveletus, from the Heidelberg Library, in 1610. -Later, Gabriele Faerno's 'One Hundred Fables' are Æsop given in Latin -verse. So also with most of the collections by modern fabulists, La -Fontaine, Sir Roger L'Estrange, Dr. Samuel Croxall, La Motte, Richer, -Brettinger, Bitteux--they are all largely Æsop, with added pieces of -later invention. - -'Æsop has been agreed by all ages since his era for the greatest Master -in his kind, and all others of that sort have been but imitations of -his original.'[36] - -Of the popularity of Æsop's fables in book form during last century and -the beginning of this, we can scarcely form any conception in these -days of cheap literature in such variety and excellence. Along with the -Bible and 'The Pilgrim's Progress,' Æsop may be said to have occupied a -place on the meagre bookshelf of almost every cottage. - -The editions of Æsop in English are innumerable, but the most -noteworthy, in the different epochs from the age of the invention of -printing downwards have been: Caxton's collection (1484); the one -by Leonard Willans (1650); that by John Ogilby (1651); Sir Roger -L'Estrange's edition (1692); Dr. Croxall's collection (1722); that of -Robert Dodsley (1764); and the Rev. Thomas James's Æsop (1848). - -It is remarkable that the majority of those who have busied themselves -in translating and editing Æsop have won fame and (shall we say?) -immortality through that circumstance alone. Take the names in order -of time, and it will be seen that the men are remembered chiefly or -only (most of them) by reason of their association with the Æsopian -fables: Demetrius Phalereus, Phædrus, Babrius, Avienus, Planudes, -Bonus Accursius, Neveletus, even down to La Fontaine, L'Estrange,[37] -Croxall, and James. The Æsopian fable has indeed a perennial life, and -its votaries have rendered themselves immortal by association therewith. - -Writers of much erudition, and in many countries, have vied with -each other in learned research in this branch of literature, and -in endeavours to trace the history of fable. Among the French we -have Pierre Pithou (1539-96), editor of the first printed edition -of Phædrus; Bachet de Meziriac, who wrote a life of Æsop (1632); -Boissonade, Robert, Edelestand du Meril (1854); Hervieux and Gaston -Paris. Of German writers there are Lessing, Fausboll, Hermann -Oesterley, Mueller, Wagener, Heydenreich, Otto Crusius (1879), -Benfey, Mall, Knoell, Gitlbauer; Niccolo, Perotti, Archbishop of -Siponto (1430-80), and Jannelli, among the Italians; amongst Jewish -writers, Dr. Landsberger. Of English writers we have Christopher Wase, -Alsop, Boyle, Bentley, Tyrwhitt, Rutherford, James, Robinson Ellis, -Rhys-Davids, G. F. Townsend, and last but not least, Joseph Jacobs, in -his scholarly 'History of the Æsopic Fable.' - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[29] Antiquary in 'The Club.' - -[30] 'Conviv. Sapient.' - -[31] Boothby's translation. - -[32] Priscian. - -[33] _Ante_, p. 54. - -[34] 'Being exhorted by a dream, I composed some verses in honour of -the god to whom the present festival [of the sacred embassy to Delos] -belongs; but after the god, considering it necessary that he who -designs to be a poet should make fables and not discourses, and knowing -that I myself was not a mythologist, on these accounts I versified the -fables of Æsop, which were at hand, and were known to me.'--Socrates in -Plato's 'Phædo.' - -[35] Suidas. - -[36] Sir William Temple. - -[37] Goldsmith, in his 'Account of the Augustine Age of England,' -remarks: 'That L'Estrange was a standard writer cannot be disowned, -because a great many very eminent authors formed their style by his. -But his standard was far from being a just one; though, when party -considerations are set aside, he certainly was possessed of elegance, -ease, and perspicuity.' Notwithstanding this considerable estimate of -L'Estrange, it may be said that he is now remembered chiefly by his -association with the Æsopian fables. - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -PHÆDRUS AND BABRIUS. - - - 'United, yet divided, twain at once-- - sit two kings of Fable on one throne.' - - COWPER: _The Task (altered)_. - - -Phædrus, who wrote the fables of Æsop in Latin iambics, and added -others of his own, was born at the very source of poetic inspiration, -on Mount Pierius, near to the Pierian spring, the seat of the Muses, -in Thrace, at that time a portion of the Roman province of Macedonia, -and of which Octavius, the father of Augustus Cæsar, was Proconsul, -during the last century before the Christian era. Like Æsop, he too was -a slave in early youth, but being taken to Rome, he was manumitted by -Augustus, and occupied a place in the household of that Emperor. Here -he acquired the pure Latinity of his style, and in later years wrote -the well-known fables in the collection that bears his name. His fables -are in five books, and were published during the reign of Tiberius and -subsequent emperors. - -In the prologue to his third book, addressed to Eutychus,[38] he thus -alludes to his birthplace, and disavows all mercenary aims in his -literary pursuits: - - 'Me--whom a Grecian mother bore - On Hill Pierian, where of yore - Mnemosyne in love divine - Brought forth to Jove the tuneful Nine. - Though sprung where genius reigned with art, - I grubb'd up av'rice from my heart, - And rather for applause than pay, - Embrace the literary way-- - Yet as a writer and a wit, - With some abatements they admit. - What is his case then, do you think, - Who toils for wealth nor sleeps a wink, - Preferring to the pleasing pain - Of composition, sordid gain? - But hap what will (as Sinon said - When to King Priam he was led), - I book the third shall now fulfil, - With Æsop for my master still, - Which book I dedicate to you - As both to worth and honour due. - Pleased, if you read; if not, content, - As conscious of a sure event, - That these my fables shall remain, - And after-ages entertain.'[39] - -His object, as he declares, was to expose vice and folly; in pursuing -it he did not escape persecution, for Sejanus, the arbitrary minister -of Tiberius (who had now succeeded to the imperial purple), took -mortal offence at certain of the apologues which he suspected applied -to himself, and, 'informer, witness, judge and all,' laid the iron -hand of power heavy upon the fabulist. Phædrus, whose early years of -slavery had left no taint of servility upon his character, was too -independent to stoop to insolent power, and resented the treatment to -which he was subjected. Thus beset, and probably largely owing to this -cause, his last years were spent in poverty. Amidst the infirmities of -age he compares himself to the old hound in his last apologue, which -being chastised by his master for his feebleness in allowing the boar -to escape, replied, 'Spare your old servant! It was the power, not the -will, that failed me. Remember rather what I was than abuse me for what -I am.' A lesson which even at the present day may sometimes find its -application. Phædrus prophesied his own immortality as an author, and -his boast was that whilst Æsop invented, he (Phædrus) perfected. - -Babrius,[40] a Latin, did for the Æsopian fable, in Greek choliambics, -what Phædrus, a Greek, accomplished for them in Latin iambics. He -is believed to have lived in the third century A.D., and to have -composed his fables in his quality of tutor to Branchus, the young -son of the Emperor Alexander Severus.[41] His collection of Æsopian -fables in two books was known to ancient writers, who refer to him -and quote his apologues, but, like other literary treasures, it was -lost during the Middle Ages. Early in the seventeenth century, Isaac -Nicholas Neveletus, a Swiss, published (1610) an edition of the fables -of Æsop, containing not only those embraced in the work of Planudes, -but additional fables from MSS. in the Vatican Library, and some from -Aphthonius and Babrius. He further expressed the opinion that the -latter was the earliest collector and writer of the Æsopian fables in -Greek. Francis Vavassor, a French Jesuit, followed with comments on -Babrius on the same lines; so also another Frenchman, Bayle, in his -'Dictionnaire Historique'; Thomas Tyrwhitt and Dr. Bentley in England, -and Francisco de Furia in Italy, also espoused the idea first suggested -by Neveletus, and adduced further proofs in support of it. Singularly -enough, the accuracy of the forecast of these scholars was established -by the discovery in 1840, by M. Minoides Menas, a Greek, at the Convent -of St. Laura on Mount Athos, of a veritable copy of Babrius in Greek -choliambic verse. The transcript of Menas was first published in Paris -in 1844. The first English edition was edited by Sir George Cornewall -Lewis in the original Greek text, with Latin notes, and afterwards -(1860) translated into English by the Rev. James Davies, M.A., and they -now form the most trustworthy version of the Æsopian fables. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[38] 'The Charioteer of Caligula,' Bücheler. - -[39] From the translation of the fables of Phædrus into English verse -by Christopher Smart, A.M. - -[40] Sometimes spelt 'Gabrias.' - -[41] Jacobs: 'History of the Æsopic Fable,' p. 22. - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -THE FABLE IN HISTORY AND MYTH. - - - 'Full of wise saws.' - - SHAKESPEARE: _As You Like It_. - - -'Fables,' says Aristotle, 'are adapted to deliberate oratory, and -possess this advantage: that to hit upon facts which have occurred -in point is difficult; but with regard to fables it is comparatively -easy. For an orator ought to construct them just as he does his -illustrations, if he be able to discover the point of similitude, a -thing which will be easy to him if he be of a philosophical turn of -mind.'[42] - -The truth of this is exemplified in the use which has been made of the -apologue by orators in all ages, but especially in early times. - -The following instances of the application of fables to particular -occasions are recorded. The fable of _The Belly and the Members_, which -is reputed to be the oldest in existence, is of sterling excellence, -as well as of venerable antiquity.[43] Its lucid moral is truth -in essence. The logic of its conclusion is as invulnerable as the -demonstration of a proposition in Euclid. There is no gainsaying it, -turn it how we may, and, with all due deference to Montaigne, only one -moral is deducible from it. This is solid bottom ground and bed rock, -safe for chain-cable holding; safe for building upon, however high -the superstructure. Striking use was made of it by Menenius Agrippa -when the rabble refused to pay their share of the taxes necessary for -carrying on the business of the State. - -In the 'Coriolanus' of Shakespeare, Menenius, the Roman Consul, -is introduced in character,[44] and recounts the apologue to the -disaffected citizens of Rome. Thus the dramatist, in his superb way: - - _Men._ Either you must - Confess yourselves wondrous malicious, - Or be accused of folly. I shall tell you - A pretty tale: it may be you have heard it; - But since it serves my purpose, I will venture - To stale 't a little more. - - _1 Cit._ Well, I'll hear it, sir; yet you must not think - to fob off our disgrace with a tale; but, an 't please you, - deliver. - - _Men._ There was a time when all the body's Members - Rebelled against the Belly; thus accused it: - That only like a gulf it did remain - I' the midst o' the body, idle and inactive, - Still cupboarding the viand, never bearing - Like labour with the rest; where th' other instruments - Did see and hear, devise, instruct, walk, feel, - And, mutually participate, did minister - Unto the appetite and affection common - Of the whole body. The Belly answered: - - _1 Cit._ Well, sir, what answer made the Belly? - - _Men._ Sir, I shall tell you. With a kind of smile, - Which ne'er came from the lungs, but even thus-- - For, look you, I may make the Belly smile - As well as speak--it tauntingly replied - To the discontented Members, the mutinous parts - That envied his receipt: even so most fitly - As you malign our senators, for that - They are not such as you. - - _1 Cit._ Your Belly's answer? What! - The kingly-crowned head, the vigilant eye, - The counsellor heart, the arm our soldier, - Our steed the leg, the tongue our trumpeter, - With other muniments and petty helps - In this our fabric, if that they---- - - _Men._ What then?---- - 'Fore me this fellow speaks!--what then? what then? - - _1 Cit._ Should by the cormorant Belly be restrained, - Who is the sink o' the body---- - - _Men._ Well, what then? - - _1 Cit._ The former agents, if they did complain, - What could the Belly answer? - - _Men._ I will tell you, - If you'll bestow a small--of what you have little-- - Patience awhile, you'll hear the Belly's answer. - - _1 Cit._ Ye're long about it. - - _Men._ Note me this, good friend, - Your most grave Belly was deliberate, - Not rash, like his accusers, and thus answered: - 'True is it, my incorporate friends,' quoth he, - 'That I receive the general food at first, - Which you do live upon; and fit it is, - Because I am the storehouse and the shop - Of the whole body; but, if you do remember, - I send it through the rivers of your blood, - Even to the court, the heart, to the seat o' the brain, - And through the cranks and offices of man. - The strongest nerves, and small inferior veins, - From me receive that natural competency - Whereby they live; and though that all at once, - You, my good friends----' This says the Belly, mark me. - - _1 Cit._ Ay, sir; well, well. - - _Men._ 'Though all at once cannot - See what I do deliver out to each, - Yet I can make my audit up, that all - From me do back receive the flour of all, - And leave me but the bran.' What say you to 't? - - _1 Cit._ It was an answer. How apply you this? - - _Men._ The senators of Rome are this good Belly, - And you the mutinous Members; for examine - Their counsels and their cares; digest things rightly, - Touching the weal o' the common, you shall find - No public benefit which you receive - But it proceeds or comes from them to you, - And no way from yourselves. What do you think? - -The oldest fable in Holy Scripture, having been spoken or written about -six centuries before the time of Æsop, is that of _The Trees in Search -of a King_, recounted by Jotham to the men of Shechem, and directed -against Abimelech,[45] wherein it is shown that the most worthless -persons are generally the most presuming: - -'And all the men of Shechem assembled themselves together, and all the -house of Millo, and went and made Abimelech king, by the oak of the -pillar that was in Shechem. And when they told it to Jotham, he went -and stood in the top of Mount Gerizim, and lifted up his voice, and -cried and said unto them, Hearken unto me, ye men of Shechem, that God -may hearken unto you. The Trees went forth on a time to anoint a king -over them; and they said unto the Olive-tree, Reign thou over us. But -the Olive-tree said unto them, Should I leave my fatness, wherewith by -me they honour God and man, and go to wave to and fro over the trees? -And the Trees said to the Fig-tree, Come thou, and reign over us. -But the Fig-tree said unto them, Should I leave my sweetness, and my -good fruit, and go to wave to and fro over the trees? And the Trees -said unto the Vine, Come thou, and reign over us. And the Vine said -unto them, Should I leave my wine, which cheereth God and man, and go -to wave to and fro over the trees? Then said all the Trees unto the -Bramble, Come thou, and reign over us. And the Bramble said unto the -trees, If in truth ye anoint me king over you, then come and put your -trust in my shadow; and if not, let fire come out of the Bramble, and -devour the cedars of Lebanon.' - -The Samians had impeached their Prime Minister for embezzling the money -of the Commonwealth, and would have put him to death. Æsop, addressing -the assembled councillors, introduced the fable of _The Fox and the -Hedgehog_ into his oration, as an argument to dissuade them from their -purpose. - -'A fox, swimming across a rapid river, was carried by the current into -a deep ravine, where he lay for a time bruised and sick, and unable to -move. A swarm of hungry flies[46] settled upon him. A hedgehog, passing -by, compassionated his sufferings, and would have driven away the flies -that were tormenting him. "Pray do not molest them," cried the fox. -"How is this?" asked the hedgehog. "Do you not want to be rid of them?" -"By no means," replied the fox; "for these flies are now full of blood, -and sting me but little, and if you rid me of these which are already -satiated, others more hungry will come in their place, and will drink -up all the blood I have left." Thus also, O Samians, this man no longer -injures you, for he is wealthy; should you, however, put him to death, -others who are poor will come, who will exhaust you by filching the -public money.' - -Such a plea in arrest of judgment would hardly suffice in these later -days. - -The fable of _The Frogs petitioning Jupiter for a King_ was spoken by -Æsop to the Athenians in order to reconcile them to the mild yoke of -the usurper Pisistratus, against whom, after they had raised him to the -supreme power, the people began to murmur. 'The Commonwealth of Frogs, -a discontented, variable race, weary of liberty, and fond of a change, -petitioned Jupiter to grant them a king. The good-natured deity, in -order to indulge this their request with as little mischief to the -petitioners as possible, threw them down a log. At first they regarded -their new monarch with great reverence, and kept from him at a most -respectful distance; but perceiving his tame and peaceable disposition, -they by degrees ventured to approach him with more familiarity, till -at length some of them even ventured to climb up his side and squat -upon him, and they all conceived for him the utmost contempt. In this -disposition, they renewed their request to Jupiter, and entreated him -to bestow upon them another king. The Thunderer in his wrath sent them -a crane, who no sooner took possession of his new dominions than he -began to devour his subjects one after another in a most capricious -and tyrannical manner. They were now more dissatisfied than before; -when applying to Jupiter a third time, they were dismissed with the -reproof that the evil they complained of they had imprudently brought -upon themselves, and that they had no remedy now but to submit to it -with patience.' - -Plutarch, in his account of 'The Feast of the Sages' at the Court of -Periander, King of Corinth (himself one of the seven), narrates the -incident of Alexidemus, natural son of the Tyrant of Miletus, who, -having taken offence at being placed lower at the table than 'Æolians, -and Islanders, and people known to nobody,' was ridiculed by Æsop, -who related to the assembled guests the fable of _The Arrogant Mule -mortified_. 'The lion,' said he, 'gave a feast to the beasts. The horse -and the ass sent excuses, the one having to bear his master a journey, -and the other to turn the mill for the housewife; but, in order to -honour the hospitality of the forest king, they sent their son, the -mule, in their stead. At table a dispute arose about precedence, the -mule claiming the higher place in right of his parent the horse, -which the ox and others disputed, asserting that the mule had no just -pretensions to the dignity claimed. At length, argument having run -high, the mule would fain have been content with the seat reserved for -the ass; but even this was now denied him, and, as a punishment for -his presumption, he was thrust to the lower end, as one who, instead of -meriting consideration, was nothing but a base mongrel.' - -It is said that when Æsop was being taken to the rock Hyampia, there to -be sacrificed, he predicted that the hand of retributive Justice would -smite his persecutors for their inhumanity; and, reciting the fable of -_The Eagle and the Beetle_, he warned them that the weakest may procure -vengeance against the most powerful in requital of injuries inflicted. -'A hare, being pursued by an eagle, retreated into the nest of a -beetle, who promised her protection. The eagle repulsed the beetle, -and destroyed the hare before its face. The beetle, remembering the -wrong done it, soared to the nest of the eagle and destroyed her eggs. -Appealing to Jupiter, the god listened to the petition of his favourite -bird, and granted her leave to lay her eggs in his lap for safety. -The beetle, seeing this, made a ball of dirt, and, carrying it aloft, -dropped it into the lap of the god, who, forgetting the eggs, shook all -off together.' - -_The Piper turned Fisherman_ was spoken by Cyrus (King of Persia) at -Sardis to the Ionians and Æolians on the occasion of their sending -ambassadors, offering to become subject to him on the same terms as -they had been to Cr[oe]sus. But he, when he heard their proposal, told -them this story: 'A piper seeing some fishes in the sea, began to -pipe, expecting that they would come to shore; but finding his hopes -disappointed, he took a casting-net, and enclosed a great number of -fishes, and drew them out. When he saw them leaping about, he said -to the fishes: "Cease your dancing, since when I piped you would not -come out and dance."' Cyrus told this story to the Ionians and Æolians -because the Ionians, when Cyrus pressed them by his ambassador to -revolt from Cr[oe]sus, refused to consent, and now, when the business -was done, were ready to listen to him. He therefore, under the -influence of anger, gave them this answer.[47] - -The fable of _The Horse and the Stag_ was rehearsed by Stesichorus to -the citizens of Himera[48] with a view to stimulating them to beware -of the encroachments of Phalaris the Tyrant, whom they had chosen -general with absolute powers, and were on the eve of assigning him a -body-guard. 'The stag, with his horns, got the better of the horse, and -drove him clean out of the pasture where they used to feed together. -So the horse craved the assistance of man; and in order to receive the -benefit of his help, suffered him to put a bridle on his neck, a bit -in his mouth, and a saddle upon his back. By this means he entirely -defeated his enemy. But guess his chagrin when, returning thanks, and -desiring to be dismissed, he received for answer: "No! I never knew -before how useful a drudge you were; and now that I have found what -you are good for, you may depend upon it I will keep you to it." Look -to it, then' (continued Stesichorus), 'lest in your wish to avenge -yourselves on your enemies you suffer in the same way as the horse; for -already, through your choice of a commander with independent power, you -have the bit in your mouths; but if you assign him a body-guard, and -permit him to mount into the saddle, you will become, from that moment -forth, the slaves of Phalaris.' - -When the Athenians, with the ingratitude which sometimes blinds a -whole people to the merits of their best friends, would have betrayed -Demosthenes into the hands of Philip, King of Macedonia, the orator, as -watch-dog of the State,[49] brought them to a better frame of mind by a -recital of _The Wolves and the Sheep_. 'Once on a time, the wolves sent -an embassy to the sheep, desiring that there might be peace between -them for the time to come. "Why," said they, "should we be for ever -waging this deadly strife? Those wicked dogs are the cause of it all; -they are incessantly barking at us and provoking us; send them away, -and there will no longer be any obstacle to our eternal friendship and -peace." The silly sheep listened; the dogs were dismissed, and the -flock, thus deprived of their best protectors, became an easy prey to -their treacherous enemy.' - -On another occasion, when the populace were wrangling and disputing on -matters of comparatively small moment whilst neglecting more important -concerns, the same orator warned them of the danger they were in of -losing the substance in fighting for the shadow. 'A youth,' said he, -'one hot summer day, hired an ass to carry him from Athens to Megara. -At mid-day the heat of the sun was so intense that he dismounted, and -sat down to repose himself in the shadow of the ass. The driver of the -ass thereupon disputed with him, declaring that he had a better right -to the shade than the other. "What!" said the youth, "did I not hire -the ass for the whole journey?" "Yes," replied the other, "you hired -the ass, but not the ass's shadow." While they were wrangling and -fighting for the place, the ass took to his heels and ran away.' - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[42] 'Rhetoric,' book ii., chap. xx. - -[43] 'A variant of it, or something very like it, was discovered twelve -years ago by M. Maspero in a fragmentary papyrus, which he dates about -the twentieth dynasty (_circa_ 1250 B.C.).'--Jacobs: 'History of the -Æsopic Fable,' p. 82. - -[44] Act I., Scene i. - -[45] Judges ix. 8-15. - -[46] Aristotle in his 'Treatise on Rhetoric,' book ii., chap. xx. has -horse-leeches as the blood-suckers. - -[47] Herodotus, i. 141. Cary's translation; Bohn. - -[48] Aristotle's 'Rhetoric,' book ii., chap. xx. - -[49] The episode of the eccentric and, alas! well-nigh forgotten -politician, John Arthur Roebuck, in his assumption of the character of -'Tearem,' the watch-dog, will recur to readers. - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -HINDOO, ARABIAN, AND PERSIAN FABLES.--PILPAY, LOCMAN.--THE 'GESTA -ROMANORUM.' - - - 'When to my study I retire, - And from books of ancient sages - Glean fresh sparks of buried fire - Lurking in their ample pages-- - While the task my mind engages - Let old words new truths inspire.' - - JAMES CLERK MAXWELL. - - -The 'Panca Tantra' is a collection of Hindoo fables, the supposed -author of which was Vishnu Sarman, and this is believed to be the -source of 'The Fables of Pilpay' or _Bidpa[=i]_, which are undoubtedly -of Indian origin. The transformation which these latter have -experienced in their progress down the ages, chiefly by reason of their -having been translated into the Arabic in the sixth century under the -name of the 'Book of Kalilah and Dimnah,' and afterwards into other -Eastern languages, has altered their Indian character, and caused them -to assume a Persian vesture and significance. They are rich in ripe -wisdom, and prove the insight of their author or authors into human -nature, which in those early days, and in those far countries, was much -as it is in more westerly communities and in our own times. - -Taking the Æsopian fable as our model, the bulk of Pilpay's stories -are not fables _par excellence_. They are more of the nature of -_rencontres_ of adventures, fabulous, it is true, and containing -generally an excellent moral, but elaborated and complex for the -most part; they are wanting in the terseness, the crispness, and -concentration, as well as in the simplicity and spontaneity, of the -Greek. At the same time there is a freshness and vigour in these old -fables that is not sacrificed by translation, and they are sufficiently -striking and admirable as moral stories to justify the repute in which -they have always been held. _The Greedy and Ambitious Cat_ is one of -the stories in the Bidpa[=i] collection. - -'There was formerly an old woman in a village, extremely thin, half -starved, and meagre. She lived in a little cottage as dark and gloomy -as a fool's heart, and withal as close shut up as a miser's hand.[50] -This miserable creature had for the companion of her wretched -retirement a cat, meagre and lean as herself; the poor creature never -saw bread nor beheld the face of a stranger, and was forced to be -contented with only smelling the mice in their holes, or seeing the -prints of their feet in the dust. If by some extraordinary lucky chance -this miserable animal happened to catch a mouse, she was like a beggar -that discovers a treasure: her visage and her eyes were inflamed -with joy, and that booty served her for a whole week; and out of the -excess of her admiration, and distrust of her own happiness, she would -cry out to herself, "Heavens! is this a dream, or is it real?" One -day, however, ready to die for hunger, she got upon the ridge of her -enchanted castle, which had long been the mansion of famine for cats, -and spied from thence another cat, that was stalking upon a neighbour's -wall like a lion, walking along as if she were counting her steps, and -so fat that she could hardly go. The old woman's cat, astonished to see -a creature of her own species so plump and so large, with a loud voice -cries out to her pursy neighbour: "In the name of pity speak to me, -thou happiest of the cat kind! Why, you look as if you came from one of -the Khan of Kathais'[51] feasts; I conjure ye to tell me how or in what -region it is that you get your skin so well stuffed." - -'"Where?" replied the fat one. "Why, where should one feed well but -at a king's table? I go to the house," continued she, "every day about -dinner-time, and there I lay my paws upon some delicious morsel or -other, which serves me till the next, and then leave enough for an army -of mice, which under me live in peace and tranquillity; for why should -I commit murder for a piece of tough and skinny mouse-flesh, when I can -live on venison at a much easier rate?" - -'The lean cat, on this, eagerly inquired the way to this house of -plenty, and entreated her plump neighbour to carry her one day along -with her. - -'"Most willingly," said the fat puss; "for thou seest I am naturally -charitable, and thou art so lean that I heartily pity thy condition." - -'On this promise they parted, and the lean cat returned to the old -woman's chamber, where she told her dame the story of what had befallen -her. - -'The old woman prudently endeavoured to dissuade her cat from -prosecuting her design, admonishing her withal to have a care of being -deceived. - -'"For, believe me," said she, "the desires of the ambitious are never -to be satiated but when their mouths are stuffed with the dirt of -their graves. Sobriety and temperance are the only things that truly -enrich people. I must tell thee, poor silly cat, that they who travel -to satisfy their ambition have no knowledge of the good things they -possess, nor are they truly thankful to Heaven for what they enjoy, who -are not contented with their fortune." - -'The poor starved cat, however, had conceived so fair an idea of -the king's table, that the old woman's good morals and judicious -remonstrances entered in at one ear and went out at the other; in -short, she departed the next day with the fat puss to go to the king's -house; but, alas! before she got thither her destiny had laid a snare -for her. For, being a house of good cheer, it was so haunted with cats -that the servants had, just at this time, orders to kill all the cats -that came near it, by reason of a great robbery committed the night -before in the king's larder by several grimalkins. The old woman's cat, -however, pushed on by hunger, entered the house, and no sooner saw a -dish of meat unobserved by the cooks, but she made a seizure of it, -and was doing what for many years she had not done before, that is, -heartily filling her belly; but as she was enjoying herself under the -dresser-board, and feeding heartily upon her stolen morsels, one of the -testy officers of the kitchen, missing his breakfast, and seeing where -the poor cat was solacing herself with it, threw his knife at her with -such an unlucky hand that it struck her full in the breast. However, -as it has been the providence of Nature to give this creature nine -lives instead of one, poor puss made a shift to crawl away, after she -had for some time shammed dead; but in her flight, observing the blood -come streaming from her wound--"Well," said she, "let me but escape -this accident, and if ever I quit my old home and my own mice for all -the rarities in the king's kitchen, may I lose all my nine lives at -once!"' - -The moral of the story is, that it is better to be contented with what -one has than to travel in search of what ambition prompts us to seek -for. - -In the Escurial, near Madrid, the library of which is rich in ancient -literary treasures, is a work by Ebn Arabscah, a collection of Arabian -fables. Arabia may with truth be designated the very fountain-head -of fabulous story. It was in that country that the venerable Locman -flourished, during, it is believed, the reigns of the Jewish kings -David and Solomon. Berington, in his essay on 'The Arabian or Saracenic -Learning,' remarks that Locman is said to have been an Ethiopian or -Nubian, extremely deformed in his person, but so famed for wisdom as to -have acquired the appellation of the Sage. His fables and moral maxims, -written for the instruction of mankind, were in the estimation of the -Eastern people a gift from heaven, and they received them as its -inspired dictates. 'Heretofore,' says the Divine being in the Koran, -'we gave wisdom to Locman.' The same writer suggests whether Locman and -Æsop may not be the same person. 'The history of the two sages is so -perfectly similar in their characters and the incidents of their lives, -that one must have been borrowed from the other. But the chronological -difficulties,' he adds, 'are sufficiently perplexing.' - -We have already seen that the alleged similarity in character and -bodily appearance was due to the invention or misconception of -Planudes, whose story of Æsop was written in the fourteenth century, -and therefore the seeming identity of the sages falls to the ground. -Moreover, the fables of Æsop have a mobility about them which we do not -find in those of other fabulists; they are essentially Attic in their -diction, exhibiting all the marks of that compressed wit and wisdom for -which the ancient Greek mind was distinguished. Eastern fable, on the -other hand, is ornate and florid, and wanting in the Grecian clear-cut -directness and point. It is idle to assume that the ideas, if not the -diction, may have been borrowed and clothed in a new dress, unless it -can be shown that the substance or subject-matter of the fables of the -two sages is alike or similar in character. Granted that a few--about a -dozen in number[52]--of the Æsopian fables find their counterpart in -the fables of a more remote antiquity and in more Eastern countries, -this circumstance might be expected; ideas dating from the very advent -of the human race are current amongst us in this day, but surely even -we of the nineteenth century have a sufficient stock of original -conceptions to justify our claims to be considered inventors, and so -with Æsop and the race of fabulists in all ages. - -Mrs. Jameson says,[53] with great force and truth, that 'the fables -which appeal to our higher moral sympathies may sometimes do as much -for us as the truths of science,' and she paraphrases from Sir William -Jones's Persian Grammar a fable embodying one of those traditions of -our Lord which are preserved in the East. - -'Jesus,' says the story, 'arrived one evening at the gates of a certain -city, and He sent His disciples forward to prepare supper, while He -Himself, intent on doing good, walked through the streets into the -market place. - -'And He saw at the corner of the market some people gathered together -looking at an object on the ground; and He drew near to see what it -might be. It was a dead dog with a halter round his neck, by which -he appeared to have been dragged through the dirt; and a viler, more -abject, a more unclean thing never met the eyes of man. - -'And those who stood by looked on with abhorrence. - -'"Faugh!" said one, stopping his nose, "it pollutes the air." "How -long," said another, "shall this foul beast offend our sight?" "Look -at his torn hide," said a third; "one could not even cut a shoe out of -it." "And his ears," said a fourth, "all draggled and bleeding!" "No -doubt," said a fifth, "he hath been hanged for thieving!" - -'And Jesus heard them, and looking down compassionately on the dead -creature, He said, "Pearls are not equal to the whiteness of his teeth!" - -'Then the people turned towards Him with amazement, and said among -themselves, "Who is this? this must be Jesus of Nazareth, for only _He_ -could find something to pity and approve even in a dead dog!" And being -ashamed, they bowed their heads before Him, and went each on his way.' - -'I can recall,' continues Mrs. Jameson, 'at this hour, the vivid, -yet softening and pathetic, impression left on my fancy by this old -Eastern story. It struck me as exquisitely humorous, as well as -exquisitely beautiful. It gave me a pain in my conscience, for it -seemed thenceforward so easy and so vulgar to say satirical things, -and so much nobler to be benign and merciful; and I took the lesson so -home that I was in great danger of falling into the opposite extreme; -of seeking the beautiful even in the midst of the corrupt and the -repulsive. Pity, a large element in my composition, might have easily -degenerated into weakness, threatening to subvert hatred of evil in -trying to find excuses for it; and whether my mind has ever completely -righted itself, I am not sure.' - -Our remarks on the fables of Pilpay are equally applicable to the -'Gesta Romanorum' or 'Entertaining Moral Stories' invented by the monks -as a fireside recreation in the Middle Ages. Most of them are recitals -of adventures rather than fables. They are believed to be of English -origin, though a similar 'Gesta,' composed of stories in imitation of -them, appeared in Germany about the same time. The taste displayed in -many of them is of a questionable kind, and an outrageous twist is -often given to their application; though doubtless they are a truthful -reflex of the ideas and manners of the age in which they were composed -and rehearsed, and in that respect they are of the utmost interest and -value. Most of the fables or tales in the 'Gesta' begin well, and -with a promise of interest. This interest, it must be said, is rarely -maintained, for, as a rule, their conclusion is insipid, and sometimes -inane. This notwithstanding, they are valuable by reason of their -suggestiveness. The two examples we quote, translated from the Latin -by the Rev. Charles Swan, are not faultless, but they are coherent -throughout, and have a rounded literary finish in which many of the -others are wanting. The first is entitled _Of Perfect Life_: - -'When Titus was Emperor of Rome, he made a decree that the natal -day of his first-born son should be held sacred, and that whosoever -violated it by any kind of labour should be put to death. This edict -being promulgated, he called Virgil, the learned man, to him, and -said, "Good friend, I have established a certain law, but as offences -may frequently be committed without being discovered by the ministers -of justice, I desire you to frame some curious piece of art which may -reveal to me every transgressor of the law." Virgil replied, "Sire, -your will shall be accomplished." He straightway constructed a magic -statue, and caused it to be erected in the midst of the city. By virtue -of the secret powers with which it was invested, it communicated to the -Emperor whatever offences were committed in secret on that day. And -thus, by the accusation of the statue, an infinite number of persons -were convicted. - -'Now, there was a certain carpenter, called Focus, who pursued his -occupation every day alike. Once, as he lay in his bed, his thoughts -turned upon the accusations of the statue, and the multitudes which it -had caused to perish. In the morning he clothed himself, and proceeded -to the statue, which he addressed in the following manner: "O statue! -statue! because of thy informations, many of our citizens have been -apprehended and slain. I vow to my God that, if thou accusest me, I -will break thy head." Having so said, he returned home. About the first -hour, the Emperor, as he was wont, despatched sundry messengers to the -statue to inquire if the edict had been strictly complied with. After -they had arrived and delivered the Emperor's pleasure, the statue -exclaimed, "Friends, look up: what see ye written upon my forehead?" -They looked, and beheld three sentences, which ran thus: "Times are -altered. Men grow worse. He who speaks truth will have his head -broken." "Go," said the statue; "declare to his majesty what you have -seen and read." The messengers obeyed, and detailed the circumstances -as they had happened. - -'The Emperor thereupon commanded his guard to arm, and march to the -place on which the statue was erected; and he further ordered that, -if any one presumed to molest it, they should bind him hand and foot -and drag him into his presence. The soldiers approached the statue, -and said: "Our Emperor wills you to declare who have broken the law, -and who they are that threatened you." The statue made answer, "Seize -Focus, the carpenter! Every day he violates the law, and, moreover, -menaces me." Immediately Focus was apprehended and conducted to the -Emperor, who said, "Friend, what do I hear of thee? Why dost thou break -my law?" "My lord," answered Focus, "I cannot keep it; for I am obliged -to obtain every day eight pennies, which, without incessant labour, I -have not the means of acquiring." "And why eight pennies?" said the -Emperor. "Every day through the year," returned the carpenter, "I am -bound to repay two pennies which I borrowed in my youth; two I lend; -two I lose; and two I spend." "You must make this more clear," said the -Emperor. "My lord," he replied, "listen to me. I am bound each day to -repay two pennies to my father; for when I was a boy my father expended -upon me daily the like sum. Now he is poor, and needs my assistance, -and therefore I return what I borrowed formerly. Two other pennies I -lend to my son, who is pursuing his studies, in order that, if by any -chance I should fall into poverty, he may restore the loan, just as I -have done to his grandfather. Again, I lose two pennies every day on my -wife; for she is contradictious, wilful, and passionate. Now, because -of this disposition, I account whatsoever is given to her entirely -lost. Lastly, two other pennies I expend upon myself in meat and drink, -I cannot do with less; nor can I obtain them without unremitting -labour. You now know the truth, and I pray you give a righteous -judgment." "Friend," said the Emperor, "thou hast answered well. Go, -and labour earnestly in thy calling." Soon after this the Emperor died, -and Focus the carpenter, on account of his singular wisdom, was elected -in his stead, by the unanimous choice of the whole nation. He governed -as wisely as he had lived; and at his death his picture, bearing on the -head eight pennies, was reposited among the effigies of the deceased -Emperors. - -'Application: My beloved, the Emperor is God, who appointed Sunday -as a day of rest. By Virgil is typified the Holy Spirit, which -ordains a preacher to declare men's virtues and vices. Focus is any -good Christian who labours diligently in his vocation, and performs -faithfully every relative duty.' - -The story has point and humour, but in the latter quality it is -surpassed by the next one, entitled _Confession_. - -'A certain Emperor, named Asmodeus, established an ordinance, by -which every malefactor taken and brought before the judge should, -if he distinctly declared three truths, against which no exception -could be taken, obtain his life and property. It chanced that a -certain soldier transgressed the law and fled. He hid himself in a -forest, and there committed many atrocities, despoiling and slaying -whomsoever he could lay his hands upon. When the judge of the district -ascertained his haunt, he ordered the forest to be surrounded, and -the soldier to be seized and brought bound to the seat of judgment. -"You know the law," said the judge. "I do," returned the other: "If I -declare three unquestionable truths, I shall be free; but if not, I -must die." "True," replied the judge; "take, then, advantage of the -law's clemency, or this very day you shall not taste food until you -are hanged." "Cause silence to be kept," said the soldier. His wish -being complied with, he proceeded in the following manner. "The first -truth is this: I protest before ye all, that from my youth up I have -been a bad man." The judge, hearing this, said to the bystanders: -"He says true, else he had not now been in this situation. Go on, -then," continued the judge; "what is the second truth?" "I like not," -exclaimed he, "the dangerous situation in which I stand." "Certainly," -said the judge, "we may credit thee. Now then for the third truth, -and thou hast saved thy life." "Why," he replied, "if I once get out -of this confounded place, I will never willingly re-enter it." "Amen," -said the judge, "thy wit hath preserved thee; go in peace." And thus he -was saved. - -'Application: My beloved, the emperor is Christ. The soldier is any -sinner; the judge is a wise confessor. If the sinner confess the truth -in such a manner as not even demons can object, he shall be saved; that -is, if he confess and repent.' - -The 'Gesta' is a rich storehouse from which many poets, including -Gower, Chaucer, Spenser, Shakespeare, Parnell, and others, have -borrowed. Shakespeare's 'Pericles' has its source in the 'Gesta'; so -also Parnell's delightful poem, 'The Hermit,' and Dr. John Byrom's -'Three Black Crows' are from the same prolific treasure-house. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[50] In the whole range of literature there are no apter similes than -these: the darkness and gloom of the fool's heart and the closeness of -the miser's fist. - -[51] A nobleman of the East, famous for his hospitality. - -[52] 'About a dozen instances or so must stand for the present as -representing the contribution of the J[=a]takas to the question of the -origin of Æsop's fables.'--Jacobs: 'History of Fable.' - -[53] In her 'Commonplace Book,' Longmans, 1854, pp. 142, 143. - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -MODERN FABULISTS: LA FONTAINE, GAY. - - - 'Lie gently on their ashes, gentle earth.' - - BEAUMONT AND FLETCHER. - - -It is a remarkable circumstance in connection with the literature of -fable, that those who have excelled in it are comparatively few. The -principal names that occur to us are Æsop, La Fontaine, Gay, Lessing, -Krilof; 'the rest are all but leather or prunello,' if we except a few -rare examples from Northcote and Cowper. The composition of fables -seems to call for the exercise of a talent which is peculiar and -rare. La Fontaine says[54] that the writing of apologues is a gift -sent down from the immortals. Not even those who have practised the -art have always succeeded in it to perfection. Gay, who is esteemed -the best of the English fabulists, is often prolix and lacking in -point. La Fontaine, sprightly as are his renderings of the ancient -fables which he found ready to his hand, is weak and commonplace in -his attempts at originality. Dodsley is too didactic and goody-goody; -Northcote is stilted, and often unnatural. Even Krilof, admirable as he -generally is, is sometimes darkly obscure, and his moral difficult to -find. Lessing comes nearest to the terseness and concentration of the -Æsopian model, but many of his so-called fables are better described as -epigrams and witticisms. True, all these writers have sometimes, like -the Phrygian, 'hit the mark,' but oftener they have missed not only the -bull's-eye, but the target itself; and the arrows of their satire are -frequently lost in the mazes of verbiage. Æsop alone is in the fable -what Shakespeare is in the drama, a paragon without a peer, and all -competitors with either of these master minds must be content to take a -lower place--to stand on a lower plane. - -Excellent as many modern fables fare, full of instruction and -entertainment, it is but few of them that spontaneously recur to us in -connection with the affairs of daily life. - -Amongst modern fabulists, La Fontaine stands in the front rank. Jean -de la Fontaine was born at Chateau-Thierry on July 8, 1621; died in -Paris, March 15, 1695,[55] in his seventy-fourth year; and was buried -in the cemetery of St. Joseph, near the remains of his friend Molière. -He was one of the galaxy of great men and writers that adorned the -age of Louis XIV. His fables, as is well known, are in verse, and -include the best of those from ancient sources, with others of his own -invention. He may be said to have turned Æsop into rhyme. The happy -spirit of the genial Frenchman inspires them all. They are written with -a vivacity and sprightliness all his own, and these qualities, with the -humour which he infuses into them, make their perusal exhilarating and -health-giving. - -'I have considered,' says he, 'that as these fables are already -known to all the world, I should have done nothing if I had not -rendered them in some degree new, by clothing them with certain fresh -characteristics. I have endeavoured to meet the wants of the day, which -are novelty and gaiety; and by gaiety I do not mean merely that which -excites laughter, but a certain charm, an agreeable air, which may be -given to every species of subject, even the most serious.'[56] He had -attained to middle age before he found his true vocation in literature, -his first collection of fables in six books being published in 1668, -when he was forty-seven years of age. - -La Fontaine is well known in this country by the English translations -of his work. A version containing some of his best fables was -published anonymously in 1820, but is known to be from the pen of John -Matthews of Herefordshire. In his preface, Matthews states that the -fables are not altogether a translation or an imitation of La Fontaine, -because in most of them are allusions to public characters and the -events of the times, where they are suggested by the subject. These -allusions are largely political. The fables, apart from these ephemeral -references to personages and events, are written with great cleverness -and vivacity, full of humour, and in many instances are well suited for -recitation. - -_The Fox and the Stork_ is a good example of his style: - - 'For sport once Renard, sly old sinner, - Press'd gossip Stork to share his dinner. - "Neighbour, I must entreat you'll stay - And take your soup with me to-day. - My praise shall not my fare enhance, - But let me beg you'll take your chance; - You're kindly welcome were it better." - She yielded as he thus beset her, - And soon arrived the pottage smoking - In plates of shallow depth provoking. - 'Twas vain the guest essay'd to fill - With unsubstantial fare her bill. - 'Twas vain she fish'd to find a collop, - The host soon lapp'd the liquor all up. - Dame Stork conceal'd her deep displeasure, - But thought to find revenge at leisure; - And said, "Ere long, my friend, you'll try - My humble hospitality. - I know your taste, and we'll contrive-- - To-morrow I'm at home at five." - With punctual haste the wily scoffer - Accepts his neighbour's friendly offer, - And ent'ring cries, "Dear Stork, how is it? - You see I soon return your visit, - I can't resist when you invite; - I've brought a famous appetite. - The steam which issues from your kitchen - Proves that your pot there's something rich in." - The Stork with civil welcome greeted, - And soon at table they were seated, - When lo! there came upon the board - Hash'd goose in two tall pitchers pour'd-- - Pitchers whose long and narrow neck - Sly Renard's jaws completely check, - Whilst the gay hostess, much diverted, - Her bill with perfect ease inserted. - The Fox, half mad at this retorter, - Sought dinner in some other quarter. - Hoaxers, for you this tale is written, - Learn hence that biters may be bitten.' - -Matthews adds this note: '_Hoaxers, for you, this tale is written._ -The word "hoax," though sufficiently expressive, and admitted into -general use, has not, perhaps, found its way into the dictionaries. -It is, however, of some importance, as it serves in some measure -to characterize the times we live in. Former periods have been -distinguished by the epithets golden, silver, brazen, iron. -Notwithstanding the multiplicity of metals which chemistry has now -discovered, none of them may be sufficiently descriptive of the manners -of men in these days. Quitting, therefore, the ancient mode of -classification, the present may not be unaptly designated the hoaxing -age. The term deserves a definition. A hoax may be said to be _a -practical joke, calculated more or less to injure its object, sometimes -accompanied by a high degree of criminality_. This definition, which -is much at the service of future English lexicographers, includes not -only the minor essays of mischievous humour, which assembles all the -schoolmasters of the Metropolis at one house; the medical professors -and undertakers at another; the milliners, mantua-makers, and mercers -at a third; whilst the street before the victim's door is blocked up by -grand pianofortes, Grecian couches, caravans of wild beasts, and patent -coffins; but also the more sublime strokes of genius, which would -acquire sudden wealth by throwing Change Alley into an uproar--which -would gain excessive popularity by gulling the English people with -a show of mock patriotism--which can make bankrupts in fortune and -reputation leaders of thousands and tens of thousands, so as to -threaten destruction to the State. The performers of all these notable -exploits may be denominated hoaxers, most of whom may, in the end, find -themselves involved in the predicament expressed in the concluding -couplet of the fable.' - -We are tempted to give another very fine example from Matthews, -containing as it does an interesting reference to the two mighty men of -letters of the first quarter of the present century--_The Viper and the -File:_ - - 'A Viper chanc'd his head to pop - Into a neighbouring blacksmith's shop. - Long near the place had he been lurking, - And stayed till past the hours for working. - As with keen eyes he glanc'd around - In search of food, a File he found: - Of meats he saw no single item - Which tempted hungry jaws to bite 'em. - So with his fangs the eager fool - Attack'd the rough impassive tool; - And whilst his wounded palate bled, - Fancied on foreign gore he fed. - When thus the File retorted coolly: - "Viper! this work's ingenious, truly! - No more those idle efforts try; - Proof 'gainst assaults like yours am I. - On me you'd fracture ev'ry bone; - I feel the teeth of Time alone." - Thus did a Poet,[57] vain and young - (Who since has palinody sung), - His fangs upon a Minstrel's lay[58] - Fix hard. 'Twas labour thrown away! - On that sweet Bard of Doric strain - This venom'd bite was tried in vain: - His flights, thro' no dark medium view'd, - Derive from fog no magnitude; - But bright and clear to charm our eyes - His vivid pictures boldly rise. - In painting manners, arms, and dress, sure - Time show'd him all his form and pressure. - Bard of the North! thou still shalt be - A File to Critics, harsh as he. - Tho' Time has teeth, thou need'st not fear 'em; - Thy verse defies old Edax Rerum!' - -It must be confessed that the general moral here is not very obvious, -though the special application of the fable to the circumstances of -Byron's attack on Scott, and his subsequent recantation--with the -fabulist's eulogy of the 'Bard of the North'--are expressed in charming -and faultless verse. - -John Gay, who was born in the parish of Landkey, near Barnstaple, -Devonshire, in 1685, and died in London, on December 4, 1732, aged -forty-seven, is, without question, the best of the English fabulists. -Unlike most writers in this department of literature, his fables are -almost all original. His language is choice and elegant, yet well -suited to his subject. His rhymes are perfect, and at times he almost -rises into poetry. His fables, however, are lacking in humour, and they -have not that abounding _esprit_ and _naïveté_ which characterize La -Fontaine. - -Gay was a writer of much industry,[59] producing during his lifetime -almost every species of composition. His 'Beggar's Opera' is yet -occasionally seen on the stage, and this, after his fables, is his -best-known work. - -He was essentially Bohemian in disposition and habits, and lacking in -business capacity; a man of culture, however, a pleasant companion, -and a warm-hearted friend. He was on intimate terms with Pope, Swift, -Arbuthnot, and other distinguished men of letters and wits of his day, -and the eccentric but kind-hearted Duchess of Queensberry was his -patron and friend. Unfortunately, he was too much given to dangling -at the skirts of the great, and sueing for place at Court instead of -depending on his own genius, which was unquestionably of no mean order. -Notwithstanding this failing, he was no sycophant or flatterer, but -exposed the follies and vices of human nature, as exemplified in the -characters of the rich and great, as in those of the humbler ranks, -without fear or favour. His best-known fables are probably _The Hare -and many Friends_, and _The Miser and Plutus_. - -Many of Gay's lines, both from his fables and plays, have become widely -popular, for example: - - 'Princes, like beauties, from their youth - Are strangers to the voice of truth. - Learn to contemn all praise betimes, - For Flattery's the nurse of crimes.' - - 'In every age and clime we see - Two of a trade can ne'er agree.' - - 'While there's life there's hope.' - - 'Those who in quarrels interpose - Must often wipe a bloody nose.' - - 'When a lady's in the case - You know all other things give place.' - - 'And what's a butterfly? At best - He's but a caterpillar dressed.' - - ''Tis woman that seduces all mankind.' - - 'How happy could I be with either - Were t'other dear charmer away.' - -And his own epitaph, written by himself: - - 'Life's a jest, and all things show it; - I thought so once, and now I know it.' - -In the letter to Pope in which this distich is given, he says: 'If -anybody should ask how I could communicate this after death, let it be -known it is not meant so, but my present sentiments in life.' - -Gay was buried in Westminster Abbey. The monument which marks his grave -bears the well-known lines composed by Pope: - - 'Of manners gentle, of Affections mild, - In wit a Man, simplicity, a child; - With native Humour, temp'ring Virtuous Rage, - Formed to delight at once and lash the Age: - Above Temptation in a low Estate, - And uncorrupted, e'en among the great. - A safe Companion, and an easy Friend, - Unblam'd thro' life, lamented in thy End. - These are thy Honours! Not that here thy Bust - Is mix'd with Heroes, or with Kings thy Dust: - But that the Worthy and the Good shall say, - Striking their pensive bosoms,--here lies Gay.' - -The piece we have selected, _The Miser and Plutus_, as an example -of his work as a fabulist, is in his best style, and the moral is -irreproachable: - - 'The wind was high, the window shakes, - With sudden start the Miser wakes; - Along the silent room he stalks, - Looks back, and trembles as he walks. - Each lock and every bolt he tries, - In every creek and corner pries; - Then opes the chest with treasure stor'd, - And stands in rapture o'er his hoard: - But now with sudden qualms possest, - He wrings his hands, he beats his breast; - By conscience stung he wildly stares, - And thus his guilty soul declares: - "Had the deep earth her stores confin'd, - This heart had known sweet peace of mind. - But virtue's sold. Good gods! what price - Can recompense the pangs of vice? - O bane of good! seducing cheat! - Can man, weak man, thy power defeat? - Gold banish'd honour from the mind, - And only left the name behind; - Gold sow'd the world with every ill; - Gold taught the murderer's sword to kill. - 'Twas gold instructed coward hearts - In treachery's more pernicious arts. - Who can recount the mischiefs o'er? - Virtue resides on earth no more!" - He spoke, and sighed. In angry mood - Plutus, his god, before him stood. - The Miser, trembling, locked his chest; - The Vision frowned, and thus address'd: - "Whence is this vile ungrateful rant, - Each sordid rascal's daily cant? - Did I, base wretch! corrupt mankind? - The fault's in thy rapacious mind. - Because my blessings are abused, - Must I be censur'd, curs'd, accus'd? - Ev'n virtue's self by knaves is made - A cloak to carry on the trade; - And power (when lodg'd in their possession) - Grows tyranny, and rank oppression. - Thus when the villain crams his chest, - Gold is the canker of the breast; - 'Tis avarice, insolence, and pride, - And ev'ry shocking vice beside; - But when to virtuous hands 'tis given, - It blesses, like the dews of Heaven; - Like Heaven, it hears the orphan's cries, - And wipes the tears from widows' eyes. - Their crimes on gold shall misers lay, - Who pawn'd their sordid souls for pay? - Let bravos, then, when blood is spilt, - Upbraid the passive sword with guilt."' - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[54] In his dedication to Madame de Montespan. - -[55] Geruzez gives February 13 as the date of La Fontaine's death. - -[56] Preface, 'Fables,' 1668. - -[57] Byron. - -[58] Scott's 'Lay of the Last Minstrel.' - -[59] The opposite of this has been said, but without good reason. The -number and variety of his productions attest his industry. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -MODERN FABULISTS: DODSLEY, NORTHCOTE. - - - 'A tale may find him who a sermon flies.' - - GEORGE HERBERT. - - -Robert Dodsley, born at Mansfield, Nottinghamshire, in 1703, died at -Durham, December 25, 1764, buried in the abbey churchyard there, author -of 'The Economy of Human Life' and other estimable works, compiled a -volume of fables (1761). This was the favourite collection in this -country at the end of last and the beginning of the present century. -The contents of the volume are in three parts, and comprise 'Ancient -Fables,' 'Modern Fables,' and 'Fables Newly Invented.' The first two -divisions of the volume are Æsopian in character. The fables contained -in the last were not all written by Dodsley, some of them being -contributed, as he states in his preface, 'by authors with whom it is -an honour to be connected, and who having condescended to favour him -with their assistance, have given him an opportunity of making some -atonement for his own defects.' It is to be regretted that he did not -give the names of the authors referred to. The work contains a life -of Æsop 'by a learned friend' (no name given),[60] and an excellent, -though somewhat pedantic, 'Essay on Fable.' - -The following are three original fables from Dodsley's collection: - -'_The Miser and the Magpie._--As a miser sat at his desk counting over -his heaps of gold, a magpie eloped from his cage, picked up a guinea, -and hopped away with it. The miser, who never failed to count his money -over a second time, immediately missed the piece, and rising up from -his seat in the utmost consternation, observed the felon hiding it -in a crevice of the floor. "And art thou," cried he, "that worst of -thieves, who hast robbed me of my gold without the plea of necessity, -and without regard to its proper use? But thy life shall atone for -so preposterous a villainy." "Soft words, good master!" quoth the -magpie. "Have I, then, injured you in any other sense than you defraud -the public? And am I not using your money in the same manner you do -yourself? If I must lose my life for hiding a single guinea, what do -you, I pray, deserve, who secrete so many thousands?"' - -'_The Toad and the Ephemeron._--As some workmen were digging in a -mountain of Scythia, they discerned a toad of enormous size in the -midst of a solid rock. They were very much surprised at so uncommon an -appearance, and the more they considered the circumstances of it, the -more their wonder increased. It was hard to conceive by what means the -creature had preserved life and received nourishment in so narrow a -prison, and still more difficult to account for his birth and existence -in a place so totally inaccessible to all of his species. They could -conclude no other than that he was formed together with the rock in -which he had been bred, and was coeval with the mountain itself. While -they were pursuing these speculations, the toad sat swelling and -bloating till he was ready to burst with pride and self-importance, -to which at last he thus gave vent: "Yes," says he, "you behold in me -a specimen of the antediluvian race of animals. I was begotten before -the flood; and who is there among the present upstart race of mortals -that shall dare to contend with me in nobility of birth or dignity of -character?" An ephemeron, sprung that morning from the river Hypanis, -as he was flying about from place to place, chanced to be present, and -observed all that passed with great attention and curiosity. "Vain -boaster," says he, "what foundation hast thou for pride, either in thy -descent, merely because it is ancient, or thy life, because it hath -been long? What good qualities hast thou received from thy ancestors? -Insignificant even to thyself, as well as useless to others, thou -art almost as insensible as the block in which thou wast bred. Even -I, that had my birth only from the scum of the neighbouring river, -at the rising of this day's sun, and who shall die at its setting, -have more reason to applaud my condition than thou hast to be proud -of thine. I have enjoyed the warmth of the sun, the light of the day, -and the purity of the air; I have flown from stream to stream, from -tree to tree, and from the plain to the mountain; I have provided for -posterity, and shall leave behind me a numerous offspring to people -the next age of to-morrow; in short, I have fulfilled all the ends of -my being, and I have been happy. My whole life, 'tis true, is but of -twelve hours, but even one hour of it is to be preferred to a thousand -years of mere existence, which have been spent, like thine, in sloth, -ignorance and stupidity."' - -'_The Bee and the Spider._--On the leaves and flowers of the same -shrub, a spider and a bee pursued their several occupations, the one -covering her thighs with honey, the other distending his bag with -poison. The spider, as he glanced his eye obliquely at the bee, was -ruminating with spleen on the superiority of her productions. "And how -happens it," said he, in a peevish tone, "that I am able to collect -nothing but poison from the selfsame plant that supplies thee with -honey? My pains and industry are not less than thine; in those respects -we are each indefatigable." "It proceeds only," replied the bee, "from -the different disposition of our nature; mine gives a pleasing flavour -to everything I touch, whereas thine converts to poison what by a -different process had been the purest honey."' - -James Northcote, R.A., the indefatigable painter, who, when a youth, -enjoyed the friendship of Sir Joshua Reynolds, and was occasionally one -of the company at his hospitable table, along with Johnson, Goldsmith, -Burke, Garrick and Boswell, published two volumes of original and -selected fables in 1828-33, when he was eighty-two years of age. When a -boy, living at Plymouth, where he was born on October 22, 1746, he took -pleasure in copying the pictures from an edition of Æsop's fables. The -memory of these clung to him through life, and, as occasion offered, -he occupied himself in composing apologues in imitation of those with -which he was familiar in his early years. - -The diction of Northcote's fables is admirable. They are in the -choicest phraseology, both in their verse and prose, for he practised -both forms of composition, though chiefly the latter. Neither crisp nor -brilliant, they are now and again lighted up with scintillations of -humour. His applications are delivered with grave solemnity befitting a -judge or a philosopher--not to say a bore; and in many instances they -extend to three or four times the length of the fable itself. - -Northcote died in London at the ripe age of eighty-five, and was buried -beneath the New Church of St. Marylebone. - -Perhaps his best fables are _The Jay and the Owl_, _Echo and the -Parrot_, _Stone Broth_, and _The Trooper and his Armour_. None of -Northcote's fables have become popular with the multitude, though -many of them are good examples of this class of composition. We give -the last-named piece as a specimen of his work as a fabulist. The -application is well conceived, but it is scarcely indicated in the -fable: - -'A trooper, in the time of battle, picked up the shoe of a horse that -lay in his way, and quickly by a cord suspended it from his neck. Soon -after, in a skirmish with the enemy, a shot struck exactly on the said -horseshoe and saved his life,[61] as it fell harmless to the ground. -"Well done," said the trooper, "I see that a very little armour is -sufficient when it is well placed." - -'Application: Although the trooper's good luck with his bit of armour -may appear to be the effect of chance, yet certain it is that prudent -persons are always prepared to receive good fortune, or may be said to -meet it half-way, turning every accident if possible to good, which -gives an appearance as if they were the favourites of fortune; whilst -the thoughtless and improvident, on the contrary, often neglect to -embrace the very blessings which chance throws in their way, and then -survey with envy those who prosper by their careful and judicious -conduct, and blame their partial or hard fortune for all those -privations and sufferings which their mismanagement alone has brought -upon themselves.' - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[60] It has been suggested, that Dr. Johnson and Goldsmith were the -'authors,' and Goldsmith the 'learned friend.' See the preface by Edwin -Pearson to the 1871 edition, of Bewick's 'Select Fables of Æsop.' - -[61] Northcote's grammar is at fault here. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV. - -MODERN FABULISTS: LESSING, YRIARTE, KRILOF. - - - 'Great thoughts, great feelings, come to them - Like instincts, unawares.' - - R. M. MILNES. - - -Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, born January 22, 1729, at Kamenz, died -February 15, 1781, aged fifty-two years, was a distinguished German -scholar, poet and dramatist. As a fabulist, Lessing is noted for -epigrammatic point rather than humour, though he is by no means lacking -in the latter characteristic. He is perhaps the most original writer -of fables amongst the moderns. Sagacious, wise, witty, his apologues -(1759) have nothing superfluous about them. They are nearly all brief, -pithy, and very much to the point. In these respects they follow the -Æsopian model more than those of any other modern writer. The following -are good examples of his style: - -'_Æsop and the Ass._--"The next time you write a fable about me," said -the donkey to Æsop, "make me say something wise and sensible." - -'"Something sensible from you!" exclaimed Æsop; "what would the world -think? People would call you the sage, and me the donkey!" - -'_The Shepherd and the Nightingale._--"Sing to me, dearest -nightingale," said a shepherd to the silent songstress one beautiful -spring evening. - -'"Alas!" said the nightingale, "the frogs make so much noise that I -have no inclination to sing. Do you not hear them?" - -'"Undoubtedly I hear them," replied the shepherd, "but it is owing to -your silence." - -'_Solomon's Ghost._--A venerable old man, despite his years and the -heat of the day, was ploughing his field with his own hand, and sowing -the grain in the willing earth, in anticipation of the harvest it would -produce. - -'Suddenly, beneath the deep shadow of a spreading oak, a divine -apparition stood before him! The old man was seized with affright. - -'"I am Solomon," said the phantom encouragingly, "what dost thou here, -old friend?" - -'"If thou art Solomon," said the owner of the field, "how canst thou -ask? In my youth I learnt from the ant to be industrious and to -accumulate wealth. That which I then learnt I now practise." - -'"Thou hast learnt but half of thy lesson," pursued the spirit. "Go -once more to the ant, and she will teach thee to rest in the winter of -thy existence, and enjoy what thou hast earned."' - -Don Tomas de Yriarte, or Iriarte, a Spanish fabulist of the eighteenth -century, born at Teneriffe in 1750, is held in much esteem by cultured -readers in Spain. His 'Fabulas Literarias,' or Literary Fables (1782), -sixty-seven in all, and mostly original, were written with a view to -inculcating literary truths. In other words, their object was to praise -or censure literary work according to its supposed deserts. Their -moral or application is therefore limited in scope; they do not touch -human nature as a whole, and being thus restricted in their range, -they are deficient in general interest and value. Obviously, however, -it is possible to give a wider application to the truths enforced in -the apologues, and this is sometimes done by omitting the special -moral supplied by the writer. Yriarte's versification is graceful and -sprightly, 'combining the exquisite simplicity of the old Spanish -romances and songs with the true spirit of Æsopian fable;'[62] some -of them are composed in the redondilla measure much affected by the -lyrical poets of Spain, and please by their style quite as much as by -their intrinsic merits. Yriarte died in 1791. We select the piece which -follows to illustrate his skill as a fabulist: - - -'_The Two Thrushes._ - - 'A sage old thrush was once discipling - His grandson thrush, a hair-brained stripling, - In the purveying art. He knew, - He said, where vines in plenty grew, - Whose fruit delicious when he'd come - He might attack _ad libitum_. - "Ha!" said the young one, "where's this vine? - Let's see this fruit you think so fine." - "Come then, my child, your fortune's great; you - Can't conceive what feasts await you!" - He said, and gliding through the air - They reached a vine, and halted there. - Soon as the grapes the youngster spied, - "Is this the fruit you praise?" he cried; - "Why, an old bird, sir, as you are, - Should judge, I think, more wisely far - Than to admire, or hold as good, - Such half-grown, small, and worthless food. - Come, see a fruit which I possess - In yonder garden; you'll confess, - When you behold it, that it is - Bigger and better far than this." - "I'll go," he said; "but ere I see - This fruit of yours, whate'er it be, - I'm sure it is not worth a stone - Or grape-skin from my vines alone." - They reached the spot the thrushlet named, - And he triumphantly exclaimed: - "Show me the fruit to equal mine! - A size so great, a shape so fine; - What luxury, however rare, - Can e'en your grapes with this compare?" - The old bird stared, as well he might, - For lo! a pumpkin met his sight. - Now, that a thrush should take this fancy - Without much marvelling I can see; - But it is truly monstrous when - Men, who are held as learned men, - All books, whatever they be, despise - Unless of largest bulk and size. - A book is great, if good at all; - If bad, it cannot be too small.' - -Ivan Andreivitch Krilof, or Krilov, the Russian, who was born in -Moscow, February 2, 1768, O.S., and died in St. Petersburg on November -9, 1844, aged seventy-six years, was one of the greatest original -fabulists of modern times. One writer (an Englishman) goes so far as to -claim for him the position of 'the crowned King of the fabulists of all -languages.' His published fables amount altogether to two hundred and -two, of which thirty-five only are borrowed, the rest being original. -They are in rhymed verse in the Russian, and an English translation, -also in verse, and with a close adherence to the text in the original, -has been made by Mr. J. Henry Harrison.[63] An excellent prose -translation, with a life of Krilof, by the late Mr. W. R. S. Ralston, -M.A., was published in 1868.[64] - -Krilof is characterized by rich common sense and sound judgment, a -rare vein of satire and an excellent humour. He indeed brims over -with sarcastic humour. A kind of rugged directness of language, well -calculated to undermine the shams and abuses at which he aimed, also -distinguishes his apologues. He deserves to be better known in this -country. - -Krilof was a journalist, and wrote a number of dramas, both in tragedy -and comedy, before turning his attention to fables. It is on these -latter that his claim to distinction rests. He rose to high eminence -in his native country, where his name is a household word; he was -patronized by royalty, and beloved by the common people, and at his -death a monument to his memory was erected in the Summer Garden at St. -Petersburg. - -The following translation of Krilof's beautiful fable of _The Leaves -and the Roots_ is from a brilliant article in _Fraser's Magazine_ for -February, 1839: - - ''Twas on a sunny summer day, - Exulting in the flickering shade - They cast athwart the greensward glade, - The leaves, a fluttering host, - Thus 'gan their worth to boast, - And to each other say: - "Is it not we - That deck the tree-- - Its stem and branches all array - In verdant pomp and vigorous grace? - Deprived of us, how altered were their case! - Is it not we who form the grateful screen - Of foliage and luxuriant green, - Welcome to traveller and to swain? - Yes! we may be deeméd vain, - But we it is whose charms invite - Youths and maidens to the grove; - And we it is, too, who at night - Shelter in her retired alcove - The songstress of the woods, whose strain - Wafts music over dale and plain! - In us the zephyrs most rejoice: - Our emerald beauty to caress, - On silken wings they fondly press!" - "Most true; but yet - You ought not to forget - We too exist," replied a voice - That issued from the earth; - "We sure possess some little worth." - "And who are ye? where do ye grow?" - "Buried are we here below, - Deep in the ground. 'Tis we who nourish - The stem and you, and make you flourish: - For understand, we are the roots - From whom the tree itself upshoots: - 'Tis we by whom you thrive-- - From whom your beauty ye derive; - Unlike to you, we are not fair, - Nor dwell we in the upper air; - Yet do we not, like you, decay-- - Winter tears us not away. - Ye fall, yet still remains the tree; - But should it chance that _we_ - Once cease to live, adieu - Both to the tree, fair leaves, and you!"' - -As an example of his ironical humour we give a prose translation, by -Mr. Ralston, of his fable _The Geese_: - -'A peasant, with a long rod in his hand, was driving some geese to -a town where they were to be sold; and, to tell the truth, he did -not treat them over-politely. In hopes of making a good bargain, he -was hastening on so as not to lose the market-day (and when gain is -concerned, geese and men alike are apt to suffer). I do not blame the -peasant; but the geese talked about him in a different spirit, and, -whenever they met any passers-by, abused him to them in such terms as -these: - -'"Is it possible to find any geese more unfortunate than we are? This -moujik[65] harasses us so terribly, and chases us about just as if we -were common geese. The ignoramus does not know that he ought to pay us -reverence, seeing that we are the noble descendants of those geese to -whom Rome was once indebted for her salvation, and in whose honour even -feast-days were specially appointed there." - -'"And do you want to have honour paid you on that account?" a passer-by -asked them. - -'"Why, our ancestors----" - -'"I know that--I have read all about it; but I want to know this: of -what use have you been yourselves?" - -'"Why, our ancestors saved Rome!" - -'"Quite so; but what have you done?" - -'"We? Nothing." - -'"Then, what merit is there in you? Let your ancestors rest in -peace--they justly received honourable reward; but you, my friends, are -only fit to be roasted!"' - -Krilof concludes: 'It would be easy to make this fable still more -intelligible; but I am afraid of irritating the geese.' - -A story, rather than a fable, is _The Man with Three Wives_, and -the moral underlying it is in the author's peculiar vein. This is -translated from the original by Mr. J. H. Harrison: - - 'A certain vanquisher of women's hearts, - While still his first wife was alive and well, - Married a second, and a third. They tell - The king the scandal of such shameless arts, - And, as his majesty abhorred all vice, - Given himself to self-denial, - He gave the order in a trice - To bring the bigamist to trial, - And such a punishment invent, that none - Should evermore dare do what he had done. - "And if the punishment to me should seem too small, - Around their table will I hang the judges all." - This to the judges seemed no joke: - The cold sweat ran along each spine. - Three days and nights they sit, but can't divine - What punishment will best such lawless license choke. - Thousands of punishments there are; but then, - As all men of experience know, - They cannot keep from evil evil men. - This time kind Providence did help them though, - And when the culprit came before the court, - This was his sentence short: - To give him back his three wives all together. - The people wondered much at this decision, - And thought the judges' lives hung by a feather; - But three days had not passed before - The bigamist, behind his door, - Himself hung to a peg with great precision: - And then the sentence wrought on all great fear, - And much the morals of the kingdom steadied, - For from that time its annalists are clear - That no man in it more has three wives wedded.' - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[62] Bouterwick's 'History of Spanish Literature,' book iii., chap. iii. - -[63] London: Remington and Co., 1883. - -[64] London: Strahan and Co., 1868. A second edition appeared the year -following. - -[65] Peasant. - - - - -CHAPTER XV. - -OTHER AND OCCASIONAL FABULISTS. - - - 'With wisdom fraught, - Not such as books, but such as Nature taught.' - - WALLER. - - -Sir Roger L'Estrange (1616-1704) was a rabid Jacobite, journalist, and -pamphleteer, and during a long life spent in fierce political conflict, -in which, at times, he bore a far from estimable part, found time to -translate various classical works, amongst these being Æsop's fables. -L'Estrange's version (1692) of the sage is not in the best taste. -It is disfigured by mannerisms and vulgarisms in language, and the -applications which he appended to the fables are often a distortion of -the true intent of the apologue, stated so as to support and enforce -his own peculiar views in politics and religion. - -Steele (1672-1729) was the author of at least one excellent fable,[66] -_The Mastiff and his Puppy_, not unworthy to take a place beside those -of the Greek sage: - -'It happened one day, as a stout and honest mastiff (that guarded the -village where he lived against thieves and robbers) was very gravely -walking with one of his puppies by his side, all the little dogs in -the street gathered round him, and barked at him. The little puppy was -so offended at this affront done to his sire, that he asked him why he -would not fall upon them, and tear them to pieces. To which the sire -answered with great composure of mind, "If there were no curs, I should -be no mastiff."' - -Of other fabulists, it will be sufficient, without going into lengthy -particulars, to name Allan Ramsay (1686-1758), who attempted the -writing of fables, though with but doubtful success; of the thirty he -produced there is not one of striking merit. Edmund Arwaker, Rector of -Donaghmore, who compiled a collection of two hundred and twenty-five -select fables from Æsop and others, which he entitled, 'Truth in -Fiction; or, Morality in Masquerade' (1708). John Hall-Stevenson, -1718-1785 (the original of Sterne's 'Eugenius'), wrote 'Fables for -Grown Gentlemen.' Edward Moore composed a series of original 'Fables -for the Fair Sex' (1756), pleasing in their versification, but -otherwise of no striking merit. Moore, besides a number of poems, -odes and songs, wrote two comedies ('The Foundling' and 'Gil Blas') -and a tragedy ('The Gamester'), in which Garrick acted the leading -characters. He was also editor of the _World_, a satirical journal of -the period, which had a brief life of four years. He died in poverty -in 1751. Francis Gentleman (actor and dramatist), whose collection of -'Royal Fables' (1766) was dedicated to George, Prince of Wales. William -Wilkie, D.D., a Scotch fabulist of some note in his day, was Professor -of Natural Philosophy in St. Andrews University. In 1768 he published a -volume containing sixteen fables after the manner of Gay. One of these, -_The Boy and the Rainbow_,[67] a fable of considerable merit, has -survived; the others are forgotten. Rev. Henry Rowe, whose fables tire -without interesting. 'Fables for Mankind,' by Charles Westmacott. 'The -Fables of Flora,' by Dr. Langhorne. Gaspey wrote a number of original -fables, as did also Dr. Aitken and Walter Brown. Cowper, the poet, -penned some elegant fables with which most readers are familiar. There -are 'Fables for Children, Young and Old, in Humorous Verse,' by W. E. -Staite (1830); Sheridan Wilson was the author of a volume entitled 'The -Bath Fables' (1850); finally, there is Frere's Fables for 'Five Years -Old.' Æsop's fables have been parodied and caricatured, with varying -success, by different writers, notably by an American author, under -the pseudonym of 'G. Washington Æsop.' - -Of lady fabulists, the most notable is Maria de France, who lived in -the first half of the thirteenth century, and made a collection of one -hundred and six fables in French, which, she alleges, were translated -from the English of King Alfred.[68] There are several more modern -collections by members of the fair sex. One is entitled 'The Enchanted -Plants, Fables in Verse;' London, 1800. The name of the author is not -given, but evidently a lady. Mrs. Trimmer has her version of Æsop. A -volume of original fables was published by Mary Maria Colling, a writer -of humble rank, under the patronage of the once celebrated Mrs. Bray -(daughter of Thomas Stothard, R.A.), and Southey, the Poet Laureate. A -volume of fables, also original, by Mrs. Prosser, and 'Æsop's Fables in -Words of One Syllable,' by Mary Godolphin. - -Besides the fabulists already named, there are, among the ancients, -Avian, Ademar, Rufus, Romulus, Alfonso and Poggio. Among the French, -Nivernois, and the Abbé Fénelon (1651-1715), author of 'Dialogues of -the Dead' and 'Telemachus.' Notwithstanding his reputation in his -own country as a fabulist, it must be allowed that his fables are -much too lengthy and prolix. The characters he gives to his animals -are unnatural, and their manners and speech pointless and tame. -Florian, an imitator of Yriarte, and a friend of Voltaire, by whose -advice he cultivated the literature of Spain; Boursalt, Boisard, -Ginguene, Jauffret, Le Grand and Armoult. Amongst the Germans are, -Gellert (1746), Nicolai, Hagedorn, Pfeffel and Lichtner. The Italian -fabulists are numerous: Tommaso Crudeli (1703-1743), Gian-Carlo -Passeroni (1713-1803), Giambattisti Roberti (1719-1786), Luigi Grillo -(1725-1790), Lorenzo Pignotti (1739-1812), who with an elegant diction -combines splendid descriptive powers; Clemente Bondi (1742-1821), -Aurelio de Giorgi Bertola (1753-1798), Luigi Clasio (1754-1825), -Giovanni Gherardo de Rossi (1754-1827), Gaetano Perego (1814-1868) and -Gaetano Polidori. Among Spanish fabulists, besides Yriarte, there is -Samaniego (1745-1801). Of Russian writers of fables we have already -spoken of Krilof, and there are besides, Chemnitzer, Dmitriev, Glinka, -Lomonosov (1711-1765), Goncharov and Alexander Sumarakov (1718-1777). -Of English writers not already referred to, the following may be named -as having tried their hand at the composition of fables: Addison, Sir -John Vanbrugh,[69] Prior, Goldsmith, Henryson, Coyne, Winter. Thomas -Percival, M.D., President of the Literary and Philosophical Society -of Manchester about the end of last century, wrote a volume of moral -tales, fables, and reflections. Bussey's collection is well known. The -late W. J. Macquorn Rankine, Regius Professor of Civil Engineering in -Glasgow University, wrote a number of 'Songs and Fables,' which were -published posthumously in a small volume in 1874. The fables, twelve -in all, are an ingenious attempt, not wanting in playful humour, to -elucidate the origin and meaning of some of the old and well-known -signboards, such as _The Pig and Whistle_, _The Cat and Fiddle_, _The -Goat and Compasses_, and others. An interesting collection of one -hundred and six 'Indian Fables,' in English, the materials for which -were gathered from native sources and put into form by Mr. P. V. -Ramaswami Raju, B.A., were originally contributed to the columns of the -_Leisure Hour_, and afterwards published in a volume (1887).