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diff --git a/43695-0.txt b/43695-0.txt index 636992b..7f41468 100644 --- a/43695-0.txt +++ b/43695-0.txt @@ -1,42 +1,4 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Appletons' Popular Science Monthly, -February 1899, by Various - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Appletons' Popular Science Monthly, February 1899 - Volume LIV, No. 4, February 1899 - -Author: Various - -Editor: William Jay Youmans - -Release Date: September 11, 2013 [EBook #43695] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK APPLETONS' POPULAR SCIENCE, FEB 1899 *** - - - - -Produced by Judith Wirawan, Greg Bergquist, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by Biodiversity Heritage Library.) - - - - - - - - +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 43695 *** Established by Edward L. Youmans @@ -7435,361 +7397,4 @@ June 30, 1898..." as the original is unclear. 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You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Appletons' Popular Science Monthly, February 1899 - Volume LIV, No. 4, February 1899 - -Author: Various - -Editor: William Jay Youmans - -Release Date: September 11, 2013 [EBook #43695] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK APPLETONS' POPULAR SCIENCE, FEB 1899 *** - - - - -Produced by Judith Wirawan, Greg Bergquist, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by Biodiversity Heritage Library.) - - - - - - - - - - Established by Edward L. Youmans - - APPLETONS' - POPULAR SCIENCE - MONTHLY - - EDITED BY - WILLIAM JAY YOUMANS - - VOL. LIV - - NOVEMBER, 1898, TO APRIL, 1899 - - NEW YORK - D. APPLETON AND COMPANY - 1899 - - - - - COPYRIGHT, 1899, - BY D. APPLETON AND COMPANY. - - - - -VOL. LIV. ESTABLISHED BY EDWARD L. YOUMANS. NO. 4. - -APPLETONS' POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. - -FEBRUARY, 1899. - -_EDITED BY WILLIAM JAY YOUMANS._ - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - PAGE - - I. Vegetation a Remedy for the Summer Heat of Cities. By - STEPHEN SMITH, M.D., LL.D 433 - - II. Mivart's Groundwork of Science. By Prof. WM. KEITH - BROOKS 450 - - III. The Science of Observation. By CHARLES LIVY WHITTLE. - (Illustrated.) 456 - - IV. Death Gulch, a Natural Bear-Trap. By T.A. JAGGAR, Jr. - (Illustrated.) 475 - - V. The Labor Problem in the Tropics. By W. ALLEYNE IRELAND 481 - - VI. Principles of Taxation. XX. The Law of the Diffusion of - Taxes. Part II. By the Late Hon. DAVID A. WELLS 490 - - VII. The Great Bombardment. By CHARLES F. HOLDER. (Illustrated.) 506 - - VIII. The Spirit of Conquest. By J. NOVICOW 518 - - IX. A Short History of Scientific Instruction. II. By Sir - J.N. LOCKYER 529 - - X. The Series Method: a Comparison. By CHARLOTTE TAYLOR 537 - - XI. The Earliest Writing in France. By M. GABRIEL DE MORTILLET 542 - - XII. Sketch of Gabriel de Mortillet. (With Portrait.) 546 - - XIII. Correspondence: The Foundation of Sociology.--Evolution and - Education again.--Emerson and Evolution 553 - - XIV. Editor's Table: The New Superstition.--Emerson 557 - - XV. Scientific Literature 559 - - XVI. Fragments of Science 569 - - - - - NEW YORK: - D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, - 72 FIFTH AVENUE. - - SINGLE NUMBER, 50 CENTS. YEARLY SUBSCRIPTION, $5.00. - - COPYRIGHT, 1899, BY D. APPLETON AND COMPANY. - - Entered at the Post Office at New York, and admitted for - transmission through the mails at second-class rates. - - - - -[Illustration: GABRIEL DE MORTILLET.] - - - - -APPLETONS' POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. - -FEBRUARY, 1899. - - - - -VEGETATION A REMEDY FOR THE SUMMER HEAT OF CITIES. - - A PLEA FOR THE CULTIVATION OF TREES, SHRUBS, PLANTS, VINES, AND - GRASSES IN THE STREETS OF NEW YORK FOR THE IMPROVEMENT - OF THE PUBLIC HEALTH, FOR THE COMFORT OF SUMMER - RESIDENTS, AND FOR ORNAMENTATION.[1] - -BY STEPHEN SMITH, M.D., LL.D. - - -One of the most prolific sources of a high sickness and death rate in -the city of New York is developed during the summer quarter. It has -been estimated that from three to five thousand persons die and sixty -to one hundred thousand cases of sickness occur annually in this city, -from causes which are engendered during the months of June, July, -August, and September. An examination of the records of the Health -Department for any year reveals the important fact that certain -diseases are not only more frequent during the summer quarter than at -any other time, but that they are far more fatal, especially in the -months of July and August, than during any other period of the year. -These are the "zymotic diseases," or those depending upon some form of -germ life. The following table illustrates the course of mortality -from those diseases in one year: - - Month. Deaths. - - January 541 - February 475 - March 476 - April 554 - May 584 - June 798 - July 1,433 - August 1,126 - September 791 - October 522 - November 460 - December 504 - -It appears that during eight months of the year, excluding June, July, -August, and September, the average monthly mortality from "zymotic -diseases" was 452. Had the same average continued during the remaining -four months the total mortality from those diseases for that year -would have been 4,424; but the actual mortality was 7,764, which -proves that 3,340 persons were sacrificed during those four fatal -months to conditions which exist in the city only at that period of -the year. Still more startling is the estimate of the sickness rate -caused by the unhealthful conditions created in the summer months in -New York city. If we estimate that there are twenty cases of sickness -for every death by a zymotic disease there were 66,800 more cases of -sickness in the year above referred to than there would have been had -the sickness rate been the same in the summer as in the other months -of that year. - -One of the saddest features of this high sickness and death rate -appears when we notice the ages of those who are especially the -victims of these fatal diseases. During the week ending July 9th last -there were 399 deaths from diarrhoeal diseases, of which number 382 -were children under five years of age. The following table taken from -the records of the Health Department show in a very striking manner -how fatal to child life are the conditions peculiar to our summer -season: - - ----------+------------------------------------------------ - | DEATHS FROM DIARRHOEAL DISEASES. - |-----------+-----------+------------+----------- - MONTH. | Under one | Under two | Under five | - | year. | years. | years. | All ages. - ----------+-----------+-----------+------------+----------- - January | 50 | 55 | 58 | 82 - February | 47 | 51 | 58 | 75 - March | 75 | 80 | 83 | 96 - April | 82 | 91 | 97 | 108 - May | 101 | 117 | 121 | 104 - June | 387 | 430 | 436 | 467 - July | 809 | 990 | 1,020 | 1,100 - August | 464 | 565 | 697 | 762 - September | 267 | 394 | 409 | 462 - October | 114 | 148 | 154 | 190 - November | 59 | 70 | 72 | 89 - December | 57 | 62 | 64 | 82 - ----------+-----------+-----------+------------+----------- - -These statistics demonstrate the extreme unhealthfulness of New York -during the summer, and the vast proportion of children who perish from -the fatal agencies which are then brought into activity. It is a -matter of great public concern to determine the nature of the -unhygienic conditions on which this excessive mortality depends, and -thus discover the proper remedial measures. - -As high temperature is the distinguishing feature of the summer -months, we very naturally conclude that excessive heat is a most -important factor, if not the sole cause, of the diseases so fatal to -human life at this period. A close comparison of the temperature and -mortality records of any summer in this city demonstrates the direct -relation of the former to the latter. For illustration, we will take -the records of the Health Department during the past summer, selecting -diarrhoeal diseases for comparison, as they prevail and are most fatal -at that season of the year. The table gives the total mortality from -these diseases and the mortality from those diseases of children under -five years of age. To the four months, June, July, August, and -September, are added May and October, for the purpose of showing the -gradual increase of the mortality from these diseases as the hot -weather approaches and its decline as the hot weather abates. - - Key: TF. = Temperature (Fahrenheit) - - --------------+------------+--------------+-------+-------+------- - | Total | Diarrhoeal | | | - WEEK ENDING | diarrhoeal |diseases under| Mean |Maximum|Minimum - | diseases. | five yrs. | TF. | TF. | TF. - --------------+------------+--------------+-------+-------+------- - May 7th | 10 | 8 | 52.4° | 72° | 47° - May 14th | 20 | 17 | 55.5° | 71° | 40° - May 21st | 14 | 12 | 63.3° | 86° | 52° - May 28th | 22 | 19 | 60.9° | 70° | 56° - June 4th | 18 | 16 | 65.8° | 76° | 54° - June 11th | 26 | 20 | 71.6° | 86° | 58° - June 18th | 36 | 32 | 73.0° | 89° | 59° - June 25th | 74 | 69 | 69.3° | 94° | 54° - July 2d | 170 | 164 | 78.6° | 94° | 67° - July 9th | 399 | 382 | 77.4° | 100° | 61° - July 16th | 330 | 321 | 71.1° | 91° | 57° - July 23d | 388 | 356 | 77.4° | 91° | 67° - July 30th | 380 | 353 | 78.5° | 95° | 70° - August 6th | 380 | 353 | 78.8° | 92° | 67° - August 13th | 342 | 306 | 73.9° | 90° | 65° - August 20th | 290 | 261 | 74.8° | 89° | 64° - August 27th | 268 | 246 | 76.6° | 93° | 63° - September 3d | 289 | 256 | 79.0° | 93° | 59° - September 10th| 283 | 255 | 74.0° | 92° | 58° - September 17th| 179 | 158 | 67.3° | 85° | 52° - September 24th| 193 | 167 | 68.7° | 90° | 52° - October 1st | 132 | 117 | 66.5° | 80° | 54° - October 8th | 90 | 78 | 69.6° | 81° | 53° - October 15th | 71 | 58 | 60.1° | 74° | 49° - October 22d | 54 | 42 | 55.9° | 71° | 44° - October 29th | 39 | 32 | 53.9° | 67° | 41° - --------------+------------+--------------+-------+-------+------- - -Again, if we compare the temperature and mortality records for a -series of days instead of months, it will be noticed that the -mortality record follows the fluctuations of the heat record with as -much precision as effect follows cause. The summer heat generally -begins about the 20th of June and continues with varying intensity -until the 15th of September. Within that period we can select many -examples which strikingly illustrate the relations of temperature to -mortality. For example, the first heated term of the year before us -began on the 19th of June and lasted until the 26th of that month. The -two records are as follows: - - -----+------------+---------- - DAY. |Temperature.|Mortality. - -----+------------+---------- - 19th | 78° | 83 - -----+------------+---------- - 20th | 80 | 100 - -----+------------+---------- - 21st | 82 | 122 - -----+------------+---------- - 22d | 80 | 116 - -----+------------+---------- - 23d | 77 | 104 - -----+------------+---------- - 24th | 68 | 119 - -----+------------+---------- - 25th | 65 | 88 - -----+------------+---------- - -On the 28th of June a second heated term began, when the temperature -rose to 80°, and continued above that figure until July 5th, a period -of eight days. The following is the record, including the temperature -in the sun: - - ----------+------------------------------ - | TEMPERATURE - DAY. +-----------+-------+---------- - | In shade. |In sun.|Mortality. - ----------+-----------+-------+---------- - June 28th | 80° | 118° | 118 - ----------+-----------+-------+---------- - June 29th | 84 | 120 | 163 - ----------+-----------+-------+---------- - June 30th | 85 | 124 | 191 - ----------+-----------+-------+---------- - July 1st | 88 | 125 | 247 - ----------+-----------+-------+---------- - July 2d | 87 | 128 | 351 - ----------+-----------+-------+---------- - July 3d | 82 | 120 | 238 - ----------+-----------+-------+---------- - July 4th | 84 | 122 | 227 - ----------+-----------+-------+---------- - July 5th | 80 | 121 | 184 - ----------+-----------+-------+---------- - -It will be noticed that during the last heated period there was a more -prolonged high temperature than during the first, and that the -mortality of the second was higher for the same temperature than that -of the first. These facts are in accord with the history of our summer -months. The range of temperature increases as the season advances, and -the rate of mortality rises, owing to the diminished resisting power -to the effects of high heat on the part of the people, especially of -the children, the aged, and those already enfeebled by disease. - -In order to fully understand the influence of heat and its effects -upon the public health, we must first notice the conditions regulating -the temperature of the body in health and disease. - -The temperature of animals in a state of health is not a fixed -quantity, but has a limited range which depends upon internal and -external conditions not incompatible with health. In man the range of -temperature in health is fixed at 97.25° F. to 99.5° F. Any -temperature above or below these extremes, unless explained by special -circumstances not affecting the normal condition of the person, is an -indication of disease. This comparatively fixed temperature in health -is a remarkable feature of the living animal. When subjected to a -temperature above or below the extremes here given it will still -maintain its equilibrium. This fixed temperature under varying -conditions of heat and cold is due to a "heat-regulating power," -inherent in the constitution of every animal, by which it imparts heat -when the temperature of the air is high and conserves heat when the -latter is low. The heat escapes from the body--1, by radiation from -the surface; 2, by transmission to other bodies; 3, by evaporation; -and 4, by the conversion of heat into motion. The surface of the body -furnishes the principal medium for the loss of heat by the first three -methods--viz., radiation, transmission, and evaporation. It is -estimated that 93.07 per cent of the heat produced escapes by the -processes of radiation, evaporation, conduction, and mechanical work. -The remaining heat units are lost by warming inspired air and the -foods and drinks taken. There are apparently other subtile influences, -so-called "regulators of heat," at work to preserve an equilibrium of -temperature in the animal body, but they are not well known. The -result of the operation of these forces is this--viz., if, by any -means, the heat of the body is increased, compensative losses of heat -quickly occur, and the normal temperature is soon restored; and if, on -the contrary, the loss of heat is unusually increased, the -compensative production of heat of the body at once follows, and the -equilibrium is at once restored. The important fact to remember is -this--viz., the production and loss of heat in the human organism when -in health and not subjected to too violent disturbing causes are so -nicely balanced that the temperature is always maintained at an -average of 98.6° F., the extremes being 97.25° F. and 99.5° F. "So -beautifully is this balance preserved," Parkes remarks, "that the -stability of the animal temperature in all countries has always been a -subject of marvel." If, however, anything prevents the operation of -the processes of cooling--viz., radiation, evaporation, and -conduction--the bodily temperature rises by the accumulation of heat, -and death is the result from combustion. In experiments in ovens a man -has been able to bear a temperature of 260° F. for a short period, -provided the air was dry so that evaporation could be carried on -rapidly. But if the air is very moist, and perspiration is impeded, -the temperature of the body rises rapidly, and the person soon -succumbs to the excessive heat. Another important fact is this, viz., -the normal temperature of the young and of the very old is higher -than the middle-aged. The infant at birth has a temperature of 99° F. -to 100° F., and it maintains a temperature of 99° F. and upward for -several days. The variations of temperature from other causes are much -greater in children than in adults, as also the normal daily -variations of temperature. About the sixtieth year the average -temperature of man begins to rise, and approximates that of the -infant. In the young and old the "heat-regulating power" is more -readily exhausted, and hence continued high temperature is far more -fatal to these classes. - -The first noticeable fact in regard to bodily temperature in disease -is that there are daily fluctuations as in health, but much more -extreme. In general, the remission of temperature in disease occurs in -the morning, and the exacerbation in the afternoon and evening; the -minimum is reached between six and nine o'clock in the morning, and -the maximum between three and six o'clock in the evening. In many -diseases the minimum temperature is not below 100° F., and usually it -is one or two degrees above that point, while the maximum has no -definite limit and may reach the dangerous height of 107° F. It should -be noticed that the highest daily temperature in disease, as in -health, occurs in the afternoon, when the temperature of the air in -summer is the greatest. - -The conditions affecting the temperature of the body other than those -due to physiological conditions are very numerous. First and most -obvious is the temperature of the surrounding atmosphere. It is a -well-established fact that an average temperature of the air of 54° F. -is best adapted to the public health, for at that temperature the -decomposition of animal and vegetable matter is slight, and normal -temperature is most easily maintained. Every degree of temperature -above or below that point requires a more or less effort of the -heat-regulating power to maintain the proper equilibrium. Even more -potent in elevating the bodily temperature is the introduction into -the blood, whether by respiration or by direct injection, of putrid -fluids and the gases of decomposing matters. If this injection is -repeated at short intervals, death will occur with a high temperature. -The air of cities contains emanations, in hot weather, from a vast -number of sources of animal and vegetable decomposition, and the -inhalation of air so vitiated brings in contact with the blood these -deleterious products in a highly divided state which cause a fatal -elevation of temperature in the young, old, and enfeebled. The same -effect is produced by the air in close and heated places, as in -tenement houses, workshops, schoolhouses, hospital wards, and other -rooms where many persons congregate for hours. Air thus charged with -poisonous gases becomes more dangerous if the temperature of the -place is raised, as happens almost daily in the summer months in -cities. - -From the preceding facts we may conclude that, as long as the body -continues in health, the "heat-regulating power," which constantly -tends to preserve an equilibrium of temperature, is capable of -resisting the ordinary agencies that, operating externally or -internally, exaggerate the heat-producing conditions, and thus destroy -the individual. But if the person is suffering from a disease which -weakens the "heat-regulating power" these deleterious agencies, which -the healthy person may resist, will readily overpower the already -quite exhausted heat-regulating forces, and he perishes by combustion. -It is very evident that in an organism having complicated functions, -like that of man, and subject to such a multitude of adverse -influences, the balance between health and disease must be very nicely -adjusted. Too great an elevation or too great a depression of -temperature may destroy the "heat-regulating power," and disease or -death will be the consequence. Or this "heat-regulating power" may be -weakened or destroyed by causes generated within the body, or received -from without, and the heat-producing agencies are then under -influences which may prove to be powerfully destructive forces. - -It will not now be difficult to understand in what manner high -temperature affects the public health of large cities. Evidently in -the _direct_ action of heat upon the human body we have the most -powerful agency in the production of our great summer mortality. While -sunstroke represents the maximum direct effect of solar heat upon the -human subject, the large increase of deaths from wasting chronic -diseases and diarrhoeal affections, of children under one year of age -and persons upward of seventy years of age, shows the terrible effects -of the prevailing intense heat of summer upon all who are debilitated -by disease or age and thereby have their "heat-regulating power" -diminished. The fact has been established by repeated experiment that -when solar or artificial heat is continually applied to the animal the -temperature of its body will gradually rise until all of the -compensating or heat-regulating agencies fail to preserve the -equilibrium, and the temperature reaches a point at which death takes -place from actual combustion. In general, a temperature of 107° F. in -man would be regarded as indicating an unfavorable termination of any -disease. In persons suffering from sunstroke the temperature often -ranges from 106° F. to 110° F., the higher temperature appearing just -before a fatal termination. - -The _indirect_ effects of heat appear in the production of poisonous -gases which vitiate the air and render it more or less prejudicial to -health. Decomposition of all forms of refuse animal and vegetable -matter proceeds with far greater rapidity during the summer quarter -than during other months of the year. Among the early results of -summer heat is the damage to food. Milk retailed through the city, the -sole or chief diet of thousands of hand-fed infants, undergoes such -changes as to render it not only less nutritious but also hurtful to -the digestive organs. The vegetables and fruits in the markets rapidly -deteriorate and become unfit for food. Meats and fish quickly take on -putrefactive changes which render them more or less indigestible. The -effect of this increase of temperature upon the refuse and filth of -the streets, courts, and alleys, upon the air in close places, in the -tenement houses, and upon the tenants themselves is soon perceptible. -The foul gases of decomposition fill the atmosphere of the city and -render the air of close and unventilated places stifling; while -languor, depression, and debility fall upon the population like a -widespread epidemic. The physician now recognizes the fact that a new -element has entered into the medical constitution of the season. The -sickly young, the enfeebled old, those exhausted from wasting -diseases, whose native energies were just sufficient to maintain their -tenure of life, are the first to succumb to this pressure upon their -vital resources. Diarrhoeal diseases of every form next appear and -assume a fatal intensity, and finally the occurrence of sunstroke (or -heat-stroke) determines the maximum effects of heat upon the public -health. The sickness records of dispensaries and the mortality records -of the Health Department show that a new and most destructive force is -now operating, not only in the diseases above mentioned, but in nearly -all of the diseases of the period. Fevers, inflammatory diseases, and -others of a similar nature run a more rapid course, and are far less -amenable to treatment. This is due, in the opinion of eminent medical -authority, to the addition of the heat of the air to the heat of the -body. Indeed, the only safety is in flight from the city to the -country and to cool localities, as the seashore or the mountains. The -immediate improvement of those suffering from affections of the city -when transferred to the country is often marvelous, and shows -conclusively how