[70] - -Specimens of the work of some of the writers named are given in the -succeeding pages. - -_The Bee and the Coquette_ (Florian).--'Chloe, young, handsome, and a -decided coquette, laboured very hard every morning on rising; people -say it was at her toilet; and there, smiling and smirking, she related -to her dear confidant all her pains, her pleasures, and the projects of -her soul. - -'A thoughtless bee, entering her chamber, began buzzing about. "Help! -help!" immediately shrieked the lady. "Lizzy! Mary! here, make haste! -drive away this winged monster!" - -'The insolent insect settling on Chloe's lips, she fainted; and Mary, -furiously seizing the bee, prepared to crush it. - -'"Alas!" gently exclaimed the unfortunate insect, "forgive my error; -Chloe's mouth seemed to me a rose, and as such I kissed it." - -'This speech restored Chloe to her senses: "Let us forgive it," said -she, "on account of its candid confession! Besides, its sting is but a -trifle; since it has spoken to you, I have scarcely felt it." - -'What may one not effect by a little well-timed flattery?' - - -_The Farmer, Horseman, and Pedestrian_ (Nivernois). - - 'A farmer on his ass astride, - Who peacefully pursued his ride, - Exclaim'd, when, on a Spanish steed, - A horseman pass'd with lively speed, - "Ah, charming seat! what deed of mine - Should thus incense the powers divine, - Who doom me ne'er to shift my place, - But at an ass's tardy pace?" - Thus speaking, with chagrin and spite, - He reach'd a rough and rocky height, - Up which a poor, o'er-labour'd drudge, - On tottering feet, was forc'd to trudge; - With forehead prone, and bending back - Press'd by a large and heavy pack. - The farmer cross'd the hill at ease; - Jocosely set, with lolling knees, - On his poor ass, the rugged scene - Appear'd a soft and level green, - No flinty points his feet annoy'd; - He pass'd the panting walker's side, - Yet saw him not, so rapt his brain - With dreams of Andalusia's plain. - Such is the world--our bosoms brood - With keen desire o'er others' good; - On this we muse, and, musing still, - We rarely dream of others' ill. - A further truth the tale unfolds: - Each, like the ass-born hind, beholds - The rich around on steeds of Spain, - And deems their rank exempt from pain. - But still let us our notice keep - On those who clamber up the steep.' - -_The Land of the Halt_ (Gellert).--'Many years since, in a small -territory, there was not one of the inhabitants who did not stutter -when he spoke, and halt in walking; both these defects, moreover, were -considered accomplishments. A stranger saw the evil, and, thinking how -they would admire his walking, went about without halting, after the -usual manner of our race. Everyone stopped to look at him, and all -those who looked, laughed, and, holding their sides to repress their -merriment, shouted: "Teach the stranger how to walk properly!" - -'The stranger considered it his duty to cast the reproach from himself. -"You halt," he cried, "it is not I; you must accustom yourselves to -leave off so awkward a habit!" This only increased the uproar, when -they heard him speak; he did not even stammer; this was sufficient to -disgrace him, and he was laughed at throughout the country. - -'Habit will render faults, which we have been accustomed to regard from -youth, beautiful; in vain will a stranger attempt to convince us that -we are in error. We look upon him as a madman, solely because he is -wiser than ourselves.' - - -_The Beau and Butterfly_ (Francis Gentleman). - - 'Thus speaks an adage, somewhat old, - "_Truth is not to be always told_." - What eye but, struck with outward show, - Admires the pretty thing, a beau? - Which both by Art and Nature made is, - The sport of sense, the toy of ladies. - A mortal of this tiny mould, - In clothes of silk, adorned with gold, - And dressed in ev'ry point of sight - To give the world of taste delight, - Prepared to enter his sedan, - A birthday picture of a man, - Cried out in vain soliloquy: - "Was ever creature formed like me? - By Art or Nature's nicest care - Made more complete and debonnair? - I see myself, with perfect joy, - Of human kind the _je ne sçai quoy_; - In ev'rything I rival France, - In fashion, wit, and sprightly dance; - So charming are my shape and parts, - I'm formed for captivating hearts; - The proudest toast, when in the vein, - I take at once by _coup de main_; - _Mort de ma vie_, 'tis magic all, - I look, and vanquished women fall!" - One of the race of butterflies, - An insect far more nice than wise, - Who, from his sunny couch of glass, - Had listened to the two-legged ass, - With intermeddling zeal replied: - "Unequalled folly! matchless pride! - Shalt thou, a patchwork creature, claim - More lovely shape, or greater name, - Than one of us? Assert thy right-- - Stand naked in my critic sight! - "To parent earth at once resign - The produce of her golden mine; - Give to the worm her silken store, - The diamond to Golconda's shore; - Nor let the many teeth you want - Be plundered from the elephant; - Let native locks adorn thy head, - Nor glow thy cheeks with borrowed red; - Give to the ostrich back his plume, - Nor rob the cat of her perfume; - Here to the beaver yield at once - His fur which crowns thy empty sconce; - In short, appear through every part - No more, nor less, than what thou art; - Then little better than an ape - Will show thy metamorphosed shape; - While butterflies to death retain - The beauties they from Nature gain. - "You'll say, perhaps, our sojourn here - Is less, by half, than half a year; - That churlish winter surely brings - Destruction to our painted wings. - I grant the truth. Now, answer me: - Can beaus outlive adversity? - Will milliners and tailors join - To make a foppish beggar fine? - 'Tis certain, no. Of glitter made, - You surely vanish in the shade. - Compared, then, who will dare deny - A beau is less than butterfly?"' - - -_The Nightingale and Glow-worm_ (Edward Moore). - - 'The prudent nymph, whose cheeks disclose - The lily and the blushing rose, - From public view her charms will screen, - And rarely in the crowd be seen. - This simple truth shall keep her wise: - "The fairest fruits attract the flies." - One night a glow-worm, proud and vain, - Contemplating her glitt'ring train, - Cried, "Sure there never was in Nature - So elegant, so fine a creature; - All other insects that I see-- - The frugal ant, industrious bee, - Or silk-worm--with contempt I view; - With all that low, mechanic crew - Who servilely their lives employ - In business, enemy to joy. - Mean, vulgar herd! ye are my scorn, - For grandeur only I was born; - Or, sure, am sprung from race divine, - And placed on earth to live and shine. - Those lights, that sparkle so on high, - Are but the glow-worms of the sky; - And kings on earth their gems admire - Because they imitate my fire." - She spoke. Attentive on a spray, - A nightingale forebore his lay; - He saw the shining morsel near, - And flew, directed by the glare; - Awhile he gazed, with sober look, - And thus the trembling prey bespoke: - "Deluded fool, with pride elate, - Know 'tis thy beauty brings thy fate; - Less dazzling, long thou mightst have lain, - Unheeded on the velvet plain. - Pride, soon or late, degraded mourns, - And beauty wrecks whom she adorns."' - -It is interesting to observe how a true poet, Cowper, treats the same -subject, the object or moral of the fable, however, being different: - - -_The Nightingale and Glow-worm._ - - 'A nightingale, that all day long - Had cheer'd the village with his song, - Nor yet at eve his note suspended, - Nor yet when eventide was ended, - Began to feel, as well he might, - The keen demands of appetite; - When, looking eagerly around, - He spied far off, upon the ground, - A something shining in the dark, - And knew the glow-worm by his spark; - So, stooping down from hawthorn top, - He thought to put him in his crop. - The worm, aware of his intent, - Harangued him thus, right eloquent: - "Did you admire my lamp," quoth he, - "As much as I your minstrelsy, - You would abhor to do me wrong, - As much as I to spoil your song; - For 'twas the selfsame Power Divine - Taught you to sing and me to shine; - That you with music, I with light, - Might beautify and cheer the night." - The songster heard his short oration, - And, warbling out his approbation, - Released him--as my story tells-- - And found a supper somewhere else. - Hence jarring sectaries may learn - Their real interest to discern; - That brother should not war with brother, - And worry and devour each other; - But sing and shine by sweet consent, - Till life's poor transient night is spent, - Respecting in each other's case - The gifts of nature and of grace. - Those Christians best deserve the name - Who studiously make peace their aim; - Peace both the duty and the prize - Of him that creeps and him that flies.' - -Other excellent fables of Cowper will occur to the reader, as, for -example: _The Raven_, _The Contest between Nose and Eyes_, _The Poet, -the Oyster and the Sensitive Plant_, and _Pairing Time Anticipated_. - - -_The Boy and the Rainbow_ (William Wilkie, D.D.). - - 'Declare, ye sages, if ye find - 'Mongst animals of every kind, - Of each condition, sort, and size, - From whales and elephants to flies, - A creature that mistakes his plan, - And errs so constantly as man. - Each kind pursues his proper good, - And seeks for pleasure, rest, and food, - As Nature points, and never errs - In what it chooses and prefers; - Man only blunders, though possest - Of talents far above the rest. - Descend to instances, and try: - An ox will scarce attempt to fly, - Or leave his pasture in the wood - With fishes to explore the flood. - Man only acts, of every creature, - In opposition to his nature. - The happiness of humankind - Consists in rectitude of mind, - A will subdued to reason's sway, - And passions practised to obey; - An open and a gen'rous heart, - Refined from selfishness and art; - Patience which mocks at fortune's pow'r, - And wisdom never sad nor sour: - In these consist our proper bliss; - Else Plato reasons much amiss. - But foolish mortals still pursue - False happiness in place of true; - Ambition serves us for a guide, - Or lust, or avarice, or pride; - While reason no assent can gain, - And revelation warns in vain. - Hence, through our lives in every stage, - From infancy itself to age, - A happiness we toil to find, - Which still avoids us like the wind; - Ev'n when we think the prize our own, - At once 'tis vanished, lost and gone. - You'll ask me why I thus rehearse - All Epictetus in my verse, - And if I fondly hope to please - With dry reflections such as these, - So trite, so hackneyed, and so stale? - I'll take the hint, and tell a tale. - One evening, as a simple swain - His flock attended on the plain, - The shining bow he chanced to spy, - Which warns us when a shower is nigh; - With brightest rays it seemed to glow, - Its distance eighty yards or so. - This bumpkin had, it seems, been told - The story of the cup of gold, - Which fame reports is to be found - Just where the rainbow meets the ground. - He therefore felt a sudden itch - To seize the goblet and be rich; - Hoping--yet hopes are oft but vain-- - No more to toil through wind and rain, - But sit indulging by the fire, - Midst ease and plenty, like a squire. - He marked the very spot of land - On which the rainbow seemed to stand, - And, stepping forwards at his leisure, - Expected to have found the treasure. - But as he moved, the coloured ray - Still changed its place and slipt away, - As seeming his approach to shun. - From walking he began to run, - But all in vain; it still withdrew - As nimbly as he could pursue. - At last, through many a bog and lake, - Rough craggy road and thorny brake, - It led the easy fool, till night - Approached, then vanished in his sight, - And left him to compute his gains, - With nought but labour for his pains.' - -Professor Rankine evidently took Æsop's illustration of 'The Bow -Unbent' to heart, when, relaxing his severer studies, he occupied -occasional hours in composing 'Songs and Fables.' The three following -pieces are examples of his work as a fabulist, and of his skill in -interpreting the meaning of popular signs: - -'_The Magpie and Stump._--A magpie was in the habit of depositing -articles which he pilfered in the hollow stump of a tree. "I grieve -less," the stump was heard to say, "at the misfortune of losing my -branches and leaves, than at the disgrace of being made a receptacle -for stolen goods." Moral: _Infamy is harder to bear than adverse -fortune_.' - -'_The Green Man._--A green man, wandering through the Highlands -of Scotland, discovered, in a sequestered valley, a still, with -which certain unprincipled individuals were engaged in the illicit -manufacture of aqua-vitæ. Being, as we have stated, a green man, he -was easily persuaded by those unprincipled individuals to expend a -considerable sum in the purchase of the intoxicating produce of their -still, and to drink so much of it that he speedily became insensible. -On awaking next morning, with an empty purse and an aching head, he -thought, with sorrow and shame, what a green man he had been. Moral: -_He who follows the advice of unprincipled individuals is a green man -indeed_.' - -'_The Bull and Mouth._--A native of the Sister Isle having opened his -mouth during a convivial entertainment, out flew a bull, whereupon some -of the company manifested alarm. "Calm your fears," said the sagacious -host; "verbal bulls have no horns." Moral: _Harmless blunders are -subjects of amusement rather than of consternation_.' - -The following curious 'Birth Story,' from the collection of Indian -Fables by Mr. P. V. Ramaswami Raju, is an ironical commentary on the -doctrine of transmigration, in which the followers of Buddha implicitly -believe: - -'One day a king in the far East was seated in the hall of justice. A -thief was brought before him; he inquired into his case, and said he -should receive one hundred lashes with a cat-o'-nine-tails. Instantly -he recollected an old Eastern saying, "What we do to others in this -birth, they will do to us in the next," and said to his minister, "I -have a great mind to let this thief go quietly, for he is sure to give -me these one hundred lashes in the next birth." "Sire," replied the -minister, "I know the saying you refer to is perfectly true, but you -must understand you are simply returning to the thief in this birth -what he gave you in the last." The king was perfectly pleased with this -reply, says the story, and gave his minister a rich present.' - -This selection of fables may be suitably concluded by two which, -though not original, we have not met with in print. The first is -entitled _The Nightingale, the Cuckoo and the Ass_:[71] - -'The nightingale and the cuckoo disputed as to which of them was -the best singer, and they chose the ass to be the judge. First, the -nightingale poured forth one of his most entrancing lays, followed -by the cuckoo, with his two mellow notes. Being requested to deliver -judgment, said the ass, "Without doubt the trill of the nightingale -is worth listening to; but for a good plain song give me that of the -cuckoo!"' - -The moral here is obvious. Persons with a want of taste, or with a -depraved taste, see no difference between things excellent and mean. -Nay, they will often be found to prefer the mean, as being more in -harmony with their own predilections. - -The next is the shortest fable on record; its humour is as conspicuous -as its brevity, and it hails from the County Palatine of Lancashire. It -is named The _Flea and the Elephant_: - -'Passing into the ark together, said the flea to its big brother: "Now, -then, mister! no thrutching!" - -'Moral: Insignificance has often its full share of self-importance.' - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[66] 'The Tatler,' No. 115, vol iii., p. 7. - -[67] _Post_, p. 137. - -[68] Mr. Joseph Jacobs, in his erudite 'History of the Æsopian Fable,' -shows that this was a mistake on the part of Maria de France, and that -the author of the work from which her translation was made was not the -King, but 'Alfred the Englishman,' who flourished about A.D. 1170. - -[69] Vanbrugh, the architect, noted for the solidity of the structures -he designed, and on whom the epitaph, one of the best epigrams ever -penned, was proposed: - - 'Lie heavy on him, Earth, for he - Laid many a heavy load on thee.' - -[70] London: Swan Sonnenschein, Lowrey and Co. - -[71] Krilof's _Ass and Nightingale_ bears some resemblance to the -fable here given; but, instead of the cuckoo, the cock is one of the -competitors. - - - - -CHAPTER XVI. - -CONCLUSION. - - - 'Out, out, brief candle.' - - SHAKESPEARE: _Macbeth_. - - -Pictures illustrating fables are a feature that tends to enhance -their attractiveness and value, and the ablest artists have employed -their pencils in the work. It is sufficient to mention Bewick and his -pupils, whose illustrations are greatly prized. S. Howitt's etchings of -animals in illustration of the fabulists (1811). Northcote's original -volumes (1828-33) are illustrated with 560 charming engravings from -the author's designs. Robert Cruikshank illustrated the 'Fables for -Mankind,' by Charles Westmacott (1823). Blake, Stothard, Harvey, -and Sir John Tenniel, the distinguished _Punch_ artist, have gained -applause in the same field. The latter illustrated a small volume of -Æsop published by Murray in 1848. This is 'A New Version of the Old -Fables, chiefly from Original Sources,' by the Rev. Thomas James, -M.A., and contains an introduction which is worthy of perusal by those -interested in the subject. The first edition of the work is a rarity -sought for by collectors. Randolph Caldecott illustrated some of Æsop's -fables in his own inimitable style. Walter Crane[72] and Harrison -Weir[73] have exercised their talents in the same direction, and Mrs. -Hugh Blackburn has supplied clever illustrations to Rankine's fables. -The pictures in the collection of fables made by G. Moir Bussey (1842) -are from designs by J. J. Grandville, and are full of originality -and humour. The same volume also contains an excellent 'Dissertation -on the History of Fable.' The spirited and masterly designs of Oudry -in illustration of La Fontaine are justly prized and highly valued. -Gustave Doré also employed his facile pencil in illustrating the same -author. - -There are books bearing the title of 'Fables' the contents of which are -not fables in the restricted sense. Of these are Dryden's so-called -fables, which are really metrical romances. A competent critic has -pronounced them to be the 'noblest specimens of versification to be -found in any modern language,' but we need not speak further of them -in this connection. Again, there is Bernard Mandeville's eccentric -work, entitled 'The Fable of the Bees; or, Private Vices Public -Benefits.' This is an apologue in rhyme, with a moral in addition, and -followed by a voluminous prose disquisition on questions of morality, -partaking of all the audacious paradoxical elements which characterized -its ingenious author. Thomas Moore, the distinguished Irish poet, wrote -a series of eight political fables, which were originally published by -him under the pseudonym of 'Thomas Brown.' Neither these nor that of -Mandeville, however, are fables from our point of view. The same remark -applies to Lowell's well-known 'Fable for Critics,' and Lord Lytton's -'Fables in Song,' on which it is unnecessary to dwell. - -And so, having taken our survey of the fabulist and his work, we -conclude, as we rightly may, that he is both philosopher and poet, but -more poet than philosopher, inasmuch as the imaginative faculty is -greatly at his command. Further, as saith Sir Philip Sidney,[74] 'The -philosopher teacheth, but he teacheth obscurely, so as the learned only -can understand him; that is to say, he teacheth them that are already -taught. But the poet is the food for the tenderest stomachs; the poet -is, indeed, the right popular philosopher. Whereof Æsop's tales give -good proof; whose pretty allegories, stealing under the formal tales of -beasts, make many, more beastly than beasts, begin to hear the sound of -virtue from these dumb speakers.' - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[72] 'The Baby's Own Æsop;' the fables condensed in rhyme by W. J. -Linton. Routledge, 1887. - -[73] 'Æsop's Fables,' translated from the Greek by the Rev. George -Fyler Townsend, M.A. Routledge. - -[74] 'A Defence of Poesie.' - - - - -INDEX. - - - Æsop: - his era, 33; - birthplace, 33; - his masters when a slave, 33; - his mission to Delphi, 34; - his death, 35; - disparagement of his personal appearance, 36; - due to Planudes, 37; - his mate or wife, Rhodope, 38; - Lysippus' statue of Æsop, 39; - stories related of, 42; - Æsop and the figs, 44; - the pannier of bread, 45; - bought by Zanthus, 45; - Zanthus' foolish wager, 46; - Zanthus' wife restored, 46; - Æsop and the mean fellow, 47; - at play, 48; - and the author, 48; - sayings of, 49; - at the Court of Cr[oe]sus, 49; - as a fabulist, 97 - - _Æsop and the Ass_, 115 - - 'Æsop, G. Washington,' parody on Æsop's fables, 127 - - Æsopian fable or apologue defined, 5; - opinions regarding the, 52; - characteristics of the, 55 - - Ademar, 128 - - Agathia's epigram on Lysippus' statue of Æsop, 39 - - Aitken, Dr., fables by, 127 - - Aldus' edition of the fables, 59 - - Alfonso, 128 - - Aphthonius, definition of fable by, 2 - - Apologue or fable, definition of the, 1 - - Applicability of fables to every-day life, 58 - - Application of fables, 13 - - Arabian fables, 80 - - Archilochus, a writer of fables, 54 - - Aristotle on fables, 68 - - _Arrogant Mule mortified, The_, 75 - - Arwaker, Edmund, 'Truth in Fiction; or, Morality in Masquerade,' - fables by, 126 - - _Ass's Shadow, The_, 79 - - 'Assemblies of Æsopian Fables,' 55 - - Avienus, 55, 61 - - - Babrius, 55, 61, 65 - - Bayle on Babrius, 66 - - _Beau and the Butterfly, The_, 133 - - _Bee and the Coquette, The_, 130 - - _Bee and the Spider, The_, 111 - - _Belly and the Members, The_, 54, 68; - the oldest known fable, 69 - - Bentley, Dr., ridicules the account of Æsop's deformity, 40; - on Babrius, 66 - - Berington on 'The Arabian or Saracenic Learning,' 85 - - Bias, 34 - - Bitteux, 60 - - Bonus Accursius, his collection of fables, 59 - - 'Book of Kalilah and Dimnah,' The, 80 - - Boothby, Sir Brooke, definition of fable by, 3 - - _Boy and the Rainbow, The_, 137 - - Brettinger, 60 - - Brown, Walter, fables by, 127 - - _Bull and the Gnat, The_, 57 - - _Bull and Mouth, The_, 141 - - Bussey, G. Moir, definition of fable by, 4; - collection of fables, 130, 144 - - - Caxton's collection of fables, 60 - - Characteristics of fables, 7 - - Chilo, 34 - - Cleobulus, 34 - - Colling, Mary Maria, fables by, 128 - - _Confession_, from the 'Gesta Romanorum,' 93 - - Cotiæum in Phrygia, the supposed birthplace of Æsop, 33 - - Cowper, William, combats Rousseau's views on fables, 27; - his fables, 96, 127; - _The Nightingale and the Glow-worm_, 136 - - Cr[oe]sus, King of Lydia, 34 - - Croxall, Dr. Samuel, 16, 59, 60, 61 - - - Davies, M.A., Rev. James, translator of Babrius, 67 - - Definition of fable, 1 - - Delphi, Æsop's mission to, 34; - character of the Delphians, 34; - their punishment for the murder of Æsop, 36; - their expiation to a descendant of Idmon, 36 - - Demarchus, Æsop's first master, 33 - - Demetrius Phalereus, Æsop's fables collected by, 55, 61 - - Diagoras, Æsop's fables collected by, 55 - - Dodsley, Robert, definition of fable by, 3; - on the morals and applications of fables, 17; - reason why fables esteemed in all ages, 21; - collection of fables, 60, 97, 108 - - _Dog and the Crocodile, The_, 56 - - Dryden's fables, 144 - - - _Eagle and the Beetle, The_, 35, 76 - - Ebn Arabscah's collection of Arabian fables, 85 - - _Elephant and the Fox, The_, 29 - - Emblematical fables, 11 - - English writers on fables, 62; - English fabulists, 129 - - Epigram, Agathia's, on Lysippus' statue of Æsop, 39 - - Epigrammatical character of Æsop's fables, 58 - - Escurial Library, the, 85 - - Eusebius, 35 - - - Fable, definition of, 1; - in history and myth, 68 - - Fable, writers on: - Alsop, 62; - Bayle, 66; - Benfey, 61; - Bentley, 62; - Boissonade, 61; - Boyle, 62; - Crusius, 61; - Davies, 67; - Du Meril, 61; - Ellis, 62; - Fausboll, 61; - Gaston Paris, 61; - Gitlbauer, 61; - Hervieux, 61; - Jacobs, 62; - James, 62; - Jannelli, 61; - Landsberger, 62; - Lewis, 67; - Mall, 61; - Menas, 66; - Meziriac, 61; - Mueller, 61; - Neveletus, 66; - Oesterley, 61; - Perotti, 61; - Pithou, 61; - Robert, 61; - Rhys-Davids, 62; - Rutherford, 62; - Townsend, 62; - Tyrwhitt, 62; - Vavassor, 66; - Wase, 62 - - Fables, characteristics of, 7; - morals of, 7; - rational, emblematical, and mixed, 11; - La Fontaine on, 13; - Montaigne on Æsop's, 14; - Rousseau on, 25, 27; - Cowper on, 27; - Plato advises the use of, 26; - Aristotle on, 68; - in Holy Scripture, 54 - - Fables, collections of Æsopian: - Accursius, 59; - Aldus, 59; - Avienus, 55; - Babrius, 55; - Caxton, 60; - Croxall, 59; - Diagoras, 55; - Dodsley, 60; - Faerno, 59; - James, 60; - L'Estrange, 59; - Neveletus, 59; - Ogilby, 60; - Phædrus, 55; - Phalereus, 55; - Planudes, 37; - Stephens, 59; - Willans, 60 - - Fables quoted-- - _Æsop and the Ass_, 115 - _The Arrogant Mule mortified_, 75 - _The Ass's Shadow_, 79 - _The Beau and Butterfly_, 133 - _The Bee and the Coquette_, 130 - _The Bee and the Spider_, 111 - _The Belly and the Members_, 69 - _The Boy and the Rainbow_, 137 - _The Bull and Mouth_, 141 - _The Bull and the Gnat_, 57 - _Confession_, 93 - _The Dog and the Crocodile_, 56 - _The Eagle and the Beetle_, 35, 76 - _The Elephant and the Fox_, 29 - _The Farmer, Horseman and Pedestrian_, 131 - _The Flea and the Elephant_, 142 - _The Fox and the Crow_, 31 - _The Fox and the Hedgehog_, 73 - _The Fox and the Stork_, 99 - _The Frogs and Jupiter_, 74 - _The Geese_, 121 - _The Greedy and Ambitious Cat_, 81 - _The Green Man_, 140 - _The Horse and the Stag_, 77 - _Indian Birth Story_, 141 - _The Land of the Halt_, 132 - _The Leaves and the Roots_, 120 - _The Magpie and Stump_, 140 - _The Man and his Goose_, 10 - _The Man and the Lion_, 9 - _The Mastiff and his Puppy_, 126 - _Mercury and the Sculptor_, 57 - _The Miser and Plutus_, 106 - _The Miser and the Magpie_, 109 - _The Nightingale, the Cuckoo, and the Ass_, 142 - _The Nightingale and the Hawk_, 54, 58 - _The Nightingale and the Glow-worm_, 135, 136 - _The Old Woodcutter and Death_, 58 - _Of Perfect Life_, 90 - _The Piper turned Fisherman_, 76 - _The Shepherd and the Nightingale_, 116 - _The Snake and the Hedgehog_, 56 - _Solomon's Ghost_, 116 - _The Toad and the Ephemeron_, 110 - _The Trees in Search of a King_, 71 - _The Trooper and his Armour_, 113 - _The Two Thrushes_, 118 - _The Viper and the File_, 102 - _The Wolf and the Shepherds_, 55 - _The Wolves and the Sheep_, 78 - - Fables, writers of: - Addison, 129; - Ademar, 128; - Aitken, 127; - Alfonso, 128; - Armoult, 129; - Arwaker, 126; - Avian, 128; - Babrius, 65; - Bertola, 129; - Boisard, 129; - Bondi, 129; - Brown, 127; - Chemnitzer, 129; - Clasio, 129; - Colling, 128; - Coyne, 130; - Crudeli, 129; - Dmitriev, 129; - Dodsley, 108; - Dryden, 144; - Faerno, 59; - Fénelon, 128; - Florian, 129; - Maria de France, 127; - Gaspey, 127; - Gay, 103; - Gellert, 129; - Gentleman, 127; - Ginguene, 129; - Glinka, 129; - Godolphin, 128; - Goldsmith, 129; - Goncharov, 129; - Grillo, 129; - Hagedorn, 129; - Hall-Stevenson, 126; - Henryson, 130; - Jauffret, 129; - Krilof, 120; - La Fontaine, 97; - Lessing, 115; - Le Grand, 129; - Lichtner, 129; - Lomonosov, 129; - Moore, 126; - Nicolai, 129; - Nivernois, 128; - Northcote, 112; - Passeroni, 129; - Perego, 129; - Percival, 130; - Pfeffel, 129; - Phædrus, 63; - Pignotti, 129; - Pilpay, 80; - Planudes, 37; - Poggio, 128; - Polidori, 129; - Prior, 129; - Prosser, 128; - Ramsay, 126; - Rankine, 130; - Roberti, 129; - Romulus, 128; - Rossi, 129; - Rowe, 127; - Rufus, 128; - Samaniego, 129; - Staite, 127; - Steele, 126; - Sumarakov, 129; - Trimmer, 128; - Vanbrugh, 129; - Westmacott, 127; - Wilkie, 127; - Wilson, 127; - Winter, 130; - Yriarte, 117 - - Fabulists as censors, 19 - - Faerno's, Gabriele, one hundred fables, 59 - - _Farmer, Horseman, and Pedestrian, The_, 131 - - Feast of the Sages, The, 75 - - Fénelon, the Abbé, 128 - - Figs, Æsop and the stolen, 44 - - _Flea and the Elephant, The_, 142 - - Florian, 129; - _The Bee and the Coquette_, 130 - - _Fox and the Crow, The_, 31 - - _Fox and the Hedgehog, The_, 73 - - _Fox and the Stork, The_, 99 - - France, Maria de, 127 - - French fabulists, 128 - - French writers on fable, 61 - - _Frogs and Jupiter, The_, 74 - - Furia, Francisco de, on Babrius, 66 - - - Gaspey's fables, 127 - - G[=a]thas, or moral verses, 14 - - Gay, John, 17; - his fables, 96; - sketch of, 103; - lines of Gay which have become widely popular, 104; - Pope's epitaph on, 105 - - _Geese, The_, 121 - - Gellert, 129; - _The Land of the Halt_, 132 - - Gentleman's, Francis, royal fables, 127; - _The Beau and Butterfly_, 133 - - German fabulists, 129; - writers on fable, 61 - - 'Gesta Romanorum,' 89; - a rich storehouse for the poets, 95 - - Godolphin, Mary, her fables, 128 - - Goldsmith on L'Estrange as a writer, 61 - - Grecian heroes and gods, 1 - - _Greedy and Ambitious Cat, The_, 81 - - _Green Man, The_, 140 - - - Hall-Stevenson's, John, 'Fables for Grown Gentlemen,' 126 - - Harrison's, J. Henry, translation of Krilof's fables, 119; - _The Man with Three Wives_, 123 - - Heidelberg Library, collection of fables in the, 59 - - Herodotus on the building of the Lesser Pyramid, 38 - - Hesiod and Homer, the mythical stories of, 26; - _The Nightingale and the Hawk_, 54, 58 - - Hindoo fables, 80 - - _Horse and the Stag, The_, 77 - - Humour of fables, 22, 58 - - Hyampia, the rock whence Æsop was precipitated, 35 - - - Idmon, or Jadmon, Æsop's third master, 34; - his grandson claims reparation for Æsop's death, 36 - - Indian birth story, 141 - - Indian fables, 130 - - Ineradicable impression produced by certain fables, 32 - - Iriarte, or Yriarte, Don Tomas de, Spanish fabulist, 117 - - Italian fabulists, 129; - writers on fable, 61 - - - Jacobs, Joseph, definition of fable by, 4; - on the added morals to fables, 13; - 'History of the Æsopic Fable,' 62; - Maria de France, 128 - - James's, Rev. Thomas, fables of Æsop, 9, 60, 143 - - Jameson, Mrs., relates a tradition of our Lord, 87 - - J[=a]takas, 14, 53, 87 - - Jewish writers on fables, 61 - - Johnson, Dr., definition of fable by, 3 - - - Krilof, or Krilov, Ivan Andreivitch, Russian fabulist, 19, 96, 97; - characteristics of his fables, 119; - sketch of his life, 120; - Ralston's translation, 119; - Harrison's translation, 119; - _The Leaves and the Roots_, 120; - _The Geese_, 121; - _The Man with Three Wives_, 123 - - - Lady fabulists, 127 - - La Fontaine, Jean de, on fables, 13, 17; - the morals of his fables, 27; - his fable of _The Old Woodcutter and Death_, 58; - his fables, 96, 144; - sketch of, 97; - Matthews' translation, 99 - - La Motte, 17, 60 - - _Land of the Halt, The_, 132 - - _Leaves and the Roots, The_, 120 - - Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim: - his fables, 96, 97; - sketch of, 115; - his fables of _Æsop and the Ass_, 115; - _The Shepherd and the Nightingale_, 116; - _Solomon's Ghost_, 116 - - Lessons taught by fables, 25 - - L'Estrange, Sir Roger, 16, 59, 60; - as a writer, 61; - his version of Æsop, 125 - - Lewis, Sir George Cornewall, edited first English edition of Babrius - in the original Greek text, 67 - - Locman, the Oriental fabulist, 37, 80, 85, 86 - - Lowell's 'Fable for Critics,' 145 - - Lysippus' statue of Æsop, 39 - - Lytton's, Lord, 'Fables in Song,' 145 - - - _Magpie and Stump, The_, 140 - - _Man and his Goose, The_, 10 - - _Man and the Lion, The_, 9 - - Mandeville's 'Fable of the Bees,' 144 - - _Mastiff and his Puppy, The_, 126 - - Men loath to apply the moral of a fable to their own case, 22 - - Menas, M. Minoides, discovers a copy of Babrius, 66 - - Menenius recites the fable of _The Belly and the Members_, 69 - - _Mercury and the Sculptor_, 57 - - Mercury bestows the invention of the apologue on Æsop, 43 - - _Miser and the Magpie, The_, 109 - - _Miser and Plutus, The_, 106 - - Mixed fables, 11 - - Modern fabulists, 96, 108, 115, 125 - - Montaigne on Æsop's fables, 14 - - Moore's, Edward, 'Fables for the Fair Sex,' 126; - _The Nightingale and the Glow-worm_, 135 - - Moore's, Thomas, 'Political Fables,' 145 - - Moral and application of fables, 13; - whether the moral should be placed at the beginning or end of a - fable, 16 - - - Neveletus' collection of fables, 59; - on Babrius, 66 - - _Nightingale and the Glow-worm, The_, 135, 136 - - _Nightingale and the Hawk, The_, 54, 58 - - _Nightingale, Cuckoo, and Ass, The_, 142 - - Nivernois, 128; - _The Farmer, Horseman, and Pedestrian_, 131 - - Northcote, R.A., James: - his fables of _The Elephant and the Fox_, 29; - _The Trooper and his Armour_, 113; - his fables, 96, 97, 112; - sketch of his life, 112 - - - _Of Perfect Life_, from 'The Gesta Romanorum,' 90 - - _Old Woodcutter and Death, The_, 58 - - - Parables, 5, 6; - Nathan and the ewe lamb, 6; - of the Gospels, 6 - - Parodies on Æsop's fables, 127 - - Pater, Walter, definition of fable by, 2 - - Pathos in fables, 58 - - _Perfect Life, Of_, from 'The Gesta Romanorum,' 90 - - Periander, 34 - - Persian fables, 80 - - Phædrus, 3, 17, 55; - his view of the origin and purpose of fables, 20, 26; - on Æsop's statue, 39; - sketch of his life, 63; - prologue to his third book, 64 - - Philostratus on a picture of Æsop and the geniuses of fable, 40; - mythical account of the youthful Æsop, 43 - - Pictures illustrating fables, 143 - - Pilpay's fables, 80 - - _Piper turned Fisherman, The_, 76 - - Pittacus, 34 - - Planudes confounds Locman with Æsop, 37; - his stories of Æsop, 42 - - Plato advises the use of fables, 26; - citation from the 'Phædo' of, 59 - - Plutarch on Æsop at the Court of Cr[oe]sus, 49; - on Hesiod's fable of the nightingale, 54 - - Poggio, 128 - - Pope's epitaph on Gay, 105 - - Prosser's, Mrs., fables, 128 - - - Quintilian recommends the learning of fables, 26 - - - Ralston's, W. R. S., translation of Krilof's fables, 119; - _The Geese_, 121 - - Ramsay's, Allan, fables, 126 - - Rankine's, Professor W. J. Macquorn, fables on well-known signboards, 130; - _The Magpie and Stump_, 140; - _The Green Man_, 140; - _The Bull and Mouth_, 141 - - Rational fables, 11 - - Reflection, the, appended to fables, 15 - - Remark, the, appended to fables, 15 - - Rhodope, the reputed wife of Æsop, 38; - said to have built the Lesser Pyramid, 38 - - Richer, 60 - - Romulus, 128 - - Rousseau, Jean Jacques, on fables, 25, 27 - - Rowe, Rev. Henry: his fables, 127 - - Rufus, 128 - - Russian fabulists, 129 - - - Scandinavian heroes and gods, 1 - - Seven sages of Greece, the, 34 - - Shakespeare's 'Coriolanus,' fable of _The Belly and the Members_ from, 69 - - _Shepherd and the Nightingale, The_, 116 - - Sidney, Sir Philip, on Æsop's fables, 145 - - Smart's, Christopher, translation of Phædrus, 64 - - _Snake and the Hedgehog, The_, 56 - - Socrates and Æsop's fables, 59 - - _Solomon's Ghost_, 116 - - Solon, 34; - at the Court of Cr[oe]sus, 49 - - Spanish fabulists, 129 - - Staite's, W. E., fables, 127 - - Steele's definition of fable, 4; - fable of _The Mastiff and his Puppy_, 126 - - Stephens', Robert, edition of the fables, 59 - - Stories related of Æsop, 43 - - Successful villain, the, in the fable, 28 - - Suidas quoted, 59 - - Swift quoted, 23 - - - 'Tatler,' the, quoted, 4 - - Temple, Sir William, on Æsop, 60 - - Thales, 34 - - _Toad and the Ephemeron, The_, 110 - - _Trees in Search of a King, The_, the oldest fable in Holy Scripture, 71 - - Trimmer's, Mrs., fables of Æsop, 128 - - _Trooper and his Armour, The_, 113 - - _Two Thrushes, The_, 118 - - Tyrwhitt on Babrius, 66 - - - Universality of the effect of fables, 28 - - - Vanbrugh, Sir John, 129 - - Vavassor on Babrius, 66 - - _Viper and the File, The_, 102 - - - Westmacott's, Charles, 'Fables for Mankind,' 127, 143 - - Wilkie, D.D., William: - his fables, 127; - _The Boy and the Rainbow_, 127, 137 - - Willans', Leonard, collection of fables, 60 - - Wilson, Sheridan, 'The Bath Fables,' 127 - - _Wolf and the Lamb, The_, 58 - - _Wolf and the Shepherds, The_, 55 - - _Wolves and the Sheep, The_, 78 - - - Xanthus, or Zanthus, Æsop's second master, 33; - his foolish wager, 46; - his wife restored, 46 - - - Yriarte, or Iriarte, Don Tomas de, Spanish fabulist, 117; - characteristics of his fables, 117; - _The Two Thrushes_, 118 - - -[Device] - - -_Elliot Stock, 62, Paternoster Row, London, E.C._ - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Fables and Fabulists: Ancient and -Modern, by Thomas Newbigging - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FABLES, FABULISTS: ANCIENT, MODERN *** - -***** This file should be named 42761-8.txt or 42761-8.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/2/7/6/42761/ - -Produced by David Edwards, Stephen Blundell and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, -set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to -copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to -protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project -Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you -charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you -do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the -rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose -such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and -research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do -practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is -subject to the trademark license, especially commercial -redistribution. - - - -*** START: FULL LICENSE *** - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project -Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at - www.gutenberg.org/license. - - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy -all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. -If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the -terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or -entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement -and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" -or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the -collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an -individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are -located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from -copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative -works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg -are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project -Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by -freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of -this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with -the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by -keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project -Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in -a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check -the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement -before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or -creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project -Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning -the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United -States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate -access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently -whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, -copied or distributed: - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived -from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is -posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied -and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees -or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work -with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the -work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 -through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the -Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or -1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional -terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked -to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the -permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any -word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or -distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than -"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version -posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), -you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a -copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon -request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other -form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided -that - -- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is - owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he - has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the - Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments - must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you - prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax - returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and - sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the - address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to - the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." - -- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or - destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium - and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of - Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any - money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days - of receipt of the work. - -- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set -forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from -both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael -Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the -Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm -collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain -"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or -corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual -property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a -computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by -your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with -your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with -the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a -refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity -providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to -receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy -is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further -opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO OTHER -WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO -WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. -If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the -law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be -interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by -the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any -provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance -with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, -promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, -harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, -that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do -or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm -work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any -Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. - - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers -including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists -because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from -people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. -To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation -and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 -and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org - - -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive -Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent -permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. -Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered -throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at 809 -North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email -contact links and up to date contact information can be found at the -Foundation's web site and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact - -For additional contact information: - Dr. Gregory B. Newby - Chief Executive and Director - gbnewby@pglaf.org - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide -spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To -SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any -particular state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. -To donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate - - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works. - -Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm -concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared -with anyone. For forty years, he produced and distributed Project -Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. -unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily -keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. - -Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: - - www.gutenberg.org - -This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. diff --git a/42761-8.zip b/42761-8.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index f54d588..0000000 --- a/42761-8.zip +++ /dev/null diff --git a/42761-h.zip b/42761-h.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index e678211..0000000 --- a/42761-h.zip +++ /dev/null diff --git a/42761-h/42761-h.htm b/42761-h/42761-h.htm index 103960a..eef34e9 100644 --- a/42761-h/42761-h.htm +++ b/42761-h/42761-h.htm @@ -2,7 +2,7 @@ "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> <html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> <head> - <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=us-ascii" /> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=UTF-8" /> <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> <title> The Project Gutenberg eBook of Fables and Fabulists: Ancient and Modern, by Thomas Newbigging. @@ -59,46 +59,7 @@ </style> </head> <body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Fables and Fabulists: Ancient and Modern, by -Thomas Newbigging - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Fables and Fabulists: Ancient and Modern - -Author: Thomas Newbigging - -Release Date: May 21, 2013 [EBook #42761] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FABLES, FABULISTS: ANCIENT, MODERN *** - - - - -Produced by David Edwards, Stephen Blundell and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42761 ***</div> <h1><i>FABLES AND FABULISTS.</i></h1> @@ -5739,383 +5700,6 @@ Rev. George Fyler Townsend, M.A. Routledge.</p></div> Minor typographical errors have been corrected without note. Archaic and variant spellings have been retained.</div> - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Fables and Fabulists: Ancient and -Modern, by Thomas Newbigging - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FABLES, FABULISTS: ANCIENT, MODERN *** - -***** This file should be named 42761-h.htm or 42761-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/2/7/6/42761/ - -Produced by David Edwards, Stephen Blundell and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, -set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to -copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to -protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project -Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you -charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you -do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the -rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose -such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and -research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do -practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is -subject to the trademark license, especially commercial -redistribution. - - - -*** START: FULL LICENSE *** - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project -Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at - www.gutenberg.org/license. - - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy -all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. -If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the -terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or -entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement -and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" -or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the -collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an -individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are -located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from -copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative -works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg -are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project -Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by -freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of -this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with -the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by -keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project -Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in -a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check -the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement -before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or -creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project -Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning -the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United -States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate -access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently -whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, -copied or distributed: - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived -from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is -posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied -and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees -or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work -with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the -work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 -through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the -Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or -1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional -terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked -to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the -permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any -word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or -distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than -"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version -posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), -you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a -copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon -request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other -form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided -that - -- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is - owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he - has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the - Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments - must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you - prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax - returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and - sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the - address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to - the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." - -- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or - destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium - and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of - Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any - money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days - of receipt of the work. - -- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set -forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from -both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael -Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the -Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm -collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain -"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or -corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual -property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a -computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by -your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with -your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with -the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a -refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity -providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to -receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy -is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further -opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO OTHER -WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO -WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. -If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the -law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be -interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by -the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any -provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance -with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, -promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, -harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, -that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do -or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm -work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any -Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. - - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers -including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists -because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from -people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. -To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation -and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 -and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org - - -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive -Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent -permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. -Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered -throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at 809 -North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email -contact links and up to date contact information can be found at the -Foundation's web site and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact - -For additional contact information: - Dr. Gregory B. Newby - Chief Executive and Director - gbnewby@pglaf.org - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide -spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To -SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any -particular state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. -To donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate - - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works. - -Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm -concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared -with anyone. For forty years, he produced and distributed Project -Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. -unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily -keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. - -Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: - - www.gutenberg.org - -This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. - - -</pre> - +<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42761 ***</div> </body> </html> diff --git a/42761.txt b/42761.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 23ffa9b..0000000 --- a/42761.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,4969 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Fables and Fabulists: Ancient and Modern, by -Thomas Newbigging - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Fables and Fabulists: Ancient and Modern - -Author: Thomas Newbigging - -Release Date: May 21, 2013 [EBook #42761] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FABLES, FABULISTS: ANCIENT, MODERN *** - - - - -Produced by David Edwards, Stephen Blundell and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - -Transcriber's Note: - - Minor typographical errors have been corrected without note. - Archaic and variant spellings have been retained. The following - non-standard characters are represented as shown: - - [=a] a with macron; - [=i] i with macron; - [oe] oe ligature. - - - - -_FABLES AND FABULISTS._ - - - - -[Device] - - - - -[Illustration: MERCURY BESTOWING ON THE YOUTHFUL AESOP THE INVENTION OF -THE APOLOGUE. (_See page 43._)] - - - - - FABLES AND FABULISTS: - _ANCIENT AND MODERN_. - - - BY - THOMAS NEWBIGGING, - _Author of - 'The History of the Forest of Rossendale,' 'Old Gamul,' etc._ - - - _CHEAP EDITION._ - - - LONDON: - ELLIOT STOCK, 62, PATERNOSTER ROW, E.C. - 1896. - - [_All rights reserved._] - - - - - 'I shall tell you - A pretty tale: it may be you have heard it; - But, since it serves my purpose, I will venture - To stale't a little more.' - - SHAKESPEARE: _Coriolanus_. - - - 'He sat among the woods; he heard - The sylvan merriment; he saw - The pranks of butterfly and bird, - The humours of the ape, the daw. - - 'And in the lion or the frog-- - In all the life of moor and fen, - In ass and peacock, stork and log, - He read similitudes of men.' - - ANDREW LANG. - - - 'The fables which appeal to our higher moral sympathies may - sometimes do as much for us as the truths of science.' - - MRS. JAMESON. - - - 'The years of infancy constitute, in the memory of each of us, the - fabulous season of existence; just as in the memory of nations, - the fabulous period was the period of their infancy.'--GIACOMO - LEOPARDI. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - CHAPTER PAGE - - I. DEFINITION OF FABLE 1 - - II. CHARACTERISTICS OF FABLES 7 - - III. THE MORAL AND APPLICATION OF FABLES 13 - - IV. FABULISTS AS CENSORS 19 - - V. LESSONS TAUGHT BY FABLES 25 - - VI. AESOP 33 - - VII. STORIES RELATED OF AESOP 42 - - VIII. THE AESOPIAN FABLES 52 - - IX. PHAEDRUS AND BABRIUS 63 - - X. THE FABLE IN HISTORY AND MYTH 68 - - XI. HINDOO, ARABIAN, AND PERSIAN FABLES.--PILPAY, - LOCMAN.--'THE GESTA ROMANORUM' 80 - - XII. MODERN FABULISTS: LA FONTAINE, GAY 96 - - XIII. MODERN FABULISTS: DODSLEY, NORTHCOTE 108 - - XIV. MODERN FABULISTS: LESSING, YRIARTE, KRILOF 115 - - XV. OTHER AND OCCASIONAL FABULISTS 125 - - XVI. CONCLUSION 143 - - INDEX 147 - - - - -_FABLES AND FABULISTS_ - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -DEFINITION OF FABLE. - - - 'Read my little fable, - He that runs may read.' - - TENNYSON: _The Flower_. - - - 'As clear as a whistle.' - - BYRON: _The Astrologer_. - - -The term 'fable' is used in two senses, with two distinctive meanings. - -First, as _fabulae_, it is employed to denote the myths or fictions -which, by the aid of imagination and superstition, have clouded, or -have become blended with, the history of the remote past. Such are the -stories related of Scandinavian and Grecian heroes and gods; beings, -some of whom doubtless had an actual human existence, and were wise and -valiant and powerful, or the reverse, in their day, but around whose -names and persons have clustered all the marvellous legends that are to -be found in mythological lore. The better name for these is 'romance.' - -Secondly, as _fabellae_, it is used to signify a special branch of -literature, in which the imagination has full play, altogether -unassisted by superstition in any shape or form. The fabulist -confers the powers or gifts of reason and speech on the humbler -subjects over whom he exercises sway, and so has ample scope for his -imaginative faculty; but there is no attempt on his part at any serious -make-believe in his inventions. On the contrary, there is a tacit -understanding between him and his hearers and readers, that what he -narrates is only true in the sense of its application to corresponding -circumstances in human life and conduct. - -It is with fable as understood in this latter sense that we propose to -deal. - -The Fable or Apologue has been variously defined by different writers. -Mr. Walter Pater, paraphrasing Plato's definition, says that 'fables -are medicinable lies or fictions, with a provisional or economized -truth in them, set forth under such terms as simple souls can best -receive.'[1] The sophist Aphthonius, taking the same view, defines the -fable as 'a false discourse resembling truth.'[2] The harshness of both -these definitions is scarcely relieved by their quaintness. To assert -that the fable is a lie or a falsehood does not fairly represent the -fact. A lie is spoken with intent to deceive. A fable, in its relation, -can bear no such construction, however exaggerated in its terms or -fictitious in its characters. The meanest comprehension is capable of -grasping the humour of the situation it creates. Even the moral that -lurks in the narration is often clear to minds the most obtuse. This is -at least true of the best fables. - -Dr. Johnson, in his 'Life of Gay,' remarks that 'A fable or epilogue -seems to be, in its genuine state, a narrative in which beings -irrational, and sometimes inanimate--_quod arbores loquantur, non -tantum ferae_[3]--are, for the purpose of moral instruction, feigned to -act and speak with human interests and passions.' - -Dodsley says that ''tis the very essence of a fable to convey some -moral or useful truth beneath the shadow of an allegory.'[4] Boothby -defines the fable as 'a maxim for the use of common life, exemplified -in a short action, in which the inhabitants of the visible world are -made the moral agents.' G. Moir Bussey states that 'the object of the -author is to convey some moral truth to the reader or auditor, without -usurping the province of the professed lecturer or pedant. The lesson -must therefore be conveyed in an agreeable form, and so that the -moralist himself may be as little prominent as possible.'[5] Mr. Joseph -Jacobs says that 'the beast fable may be defined as a short humorous -allegorical tale, in which animals act in such a way as to illustrate a -simple moral truth or inculcate a wise maxim.'[6] - -These various definitions or descriptions apply more especially to the -AEsopian fable (and it is with this that we are dealing at present), -which is _par excellence_ the model of this class of composition. -Steele declares that 'the virtue which we gather from a fable or an -allegory is like the health we get by hunting, as we are engaged in -an agreeable pursuit that draws us on with pleasure, and makes us -insensible of the fatigues that accompany it.'[7] This is applied to -the longer fable or epic, such as the 'Iliad' and 'Odyssey' of Homer, -or the 'Faerie Queen' of Spenser, rather than to the fable as the term -is generally understood, otherwise the simile is somewhat inflated. - -One more definition may be attempted: - -The AEsopian fable or apologue is a short story, either fictitious or -true, generally fictitious, calculated to convey instruction, advice or -reproof, in an interesting form, impressing its lesson on the mind more -deeply than a mere didactic piece of counsel or admonition is capable -of doing. We say a short story, because if the narration is spun out -to a considerable length it ceases to be a true fable in the ordinary -acceptation of the term, and becomes a tale, such, for example, as a -fairy tale. Now, a fairy or other fanciful tale usually or invariably -contains some romance and much improbability; it often deals largely in -the superstitious, and it is not necessarily the vehicle for conveying -a moral. The very opposite holds good of a fable. Although animals -are usually the actors in the fable, there is an air of naturalness -in their assumed speech and actions. The story may be either highly -imaginative or baldly matter-of-fact, but it never wanders beyond the -range of intuitive (as opposed to actual or natural) experience, and -it always contains a moral. In a word, a fable is, or ought to be, the -very quintessence of common sense and wise counsel couched in brief -narrative form. It partakes somewhat of the character of a parable, -though it can hardly be described as a parable, because this is more -sedate in character, has human beings as its actors, and is usually -based on an actual occurrence. - -Though parables are not fables in the strict and limited meaning of the -term, they bear a close family relationship to them. Parables may be -defined as stories in allegorical dress. The Scriptures, both old and -new, abound with them. The most beautiful example in the Old Testament -is that of Nathan and the ewe lamb,[8] in which David the King is made -his own accuser. This was a favourite mode of conveying instruction and -reproof employed by our Lord. Christ often 'spake in parables'; and -with what feelings of reverential awe must we regard the parables of -the Gospels, coming as they did from the lips of our Saviour! - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] 'Plato and Platonism,' by Walter Pater. London: Macmillan and Co., -1893, p. 225. - -[2] Aphthonius flourished at Antioch, at what time is uncertain. Forty -of his AEsopian fables, with a Latin version by Kimedoncius, were -printed from a MS. in the Palatine Library at the beginning of the -seventeenth century. 'The AEsopian Fable,' by Sir Brooke Boothby, Bart. -Edinburgh: Constable and Co., 1809. Preface, p. xxxi. - -[3] 'Even trees speak, not only wild beasts.'--Phaedrus, Book i., -Prologue. - -[4] 'Essay on Fable.' - -[5] 'Fables Original and Selected,' by G. Moir Bussey. London: -Willoughby and Co., 1842. - -[6] 'The Fables of AEsop,' as first printed by William Caxton in 1484. -London: David Nutt, 1889, vol. i., p. 204. - -[7] 'The Tatler,' No. 147, vol. iii., p. 205. - -[8] 2 Samuel xii. 1-7. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -CHARACTERISTICS OF FABLES. - - - 'To hold, as 'twere, the mirror up to Nature.' - - SHAKESPEARE: _Hamlet_. - - -There is an archness about the best fables that creates interest and -awakens curiosity; and it is the quality of such that, whilst simple -enough as stories to be understood and enjoyed by the young, they are -at the same time calculated to interest, amuse, instruct and admonish -those more advanced in years. - -A fable should carry its moral without the telling; nevertheless the -application is often worth supplying, because it puts, or should put, -the lesson taught by the fable in a terse and impressive form. Above -and beyond all, a fable should possess the quality of simplicity, and -whilst easy to be understood, it should have force and appropriateness. - -Fables treat of the follies and weaknesses, and also of the nobler -qualities, of humankind, generally through the medium of the lower -animals and the members of the vegetable and natural kingdom. These are -made to represent the characters we find in human life. Curious, that -although it is chiefly the lower animals and inanimate things that are -made the vehicle of the instruction or reproof contained in the story, -we do not feel that there is any incongruity in these having the power -of speech. We willingly accept the circumstance of their faculty of -speech and reasoning as Gospel truth for the time being. It is natural -that they in the fable should speak as the heroes or actors, and we -listen to their words, whether wise or foolish, with deference or -contempt as the case may be. - -It is a question in casuistry how far justice and injustice are done to -the inferior animals and the members of the vegetable kingdom by this -liberty that is taken with them in the fable. If they had the knowledge -of the fact, and the power of remonstrance, it may be conceived that -some of them, at least, would repudiate the characters and propensities -which we in our superior conceit so glibly ascribe to them in the -fable. And, indeed, there is doubtless a good deal of unfairness -in our habit of stigmatizing this one with cunning, that one with -cowardice, and the other with cruelty, or stupidity, or dishonesty, -as suits our purpose. Possibly if some of the humbler creatures thus -branded were gifted with the power of writing fables for the benefit of -_their_ fellow creatures and associates, they might be able to point -to characteristics in the higher order of beings which it is desirable -to hold in reprobation, and this, too, with as much or more reason -and justice on their side than we have on ours. But, in truth, the -fabulists themselves tacitly admit the force of this argument, inasmuch -as the failings and defects and general qualities which they ascribe to -the characters in the fable are, of course, those of the human species. -A fable of AEsop, _The Man and the Lion_,[9] is very much to the point -here: - -'Once upon a time a man and a lion were journeying together, and came -at length to high words which was the braver and stronger of the two. -As the dispute waxed warmer they happened to pass by, on the road-side, -a statue of a man strangling a lion. "See there," said the man; "what -more undeniable proof can you have of our superiority than that?" -"That," said the lion, "is your version of the story; let us be the -sculptors, and for one lion under the feet of a man, you shall have -twenty men under the paw of a lion!" Men are but sorry witnesses in -their own cause.' - -A fable is generally a fiction, as has already been said. It is a -singular paradox, however, that nothing is truer than a good fable. -True to intuition, true to nature, true to fact. The great virtue of -fables consists in this quality of truthfulness, and their enduring -life and popularity are corroboration of it. If not true in the sense -of being reasonable, they are nothing, or foolish, and therefore -intolerable. We instinctively feel their truth, and are encouraged, -or amused, or conscience-smitten by the narration, for they deal with -principles which lie at the very root of our human nature. - -It is a remarkable feature of this species of composition that a -departure from the natural order of things loses its incongruity in -the fable; and although this view has been controverted, the argument -against it fails to carry conviction in face of the excellent examples -that can be adduced. By way of illustration, take the fable of the -man and his goose that laid the golden eggs. We don't remember ever -meeting with a goose of this particular breed out of the fable. There -are numberless geese in the world--human and other. But the goose that -lays a golden egg every morning is a _rara avis_. Nevertheless, she -has a veritable existence in the fable, and we would as soon think of -casting a doubt on our own identity as on that of the fabled bird. The -story has always been, and will continue to be, Gospel truth to us, and -we never recall it without commiserating the untimely end of the poor -obliging goose, and thinking, at the same time, what a goose its owner -must have been to kill it and cut it up, in expectation of finding in -its inside the inexhaustible treasure his impatient greed had pictured -as existing there. _Semper avarus eget._ Had _we_ been the fortunate -owner of such an uncommon fowl, one golden egg each day would have -contented us! - -Certain early authors, with the formalism which characterizes their -writings, have attempted an arrangement of fables under three -distinct heads or classes, designating them, respectively, Rational, -Emblematical, and Mixed. The Rational fable is held to be that in which -the actors are either human beings or the gods of mythology; or, if -beasts, birds, trees, and inanimate objects are introduced, the former -only are the speakers. The Emblematical fable has animals, members of -the vegetable kingdom, and even inanimate things for its heroes, and -these are accordingly gifted with the power of speech. The Mixed fable, -as the name implies, is that in which an association of the two former -kinds is to be found. The distinction, though perfectly accurate, -serves no useful purpose and need not be observed. As a matter of fact, -all fables are rational or reasonable from the fabulist's stand-point; -and all are emblematical or typical of moods, conditions, and possible -or actual occurrences in daily life, whoever and whatever be the actors -and speakers introduced. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[9] Quoted from James's 'Fables of AEsop.' Murray, 1848. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -THE MORAL AND APPLICATION OF FABLES. - - - 'Come, sir, lend it your best ear.' - - BEN JONSON: _Love Freed_. - - -Thus La Fontaine:[10] 'The fable proper is composed of two parts, of -which one may be termed the body and the other the soul. The body is -the subject-matter of the fable and the soul is the moral.' - -On the origin of the added morals to fables, Mr. Joseph Jacobs[11] -has the following appropriate remarks: 'The fable is a species of the -allegory, and it seems absurd to give your allegory, and then give in -addition the truth which you wish to convey. Either your fable makes -its point or it does not. If it does, you need not repeat your point: -if it does not, you need not give your fable. To add your point is -practically to confess the fear that your fable has not put it with -sufficient force. Yet this is practically what the moral does, which -has now become part and parcel of a fable. It was not always so; it -does not occur in the ancient classical fables. That it is not an -organic part of the fable is shown by the curious fact that so many -morals miss the point of the fables. How then did this artificial -product come to be regarded as an essential part of the fable? Now, -we have seen in the J[=a]takas what an important _role_ is played by -the _g[=a]thas_ or moral verses which sum up the whole teaching of -the J[=a]takas. In most cases I have been able to give the pith of -the Birth-stories by merely giving the _g[=a]thas_, which are besides -the only relics which are now left to us of the original form of the -J[=a]takas. Is it too bold to suggest that any set of fables taken from -the J[=a]takas or their source would adopt the _g[=a]tha_ feature, and -that the moral would naturally arise in this way? We find the moral -fully developed in Babrius and Avian, whom we have seen strong reason -for connecting with Kybises' Libyan fables. We may conclude the series -of conjectures by suggesting that the morals of fables are an imitation -of the _g[=a]thas_ of J[=a]takas as they passed into the Libyan -collection of Kybises.' - -Montaigne remarks that 'most of the fables of AEsop have diverse senses -and meanings, of which the mythologists chose some one that quadrates -well to the fable; but for the most part 'tis but the first face that -presents itself and is superficial only; there yet remain others more -vivid, essential and profound into which they have not been able to -penetrate.'[12] - -If this be so, it is an argument against the common practice of -limiting their significance to the one moral that is often given as an -appendage to the fable. It is worthy of note that AEsop did not supply, -either orally or in writing, the separate moral to any of his fables. -They were left to speak for themselves and produce their unaided -effect. The moral or application appended to or introducing a fable -(for both practices are followed), is an innovation, as appears from -what has already been advanced, probably intended to make clear what -was obscure in the apologue. - -The true moral is contained in the fable itself. The application may, -and often does, vary with the idiosyncrasies of the commentator. -Besides the moral and application there is in some collections of -fables what is designated 'The Remark,' and 'The Reflection,' in which -the commentator tries, as it were, to drive home the application of the -story with an additional blow. Our own experience as a youth was that -all these appendages to the fable were invariably skipped. - -From all which it would appear that the moral and the so-called -application of a fable are not one and the same thing. In point of -fact, the latter may and does vary according to the peculiar views -of the commentator. An exemplification of this may be found in the -applications of Sir Roger L'Estrange and Dr. Samuel Croxall, the -latter taking it upon him to stigmatize in strong language the twist -which he asserted the former gave to the morals of the fables in his -collection. L'Estrange, who was a Catholic, concerned himself in -helping the restoration of Charles II., and was a devoted adherent -of his successor, James, from whom he received place and emoluments. -In publishing his version of AEsop, his object, as he affirms in his -preface, was to influence the minds of the rising generation, 'who -being as it were mere blank paper, are ready indifferently for any -opinion, good or bad, taking all upon credit.' Whereupon Croxall -observes: 'What poor devils would L'Estrange make of the children who -should be so unfortunate as to read his book and imbibe his pernicious -principles--principles coined and suited to promote the growth and -serve the ends of Popery and arbitrary power,' and more to the same -purpose. - -The question as to whether the moral or application, if any is -supplied, should be placed at the beginning or end of a fable has -sometimes been discussed. On this head Dodsley has some pertinent -remarks that may be quoted. He says: 'It has been matter of dispute -whether the moral is better introduced at the end or beginning of a -fable. AEsop universally rejected any separate moral. Those we now find -at the close of his fables were placed there by other hands. Among the -ancients Phaedrus, and Gay among the moderns, inserted theirs at the -beginning; La Motte prefers them at the conclusion, and La Fontaine -disposes them indifferently at the beginning or end, as he sees -convenient. If,' he adds, 'amidst the authority of such great names I -might venture to mention my own opinion, I should rather prefer them -as an introduction than add them as an appendage. For I would neither -pay my reader nor myself so bad a compliment as to suppose, after he -had read the fable, that he was not able to discover its meaning. -Besides, when the moral of a fable is not very prominent and striking, -a leading thought at the beginning puts the reader in a proper track. -He knows the game which he pursues; and, like a beagle on a warm scent, -he follows the sport with alacrity in proportion to his intelligence. -On the other hand, if he have no previous intimation of the design, he -is puzzled throughout the fable, and cannot determine upon its merit -without the trouble of a fresh perusal. A ray of light imparted at -first may show him the tendency and propriety of every expression -as he goes along; but while he travels in the dark, no wonder if he -stumble or mistake his way.' If it be considered necessary or desirable -to give the moral separately, or to apply the fable, Dodsley's argument -here seems to us to be incontrovertible. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[10] Preface, 'Fables,' 1668. - -[11] 'History of the AEsopic Fable,' p. 148. - -[12] Essay: 'Of Books.' - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -FABULISTS AS CENSORS. - - - 'Mark, now, how a plain tale shall put you down.' - - SHAKESPEARE: _King Henry IV_. - - -Fabulists as censors have always been not only tolerated, but -patronized and encouraged, even in the most despotic countries, and -when they have exposed wickedness and folly in high places with an -unsparing hand. AEsop among the ancients, and Krilof amongst the -moderns, are both striking examples of this. The fables of antiquity -may indeed be truly said to have been a natural product of the times -in which they were invented. In the early days, when free speech was -a perilous exercise, and when to declaim against vice and folly was -to court personal risk, the fable was invented, or resorted to, by -the moralist as a circuitous method of achieving the end he desired -to reach--the lesson he wished to enforce. The entertainment afforded -by the fable or apologue took off the keen edge of the reproof; and, -whilst the censure conveyed was not less pointed and severe, the device -of making the humbler creatures the scapegoat of human weakness or vice -mollified its bitterness. The very indirectness of the fable had the -effect of making the sinner his own accuser. Whom the cap fitted was at -liberty to don it. - -Phaedrus, in the prologue to his third book, thus gives his view of the -origin and purpose of fables: - - 'Here something shortly I would teach - Of fables' origin. To reach - The potent criminal, a slave - To beasts and birds a language gave. - Wishing to strike, and yet afraid, - Of these his instruments he made: - For all that dove or lamb might say, - Against them no indictment lay.'[13] - -The fable saves the self-love of the person to whom it is applicable. -It enables him to stand aside, as it were, and become a spectator of -the effect produced by his own conduct. In this way he is impressed -and humbled without being affronted. When one, even though guilty, is -openly and directly reproved for a misdeed, the stigma often raises a -rebellious spirit, which either suggests a hundred justifiable reasons -for his action or begets a defiant mood, driving him to persist in his -evil courses. - -Listening to the fable, 'we see nothing of the satirist, who probes -only to heal us, and who does not exhibit any of the personal spleen -and ill-humour which meet and put us out of countenance with ourselves -and each other in the invectives of those who sometimes set up for -moralists without the essential qualification of good nature. The -fable gives an agreeable hint of the duties and relations of life, -not a harangue on our want of sense or decorum. We feel none of the -superiority of the fabulist, who, indeed, generally leaves us to make -the application of his instructive story in our own way; and if we do -sometimes prefer to apply it to our neighbour's case instead of our -own, we are still improved and amended, inasmuch as we have learned to -despise some vice or folly which our unassisted judgment might have -regarded more leniently.'[14] Dodsley, again, puts the matter finely -when he says:[15] 'The reason why fable has been so much esteemed -in all ages and in all countries, is perhaps owing to the polite -manner in which its maxims are conveyed. The very article of giving -instruction supposes at least a superiority of wisdom in the adviser--a -circumstance by no means favourable to the ready admission of advice. -'Tis the peculiar excellence of fable to waive this air of superiority; -it leaves the reader to collect the moral, who, by thus discovering -more than is shown him, finds his principle of self-love gratified, -instead of being disgusted. The attention is either taken off from the -adviser, or, if otherwise, we are at least flattered by his humility -and address. Besides, instruction, as conveyed by fable, does not only -lay aside its lofty mien and supercilious aspect, but appears dressed -in all the smiles and graces which can strike the imagination or engage -the passions. It pleases in order to convince, and it imprints its -moral so much the deeper in proportion that it entertains; so that we -may be said to feel our duties at the very instant we comprehend them.' - -The humour of a good fable is a fine lubricant to the temper. Sarcasm, -irony, even direct criticism, are in place in the fable, but humour is -its saving grace. Without this it cannot be classed in the first order. -Wanting in this quality, the fables of some writers who have attempted -them are flat, stale and unprofitable. Humour in the fable is the -gilding of the pill. It is like the effervescing quality in champagne, -the subtle flavour in old port. - -It may be questioned whether a fable has ever the full immediate effect -intended. Men are loath to apply the moral to their own case, though -they have no difficulty in applying it to the case of others--even to -their best acquaintances and friends. For example, take the present -company, the present company of my readers--it is usual, by the way, to -except 'the present company,' but we will be rash enough, even at the -risk of castigation, to break the rule--take, then, the present company -in illustration of our point. Who among us would admit for a moment -that we are the counterpart or human representative of the fox with its -low cunning, the loquacious jackdaw, the silly goose, the ungrateful -viper, the crow to be cajoled by flattery, not to mention the egregious -donkey? 'Satire,' says an acute writer,[16] 'is a sort of glass -wherein beholders do generally discover everybody's face but their -own.' Or, to parody a line of Young, 'All men think all men peccable -but themselves.' To be sure, we might be willing, modestly perhaps, -to admit that we who are singers can emulate the nightingale; that we -even possess some of the--call it shrewdness, of the fox; the faithful -character of the honest dog; vie in dignity of manners and bearing with -the stately lion. But all that is a matter of course; the noble traits -we possess are so self-evident that none excepting the incorrigibly -blind or prejudiced will be found to dispute them! So that the -admonishing fable contains no lesson for any of us, but should be -seriously taken to heart, with a view to their reformation, by certain -persons whom we all know. That view of the question, however, need not -be further pursued. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[13] Boothby's translation. - -[14] G. Moir Bussey: Introduction to 'Fables.' - -[15] 'Essay on Fable.' - -[16] Swift: Preface to 'The Battle of the Books.' - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -LESSONS TAUGHT BY FABLES. - - - 'The tale that I relate - This lesson seems to carry.' - - COWPER: _Pairing Time Anticipated_. - - -In the earlier ages of the world's history fables were invented for -the edification of men and women. This was so in the palmiest days of -Greek, Roman and Arabian or Saracenic civilization. In these later days -fables are generally assumed to be more for the delectation of children -than adults. This change of auditory need not be regretted; it has its -marked advantages. The lesson which the fable inculcates is indelibly -stamped on the mind of the child, and has an influence, less or more, -on his or her career during life. - -Jean Jacques Rousseau is the only writer of eminence who has inveighed -against this use of the fable, but his remarks are by no means -convincing. He accounted them lies without the 'medicinable quality,' -and reprobated their employment in the instruction of youth. 