fatal is the element of heat in its direct and -indirect effects upon the residents of the city. - -Let us next consider the causes of high temperature in the city of New -York. It is a well-established fact that the temperature of large and -densely populated towns is far higher than the surrounding country. -This is due to a variety of causes, the chief of which are the absence -of vegetation; the drainage and hence the dryness of the soil; the -covering of the earth with stone, bricks, and mortar; the aggregation -of population to surface area; the massing together of buildings; and -the artificial heat of workshops and manufactories. The difference -between the mean temperature of the city at Cooper Institute and at -the Arsenal, Central Park, for a single month, illustrates this fact. -Another striking difference between the temperature of these two -points of observation is that the range is much greater at Central -Park than at Cooper Institute, the temperature falling at night more -at the former than at the latter place. The effect of vegetation is to -lower the temperature at night, while brick and stone retain the heat -and prevent any considerable fall of temperature during the -twenty-four hours. It may be said of New York that it has all the -conditions of increased temperature above given in an intensified -form. It has a southern exposure; all of its broad avenues run north -and south; the surface is covered with stone, brick, and asphalt; it -is destitute of vegetation except in its parks, which have a very -limited area compared with the needs of the city; its buildings are -irregularly arranged and crowded together so as to give the largest -amount of elevation with the least superficial area; ventilation of -courts, areas, and living rooms is sacrificed; its ill-constructed and -overcrowded tenement houses, especially of certain districts, have the -largest population to surface area of any city in the civilized world. -To these natural and structural unfavorable sanitary conditions must -be added the enormous production of artificial heat in dwellings. When -the summer temperature begins to rise the solar heat is constantly -added to the artificial heat already existing. The temperature of the -whole vast mass of stones, bricks, mortar, and asphalt gradually -increases, with no other mitigation or modification than that caused -by the inconstant winds and occasional rainstorms. And the evils of -high temperature are yearly increasing as the area of brick, stone, -and asphalt extends. The records of sunstroke during the past few -years is appalling, both on account of the number of cases and their -comparative increase. If no adequate remedy is discovered and applied, -the day would not seem to be distant when the resident, especially if -he is a laborer, will remain in the city and pursue his work during -the summer at the constant risk of his life. - -Turning now to consider the question of the measures which are best -adapted to protect the present and future population of New York from -the effects of high summer temperatures, we are met by many -suggestions of more or less value. The more important methods proposed -are: a large supply of public baths; the daily flushing of the streets -with an immense volume of river water; recreation piers; excursions to -the seashore; temporary residence in the country, etc. But these are -for the most part temporary expedients, applicable to individuals, and -are but accessory to some more radical measure which aims to so change -the atmospheric conditions that excessive heat can not occur. The -real problem to be solved may be thus stated: How can the temperature -of the city of New York be so modified during the summer months as to -prevent that extreme degree of heat on which the enormous sickness and -death rate of the people depend? Discussing the subject broadly from -this standpoint, it becomes at once evident that we must employ those -agencies which in the wide field of Nature are designed to mitigate -heat and purify the air and thus create permanent climatic conditions -favorable for the habitation of man. - -It requires but little knowledge of the physical forces which modify -the climate of large areas of the earth's surface to recognize the -fact that vegetation plays a most important part. And of the different -forms of vegetation, trees, as compared with shrubs, plants, vines, -and grasses, are undoubtedly the most efficient. This is due to the -vast area of surface which their leaves present to the air on a very -limited ground space. The sanitary value of trees has hitherto been -practically unrecognized by man. With the most ruthless hand he has -everywhere and at all times sacrificed this most important factor in -the conservation of a healthful and temperate climate. He has found, -too late, however, that by this waste of the forests he has by no -means improved his own condition. The winters have become colder, the -summers hotter; the living springs have ceased to flow perpetually; -the fertilizing streams have disappeared; the earth is deeply frozen -in winter and parched in summer; and, finally, new and grave diseases -have appeared where formerly they were unknown. - -It is well understood that the temperature in a forest, a grove, or -even a clump of trees, is cooler in summer and warmer in winter than -the surrounding country. Man and animals alike seek the shade of -groves and trees during the heat of the day, and are greatly refreshed -and revived by the cool atmosphere. The difference between the -temperature of the air under and among the branches of a single tree, -densely leaved, and the surrounding air, on a hot day, is instantly -realized by the laborer or traveler who seeks the shade. The -thermometer in the sun and shade shows a difference of twenty, thirty, -and forty degrees, and in the soil a difference of ten to eleven -degrees. The reverse is true in winter. The laborer and traveler -exposed to the cold of the open country find in the forest a degree of -warmth quite as great as in a building but imperfectly inclosed. -Railroad engineers inform us that they have occasion to use far less -fuel in passing through forests in winter than in traversing the same -distance in the open country. When the ground in the fields is frozen -two or three feet deep, its temperature in the forest is found above -the freezing point. - -Forests and even single trees have, therefore, a marked influence upon -the surrounding atmosphere, especially during the summer, and they -evidently tend to equalize temperature, preventing extremes both in -summer and winter. Hence they become of immense value as sanitary -agencies in preserving equality of climatic conditions. - -It is believed by some vegetable physiologists that trees exert this -power through their own inherent warmth, which always remains at a -fixed standard both in summer and winter. "Observation shows," says -Meguscher,[2] "that the wood of a living tree maintains a temperature -of from 54° to 56° F., when the temperature stands from 37° to 47° F. -above zero, and that the internal warmth does not rise and fall in -proportion to that of the atmosphere. So long as the latter is below -67° F., that of the tree is always highest; but, if the temperature of -the air rises to 67° F., that of the vegetable growth is the lowest." -Since, then, trees maintain at all seasons a constant mean temperature -of 54° F., it is easy to see why the air in contact with the forest -must be warmer in winter and cooler in summer than in situations where -it is deprived of that influence.[3] - -Again, the shade of trees protects the earth from the direct rays of -the sun, and prevents solar irradiation from the earth. This effect is -of immense importance in cities where the paved streets become -excessively heated, and radiation creates one of the most dangerous -sources of heat. Whoever has walked in the streets of New York, on a -hot summer's day, protected from the direct rays of a midday sun by -his umbrella, has found the reflected heat of the pavement -intolerable. If for a moment he passed into the dense shade of a tree, -he at once experienced a marked sense of relief. This relief is not -due so much to the shade as to the cooling effect of the vaporization -from the leaves of the tree. - -Trees also have a cutaneous transpiration by their leaves. And -although they absorb largely the vapor of the surrounding air, and -also the water of the soil, they nevertheless exhale constantly large -volumes into the air. This vaporization of liquids is a frigorific or -cooling process, and when most rapid the frigorific effect reaches its -maximum. The amount of fluid exhaled by vegetation has been, at -various times, estimated with more or less accuracy. Hales[4] states -that a sunflower, with a surface of 5.616 square inches, throws off at -the rate of twenty to twenty-four ounces avoirdupois every twelve -hours; a vine, with twelve square feet of foliage, exhales at the rate -of five or six ounces daily. Bishop Watson, in his experiments on -grasses, estimated that an acre of grass emits into the atmosphere -6.400 quarts of water in twenty-four hours. - -It is evident, therefore, that vegetation tends powerfully to cool the -atmosphere during a summer day, and this effect increases in -proportion to the increase of the temperature. The influence of trees -heavily leaved, in a district where there is no other vegetation, in -moderating and equalizing the temperature, can not be overestimated. -The amount of superficial surface exposed by the foliage of a single -tree is immense. For example, "the Washington elm, of Cambridge, -Mass., a tree of moderate size, was estimated several years since to -produce a crop of seven million leaves, exposing a surface of two -hundred thousand square feet, or about five acres of foliage." - -Trees regulate the humidity of the air by the process of absorption -and transpiration. They absorb the moisture contained in the air, and -again return to the air, in the form of vapor, the water which they -have absorbed from the earth and the air. The flow of sap in trees for -the most part ceases at night, the stimulus of light and heat being -necessary to the function of absorption and evaporation. During the -heated portions of the day, therefore, when there is the most need of -agencies to equalize both temperature and humidity, trees perform -their peculiar functions most actively. Moisture is rapidly absorbed -from the air by the leaves, and from the earth by the roots, and is -again all returned to the air and earth by transpiration or exudation. -The effect of this process upon temperature and humidity is thus -stated by Marsh: "The evaporation of the juices of the plant by -whatever process effected, takes up atmospheric heat and produces -refrigeration. This effect is not less real, though much less sensible -in the forest than in meadow and pasture land, and it can not be -doubted that the local temperature is considerably affected by it. But -the evaporation that cools the air diffuses through it, at the same -time, a medium which powerfully resists the escape of heat from the -earth by radiation. Visible vapor or clouds, it is well known, prevent -frosts by obstructing radiation, or rather by reflecting back again -the heat radiated by the earth, just as any mechanical screen would -do. On the other hand, clouds intercept the rays of the sun also, and -hinder its heat from reaching the earth." Again, he says, upon the -whole, their general effect "seems to be to mitigate extremes of -atmospheric heat and cold, moisture and drought. They serve as -equalizers of temperature and humidity." - -Again, let us notice the effects of trees upon malarial emanations. -The power of trees, when in leaf, to render harmless the poisonous -emanations from the earth has long been an established fact. Man may -live in close proximity to marshes from which arise the most -dangerous malaria with the utmost impunity, provided a grove intervene -between his home and the marsh. This function of trees was known to -the Romans, who enacted laws requiring the planting of trees in places -made uninhabitable by the diffusion of malaria, and placed groves -serving such purposes under the protection of some divinity to insure -their protection. It is a rule of the British army in India to select -an encampment having a grove between the camp and any low, wet soil. - -Finally, trees purify the atmosphere. The process of vegetable -nutrition consists in the appropriation by the plant or tree of -carbon. This element it receives from the air in the form principally -of carbonic acid, and in the process of digestion the oxygen is -liberated and again restored to the air, while the carbon becomes -fixed as an element of the woody fiber. Man and animals, on the -contrary, require oxygen for their nutrition, and the supply is in the -air they breathe. Carbon is a waste product of the animal system, and, -uniting with the oxygen, is expired as carbonic acid, a powerful -animal poison. A slight increase of the normal quantity of carbonic -acid in the air renders it poisonous to man, and continued respiration -of such air, or a considerable increase of the carbonic acid, will -prove fatal. The animal and vegetable world, therefore, complement -each other, and the one furnishes the conditions and forces by which -the other maintains life and health. "Plants," says Schacht, "imbibe -from the air carbonic acid and other gaseous or volatile products -exhaled by animals, developed by the natural phenomena of -decomposition. On the other hand, the vegetable pours into the -atmosphere oxygen, which is taken up by animals and appropriated by -them. The tree, by means of its leaves and its young herbaceous twigs, -presents a considerable surface for absorption and evaporation; it -abstracts the carbon of carbonic acid, and solidifies it in wood -fecula, and a multitude of other compounds. The result is that a -forest withdraws from the air, by its great absorbent surface, much -more gas than meadows or cultivated fields, and exhales proportionally -a considerably greater quantity of oxygen. The influence of the -forests on the chemical composition of the atmosphere is, in a word, -of the highest importance."[5] - -In large cities, where animal and vegetable decomposition goes on -rapidly during the summer, the atmosphere is, as already stated, at -times saturated with deleterious gases. At the period of the day when -malaria and mephitic gases are emitted in the greatest quantity and -activity, this function of absorption by vegetation is most active and -powerful. Carbonic acid, ammoniacal compounds, and other gases, -products of putrefaction, so actively poisonous to man, are absorbed, -and in the process of vegetable digestion the deleterious portion is -separated and appropriated by the plant, while oxygen, the element -essential to animal life, is returned to the air. Trees, therefore, in -cities, are of immense value, owing to their power to destroy or -neutralize malaria, and to absorb the poisonous elements of gaseous -compounds, while they render the air more respirable by emitting -oxygen. - -The conclusion from the foregoing facts is inevitable that one of the -great and pressing sanitary wants of New York city is an ample supply -of trees. It is, in effect, destitute of trees; for the unsightly -shrubs which are planted by citizens are, in no proper sense, adequate -to the purpose which we contemplate. Its long avenues, running north -and south, without a shade tree, and exposed to the full effect of the -sun, are all but impassable at noonday in the summer months. The -pedestrian who ventures out at such an hour finds no protection from -an umbrella, on account of the radiation of the intense heat from the -paved surface. Animals and man alike suffer from exposure in the -glowing heat. Nothing mitigates its intensity but the winds or an -occasional rainstorm. And when evening comes on, the cooling of the -atmosphere produced by vegetation does not occur, and unless partially -relieved by favoring winds or a shower the heat continues, but little -abated, and the atmosphere remains charged with noxious and -irrespirable gases. It is evident that shade trees, of proper kinds, -and suitably arranged, supply the conditions necessary to counteract -the evils of excessive heat. They protect the paved streets and the -buildings largely from the direct rays of the sun; they cool the lower -stratum of air by evaporation from their immense surfaces of leaves; -they absorb at once the malarious emanations and gases of -decomposition, and abstract their poisonous properties for their own -consumption; they withdraw from the air the carbonic acid thrown off -from the animal system as a poison, and decomposing it, appropriate -the element dangerous to man, and give back to the atmosphere the -element essential to his health and even life.[6] - -And we may add that cultivated shade trees in New York would be an -artistic and attractive feature of the streets. Every citizen enjoys -trees, as is evident from the efforts made to cultivate them -throughout the city. - -It is frequently alleged that trees can not be successfully cultivated -in cities on account of the gases in the soil. There are ample proofs -to the contrary. The city of Paris strikingly illustrates the -possibility of cultivating a large variety of trees in the streets and -public places of large cities when the planting and cultivation is -placed under competent authority. In our own country the cities of New -Haven and Washington are examples of the successful cultivation of -trees to an extent sufficient to greatly modify the summer -temperature. Authorities on landscape gardening and forestry sustain -the view that under proper supervision by competent and skilled -persons a great variety of trees, shrubs, plants, and vines can be -cultivated in the streets and public places of this city. Mr. -Frederick Law Olmstead, to whom the city is so much indebted for his -intelligent supervision of Central Park in its early period, warmly -supported a movement to cultivate trees, shrubs, plants, and vines in -the streets of New York. Dr. J.T. Rothrock, the very able and -experienced Commissioner of Forestry of Pennsylvania, under date of -October 10, 1898, speaking of the proposed plan of securing the -cultivating trees in the streets of this city, remarks: "I think it an -excellent measure, and I am sure that during the torrid season the -more tree shade you have the fewer will be your cases of heat -exhaustion. It is idle to say, as is often said in this country, that -trees can not be made to grow in our cities. Under existing conditions -the wonder is, not that trees look unhealthy in most cities, but that -any of them manage to live at all. It is perfectly well known that the -city of Paris has thousands of trees growing vigorously under such -surroundings as the American gardener would think impossible. Two -things are necessary to success--viz., first, the kinds of trees to -endure city life must be found; and, second, select from among them -such as are adapted by their size and shape to each special place." - -Mr. Gifford Pinchot, of the Division of Forestry, Department of -Agriculture, Washington, writes under date of December 2, 1898: -"Street trees are successfully planted in great numbers in all of the -most beautiful cities of the world. Washington and Paris are -conspicuous examples. That such trees succeed is largely due to the -great care taken in setting them out. The attractiveness of cities has -come to be reckoned among their business advantages, and nothing adds -to it more than well-selected, well-planted, and well-cared-for trees. -On the score of public health trees in the streets of cities are -equally desirable. They become objectionable only when badly selected -and badly maintained." - -In a recent paper on Tree Planting in the Streets of Washington, Mr. -W.P. Richards, surveyor of the District of Columbia, remarks that, -under the plan adopted, "tree planting has never been at an -experimental stage" in that city. "Washington was a city of young -trees during the seventies, and in the spring of 1875 more than six -thousand trees were planted, consisting of silver maples, Norway -maples, American elms, American and European lindens, sugar maples, -tulip trees, American white ash, scarlet maples, various poplars, and -ash-leaved maples.... A careful count was made of the trees in 1887, -and by comparing this with the number of trees since planted and those -removed, there is found to be more than seventy-eight thousand trees, -which if placed thirty feet apart would line both sides of a boulevard -between Washington and New York. These consist of more than thirty -varieties." Mr. Richards adds: "The planting and care of trees in -Washington grows from year to year, and the future will probably -demand more skill and judgment than in years past. About twenty -thousand dollars is spent annually, most of it in the care of old -trees. From one to three thousand young trees are planted during the -spring and fall of each year. The nursery has several thousand of the -best varieties ready for planting." - -The opinions of these authorities and the success of the work in -Washington, now extending over a quarter of a century, determine -beyond all question the feasibility and practicability of successfully -cultivating trees in the streets of cities. And if any one doubts the -power of trees cultivated in the streets to change the temperature of -a city let him calculate the amount of foliage which the seventy-eight -thousand trees, when full-grown, will furnish the city of Washington, -taking as his basis the fact that a single tree, the Washington elm, -at Cambridge, Massachusetts, when in full leafage, equals five acres -of foliage, and that one acre of grass emits into the atmosphere 6.400 -quarts of water in twenty-four hours, a powerfully cooling process. - -We have, finally, to consider through what agency the proposed -cultivation of trees in the city of New York can be accomplished most -rapidly and successfully. Three methods may be suggested, viz.: 1. -Encourage citizens each to plant and cultivate trees on his own -premises. 