'Fables,' -says Rousseau, 'may amuse men, but the truth must be told to children.' -His animadversion had special reference to the fables of La Fontaine, -and doubtless some of these, and the morals deduced from them, are -open to objection; but to condemn fables in general on this account is -surely the height of unreason. - -A greater than Rousseau had, long before, given expression in cogent -language to the worth of the fable as a vehicle of instruction for -youth. Plato, whilst excluding the mythical stories of Hesiod and Homer -from the curriculum of his 'Republic'--that perfect commonwealth, -in depicting which he lavished all the resources of his wisdom and -genius--advised mothers and nurses to repeat selected fables to their -children, so as to mould and give direction to their young and tender -minds. - -Phaedrus, again, in the prologue to his fables, says-- - - ''Tis but a play to form the youth - By fiction in the cause of truth,' - -so that his view of the question also was just the very antipodes of -that of the French philosopher. - -Quintilian urges[17] that 'boys should learn to relate orally the -fables of AEsop, which follow next after the nurse's stories.' True, he -recommends this with a view to initiating them in the rudiments of the -art of speaking; but he would not have inculcated the use of fables for -children for even this secondary purpose, if he had dreamt for a moment -they would have had a bad effect on their minds. - -Rousseau, with all his knowledge of human character and his power of -imagination, had a matter-of-fact vein running through his mind, which -led him to entertain the mistaken view that the influence of fables on -the juvenile mind was objectionable. Cowper, who was no mean writer of -fables himself, with his clear common sense, broad natural instincts, -and mother wit--in which Rousseau was lacking--saw the unwisdom of the -philosopher's conclusions, and satirized his views in the well-known -lines: - - 'I shall not ask Jean Jacques Rousseau - If birds confabulate or no; - 'Tis clear that they were always able - To hold discourse, at least in fable; - And e'en the child, who knows no better - Than to interpret by the letter - A story of a cock and bull, - Must have a most uncommon skull.'[18] - -It is no exaggeration to assert that the effect which fables and their -lessons have had on the people is incalculable. They have been read -and rehearsed and pondered in all ages, and by thousands whom no other -class of literature could attract. The story and its moral (in the -AEsopian fable at least) are obvious to the dullest comprehension, and -they cling to the memory like the limpet to the rock, and find their -application in all the concerns of daily life. - -But it is not the illiterate alone that have profited by the fable; -all classes have been affected by its lesson. We are all apt scholars -when the fable is the schoolmaster. There is no class of the community -that has not come under its sway. It has penetrated to the highest -stratum of society equally with the humblest, and may be credited with -an influence as wide and far-reaching as the sublimest moral treatise -which the human intellect has produced. - -The epic and the novel (fables of a kind), like some paintings, cover -a wide canvas, and the details are not always easily grasped and -remembered; but the true fable is a story in miniature which we take -in at a glance, and stow away for after use in a small corner of our -memory. - -We have the 'successful villain' in the fable as sometimes on the -stage; and it may be a question whether the tendency of this is not -rather to encourage dissimulation in certain ill-constituted minds, -than to inculcate virtue. One of Northcote's fables, _The Elephant and -the Fox_, will exemplify what we mean. - -'A grave and judicious elephant entering into argument with a pert fox, -who insisted upon his superior powers of persuasion, which the elephant -would not allow, it was at length agreed between them that whichever -attracted the most attention from his auditors by his eloquence should -be deemed the victor. At a certain appointed time a great assembly -of animals attended the trial, and the elephant was allowed to speak -first. He with eloquence spoke of the high importance of ever adhering -with strictness to justice and to truth; also of the happiness which -resulted from controlling the passions, of the dignity of patience, the -inhospitable and hateful nature of selfishness, and the odiousness of -cruelty and carnage. - -'The pert fox, perceiving the audience not to be much amused by the -discourse of the elephant, made no ceremony, but interrupted the -oration by giving a farcical account of all his mischievous tricks -and hairbreadth escapes, the success of his cunning, and his adroit -contrivances to extricate himself from harm--all which so delighted the -assembly, that the elephant was soon left, in the midst of his wise -advice, without a single auditor near him; for they one and all with -eagerness thronged to hear the diverting follies and knaveries of the -fox, who, of course, was in the end declared the victor.' - -It might almost appear that a fable of this kind is an error of -judgment, and that it is calculated to do harm rather than good, -inasmuch as it exhibits the triumph of duplicity and the defeat of -wisdom. True, the author of the fable tries to recover the lost ground -in the application, by mildly holding up the fox to reprobation, thus: - -'Application: The effect these two orators had on the perceptions of -their audience was exactly the reverse one to the other. That of the -elephant touched the guilty, like satire, with pain and reproach; even -the most innocent was humbled, as none were wholly free from vice, and -all felt themselves lowered even in their own opinion, and heard the -admonition as an irksome duty, but still with little inclination to -undergo the difficult task of amendment. But when the fox began, all -was joy; the innocent felt all the gratification which proceeds from -the consciousness of superiority, and the guilty to find their vices -and follies treated only as a jest; for we all have felt how much more -pleasure we enjoy laughing at a fool than in being scrutinized by the -sage. From this cause it is that farce of the most grotesque and absurd -kind is tolerated and received, and not without some degree of relish, -even by the good and the wise, as we all want comfort.' - -In spite of the application--nay, rather to some extent by reason of -it, for the anti-climax is extraordinary in a fable--it may be doubted -whether our sympathies are not with the fox rather than with the -elephant. We feel that the latter, with all his wisdom and good advice, -is somewhat of a bore; whilst the fox, rake and wastrel though he be, -has that touch of nature that makes him kin. - -AEsop's well-known fable of _The Fox and the Crow_ is also an example of -the success of the scoundrel, but mark the difference: here there is -the obvious reproof of the vain and silly bird, deceived by flattering -words, till, in attempting to sing, she drops into the mouth of the fox -the savoury morsel she held in her beak! Here our verdict is: 'Served -her right!' In Northcote's fable, clever though it is as a narration, -this climax is altogether wanting. - -It has been suggested that there is a closer natural affinity than at -first sight appears between man and the lower animals, and that the -recognition of this contact at many points would suggest the idea of -conferring the power of speech upon the latter in the fable. In the -higher reason and its resultant effects they differ fundamentally; mere -animals are wanting discourse of reason, but the purely animal passions -of cunning, anger, hatred, and even revenge and love of kind, and the -nobler characteristics of faithfulness and gratitude prevail in the -dispositions of both. These similarities would strike observers in the -pastoral ages of the world with even greater force than in later times. - -The ineradicable impression which certain fables have made upon -the mind through uncounted generations by their self-evident -appropriateness and truth, is well exemplified in _The Wolf and the -Lamb_; _The Fox and the Grapes_; _The Hare and the Tortoise_; _The Dog -and the Shadow_; _The Mountain in Labour_; _The Fox without a Tail_; -_The Satyr and the Man_, who blew hot and cold with the same breath, -and others. It is safe to assert that nothing in literature has been -more quoted than the fables named. We could not afford to lose them; -their absence would be a distinct loss--literature and life would be -the poorer without them; and, such being the fact, we are justified in -holding those writers in esteem who have contributed to the instruction -and entertainment of mankind in the fables they have invented. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[17] 'Institutes of Oratory,' book i., chap. ix. - -[18] 'Pairing Time Anticipated.' - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -AESOP. - - - 'Nature formed but one such man.' - - BYRON. - - - 'The hungry judges soon the sentence sign.' - - POPE. - - -AEsop is justly regarded as the foremost inventor of fables that -the world has seen. He flourished in the sixth century before -Christ. Several places, as in the case of Homer, are claimed as his -birthplace--Sardis in Lydia, Ammorius, the island of Samos, and -Mesembra, a city of Thrace; but the weight of authority is in favour of -Cotiaeum, a city of Phrygia in the Lesser Asia,[19] hence his sobriquet -of 'the Phrygian.' - -Whether he was a slave from birth is uncertain, but if not, he became -such, and served three masters in succession. Demarchus or Caresias -of Athens was his first master; the next, Zanthus or Xanthus, a -philosopher, of the island of Samos; and the third, Idmon or Jadmon, -also of Samos. His faithful service and wisdom so pleased Idmon that he -gave AEsop his freedom. - -Growing in reputation both as a sage and a wit, he associated with -the wisest men of his age. Amongst his contemporaries were the seven -sages of Greece: Periander, Thales, Solon, Cleobulus, Chilo, Bias -and Pittacus; but he was eventually esteemed wiser than any of them. -The humour with which his sage counsels were spiced made these more -acceptable (both in his own and later times) than the dull, if weighty, -wisdom of his compeers. - -He became attached by invitation of Cr[oe]sus, the rich King of Lydia, -to the court at Sardis, the capital, and continued under the patronage -of that monarch for the remainder of his life. Cr[oe]sus employed him -in various embassies which he carried to a successful issue. The last -he undertook was a mission to Delphi to offer sacrifices to Apollo, and -to distribute four minae[20] of silver to each citizen. To the character -of the Delphians might with justice be applied the saying of a later -time: 'The nearer the temple and the farther from God.' Familiarity -with the Oracle, as is the case in smaller matters, bred contempt, -for the meanness of their lives was due to the circumstance that the -offerings of strangers coming to the temple of the god enabled them to -live a life of idleness, to the neglect of the cultivation of their -lands. - -AEsop upbraided them for this conduct, and, scorning to encourage them -in their evil habits, instead of distributing amongst them the money -which Cr[oe]sus had sent, he returned it to Sardis. This, as was -natural with persons of their mean character, so inflamed them against -him that they conspired to compass his destruction. Accordingly (as -the story goes), they hid away amongst his baggage, as he was leaving -the city, a golden goblet taken from the temple and consecrated to -Apollo. Search being made, and the vessel discovered, the charge of -sacrilege was brought against him. His judges pronounced him guilty, -and he was sentenced to be precipitated from the rock Hyampia. -Immediately before his execution he delivered to his persecutors the -fable of _The Eagle and the Beetle_,[21] by which he warned them that -even the weak may procure vengeance against the strong for injuries -inflicted. The warning was unheeded by his murderers. The shameful -sentence was carried out, and so AEsop died, according to Eusebius, in -the fourth year of the fifty-fourth Olympiad, or 561 years before the -Christian era. The fate of poor AEsop was like that of a good many other -world-menders! - -According to ancient chroniclers, the death of AEsop did not go -unavenged. Misfortunes of many kinds overtook the Delphians; pestilence -decimated them; such of their lands as they tried to cultivate were -rendered barren, with famine as the result, and these miseries -continued to afflict them for many years. At length, having consulted -the Oracle, they received as answer that which their secret conscience -affirmed to be true, that their calamities were due to the death of -AEsop, whom they had so unjustly condemned. Thereupon they caused -proclamation to be made in all public places throughout the country, -offering reparation to any of AEsop's representatives who should appear. -The only claimant that responded was a grandson of Idmon, AEsop's former -master; and having made such expiation as he demanded, the Delphians -were delivered from their troubles. - -Not only was AEsop unfortunate in his death: his personal appearance has -suffered disparagement. The most trustworthy chroniclers in ancient -times describe him as a man of good appearance, and even of a pleasing -cast of countenance; whereas in later years he has been portrayed -both by writers and in pictures as deformed in body and repellent in -features. Stobaeus, it is true, who lived in the fifth century A.D., had -written disparagingly of 'the air of AEsop's countenance,' representing -the fabulist as a man of sour visage, and intractable, but he goes no -farther than that. - -It is to Maximus Planudes, a Constantinople monk of the fourteenth -century, nearly two thousand years after the time of AEsop, that the -burlesque of the great fabulist is due. Planudes appears to have -collected all the stories regarding AEsop current during the Middle -Ages, and strung them together as an authentic history. Through -ignorance, or by intention, he also confounded the Oriental fabulist, -Locman,[22] with AEsop, and clothed the latter in all the admitted -deformities of the other. He affirmed him as having been flat-faced, -hunch-backed, jolt-headed, blubber-lipped, big-bellied, baker-legged, -his body crooked all over, and his complexion of a swarthy hue. Even -in recent years, accepting the description of the monk, AEsop has -been thus depicted in the frontispiece to his fables. This writer is -untrustworthy in other respects, for in his pretended life of the sage -he makes him speak of persons who did not exist, and of events that did -not occur for eighty to two hundred years after his death. - -That the story of AEsop's hideous deformity is untrue is clear from -evidence that is on record. Admitted that this evidence is chiefly of -a negative kind, it is sufficiently strong to refute the statements -of the monk. In the first place, Planudes, as we have seen, is an -untrustworthy chronicler in other respects, and an account of AEsop, -written after the lapse of two thousand years, could only be worthy of -credence issuing from a truthful pen, and based on documentary or other -unquestionable evidence. Of such evidence the Constantinople monk had -probably none. - -Again, it is related that during the years of his slavery AEsop had as -mate, or wife, the beautiful Rhodope,[23] also a slave--an unlikely -circumstance, assuming him to have been as repulsive in bodily -appearance as has been asserted. At all events, any incongruous -association of this kind would have been remarked and commented on by -earlier writers. - -Further, none of AEsop's contemporaries, nor any writers that -immediately followed him, make mention of his alleged deformities. On -the contrary, the Athenians, about two hundred years after his death, -in order to perpetuate his memory and appearance, commissioned the -celebrated sculptor Lysippus to produce a statue of AEsop, and this they -erected in a prominent position in front of those of the seven sages, -'because,' says Phaedrus,[24] 'their severe manner did not persuade, -while the jesting of AEsop pleased and instructed at the same time.' It -is improbable that the figure of a man monstrously deformed as AEsop -is said to have been would have proved acceptable to the severe taste -of the Greek mind. An epigram of Agathia, of which the following is a -translation,[25] celebrates the erection of this statue: - - -'TO LYSIPPUS. - - 'Sculptor of Sicyon! glory of thy art! - I laud thee that the image thou hast placed - Of good old AEsop in the foremost part, - More than the statues of the sages graced. - Grave thought and deep reflection may be found - In all the well-respected rolls of these; - In wisdom's saws and maxims they abound, - But still are wanting in the art to please: - Each tale the gentle Samian well has told, - Truth in fair fiction pleasantly imparts; - Above the rigid censor him I hold - Who teaches virtue while he wins our hearts.' - -Philostratus, in an account of certain pictures in existence in the -time of the Antonines, describes one as representing AEsop with a -pleasing cast of countenance, in the midst of a circle of the various -animals, and the Geniuses of Fable adorning him with wreaths of flowers -and branches of the olive. - -Dr. Bentley, in his 'Dissertation,' ridicules the account of AEsop's -deformity as given by Planudes in face of all the evidence to the -contrary. 'I wish,' says he, 'I could do that justice to the memory -of our Phrygian, to oblige the painters to change their pencil. For -'tis certain he was no deformed person; and 'tis probable he was very -handsome. For whether he was a Phrygian or, as others say, a Thracian, -he must have been sold into Samos by a trader in slaves; and 'tis well -known that that sort of people commonly bought up the most beautiful -they could light on, because they would yield the most profit.' - -Bentley's conjecture that AEsop was 'very handsome' does not find -general acceptance; it has, nevertheless, a solid foundation in the -fact that the Greeks confined art to the imitation of the beautiful -only, reprobating the portrayal of ugly forms, whether human or other. -It is not to be believed, therefore, that the chisel of Lysippus -was employed in the production of a statue to a deformed person, -which not even the gift of wisdom would have rendered acceptable to -the severe taste of his countrymen. Without going so far, however, -as to accept the view of the learned Master of Trinity, that AEsop -was probably _very_ handsome, we may with safety conclude that the -objectionable portrait of the sage as drawn by the Byzantine is without -justification. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[19] Suidas. - -[20] The mina was twelve ounces, or a sum estimated as equal to L3 15s. -English. - -[21] See _post_, p. 76. - -[22] Spelt variously Locman, Loqman, Lokman. - -[23] This woman is notorious in history as a courtesan who essayed to -compound for her sins by votive offerings to the temple at Delphi. She -is also said to have built the Lesser Pyramid out of her accumulated -riches, but this is denied by Herodotus, who claims for the structure a -more ancient and less discreditable foundation, being the work, as he -asserts, of Mycerinus, King of Egypt (Herod., ii. 134). - -[24] Phaedrus, Epilogue, book ii. - -[25] Boothby, Preface, p. xxxiv. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -STORIES RELATED OF AESOP. - - - 'I cannot tell how the truth may be; - I say the tale as 'twas said to me.' - - SCOTT: _The Lay of the Last Minstrel_. - - - 'Such the simple story told, - By a sage[26] renowned of old, - To a king[27] whose fabled gold - Could not procure him learning.' - - JAMES CLERK MAXWELL. - - -There are numerous tales told of AEsop, some of which are obviously -mythical; others, though their actual parentage may be doubtful, are -entirely in keeping with his reputation for common, or uncommon, -sense and ready wit. Phaedrus has several of these, and Planudes, an -untrustworthy chronicler, as we have seen, has many more. Some of the -stories of the latter are absurd enough, and bordering perhaps on -the foolish; but, on the other hand, he tells several that may be -pronounced excellent in every sense, and whatever the shortcomings of -the monk in other respects, he deserves credit for having rescued these -from the oblivion which otherwise might have been their fate. - -Most writers, especially modern writers, on AEsop, have scouted with an -unnecessary display of eclecticism the whole of the stories collected -by Planudes regarding his hero; but in this they show a want of -discrimination. Whether the stories are true of AEsop or not, and I -know of no character on whom they may be more aptly fathered, they are -as ripe in wisdom as are many of the best of the fables, and their -pedigree is quite as authentic. - -Philostratus, in his life of Apollonius Tyaneus, gives the following -mythical account of the youthful AEsop: When a shepherd's boy, he fed -his flock near a temple of Mercury, and frequently prayed to the god -for mental endowments. Many other supplicants also came and laid rich -presents upon the altar, but AEsop's only offering was a little milk and -honey, and a few flowers, which the care of his sheep did not allow him -to arrange with much art. The mercenary god disposed of his gifts in -proportion to the value of the offerings. To one he gave philosophy, to -another eloquence, to a third astronomy, and to a fourth the poetical -art. When all these were given away he perceived AEsop, and recollecting -a fable which the Hours had related to him in his infancy, he bestowed -upon him the invention of the Apologue. - -Even when a slave, readiness of resource was a characteristic of AEsop, -and often stood him in good stead. His first master, Demarchus, one -day brought home some choice figs, which he handed to his butler, -telling him that he would partake of them after his bath. The butler -had a friend paying him a visit, and by way of entertainment placed -the figs before him, and both heartily partook of them. Fearing the -displeasure of Demarchus, he resolved to charge AEsop with the theft. -Having finished his ablutions, Demarchus ordered the fruit to be -brought; but the butler had none to bring, and charged AEsop with having -stolen and eaten them. The slave, being summoned, denied the charge. It -was a serious matter for one in his position. To be guilty meant many -stripes, if not death. He begged to have some warm water, and he would -prove his innocence. The water being brought, he took a deep drink; -then, putting his finger down his gullet, the water--the sole contents -of his stomach--was belched. Demarchus now ordered the butler to do the -same, with the result that he was proved to be both thief and liar, -and was punished accordingly. - -AEsop going on a journey for his master, along with other slaves of the -household, and there being many burdens to carry, he begged they would -not overload him. Looking upon him as weak in body, his fellow-slaves -gave him his choice of a load. On this, AEsop selected the pannier of -bread, which was the heaviest burden of all, at which his companions -were amazed, and thought him a fool. Noon came, however, and when they -had each partaken of its contents, AEsop's burden was lightened by one -half. At the next meal all the bread was cleared out, leaving AEsop with -only the empty basket to carry. At this their eyes were opened, and -instead of the fool they at first thought him, he was seen to be the -wisest of them all. - -The second master who owned AEsop as a slave was Zanthus, the -philosopher. Their meeting was in this wise: AEsop being in the -marketplace for sale along with two other slaves, Zanthus, who was -looking round with a view to making a purchase, asked them what they -could do. AEsop's companions hastened to reply, and between them -professed that they could do 'everything.' On AEsop being similarly -questioned, he laughingly answered, 'Nothing.' His two fellow-slaves -had forestalled him in all possible work, and left him with nothing to -do. This reply so amused Zanthus that he selected AEsop in preference to -the others who were so boastful of their abilities. - -Zanthus once, when in his cups, had foolishly wagered his land and -houses that he would drink the sea dry. Recovering his senses, he -besought AEsop his slave to find him a way out of his difficulty. This -AEsop engaged to do. At the appointed time, when the foolish feat was to -be performed, or his houses and lands forfeited, Zanthus, previously -instructed by AEsop, appeared at the seaside before the multitude which -had assembled to witness his expected discomfiture. 'I am ready,' cried -he, 'to drain the waters of the sea to the last drop; but first of all -you must stop the rivers from running into it: to drink these also is -not in the contract.' The request was admitted to be a reasonable one, -and as his opponents were powerless to perform their part, they were -covered with derision by the populace, who were loud in their praises -of the wisdom of Zanthus. - -Philosopher notwithstanding, Zanthus appears to have been often in hot -water. On another occasion his wife left him, whether on account of her -bad temper (as the report goes), or from his too frequent indulgence in -liquor (as is not unlikely), matters little. He was anxious that she -should return, but how to induce her was a difficulty hard to compass. -AEsop, as usual, was equal to it. 'Leave it to me, master!' said he. -Going to market, he gave orders to this dealer and that and the other, -to send of their best to the residence of Zanthus, as, being about to -take unto himself another wife, he intended to celebrate the happy -occasion by a feast. The report spread like wildfire, and coming to -the ears of his spouse, she quickly gathered up her belongings in the -place where she had taken up her abode, and returned to the house of -her lord and master. 'Take another wife, say you, Zanthus! Not whilst I -am alive, my dear!' And so the ruse was successful, for, as the story -affirms, she settled down to her duties, and no further cause for -separation occurred between them ever after. - -Phaedrus relates several stories showing the characteristic readiness -of the sage. A mean fellow, seeing AEsop in the street, threw a stone -at him. 'Well done!' was his response to the unmannerly action. 'See! -here is a penny for you; on my faith it is all I have, but I will -tell you how you may get something more. See, yonder comes a rich and -influential man. Throw a stone at him in the same way, and you will -receive a due reward.' The rude fool, being persuaded, did as he was -advised. His daring impudence, however, brought him a requital he did -not hope for, though it was what he deserved, for, being seized, he -paid the penalty. AEsop in this incident exhibited not only his ready -wit, but his deep craft, inasmuch as he brought condign punishment upon -his persecutor by the hand of another, though he himself, being only a -slave, might be insulted with impunity. - -An Athenian, seeing AEsop at play in the midst of a crowd of boys, -stopped and laughed and jeered at him for a madman. The sage, a laugher -at others rather than one to be laughed at, perceiving this, placed -an unstrung bow in the middle of the road. 'Hark you, wise man,' said -he; 'unriddle what this means.' The people gathered round, whilst the -man tormented his invention for a long time, trying to frame an answer -to the riddle; but at last he gave it up. Upon this the victorious -philosopher said: 'The bow will soon break if you always keep it bent, -but relax it occasionally, and it will be fit for use, and strong, when -it is wanted'--a piece of sound advice which others than the wiseacre -chiefly concerned would find it advantageous to practise. - -A would-be author had recited some worthless composition to AEsop, -in which was contained an inordinate eulogy of himself and his own -powers, and, desiring to know what the sage thought about it, asked: -'Does it appear to you that I have been too conceited? I have no empty -confidence in my own capacity.' Worried to death with the execrable -production, AEsop replied: 'I greatly approve of your bestowing praise -on yourself, for it will never be your lot to receive it from another.' - -In the course of a conversation, being asked by Chilo (one of the wise -men of Greece), 'What is the employment of the gods?' AEsop's answer -was: 'To depress the proud and exalt the humble.' And in allusion to -the sorrows inseparable from the human lot, his explanation, at once -striking and poetical, was that 'Prometheus having taken earth to form -mankind, moistened and tempered it, not with water, but with tears.' - -Apart from wisdom in the highest sense, AEsop possessed no little -share of worldly wisdom, or political wisdom--often only another name -for chicane--and exercised it as occasion served. It is related by -Plutarch, in the 'Life of Solon,' that 'AEsop being at the Court of -Cr[oe]sus at a time when the seven sages of Greece were also present, -the King, having shown them the magnificence of his Court and the -vastness of his riches, asked them, "Whom do you think the happiest -man?" Some of them named one, and some another. Solon (whom without -injury we may look upon as superior to all the rest) in his answer -gave two instances. The first was that of one Tellus, a poor Athenian, -but of great virtues, who had eminently distinguished himself by his -care and education of his family, and at last lost his life in fighting -for his country. The other was of two brothers who had given a very -remarkable proof of their filial piety, and were in reward for it taken -out of this life by the gods the very night after they had performed -so dutiful an action. He concluded by adding that he had given such -instances because no one could be pronounced happy before his death. -AEsop perceived that the King was not well satisfied with any of their -answers, and being asked the same question, replied "that for his part -he was persuaded that Cr[oe]sus had as much pre-eminence in happiness -over all other men as the sea has over all the rivers." - -'The King was so much pleased with this compliment that he eagerly -pronounced that sentence which afterwards became a common proverb, -"The Phrygian has hit the mark." Soon after this happened, Solon took -his leave of Cr[oe]sus, and was dismissed very coolly. AEsop, on his -departure, accompanied him part of his journey, and as they were on -the road took an opportunity of saying to him, "Oh, Solon, either we -must not speak to kings, or we must say what will please them." "On -the contrary," replied Solon, "we should either not speak to kings -at all, or we should give them good and useful advice." So great was -the steadiness of the chief of the sages, and such the courtliness of -AEsop.'[28] - -It will be noticed that this reply of AEsop to the question of the King -was evasive, though the vanity of the latter probably prevented his -remarking it. He does not declare the King to be the happiest man, but -leaves it to be inferred that, assuming happiness to be attained by -men during life (which Solon denied), then was Cr[oe]sus pre-eminent -over all others in that respect. It must be admitted that the answer -does not display the character of AEsop in the best light as a moralist, -however much it may exalt his reputation as a courtier. There probably -was a good deal of the fox in his nature, and this, not less than his -wisdom, enabled him to maintain his position at the Court of this vain -and wealthy potentate. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[26] Solon. - -[27] Cr[oe]sus. - -[28] Quoted from the 'Life of AEsop' in the introduction to Dodsley's -'Select Fables.' - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -THE AESOPIAN FABLES. - - - 'Brevity is the soul of wit.' - - SHAKESPEARE: _Hamlet_. - - -It has been asserted that this same AEsop, if not a mythical personage, -is at least credited with much more than is his due, and that it is -only around his name that have clustered the various fables attributed -to him, like rich juicy grapes round their central stalk, or, to use -a more appropriate image, like swarming bees round a pendent branch. -Others have endeavoured, with less or more feasibility, to prove -that most of what are called AEsopian fables had their origin in the -far East--'The inquisitive amongst the Greeks,' say they, 'travelled -into the East to ripen their own imperfect conceptions, and on their -return taught them at home, with the mixture of fables and ornaments -of fancy'[29]--that the ideas first propounded in India and Arabia -were thus carried westward; that AEsop appropriated them and gave them -forth in a modified form and in a new dress. Scholars and investigators -differ in their views regarding the truth, or the extent of the truth, -of these allegations, and display much erudition in their attempts to -settle the question. It would appear that AEsop has indubitably the -credit of certain fables of which he was not the inventor, as they were -in vogue at a period anterior to the era in which he flourished. It -is equally proved, on the other hand, that genuine AEsopian or Grecian -fables have been attributed to Eastern sources, and are found included -in collections of Eastern fables compiled in the earlier years of the -Christian era. All this is only what might be expected, and does not -affect to any serious extent the credit for ingenuity and originality -of either AEsop or other early fabulists. Doubtless AEsop did get some of -the subjects of his fables from foreign sources, but he melted them in -the crucible of his mind--he distilled their very essence, and handed -us the precious concentrated spirit. If he had done nothing more, that -was good. - -It is well known, of course, that there were fables of a very excellent -kind before the time of AEsop. Amongst the AEsopian fables supposed to be -borrowed from the J[=a]takas are _The Wolf and the Crane_, _The Ass in -the Lion's Skin_, _The Lion and Mouse_, and _The Countryman, his Son -and the Snake_. And Plutarch[30] asserts that the language of Hesiod's -nightingale to the hawk (spoken three hundred years before the era of -AEsop) is the origin of the beautiful and instructive wisdom in which -AEsop has employed so many tongues. Thus: - - 'Poor Philomel, one luckless day, - Fell in a hungry falcons way. - "If he her life," she said, "would spare, - He should have something choice and rare." - "What's that?" quoth he. "A song," she says, - "Melodious as Apollo's lays, - That with delight all nature hears." - "A hungry belly has no ears," - Replied the hawk, "I first must sup," - And ate the little siren up. - When strength and resolution fail, - Talents and graces nought avail.'[31] - -Archilochus also wrote fables before AEsop;[32] and even anterior to -these is the fable of _The Belly and the Members_, and those given in -Holy Scripture. But, without question, AEsop was a true inventor of -fables, for it is not to be believed for a moment that Greek genius -(and this was the genius of AEsop, whatever his parentage) was not equal -to such a task. - -Doubtless many later, as well as earlier, fables are included under -the general designation of 'AEsopian,' by virtue of their resembling in -the characteristics of brevity, force and wit the inventions of the -sage. - -AEsop in all probability did not write out his fables; they were handed -down by word of mouth from generation to generation. At length they -were collected together, first by Diagoras (400 B.C.), and later by -Demetrius Phalereus, the Tyrant of Athens (318 B.C.), under the title -of 'The Assemblies of AEsopian Fables,' long after the sage's death. -This collection was made use of both by the Greek freedman Phaedrus, -during the reign of Augustus, in the early years of the Christian era, -and later by Valerius Babrius, the Roman (230 A.D.). Later again, -towards the end of the fourth century, a number of them were translated -into Latin by Avienus. - -The AEsopian fables are distinguished by their simplicity, their -mother-wit and natural humour. A score of examples exhibiting these -qualities might be cited. A few, not the best known, will suffice: - -_The Wolf and the Shepherds._--'A wolf peeping into a hut where -a company of shepherds were regaling themselves with a joint of -mutton--"Lord," said he, "what a clamour would these men have raised if -they had caught _me_ at such a banquet!"' - -The compression and humour of this fable are remarkable, and the -obvious moral is: 'That men are apt to condemn in others what they -practise themselves without scruple.' - -_The Dog and the Crocodile_ bids us be on our guard against associating -with persons of an ill reputation. 'As a dog was coursing the banks of -the Nile, he grew thirsty; but fearing to be seized by the monsters -of that river, he would not stop to satiate his drought, but lapped -as he ran. A crocodile, raising his head above the surface of the -water, asked him why he was in such a hurry. He had often, he said, -wished for his acquaintance, and should be glad to embrace the present -opportunity. "You do me great honour," returned the dog, "but it is to -avoid such companions as you that I am in so much haste."' - -Again, _The Snake and the Hedgehog_. 'By the intreaties of a hedgehog, -half starved with cold, a snake was once persuaded to receive him -into her cell. He was no sooner entered than his prickles began to -be very annoying to his companion, upon which the snake desired he -would provide himself another lodging, as she found, upon trial, the -apartment was not large enough to accommodate both. "Nay," said the -hedgehog, "let them that are uneasy in their situation exchange it; for -my own part, I am very well contented where I am; if you are not, you -are welcome to remove whenever you think proper!"' - -The fable (or rather story, for it is more an anecdote than a fable) -of _Mercury and the Sculptor_ reads like a joke of yesterday. In Mr. -Cross's 'Life of George Eliot,' it is recorded that the great novelist -(in a conversation with Mr. Burne-Jones) recalled her passionate -delight and total absorption in AEsop's fables, the possession of which, -when a child, had opened new worlds to her imagination, and she laughed -till the tears ran down her face in recalling her infantine enjoyment -of the humour of this story, as follows: - -'Mercury once determined to learn in what esteem he was held among -mortals. For this purpose he assumed the character of a man, and -visited in this disguise the studio of a sculptor. Having looked at -various statues, he demanded the price of two figures of Jupiter and -Juno. When the sum at which they were valued was named, he pointed to -a figure of himself, saying to the sculptor: "You will certainly want -much more for this, as it is the statue of the messenger of the gods, -and the author of all your gain." The sculptor replied, "Well, if you -will buy these, I'll fling you that into the bargain."' - -Again, take _The Bull and the Gnat_, intended to show that the least -considerable of mankind are seldom destitute of importance: - -'A conceited gnat, fully persuaded of his own importance, having -placed himself on the horn of a bull, expressed great uneasiness lest -his weight should be incommodious; and with much ceremony begged the -bull's pardon for the liberty he had taken, assuring him that he would -immediately remove if he pressed too hard upon him. "Give yourself no -uneasiness on that account, I beseech you," replied the bull, "for as -I never perceived when you sat down, I shall probably not miss you -whenever you think fit to rise up."' - -Here, again, the humour is exquisite; but, indeed, that is a -characteristic of nearly all the fables ascribed to AEsop. - -The fable does not readily lend itself to the expression of pathos. -Perhaps the only really pathetic fable is that of _The Wolf and -the Lamb_, and it is also one of the very best. In this there is a -touch of genuine pathos, unique in its character. Hesiod's _Hawk and -Nightingale_,[33] and _The Old Woodcutter and Death_, as told by La -Fontaine, are not wanting in pathos. - -The applicability of the fables of AEsop to the circumstances and -occurrences of every-day life, in the highest walks as in the -humblest--for the nature in both is human, after all--gives them -peculiar value. This, and their epigrammatical character, so -conspicuous in the best, combined with the humorous turn that is given -to them, impresses them upon the memory. - -In such repute have the AEsopian fables always been held, that the -most learned men in all ages have occupied themselves in translating -and transcribing them. Socrates relieved his prison hours in turning -some of them into verse.[34] In the days of ancient Greece, not to be -familiar with AEsop was a sign of illiteracy.[35] - -We have seen how other of the ancients collected and disseminated them. -Coming down to later times, one of the first printed collections was by -Bonus Accursius (1489,) from a MS. in the Ambrosian Library at Milan. -To this was prefixed the Life by Planudes, written a century before. -Another edition of the same was published by Aldus in 1505. The edition -of Robert Stephens, published in Paris in 1546, followed; then came the -enlarged collection by Neveletus, from the Heidelberg Library, in 1610. -Later, Gabriele Faerno's 'One Hundred Fables' are AEsop given in Latin -verse. So also with most of the collections by modern fabulists, La -Fontaine, Sir Roger L'Estrange, Dr. Samuel Croxall, La Motte, Richer, -Brettinger, Bitteux--they are all largely AEsop, with added pieces of -later invention. - -'AEsop has been agreed by all ages since his era for the greatest Master -in his kind, and all others of that sort have been but imitations of -his original.'[36] - -Of the popularity of AEsop's fables in book form during last century and -the beginning of this, we can scarcely form any conception in these -days of cheap literature in such variety and excellence. Along with the -Bible and 'The Pilgrim's Progress,' AEsop may be said to have occupied a -place on the meagre bookshelf of almost every cottage. - -The editions of AEsop in English are innumerable, but the most -noteworthy, in the different epochs from the age of the invention of -printing downwards have been: Caxton's collection (1484); the one -by Leonard Willans (1650); that by John Ogilby (1651); Sir Roger -L'Estrange's edition (1692); Dr. Croxall's collection (1722); that of -Robert Dodsley (1764); and the Rev. Thomas James's AEsop (1848). - -It is remarkable that the majority of those who have busied themselves -in translating and editing AEsop have won fame and (shall we say?) -immortality through that circumstance alone. Take the names in order -of time, and it will be seen that the men are remembered chiefly or -only (most of them) by reason of their association with the AEsopian -fables: Demetrius Phalereus, Phaedrus, Babrius, Avienus, Planudes, -Bonus Accursius, Neveletus, even down to La Fontaine, L'Estrange,[37] -Croxall, and James. The AEsopian fable has indeed a perennial life, and -its votaries have rendered themselves immortal by association therewith. - -Writers of much erudition, and in many countries, have vied with -each other in learned research in this branch of literature, and -in endeavours to trace the history of fable. Among the French we -have Pierre Pithou (1539-96), editor of the first printed edition -of Phaedrus; Bachet de Meziriac, who wrote a life of AEsop (1632); -Boissonade, Robert, Edelestand du Meril (1854); Hervieux and Gaston -Paris. Of German writers there are Lessing, Fausboll, Hermann -Oesterley, Mueller, Wagener, Heydenreich, Otto Crusius (1879), -Benfey, Mall, Knoell, Gitlbauer; Niccolo, Perotti, Archbishop of -Siponto (1430-80), and Jannelli, among the Italians; amongst Jewish -writers, Dr. Landsberger. Of English writers we have Christopher Wase, -Alsop, Boyle, Bentley, Tyrwhitt, Rutherford, James, Robinson Ellis, -Rhys-Davids, G. F. Townsend, and last but not least, Joseph Jacobs, in -his scholarly 'History of the AEsopic Fable.' - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[29] Antiquary in 'The Club.' - -[30] 'Conviv. Sapient.' - -[31] Boothby's translation. - -[32] Priscian. - -[33] _Ante_, p. 54. - -[34] 'Being exhorted by a dream, I composed some verses in honour of -the god to whom the present festival [of the sacred embassy to Delos] -belongs; but after the god, considering it necessary that he who -designs to be a poet should make fables and not discourses, and knowing -that I myself was not a mythologist, on these accounts I versified the -fables of AEsop, which were at hand, and were known to me.'--Socrates in -Plato's 'Phaedo.' - -[35] Suidas. - -[36] Sir William Temple. - -[37] Goldsmith, in his 'Account of the Augustine Age of England,' -remarks: 'That L'Estrange was a standard writer cannot be disowned, -because a great many very eminent authors formed their style by his. -But his standard was far from being a just one; though, when party -considerations are set aside, he certainly was possessed of elegance, -ease, and perspicuity.' Notwithstanding this considerable estimate of -L'Estrange, it may be said that he is now remembered chiefly by his -association with the AEsopian fables. - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -PHAEDRUS AND BABRIUS. - - - 'United, yet divided, twain at once-- - sit two kings of Fable on one throne.' - - COWPER: _The Task (altered)_. - - -Phaedrus, who wrote the fables of AEsop in Latin iambics, and added -others of his own, was born at the very source of poetic inspiration, -on Mount Pierius, near to the Pierian spring, the seat of the Muses, -in Thrace, at that time a portion of the Roman province of Macedonia, -and of which Octavius, the father of Augustus Caesar, was Proconsul, -during the last century before the Christian era. Like AEsop, he too was -a slave in early youth, but being taken to Rome, he was manumitted by -Augustus, and occupied a place in the household of that Emperor. Here -he acquired the pure Latinity of his style, and in later years wrote -the well-known fables in the collection that bears his name. His fables -are in five books, and were published during the reign of Tiberius and -subsequent emperors. - -In the prologue to his third book, addressed to Eutychus,[38] he thus -alludes to his birthplace, and disavows all mercenary aims in his -literary pursuits: - - 'Me--whom a Grecian mother bore - On Hill Pierian, where of yore - Mnemosyne in love divine - Brought forth to Jove the tuneful Nine. - Though sprung where genius reigned with art, - I grubb'd up av'rice from my heart, - And rather for applause than pay, - Embrace the literary way-- - Yet as a writer and a wit, - With some abatements they admit. - What is his case then, do you think, - Who toils for wealth nor sleeps a wink, - Preferring to the pleasing pain - Of composition, sordid gain? - But hap what will (as Sinon said - When to King Priam he was led), - I book the third shall now fulfil, - With AEsop for my master still, - Which book I dedicate to you - As both to worth and honour due. - Pleased, if you read; if not, content, - As conscious of a sure event, - That these my fables shall remain, - And after-ages entertain.'[39] - -His object, as he declares, was to expose vice and folly; in pursuing -it he did not escape persecution, for Sejanus, the arbitrary minister -of Tiberius (who had now succeeded to the imperial purple), took -mortal offence at certain of the apologues which he suspected applied -to himself, and, 'informer, witness, judge and all,' laid the iron -hand of power heavy upon the fabulist. Phaedrus, whose early years of -slavery had left no taint of servility upon his character, was too -independent to stoop to insolent power, and resented the treatment to -which he was subjected. Thus beset, and probably largely owing to this -cause, his last years were spent in poverty. Amidst the infirmities of -age he compares himself to the old hound in his last apologue, which -being chastised by his master for his feebleness in allowing the boar -to escape, replied, 'Spare your old servant! It was the power, not the -will, that failed me. Remember rather what I was than abuse me for what -I am.' A lesson which even at the present day may sometimes find its -application. Phaedrus prophesied his own immortality as an author, and -his boast was that whilst AEsop invented, he (Phaedrus) perfected. - -Babrius,[40] a Latin, did for the AEsopian fable, in Greek choliambics, -what Phaedrus, a Greek, accomplished for them in Latin iambics. He -is believed to have lived in the third century A.D., and to have -composed his fables in his quality of tutor to Branchus, the young -son of the Emperor Alexander Severus.[41] His collection of AEsopian -fables in two books was known to ancient writers, who refer to him -and quote his apologues, but, like other literary treasures, it was -lost during the Middle Ages. Early in the seventeenth century, Isaac -Nicholas Neveletus, a Swiss, published (1610) an edition of the fables -of AEsop, containing not only those embraced in the work of Planudes, -but additional fables from MSS. in the Vatican Library, and some from -Aphthonius and Babrius. He further expressed the opinion that the -latter was the earliest collector and writer of the AEsopian fables in -Greek. Francis Vavassor, a French Jesuit, followed with comments on -Babrius on the same lines; so also another Frenchman, Bayle, in his -'Dictionnaire Historique'; Thomas Tyrwhitt and Dr. Bentley in England, -and Francisco de Furia in Italy, also espoused the idea first suggested -by Neveletus, and adduced further proofs in support of it. Singularly -enough, the accuracy of the forecast of these scholars was established -by the discovery in 1840, by M. Minoides Menas, a Greek, at the Convent -of St. Laura on Mount Athos, of a veritable copy of Babrius in Greek -choliambic verse. The transcript of Menas was first published in Paris -in 1844. The first English edition was edited by Sir George Cornewall -Lewis in the original Greek text, with Latin notes, and afterwards -(1860) translated into English by the Rev. James Davies, M.A., and they -now form the most trustworthy version of the AEsopian fables. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[38] 'The Charioteer of Caligula,' Buecheler. - -[39] From the translation of the fables of Phaedrus into English verse -by Christopher Smart, A.M. - -[40] Sometimes spelt 'Gabrias.' - -[41] Jacobs: 'History of the AEsopic Fable,' p. 22. - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -THE FABLE IN HISTORY AND MYTH. - - - 'Full of wise saws.' - - SHAKESPEARE: _As You Like It_. - - -'Fables,' says Aristotle, 'are adapted to deliberate oratory, and -possess this advantage: that to hit upon facts which have occurred -in point is difficult; but with regard to fables it is comparatively -easy. For an orator ought to construct them just as he does his -illustrations, if he be able to discover the point of similitude, a -thing which will be easy to him if he be of a philosophical turn of -mind.'[42] - -The truth of this is exemplified in the use which has been made of the -apologue by orators in all ages, but especially in early times. - -The following instances of the application of fables to particular -occasions are recorded. The fable of _The Belly and the Members_, which -is reputed to be the oldest in existence, is of sterling excellence, -as well as of venerable antiquity.[43] Its lucid moral is truth -in essence. The logic of its conclusion is as invulnerable as the -demonstration of a proposition in Euclid. There is no gainsaying it, -turn it how we may, and, with all due deference to Montaigne, only one -moral is deducible from it. This is solid bottom ground and bed rock, -safe for chain-cable holding; safe for building upon, however high -the superstructure. Striking use was made of it by Menenius Agrippa -when the rabble refused to pay their share of the taxes necessary for -carrying on the business of the State. - -In the 'Coriolanus' of Shakespeare, Menenius, the Roman Consul, -is introduced in character,[44] and recounts the apologue to the -disaffected citizens of Rome. Thus the dramatist, in his superb way: - - _Men._ Either you must - Confess yourselves wondrous malicious, - Or be accused of folly. I shall tell you - A pretty tale: it may be you have heard it; - But since it serves my purpose, I will venture - To stale 't a little more. - - _1 Cit._ Well, I'll hear it, sir; yet you must not think - to fob off our disgrace with a tale; but, an 't please you, - deliver. - - _Men._ There was a time when all the body's Members - Rebelled against the Belly; thus accused it: - That only like a gulf it did remain - I' the midst o' the body, idle and inactive, - Still cupboarding the viand, never bearing - Like labour with the rest; where th' other instruments - Did see and hear, devise, instruct, walk, feel, - And, mutually participate, did minister - Unto the appetite and affection common - Of the whole body. The Belly answered: - - _1 Cit._ Well, sir, what answer made the Belly? - - _Men._ Sir, I shall tell you. With a kind of smile, - Which ne'er came from the lungs, but even thus-- - For, look you, I may make the Belly smile - As well as speak--it tauntingly replied - To the discontented Members, the mutinous parts - That envied his receipt: even so most fitly - As you malign our senators, for that - They are not such as you. - - _1 Cit._ Your Belly's answer? What! - The kingly-crowned head, the vigilant eye, - The counsellor heart, the arm our soldier, - Our steed the leg, the tongue our trumpeter, - With other muniments and petty helps - In this our fabric, if that they---- - - _Men._ What then?---- - 'Fore me this fellow speaks!--what then? what then? - - _1 Cit._ Should by the cormorant Belly be restrained, - Who is the sink o' the body---- - - _Men._ Well, what then? - - _1 Cit._ The former agents, if they did complain, - What could the Belly answer? - - _Men._ I will tell you, - If you'll bestow a small--of what you have little-- - Patience awhile, you'll hear the Belly's answer. - - _1 Cit._ Ye're long about it. - - _Men._ Note me this, good friend, - Your most grave Belly was deliberate, - Not rash, like his accusers, and thus answered: - 'True is it, my incorporate friends,' quoth he, - 'That I receive the general food at first, - Which you do live upon; and fit it is, - Because I am the storehouse and the shop - Of the whole body; but, if you do remember, - I send it through the rivers of your blood, - Even to the court, the heart, to the seat o' the brain, - And through the cranks and offices of man. - The strongest nerves, and small inferior veins, - From me receive that natural competency - Whereby they live; and though that all at once, - You, my good friends----' This says the Belly, mark me. - - _1 Cit._ Ay, sir; well, well. - - _Men._ 'Though all at once cannot - See what I do deliver out to each, - Yet I can make my audit up, that all - From me do back receive the flour of all, - And leave me but the bran.' What say you to 't? - - _1 Cit._ It was an answer. How apply you this? - - _Men._ The senators of Rome are this good Belly, - And you the mutinous Members; for examine - Their counsels and their cares; digest things rightly, - Touching the weal o' the common, you shall find - No public benefit which you receive - But it proceeds or comes from them to you, - And no way from yourselves. What do you think? - -The oldest fable in Holy Scripture, having been spoken or written about -six centuries before the time of AEsop, is that of _The Trees in Search -of a King_, recounted by Jotham to the men of Shechem, and directed -against Abimelech,[45] wherein it is shown that the most worthless -persons are generally the most presuming: - -'And all the men of Shechem assembled themselves together, and all the -house of Millo, and went and made Abimelech king, by the oak of the -pillar that was in Shechem. And when they told it to Jotham, he went -and stood in the top of Mount Gerizim, and lifted up his voice, and -cried and said unto them, Hearken unto me, ye men of Shechem, that God -may hearken unto you. The Trees went forth on a time to anoint a king -over them; and they said unto the Olive-tree, Reign thou over us. But -the Olive-tree said unto them, Should I leave my fatness, wherewith by -me they honour God and man, and go to wave to and fro over the trees? -And the Trees said to the Fig-tree, Come thou, and reign over us. -But the Fig-tree said unto them, Should I leave my sweetness, and my -good fruit, and go to wave to and fro over the trees? And the Trees -said unto the Vine, Come thou, and reign over us. And the Vine said -unto them, Should I leave my wine, which cheereth God and man, and go -to wave to and fro over the trees? Then said all the Trees unto the -Bramble, Come thou, and reign over us. And the Bramble said unto the -trees, If in truth ye anoint me king over you, then come and put your -trust in my shadow; and if not, let fire come out of the Bramble, and -devour the cedars of Lebanon.' - -The Samians had impeached their Prime Minister for embezzling the money -of the Commonwealth, and would have put him to death. AEsop, addressing -the assembled councillors, introduced the fable of _The Fox and the -Hedgehog_ into his oration, as an argument to dissuade them from their -purpose. - -'A fox, swimming across a rapid river, was carried by the current into -a deep ravine, where he lay for a time bruised and sick, and unable to -move. A swarm of hungry flies[46] settled upon him. A hedgehog, passing -by, compassionated his sufferings, and would have driven away the flies -that were tormenting him. "Pray do not molest them," cried the fox. -"How is this?" asked the hedgehog. "Do you not want to be rid of them?" -"By no means," replied the fox; "for these flies are now full of blood, -and sting me but little, and if you rid me of these which are already -satiated, others more hungry will come in their place, and will drink -up all the blood I have left." Thus also, O Samians, this man no longer -injures you, for he is wealthy; should you, however, put him to death, -others who are poor will come, who will exhaust you by filching the -public money.' - -Such a plea in arrest of judgment would hardly suffice in these later -days. - -The fable of _The Frogs petitioning Jupiter for a King_ was spoken by -AEsop to the Athenians in order to reconcile them to the mild yoke of -the usurper Pisistratus, against whom, after they had raised him to the -supreme power, the people began to murmur. 'The Commonwealth of Frogs, -a discontented, variable race, weary of liberty, and fond of a change, -petitioned Jupiter to grant them a king. The good-natured deity, in -order to indulge this their request with as little mischief to the -petitioners as possible, threw them down a log. At first they regarded -their new monarch with great reverence, and kept from him at a most -respectful distance; but perceiving his tame and peaceable disposition, -they by degrees ventured to approach him with more familiarity, till -at length some of them even ventured to climb up his side and squat -upon him, and they all conceived for him the utmost contempt. In this -disposition, they renewed their request to Jupiter, and entreated him -to bestow upon them another king. The Thunderer in his wrath sent them -a crane, who no sooner took possession of his new dominions than he -began to devour his subjects one after another in a most capricious -and tyrannical manner. They were now more dissatisfied than before; -when applying to Jupiter a third time, they were dismissed with the -reproof that the evil they complained of they had imprudently brought -upon themselves, and that they had no remedy now but to submit to it -with patience.' - -Plutarch, in his account of 'The Feast of the Sages' at the Court of -Periander, King of Corinth (himself one of the seven), narrates the -incident of Alexidemus, natural son of the Tyrant of Miletus, who, -having taken offence at being placed lower at the table than 'AEolians, -and Islanders, and people known to nobody,' was ridiculed by AEsop, -who related to the assembled guests the fable of _The Arrogant Mule -mortified_. 'The lion,' said he, 'gave a feast to the beasts. The horse -and the ass sent excuses, the one having to bear his master a journey, -and the other to turn the mill for the housewife; but, in order to -honour the hospitality of the forest king, they sent their son, the -mule, in their stead. At table a dispute arose about precedence, the -mule claiming the higher place in right of his parent the horse, -which the ox and others disputed, asserting that the mule had no just -pretensions to the dignity claimed. At length, argument having run -high, the mule would fain have been content with the seat reserved for -the ass; but even this was now denied him, and, as a punishment for -his presumption, he was thrust to the lower end, as one who, instead of -meriting consideration, was nothing but a base mongrel.' - -It is said that when AEsop was being taken to the rock Hyampia, there to -be sacrificed, he predicted that the hand of retributive Justice would -smite his persecutors for their inhumanity; and, reciting the fable of -_The Eagle and the Beetle_, he warned them that the weakest may procure -vengeance against the most powerful in requital of injuries inflicted. -'A hare, being pursued by an eagle, retreated into the nest of a -beetle, who promised her protection. The eagle repulsed the beetle, -and destroyed the hare before its face. The beetle, remembering the -wrong done it, soared to the nest of the eagle and destroyed her eggs. -Appealing to Jupiter, the god listened to the petition of his favourite -bird, and granted her leave to lay her eggs in his lap for safety. -The beetle, seeing this, made a ball of dirt, and, carrying it aloft, -dropped it into the lap of the god, who, forgetting the eggs, shook all -off together.' - -_The Piper turned Fisherman_ was spoken by Cyrus (King of Persia) at -Sardis to the Ionians and AEolians on the occasion of their sending -ambassadors, offering to become subject to him on the same terms as -they had been to Cr[oe]sus. But he, when he heard their proposal, told -them this story: 'A piper seeing some fishes in the sea, began to -pipe, expecting that they would come to shore; but finding his hopes -disappointed, he took a casting-net, and enclosed a great number of -fishes, and drew them out. When he saw them leaping about, he said -to the fishes: "Cease your dancing, since when I piped you would not -come out and dance."' Cyrus told this story to the Ionians and AEolians -because the Ionians, when Cyrus pressed them by his ambassador to -revolt from Cr[oe]sus, refused to consent, and now, when the business -was done, were ready to listen to him. He therefore, under the -influence of anger, gave them this answer.[47] - -The fable of _The Horse and the Stag_ was rehearsed by Stesichorus to -the citizens of Himera[48] with a view to stimulating them to beware -of the encroachments of Phalaris the Tyrant, whom they had chosen -general with absolute powers, and were on the eve of assigning him a -body-guard. 'The stag, with his horns, got the better of the horse, and -drove him clean out of the pasture where they used to feed together. -So the horse craved the assistance of man; and in order to receive the -benefit of his help, suffered him to put a bridle on his neck, a bit -in his mouth, and a saddle upon his back. By this means he entirely -defeated his enemy. But guess his chagrin when, returning thanks, and -desiring to be dismissed, he received for answer: "No! I never knew -before how useful a drudge you were; and now that I have found what -you are good for, you may depend upon it I will keep you to it." Look -to it, then' (continued Stesichorus), 'lest in your wish to avenge -yourselves on your enemies you suffer in the same way as the horse; for -already, through your choice of a commander with independent power, you -have the bit in your mouths; but if you assign him a body-guard, and -permit him to mount into the saddle, you will become, from that moment -forth, the slaves of Phalaris.' - -When the Athenians, with the ingratitude which sometimes blinds a -whole people to the merits of their best friends, would have betrayed -Demosthenes into the hands of Philip, King of Macedonia, the orator, as -watch-dog of the State,[49] brought them to a better frame of mind by a -recital of _The Wolves and the Sheep_. 'Once on a time, the wolves sent -an embassy to the sheep, desiring that there might be peace between -them for the time to come. "Why," said they, "should we be for ever -waging this deadly strife? Those wicked dogs are the cause of it all; -they are incessantly barking at us and provoking us; send them away, -and there will no longer be any obstacle to our eternal friendship and -peace." The silly sheep listened; the dogs were dismissed, and the -flock, thus deprived of their best protectors, became an easy prey to -their treacherous enemy.' - -On another occasion, when the populace were wrangling and disputing on -matters of comparatively small moment whilst neglecting more important -concerns, the same orator warned them of the danger they were in of -losing the substance in fighting for the shadow. 'A youth,' said he, -'one hot summer day, hired an ass to carry him from Athens to Megara. -At mid-day the heat of the sun was so intense that he dismounted, and -sat down to repose himself in the shadow of the ass. The driver of the -ass thereupon disputed with him, declaring that he had a better right -to the shade than the other. "What!" said the youth, "did I not hire -the ass for the whole journey?" "Yes," replied the other, "you hired -the ass, but not the ass's shadow." While they were wrangling and -fighting for the place, the ass took to his heels and ran away.' - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[42] 'Rhetoric,' book ii., chap. xx. - -[43] 'A variant of it, or something very like it, was discovered twelve -years ago by M. Maspero in a fragmentary papyrus, which he dates about -the twentieth dynasty (_circa_ 1250 B.C.).'--Jacobs: 'History of the -AEsopic Fable,' p. 82. - -[44] Act I., Scene i. - -[45] Judges ix. 8-15. - -[46] Aristotle in his 'Treatise on Rhetoric,' book ii., chap. xx. has -horse-leeches as the blood-suckers. - -[47] Herodotus, i. 141. Cary's translation; Bohn. - -[48] Aristotle's 'Rhetoric,' book ii., chap. xx. - -[49] The episode of the eccentric and, alas! well-nigh forgotten -politician, John Arthur Roebuck, in his assumption of the character of -'Tearem,' the watch-dog, will recur to readers. - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -HINDOO, ARABIAN, AND PERSIAN FABLES.--PILPAY, LOCMAN.--THE 'GESTA -ROMANORUM.' - - - 'When to my study I retire, - And from books of ancient sages - Glean fresh sparks of buried fire - Lurking in their ample pages-- - While the task my mind engages - Let old words new truths inspire.' - - JAMES CLERK MAXWELL. - - -The 'Panca Tantra' is a collection of Hindoo fables, the supposed -author of which was Vishnu Sarman, and this is believed to be the -source of 'The Fables of Pilpay' or _Bidpa[=i]_, which are undoubtedly -of Indian origin. The transformation which these latter have -experienced in their progress down the ages, chiefly by reason of their -having been translated into the Arabic in the sixth century under the -name of the 'Book of Kalilah and Dimnah,' and afterwards into other -Eastern languages, has altered their Indian character, and caused them -to assume a Persian vesture and significance. They are rich in ripe -wisdom, and prove the insight of their author or authors into human -nature, which in those early days, and in those far countries, was much -as it is in more westerly communities and in our own times. - -Taking the AEsopian fable as our model, the bulk of Pilpay's stories -are not fables _par excellence_. They are more of the nature of -_rencontres_ of adventures, fabulous, it is true, and containing -generally an excellent moral, but elaborated and complex for the -most part; they are wanting in the terseness, the crispness, and -concentration, as well as in the simplicity and spontaneity, of the -Greek. At the same time there is a freshness and vigour in these old -fables that is not sacrificed by translation, and they are sufficiently -striking and admirable as moral stories to justify the repute in which -they have always been held. _The Greedy and Ambitious Cat_ is one of -the stories in the Bidpa[=i] collection. - -'There was formerly an old woman in a village, extremely thin, half -starved, and meagre. She lived in a little cottage as dark and gloomy -as a fool's heart, and withal as close shut up as a miser's hand.[50] -This miserable creature had for the companion of her wretched -retirement a cat, meagre and lean as herself; the poor creature never -saw bread nor beheld the face of a stranger, and was forced to be -contented with only smelling the mice in their holes, or seeing the -prints of their feet in the dust. If by some extraordinary lucky chance -this miserable animal happened to catch a mouse, she was like a beggar -that discovers a treasure: her visage and her eyes were inflamed -with joy, and that booty served her for a whole week; and out of the -excess of her admiration, and distrust of her own happiness, she would -cry out to herself, "Heavens! is this a dream, or is it real?" One -day, however, ready to die for hunger, she got upon the ridge of her -enchanted castle, which had long been the mansion of famine for cats, -and spied from thence another cat, that was stalking upon a neighbour's -wall like a lion, walking along as if she were counting her steps, and -so fat that she could hardly go. The old woman's cat, astonished to see -a creature of her own species so plump and so large, with a loud voice -cries out to her pursy neighbour: "In the name of pity speak to me, -thou happiest of the cat kind! Why, you look as if you came from one of -the Khan of Kathais'[51] feasts; I conjure ye to tell me how or in what -region it is that you get your skin so well stuffed." - -'"Where?" replied the fat one. "Why, where should one feed well but -at a king's table? I go to the house," continued she, "every day about -dinner-time, and there I lay my paws upon some delicious morsel or -other, which serves me till the next, and then leave enough for an army -of mice, which under me live in peace and tranquillity; for why should -I commit murder for a piece of tough and skinny mouse-flesh, when I can -live on venison at a much easier rate?" - -'The lean cat, on this, eagerly inquired the way to this house of -plenty, and entreated her plump neighbour to carry her one day along -with her. - -'"Most willingly," said the fat puss; "for thou seest I am naturally -charitable, and thou art so lean that I heartily pity thy condition." - -'On this promise they parted, and the lean cat returned to the old -woman's chamber, where she told her dame the story of what had befallen -her. - -'The old woman prudently endeavoured to dissuade her cat from -prosecuting her design, admonishing her withal to have a care of being -deceived. - -'"For, believe me," said she, "the desires of the ambitious are never -to be satiated but when their mouths are stuffed with the dirt of -their graves. Sobriety and temperance are the only things that truly -enrich people. I must tell thee, poor silly cat, that they who travel -to satisfy their ambition have no knowledge of the good things they -possess, nor are they truly thankful to Heaven for what they enjoy, who -are not contented with their fortune." - -'The poor starved cat, however, had conceived so fair an idea of -the king's table, that the old woman's good morals and judicious -remonstrances entered in at one ear and went out at the other; in -short, she departed the next day with the fat puss to go to the king's -house; but, alas! before she got thither her destiny had laid a snare -for her. For, being a house of good cheer, it was so haunted with cats -that the servants had, just at this time, orders to kill all the cats -that came near it, by reason of a great robbery committed the night -before in the king's larder by several grimalkins. The old woman's cat, -however, pushed on by hunger, entered the house, and no sooner saw a -dish of meat unobserved by the cooks, but she made a seizure of it, -and was doing what for many years she had not done before, that is, -heartily filling her belly; but as she was enjoying herself under the -dresser-board, and feeding heartily upon her stolen morsels, one of the -testy officers of the kitchen, missing his breakfast, and seeing where -the poor cat was solacing herself with it, threw his knife at her with -such an unlucky hand that it struck her full in the breast. However, -as it has been the providence of Nature to give this creature nine -lives instead of one, poor puss made a shift to crawl away, after she -had for some time shammed dead; but in her flight, observing the blood -come streaming from her wound--"Well," said she, "let me but escape -this accident, and if ever I quit my old home and my own mice for all -the rarities in the king's kitchen, may I lose all my nine lives at -once!"' - -The moral of the story is, that it is better to be contented with what -one has than to travel in search of what ambition prompts us to seek -for. - -In the Escurial, near Madrid, the library of which is rich in ancient -literary treasures, is a work by Ebn Arabscah, a collection of Arabian -fables. Arabia may with truth be designated the very fountain-head -of fabulous story. It was in that country that the venerable Locman -flourished, during, it is believed, the reigns of the Jewish kings -David and Solomon. Berington, in his essay on 'The Arabian or Saracenic -Learning,' remarks that Locman is said to have been an Ethiopian or -Nubian, extremely deformed in his person, but so famed for wisdom as to -have acquired the appellation of the Sage. His fables and moral maxims, -written for the instruction of mankind, were in the estimation of the -Eastern people a gift from heaven, and they received them as its -inspired dictates. 'Heretofore,' says the Divine being in the Koran, -'we gave wisdom to Locman.' The same writer suggests whether Locman and -AEsop may not be the same person. 'The history of the two sages is so -perfectly similar in their characters and the incidents of their lives, -that one must have been borrowed from the other. But the chronological -difficulties,' he adds, 'are sufficiently perplexing.' - -We have already seen that the alleged similarity in character and -bodily appearance was due to the invention or misconception of -Planudes, whose story of AEsop was written in the fourteenth century, -and therefore the seeming identity of the sages falls to the ground. -Moreover, the fables of AEsop have a mobility about them which we do not -find in those of other fabulists; they are essentially Attic in their -diction, exhibiting all the marks of that compressed wit and wisdom for -which the ancient Greek mind was distinguished. Eastern fable, on the -other hand, is ornate and florid, and wanting in the Grecian clear-cut -directness and point. It is idle to assume that the ideas, if not the -diction, may have been borrowed and clothed in a new dress, unless it -can be shown that the substance or subject-matter of the fables of the -two sages is alike or similar in character. Granted that a few--about a -dozen in number[52]--of the AEsopian fables find their counterpart in -the fables of a more remote antiquity and in more Eastern countries, -this circumstance might be expected; ideas dating from the very advent -of the human race are current amongst us in this day, but surely even -we of the nineteenth century have a sufficient stock of original -conceptions to justify our claims to be considered inventors, and so -with AEsop and the race of fabulists in all ages. - -Mrs. Jameson says,[53] with great force and truth, that 'the fables -which appeal to our higher moral sympathies may sometimes do as much -for us as the truths of science,' and she paraphrases from Sir William -Jones's Persian Grammar a fable embodying one of those traditions of -our Lord which are preserved in the East. - -'Jesus,' says the story, 'arrived one evening at the gates of a certain -city, and He sent His disciples forward to prepare supper, while He -Himself, intent on doing good, walked through the streets into the -market place. - -'And He saw at the corner of the market some people gathered together -looking at an object on the ground; and He drew near to see what it -might be. It was a dead dog with a halter round his neck, by which -he appeared to have been dragged through the dirt; and a viler, more -abject, a more unclean thing never met the eyes of man. - -'And those who stood by looked on with abhorrence. - -'"Faugh!" said one, stopping his nose, "it pollutes the air." "How -long," said another, "shall this foul beast offend our sight?" "Look -at his torn hide," said a third; "one could not even cut a shoe out of -it." "And his ears," said a fourth, "all draggled and bleeding!" "No -doubt," said a fifth, "he hath been hanged for thieving!" - -'And Jesus heard them, and looking down compassionately on the dead -creature, He said, "Pearls are not equal to the whiteness of his teeth!" - -'Then the people turned towards Him with amazement, and said among -themselves, "Who is this? this must be Jesus of Nazareth, for only _He_ -could find something to pity and approve even in a dead dog!" And being -ashamed, they bowed their heads before Him, and went each on his way.' - -'I can recall,' continues Mrs. Jameson, 'at this hour, the vivid, -yet softening and pathetic, impression left on my fancy by this old -Eastern story. It struck me as exquisitely humorous, as well as -exquisitely beautiful. It gave me a pain in my conscience, for it -seemed thenceforward so easy and so vulgar to say satirical things, -and so much nobler to be benign and merciful; and I took the lesson so -home that I was in great danger of falling into the opposite extreme; -of seeking the beautiful even in the midst of the corrupt and the -repulsive. Pity, a large element in my composition, might have easily -degenerated into weakness, threatening to subvert hatred of evil in -trying to find excuses for it; and whether my mind has ever completely -righted itself, I am not sure.' - -Our remarks on the fables of Pilpay are equally applicable to the -'Gesta Romanorum' or 'Entertaining Moral Stories' invented by the monks -as a fireside recreation in the Middle Ages. Most of them are recitals -of adventures rather than fables. They are believed to be of English -origin, though a similar 'Gesta,' composed of stories in imitation of -them, appeared in Germany about the same time. The taste displayed in -many of them is of a questionable kind, and an outrageous twist is -often given to their application; though doubtless they are a truthful -reflex of the ideas and manners of the age in which they were composed -and rehearsed, and in that respect they are of the utmost interest and -value. Most of the fables or tales in the 'Gesta' begin well, and -with a promise of interest. This interest, it must be said, is rarely -maintained, for, as a rule, their conclusion is insipid, and sometimes -inane. This notwithstanding, they are valuable by reason of their -suggestiveness. The two examples we quote, translated from the Latin -by the Rev. Charles Swan, are not faultless, but they are coherent -throughout, and have a rounded literary finish in which many of the -others are wanting. The first is entitled _Of Perfect Life_: - -'When Titus was Emperor of Rome, he made a decree that the natal -day of his first-born son should be held sacred, and that whosoever -violated it by any kind of labour should be put to death. This edict -being promulgated, he called Virgil, the learned man, to him, and -said, "Good friend, I have established a certain law, but as offences -may frequently be committed without being discovered by the ministers -of justice, I desire you to frame some curious piece of art which may -reveal to me every transgressor of the law." Virgil replied, "Sire, -your will shall be accomplished." He straightway constructed a magic -statue, and caused it to be erected in the midst of the city. By virtue -of the secret powers with which it was invested, it communicated to the -Emperor whatever offences were committed in secret on that day. And -thus, by the accusation of the statue, an infinite number of persons -were convicted. - -'Now, there was a certain carpenter, called Focus, who pursued his -occupation every day alike. Once, as he lay in his bed, his thoughts -turned upon the accusations of the statue, and the multitudes which it -had caused to perish. In the morning he clothed himself, and proceeded -to the statue, which he addressed in the following manner: "O statue! -statue! because of thy informations, many of our citizens have been -apprehended and slain. I vow to my God that, if thou accusest me, I -will break thy head." Having so said, he returned home. About the first -hour, the Emperor, as he was wont, despatched sundry messengers to the -statue to inquire if the edict had been strictly complied with. After -they had arrived and delivered the Emperor's pleasure, the statue -exclaimed, "Friends, look up: what see ye written upon my forehead?" -They looked, and beheld three sentences, which ran thus: "Times are -altered. Men grow worse. He who speaks truth will have his head -broken." "Go," said the statue; "declare to his majesty what you have -seen and read." The messengers obeyed, and detailed the circumstances -as they had happened. - -'The Emperor thereupon commanded his guard to arm, and march to the -place on which the statue was erected; and he further ordered that, -if any one presumed to molest it, they should bind him hand and foot -and drag him into his presence. The soldiers approached the statue, -and said: "Our Emperor wills you to declare who have broken the law, -and who they are that threatened you." The statue made answer, "Seize -Focus, the carpenter! Every day he violates the law, and, moreover, -menaces me." Immediately Focus was apprehended and conducted to the -Emperor, who said, "Friend, what do I hear of thee? Why dost thou break -my law?" "My lord," answered Focus, "I cannot keep it; for I am obliged -to obtain every day eight pennies, which, without incessant labour, I -have not the means of acquiring." "And why eight pennies?" said the -Emperor. "Every day through the year," returned the carpenter, "I am -bound to repay two pennies which I borrowed in my youth; two I lend; -two I lose; and two I spend." "You must make this more clear," said the -Emperor. "My lord," he replied, "listen to me. I am bound each day to -repay two pennies to my father; for when I was a boy my father expended -upon me daily the like sum. Now he is poor, and needs my assistance, -and therefore I return what I borrowed formerly. Two other pennies I -lend to my son, who is pursuing his studies, in order that, if by any -chance I should fall into poverty, he may restore the loan, just as I -have done to his grandfather. Again, I lose two pennies every day on my -wife; for she is contradictious, wilful, and passionate. Now, because -of this disposition, I account whatsoever is given to her entirely -lost. Lastly, two other pennies I expend upon myself in meat and drink, -I cannot do with less; nor can I obtain them without unremitting -labour. You now know the truth, and I pray you give a righteous -judgment." "Friend," said the Emperor, "thou hast answered well. Go, -and labour earnestly in thy calling." Soon after this the Emperor died, -and Focus the carpenter, on account of his singular wisdom, was elected -in his stead, by the unanimous choice of the whole nation. He governed -as wisely as he had lived; and at his death his picture, bearing on the -head eight pennies, was reposited among the effigies of the deceased -Emperors. - -'Application: My beloved, the Emperor is God, who appointed Sunday -as a day of rest. By Virgil is typified the Holy Spirit, which -ordains a preacher to declare men's virtues and vices. Focus is any -good Christian who labours diligently in his vocation, and performs -faithfully every relative duty.' - -The story has point and humour, but in the latter quality it is -surpassed by the next one, entitled _Confession_. - -'A certain Emperor, named Asmodeus, established an ordinance, by -which every malefactor taken and brought before the judge should, -if he distinctly declared three truths, against which no exception -could be taken, obtain his life and property. It chanced that a -certain soldier transgressed the law and fled. He hid himself in a -forest, and there committed many atrocities, despoiling and slaying -whomsoever he could lay his hands upon. When the judge of the district -ascertained his haunt, he ordered the forest to be surrounded, and -the soldier to be seized and brought bound to the seat of judgment. -"You know the law," said the judge. "I do," returned the other: "If I -declare three unquestionable truths, I shall be free; but if not, I -must die." "True," replied the judge; "take, then, advantage of the -law's clemency, or this very day you shall not taste food until you -are hanged." "Cause silence to be kept," said the soldier. His wish -being complied with, he proceeded in the following manner. "The first -truth is this: I protest before ye all, that from my youth up I have -been a bad man." The judge, hearing this, said to the bystanders: -"He says true, else he had not now been in this situation. Go on, -then," continued the judge; "what is the second truth?" "I like not," -exclaimed he, "the dangerous situation in which I stand." "Certainly," -said the judge, "we may credit thee. Now then for the third truth, -and thou hast saved thy life." "Why," he replied, "if I once get out -of this confounded place, I will never willingly re-enter it." "Amen," -said the judge, "thy wit hath preserved thee; go in peace." And thus he -was saved. - -'Application: My beloved, the emperor is Christ. The soldier is any -sinner; the judge is a wise confessor. If the sinner confess the truth -in such a manner as not even demons can object, he shall be saved; that -is, if he confess and repent.' - -The 'Gesta' is a rich storehouse from which many poets, including -Gower, Chaucer, Spenser, Shakespeare, Parnell, and others, have -borrowed. Shakespeare's 'Pericles' has its source in the 'Gesta'; so -also Parnell's delightful poem, 'The Hermit,' and Dr. John Byrom's -'Three Black Crows' are from the same prolific treasure-house. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[50] In the whole range of literature there are no apter similes than -these: the darkness and gloom of the fool's heart and the closeness of -the miser's fist. - -[51] A nobleman of the East, famous for his hospitality. - -[52] 'About a dozen instances or so must stand for the present as -representing the contribution of the J[=a]takas to the question of the -origin of AEsop's fables.'