2. Organize voluntary "tree-planting associations," which -shall aid citizens or undertake to do the work at a minimum cost. 3. -Place the work under the entire supervision and jurisdiction of public -authority. The first method has been on trial from the foundation of -the city, and its results are a few stunted apologies for trees which -are useless for sanitary purposes and unsightly for ornamentation. The -average citizen is entirely incompetent either to select the proper -tree or to cultivate it when planted. Tree-planting associations have -proved useful agencies in exciting a popular interest in the subject, -and in aiding citizens in the selection of suitable trees and in -cultivating them. The Tree-Planting and Fountain Society of Brooklyn, -under the very able management of its accomplished secretary, Prof. -Lewis Collins, is a model organization of the kind, and has -accomplished a vast amount of good in this field in that city. But it -may well be questioned if we have not reached a period of sanitary -reform in cities when a work of the kind we contemplate in New York -should not be undertaken by the strong arm of the city government, as -a matter of public policy, and carried steadily forward to its -completion. The growth of the greater city is far too rapid in every -direction to await the slow movements of the people under the pressure -of voluntary organizations. The best work can be done in those -outlying districts where the streets are as yet but sparsely built -upon, and the soil has been undisturbed. Again, it is of the utmost -importance that a work of this kind, which will largely prove one of -city ornamentation, should be under the exclusive direction of a -skilled central authority having ample power and means to harmonize -every feature of the work from the center of the city to its remotest -limits. Finally, the successful cultivation of trees and other -vegetation in our streets can be successfully carried on only by -experts in the art of tree culture, who devote their entire time and -energies to these duties, and are sustained by the power of the city -government. Mr. Frederick Law Olmstead remarks, "Not one in a hundred -of all that may have been planted in the streets of our American -cities in the last fifty years has had such treatment that its species -would come to be if properly planted and cared for." Mr. Richards, in -the paper referred to on Tree Planting in the Streets of Washington, -makes the following statement: "The selection, planting, and care of -all trees in the streets of Washington are under the direction of the -District authorities; individual preferences and private enterprises -are not allowed to regulate this improvement, as is generally done in -other cities. Moreover, the city has its own nursery, where seeds -planted from its own trees grow and supply all the needed varieties." - -It is apparent that to accomplish such a work as we propose the -undertaking must be placed under the jurisdiction of a department of -the city government, skilled in the performance of such duties, fully -equipped with all needful appliances, and clothed with ample power and -supplied with the financial resources necessary to overcome every -obstacle. Fortunately, we have in our Department of Parks an organized -branch of the city administration endowed with every qualification for -the performance of these duties. The charter provides as follows: "It -shall be the duty of each commissioner ... to maintain the beauty and -utility of all such parks, squares, and public places as are situated -within his jurisdiction, and to institute and execute all measures for -the improvement thereof for ornamental purposes and for the beneficial -uses of the people of the city, ... and he shall have power to plant -trees and to construct, erect, and establish seats, drinking -fountains, statues, and works of art, when he may deem it tasteful or -appropriate so to do." At the head of this service is "a landscape -architect, skilled and expert, whose assent shall be requisite to all -plans and works or changes thereof respecting the conformation, -development, or ornamentation of any of the parks, squares, or public -places of the city, to the end that the same may be uniform and -symmetrical at all times." - -The conclusion seems inevitable that public policy requires that, in -the interests of the health of the people and the comfort and -well-being of that large class of the poor who can not escape the -summer heat by leaving the city, the jurisdiction of the Park -Department should be extended to all trees, shrubs, plants, and vines -now and hereafter planted and growing in the streets of New York, and -that said department should be required to plant such additional -trees, shrubs, etc., as it may from time to time deem necessary and -expedient for the purpose of carrying out the intent and purpose of -such act which should be declared to be to improve the public health, -to render the city comfortable to its summer residents, and for -ornamentation. - - "He who plants a tree, he plants love; - Tents of coolness, spreading out above - Wayfarers, he may not live to see. - Gifts that grow are best, - Hands that bless are blest. - Plant. Life does the rest." - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] In 1872, while a Commissioner of Health, I had occasion to examine -and report on the causes of the high death rate during the summer -months in the city of New York. The chief cause was determined to be -the excessive heat which characterizes those months. It was -recommended in the report to the Board of Health that legislation be -secured empowering and requiring the Department of Parks to plant and -cultivate trees, shrubs, plants, and vines in all the streets, -avenues, and public places in the city. A bill was drafted and -introduced into the Legislature, but it did not become a law, and no -further effort has been made to secure such legislation. Meantime, two -tree-planting societies have been established, one in the Borough of -Brooklyn and the other in the Borough of Manhattan, which are -endeavoring to awaken public interest to the importance of planting a -suitable number and variety of trees in the streets for purposes of -ornamentation. The aim of this paper, which is largely based on the -report of 1872, is to revive the project of giving the Department of -Parks jurisdiction over the trees in the streets, and require it to -plant and cultivate additional trees, shrubs, plants, and other forms -of vegetation for the improvement of the public health and for the -purpose of ornamentation. - -[2] Man and Nature. G.P. Marsh, New York, 1872. - -[3] It is interesting to notice, in this connection, the remark of -Angus Smith, that a temperature of 54° F. is important in the -decomposition of animal and vegetable matter. - -[4] Public Parks. By John H. Rauch, M.D., Chicago, 1869. - -[5] Les Arbres, quoted by Marsh. - -[6] The late Dr. Francis remarked that he had noticed a marked -increase in the fatality of diseases in sections of the city after the -removal of trees and all vegetation. - - - - -MIVART'S GROUNDWORK OF SCIENCE.[7] - -BY PROF. WILLIAM KEITH BROOKS. - - -If books like this by Professor Mivart, who holds that "the groundwork -of science must be sought in the human mind," help to teach that the -greatest service of science to mankind is not "practical," but -intellectual, they are worthy the consideration of the thoughtful, -even if this consideration should lead some of the thoughtful to -distrust Mivart's groundwork, or to doubt whether it is firm enough -for any superstructure. - -Many, no doubt, think the desire to know a sufficient groundwork for -science, believing that they wish to know in order that they may -rightly order their lives; but the school to which Mivart belongs -tells them all this is mere vulgar ignorance, since the groundwork of -science is, and must be, something known, rather than a humble wish to -know. - -According to Mivart, the groundwork of science consists of truths -which can not be obtained by reasoning, and can not depend for their -certainty on any experiments or observations alone, since whatever -truths depend upon reasoning can not be ultimate, but must be -posterior to, and depend upon, the principles, observations, or -experiments which show that it is indeed true, and upon which its -acceptance thus depends. The groundwork of science must therefore be -composed, he says, of truths which are self-evident; and he assures us -that, if this were not the case, natural knowledge would be mere -"mental paralysis and self-stultification." - -He would tell the wayfarer who, having been lost among the mountains, -comes at last upon a broad highway winding around the foothills and -stretching down over the plain to the horizon, that an attempt to go -anywhere upon this road is "mere paralysis," unless he knows where it -begins and where it ends. He would have told the ancient dwellers upon -the shores of the Nile that their belief that they owed to the river -their agriculture, their commerce, their art and science, and all -their civilization, was mere self-stultification, because they knew -nothing of its sources in the central table-land. - -May not one believe, with Mivart, that the scientific knowledge which -arises in the mind by means of the senses through contact with the -world of Nature, thus arises by virtue of our innate reason, and yet -find good ground for asking whether physical science may not have -something useful and important to tell us about the mechanism and -history of this innate reason itself? Is proof that our reason is -innate, or born with us, proof that it is ultimate or necessary or -beyond the reach of improvement and development by the application of -natural knowledge? May not this reason itself prove, perhaps, to be a -mechanical _phenomenon_ of matter and motion, and a part of the -discoverable order of physical causation; and may not science some -time tell us how it became innate, and what it is worth? - -Questions of this sort are easy to ask but hard to answer; for many -hold our only way to reach an answer to be _to find out_ by scientific -research and discovery. While this method may be too slow for _a -priori_ philosophers, may it not be wise for those who, being no -philosophers, know of no short cut to natural knowledge, to admit -that, while they would like to know more, they have not yet learned -all there is to learn? If this suspension of judgment is indeed -self-stultification, the case of many students is hard, though they -may not really find themselves so helpless as they are told that they -must be; for he who is told by the learned faculty that he is -paralyzed need not be greatly troubled if he finds his powers for -work as much at his command as they were before. - -The modern student has heard so many versions of the story of the -two-faced shield that he is much disposed to suspect that many of the -questions which have so long divided "philosophers" may be only new -illustrations of the old fable, and he asks whether there need be any -real antagonism between those who attribute knowledge to experience -and those who attribute it to our innate reason. - -There are men of science who, seeing no good reason to challenge -Plato's belief that experience, creating nothing, only calls forth the -"ideas" which were already dormant or latent in the mind, do -nevertheless find reason to ask whether exhaustive knowledge of our -physical history may not some time show how these dormant "ideas" came -to be what they are. They ask whether errors may not be judgments -which lead us into danger and tend to our physical destruction, and -whether it may not be because a judgment has, in the long run, proved -preservative in the struggle for existence that we call it true. May -not, for example, the difference between the error that the stick half -in water is bent and the truth that the stick in air is straight, some -time prove to be that the savage who has rectified his judgment has -speared his fish, while he who has not has lost his dinner? - -So long as we can ask such questions as this, how can we be sure that -because a judgment is no more than might have been expected from us, -as Nature has made us, at our present intellectual level, it is either -necessary or ultimate or universal? Things that are innate or natural -are not always necessary or universal, for while reason is natural to -the mind of man, some men are unreasonable, and a few have been even -known to be illogical. - -It therefore seems clear that another view of the groundwork of -science than that set forth by Professor Mivart is possible, for many -believe that this groundwork is to be found in our desire to know what -we do not yet know, rather than in things known; and they believe they -wish to know in order that they may learn to distinguish truth from -error, and walk with sure feet where the ignorant grope and stumble. - -Many books are profitable and instructive even if they fail to -convince; and the question which a prospective student of Mivart's -book is likely to ask is whether it is consistent with itself; for if -the author has not so far made himself master of his subject as to -state his case without palpable contradiction, no one will expect much -help from him. It is a remark of Aristotle, in the Introduction to the -Parts of Animals, that while one may need special training to tell -whether an author has proved his point, all may judge whether he is -consistent with himself, and the attempt to learn whether Mivart's -book is consistent may not greatly tax our minds. - -He tells us that many men of science are "idealists"; and he says that -idealism, being mere self-stultifying skepticism, must be refuted and -demolished before we can begin our search for the groundwork of -science or be sure that we know anything. It would have surprised -Berkeley not a little to be told that his notions are the very essence -of skepticism, for the good bishop tells us again and again that his -only motive in writing is to make an end of idle skepticism, once for -all, that they who are no philosophers, but simple, honest folks, may -come by their own and live at ease. - -There is little ease, and less justice, even at this late day, for the -man of science who insists that he is neither an idealist nor a -materialist nor a monist, but a naturalist; and that it will be time -enough to have an opinion as to the relation between mind and matter -when we find out; but many will, no doubt, be pleased to hear that the -crime of which they are now suspected is no longer "materialism," but -"idealism," for the public attaches no odium to the idealist, whatever -may be Professor Mivart's verdict. Still all must feel an interest in -the exposure of the weakness of idealism, since we have been told, by -many shrewd thinkers, that Berkeley's statement of the case, while -inconclusive, is unanswerable; although they hold that it is lack of -experimental evidence which stands in the way of either its acceptance -or its refutation. - -Mivart begins his treatment of idealism by a simple and satisfactory -summary, pages 36-38, of Berkeley's Principles, but he forgets it on -the next page, for it is no exaggeration to assert that the "idealism" -which he refutes is a mere parody on that which he has just given his -readers, and something that no sane man would dream of holding. - -For example, he admits, on page 38, that nothing "can be more absurd -than the criticism of those persons who say that idealists, to be -consistent, ought to run up against lamp-posts, fall into ditches, and -commit other like absurdities." On page 47 he undertakes to show, "by -the natural spontaneous judgment of mankind," that external material -bodies exist "of themselves, and have a substantial reality in -addition to that of the qualities we perceive; because the spontaneous -judgment of mankind accords with what even animals learn through their -senses. A wide river is an objective obstacle to the progress of a -man's dog, as well as to that of the dog's owner." - -One who compares the extract from page 38 with this from page 47 can, -so far as I can see, reconcile them only by one of these hypotheses: -1, that Mivart holds a wide river to afford proof of reality which is -not afforded by a ditch; or, 2, that the dog which does not run -against lamp-posts affords evidence of the reality of Nature which is -not afforded by a man in the same circumstances; or, 3, that "nothing -can be more absurd than the criticism of these persons" who reason -like Professor Mivart. - -While sometimes right and sometimes wrong, like the rest of us, the -apostle of tar water was no fool, although the groundwork of Mivart's -science, in the book before us, is the assertion that idealists -idiotically deny everything which they have not perceived, and hold -that the external world has no existence. - -It is hard to see how words could be clearer than those in which -Berkeley repudiates all nonsense of this sort. "I do not argue," says -he, "against the existence of any one thing that we apprehend, _either -by sense or by reflection_. That the things I see with my eyes and -touch with my hands do exist, really exist, I make not the least -question. I am of a vulgar cast, simple enough to believe my own -senses, and to take things as I find them. To be plain, it is my -opinion that the real things are the very things that I see and feel, -and perceive by my senses. I can not for my life help thinking that -snow is white and fire hot. And as I am no skeptic with regard to the -nature of things, so neither am I as to their existence. That a thing -should be really perceived by my senses, and at the same time not -really exist, is to me a plain contradiction. Wood, stone, fire, -water, flesh, iron, and the like things, which I name and discourse -of, are things I know. Away, then, with all that skepticism, all those -ridiculous philosophical doubts! I might as well doubt of my own being -as of the being of those things I actually see and feel." - -Mivart lays great stress upon the opinion of men in general as a -refutation of idealism; and as Berkeley also says he is content to -appeal to the common sense of the world, it may be well to ask what -the verdict of "plain, untutored men" is, even if we doubt whether -such a jury is the highest tribunal. - -"Ask the gardener," says Berkeley, "why he thinks yonder cherry tree -exists in the garden, and he shall tell you, because he sees it and -feels it." - -Mivart holds it one thing to see, and quite another matter to know -that we see, for he says that while we see and feel the "qualities" of -things by those "lower faculties" which we share with the "brutes," we -perceive the "substance" in which these qualities inhere, by certain -"higher faculties," which, whether represented in the brutes by latent -potencies or not, have been "given" to man in their completeness, and -not slowly and gradually built up from low and simple beginnings in -the brutes. - -The question we are to ask the gardener is, therefore, something to -this effect: Whether he thinks the cherry tree exists because he sees -it and feels it, or because, when he sees it and feels it, he knows -that he does so? - -If he weighs his words will he not ask how he can know that he does -see it and feel it unless he knows that he does so? I, myself, am no -philosopher; but, to my untutored mind, Mivart's distinction between -things perceived by _sense_, and things _perceived_ by sense, seems a -mere verbal difference of accent and emphasis, rather than a -fundamental distinction. - -As most men use the word, "mind" implies consciousness of that sort -which Mivart calls self-consciousness, and while there is no reason -why those who choose should not so use the word as to include -unconscious or "subconscious" or "conscientious" cerebration, most -plain, untutored men prefer to use words as their neighbors do. - -If long waiting on Nature has given to the old gardener more -shrewdness than we commonly find in those whose pursuits are less -leisurely, he may say that, while he knows the tree is there because -he has planted it and tended it and watched it grow, it now falls on -his eyes day after day, without attracting his notice, unless -something about it which calls for his skill _catches_ his eye, and -_commands_ his _attention_. - -If we see reason to believe that this difference is a matter of words -and definitions, rather than a real difference in kind; if we fail to -find any sharp dividing line between unperceived cerebration and -"mind," is not this, in itself, enough to lead even Macaulay's -schoolboy to ask whether mind may not be a slow and gradual growth -from small beginnings, and a co-ordinated whole, to the common -function of which all its parts contribute, rather than a "gift" of -"lower faculties" and "higher faculties"? - -We must ask, however, whether mechanical explanations of mind are in -any way antagonistic to the conviction that it is a gift. May not one -study the history of the mechanism of mind, and the way this mechanism -works, in a spirit of profound and humble gratitude to the Giver of -all good gifts? - -Is the lamentable prevalence, among plain untutored men, of the notion -that mechanical explanations of Nature are inconsistent with belief -that all Nature is a gift, to be laid to the charge of the men of -science? - -Is it not rather the poisonous fruit of the ill-advised attempts of -"philosophers" like Professor Mivart to teach that a gift can not be a -gift at all unless it is an arbitrary interruption to the law and -order of physical Nature. - - -FOOTNOTE: - -[7] The Groundwork of Science. A Study of Epistemology. By St. George -Mivart, M.D., Ph.D., F.R.S. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1898. - - - - -THE SCIENCE OF OBSERVATION. - -BY CHARLES LIVY WHITTLE. - - -This is an era of observation; in many fields and in divers countries -the study of Nature from a strictly scientific standpoint is being -prosecuted with results which are rapidly increasing our knowledge of -the universe. This modern growth has come about as the natural rebound -of the suppressed energy that has been held forcibly under subjugation -during the last two thousand years, at a time when the closing echoes -of the warfare between the literal interpretation of the Scriptures -and science have ceased. - -A review of this long battle with the forces of the Catholic and -Protestant churches on the one hand, arrayed against a relatively few -investigators, scattered through the last ten centuries, on the other -hand, shows a record on which none can look without regret. As far as -we are able to learn, there was little opposition to the study of -science before the collection and translation of the old manuscripts -now constituting the Alexandrian version of the Bible and the -consequent upbuilding of the Jewish church. The remains of ancient -Egyptian civilization show that science prior to that period, as -measured by the discoveries in physics and astronomy, had attained no -inconsiderable prominence; and had this people endured until the -present time, uninfluenced by the strife that for many centuries -racked the inhabitants of the eastern hemisphere, we should to-day be -far more advanced in our understanding of the universe. - -In the more progressive countries, at least, the breaking of the -shackles in which the investigating mind had been imprisoned for so -long has led not only to a greater number of scientific workers, but -also to an increase in the fields of observation. The methods of -investigation have likewise undergone a transformation. In place of -deductive reasoning, even as late as a few decades in the past, -conclusions and generalizations are now founded on lines of thought -more largely inductive. Men of middle age are able to recall the time -when even our leading institutions of learning required instruction in -several branches of science to be given by one teacher. It was -possible twenty-five years ago for a man of great ability to master -the essentials of the leading sciences and to teach them, but under -the present stimulus for investigation no one can hope to excel in -more than one subject. It has thus come about that in place of the -many-sided teacher of science we now have in our larger universities -specialists in every subject. As the work of research progresses, the -specialist--for example, in geology--is compelled by the increased -scope of the information on his subject to select one branch of -geology of which he shall be master. The chair of geology is now split -up into economic, glacial, and mining geology, paleontology, etc., and -specialists are required in each division. This breaking up is true of -most other sciences. In this labyrinth of specialized subjects, and -the maze of technical terms rendered necessary thereby, the people as -a whole can only grope in darkness; but out of this bewildering -condition of affairs, from the mass of facts collected, and the -resulting generalizations and theories, there may be culled the kernel -of one important principle by means of which these facts are -ascertained and the generalizations made. The growth of science and -its ever-ramifying divisions, and the gradual establishment of new -methods of investigation, have brought forth what may be termed the -science of observation; and it is through an application of the above -principle that the people may be taught correctly to interpret Nature, -and, by their new habit of thought, to free the brain from the tangle -of superstition which is still present with most of us. - -A knowledge of how to observe natural phenomena and to draw correct -inferences therefrom has been the product of slow growth, while -through long custom, in matters closely pertaining to our daily life, -there has been observation on strictly scientific principles for -centuries. Stated succinctly, natural phenomena are due to causes, one -or more, simple or complex. These causes are the laws of the universe, -and to arrive at an understanding of them we must free our minds of -any bias and study phenomena experimentally in the laboratory, or in -our daily contact with Nature. In this way a mass of facts will be -gathered by the systematic observer which will be found to fall into -natural groups, and by inductive reasoning the laws governing each -group may be learned. It is not possible for mankind as a whole to -investigate in this exhaustive manner; but it is important that the -method of arriving at the laws of Nature be understood. Many and, in -fact, most phenomena met with in some of the sciences, particularly -those having to deal with the earth, are susceptible of correct -interpretation without attempting broad generalizations, if the -principles of scientific observation are brought to bear upon their -solution, and it is our purpose to show by practical examples drawn -from Nature how elementary students may attack and solve some of the -simple problems met with on every side. It is proposed to use for -illustration simple phenomena pertaining to the earth, drawn from -geology and its newly constituted sister science, physical geography. -These two sciences perhaps afford the greatest range of phenomena, -which are accessible to every one, in whatsoever part of the earth he -may reside. No part of the land surface is wanting in problems which -demand explanation, and which may be attacked from the standpoint of -the geologist or physical geographer, or both. - -One of the most pronounced departures taking place in -preparatory-school education at the present time is to be found in the -prominence given to these subjects, not only in the schoolroom, but by -practical experience in the laboratory of Nature, among the hills and -mountains, as well. The object of this departure is twofold: the first -and most important is to train the young early to observe phenomena -and to interpret them; the second, in a narrower sense, is purely -educational. The one inculcates a habit of thought that will be of -inestimable advantage in pursuing future study; the other, without -taking into consideration the element of mental training, constitutes -instruction in concrete things that are matters of general education. - -Before the student in the introductory schools is brought in contact -with problems in the field, it is essential that he receive text-book -or oral instruction in some of the geological processes giving rise to -the phenomena to be studied later out of doors. In practical teaching -the student is taken on excursions into the region not far removed -from the school. At first some simple geological facts are shown him, -often on a very small scale, but embodying principles which, when -understood, lead to a ready interpretation of larger problems. Step by -step the first principles are amplified by a larger and more varied -class of examples, until the student is able logically to apply the -reasoning in explanation of simple problems to the solution of the -greater problems in physical geography and geology. In the absence of -such excursions, I shall introduce a series of photographs carefully -arranged to lead the reader along the same line of reasoning up to -similar broad conclusions--a method which, if not so satisfactory and -instructive, will at least have an educative value. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.--QUARRY SHOWING FRESH AND WEATHERED ROCKS.] - -Our first excursion will be to a locality where an open cut has been -made for the purpose of carrying on quarrying operations. The -accompanying photograph has been so taken as to include both the top -and the bottom of the quarry (Fig. 1). Let us first inspect the rock -in the lower part of the quarry. The existence of planes of fracture, -or joints, crossing the rock in various directions, dividing it into -blocks, early attracts our attention. The stone appears dark-colored, -tough, and is seen to be made up of two or three different minerals: -one is black, cleaves readily into thin plates of a translucent -nature, and we easily recognize it as an iron-bearing mica, or -isinglass. Another is white, and cleaves or breaks in two directions, -making angles of about ninety degrees; this we know as common -feldspar. The third is less easily recognized as pyroxene, another of -the many minerals containing iron. Having tested our knowledge of -mineralogy, we will look about and see if all the rock exposed is -like that at the bottom of the quarry. As we ascend from the point -indicated by the lower hammer, we notice that the dark blue rock -gradually takes on a rusty hue, and its toughness has become less. -Going still higher, the rusty character increases, and along joints -the rock is so lacking in coherency as to fall to pieces when struck a -light blow with a hammer. The central portions of the blocks, however, -after we have removed the outer shell of rusty material, are seen to -be like the lower rock. In the middle foreground of the picture there -are shown several bowlders derived from above, which are merely these -residual cores, and are known as bowlders of disintegration. These are -also shown in place near the top of the picture at the extreme left. -Near the top of the quarry, at a point marked by the upper hammer, the -solid rock gives place to a rusty mass of loose material, traversing -which the cracks may still be seen, and in which there are few -indications of the solid rock[8] (see Fig. 2). This loose material -when carefully examined is found to be made up of exactly the same -minerals as the dense rock below, but we notice that the mica and -pyroxene are rusty and that the feldspar is stained yellowish brown. -The pyroxene in particular is very much changed, and quickly crumbles -away in the hand. It is clear that there is every stage between the -solid rock and the incoherent powder at the surface of the ground. The -joint planes crossing the solid rock below may still be observed -traversing the decayed portion, and also many rounded areas of rock, -which are seen to be identical with the stone at the bottom of the -quarry.[9] - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.--DETAILED VIEW OF A PORTION OF QUARRY SHOWING -WEATHERED ROCK.] - -How shall the facts before us be explained? It has been shown that the -dense rock and the loose material are the same mineralogically, and -grade from one into the other, and it is certainly rational to suppose -that the latter is merely a changed form of the first. Some force must -have been at work on the solid rock, destroying its coherency and -converting it into loose sand. If we inspect the powdered rock, it -will become apparent that this change has been brought about mainly by -the process of weathering: surface water, with its ever-present acid -impurities, has brought about the partial decay of the pyroxene and -mica and caused the disintegration of the upper part of the rock. -Water has not only attacked the rock from the upper surface, but has -penetrated to considerable depths along the joint planes, working -inward toward the center of each block until the mass becomes -completely disintegrated. This process explains the concentric shells -about cores of unaltered rock, each representing original joint -blocks, which are seen in the second photograph. All our excursions -into the field will show that this is not an isolated case, for -wherever a ledge is exposed to our view there will be found a zone of -weathered rock, varying in thickness from mere films to many feet. - -By this process the greatest part of the materials constituting soils -is formed, and the flora and fauna of the earth are rendered possible. -Upon such products of decay the food supply of running water -manifestly depends in a large measure, as will be pointed out on our -next excursion; and were the scope of this article somewhat larger, it -would be easy to show that the rock decay seen in our photograph has -taken place in a length of time measured by something like ten -thousand years. If all rock decayed as easily, and if the rate of -decomposition, as determined here, held good for great distances from -the surface, mountains two miles in height would become a prey to the -force of chemical action in six and a half million years. We can not, -however, give a time equivalent for the destruction of a mountain -range, since decay, and consequent disintegration, is only one of the -many forces acting to sap the strength of solid rocks and to tear them -asunder. The above figures are given merely to make plain that the -time necessary to accomplish the leveling of a mountain chain is but a -small part of the earth's existence as such, great as this period may -seem from the standpoint of human history. - -We shall, if possible, time the second excursion immediately after a -heavy rain, and we shall select for our objective point a place where -the rain water, in its efforts to reach a stream, is forced to run -down some steep declivity. Under such circumstances, the carrying -power of the water will be very great, and we shall hope to find -evidence of its work in transporting the products of rock weathering -and other material broken up by the action of frost. A little -diligence will soon reward us with the evidence which we seek. A local -inequality of the ground, perhaps only a few feet across, is found -filled with water--a minute, temporary lake caused by the recent heavy -rainfall. Such little water bodies are extremely common, but the -accompanying geological phenomena are, notwithstanding, none the less -interesting, and the conclusions to be drawn from the evidence thus -presented are none the less valuable. - -If we examine the pool critically, it will be noticed that its shore -line is cut by a little channel along which the overflow makes its -escape. Further investigation will show that at another point along -the shore, especially if we are fortunate enough to visit the locality -very soon after a rain, there is a small rivulet entering the pool; -and also that the entering stream is discolored with mud and carries -more or less sand, while the escaping stream is nearly clear, and is -free from all traces of coarse, sandy material. It is therefore -evident that the sediment brought in by the stream has been left -behind in the pool, and of course will be found deposited at its -bottom, and it will appear that the only explanation of the inability -of the water further to transport its burden is to be found in the -fact that water loses nearly all its motion, and therefore its -transporting power, on entering a stagnant pool. These are elementary -truths, but an amplification of such simple phenomena is often fully -capable of accounting for the most stupendous results. - -[Illustration: FIG. 3.--TEMPORARY WET-WEATHER DELTA.] - -Having made these observations, let us look at the form assumed by the -sediment when it is forced to fall to the bottom. At the point where -the stream enters the pool there is seen an accumulation of material -having a nearly level upper surface, presenting a scalloped or -lobe-shaped outer margin, upon which the stream may be seen flowing -and entering the water at one of the lobes. Other channels, though -unoccupied by water, also lead to similar lobes. If we watch closely, -we may be able to witness the growth of this body of sand, called a -delta, as the falling sediment rapidly increases the size of the lobe; -and also to perceive that as soon as the lobe is built out -considerably in advance of the main body of sand, it will be easier -for the stream to enter the water on one side of the scallop, thus -abandoning its old mouth. In this manner the stream moves from one -place to another, successively building the little scallops and -continually carving new channels for itself. Fig. 3 is a photograph of -such a delta, some three feet across, taken after the water had been -drained away, and reveals its form in a characteristic manner. As we -watch its growth, it will become evident that only the coarsest -material transported by the stream goes to make up the delta, and that -the clay and finest sand are deposited farther away, where the water -is more quiet, or else pass out in the stream draining the pool. Let -us look about a little. Not far from our miniature lake there are -several others. In some the size of the delta is much larger in -proportion to the area of the pool than is the case with the one first -studied. We find in some cases that the stream has progressively built -its delta completely across the old water surface. Taking a thin piece -of board or a large knife, we can easily cut vertically through this -sand deposit, thus exposing what is called a geological section. The -sand grains of which the deposit is largely composed are seen to be -arranged in layers nearly horizontal, and these layers are found to be -due to alternations of sediment varying in fineness. This phenomenon -is called stratification, and is what we should expect of the action -of gravity operating on material of different sizes and densities -suspended in a body of water. It has been found inexpedient to attempt -to show a photograph of this section, owing to the smallness of the -subject, but the same phenomena may be observed on a much larger scale -in Fig. 5, which will be described below. - -A few rods away the stream that feeds the pool has its origin. The -sediment carried by the water and going to build up its delta has its -source in part in a neighboring bank made up of material derived from -solid rock by weathering, similar to that shown on our first -excursion, and partly from older water deposits. Steep channels exist -in the disintegrated rock, which represent the material removed by the -fast-flowing rain water. - -Now what geological phenomena have we observed at this locality? In -the first place, it has become clear that running water possesses the -power of transporting sediment. In the second place, this sediment has -been deposited wherever the velocity of the water has been materially -checked. The sediment has been laid down in horizontal layers under -the influence of gravity. Furthermore, the material of which the delta -is composed has been shown, in part at least, to have been derived -from a solid rock such as forms our mountains. In our first excursion -we saw that chemical change promoted disintegration; in our second, -running water is observed seizing upon these products of decay, -transporting them and building them into stratified deposits in the -first convenient pool. A level-topped delta is first formed, which may -or may not grow to fill the pool in which it is born. Some of the -pools have become filled, while the delta as such has disappeared; it -has grown into a tiny sand plain. - -Let us see if the work performed by these temporary rivulets is -typical of running water in general. For this purpose we shall visit a -spot where a river enters some considerable body of water such as a -lake. Let us inspect the river. Its water is sluggish, discolored by -organic matter derived from decaying vegetation, and for some distance -up stream from its mouth it meanders slowly across a flat, marshy area -or meadow. If we also visit the spot at a time when the river is -swollen by heavy rains or melting snows, the presence of this organic -matter will be masked by the turbidity of the water; we shall learn -that only in the freshet seasons does the water attain sufficient -velocity to carry any visible load of sand and clay. The upper end of -the lake will be found to be shallow, muddy, and water lilies will -have discovered congenial surroundings. At another part of the lake -the outflowing water appears clear as crystal; the sediment brought in -by the river has manifestly been deposited in the lake, as was the -case in our little pool. The marsh at the upper end, of course, is -merely another delta, slow growing in this instance, grass-covered, -but as surely encroaching on the water area as in the earlier -examples. When an entering stream is normally of great transporting -power, owing to steep slopes down which it rushes, the form of its -delta is not unlike the one first described. - -With the data already gathered, we can not escape from the conclusion -that the growth going on at the head of the lake will in time, if -present conditions continue to exist, push its way forward until it -has occupied the whole water area. The sediment which is now deposited -therein will then be transported across the plain, and will be carried -along until another body of water is reached. Further search will -bring to light the fact that there are plenty of examples showing all -stages between the simple delta and the completely filled lake. The -innumerable marshes and meadows which characterize the northern part -of the United States are fine examples of lakes which have perished in -this manner. - -[Illustration: FIG. 4.--A COMMON FORM OF LARGE DELTA.] - -Our next excursion will be made to the locality shown in Fig. 4, which -is a sketch of a large delta occurring at a considerable height above -the general level of the country, although at the present time the -delta is not in vicinity of water.[10] It will be evident to the -reader that it differs in no important particular, excepting size, -from our little type specimen formed in a pool. Its level top and -frontal lobes are to-day nearly as strongly marked as at the time it -was made. The reader will have little difficulty in picturing the -original conditions of its formation in some ancient lake. This old -lake did not endure until the inflowing streams had filled it to a -level plain, but for some reason, which it is unnecessary for us to -consider, the water was permitted to escape, leaving the delta perched -on the valley side. Such deltas are very common, and we find them in -all stages, from simple beginnings, as above, to the completed sand -plain. - -[Illustration: FIG. 5.--GEOLOGICAL CROSS-SECTION OF A DELTA.] - -The sand of which our first delta was composed has already been -referred to as arranged in horizontal layers. In order to verify our -conclusions regarding the origin of this delta, let us seek for an -opportunity to observe its internal structure, and to compare it with -that observed in the first example. It may happen that the opportunity -does not exist at this immediate locality, but a little way off a -similar deposit occurs, and a beautiful section has been uncovered by -the vigorous attacks of a steam shovel. This section has already been -referred to on page 464, as illustrating the structure of the sand -layers making up the tiny delta, as well as water deposits in general, -and is reproduced here as Fig. 5. The reader will observe in this -picture many familiar features common to railroad excavations. The -upper part of the geological section thus exposed is somewhat masked -by a downfall of sand and loam, and the lower part is also hidden by -the same materials. Along the central part, however, the sand and -gravel may be seen arranged in horizontal layers of a varying -thickness. A close inspection of the uppermost layers will detect a -variation in coarseness among the different strata. Such alternations -of layers of coarse and fine material are due to differences in the -transporting power of the running water that brought the sand and -pebbles to their present resting place; the coarse gravel and pebbles -were carried by fast-flowing rivers, and the fine sand by streams of -less rapidity and consequently less transporting power. Beds of this -character ordinarily correspond closely in time with alternating -periods of great rainfall or snow melting and the summer seasons. The -pebbles of which the coarse layers are composed, as we should expect, -are far from spherical, and the operation of gravity on such bodies, -as they fall to the floor of a lake or ocean, is to cause them to -arrange themselves with their flat surfaces horizontal and parallel to -one another. In the example before us this fact is apparent, and -affords the basis for another line of reasoning by which all such -stratified deposits, however great their magnitude, are to be referred -to the same source--namely, stream-transported materials derived from -a decaying and wasting land surface, laid down in water under the -influence of gravity. - -We have now arrived at a most important and far-reaching -generalization so far as the work performed by running water is -concerned, and its action in filling our lakes and ponds; and we have -learned by observation on a small scale the means by which such -deposits may be recognized. Let us apply these means of recognition to -the phenomena shown by our large rivers and the more enduring oceans -into which they drain. In the same manner that we have studied the -little pool and larger lake, we will look into the work done by the -great waterways of our continents, selecting as a type of such streams -the mighty Mississippi. Careful measurement has shown that this river -annually transports two hundred million tons of sediment mechanically -suspended. What becomes of this enormous quantity of sand and clay, -equal to a cubic mile in a little over a century, as it is swept into -the waters of the Gulf of Mexico? For this purpose we have only to -visit the region about its mouth to become acquainted with the almost -impotent struggles that have been made by our Government during the -last fifty years in an effort to keep the river below New Orleans, in -part at least, confined to its present channels; and to study the -chart of that portion of the Gulf coast prepared by the United States -Coast and Geodetic Survey (see Fig. 6). We have not forgotten the -little lobes; their method of growth, and the general form of our -first-seen delta, shown in Fig. 3. In viewing the phenomena at the -mouth of the Mississippi, it is no longer necessary for our present -purposes to make a detailed study, since it will become apparent at -once that the river is doing the work on a larger scale typified by -the performance of the tiny stream flowing into its temporary pool. In -place of the little delta with its still smaller lobes, the -Mississippi has deposited at its mouth an enormous delta, thousands of -square miles in area, and its bifurcating arms may be seen building -out several scallops for miles into the waters of the gulf. For -centuries these long lobes have been building in advance of the delta -front. The arms gradually become clogged with sediment, a new passage -to the ocean is opened on the sides, where deposition will begin at a -new point, producing a lobe as before. Situated many miles up the -river, it is to-day the great fear of New Orleans that its only -navigable arm to the sea will thus be closed to that commerce upon -which the life of the city depends. - -[Illustration: FIG. 6.--THE DELTA OF THE MISSISSIPPI.] - -Only a portion of the sediment brought in by the river goes to form -its delta; a large part of the finest material, such as clay, is -transported by temporary and permanent currents thousands of miles -away, where it is deposited in the more quiet waters of the ocean. In -this manner the Mississippi has been shown to deposit a cubic mile of -mechanically transported material in a little over a century. What -shall we say of the effects produced on the continents and oceans by -thousands of rivers, each doing its proportionate share of work and -acting through millions of years? Two main results must follow, unless -interruptions occur: the lower elevations and the magnificent mountain -ranges, which rear their lofty heads above the permanent snow line, -will be divided into minor peaks; valleys will be carved out; the -whole land surface will slowly waste away, at first rapidly, at last -slowly, and be transported to the oceans, where it will form great -horizontal beds differing in no essential particular, excepting size, -from those shown in Fig. 5--great deposits that are merely deltas on a -large scale. The geologist, however, finds no evidence to indicate -that at any time in the earth's history have these theoretical results -taken place. Land masses, of continental dimensions, have not been -allowed thus to waste entirely away to a general flatness on account -of the interruptions caused by elevation--the bodily lifting of great -areas of rock, even out of the ocean floor, to become mountains or -plateaus, in some cases higher than any point in this country. If our -observations thus far and those yet to be made serve to make this -clear, one of the objects of this article will have been -accomplished. It is to be hoped that our observations have made plain -the processes of rock disintegration and water transportation; that in -the oceans all these materials are eventually deposited in beds -horizontally arranged, composed of such products of decay in the -condition of sand and mud. We have only to point out the proof that -great land masses, composed of water-deposited materials, have been -lifted from the ocean to become continents and mountain ranges. - -As the ocean deposits slowly accumulate in layers to beds of many -thousands of feet in thickness, the lower parts are gradually -subjected to greatly increased pressure produced by the overlying -beds. During this time waters of a varying temperature, carrying, -chemically dissolved, great quantities of lime, silica, and iron -oxide, are allowed free circulation through them. These conditions -promote chemical change: much silica (the mineral quartz), lesser -amounts of carbonate of lime (the mineral calcite), and iron oxide are -precipitated about the loose sand grains, firmly cementing them -together into a solid rock. A cycle has thus been completed; the dense -rocks composing a continent have passed by the process of weathering -into incoherent sand and clay, which, when transported to the ocean -floor, become again converted into solid rock. - -Historical records prove that during the last three thousand years -there have taken place many changes in the ocean's level. Old islands -have disappeared; new ones have emerged above the surface of the -water. Great stretches of seacoast exist at the present time which -within the historical period have been covered by the ocean. Even at -the present writing we are witnessing the gradual submergence of some -parts of the earth and the rising of others; terraces on the northern -Atlantic coast may be seen along the hillsides many feet above the -present level of the ocean--all of which go to show that the -relationship of the land to the water is an unstable one. These are -the evidences of continental growth and depressions from the -historical standpoint, and the validity of the data upon which the -belief is founded can not be shaken. The evidence from the geological -side is overwhelming, but before we speak of this it will be well once -more to say a word as to the causes of continental uplift. - -From an original fluid globe possessing a high temperature, the earth -has now cooled down to a degree sufficiently low to permit the -formation of a thick rock crust. Underneath this crust an approach to -the old surface temperatures is still maintained, and the existence of -a certain degree of fluidity is demonstrated to us from time to time -by the phenomenon of volcanism. Successive zones of cooling took -place. The outer part could only conform to a shrinking interior by -wrinkling, folding, or bodily lifting considerable areas above the -general level. An adjustment of strains thus set up would take place -either with or without folding of the strata. These initial wrinkles -gave rise to our first mountains, and the continuation of these -conditions at the present time is as surely nourishing mountain growth -as at any time in the past. In this way the fluctuations of the -ocean's level, above referred to, alone are to be explained, and such -form but temporary rises and falls in the history of a continent. - -[Illustration: FIG. 7.--MOUNTAIN SHOWING ROCK FOLDING.] - -The rate at which an ocean bed is raised to form a mountain range is, -no doubt, a variable one; always slow, often interrupted, but seldom -or never violent. During this time the strata usually undergo crushing -and folding; stretching takes place, and displacements of the rocks, -or faulting, are not uncommon. As an example of the wrinkling that the -strata may suffer under these conditions, the reader is referred to -the beautiful symmetrical fold shown on the side of a mountain in the -Appalachians (Fig. 7). Similar folding is the rule, but often immense -areas are raised to great heights above the ocean without disturbing -the horizontal position of the beds (see Fig. 8). Coincident with the -emergence of the rocks from beneath the water, there begin the -attacks of the forces operating to destroy them. Hand in hand there go -on growth and destruction. The two may keep an even pace; either may -obtain the mastery. In the one case, lack of considerable elevation -and flatness result; in the other, great altitudes may be attained. -The rivers may cut their valleys downward as fast as the land rises, -or the down-cutting may be relatively slower. In any case, after a -given land mass has attained its greatest height above the sea, the -larger rivers soon cut their channels down as far as river cutting is -possible--namely, to within a few feet of sea level. With relatively -rapid elevation, soft rocks, and large rivers, the resultant valley -takes the form of a cañon, examples of which are found along the -courses of the Colorado and the Yellowstone Rivers (see Fig. 8).[11] -Valleys of this nature soon lose their steep sides by the action of -weathering and all that this implies, and pass into a more open state, -like that shown in Fig. 9. - -[Illustration: FIG. 8.--HORIZONTAL ROCKS, GRAND CAÑON OF THE -COLORADO.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 9.--MOUNT STEPHEN, SHOWING ITS HORIZONTAL ROCKS.] - -These views have been selected in order that a comparison of this type -of mountain structure may be made with that shown in Fig. 6. The -points of resemblance between the two sections exposed, one by a steam -shovel, the other by river action, are the horizontal position of the -strata and the alternations of beds of unlike character. The -differences are mainly that the beds making up the mountain show that -they are built up of alternating layers of sand (now converted into a -sandstone) and clay (now in the condition of a slate). Are not these -the products of a decayed continent? Is their position to be explained -otherwise than along the lines already stated? Our only difficulty in -readily accepting this conclusion is founded on a hereditary belief, -born in ignorance and nourished to maturity by superstition, that the -earth came into existence as we see it to-day, the surface dissected -by valleys in which the rivers find established courses to the sea; -possessing a multiplicity of highland and lowland, granite mountains -and marble hills, as a result of some plan carried into effect as a -creative act. Science has revealed the impossibility of this -interpretation. Considered in the light of evolution, acting through -an immense period of time, by means of the processes already -enumerated, the diversity of land form is made plain to us, and the -ever-varying characters of rock structure and composition are in the -main made easy of comprehension. Viewed in the light of the foregoing -pages, and illustrating as they do land form and the greater part of -the earth's crust, the rock structures revealed on the sides of the -mountains and cañons, as well as the broader valley itself, take on a -new and more intelligent interest. High and enduring as the mountains -may appear, resistant as their solid rocks may seem, they are doomed -as mountains to the same fate that their own structure and composition -prove to have overtaken earlier mountains before them. - -The earth has known no cessation in this cycle of decay, deposition, -and elevation; again and again have continental masses been raised -from the ocean floor only to become a prey to the forces that destroy -them. These cycles will continue--mountain ranges will fade away and -new ones will be born. A more permanent relationship between the -lowland, the upland, and the ocean level will never be attained until -the forces that warp and wrinkle the earth's crust shall have ceased -forever. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[8] The position of the solid rock is shown by the hammer at the -extreme right, standing vertically. - -[9] This photograph represents a more detailed view of the quarry wall -seen in Fig. 1. The relation of the two views will be understood by -observing the positions of the hammers, which are in the same place in -both photographs. These photographs, as well as some of the others -that follow, were taken by Mr. John L. Gardner, 2d, for the purpose of -illustrating these pages. - -[10] In order to obtain this sketch, a survey was made of the delta, -and from the information thus gathered a model was constructed out of -clay. The dimensions of the delta are about one thousand by seven -hundred feet. - -[11] The bottom of the cañon at this point is between four and five -thousand feet below the flat surfaces in the foreground--a sheer -descent of nearly a mile. - - * * * * * - - M. Henri Bourget, of the Toulouse (France) Observatory, has - called attention in Nature to a common phenomenon which he - believes has not been mentioned in any scientific book. If - one end of a bar of metal is heated, but not enough to make - the other end too hot to be held in the hand, and then - suddenly cooled, the temperature of the other end will rise - till the hand can not bear it. All workmen who have occasion - to handle and heat pieces of metal, he says, know this. - - - - -DEATH GULCH, A NATURAL BEAR-TRAP. - -BY T.A. JAGGAR, JR., PH.D. - - -Cases of asphyxiation by gas have been very frequently reported of -late years, and we commonly associate with such reports the idea of a -second-rate hotel and an unsophisticated countryman who blows out the -gas. Such incidents we connect with the supercivilization of the -nineteenth century, but it is none the less true that Nature furnishes -similar accidents, and that in regions far remote from the haunts of -men. In the heart of the Rocky Mountains of Wyoming, unknown to either -the tourist or the trapper, there is a natural hostelry for the wild -inhabitants of the forest, where, with food, drink, and shelter all in -sight, the poor creatures are tempted one after another into a bath of -invisible poisonous vapor, where they sink down to add their bones to -the fossil records of an interminable list of similar tragedies, -dating back to a period long preceding the records of human history. - -It was the writer's privilege, as a member of the expedition of the -United States Geological Survey of the Yellowstone Park, under the -direction of Mr. Arnold Hague, to visit and for the first time to -photograph this remarkable locality. A similar visit was last made by -members of the survey in the summer of 1888, and an account of the -discovery of Death Gulch was published in Science (February 15, 1889) -under the title A Deadly Gas Spring in the Yellowstone Park, by Mr. -Walter Harvey Weed. The following extracts from Mr. Weed's paper -indicate concisely the general character of the gulch, and the -description of the death-trap as it then appeared offers interesting -material for comparison with its condition as observed in the summer -of 1897. - -Death Gulch is a small and gloomy ravine in the northeast corner of -the Yellowstone National Park. "In this region the lavas which fill -the ancient basin of the park rest upon the flanks of mountains formed -of fragmentary volcanic ejecta, ... while the hydrothermal forces of -the central portion of the park show but feeble manifestations of -their energy in the almost extinct hot-spring areas of Soda Butte, -Lamar River, Cache Creek, and Miller Creek." Although hot water no -longer flows from these vents, "gaseous emanations are now given off -in considerable volume." On Cache Creek, about two miles above its -confluence with Lamar River, are deposits of altered and crystalline -travertine, with pools in the creek violently effervescing locally. -This is due to the copious emission of gas. Above these deposits "the -creek cuts into a bank of sulphur and gravel cemented by this -material, and a few yards beyond is the _débouchure_ of a small -lateral gully coming down from the mountainside. In its bottom is a -small stream of clear and cold water, sour with sulphuric acid, and -flowing down a narrow and steep channel cut in beds of dark-gray -volcanic tuff. Ascending this gulch, the sides, closing together, -become very steep slopes of white, decomposed rock.... The only -springs now flowing are small oozes of water issuing from the base of -these slopes, or from the channel bed, forming a thick, creamy, white -deposit about the vents, and covering the stream bed. This deposit -consists largely of sulphate of alumina.... About one hundred and -fifty feet above the main stream these oozing springs of acid water -cease, but the character of the gulch remains the same. The odor of -sulphur now becomes stronger, though producing no other effect than a -slight irritation of the lungs. - -"The gulch ends, or rather begins, in a scoop or basin about two -hundred and fifty feet above Cache Creek, and just below this was -found the fresh body of a large bear, a silver-tip grizzly, with the -remains of a companion in an advanced stage of decomposition above -him. Near by were the skeletons of four more bears, with the bones of -an elk a yard or two above, while in the bottom of the pocket were the -fresh remains of several squirrels, rock hares, and other small -animals, besides numerous dead butterflies and insects. The body of -the grizzly was carefully examined for bullet holes or other marks of -injury, but showed no traces of violence, the only indication being a -few drops of blood under the nose. It was evident that he had met his -death but a short time before, as the carcass was still perfectly -fresh, though offensive enough at the time of a later visit. The -remains of a cinnamon bear just above and alongside of this were in an -advanced state of decomposition, while the other skeletons were almost -denuded of flesh, though the claws and much of the hair remained. It -was apparent that these animals, as well as the squirrels and insects, -had not met their death by violence, but had been asphyxiated by the -irrespirable gas given off in the gulch. The hollows were tested for -carbonic-acid gas with lighted tapers without proving its presence, -but the strong smell of sulphur, and a choking sensation of the lungs, -indicated the presence of noxious gases, while the strong wind -prevailing at the time, together with the open nature of the ravine, -must have caused a rapid diffusion of the vapors. - -"This place differs, therefore, very materially from the famous Death -Valley of Java and similar places, in being simply a V-shaped trench, -not over seventy-five feet deep, cut in the mountain slope, and not a -hollow or cave. That the gas at times accumulates in the pocket at the -head of the gulch is, however, proved by the dead squirrels, etc., -found on its bottom. It is not probable, however, that the gas ever -accumulates here to a considerable depth, owing to the open nature of -the place, and the fact that the gulch draining it would carry off the -gas, which would, from its density, tend to flow down the ravine. This -offers an explanation of the death of the bears, whose remains occur -not in this basin, but where it narrows to form the ravine, for it is -here that the layer of gas would be deepest, and has proved sufficient -to suffocate the first bear, who was probably attracted by the remains -of the elk, or perhaps of the smaller victims of the invisible gas; -and he, in turn, has doubtless served as bait for others who have in -turn succumbed. Though the gulch has doubtless served as a death-trap -for a very long period of time, these skeletons and bodies must be the -remains of only the most recent victims, for the ravine is so narrow -and the fall so great that the channel must be cleared out every few -years, if not annually. The change wrought by the water during a -single rainstorm, which occurred in the interval between Mr. Weed's -first and second visits, was so considerable that it seems probable -that the floods of early spring, when the snows are melting under the -hot sun of this region, must be powerful enough to wash everything -down to the cone of _débris_ at the mouth of the gulch." Mr. Arnold -Hague, on the occasion of his visit, was more successful in obtaining -evidence of the presence of carbonic-dioxide gas. He writes: "The day -I went up the ravine I was able in two places to extinguish a long -brown paper taper. The day I was there it was very calm, and where I -made the test the water was trickling down a narrow gorge shut in by -shelving rocks above." - -It was at noon on the 22d of July in the summer of 1897 that we made -camp near the mouth of Cache Creek, about three miles southeast of the -military post and mail station of Soda Butte. In company with Dr. -Francis P. King I at once started up the creek, keeping the left bank, -that we might not miss the gulch, which joins the valley of Cache -Creek from the southern side. We had a toilsome climb through timber -and over steep embankments, cut by the creek in a loose conglomerate, -and after going about a mile and a half we noticed that some of these -banks were stained with whitish and yellow deposits of alum and -sulphur, indicating that we were nearing the old hot-spring district. -Soon a caved-in cone of travertine was seen, with crystalline calcite -and sulphur in the cavities, and the bed of the creek was more or less -completely whitened by these deposits, while here and there could be -seen along the banks oozing "paint-pots" of calcareous mud, in one -case inky black, with deposits of varicolored salts about its rim, and -a steady ebullition of gas bubbles rising from the bottom. In other -cases these pools were crystal clear, and always cold. The vegetation, -which below had been dense close to the creek's bank, here became more -scanty, especially on the southern side, where the bare rock was -exposed and seen to be a volcanic breccia, much decomposed and stained -with solfataric deposits. A mound of coarse _débris_ seen just above -on this side indicated the presence of a lateral ravine, which from -its situation and character we decided was probably the gulch sought -for. A strong odor of sulphureted hydrogen had been perceptible for -some time, and when we entered the gully the fumes became oppressive, -causing a heavy burning sensation in the throat and lungs. The ravine -proved to be as described, a V-shaped trench cut in the volcanic rock, -about fifty feet in depth, with very steep bare whitish slopes, -narrowing to a stony rill bed that ascended steeply back into the -mountain side. - -[Illustration: GENERAL VIEW, LOOKING DOWNSTREAM, OF LOWER PART OF -DEATH GULCH.] - -Climbing through this trough, a frightfully weird and dismal place, -utterly without life, and occupied by only a tiny streamlet and an -appalling odor, we at length discovered some brown furry masses lying -scattered about the floor of the ravine about a quarter of a mile from -the point where we had left Cache Creek. Approaching cautiously, it -became quickly evident that we had before us a large group of huge -recumbent bears; the one nearest to us was lying with his nose between -his paws, facing us, and so exactly like a huge dog asleep that it did -not seem possible that it was the sleep of death. To make sure, I -threw a pebble at the animal, striking him on the flank; the distended -skin resounded like a drumhead, and the only response was a belch of -poisonous gas that almost overwhelmed us. Closer examination showed -that the animal was a young silver-tip grizzly (_Ursus horribilis_); a -few drops of thick, dark-red blood stained his nostrils and the ground -beneath. There proved to be five other carcasses, all bears, in -various stages of decay; careful search revealed oval areas of hair -and bones that represented two other bears, making a total of eight -carcasses in all. Seven were grizzlies, one was a cinnamon bear -(_Ursus americanus_). One huge grizzly was so recent a victim that -his tracks were still visible in the white, earthy slopes, leading -down to the spot where he had met his death. In no case were any marks -of violence seen, and there can be no question that death was -occasioned by the gas. The wind was blowing directly up the ravine -during our visit, and we failed to get any test for carbonic acid, -though we exhausted all our matches in the effort, plunging the flames -into hollows of the rill bed in various parts of its course; they -invariably burned brightly, and showed not the slightest tendency to -extinguish. The dilution of the gas in such a breeze would be -inevitable, however; that the gas was present was attested by the -peculiar oppression on the lungs that was felt during the entire -period that we were in the gulch, and which only wore off gradually on -our return to camp. I suffered from a slight headache in consequence -for several hours. - -[Illustration: LOOKING DOWN THE GULCH--THE LATEST VICTIM, A LARGE -SILVER-TIP GRIZZLY.] - -There was no difference in the appearance of the portion of the gulch -where the eight bears had met their end and the region above and -below. A hundred yards or more up stream the solfataric deposits -become less abundant, and the timber grows close to the brook; a short -distance beyond this the gulch ends. No bodies were found above, and -only bears were found in the locality described. It will be observed -that Weed's experience differs in this respect from ours, and the -appearance of the place was somewhat different: he found elk and small -animals in addition to the bears, and describes the death-trap as -occupying the mouth of the basin at the head of the gulch, above the -point where the last springs of acid water cease. The rill observed by -us has its source far above the animals; indeed, it trickles directly -through the worm-eaten carcass of the cinnamon bear--a thought by no -means comforting when we realized that the water supply for our camp -was drawn from the creek only a short distance down the valley. - -It is not impossible that there may be two or three of these gullies -having similar properties. That we should have found only bears may -perhaps be accounted for on the ground that the first victim for this -season was a bear, and his carcass frightened away all animals except -those of his own family. For an illustration of a process of -accumulation of the bones of large vertebrates, with all the -conditions present necessary for fossilization, no finer example can -be found in the world than Death Gulch; year after year the snow -slides and spring floods wash down this fresh supply of entrapped -carcasses to be buried in the waste cones and alluvial bottoms of -Cache Creek and Lamar River. Probably the stream-formed conglomerate -that we noted as we ascended the creek is locally filled with these -remains. - -The gas is probably generated by the action of the acid water on the -ancient limestones that here underlie the lavas at no great depth; -outcrops of these limestones occur only a few miles away at the mouth -of Soda Butte Creek. This gas must emanate from fissures in the rock -just above the bears, and on still nights it may accumulate to a depth -of two or three feet in the ravine, settling in a heavy, wavy stratum, -and probably rolling slowly down the bed of the rill into the valley -below. The accompanying photographs were made during our visit. - - - - -THE LABOR PROBLEM IN THE TROPICS. - -BY W. ALLEYNE IRELAND. - - -A great deal of space has been devoted in American magazines and -newspapers recently to the question of how this country has become a -colonial power. Destiny and duty, strength and weakness, accident and -design, honesty and corruption have been called on by writers, singly -and in various combinations, to bear the responsibility of the new -departure in the national policy. - -Whatever interest such speculations may possess for the student who -seeks to discover in the events of history some indication of the -evolution of national character, there can be little doubt that the -eyes of the people at large are turned in another direction. - -What are our new possessions worth? is the question which intelligent -men of all classes are beginning to ask; and it is not surprising, in -view of the comparative isolation of this country in the past, that -there are few who have sufficient confidence in their own opinion to -answer the query. - -In England, whose colonial and Indian empire embraces nearly one -fourth of the population of the globe, there is an astounding lack of -knowledge in relation to colonial affairs; and those who follow the -debates in the House of Commons will have noticed that when the -colonies are the subject under discussion the few members who remain -in their seats seldom fail to exhibit a degree of ignorance which must -be most disheartening to the able and learned Colonial Secretary. - -It is not to be wondered at, then, that in the United States, where -the people have been too much occupied with the problems continually -arising at home to pay any attention to affairs which, until very -recently, have appeared entirely outside the range of practical -politics, there should be few men who have given their time to that -careful study of tropical colonization which alone can impart any -value to opinions in regard to the practical issues involved in the -colonial expansion of this country. Discussion of the subject has -been almost entirely along the line of the possible effects of the new -policy on the political institutions and popular ideals of the United -States, and little has been written which may be said to throw any -light on the problem of tropical colonization _per se_. - -A residence of ten years in the tropical colonies of France, Spain, -Holland, and Great Britain--a period during which I devoted much time -to the study of colonial affairs--leaves me of opinion that there are -two points in regard to which discussion is peculiarly opportune: 1. -The value of the Philippines and Puerto Rico as a field for the -cultivation of those tropical products which are consumed in the -temperate zones. 2. The value of the islands as a market for products -and manufactures of the temperate zones. - -It will at once be seen that only in so far as the islands are -valuable in the former respect can they be important in the latter, -for in the absence of production there can not be any considerable -consumption of commodities. - -The first point to be considered, and it is the one to which I shall -confine myself in the present article, is by what means the productive -possibilities of Puerto Rico and the Philippines can be developed. - -Basing my calculation on official reports covering a number of years, -I find that the average value _per capita_ of the annual exports of -native products from a number of tropical colonies selected by me for -the purpose of this inquiry is as follows: - - Trinidad $26.48 - British Guiana 34.26 - Martinique 23.48 - Mauritius 20.28 - Dominica 7.28 - St. Vincent 7.68 - Ceylon 7.24 - Montserrat 7.89 - -An examination of these figures will serve to show that the value of -the colonies in the first column, measured by the standard of their -productiveness, is three times that of the colonies in the second -column. Reference to the population returns of the colonies named -discloses the fact that in the colonies in the first column the -population contains a very large proportion of imported contract -laborers and their descendants, while in the other colonies -practically the whole population is home-born for at least two -generations. - -A moment's reflection will show the importance of the comparison -instituted above, and if the space at my command permitted a more -extensive analysis of the trade of tropical colonies, it could be -demonstrated that the theory holds good, almost without exception, -that of tropical countries those only are commercially valuable in -which a system of imported contract labor is in force. - -There are one or two colonies (Barbados is the most striking example) -in which the pressure of population is so great that the labor supply -suffices for the utmost development of which the country is capable; -but such instances are rare. - -The experience of England in governing tropical colonies is frequently -cited by those who favor the so-called imperial policy for the United -States as a proof that tropical colonization in itself presents no -difficulties which can not be overcome by enlightened administration. -It would be difficult to point out in just what manner Great Britain -derives any benefit from her tropical possessions, but her experience -confirms the theory I have stated above--that the commercial -development of tropical colonies is possible only where there is an -extraordinary density of population or where a system of imported -contract labor is in force. - -A glance through the list of Great Britain's tropical colonies will -serve to prove the correctness of this theory. Imported contract labor -is used in British Guiana, Trinidad, Jamaica, Queensland, the Fiji -Islands, the Straits Settlements, and Mauritius; while the pressure of -population is extreme in Lagos and Barbados, which support -respectively 1,333 and 1,120 persons to the square mile. - -The remaining tropical colonies of Great Britain--using the term -"tropical colony" in its strictest sense--are the Gold Coast, Sierra -Leone, Gambia, Hongkong, St. Helena, British Honduras, Grenada, St. -Vincent, St. Lucia, Antigua, St. Kitts-Nevis, Dominica, Montserrat, -and a few islands in the Pacific which are insignificant commercially. - -A careful examination of the British trade returns shows that the -total export and import trade between the United Kingdom and all the -British tropical colonies in 1896 reached a value of $146,000,000, and -that of this sum $121,000,000 represented trade with the tropical -colonies which employ imported contract labor and with Lagos and -Barbados. In other words, the trade between the United Kingdom and -those British tropical colonies where free labor is used and where -there is no great pressure of population made up less than eighteen -per cent of the total trade with the British tropical colonies. - -It would appear from the facts I have given that the commercial -development of those parts of the tropics where the population is -sparse will be dependent on the importation of labor from more densely -peopled areas. - -If the question is approached from an entirely different standpoint -the necessity of contract labor in the tropics becomes more strikingly -apparent. The development of the tropics will be in the direction of -agriculture rather than manufacturing, and the requirements of -tropical agriculture in respect of labor are most arbitrary. It is not -sufficient that the labor supply is ample, in the ordinary sense of -the word; it must be at all times immediately available. - -Thus, a mine owner whose men go out on strike is, briefly, placed in -this position: He will lose a sum of money somewhat larger than the -amount of profit he could have made during the period of the strike -had it not occurred. His coal, however, is still there, and is not -less valuable--indeed, in the case of a prolonged strike, may actually -be more valuable--when the strike is over; work can easily be resumed -where it was dropped, and during the idle days the ordinary running -expenses of the mine cease. The greater part of the loss sustained in -the instance I have supposed is not out-of-pocket loss, but merely the -failure to realize prospective profits. - -On the other hand, a sugar estate in the tropics spends about eight -months out of the twelve in cultivating the crop, and the remaining -four in reaping and boiling operations. By the time the crop is ready -to reap many thousands of dollars have been expended on it by way of -planting, weeding, draining, and the application of nitrogenous -manures. If from any cause the labor supply fails when the cutting of -the canes is about to commence, every cent expended on the crop is -wasted; and if for want of labor the canes which are cut are not -transported within a few hours to the mills, they turn sour and can -not be made into sugar. It will thus be seen that in the case of -sugar-growing a perfectly reliable labor supply is the first -requisite. - -The same might be said of the cultivation of tea, coffee, cocoa, -spices, and tropical fruits. - -This problem--the securing of a reliable labor supply--has been solved -in the case of several of the tropical possessions of England by the -importation of East Indian laborers under contract to serve for a -fixed period on the plantations. - -As, in my opinion, the East Indian contract laborer will play an -important part in the development of the tropics, I describe in detail -the most perfect system of contract labor with which I am acquainted, -that existing at the present time in the colony of British Guiana. The -system of imported indentured labor which is in force in many of the -British colonies has been referred to frequently, both in this country -and in England, as "slavery," "semislavery," "the new slavery." The -use of such terms to describe such a system indicates a complete -ignorance of the facts. As some of the best-informed journals in this -country, in noticing my writings on tropical subjects, have fallen -into this error, I hope that the description I give here, which is -based on several years' experience of the actual working of the -system, will serve to convince the readers of this article that the -indenture of the East Indian coolie in the British colonies is no more -a form of slavery than is any contract entered into between an -employer and an employee in this country. - -When the British Guiana planter was informed by the home Government -in 1834 that four years later slavery would be entirely abolished -throughout the British Empire, he foresaw at once that unless a new -source of labor was thrown open a very short time would elapse before -the cane fields would fall out of cultivation. He listened, not -without some irritation, to the assurances of the agents of the -Antislavery Society that as soon as the slaves were freed they would -work with redoubled energy, and that the labor supply, instead of -deteriorating, would, in fact, improve. The planters knew better, and -began at once to arrange for the importation of contract labor. With -the year 1834 began the period of apprenticeship for the slaves, prior -to their complete emancipation four years later. - -During this time, and before the imported labor sufficed for the needs -of the plantations, several estates were ruined and fell out of -cultivation because the apprenticed laborers would not work. - -On October 11, 1838, the governor of the colony, Henry Light, Esquire, -issued a proclamation to the freed slaves. The proclamation stated -that the governor had learned with regret that the labor of the freed -slaves was irregular; that their masters could not depend on them; -that they worked one day and idled the next; that when they had earned -enough to fill their bellies they lay down to sleep or idled away -their time; that they left their tasks unfinished, and then expected -to be paid in full for them. - -In the meanwhile the planters imported labor from the West Indian -Islands, Malta, Madeira, China, and Germany; and eventually the system -of immigration from India was organized. - -The system is under the control of the Indian Council in Calcutta on -the one hand and the British Guiana Government and the Colonial Office -on the other. In Georgetown, the capital of the colony, is the -immigration department, under the management of the immigration agent -general, who has under him a staff of inspectors, subagents, clerks, -and interpreters, all of whom must speak at least one Indian dialect. -In Calcutta resides the emigration agent general, also an official of -the British Guiana Government, who has under him a staff of medical -officers, recruiting agents, and clerks. - -Each year the planters of British Guiana send in requisitions to the -immigration department stating the number of immigrants required for -the following year. These requisitions are examined by the agent -general, and if, in his opinion, any estate demands more coolies than -the extent of its cultivation justifies, the number is reduced. As -soon as the full number is decided on, the agent in Calcutta is -informed, and the process of recruiting commences. The laborers are -secured entirely by voluntary enlistment. The recruiting agents go -about the country and explain the terms offered by the British Guiana -planters, and those men and women who express their willingness to -enter into a contract are sent down to Calcutta at the expense of the -colony. - -On arrival in Calcutta they are provided with free food and quarters -at the emigration depot until such time as a sufficient number are -assembled to form a full passenger list for a transport. During the -period of waiting, which may extend to several weeks, a careful -medical inspection of the laborers is made, and all those who may be -deemed unfit for the work of the estates are sent back to their homes -at the expense of the colony. Prior to embarkation the coolies are -called up in batches of fifteen or twenty, and the emigration agent or -a local magistrate reads over to them in their own language the terms -of the indenture. Each one is then given an indenture ticket on which -the terms of indenture are printed in three dialects. The agent -general affixes his signature to each ticket; and a special provision -in the laws of British Guiana makes his signature binding on the -planters who employ the coolies. The ticket thus constitutes a -contract valid as against either party in the courts of the colony. - -The coolies have the right to carry with them any children they may -wish, and those under twelve years of age are exempt from indenture. -The transportation is effected in sailing vessels, which are for the -time being Government transports. The reason why steamers are not -employed is that sailing vessels are found to be much healthier, and -that the long sea voyage has an excellent effect on the immigrants. -The regulations governing the voyage are very strict. As far as the -coolies are concerned, the ship is in charge of a medical officer. The -captain of the ship, the officers, and the crew are all under the -command of the doctor, except in so far as the actual sailing of the -vessel is in question. The vessel has ample hospital accommodation, a -complete dispensary in charge of a qualified dispenser, and all the -arrangements must be passed by a Government inspector before the ship -is given her clearance. The food to be furnished during the voyage is -specified by law. The bill of fare consists chiefly of bread, butter, -rice, curry, sago, condensed milk, and fresh mutton, a number of sheep -being carried on the ship. - -Every morning and evening the doctor makes an inspection of the -vessel, and enters in his log-book all essential details, such as -births, deaths, cases treated in the hospital, and so forth. - -On arrival in the colony the coolies are allotted to the different -estates. The coolie is bound to remain for five years on the -plantation to which he is allotted, and to work during that time five -days a week, the day's work being seven hours. In return for this the -planter must furnish him with a house free of rent, and built in such -a way as to meet the requirements of the inspector of immigrants' -dwellings in regard to ventilation, size, and water supply; and no -immigrants are sent to any estate until these houses have been -inspected and passed as satisfactory. The planter must also furnish on -the estate free hospital accommodation and medical attendance, and in -addition provide free education for the children of indentured -immigrants. - -The medical officers are Government servants, and the colony is -divided into districts, each of which has its own doctor, who is -compelled by law to visit each estate in his district at least once in -forty-eight hours and examine and prescribe for all immigrants -presenting themselves at the hospital. - -The planter is further bound to pay a minimum daily wage of -twenty-four cents to each man and sixteen cents to each woman. This -appears at first sight a very small sum, but when it is taken into -account that a coolie can live well on eight cents a day it will be -seen that the wage is three times the living expense, a rate very -rarely paid to agricultural laborers in any part of the world. - -That the coolies do, in fact, save considerable sums of money will be -seen when the statistics of the immigration department are examined. -These records show that during the years 1870 to 1896 38,793 -immigrants returned to India after completing their terms of -indenture, and that they carried back with them to their native land -over $2,800,000. At the end of 1896 there were over five thousand East -Indian depositors in the British Guiana Government Savings Bank and -the Post-Office Savings Bank, with a total sum of more than $450,000 -to their credit. - -At the end of five years the indentured coolie becomes absolutely -free. He may cease work, or, if he prefer it, remain on the estates as -a free laborer. The whole colony is open to him, and he may engage in -any trade or profession for which he may be fitted. If he remains for -five years longer in the colony, even though he be idle during the -whole of that time, he becomes entitled to a grant of land from the -Government. The law in this respect has been recently changed. All -coolies who came to the colony prior to 1898 have the choice at the -end of ten years of a free grant of land or an assisted passage back -to their native place. - -It may be objected by those persons who are unacquainted with the -system that all this sounds very well on paper, but that the -opportunities for fraud and oppression must be very frequent, and, -human nature being what it is, very frequently taken advantage of, to -the injury of the coolies' interests. Such charges have, in fact, been -made from time to time, but they have, on investigation, proved to be -unfounded, or, at the worst, highly exaggerated. The treatment of the -indentured immigrants in British Guiana was the subject of a Royal -commission of inquiry in 1870. The appointment of the commission -followed a series of charges made by a certain Mr. Des Voeux, a -magistrate in the colony, in a letter to Earl Granville, at that time -Secretary of State for the Colonies. - -The commission visited the colony and conducted a most searching -inquiry. Hundreds of witnesses were examined, and the commissioners -visited several estates, without giving any warning of their -intentions, and questioned many of the coolies as to their treatment. -Mr. Des Voeux entirely failed to substantiate his charges; and Sir -Clinton Murdoch, the chairman of the emigration board--a permanent -department of the Colonial Office--in referring to the report of the -commission in a blue book issued in 1872, said: "It may, I think, be -considered that the report of the commissioners is generally -satisfactory, both as regards the magistracy, the planters, and the -immigrants. Many defects in the system and mode of working it are no -doubt pointed out, but they are defects caused by errors of judgment, -by insufficiency of the law, or by want of foresight, not by -intentional neglect or indifference to the well-being of the people, -still less by oppression or cruelty. The vindication of the magistracy -and of the medical officers appears to be complete, and the fair -dealing and kindness of the managers toward the immigrants is -acknowledged." - -The laws have been amended, the Government inspection has been made -more complete, and to-day it is impossible that any abuse of power on -the part of the planters can pass unnoticed. - -To give an instance of the effectiveness of the Government -supervision--each estate is compelled by law to keep pay lists -according to a form specified by the immigration department, in which -the name of each indentured immigrant must be entered with a record of -each separate day's work during the five years of the indenture. Thus, -if the pay list shows that in a certain week a man worked only two -days out of the legal five, it must also show the reason why he did -not work on the other three days. It may have been that the man was in -the hospital, in which case the letter "H" must appear opposite his -name for those days; or he may have been granted leave of absence, -when the letter "L" would account for him. These pay lists are -inspected by a Government officer twice a month, and any faults -disclosed by the examination become the subject of a severe reprimand -from the agent general, followed in the case of persistent neglect by -the cutting off of the supply of coolies. - -So minute are the records of the immigration department that were an -application made to the agent general for information regarding some -particular indentured coolie, that official could without difficulty -supply the name of the man's father and mother, his caste, age, -native place, with the same information in regard to the man's wife. -He could also make out an account showing every day the man had worked -during the term of his indenture, and the reasons why he had not -worked on the other days, with the exact amount earned on each working -day. In addition to this he could state how many days the man had -spent in the estate's hospital and what was the matter with him on -those occasions, besides furnishing a copy of every prescription made -up for the man in the estate's dispensary. - -A striking evidence of the desire of the Government to protect the -coolies from ill treatment of any kind is afforded by the rule of the -immigration department that, if any overseer on an estate is convicted -of an offense against an indentured immigrant, the dismissal of the -offender is demanded, and each estate in the colony is warned that if -it employ the man the supply of immigrants will be cut off. - -The coolies are given every facility to complain of ill-treatment or -breach of contract on the part of the planters, for, in addition to -the opportunity afforded by the regular visits of the subagents, the -right is secured to them by law of leaving any estate without -permission in order to visit the agent general or the nearest -magistrate; and either of these officials has the power to issue all -process of law free of cost to any coolie who satisfies him that there -is a _prima facie_ cause of complaint. - -Such, in brief, are the features of the East Indian immigration system -of British Guiana.