--Jacobs: 'History of Fable.' - -[53] In her 'Commonplace Book,' Longmans, 1854, pp. 142, 143. - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -MODERN FABULISTS: LA FONTAINE, GAY. - - - 'Lie gently on their ashes, gentle earth.' - - BEAUMONT AND FLETCHER. - - -It is a remarkable circumstance in connection with the literature of -fable, that those who have excelled in it are comparatively few. The -principal names that occur to us are AEsop, La Fontaine, Gay, Lessing, -Krilof; 'the rest are all but leather or prunello,' if we except a few -rare examples from Northcote and Cowper. The composition of fables -seems to call for the exercise of a talent which is peculiar and -rare. La Fontaine says[54] that the writing of apologues is a gift -sent down from the immortals. Not even those who have practised the -art have always succeeded in it to perfection. Gay, who is esteemed -the best of the English fabulists, is often prolix and lacking in -point. La Fontaine, sprightly as are his renderings of the ancient -fables which he found ready to his hand, is weak and commonplace in -his attempts at originality. Dodsley is too didactic and goody-goody; -Northcote is stilted, and often unnatural. Even Krilof, admirable as he -generally is, is sometimes darkly obscure, and his moral difficult to -find. Lessing comes nearest to the terseness and concentration of the -AEsopian model, but many of his so-called fables are better described as -epigrams and witticisms. True, all these writers have sometimes, like -the Phrygian, 'hit the mark,' but oftener they have missed not only the -bull's-eye, but the target itself; and the arrows of their satire are -frequently lost in the mazes of verbiage. AEsop alone is in the fable -what Shakespeare is in the drama, a paragon without a peer, and all -competitors with either of these master minds must be content to take a -lower place--to stand on a lower plane. - -Excellent as many modern fables fare, full of instruction and -entertainment, it is but few of them that spontaneously recur to us in -connection with the affairs of daily life. - -Amongst modern fabulists, La Fontaine stands in the front rank. Jean -de la Fontaine was born at Chateau-Thierry on July 8, 1621; died in -Paris, March 15, 1695,[55] in his seventy-fourth year; and was buried -in the cemetery of St. Joseph, near the remains of his friend Moliere. -He was one of the galaxy of great men and writers that adorned the -age of Louis XIV. His fables, as is well known, are in verse, and -include the best of those from ancient sources, with others of his own -invention. He may be said to have turned AEsop into rhyme. The happy -spirit of the genial Frenchman inspires them all. They are written with -a vivacity and sprightliness all his own, and these qualities, with the -humour which he infuses into them, make their perusal exhilarating and -health-giving. - -'I have considered,' says he, 'that as these fables are already -known to all the world, I should have done nothing if I had not -rendered them in some degree new, by clothing them with certain fresh -characteristics. I have endeavoured to meet the wants of the day, which -are novelty and gaiety; and by gaiety I do not mean merely that which -excites laughter, but a certain charm, an agreeable air, which may be -given to every species of subject, even the most serious.'[56] He had -attained to middle age before he found his true vocation in literature, -his first collection of fables in six books being published in 1668, -when he was forty-seven years of age. - -La Fontaine is well known in this country by the English translations -of his work. A version containing some of his best fables was -published anonymously in 1820, but is known to be from the pen of John -Matthews of Herefordshire. In his preface, Matthews states that the -fables are not altogether a translation or an imitation of La Fontaine, -because in most of them are allusions to public characters and the -events of the times, where they are suggested by the subject. These -allusions are largely political. The fables, apart from these ephemeral -references to personages and events, are written with great cleverness -and vivacity, full of humour, and in many instances are well suited for -recitation. - -_The Fox and the Stork_ is a good example of his style: - - 'For sport once Renard, sly old sinner, - Press'd gossip Stork to share his dinner. - "Neighbour, I must entreat you'll stay - And take your soup with me to-day. - My praise shall not my fare enhance, - But let me beg you'll take your chance; - You're kindly welcome were it better." - She yielded as he thus beset her, - And soon arrived the pottage smoking - In plates of shallow depth provoking. - 'Twas vain the guest essay'd to fill - With unsubstantial fare her bill. - 'Twas vain she fish'd to find a collop, - The host soon lapp'd the liquor all up. - Dame Stork conceal'd her deep displeasure, - But thought to find revenge at leisure; - And said, "Ere long, my friend, you'll try - My humble hospitality. - I know your taste, and we'll contrive-- - To-morrow I'm at home at five." - With punctual haste the wily scoffer - Accepts his neighbour's friendly offer, - And ent'ring cries, "Dear Stork, how is it? - You see I soon return your visit, - I can't resist when you invite; - I've brought a famous appetite. - The steam which issues from your kitchen - Proves that your pot there's something rich in." - The Stork with civil welcome greeted, - And soon at table they were seated, - When lo! there came upon the board - Hash'd goose in two tall pitchers pour'd-- - Pitchers whose long and narrow neck - Sly Renard's jaws completely check, - Whilst the gay hostess, much diverted, - Her bill with perfect ease inserted. - The Fox, half mad at this retorter, - Sought dinner in some other quarter. - Hoaxers, for you this tale is written, - Learn hence that biters may be bitten.' - -Matthews adds this note: '_Hoaxers, for you, this tale is written._ -The word "hoax," though sufficiently expressive, and admitted into -general use, has not, perhaps, found its way into the dictionaries. -It is, however, of some importance, as it serves in some measure -to characterize the times we live in. Former periods have been -distinguished by the epithets golden, silver, brazen, iron. -Notwithstanding the multiplicity of metals which chemistry has now -discovered, none of them may be sufficiently descriptive of the manners -of men in these days. Quitting, therefore, the ancient mode of -classification, the present may not be unaptly designated the hoaxing -age. The term deserves a definition. A hoax may be said to be _a -practical joke, calculated more or less to injure its object, sometimes -accompanied by a high degree of criminality_. This definition, which -is much at the service of future English lexicographers, includes not -only the minor essays of mischievous humour, which assembles all the -schoolmasters of the Metropolis at one house; the medical professors -and undertakers at another; the milliners, mantua-makers, and mercers -at a third; whilst the street before the victim's door is blocked up by -grand pianofortes, Grecian couches, caravans of wild beasts, and patent -coffins; but also the more sublime strokes of genius, which would -acquire sudden wealth by throwing Change Alley into an uproar--which -would gain excessive popularity by gulling the English people with -a show of mock patriotism--which can make bankrupts in fortune and -reputation leaders of thousands and tens of thousands, so as to -threaten destruction to the State. The performers of all these notable -exploits may be denominated hoaxers, most of whom may, in the end, find -themselves involved in the predicament expressed in the concluding -couplet of the fable.' - -We are tempted to give another very fine example from Matthews, -containing as it does an interesting reference to the two mighty men of -letters of the first quarter of the present century--_The Viper and the -File:_ - - 'A Viper chanc'd his head to pop - Into a neighbouring blacksmith's shop. - Long near the place had he been lurking, - And stayed till past the hours for working. - As with keen eyes he glanc'd around - In search of food, a File he found: - Of meats he saw no single item - Which tempted hungry jaws to bite 'em. - So with his fangs the eager fool - Attack'd the rough impassive tool; - And whilst his wounded palate bled, - Fancied on foreign gore he fed. - When thus the File retorted coolly: - "Viper! this work's ingenious, truly! - No more those idle efforts try; - Proof 'gainst assaults like yours am I. - On me you'd fracture ev'ry bone; - I feel the teeth of Time alone." - Thus did a Poet,[57] vain and young - (Who since has palinody sung), - His fangs upon a Minstrel's lay[58] - Fix hard. 'Twas labour thrown away! - On that sweet Bard of Doric strain - This venom'd bite was tried in vain: - His flights, thro' no dark medium view'd, - Derive from fog no magnitude; - But bright and clear to charm our eyes - His vivid pictures boldly rise. - In painting manners, arms, and dress, sure - Time show'd him all his form and pressure. - Bard of the North! thou still shalt be - A File to Critics, harsh as he. - Tho' Time has teeth, thou need'st not fear 'em; - Thy verse defies old Edax Rerum!' - -It must be confessed that the general moral here is not very obvious, -though the special application of the fable to the circumstances of -Byron's attack on Scott, and his subsequent recantation--with the -fabulist's eulogy of the 'Bard of the North'--are expressed in charming -and faultless verse. - -John Gay, who was born in the parish of Landkey, near Barnstaple, -Devonshire, in 1685, and died in London, on December 4, 1732, aged -forty-seven, is, without question, the best of the English fabulists. -Unlike most writers in this department of literature, his fables are -almost all original. His language is choice and elegant, yet well -suited to his subject. His rhymes are perfect, and at times he almost -rises into poetry. His fables, however, are lacking in humour, and they -have not that abounding _esprit_ and _naivete_ which characterize La -Fontaine. - -Gay was a writer of much industry,[59] producing during his lifetime -almost every species of composition. His 'Beggar's Opera' is yet -occasionally seen on the stage, and this, after his fables, is his -best-known work. - -He was essentially Bohemian in disposition and habits, and lacking in -business capacity; a man of culture, however, a pleasant companion, -and a warm-hearted friend. He was on intimate terms with Pope, Swift, -Arbuthnot, and other distinguished men of letters and wits of his day, -and the eccentric but kind-hearted Duchess of Queensberry was his -patron and friend. Unfortunately, he was too much given to dangling -at the skirts of the great, and sueing for place at Court instead of -depending on his own genius, which was unquestionably of no mean order. -Notwithstanding this failing, he was no sycophant or flatterer, but -exposed the follies and vices of human nature, as exemplified in the -characters of the rich and great, as in those of the humbler ranks, -without fear or favour. His best-known fables are probably _The Hare -and many Friends_, and _The Miser and Plutus_. - -Many of Gay's lines, both from his fables and plays, have become widely -popular, for example: - - 'Princes, like beauties, from their youth - Are strangers to the voice of truth. - Learn to contemn all praise betimes, - For Flattery's the nurse of crimes.' - - 'In every age and clime we see - Two of a trade can ne'er agree.' - - 'While there's life there's hope.' - - 'Those who in quarrels interpose - Must often wipe a bloody nose.' - - 'When a lady's in the case - You know all other things give place.' - - 'And what's a butterfly? At best - He's but a caterpillar dressed.' - - ''Tis woman that seduces all mankind.' - - 'How happy could I be with either - Were t'other dear charmer away.' - -And his own epitaph, written by himself: - - 'Life's a jest, and all things show it; - I thought so once, and now I know it.' - -In the letter to Pope in which this distich is given, he says: 'If -anybody should ask how I could communicate this after death, let it be -known it is not meant so, but my present sentiments in life.' - -Gay was buried in Westminster Abbey. The monument which marks his grave -bears the well-known lines composed by Pope: - - 'Of manners gentle, of Affections mild, - In wit a Man, simplicity, a child; - With native Humour, temp'ring Virtuous Rage, - Formed to delight at once and lash the Age: - Above Temptation in a low Estate, - And uncorrupted, e'en among the great. - A safe Companion, and an easy Friend, - Unblam'd thro' life, lamented in thy End. - These are thy Honours! Not that here thy Bust - Is mix'd with Heroes, or with Kings thy Dust: - But that the Worthy and the Good shall say, - Striking their pensive bosoms,--here lies Gay.' - -The piece we have selected, _The Miser and Plutus_, as an example -of his work as a fabulist, is in his best style, and the moral is -irreproachable: - - 'The wind was high, the window shakes, - With sudden start the Miser wakes; - Along the silent room he stalks, - Looks back, and trembles as he walks. - Each lock and every bolt he tries, - In every creek and corner pries; - Then opes the chest with treasure stor'd, - And stands in rapture o'er his hoard: - But now with sudden qualms possest, - He wrings his hands, he beats his breast; - By conscience stung he wildly stares, - And thus his guilty soul declares: - "Had the deep earth her stores confin'd, - This heart had known sweet peace of mind. - But virtue's sold. Good gods! what price - Can recompense the pangs of vice? - O bane of good! seducing cheat! - Can man, weak man, thy power defeat? - Gold banish'd honour from the mind, - And only left the name behind; - Gold sow'd the world with every ill; - Gold taught the murderer's sword to kill. - 'Twas gold instructed coward hearts - In treachery's more pernicious arts. - Who can recount the mischiefs o'er? - Virtue resides on earth no more!" - He spoke, and sighed. In angry mood - Plutus, his god, before him stood. - The Miser, trembling, locked his chest; - The Vision frowned, and thus address'd: - "Whence is this vile ungrateful rant, - Each sordid rascal's daily cant? - Did I, base wretch! corrupt mankind? - The fault's in thy rapacious mind. - Because my blessings are abused, - Must I be censur'd, curs'd, accus'd? - Ev'n virtue's self by knaves is made - A cloak to carry on the trade; - And power (when lodg'd in their possession) - Grows tyranny, and rank oppression. - Thus when the villain crams his chest, - Gold is the canker of the breast; - 'Tis avarice, insolence, and pride, - And ev'ry shocking vice beside; - But when to virtuous hands 'tis given, - It blesses, like the dews of Heaven; - Like Heaven, it hears the orphan's cries, - And wipes the tears from widows' eyes. - Their crimes on gold shall misers lay, - Who pawn'd their sordid souls for pay? - Let bravos, then, when blood is spilt, - Upbraid the passive sword with guilt."' - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[54] In his dedication to Madame de Montespan. - -[55] Geruzez gives February 13 as the date of La Fontaine's death. - -[56] Preface, 'Fables,' 1668. - -[57] Byron. - -[58] Scott's 'Lay of the Last Minstrel.' - -[59] The opposite of this has been said, but without good reason. The -number and variety of his productions attest his industry. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -MODERN FABULISTS: DODSLEY, NORTHCOTE. - - - 'A tale may find him who a sermon flies.' - - GEORGE HERBERT. - - -Robert Dodsley, born at Mansfield, Nottinghamshire, in 1703, died at -Durham, December 25, 1764, buried in the abbey churchyard there, author -of 'The Economy of Human Life' and other estimable works, compiled a -volume of fables (1761). This was the favourite collection in this -country at the end of last and the beginning of the present century. -The contents of the volume are in three parts, and comprise 'Ancient -Fables,' 'Modern Fables,' and 'Fables Newly Invented.' The first two -divisions of the volume are AEsopian in character. The fables contained -in the last were not all written by Dodsley, some of them being -contributed, as he states in his preface, 'by authors with whom it is -an honour to be connected, and who having condescended to favour him -with their assistance, have given him an opportunity of making some -atonement for his own defects.' It is to be regretted that he did not -give the names of the authors referred to. The work contains a life -of AEsop 'by a learned friend' (no name given),[60] and an excellent, -though somewhat pedantic, 'Essay on Fable.' - -The following are three original fables from Dodsley's collection: - -'_The Miser and the Magpie._--As a miser sat at his desk counting over -his heaps of gold, a magpie eloped from his cage, picked up a guinea, -and hopped away with it. The miser, who never failed to count his money -over a second time, immediately missed the piece, and rising up from -his seat in the utmost consternation, observed the felon hiding it -in a crevice of the floor. "And art thou," cried he, "that worst of -thieves, who hast robbed me of my gold without the plea of necessity, -and without regard to its proper use? But thy life shall atone for -so preposterous a villainy." "Soft words, good master!" quoth the -magpie. "Have I, then, injured you in any other sense than you defraud -the public? And am I not using your money in the same manner you do -yourself? If I must lose my life for hiding a single guinea, what do -you, I pray, deserve, who secrete so many thousands?"' - -'_The Toad and the Ephemeron._--As some workmen were digging in a -mountain of Scythia, they discerned a toad of enormous size in the -midst of a solid rock. They were very much surprised at so uncommon an -appearance, and the more they considered the circumstances of it, the -more their wonder increased. It was hard to conceive by what means the -creature had preserved life and received nourishment in so narrow a -prison, and still more difficult to account for his birth and existence -in a place so totally inaccessible to all of his species. They could -conclude no other than that he was formed together with the rock in -which he had been bred, and was coeval with the mountain itself. While -they were pursuing these speculations, the toad sat swelling and -bloating till he was ready to burst with pride and self-importance, -to which at last he thus gave vent: "Yes," says he, "you behold in me -a specimen of the antediluvian race of animals. I was begotten before -the flood; and who is there among the present upstart race of mortals -that shall dare to contend with me in nobility of birth or dignity of -character?" An ephemeron, sprung that morning from the river Hypanis, -as he was flying about from place to place, chanced to be present, and -observed all that passed with great attention and curiosity. "Vain -boaster," says he, "what foundation hast thou for pride, either in thy -descent, merely because it is ancient, or thy life, because it hath -been long? What good qualities hast thou received from thy ancestors? -Insignificant even to thyself, as well as useless to others, thou -art almost as insensible as the block in which thou wast bred. Even -I, that had my birth only from the scum of the neighbouring river, -at the rising of this day's sun, and who shall die at its setting, -have more reason to applaud my condition than thou hast to be proud -of thine. I have enjoyed the warmth of the sun, the light of the day, -and the purity of the air; I have flown from stream to stream, from -tree to tree, and from the plain to the mountain; I have provided for -posterity, and shall leave behind me a numerous offspring to people -the next age of to-morrow; in short, I have fulfilled all the ends of -my being, and I have been happy. My whole life, 'tis true, is but of -twelve hours, but even one hour of it is to be preferred to a thousand -years of mere existence, which have been spent, like thine, in sloth, -ignorance and stupidity."' - -'_The Bee and the Spider._--On the leaves and flowers of the same -shrub, a spider and a bee pursued their several occupations, the one -covering her thighs with honey, the other distending his bag with -poison. The spider, as he glanced his eye obliquely at the bee, was -ruminating with spleen on the superiority of her productions. "And how -happens it," said he, in a peevish tone, "that I am able to collect -nothing but poison from the selfsame plant that supplies thee with -honey? My pains and industry are not less than thine; in those respects -we are each indefatigable." "It proceeds only," replied the bee, "from -the different disposition of our nature; mine gives a pleasing flavour -to everything I touch, whereas thine converts to poison what by a -different process had been the purest honey."' - -James Northcote, R.A., the indefatigable painter, who, when a youth, -enjoyed the friendship of Sir Joshua Reynolds, and was occasionally one -of the company at his hospitable table, along with Johnson, Goldsmith, -Burke, Garrick and Boswell, published two volumes of original and -selected fables in 1828-33, when he was eighty-two years of age. When a -boy, living at Plymouth, where he was born on October 22, 1746, he took -pleasure in copying the pictures from an edition of AEsop's fables. The -memory of these clung to him through life, and, as occasion offered, -he occupied himself in composing apologues in imitation of those with -which he was familiar in his early years. - -The diction of Northcote's fables is admirable. They are in the -choicest phraseology, both in their verse and prose, for he practised -both forms of composition, though chiefly the latter. Neither crisp nor -brilliant, they are now and again lighted up with scintillations of -humour. His applications are delivered with grave solemnity befitting a -judge or a philosopher--not to say a bore; and in many instances they -extend to three or four times the length of the fable itself. - -Northcote died in London at the ripe age of eighty-five, and was buried -beneath the New Church of St. Marylebone. - -Perhaps his best fables are _The Jay and the Owl_, _Echo and the -Parrot_, _Stone Broth_, and _The Trooper and his Armour_. None of -Northcote's fables have become popular with the multitude, though -many of them are good examples of this class of composition. We give -the last-named piece as a specimen of his work as a fabulist. The -application is well conceived, but it is scarcely indicated in the -fable: - -'A trooper, in the time of battle, picked up the shoe of a horse that -lay in his way, and quickly by a cord suspended it from his neck. Soon -after, in a skirmish with the enemy, a shot struck exactly on the said -horseshoe and saved his life,[61] as it fell harmless to the ground. -"Well done," said the trooper, "I see that a very little armour is -sufficient when it is well placed." - -'Application: Although the trooper's good luck with his bit of armour -may appear to be the effect of chance, yet certain it is that prudent -persons are always prepared to receive good fortune, or may be said to -meet it half-way, turning every accident if possible to good, which -gives an appearance as if they were the favourites of fortune; whilst -the thoughtless and improvident, on the contrary, often neglect to -embrace the very blessings which chance throws in their way, and then -survey with envy those who prosper by their careful and judicious -conduct, and blame their partial or hard fortune for all those -privations and sufferings which their mismanagement alone has brought -upon themselves.' - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[60] It has been suggested, that Dr. Johnson and Goldsmith were the -'authors,' and Goldsmith the 'learned friend.' See the preface by Edwin -Pearson to the 1871 edition, of Bewick's 'Select Fables of AEsop.' - -[61] Northcote's grammar is at fault here. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV. - -MODERN FABULISTS: LESSING, YRIARTE, KRILOF. - - - 'Great thoughts, great feelings, come to them - Like instincts, unawares.' - - R. M. MILNES. - - -Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, born January 22, 1729, at Kamenz, died -February 15, 1781, aged fifty-two years, was a distinguished German -scholar, poet and dramatist. As a fabulist, Lessing is noted for -epigrammatic point rather than humour, though he is by no means lacking -in the latter characteristic. He is perhaps the most original writer -of fables amongst the moderns. Sagacious, wise, witty, his apologues -(1759) have nothing superfluous about them. They are nearly all brief, -pithy, and very much to the point. In these respects they follow the -AEsopian model more than those of any other modern writer. The following -are good examples of his style: - -'_AEsop and the Ass._--"The next time you write a fable about me," said -the donkey to AEsop, "make me say something wise and sensible." - -'"Something sensible from you!" exclaimed AEsop; "what would the world -think? People would call you the sage, and me the donkey!" - -'_The Shepherd and the Nightingale._--"Sing to me, dearest -nightingale," said a shepherd to the silent songstress one beautiful -spring evening. - -'"Alas!" said the nightingale, "the frogs make so much noise that I -have no inclination to sing. Do you not hear them?" - -'"Undoubtedly I hear them," replied the shepherd, "but it is owing to -your silence." - -'_Solomon's Ghost._--A venerable old man, despite his years and the -heat of the day, was ploughing his field with his own hand, and sowing -the grain in the willing earth, in anticipation of the harvest it would -produce. - -'Suddenly, beneath the deep shadow of a spreading oak, a divine -apparition stood before him! The old man was seized with affright. - -'"I am Solomon," said the phantom encouragingly, "what dost thou here, -old friend?" - -'"If thou art Solomon," said the owner of the field, "how canst thou -ask? In my youth I learnt from the ant to be industrious and to -accumulate wealth. That which I then learnt I now practise." - -'"Thou hast learnt but half of thy lesson," pursued the spirit. "Go -once more to the ant, and she will teach thee to rest in the winter of -thy existence, and enjoy what thou hast earned."' - -Don Tomas de Yriarte, or Iriarte, a Spanish fabulist of the eighteenth -century, born at Teneriffe in 1750, is held in much esteem by cultured -readers in Spain. His 'Fabulas Literarias,' or Literary Fables (1782), -sixty-seven in all, and mostly original, were written with a view to -inculcating literary truths. In other words, their object was to praise -or censure literary work according to its supposed deserts. Their -moral or application is therefore limited in scope; they do not touch -human nature as a whole, and being thus restricted in their range, -they are deficient in general interest and value. Obviously, however, -it is possible to give a wider application to the truths enforced in -the apologues, and this is sometimes done by omitting the special -moral supplied by the writer. Yriarte's versification is graceful and -sprightly, 'combining the exquisite simplicity of the old Spanish -romances and songs with the true spirit of AEsopian fable;'[62] some -of them are composed in the redondilla measure much affected by the -lyrical poets of Spain, and please by their style quite as much as by -their intrinsic merits. Yriarte died in 1791. We select the piece which -follows to illustrate his skill as a fabulist: - - -'_The Two Thrushes._ - - 'A sage old thrush was once discipling - His grandson thrush, a hair-brained stripling, - In the purveying art. He knew, - He said, where vines in plenty grew, - Whose fruit delicious when he'd come - He might attack _ad libitum_. - "Ha!" said the young one, "where's this vine? - Let's see this fruit you think so fine." - "Come then, my child, your fortune's great; you - Can't conceive what feasts await you!" - He said, and gliding through the air - They reached a vine, and halted there. - Soon as the grapes the youngster spied, - "Is this the fruit you praise?" he cried; - "Why, an old bird, sir, as you are, - Should judge, I think, more wisely far - Than to admire, or hold as good, - Such half-grown, small, and worthless food. - Come, see a fruit which I possess - In yonder garden; you'll confess, - When you behold it, that it is - Bigger and better far than this." - "I'll go," he said; "but ere I see - This fruit of yours, whate'er it be, - I'm sure it is not worth a stone - Or grape-skin from my vines alone." - They reached the spot the thrushlet named, - And he triumphantly exclaimed: - "Show me the fruit to equal mine! - A size so great, a shape so fine; - What luxury, however rare, - Can e'en your grapes with this compare?" - The old bird stared, as well he might, - For lo! a pumpkin met his sight. - Now, that a thrush should take this fancy - Without much marvelling I can see; - But it is truly monstrous when - Men, who are held as learned men, - All books, whatever they be, despise - Unless of largest bulk and size. - A book is great, if good at all; - If bad, it cannot be too small.' - -Ivan Andreivitch Krilof, or Krilov, the Russian, who was born in -Moscow, February 2, 1768, O.S., and died in St. Petersburg on November -9, 1844, aged seventy-six years, was one of the greatest original -fabulists of modern times. One writer (an Englishman) goes so far as to -claim for him the position of 'the crowned King of the fabulists of all -languages.' His published fables amount altogether to two hundred and -two, of which thirty-five only are borrowed, the rest being original. -They are in rhymed verse in the Russian, and an English translation, -also in verse, and with a close adherence to the text in the original, -has been made by Mr. J. Henry Harrison.[63] An excellent prose -translation, with a life of Krilof, by the late Mr. W. R. S. Ralston, -M.A., was published in 1868.[64] - -Krilof is characterized by rich common sense and sound judgment, a -rare vein of satire and an excellent humour. He indeed brims over -with sarcastic humour. A kind of rugged directness of language, well -calculated to undermine the shams and abuses at which he aimed, also -distinguishes his apologues. He deserves to be better known in this -country. - -Krilof was a journalist, and wrote a number of dramas, both in tragedy -and comedy, before turning his attention to fables. It is on these -latter that his claim to distinction rests. He rose to high eminence -in his native country, where his name is a household word; he was -patronized by royalty, and beloved by the common people, and at his -death a monument to his memory was erected in the Summer Garden at St. -Petersburg. - -The following translation of Krilof's beautiful fable of _The Leaves -and the Roots_ is from a brilliant article in _Fraser's Magazine_ for -February, 1839: - - ''Twas on a sunny summer day, - Exulting in the flickering shade - They cast athwart the greensward glade, - The leaves, a fluttering host, - Thus 'gan their worth to boast, - And to each other say: - "Is it not we - That deck the tree-- - Its stem and branches all array - In verdant pomp and vigorous grace? - Deprived of us, how altered were their case! - Is it not we who form the grateful screen - Of foliage and luxuriant green, - Welcome to traveller and to swain? - Yes! we may be deemed vain, - But we it is whose charms invite - Youths and maidens to the grove; - And we it is, too, who at night - Shelter in her retired alcove - The songstress of the woods, whose strain - Wafts music over dale and plain! - In us the zephyrs most rejoice: - Our emerald beauty to caress, - On silken wings they fondly press!" - "Most true; but yet - You ought not to forget - We too exist," replied a voice - That issued from the earth; - "We sure possess some little worth." - "And who are ye? where do ye grow?" - "Buried are we here below, - Deep in the ground. 'Tis we who nourish - The stem and you, and make you flourish: - For understand, we are the roots - From whom the tree itself upshoots: - 'Tis we by whom you thrive-- - From whom your beauty ye derive; - Unlike to you, we are not fair, - Nor dwell we in the upper air; - Yet do we not, like you, decay-- - Winter tears us not away. - Ye fall, yet still remains the tree; - But should it chance that _we_ - Once cease to live, adieu - Both to the tree, fair leaves, and you!"' - -As an example of his ironical humour we give a prose translation, by -Mr. Ralston, of his fable _The Geese_: - -'A peasant, with a long rod in his hand, was driving some geese to -a town where they were to be sold; and, to tell the truth, he did -not treat them over-politely. In hopes of making a good bargain, he -was hastening on so as not to lose the market-day (and when gain is -concerned, geese and men alike are apt to suffer). I do not blame the -peasant; but the geese talked about him in a different spirit, and, -whenever they met any passers-by, abused him to them in such terms as -these: - -'"Is it possible to find any geese more unfortunate than we are? This -moujik[65] harasses us so terribly, and chases us about just as if we -were common geese. The ignoramus does not know that he ought to pay us -reverence, seeing that we are the noble descendants of those geese to -whom Rome was once indebted for her salvation, and in whose honour even -feast-days were specially appointed there." - -'"And do you want to have honour paid you on that account?" a passer-by -asked them. - -'"Why, our ancestors----" - -'"I know that--I have read all about it; but I want to know this: of -what use have you been yourselves?" - -'"Why, our ancestors saved Rome!" - -'"Quite so; but what have you done?" - -'"We? Nothing." - -'"Then, what merit is there in you? Let your ancestors rest in -peace--they justly received honourable reward; but you, my friends, are -only fit to be roasted!"' - -Krilof concludes: 'It would be easy to make this fable still more -intelligible; but I am afraid of irritating the geese.' - -A story, rather than a fable, is _The Man with Three Wives_, and -the moral underlying it is in the author's peculiar vein. This is -translated from the original by Mr. J. H. Harrison: - - 'A certain vanquisher of women's hearts, - While still his first wife was alive and well, - Married a second, and a third. They tell - The king the scandal of such shameless arts, - And, as his majesty abhorred all vice, - Given himself to self-denial, - He gave the order in a trice - To bring the bigamist to trial, - And such a punishment invent, that none - Should evermore dare do what he had done. - "And if the punishment to me should seem too small, - Around their table will I hang the judges all." - This to the judges seemed no joke: - The cold sweat ran along each spine. - Three days and nights they sit, but can't divine - What punishment will best such lawless license choke. - Thousands of punishments there are; but then, - As all men of experience know, - They cannot keep from evil evil men. - This time kind Providence did help them though, - And when the culprit came before the court, - This was his sentence short: - To give him back his three wives all together. - The people wondered much at this decision, - And thought the judges' lives hung by a feather; - But three days had not passed before - The bigamist, behind his door, - Himself hung to a peg with great precision: - And then the sentence wrought on all great fear, - And much the morals of the kingdom steadied, - For from that time its annalists are clear - That no man in it more has three wives wedded.' - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[62] Bouterwick's 'History of Spanish Literature,' book iii., chap. iii. - -[63] London: Remington and Co., 1883. - -[64] London: Strahan and Co., 1868. A second edition appeared the year -following. - -[65] Peasant. - - - - -CHAPTER XV. - -OTHER AND OCCASIONAL FABULISTS. - - - 'With wisdom fraught, - Not such as books, but such as Nature taught.' - - WALLER. - - -Sir Roger L'Estrange (1616-1704) was a rabid Jacobite, journalist, and -pamphleteer, and during a long life spent in fierce political conflict, -in which, at times, he bore a far from estimable part, found time to -translate various classical works, amongst these being AEsop's fables. -L'Estrange's version (1692) of the sage is not in the best taste. -It is disfigured by mannerisms and vulgarisms in language, and the -applications which he appended to the fables are often a distortion of -the true intent of the apologue, stated so as to support and enforce -his own peculiar views in politics and religion. - -Steele (1672-1729) was the author of at least one excellent fable,[66] -_The Mastiff and his Puppy_, not unworthy to take a place beside those -of the Greek sage: - -'It happened one day, as a stout and honest mastiff (that guarded the -village where he lived against thieves and robbers) was very gravely -walking with one of his puppies by his side, all the little dogs in -the street gathered round him, and barked at him. The little puppy was -so offended at this affront done to his sire, that he asked him why he -would not fall upon them, and tear them to pieces. To which the sire -answered with great composure of mind, "If there were no curs, I should -be no mastiff."' - -Of other fabulists, it will be sufficient, without going into lengthy -particulars, to name Allan Ramsay (1686-1758), who attempted the -writing of fables, though with but doubtful success; of the thirty he -produced there is not one of striking merit. Edmund Arwaker, Rector of -Donaghmore, who compiled a collection of two hundred and twenty-five -select fables from AEsop and others, which he entitled, 'Truth in -Fiction; or, Morality in Masquerade' (1708). John Hall-Stevenson, -1718-1785 (the original of Sterne's 'Eugenius'), wrote 'Fables for -Grown Gentlemen.' Edward Moore composed a series of original 'Fables -for the Fair Sex' (1756), pleasing in their versification, but -otherwise of no striking merit. Moore, besides a number of poems, -odes and songs, wrote two comedies ('The Foundling' and 'Gil Blas') -and a tragedy ('The Gamester'), in which Garrick acted the leading -characters. He was also editor of the _World_, a satirical journal of -the period, which had a brief life of four years. He died in poverty -in 1751. Francis Gentleman (actor and dramatist), whose collection of -'Royal Fables' (1766) was dedicated to George, Prince of Wales. William -Wilkie, D.D., a Scotch fabulist of some note in his day, was Professor -of Natural Philosophy in St. Andrews University. In 1768 he published a -volume containing sixteen fables after the manner of Gay. One of these, -_The Boy and the Rainbow_,[67] a fable of considerable merit, has -survived; the others are forgotten. Rev. Henry Rowe, whose fables tire -without interesting. 'Fables for Mankind,' by Charles Westmacott. 'The -Fables of Flora,' by Dr. Langhorne. Gaspey wrote a number of original -fables, as did also Dr. Aitken and Walter Brown. Cowper, the poet, -penned some elegant fables with which most readers are familiar. There -are 'Fables for Children, Young and Old, in Humorous Verse,' by W. E. -Staite (1830); Sheridan Wilson was the author of a volume entitled 'The -Bath Fables' (1850); finally, there is Frere's Fables for 'Five Years -Old.' AEsop's fables have been parodied and caricatured, with varying -success, by different writers, notably by an American author, under -the pseudonym of 'G. Washington AEsop.' - -Of lady fabulists, the most notable is Maria de France, who lived in -the first half of the thirteenth century, and made a collection of one -hundred and six fables in French, which, she alleges, were translated -from the English of King Alfred.[68] There are several more modern -collections by members of the fair sex. One is entitled 'The Enchanted -Plants, Fables in Verse;' London, 1800. The name of the author is not -given, but evidently a lady. Mrs. Trimmer has her version of AEsop. A -volume of original fables was published by Mary Maria Colling, a writer -of humble rank, under the patronage of the once celebrated Mrs. Bray -(daughter of Thomas Stothard, R.A.), and Southey, the Poet Laureate. A -volume of fables, also original, by Mrs. Prosser, and 'AEsop's Fables in -Words of One Syllable,' by Mary Godolphin. - -Besides the fabulists already named, there are, among the ancients, -Avian, Ademar, Rufus, Romulus, Alfonso and Poggio. Among the French, -Nivernois, and the Abbe Fenelon (1651-1715), author of 'Dialogues of -the Dead' and 'Telemachus.' Notwithstanding his reputation in his -own country as a fabulist, it must be allowed that his fables are -much too lengthy and prolix. The characters he gives to his animals -are unnatural, and their manners and speech pointless and tame. -Florian, an imitator of Yriarte, and a friend of Voltaire, by whose -advice he cultivated the literature of Spain; Boursalt, Boisard, -Ginguene, Jauffret, Le Grand and Armoult. Amongst the Germans are, -Gellert (1746), Nicolai, Hagedorn, Pfeffel and Lichtner. The Italian -fabulists are numerous: Tommaso Crudeli (1703-1743), Gian-Carlo -Passeroni (1713-1803), Giambattisti Roberti (1719-1786), Luigi Grillo -(1725-1790), Lorenzo Pignotti (1739-1812), who with an elegant diction -combines splendid descriptive powers; Clemente Bondi (1742-1821), -Aurelio de Giorgi Bertola (1753-1798), Luigi Clasio (1754-1825), -Giovanni Gherardo de Rossi (1754-1827), Gaetano Perego (1814-1868) and -Gaetano Polidori. Among Spanish fabulists, besides Yriarte, there is -Samaniego (1745-1801). Of Russian writers of fables we have already -spoken of Krilof, and there are besides, Chemnitzer, Dmitriev, Glinka, -Lomonosov (1711-1765), Goncharov and Alexander Sumarakov (1718-1777). -Of English writers not already referred to, the following may be named -as having tried their hand at the composition of fables: Addison, Sir -John Vanbrugh,[69] Prior, Goldsmith, Henryson, Coyne, Winter. Thomas -Percival, M.D., President of the Literary and Philosophical Society -of Manchester about the end of last century, wrote a volume of moral -tales, fables, and reflections. Bussey's collection is well known. The -late W. J. Macquorn Rankine, Regius Professor of Civil Engineering in -Glasgow University, wrote a number of 'Songs and Fables,' which were -published posthumously in a small volume in 1874. The fables, twelve -in all, are an ingenious attempt, not wanting in playful humour, to -elucidate the origin and meaning of some of the old and well-known -signboards, such as _The Pig and Whistle_, _The Cat and Fiddle_, _The -Goat and Compasses_, and others. An interesting collection of one -hundred and six 'Indian Fables,' in English, the materials for which -were gathered from native sources and put into form by Mr. P. V. -Ramaswami Raju, B.A., were originally contributed to the columns of the -_Leisure Hour_, and afterwards published in a volume (1887).[70] - -Specimens of the work of some of the writers named are given in the -succeeding pages. - -_The Bee and the Coquette_ (Florian).--'Chloe, young, handsome, and a -decided coquette, laboured very hard every morning on rising; people -say it was at her toilet; and there, smiling and smirking, she related -to her dear confidant all her pains, her pleasures, and the projects of -her soul. - -'A thoughtless bee, entering her chamber, began buzzing about. "Help! -help!" immediately shrieked the lady. "Lizzy! Mary! here, make haste! -drive away this winged monster!" - -'The insolent insect settling on Chloe's lips, she fainted; and Mary, -furiously seizing the bee, prepared to crush it. - -'"Alas!" gently exclaimed the unfortunate insect, "forgive my error; -Chloe's mouth seemed to me a rose, and as such I kissed it." - -'This speech restored Chloe to her senses: "Let us forgive it," said -she, "on account of its candid confession! Besides, its sting is but a -trifle; since it has spoken to you, I have scarcely felt it." - -'What may one not effect by a little well-timed flattery?' - - -_The Farmer, Horseman, and Pedestrian_ (Nivernois). - - 'A farmer on his ass astride, - Who peacefully pursued his ride, - Exclaim'd, when, on a Spanish steed, - A horseman pass'd with lively speed, - "Ah, charming seat! what deed of mine - Should thus incense the powers divine, - Who doom me ne'er to shift my place, - But at an ass's tardy pace?" - Thus speaking, with chagrin and spite, - He reach'd a rough and rocky height, - Up which a poor, o'er-labour'd drudge, - On tottering feet, was forc'd to trudge; - With forehead prone, and bending back - Press'd by a large and heavy pack. - The farmer cross'd the hill at ease; - Jocosely set, with lolling knees, - On his poor ass, the rugged scene - Appear'd a soft and level green, - No flinty points his feet annoy'd; - He pass'd the panting walker's side, - Yet saw him not, so rapt his brain - With dreams of Andalusia's plain. - Such is the world--our bosoms brood - With keen desire o'er others' good; - On this we muse, and, musing still, - We rarely dream of others' ill. - A further truth the tale unfolds: - Each, like the ass-born hind, beholds - The rich around on steeds of Spain, - And deems their rank exempt from pain. - But still let us our notice keep - On those who clamber up the steep.' - -_The Land of the Halt_ (Gellert).--'Many years since, in a small -territory, there was not one of the inhabitants who did not stutter -when he spoke, and halt in walking; both these defects, moreover, were -considered accomplishments. A stranger saw the evil, and, thinking how -they would admire his walking, went about without halting, after the -usual manner of our race. Everyone stopped to look at him, and all -those who looked, laughed, and, holding their sides to repress their -merriment, shouted: "Teach the stranger how to walk properly!" - -'The stranger considered it his duty to cast the reproach from himself. -"You halt," he cried, "it is not I; you must accustom yourselves to -leave off so awkward a habit!" This only increased the uproar, when -they heard him speak; he did not even stammer; this was sufficient to -disgrace him, and he was laughed at throughout the country. - -'Habit will render faults, which we have been accustomed to regard from -youth, beautiful; in vain will a stranger attempt to convince us that -we are in error. We look upon him as a madman, solely because he is -wiser than ourselves.' - - -_The Beau and Butterfly_ (Francis Gentleman). - - 'Thus speaks an adage, somewhat old, - "_Truth is not to be always told_." - What eye but, struck with outward show, - Admires the pretty thing, a beau? - Which both by Art and Nature made is, - The sport of sense, the toy of ladies. - A mortal of this tiny mould, - In clothes of silk, adorned with gold, - And dressed in ev'ry point of sight - To give the world of taste delight, - Prepared to enter his sedan, - A birthday picture of a man, - Cried out in vain soliloquy: - "Was ever creature formed like me? - By Art or Nature's nicest care - Made more complete and debonnair? - I see myself, with perfect joy, - Of human kind the _je ne scai quoy_; - In ev'rything I rival France, - In fashion, wit, and sprightly dance; - So charming are my shape and parts, - I'm formed for captivating hearts; - The proudest toast, when in the vein, - I take at once by _coup de main_; - _Mort de ma vie_, 'tis magic all, - I look, and vanquished women fall!" - One of the race of butterflies, - An insect far more nice than wise, - Who, from his sunny couch of glass, - Had listened to the two-legged ass, - With intermeddling zeal replied: - "Unequalled folly! matchless pride! - Shalt thou, a patchwork creature, claim - More lovely shape, or greater name, - Than one of us? Assert thy right-- - Stand naked in my critic sight! - "To parent earth at once resign - The produce of her golden mine; - Give to the worm her silken store, - The diamond to Golconda's shore; - Nor let the many teeth you want - Be plundered from the elephant; - Let native locks adorn thy head, - Nor glow thy cheeks with borrowed red; - Give to the ostrich back his plume, - Nor rob the cat of her perfume; - Here to the beaver yield at once - His fur which crowns thy empty sconce; - In short, appear through every part - No more, nor less, than what thou art; - Then little better than an ape - Will show thy metamorphosed shape; - While butterflies to death retain - The beauties they from Nature gain. - "You'll say, perhaps, our sojourn here - Is less, by half, than half a year; - That churlish winter surely brings - Destruction to our painted wings. - I grant the truth. Now, answer me: - Can beaus outlive adversity? - Will milliners and tailors join - To make a foppish beggar fine? - 'Tis certain, no. Of glitter made, - You surely vanish in the shade. - Compared, then, who will dare deny - A beau is less than butterfly?"' - - -_The Nightingale and Glow-worm_ (Edward Moore). - - 'The prudent nymph, whose cheeks disclose - The lily and the blushing rose, - From public view her charms will screen, - And rarely in the crowd be seen. - This simple truth shall keep her wise: - "The fairest fruits attract the flies." - One night a glow-worm, proud and vain, - Contemplating her glitt'ring train, - Cried, "Sure there never was in Nature - So elegant, so fine a creature; - All other insects that I see-- - The frugal ant, industrious bee, - Or silk-worm--with contempt I view; - With all that low, mechanic crew - Who servilely their lives employ - In business, enemy to joy. - Mean, vulgar herd! ye are my scorn, - For grandeur only I was born; - Or, sure, am sprung from race divine, - And placed on earth to live and shine. - Those lights, that sparkle so on high, - Are but the glow-worms of the sky; - And kings on earth their gems admire - Because they imitate my fire." - She spoke. Attentive on a spray, - A nightingale forebore his lay; - He saw the shining morsel near, - And flew, directed by the glare; - Awhile he gazed, with sober look, - And thus the trembling prey bespoke: - "Deluded fool, with pride elate, - Know 'tis thy beauty brings thy fate; - Less dazzling, long thou mightst have lain, - Unheeded on the velvet plain. - Pride, soon or late, degraded mourns, - And beauty wrecks whom she adorns."' - -It is interesting to observe how a true poet, Cowper, treats the same -subject, the object or moral of the fable, however, being different: - - -_The Nightingale and Glow-worm._ - - 'A nightingale, that all day long - Had cheer'd the village with his song, - Nor yet at eve his note suspended, - Nor yet when eventide was ended, - Began to feel, as well he might, - The keen demands of appetite; - When, looking eagerly around, - He spied far off, upon the ground, - A something shining in the dark, - And knew the glow-worm by his spark; - So, stooping down from hawthorn top, - He thought to put him in his crop. - The worm, aware of his intent, - Harangued him thus, right eloquent: - "Did you admire my lamp," quoth he, - "As much as I your minstrelsy, - You would abhor to do me wrong, - As much as I to spoil your song; - For 'twas the selfsame Power Divine - Taught you to sing and me to shine; - That you with music, I with light, - Might beautify and cheer the night." - The songster heard his short oration, - And, warbling out his approbation, - Released him--as my story tells-- - And found a supper somewhere else. - Hence jarring sectaries may learn - Their real interest to discern; - That brother should not war with brother, - And worry and devour each other; - But sing and shine by sweet consent, - Till life's poor transient night is spent, - Respecting in each other's case - The gifts of nature and of grace. - Those Christians best deserve the name - Who studiously make peace their aim; - Peace both the duty and the prize - Of him that creeps and him that flies.' - -Other excellent fables of Cowper will occur to the reader, as, for -example: _The Raven_, _The Contest between Nose and Eyes_, _The Poet, -the Oyster and the Sensitive Plant_, and _Pairing Time Anticipated_. - - -_The Boy and the Rainbow_ (William Wilkie, D.D.). - - 'Declare, ye sages, if ye find - 'Mongst animals of every kind, - Of each condition, sort, and size, - From whales and elephants to flies, - A creature that mistakes his plan, - And errs so constantly as man. - Each kind pursues his proper good, - And seeks for pleasure, rest, and food, - As Nature points, and never errs - In what it chooses and prefers; - Man only blunders, though possest - Of talents far above the rest. - Descend to instances, and try: - An ox will scarce attempt to fly, - Or leave his pasture in the wood - With fishes to explore the flood. - Man only acts, of every creature, - In opposition to his nature. - The happiness of humankind - Consists in rectitude of mind, - A will subdued to reason's sway, - And passions practised to obey; - An open and a gen'rous heart, - Refined from selfishness and art; - Patience which mocks at fortune's pow'r, - And wisdom never sad nor sour: - In these consist our proper bliss; - Else Plato reasons much amiss. - But foolish mortals still pursue - False happiness in place of true; - Ambition serves us for a guide, - Or lust, or avarice, or pride; - While reason no assent can gain, - And revelation warns in vain. - Hence, through our lives in every stage, - From infancy itself to age, - A happiness we toil to find, - Which still avoids us like the wind; - Ev'n when we think the prize our own, - At once 'tis vanished, lost and gone. - You'll ask me why I thus rehearse - All Epictetus in my verse, - And if I fondly hope to please - With dry reflections such as these, - So trite, so hackneyed, and so stale? - I'll take the hint, and tell a tale. - One evening, as a simple swain - His flock attended on the plain, - The shining bow he chanced to spy, - Which warns us when a shower is nigh; - With brightest rays it seemed to glow, - Its distance eighty yards or so. - This bumpkin had, it seems, been told - The story of the cup of gold, - Which fame reports is to be found - Just where the rainbow meets the ground. - He therefore felt a sudden itch - To seize the goblet and be rich; - Hoping--yet hopes are oft but vain-- - No more to toil through wind and rain, - But sit indulging by the fire, - Midst ease and plenty, like a squire. - He marked the very spot of land - On which the rainbow seemed to stand, - And, stepping forwards at his leisure, - Expected to have found the treasure. - But as he moved, the coloured ray - Still changed its place and slipt away, - As seeming his approach to shun. - From walking he began to run, - But all in vain; it still withdrew - As nimbly as he could pursue. - At last, through many a bog and lake, - Rough craggy road and thorny brake, - It led the easy fool, till night - Approached, then vanished in his sight, - And left him to compute his gains, - With nought but labour for his pains.' - -Professor Rankine evidently took AEsop's illustration of 'The Bow -Unbent' to heart, when, relaxing his severer studies, he occupied -occasional hours in composing 'Songs and Fables.' The three following -pieces are examples of his work as a fabulist, and of his skill in -interpreting the meaning of popular signs: - -'_The Magpie and Stump._--A magpie was in the habit of depositing -articles which he pilfered in the hollow stump of a tree. "I grieve -less," the stump was heard to say, "at the misfortune of losing my -branches and leaves, than at the disgrace of being made a receptacle -for stolen goods." Moral: _Infamy is harder to bear than adverse -fortune_.' - -'_The Green Man._--A green man, wandering through the Highlands -of Scotland, discovered, in a sequestered valley, a still, with -which certain unprincipled individuals were engaged in the illicit -manufacture of aqua-vitae. Being, as we have stated, a green man, he -was easily persuaded by those unprincipled individuals to expend a -considerable sum in the purchase of the intoxicating produce of their -still, and to drink so much of it that he speedily became insensible. -On awaking next morning, with an empty purse and an aching head, he -thought, with sorrow and shame, what a green man he had been. Moral: -_He who follows the advice of unprincipled individuals is a green man -indeed_.' - -'_The Bull and Mouth._--A native of the Sister Isle having opened his -mouth during a convivial entertainment, out flew a bull, whereupon some -of the company manifested alarm. "Calm your fears," said the sagacious -host; "verbal bulls have no horns." Moral: _Harmless blunders are -subjects of amusement rather than of consternation_.' - -The following curious 'Birth Story,' from the collection of Indian -Fables by Mr. P. V. Ramaswami Raju, is an ironical commentary on the -doctrine of transmigration, in which the followers of Buddha implicitly -believe: - -'One day a king in the far East was seated in the hall of justice. A -thief was brought before him; he inquired into his case, and said he -should receive one hundred lashes with a cat-o'-nine-tails. Instantly -he recollected an old Eastern saying, "What we do to others in this -birth, they will do to us in the next," and said to his minister, "I -have a great mind to let this thief go quietly, for he is sure to give -me these one hundred lashes in the next birth." "Sire," replied the -minister, "I know the saying you refer to is perfectly true, but you -must understand you are simply returning to the thief in this birth -what he gave you in the last." The king was perfectly pleased with this -reply, says the story, and gave his minister a rich present.' - -This selection of fables may be suitably concluded by two which, -though not original, we have not met with in print. The first is -entitled _The Nightingale, the Cuckoo and the Ass_:[71] - -'The nightingale and the cuckoo disputed as to which of them was -the best singer, and they chose the ass to be the judge. First, the -nightingale poured forth one of his most entrancing lays, followed -by the cuckoo, with his two mellow notes. Being requested to deliver -judgment, said the ass, "Without doubt the trill of the nightingale -is worth listening to; but for a good plain song give me that of the -cuckoo!"' - -The moral here is obvious. Persons with a want of taste, or with a -depraved taste, see no difference between things excellent and mean. -Nay, they will often be found to prefer the mean, as being more in -harmony with their own predilections. - -The next is the shortest fable on record; its humour is as conspicuous -as its brevity, and it hails from the County Palatine of Lancashire. It -is named The _Flea and the Elephant_: - -'Passing into the ark together, said the flea to its big brother: "Now, -then, mister! no thrutching!" - -'Moral: Insignificance has often its full share of self-importance.' - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[66] 'The Tatler,' No. 115, vol iii., p. 7. - -[67] _Post_, p. 137. - -[68] Mr. Joseph Jacobs, in his erudite 'History of the AEsopian Fable,' -shows that this was a mistake on the part of Maria de France, and that -the author of the work from which her translation was made was not the -King, but 'Alfred the Englishman,' who flourished about A.D. 1170. - -[69] Vanbrugh, the architect, noted for the solidity of the structures -he designed, and on whom the epitaph, one of the best epigrams ever -penned, was proposed: - - 'Lie heavy on him, Earth, for he - Laid many a heavy load on thee.' - -[70] London: Swan Sonnenschein, Lowrey and Co. - -[71] Krilof's _Ass and Nightingale_ bears some resemblance to the -fable here given; but, instead of the cuckoo, the cock is one of the -competitors. - - - - -CHAPTER XVI. - -CONCLUSION. - - - 'Out, out, brief candle.' - - SHAKESPEARE: _Macbeth_. - - -Pictures illustrating fables are a feature that tends to enhance -their attractiveness and value, and the ablest artists have employed -their pencils in the work. It is sufficient to mention Bewick and his -pupils, whose illustrations are greatly prized. S. Howitt's etchings of -animals in illustration of the fabulists (1811). Northcote's original -volumes (1828-33) are illustrated with 560 charming engravings from -the author's designs. Robert Cruikshank illustrated the 'Fables for -Mankind,' by Charles Westmacott (1823). Blake, Stothard, Harvey, -and Sir John Tenniel, the distinguished _Punch_ artist, have gained -applause in the same field. The latter illustrated a small volume of -AEsop published by Murray in 1848. This is 'A New Version of the Old -Fables, chiefly from Original Sources,' by the Rev. Thomas James, -M.A., and contains an introduction which is worthy of perusal by those -interested in the subject. The first edition of the work is a rarity -sought for by collectors. Randolph Caldecott illustrated some of AEsop's -fables in his own inimitable style. Walter Crane[72] and Harrison -Weir[73] have exercised their talents in the same direction, and Mrs. -Hugh Blackburn has supplied clever illustrations to Rankine's fables. -The pictures in the collection of fables made by G. Moir Bussey (1842) -are from designs by J. J. Grandville, and are full of originality -and humour. The same volume also contains an excellent 'Dissertation -on the History of Fable.' The spirited and masterly designs of Oudry -in illustration of La Fontaine are justly prized and highly valued. -Gustave Dore also employed his facile pencil in illustrating the same -author. - -There are books bearing the title of 'Fables' the contents of which are -not fables in the restricted sense. Of these are Dryden's so-called -fables, which are really metrical romances. A competent critic has -pronounced them to be the 'noblest specimens of versification to be -found in any modern language,' but we need not speak further of them -in this connection. Again, there is Bernard Mandeville's eccentric -work, entitled 'The Fable of the Bees; or, Private Vices Public -Benefits.' This is an apologue in rhyme, with a moral in addition, and -followed by a voluminous prose disquisition on questions of morality, -partaking of all the audacious paradoxical elements which characterized -its ingenious author. Thomas Moore, the distinguished Irish poet, wrote -a series of eight political fables, which were originally published by -him under the pseudonym of 'Thomas Brown.' Neither these nor that of -Mandeville, however, are fables from our point of view. The same remark -applies to Lowell's well-known 'Fable for Critics,' and Lord Lytton's -'Fables in Song,' on which it is unnecessary to dwell. - -And so, having taken our survey of the fabulist and his work, we -conclude, as we rightly may, that he is both philosopher and poet, but -more poet than philosopher, inasmuch as the imaginative faculty is -greatly at his command. Further, as saith Sir Philip Sidney,[74] 'The -philosopher teacheth, but he teacheth obscurely, so as the learned only -can understand him; that is to say, he teacheth them that are already -taught. But the poet is the food for the tenderest stomachs; the poet -is, indeed, the right popular philosopher. Whereof AEsop's tales give -good proof; whose pretty allegories, stealing under the formal tales of -beasts, make many, more beastly than beasts, begin to hear the sound of -virtue from these dumb speakers.' - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[72] 'The Baby's Own AEsop;' the fables condensed in rhyme by W. J. -Linton. Routledge, 1887. - -[73] 'AEsop's Fables,' translated from the Greek by the Rev. George -Fyler Townsend, M.A. Routledge. - -[74] 'A Defence of Poesie.' - - - - -INDEX. - - - AEsop: - his era, 33; - birthplace, 33; - his masters when a slave, 33; - his mission to Delphi, 34; - his death, 35; - disparagement of his personal appearance, 36; - due to Planudes, 37; - his mate or wife, Rhodope, 38; - Lysippus' statue of AEsop, 39; - stories related of, 42; - AEsop and the figs, 44; - the pannier of bread, 45; - bought by Zanthus, 45; - Zanthus' foolish wager, 46; - Zanthus' wife restored, 46; - AEsop and the mean fellow, 47; - at play, 48; - and the author, 48; - sayings of, 49; - at the Court of Cr[oe]sus, 49; - as a fabulist, 97 - - _AEsop and the Ass_, 115 - - 'AEsop, G. Washington,' parody on AEsop's fables, 127 - - AEsopian fable or apologue defined, 5; - opinions regarding the, 52; - characteristics of the, 55 - - Ademar, 128 - - Agathia's epigram on Lysippus' statue of AEsop, 39 - - Aitken, Dr., fables by, 127 - - Aldus' edition of the fables, 59 - - Alfonso, 128 - - Aphthonius, definition of fable by, 2 - - Apologue or fable, definition of the, 1 - - Applicability of fables to every-day life, 58 - - Application of fables, 13 - - Arabian fables, 80 - - Archilochus, a writer of fables, 54 - - Aristotle on fables, 68 - - _Arrogant Mule mortified, The_, 75 - - Arwaker, Edmund, 'Truth in Fiction; or, Morality in Masquerade,' - fables by, 126 - - _Ass's Shadow, The_, 79 - - 'Assemblies of AEsopian Fables,' 55 - - Avienus, 55, 61 - - - Babrius, 55, 61, 65 - - Bayle on Babrius, 66 - - _Beau and the Butterfly, The_, 133 - - _Bee and the Coquette, The_, 130 - - _Bee and the Spider, The_, 111 - - _Belly and the Members, The_, 54, 68; - the oldest known fable, 69 - - Bentley, Dr., ridicules the account of AEsop's deformity, 40; - on Babrius, 66 - - Berington on 'The Arabian or Saracenic Learning,' 85 - - Bias, 34 - - Bitteux, 60 - - Bonus Accursius, his collection of fables, 59 - - 'Book of Kalilah and Dimnah,' The, 80 - - Boothby, Sir Brooke, definition of fable by, 3 - - _Boy and the Rainbow, The_, 137 - - Brettinger, 60 - - Brown, Walter, fables by, 127 - - _Bull and the Gnat, The_, 57 - - _Bull and Mouth, The_, 141 - - Bussey, G. Moir, definition of fable by, 4; - collection of fables, 130, 144 - - - Caxton's collection of fables, 60 - - Characteristics of fables, 7 - - Chilo, 34 - - Cleobulus, 34 - - Colling, Mary Maria, fables by, 128 - - _Confession_, from the 'Gesta Romanorum,' 93 - - Cotiaeum in Phrygia, the supposed birthplace of AEsop, 33 - - Cowper, William, combats Rousseau's views on fables, 27; - his fables, 96, 127; - _The Nightingale and the Glow-worm_, 136 - - Cr[oe]sus, King of Lydia, 34 - - Croxall, Dr. Samuel, 16, 59, 60, 61 - - - Davies, M.A., Rev. James, translator of Babrius, 67 - - Definition of fable, 1 - - Delphi, AEsop's mission to, 34; - character of the Delphians, 34; - their punishment for the murder of AEsop, 36; - their expiation to a descendant of Idmon, 36 - - Demarchus, AEsop's first master, 33 - - Demetrius Phalereus, AEsop's fables collected by, 55, 61 - - Diagoras, AEsop's fables collected by, 55 - - Dodsley, Robert, definition of fable by, 3; - on the morals and applications of fables, 17; - reason why fables esteemed in all ages, 21; - collection of fables, 60, 97, 108 - - _Dog and the Crocodile, The_, 56 - - Dryden's fables, 144 - - - _Eagle and the Beetle, The_, 35, 76 - - Ebn Arabscah's collection of Arabian fables, 85 - - _Elephant and the Fox, The_, 29 - - Emblematical fables, 11 - - English writers on fables, 62; - English fabulists, 129 - - Epigram, Agathia's, on Lysippus' statue of AEsop, 39 - - Epigrammatical character of AEsop's fables, 58 - - Escurial Library, the, 85 - - Eusebius, 35 - - - Fable, definition of, 1; - in history and myth, 68 - - Fable, writers on: - Alsop, 62; - Bayle, 66; - Benfey, 61; - Bentley, 62; - Boissonade, 61; - Boyle, 62; - Crusius, 61; - Davies, 67; - Du Meril, 61; - Ellis, 62; - Fausboll, 61; - Gaston Paris, 61; - Gitlbauer, 61; - Hervieux, 61; - Jacobs, 62; - James, 62; - Jannelli, 61; - Landsberger, 62; - Lewis, 67; - Mall, 61; - Menas, 66; - Meziriac, 61; - Mueller, 61; - Neveletus, 66; - Oesterley, 61; - Perotti, 61; - Pithou, 61; - Robert, 61; - Rhys-Davids, 62; - Rutherford, 62; - Townsend, 62; - Tyrwhitt, 62; - Vavassor, 66; - Wase, 62 - - Fables, characteristics of, 7; - morals of, 7; - rational, emblematical, and mixed, 11; - La Fontaine on, 13; - Montaigne on AEsop's, 14; - Rousseau on, 25, 27; - Cowper on, 27; - Plato advises the use of, 26; - Aristotle on, 68; - in Holy Scripture, 54 - - Fables, collections of AEsopian: - Accursius, 59; - Aldus, 59; - Avienus, 55; - Babrius, 55; - Caxton, 60; - Croxall, 59; - Diagoras, 55; - Dodsley, 60; - Faerno, 59; - James, 60; - L'Estrange, 59; - Neveletus, 59; - Ogilby, 60; - Phaedrus, 55; - Phalereus, 55; - Planudes, 37; - Stephens, 59; - Willans, 60 - - Fables quoted-- - _AEsop and the Ass_, 115 - _The Arrogant Mule mortified_, 75 - _The Ass's Shadow_, 79 - _The Beau and Butterfly_, 133 - _The Bee and the Coquette_, 130 - _The Bee and the Spider_, 111 - _The Belly and the Members_, 69 - _The Boy and the Rainbow_, 137 - _The Bull and Mouth_, 141 - _The Bull and the Gnat_, 57 - _Confession_, 93 - _The Dog and the Crocodile_, 56 - _The Eagle and the Beetle_, 35, 76 - _The Elephant and the Fox_, 29 - _The Farmer, Horseman and Pedestrian_, 131 - _The Flea and the Elephant_, 142 - _The Fox and the Crow_, 31 - _The Fox and the Hedgehog_, 73 - _The Fox and the Stork_, 99 - _The Frogs and Jupiter_, 74 - _The Geese_, 121 - _The Greedy and Ambitious Cat_, 81 - _The Green Man_, 140 - _The Horse and the Stag_, 77 - _Indian Birth Story_, 141 - _The Land of the Halt_, 132 - _The Leaves and the Roots_, 120 - _The Magpie and Stump_, 140 - _The Man and his Goose_, 10 - _The Man and the Lion_, 9 - _The Mastiff and his Puppy_, 126 - _Mercury and the Sculptor_, 57 - _The Miser and Plutus_, 106 - _The Miser and the Magpie_, 109 - _The Nightingale, the Cuckoo, and the Ass_, 142 - _The Nightingale and the Hawk_, 54, 58 - _The Nightingale and the Glow-worm_, 135, 136 - _The Old Woodcutter and Death_, 58 - _Of Perfect Life_, 90 - _The Piper turned Fisherman_, 76 - _The Shepherd and the Nightingale_, 116 - _The Snake and the Hedgehog_, 56 - _Solomon's Ghost_, 116 - _The Toad and the Ephemeron_, 110 - _The Trees in Search of a King_, 71 - _The Trooper and his Armour_, 113 - _The Two Thrushes_, 118 - _The Viper and the File_, 102 - _The Wolf and the Shepherds_, 55 - _The Wolves and the Sheep_, 78 - - Fables, writers of: - Addison, 129; - Ademar, 128; - Aitken, 127; - Alfonso, 128; - Armoult, 129; - Arwaker, 126; - Avian, 128; - Babrius, 65; - Bertola, 129; - Boisard, 129; - Bondi, 129; - Brown, 127; - Chemnitzer, 129; - Clasio, 129; - Colling, 128; - Coyne, 130; - Crudeli, 129; - Dmitriev, 129; - Dodsley, 108; - Dryden, 144; - Faerno, 59; - Fenelon, 128; - Florian, 129; - Maria de France, 127; - Gaspey, 127; - Gay, 103; - Gellert, 129; - Gentleman, 127; - Ginguene, 129; - Glinka, 129; - Godolphin, 128; - Goldsmith, 129; - Goncharov, 129; - Grillo, 129; - Hagedorn, 129; - Hall-Stevenson, 126; - Henryson, 130; - Jauffret, 129; - Krilof, 120; - La Fontaine, 97; - Lessing, 115; - Le Grand, 129; - Lichtner, 129; - Lomonosov, 129; - Moore, 126; - Nicolai, 129; - Nivernois, 128; - Northcote, 112; - Passeroni, 129; - Perego, 129; - Percival, 130; - Pfeffel, 129; - Phaedrus, 63; - Pignotti, 129; - Pilpay, 80; - Planudes, 37; - Poggio, 128; - Polidori, 129; - Prior, 129; - Prosser, 128; - Ramsay, 126; - Rankine, 130; - Roberti, 129; - Romulus, 128; - Rossi, 129; - Rowe, 127; - Rufus, 128; - Samaniego, 129; - Staite, 127; - Steele, 126; - Sumarakov, 129; - Trimmer, 128; - Vanbrugh, 129; - Westmacott, 127; - Wilkie, 127; - Wilson, 127; - Winter, 130; - Yriarte, 117 - - Fabulists as censors, 19 - - Faerno's, Gabriele, one hundred fables, 59 - - _Farmer, Horseman, and Pedestrian, The_, 131 - - Feast of the Sages, The, 75 - - Fenelon, the Abbe, 128 - - Figs, AEsop and the stolen, 44 - - _Flea and the Elephant, The_, 142 - - Florian, 129; - _The Bee and the Coquette_, 130 - - _Fox and the Crow, The_, 31 - - _Fox and the Hedgehog, The_, 73 - - _Fox and the Stork, The_, 99 - - France, Maria de, 127 - - French fabulists, 128 - - French writers on fable, 61 - - _Frogs and Jupiter, The_, 74 - - Furia, Francisco de, on Babrius, 66 - - - Gaspey's fables, 127 - - G[=a]thas, or moral verses, 14 - - Gay, John, 17; - his fables, 96; - sketch of, 103; - lines of Gay which have become widely popular, 104; - Pope's epitaph on, 105 - - _Geese, The_, 121 - - Gellert, 129; - _The Land of the Halt_, 132 - - Gentleman's, Francis, royal fables, 127; - _The Beau and Butterfly_, 133 - - German fabulists, 129; - writers on fable, 61 - - 'Gesta Romanorum,' 89; - a rich storehouse for the poets, 95 - - Godolphin, Mary, her fables, 128 - - Goldsmith on L'Estrange as a writer, 61 - - Grecian heroes and gods, 1 - - _Greedy and Ambitious Cat, The_, 81 - - _Green Man, The_, 140 - - - Hall-Stevenson's, John, 'Fables for Grown Gentlemen,' 126 - - Harrison's, J. Henry, translation of Krilof's fables, 119; - _The Man with Three Wives_, 123 - - Heidelberg Library, collection of fables in the, 59 - - Herodotus on the building of the Lesser Pyramid, 38 - - Hesiod and Homer, the mythical stories of, 26; - _The Nightingale and the Hawk_, 54, 58 - - Hindoo fables, 80 - - _Horse and the Stag, The_, 77 - - Humour of fables, 22, 58 - - Hyampia, the rock whence AEsop was precipitated, 35 - - - Idmon, or Jadmon, AEsop's third master, 34; - his grandson claims reparation for AEsop's death, 36 - - Indian birth story, 141 - - Indian fables, 130 - - Ineradicable impression produced by certain fables, 32 - - Iriarte, or Yriarte, Don Tomas de, Spanish fabulist, 117 - - Italian fabulists, 129; - writers on fable, 61 - - - Jacobs, Joseph, definition of fable by, 4; - on the added morals to fables, 13; - 'History of the AEsopic Fable,' 62; - Maria de France, 128 - - James's, Rev. Thomas, fables of AEsop, 9, 60, 143 - - Jameson, Mrs., relates a tradition of our Lord, 87 - - J[=a]takas, 14, 53, 87 - - Jewish writers on fables, 61 - - Johnson, Dr., definition of fable by, 3 - - - Krilof, or Krilov, Ivan Andreivitch, Russian fabulist, 19, 96, 97; - characteristics of his fables, 119; - sketch of his life, 120; - Ralston's translation, 119; - Harrison's translation, 119; - _The Leaves and the Roots_, 120; - _The Geese_, 121; - _The Man with Three Wives_, 123 - - - Lady fabulists, 127 - - La Fontaine, Jean de, on fables, 13, 17; - the morals of his fables, 27; - his fable of _The Old Woodcutter and Death_, 58; - his fables, 96, 144; - sketch of, 97; - Matthews' translation, 99 - - La Motte, 17, 60 - - _Land of the Halt, The_, 132 - - _Leaves and the Roots, The_, 120 - - Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim: - his fables, 96, 97; - sketch of, 115; - his fables of _AEsop and the Ass_, 115; - _The Shepherd and the Nightingale_, 116; - _Solomon's Ghost_, 116 - - Lessons taught by fables, 25 - - L'Estrange, Sir Roger, 16, 59, 60; - as a writer, 61; - his version of AEsop, 125 - - Lewis, Sir George Cornewall, edited first English edition of Babrius - in the original Greek text, 67 - - Locman, the Oriental fabulist, 37, 80, 85, 86 - - Lowell's 'Fable for Critics,' 145 - - Lysippus' statue of AEsop, 39 - - Lytton's, Lord, 'Fables in Song,' 145 - - - _Magpie and Stump, The_, 140 - - _Man and his Goose, The_, 10 - - _Man and the Lion, The_, 9 - - Mandeville's 'Fable of the Bees,' 144 - - _Mastiff and his Puppy, The_, 126 - - Men loath to apply the moral of a fable to their own case, 22 - - Menas, M. Minoides, discovers a copy of Babrius, 66 - - Menenius recites the fable of _The Belly and the Members_, 69 - - _Mercury and the Sculptor_, 57 - - Mercury bestows the invention of the apologue on AEsop, 43 - - _Miser and the Magpie, The_, 109 - - _Miser and Plutus, The_, 106 - - Mixed fables, 11 - - Modern fabulists, 96, 108, 115, 125 - - Montaigne on AEsop's fables, 14 - - Moore's, Edward, 'Fables for the Fair Sex,' 126; - _The Nightingale and the Glow-worm_, 135 - - Moore's, Thomas, 'Political Fables,' 145 - - Moral and application of fables, 13; - whether the moral should be placed at the beginning or end of a - fable, 16 - - - Neveletus' collection of fables, 59; - on Babrius, 66 - - _Nightingale and the Glow-worm, The_, 135, 136 - - _Nightingale and the Hawk, The_, 54, 58 - - _Nightingale, Cuckoo, and Ass, The_, 142 - - Nivernois, 128; - _The Farmer, Horseman, and Pedestrian_, 131 - - Northcote, R.A., James: - his fables of _The Elephant and the Fox_, 29; - _The Trooper and his Armour_, 113; - his fables, 96, 97, 112; - sketch of his life, 112 - - - _Of Perfect Life_, from 'The Gesta Romanorum,' 90 - - _Old Woodcutter and Death, The_, 58 - - - Parables, 5, 6; - Nathan and the ewe lamb, 6; - of the Gospels, 6 - - Parodies on AEsop's fables, 127 - - Pater, Walter, definition of fable by, 2 - - Pathos in fables, 58 - - _Perfect Life, Of_, from 'The Gesta Romanorum,' 90 - - Periander, 34 - - Persian fables, 80 - - Phaedrus, 3, 17, 55; - his view of the origin and purpose of fables, 20, 26; - on AEsop's statue, 39; - sketch of his life, 63; - prologue to his third book, 64 - - Philostratus on a picture of AEsop and the geniuses of fable, 40; - mythical account of the youthful AEsop, 43 - - Pictures illustrating fables, 143 - - Pilpay's fables, 80 - - _Piper turned Fisherman, The_, 76 - - Pittacus, 34 - - Planudes confounds Locman with AEsop, 37; - his stories of AEsop, 42 - - Plato advises the use of fables, 26; - citation from the 'Phaedo' of, 59 - - Plutarch on AEsop at the Court of Cr[oe]sus, 49; - on Hesiod's fable of the nightingale, 54 - - Poggio, 128 - - Pope's epitaph on Gay, 105 - - Prosser's, Mrs., fables, 128 - - - Quintilian recommends the learning of fables, 26 - - - Ralston's, W. R. S., translation of Krilof's fables, 119; - _The Geese_, 121 - - Ramsay's, Allan, fables, 126 - - Rankine's, Professor W. J. Macquorn, fables on well-known signboards, 130; - _The Magpie and Stump_, 140; - _The Green Man_, 140; - _The Bull and Mouth_, 141 - - Rational fables, 11 - - Reflection, the, appended to fables, 15 - - Remark, the, appended to fables, 15 - - Rhodope, the reputed wife of AEsop, 38; - said to have built the Lesser Pyramid, 38 - - Richer, 60 - - Romulus, 128 - - Rousseau, Jean Jacques, on fables, 25, 27 - - Rowe, Rev. Henry: his fables, 127 - - Rufus, 128 - - Russian fabulists, 129 - - - Scandinavian heroes and gods, 1 - - Seven sages of Greece, the, 34 - - Shakespeare's 'Coriolanus,' fable of _The Belly and the Members_ from, 69 - - _Shepherd and the Nightingale, The_, 116 - - Sidney, Sir Philip, on AEsop's fables, 145 - - Smart's, Christopher, translation of Phaedrus, 64 - - _Snake and the Hedgehog, The_, 56 - - Socrates and AEsop's fables, 59 - - _Solomon's Ghost_, 116 - - Solon, 34; - at the Court of Cr[oe]sus, 49 - - Spanish fabulists, 129 - - Staite's, W. E., fables, 127 - - Steele's definition of fable, 4; - fable of _The Mastiff and his Puppy_, 126 - - Stephens', Robert, edition of the fables, 59 - - Stories related of AEsop, 43 - - Successful villain, the, in the fable, 28 - - Suidas quoted, 59 - - Swift quoted, 23 - - - 'Tatler,' the, quoted, 4 - - Temple, Sir William, on AEsop, 60 - - Thales, 34 - - _Toad and the Ephemeron, The_, 110 - - _Trees in Search of a King, The_, the oldest fable in Holy Scripture, 71 - - Trimmer's, Mrs., fables of AEsop, 128 - - _Trooper and his Armour, The_, 113 - - _Two Thrushes, The_, 118 - - Tyrwhitt on Babrius, 66 - - - Universality of the effect of fables, 28 - - - Vanbrugh, Sir John, 129 - - Vavassor on Babrius, 66 - - _Viper and the File, The_, 102 - - - Westmacott's, Charles, 'Fables for Mankind,' 127, 143 - - Wilkie, D.D., William: - his fables, 127; - _The Boy and the Rainbow_, 127, 137 - - Willans', Leonard, collection of fables, 60 - - Wilson, Sheridan, 'The Bath Fables,' 127 - - _Wolf and the Lamb, The_, 58 - - _Wolf and the Shepherds, The_, 55 - - _Wolves and the Sheep, The_, 78 - - - Xanthus, or Zanthus, AEsop's second master, 33; - his foolish wager, 46; - his wife restored, 46 - - - Yriarte, or Iriarte, Don Tomas de, Spanish fabulist, 117; - characteristics of his fables, 117; - _The Two Thrushes_, 118 - - -[Device] - - -_Elliot Stock, 62, Paternoster Row, London, E.C._ - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Fables and Fabulists: Ancient and -Modern, by Thomas Newbigging - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FABLES, FABULISTS: ANCIENT, MODERN *** - -***** This file should be named 42761.txt or 42761.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/2/7/6/42761/ - -Produced by David Edwards, Stephen Blundell and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, -set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to -copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to -protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project -Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you -charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you -do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the -rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose -such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and -research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do -practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is -subject to the trademark license, especially commercial -redistribution. - - - -*** START: FULL LICENSE *** - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project -Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at - www.gutenberg.org/license. - - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy -all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. -If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the -terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or -entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement -and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" -or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the -collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an -individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are -located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from -copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative -works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg -are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project -Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by -freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of -this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with -the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by -keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project -Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in -a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check -the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement -before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or -creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project -Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning -the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United -States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate -access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently -whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, -copied or distributed: - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived -from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is -posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied -and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees -or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work -with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the -work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 -through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the -Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or -1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional -terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked -to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the -permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any -word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or -distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than -"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version -posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), -you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a -copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon -request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other -form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided -that - -- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is - owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he - has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the - Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments - must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you - prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax - returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and - sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the - address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to - the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." - -- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or - destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium - and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of - Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any - money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days - of receipt of the work. - -- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set -forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from -both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael -Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the -Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm -collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain -"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or -corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual -property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a -computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by -your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with -your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with -the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a -refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity -providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to -receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy -is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further -opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO OTHER -WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO -WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. -If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the -law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be -interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by -the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any -provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance -with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, -promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, -harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, -that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do -or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm -work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any -Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. - - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers -including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists -because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from -people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. -To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation -and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 -and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org - - -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive -Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent -permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. -Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered -throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at 809 -North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email -contact links and up to date contact information can be found at the -Foundation's web site and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact - -For additional contact information: - Dr. Gregory B. Newby - Chief Executive and Director - gbnewby@pglaf.org - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide -spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To -SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any -particular state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. -To donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate - - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works. - -Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm -concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared -with anyone. For forty years, he produced and distributed Project -Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. -unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily -keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. - -Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: - - www.gutenberg.org - -This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. diff --git a/42761.zip b/42761.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 647e302..0000000 --- a/42761.zip +++ /dev/null |