[12] - -Those who approach the question of the labor supply for the American -colonies with an unprejudiced mind will see that there is nothing in -the system I have described which is at variance with the principles -of the American people. - -All that is required to make such a system a boon both to the employer -and to the laborer is that the officials charged with the inspection -of the system and the protection of the immigrants' interests should -be intelligent, honest, and fearless in the discharge of their duties. - - -FOOTNOTE: - -[12] To those who are interested in the subject of indentured labor in -the tropics, the following statistics, compiled by me from official -sources, may be of interest. The figures relate to British Guiana: - - Year. - |Number of indentur'd laborers imported from India. - | |Number of time-expired immigrants who returned to India. - | | |Value in dollars of money and ornaments - | | |carried back to India by returning immigrants. - | | | |Number of East Indian depositors in the - | | | |Gov't Savings Bank. - | | | | |Total amount of their deposits, in - | | | | |dollars. - | | | | | |Number of planters convicted - | | | | | |of offenses against - | | | | | |immigrants. - | | | | | | |Death rate per 1,000 among - | | | | | | |indentured laborers. - | | | | | | | |General death rate - | | | | | | | |of the colony. - ----+------+------+--------+------+--------+--+------+------------------- - 1886| 4,796| 1,889| 111,775| 5,558| 425,956| 9| 27.40| 25.56 - 1887| 3,928| 1,420| 92,613| 5,821| 438,600| 4| 23.20| 32.41 - 1888| 2,771| 1,938| 95,074| 5,904| 457,886| 1| 19.73| 29.27 - 1889| 3,573| 2,042| 112,124| 6,802| 513,220| 1| 12.57| 28.13 - 1890| 3,432| 2,125| 142,611| 7,269| 558,734| 3| 20.40| 39.80 - 1891| 5,229| 2,151| 134,225| 6,398| 515,246| 2| 20.40| 37.00 - 1892| 5,241| 2,014| 97,529| 6,085| 527,203| 1| 25.20| 39.00 - 1893| 4,146| 1,848| 104,763| 6,179| 544,420| 1| 24.91| 35.00 - 1894| 9,585| 1,998| 113,308| 6,128| 529,161| 2| 24.22| 33.53 - 1895| 2,425| 2,071| 119,289| 4,950| 453,950| 1| 20.36| 29.58 - 1896| 2,408| 2,059| 76,470| 4,520| 434,759| 1| 16.50| 24.10 - ----+------+------+--------+------+--------+--+------+------------------- - - - - -PRINCIPLES OF TAXATION. - -BY THE LATE HON. DAVID A. WELLS. - - -XX.--THE LAW OF THE DIFFUSION OF TAXES. - -PART II. - -Attention is next asked to an analysis of the incidence of taxation, -what is mainly direct, on processes and products, and on the machinery -by which one is effected and the other distributed, and at the outset -the following propositions in the nature of economic axioms are -submitted, which it is believed will serve as stepping stones to the -attainment of broad generalizations. - -Thus, property is solely produced to supply human wants and desires; -and taxes form an important part of the cost of all production, -distribution, and consumption, and represent the labor performed in -guarding and protecting property at the expense of the State, in all -the processes of development and transformation. The State is thus an -active and important partner in all production. Without its assistance -and protection, production would be impeded or wholly arrested. The -soldier or policeman guards, while the citizen performs his labor in -safety. As a partner in all the forms of production and business, the -State must pay its expenses--i.e., its agents, for their services; and -its only means of paying are through its receipts from taxation. -Taxes, then, are clearly items of expense in all business, the same as -rent, fuel, cost of material, light, labor, waste, insurance, clerical -service, advertising, expressage, freight, and the like, and on -business principles they find their place on the pages of profit and -loss; and, like all other expenses which enter into the cost of -production, must finally be sustained by those who gratify their wants -or desires by consumption. Production is only a means, and consumption -is the end, and the consumer must pay in the end all the expenses of -production. Every dealer in domestic or imported merchandise keeps on -hand, at all times, upon his shelves, a stock of different and -accumulated taxes--customs, internal revenue, State, school, and -municipal--with his goods; and when we buy and carry away from any -store or shop an article, we buy and carry away with it the -accompanying and inherential taxes. - -Any primary taxpayer, who does not ultimately consume the thing taxed, -and who does not include the tax in the price of the taxed property or -its products, must literally throw away his money and must soon become -bankrupt and disappear as a competitor; and accordingly the tax -advancer will add the tax in his prices if he understands simple -addition. How rapidly bankruptcy would befall dealers in imported -goods, wares, and merchandise in the United States who did not -strictly observe this rule will be realized when one remembers that -the average tax imposed by its Government (in 1896) on all dutiable -imports is in excess of fifty per cent. - -When Dr. Franklin was asked by a committee of the English House of -Commons, prior to the American Revolution, if the province of -Pennsylvania did not practically relieve farmers and other landowners -from taxation, and at the same time impose a heavy tax on merchants, -to the injury of British trade, he answered that "if such special tax -was imposed, the merchants were experts with their pens, and added the -tax to the price of their goods, and thus made the farmers and all -landowners pay their part of the tax as consumers." - -Taxes uniformly levied on all the subjects of taxation, and which are -not so excessive as to become a prohibition on the use of the thing -taxed, become, therefore, a part of the cost of all production, -distribution, and consumption, and diffuse and equate themselves by -natural laws in the same manner and in the same minute degree as all -other elements that constitute the expenses of production. We produce -to consume and consume to produce, and the cost of consumption, -including taxes, enters into the cost of production, and the cost of -production, including taxes, enters into the cost of consumption, and -thus taxes levied uniformly on things of the same class, by the laws -of competition, supply, and demand, and the all-pervading mediums of -labor, will be distributed, percussed, and repercussed to a remote -degree, until they finally fall upon every person, not in proportion -to his consumption of a given article, but in the proportion his -consumption bears to the aggregate consumption of the taxed community. - -A great capitalist, like Mr. Astor, bears no greater burden of -taxation (and can not be made to bear more by any laws that can be -properly termed tax laws) than the proportion which his aggregate -individual consumption bears to the aggregate individual consumption -of all others in his circuit of immediate competition; and as to his -other taxes, he is a mere tax collector, or conduit, conducting taxes -from his tenants or borrowers to the State or city treasury. A whisky -distiller is a tax conduit, or tax collector, and sells more taxes -than the original cost of whisky, as finds proof and illustration in -the fact that the United States imposes a tax of one dollar and ten -cents per gallon on proof whisky which its manufacturer would be very -glad to sell free of tax for an average of thirteen cents per gallon. -The tax, furthermore, is required to be laid before the whisky can be -removed from the distillery or bonded warehouse and allowed to become -an article of merchandise. Tobacco in like manner can not go into -consumption till the tax is paid. In Great Britain, where all tobacco -consumed is imported, for every 3_d._ paid by the consumer, 2.5_d._ -represents customs duties or taxes. In Russia it is estimated that the -Government annually requires of its peasant producers one third the -market value of their entire crop of cereals in payment of their -taxes, and fixes the time of collecting the same in the autumn, when -the peasant sells sufficient of his grain (mainly for exportation), -and with the purchase money meets the demands of the tax collector. -Can it be doubted that the sums thus extorted enter into and form an -essential part of the cost of the entire crop or product of the land? -It is, therefore, immaterial where the process of manufacture takes -place; the citizens of a State pay in proportion to the quantity which -they consume. The traveler who stops at one of the great city hotels -can not avoid reimbursing the owner for the tax he primarily pays on -the property; and the owner, in respect to the taxation of his hotel -property, is but a great and effective real-estate and diffused tax -collector. Again, the farmer charges taxes in the price of his -products; the laborer, in his wages; the clergyman, in his salary; the -lender, in the interest he receives; the lawyer, in his fees; and the -manufacturer, in his goods. - -The American Bible Society is always in part loaded with the whisky -and tobacco taxes paid by the printers, paper-makers, and -book-binders, or by the producers of articles consumed by these -mechanics, and reflected and embodied in their wages and the products -of their labor according to the degree of absence of competition from -fellow-mechanics who abstain from the use of these and other taxed -articles. - -These conclusions respecting the diffusion of taxes may be said to be -universally accepted by economists so far as they relate to the -results of production before they reach the hands of the final -consumers; but they are not accepted by many, as Mr. Henry George has -recently expressed it, in respect to taxes on special profits or -advantages on things of which the supply is strictly limited, or of -wealth in the hands of final consumers, or in the course of -distribution by gift, and finally in respect to taxes on land. But a -little examination would seem to show that all of these exceptions are -of the kind that are said to prove the rule. _Special profits_ and -advantages in this age of quick diffusion of knowledge and intense -competition are exceedingly ephemeral, and are mainly confined to -results which the State with a view of encouraging removes for a -limited time from the natural laws of competition by granting patents, -copyrights, and franchises. Of things which are strictly limited in -respect to supply, what and where are they? Only a very few can be -specified: ivory, Peruvian guano, whalebone, ambergris, and the pelts -of the fur seal. Of wealth in the process of transmission, or in the -hands of final consumers, it is not _tangible_ wealth unless it is -_tangible_ property, which conforms under any correct system of -taxation to the principles of taxation; and if any one advocates the -taxation of the right to receive property which has already been -taxed, he in effect advocates a double exaction of one and the same -thing. If it be asked, Will an income tax on a person retired from -business be diffused? the answer, beyond question, must be in the -affirmative, if the tax is uniform on all persons and on all amounts, -and is absolutely collected in minute sums. Would any one pay the same -price for a railroad bond which is subject to an income tax as he -would for it if it was free from tax? If one's land is taxed, either -in the form of rent or income, will not the tenant have the burden -primarily thrown upon him? And, finally, will not the consumer of the -tenant's goods pay through or by reason of such consumption? - -Respecting the incidence of the tax on mortgages, it does not make any -difference how mortgages are taxed--no earthly power can make the -lender pay it. If the borrower would not agree to pay the tax, the -lender would not loan him money, and whenever possible loans would be -foreclosed and payment insisted upon if the borrower should refuse to -pay the tax. - -Let us next subject to analysis the incidence of the so-called -taxation of land. Considered _per se_ (or in itself), land, in common -with unappropriated air and water, has no value; and it can not in any -strict sense be affirmed that we tax land; and when such affirmation -is made, its only legitimate and justifiable meaning is that we tax -the value of land; which value is due entirely to the amount of -personal property (in the sense of embodied labor) expended upon it, -and the pressure or demand of such property or labor to use, possess, -and occupy it. - -Vattel, in his Law of Nations, enunciates as a self-evident and -irrefutable proposition that "Nature has not herself established -property, and in particular with regard to lands. She only approves -this introduction for the advantage of the human race." - -One of the most striking examples of evidence in illustration and -proof of this proposition is to be found in an incident, which has -heretofore escaped attention, which occurred during a debate in the -Senate of the United States in 1890 on a bill for revision of duties -on imports, in respect to the article borax (borate of soda). Formerly -the world's supply of this mineral substance, which enters largely -into industrial processes and medicine, was limited, and mainly -derived from certain hot springs in Tuscany, Italy; but within a -comparatively recent period it has been found that it exists in such -abundance in certain of the desert regions of California, Nevada, and -Arizona, that it can be gathered with the minimum of labor from the -very surface of the ground. Were a single acre of similar desert to be -found in any section of a country enjoying the most ordinary -privileges in respect to transportation and water supply, it would be -a source of wealth to its proprietor. But under existing -circumstances, although thousands and thousands of acres of this land -can be bought with certain title from its owner--the Federal -Government--for two dollars and twenty-five cents an acre, no one -wants it at any price; and the prospective demand for it has not yet -been sufficient to warrant the Government in instituting even a survey -as a preliminary to effecting a sale. In the Senate debate above -alluded to it was proposed to increase the duty on imported borax, -with the expectation that a consequent increase in its domestic price -would afford sufficient profit to induce such construction of roads -and such a supply of water and labor on the borax tracts of the -deserts as to enable them to become property.[13] - -In the oases of the deserts of North Africa and Egypt the value of a -tract of land depends very little upon its size or location, but -almost exclusively upon the number of the date-bearing palms, the -result of labor, growing upon it, and the quality of their fruit. John -Bright on one occasion stated that if the land of Ireland were -stripped of the improvements made upon it by the labor of the -occupier, the face of the country would be "as bare and naked as an -American prairie." - -An exact parallel to this state of things is afforded in the case of -lands of no value reclaimed from the sea and made valuable, as has -been often done in England, Holland, and other countries, by embodying -labor upon them in the shape of restraining embankments and the -transportation and use of filling material. Again, the value of -springs or running streams of water is generally limited and of little -account. But when, through direct labor, or the results of labor, the -water is collected in reservoirs and made the instrumentality of -imparting power to machinery, or conducted through conduits to centers -of population which otherwise could not obtain it, it becomes -extremely valuable, and capable of being sold in large or small -quantities. Another similar illustration is to be found in the case of -atmospheric air, which in its natural and ordinary state has no -marketable value, but when compressed by labor embodied in the form of -machinery and made capable of transmitting force, it at once becomes -endowed with value and can be sold at a high price. - -An opinion entertained and strongly advocated by not a few economic -writers and teachers of repute (more especially in Europe, but not in -the United States)[14] is, that taxes on land do not diffuse -themselves, but fall wholly on the landowner, and that there is no way -in which he can throw it off and cause any considerable part of them -to be paid by anybody else. The concrete argument in support of this -opinion has been thus stated: "When land is taxed, the owner can not, -as a general rule, escape the tax, for the reason that, to get rid of -the tax, the price of the land or of the rent must be raised the full -amount of the tax, and the only way in which this can be done is by -reducing the supply or quantity offered in market, or else by -increasing the demand. The supply of land can not be reduced, and the -demand being created by capital and population, both of which are -beyond the control of the landowner, he can do nothing to raise the -price of land, and hence can not get rid of the tax. It may be stated, -then, as a general rule, that a tax on land, or on any commodity the -supply of which is limited absolutely, must be paid by the owner. It -is possible to suggest cases in which, through combination of owners -and the necessities of consumers, a demand may be created strong -enough to raise the price to the full amount of such tax, but it is -doubted if such cases ever really occur."[15] - -The source of the contention on this important economic and social -question, and the difficulty in the way of the attainment of -harmonious conclusions, is due to a nonrecognition of the fact that -land is taxed under two conditions, and can not be taxed otherwise. -Thus, if a person holds land for his exclusive use or enjoyment, and -consumes all of its product, a tax on such land, which has been -characterized by some economists as its "pure rent," will not diffuse -itself, because it is a tax on personal enjoyment or final -consumption. The same is the case when a portion of a river or lake or -its shore is rented for fishing for the purposes of sport. A like -result will also follow, in a greater or less degree, from the -inability or unwillingness of tenants, as has been often the case in -Ireland, to pay rent sufficient to reimburse the landowner for -interest on his investment of capital and cost of repairs. But if one -employs land as an instrumentality for acquiring gain through its -uses, the taxation of land must include the taxation of its uses--its -contents, all that rests upon it, all that is produced, sold, -expended, manufactured, or transported on it--and all such taxes will -diffuse themselves. On the other hand, if the taxation of land under -such circumstances and conditions does not diffuse itself, then the -taking is simply a process of confiscation, which if continued will -ultimately rob the owner of his property, and is not governed by any -principle. - -It is indeed difficult to see how a theory so wholly inapplicable to -fact and experience as that of the nondiffusion of taxes on -land--which makes property in land an exception to the rule -acknowledged to be applicable to all other property--could originate -and be strenuously maintained to the extent even of stigmatizing any -opposite view "as so very superficial as scarcely to deserve a -refutation."[16] No little of confusion and controversy on this -subject has arisen from the assumption that land specifically, and the -rent of land, constitute two distinct and legitimate subjects for -taxation, when the fact is just the contrary. The rent of land is in -the nature of an income to its owner; and it is an economic axiom that -when a government taxes the income of property it in reality taxes the -property itself. In England and on the continent of Europe land is -generally taxed on its yearly income or income value, and these taxes -are always considered as land taxes. Alexander Hamilton, in discussing -the taxation of incomes derived directly from property, used this -language: "What, in fact, is property but a fiction, without the -beneficial use of it? In many instances, indeed, the income is the -property itself." The United States Supreme Court, in its recent -decision of the income tax (1895), also practically indorsed this -conclusion. To levy taxes on the rent of land and also upon the land -itself is, therefore, double taxation on one and the same property, -which in common with all other unequal and unjust taxes can not be -diffused; and for this reason should be regarded as in the nature of -exactions or confiscation, concerning the incidence of which nothing -can be safely predicated. In short, this whole discussion, and the -unwarranted assumption involved in it and largely accepted, is an -illustration of what may be regarded as a maxim, that the greatest -errors in political economy have arisen from overlooking the most -obvious facts or deductions from experience. - -With a purpose of further elucidating this problem, attention is asked -first to its consideration from an "abstract," and next from a -practical standpoint of view. Let us endeavor to clearly understand -the common meaning of the word "_rent_." It is derived from the Latin -_reddita_, "things given back or paid," and in plain English is a word -for price or hire. It may be the hire of anything. It is the price we -pay for the right of exclusive use over something which is not our -own. Thus we speak of the rent of land, of buildings and apartments, -of a fishery, of boats, of water, of an opera box, of a piano, sewing -machines, furniture, vehicles, and the like. In Scotland at the -present time farmers hire cows to dairymen, who pay an agreed-upon -price by the year or for a term of years for each cow, and reimburse -themselves for such payment and make a profit on the transaction by -the sale of the products of the animal. This hire is called a rent, -and is clearly the same in kind as the rent of land. We do not apply -the word "hire" to the employment of men, because we have a separate -word--"wages"--for that particular case of hire. Neither do we apply -the word "rent" in English to the hire of money, because we have -another separate word--"interest"--which has come into special use for -the price paid for the loan or hire of money. But in the French -language the word _rent_ is habitually and specially used to signify -the price of the hire money, and that of "_rentes_" to investments of -money paying interest; the French national debt being always spoken of -as "_les rentes_"; while the men who live on the lending of money, or -capital in any form, are called "_rentiers_." - -The question next naturally arises, Why is it necessary to set up any -special theory at all about the natural disposition of the price which -we pay for the hire of land, any more than about the price we pay for -the hire of a house, of furniture, of a boat, of an opera box, or of a -cow? The particular kind of use to which we put each of these various -things is no doubt very different from the kind of use to which we put -each or all the others. But all of these uses resolve themselves into -the desire we have to derive some pleasure or some profit by the -possession for a time of the right of exclusive use of something which -is not our own, and for which we must pay the price, not of purchase, -but of hire. - -The explanation of this curious economic phenomenon is to be found in -the assumption and positive assertion on the part of not a few -distinguished economists that the truly scientific and only correct -use of the term "rent" is its application to the "income derived from -things of all kinds of which the supply is limited, and can not be -increased by man's action."[17] As a rule, economists who accept this -definition confine its application to the hire of land alone, although -it professes to include other things, "of all kinds," to which the -same description applies--namely, that they can not be increased in -quantity by any human action. There are, however, no such other things -specified, and in any literal sense there are no such other things -existing, unless water and the atmosphere be intended. - -Now, although it is indisputably true that man by his action can not -increase the absolute or total quantity of land, any more than of -water and air, appertaining to the whole globe on which we live, there -is practically no limitation to the degree of value which man's action -can impart to land, and which is the only thing for which land is -wanted, bought, or sold, and which, as already shown, can be truly -made the subject of taxation. The tracts of land on the earth's -surface which are of no present marketable value are its deserts, its -wildernesses, the sides and summits of its mountains, and its -continually frozen zones, where no results of labor are embodied in or -reflected upon it; while, on the other hand, its tracts of greatest -value are in the large cities and marts of trade and commerce, as in -the vicinity of the Bank of England, or in Wall Street, where the -results of labor are so concentrated and reflected upon land that it -is necessary to cover it with gold in order to acquire by purchase a -title to it and a right to its exclusive use. The difference between -land at twenty-five dollars an acre and twenty-five dollars a square -foot is simply that the latter is or may be in the near future covered -or surrounded by capital and business, while the former is remote from -these sources of value. One of the greatest possible, perhaps -probable, outcomes of the modern progress of chemistry is that through -the utilization of microbic organizations the value of land as an -instrumentality for the production of food may be increased to an -extent that at the present time is hardly possible of conception. -Again, in the case of air and water, although their total absolute -quantity can not be increased, their available and useful quantity in -any place, as before shown, can be by the agency of man, and their use -made subject to hire or rent. - -Consideration is next asked to the question at issue from what may be -termed its practical standpoint. We have first a proposition in the -nature of an economic axiom, that the price of everything necessary -for production, or the hire of anything--land, money, and the -like--without which the product could not arise, is, and must be, -without exception, a part of the cost of that product; second, that -all levies of the State which are worthy of being designated as taxes -constitute an essential element of the cost of all products. The rent -of an opera box, given to obtain a mere pleasure, constitutes a part -of the fund out of which the musicians are paid, and if they are not -so paid they will not play or sing. The rent given for the right to -fish on a certain part of a river or its shores is a part of the cost -of producing the fish as a marketable commodity. If a house is hired -for the purpose of conducting any business in it, the price of that -hire does most certainly enter into the cost of that business, -whatever it may be, assuming that the use of the house is a necessity -for carrying it on. As no man will produce a commodity by which he is -sure to lose money, or fail to obtain the ordinary rate of profit, the -tax must be added to the price, or the production will cease. If a -uniform tax is imposed on all land occupied, it will be paid by the -occupier, because occupation (house-building) will cease until the -rent rises sufficiently to cover the tax. The landlord assesses upon -his tenants the tax he has paid upon his real estate; each tenant -assesses his share upon each of his customers; and so perfect is this -diffusion of land taxation that every traveler from a distant part of -the country who remains for even a single day at a hotel pays, without -stopping to think about it, a portion of the taxes on the building, -first paid by the owner, then assessed upon the lessees, and next cut -up by them minutely in the _per diem_ charge. But of course neither -the owner nor lessee really escapes taxation, because a portion of -somebody else's tax is thrown back upon them. - -Is it possible to believe that in a city like New York, where less -than four per cent of its population pay any direct tax on real -estate, or in a city like Montreal, where the expenses of the city are -mainly derived from taxes on land and the building occupancy of land, -the great majority of the inhabitants of those cities are exempt from -all land taxation? In China, where, as before shown, the title or -ownership of all land vests in the emperor, and the revenue of the -Government is almost exclusively derived from taxation of land in the -form of rent, does the burden of tax remain upon the owner of the -land? If the tax in the form of rent is paid in the products of the -land, as undoubtedly it is in part, will not the cost of the -percentage of the whole product of the land that is thus taken -increase to the renter the cost of the percentage that is left to him; -or, if the product is sold for money with which to pay the tax rent, -will not its selling price embody the cost of the tax, as it will the -cost of every other thing necessary for production? To affirm to the -contrary is to say that the price which the Chinese farmer pays for -the right of the exclusive use of his land is no part of the crops he -may raise upon it. - -Consider next the assertion of those who maintain the nondiffusion -theory that taxes on land are paid by the owners because the supply -of land can neither be increased nor diminished. In answer to it we -have the indisputable fact that the owners of land, whenever taxes are -increased, attempt to obtain an increased rental for it if the -circumstances will permit it. And the very attempt tends to increase -the rent. Nothing but adverse circumstances, such as diminishing -population or commercial and industrial distress, can prevent a rise -in the rental of land on which the taxes are increased; and in the -case of dwellings and warehouses the rise is almost always very -prompt, because no man will erect new dwellings or warehouses unless -their rent compensate fully the increase of taxation. And in any -prosperous community, in which population increases in the natural -ratio, there must be a constant increase of dwellings and warehouses -to prevent a rise of rent, independent of higher wages and higher -taxation. In no other occupation is capital surer of obtaining the -average net remuneration than in the erection of dwellings and -warehouses, and nothing but lack of general prosperity and diminishing -population can throw the burden of taxation on real estate or its -owners, without the slightest attempt at combination on their part. If -the owners of land are not reimbursed for its taxation by its -occupants, new houses "would not be erected, the old ones would wear -out, and after a time the supply would be so small that the demand -would raise rents, and house building begin again, the tax having been -transferred to the occupier." - -It is pertinent at this point to notice the averment that is -frequently made, that cultivators of the soil can not incorporate -taxes on the land in the price of their products, because the price of -their whole crop is fixed by the price at which any portion of it can -be sold in foreign markets. In answer to this we have first the fact -that, to give the population of the world an adequate supply of food -and other agricultural products, it is not only necessary that all the -land at present under cultivation shall continue to be so employed, -but further that new lands shall each year be brought under -cultivation, or else the land already cultivated shall be made more -productive. - -The population of the world steadily increases, notwithstanding wars, -epidemics, and all the evils which are consequences of man's ignorance -and of his improper use of things, his own faculties included. Hence, -in case of increased taxation on land, the cultivator of the soil is -generally enabled to transfer easily and promptly the burden of the -tax to the purchasers of the products he raises, without abandoning -the cultivation even of the least productive soil. - -Furthermore, the exports of many agricultural products are due not to -the cheapness of their cost of production, but to the variations which -occur in the productiveness of the crops of other countries. M. -Rouher, a French economist, and for a period a minister of commerce, -thoroughly investigated this matter, and proved by incontestable data -that almost invariably when the yield of breadstuffs in Europe was -large in the country drained by the Black and Baltic Seas, it was -small in the countries drained by the Atlantic. This variation in the -yield of agricultural crops forces the countries where crops are -deficient to purchase from those where they are abundant, or who have -a surplus on hand from previous abundant harvests. In the United -States, when the harvests are abundant, the American farmers, rather -than sell below a certain price, keep a portion of their crops on hand -until bad crops in Europe produce a foreign demand, which has to be -supplied at once. Under such circumstances those who hold the surplus -stock of breadstuffs, or any other product, would control the price, -and not the foreigners who stand in need of it. The only check, then, -to the cupidity of the holders of breadstuffs is the competition -between themselves, which invariably suffices to prevent any undue -advantage being taken of the necessities of the countries whose -harvests are deficient. These bad crops occur frequently enough to -consume all the surplus of the countries that produce in excess of -their own wants. In fact, this transient, irregular demand is counted -upon and provided for by producers just as much so as the regular home -demand--hence is one of the elements that regulate production and -control prices. - -At this point of the discussion it is desirable to obtain a clear and -true idea of the meaning or definition of the phrase "diffusion of -taxes." As sometimes used in popular and superficial discussions, it -is held to imply that every tax imposed by law distributes itself -equitably over the whole surface of society. Such implication would, -however, be even more fallacious than an assumption that every -expenditure made by an individual distributes itself in such a way -that it becomes equally an expenditure by every other individual. On -the other hand, a fair consideration of the foregoing summary of facts -and deductions would seem to compel every mind not previously warped -by prejudice to accept and indorse the following as great fundamental -principles in taxation: _First_, that in order to burden equitably and -uniformly all persons and property, for the purpose of obtaining -revenue for public purposes, it is not necessary to tax primarily and -uniformly all persons and property within the taxing district. -_Second_, equality of taxation consists in a uniform assessment of the -same articles or class of property that is subject to taxation. -_Third_, taxes under such a system equate and diffuse themselves; and -if levied with certainty and uniformity upon tangible property and -fixed signs of property, they will, by a diffusion and repercussion, -reach and burden all visible property, and also all of the so-called -"invisible and intangible" property, with unerring certainty and -equality. - -All taxation ultimately and necessarily falls on consumption; and the -burden of every man, under any equitable system of taxation, and which -no effort will enable him to avoid, will be in the exact proportion or -ratio which his aggregate consumption maintains to the aggregate -consumption of the taxing district, State, or community of which he is -a member. - -It is not, however, contended that unequal taxation on competitors of -the same class, persons, or things diffuses itself whether such -inequality be the result of intention or of defective laws, and their -more defective administration. And doubtless one prime reason why -economists and others interested have not accepted the law of -diffusion of taxes as here given is that they see, as the practical -workings of the tax systems they live under, or have become -practically familiar with, that taxes in many instances do seem to -remain on the person who immediately pays them; and fail to see that -such result is due--as in the case of the taxation of large classes of -the so-called personal property--to the adoption of a system which -does not permit of equality in assessment, and therefore can not be -followed by anything of equality in diffusion. Such persons may not -unfairly be compared to physicists, who, constantly working with -imperfect instruments, and constantly obtaining, in consequence, -defective results, come at last to regard their errors as in the -nature of established truths.[18] - -According to these conclusions, the greatest consumers must be the -greatest taxpayers. The man also who evades a tax clearly robs his -neighbors. The thief also pays taxes indirectly, for he is a consumer, -and must pay the advanced price caused by his own roguery for all he -consumes, although he does steal the money to pay with. Idlers and -even tramps pay taxes, but the amount that they indirectly pay into -the fund is much less than they take out of it. People are sometimes -referred to or characterized as non-taxpayers, and in political -harangues and socialistic essays measures or policies are recommended -by which certain persons or classes, by reason of their extreme -poverty, shall be entirely exempt from all incidence or burden of -taxation. Such a person does not, however, exist in any civilized -community. If one could be found he would be a greater curiosity than -exists in any museum. To avoid taxation a man must go into an -unsettled wilderness where he has no neighbors, for as soon as he has -a companion, if that companion be only a dog, which he in part or all -supports, taxation begins, and the more companions he has, the greater -improvements he makes, and the higher civilization he enjoys, the -heavier will be the taxes he must pay. - -Taxes _legitimately_ levied, then, are a part of the cost of all -production, and there can be no more tendency for taxes to remain upon -the persons who immediately pay them than there is for rents, the cost -of insurance, water supply, and fuel to follow the same law. The -person who wishes to use or destroy the utility of property by -consumption to gratify his desires, or satisfy his wants, can not -obtain it from the owners or producers with their consent, except by -gift, without giving pay or services for it; and the average price of -all property is coincident with the cost of production, including the -taxes advanced upon it, which are a part of its cost in the hands of -the seller. Again, no person who produces any form of property or -utility, for the purpose of sale or rent, sustains any burden of -legitimate taxation, although he may be a tax advancer; for, as a tax -advancer, he is the agent of the State, and a tax collector from the -consumer. But he who produces or buys, and does not sell or rent, but -consumes, is the taxpayer, and sustains a tax in his aggregate -consumption, where all taxation must ultimately rest. In short, no -person bears the burden of taxation, under an equitable, legitimate -system, except upon the property which he applies to his own exclusive -use in ultimate consumption. The great consumer is the only great -taxpayer. - -Finally, a great economic law pointed out by Adam Smith, which has an -important and almost conclusive bearing upon this vexed problem of the -diffusion of taxes, should not be overlooked--namely, his statement in -The Wealth of Nations that "_no tax can ever reduce for any -considerable time the rate of profit in any particular trade, which -must always keep its level with other trades in the neighborhood_." In -other words, taxes and profits, by the operation of the laws of human -nature, constantly tend to equate themselves. Man is always prompted -to engage in the most profitable occupation and to make the most -profitable investment. And since the emancipation from feudalism with -its sumptuary laws, legal regulations of the price of labor and -merchandise, and other arbitrary governmental invasions of private -rights, individual judgment and self-interest have been recognized as -the best tests or arbiters of the profitableness of a given investment -or occupation. The average profits, therefore, of one form of -investment, or of one occupation (as originally shown by Adam Smith), -must for any long period equal the average profits of other -investments and occupations, whether taxed or untaxed, skill, risk, -and agreeableness of occupation being taken into consideration.[19] -Natural laws will, accordingly, always produce an equilibrium of -burden between taxed and untaxed things and persons. There is a level -of profit and a level of taxation by natural laws, as there is a level -of the ocean by natural laws. In fact, all proportional contributions -to the State from direct competitors are diffused upon persons and -things in the taxing jurisdiction by a uniformity as manifest as is -the pressure upon water, which is known to be equal in every -direction. - -A word here in reference to the popular idea that the exemption of any -form of property is to grant a favor to those who possess such -property. This idea has, however, no warrant for its acceptance. Thus, -an exemption is freedom from a burden or service to which others are -liable; but in case of the exclusion of an entire class of property -from primary taxation, no person is liable, and therefore there is no -exemption. An exclusion of all milk from taxation, while whisky is -taxed, is not an exemption, for the two are not competing articles, or -articles of the same class. It is true that highly excessive taxation -of a given article may cause another and similar article, in some -instances, to become a substitute or competing article; and hence the -necessity of care and moderation in establishing the rate of taxation. -We do not consider that putting a given article into the free list, -under the tariff, is an exemption to any particular individual; but if -we make the rate higher on one taxpayer or on one importer of the same -article than on another taxpayer or importer, we grant an exemption. -We use the word "exemption," therefore, imperfectly, when we speak of -"the exemption of an entire class of property," as, for example, upon -all personal property; for if the removal of the burden operates -uniformly on all interested, or owning such property, then there can -be no primary exemption. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[13] "Senator Paddock: I should like to ask the Senator from Nevada -if, in the region of country where borax is found, by reason of -finding it the land in the particular State or Territory is -appreciated in value on account of its existence. - -"Senator Stewart: Not at all. - -"Senator Paddock: The value then given to it is all in -labor."--_Congressional Record, July, 1890._ - -[14] "In America, where there has been but little serious study of -taxation, the few writers of prominence are, remarkable to relate, -almost all abject followers of Thiers," the French economist and -statesman, who claimed to have invented the term "diffusion" of taxes. - -[15] "Our conclusion is, that under actual conditions in America -to-day the landowner may virtually be declared to pay in the last -instance the taxes that are imposed on his land, and that at all -events it is absolutely erroneous to assume any general shifting to -the consumer. In so far as our land tax is a part of a general -property tax, it can not possibly be shifted; in so far as it is more -or less an exclusive tax, it is even then apt to remain where it is -first put--on the landowner."--_Seligman: Incidence of Taxation, p. -99._ - -[16] Seligman. Shifting and Incidence of Taxation. - -[17] Professor Marshall. - -[18] In a like experience the Duke of Argyll, in his work The Unseen -Foundations of Society, finds an explanation of the so-called theory -of Ricardo, that the rent which a farmer of agricultural land pays as -the price of its hire--that is to say, the price which he pays for the -exclusive use of it--is no part of the cost of the crops he may raise -upon it; a conclusion that can not be possibly true, unless it be also -true that rent is paid for something that is not an indispensable -condition of agricultural production. "Thus rights are in their very -nature impalpable and invisible. They are not material things, but -relations between many material things and the human mind and will. -The right of exclusive use over land is a thing invisible and -immaterial, as other rights are, and, although it is, and has been -since the world began, the basis of all agricultural industry, it is a -basis impalpable and invisible, whereas the material visible -implements and tools, whose work depends upon it, are all visible and -palpable enough, and all of which would never be were we to see them -without the invisible rights upon which they depend. All of the -former, in their place and order, are instruments of production; all -of them catch the eye, and may easily engross the attention. On the -other hand, if we are induced to forget those other elements, which -are equally essential instruments of production, merely because they -are out of sight, then our deception may be complete, and fallacies -which become glaring when memory and attention are awakened may find -in our half-vacant minds an easy and even a cordial reception." - -Adam Smith may be fairly considered as having fully committed himself -beyond all controversy in his great work, The Wealth of Nations, to -the principle that taxes, with a degree of infallibility, diffuse -themselves when they are levied uniformly on the same article; and he -even goes so far as to admit that a tax upon labor, if it could be -uniformly levied and collected, would be diffused, and that the -laborer would be the mere conduit through which the tax would pass to -the public treasury. Thus he says, "While the demand for labor and the -price of provisions, therefore, remain the same, a direct tax upon -wages can have no other effect than to raise them somewhat higher than -the tax." - -The German economist Bluntschli, who has carefully studied this -question of the final incidence of all just and equitable taxes, is in -substantial agreement with the above conclusions, but prefers to use a -different term for characterizing such finality than consumption, and -expresses himself as follows: "In the end taxes fall on _enjoyments_. -Hence the amount of each man's enjoyments and not his income is the -justest measure of taxation." (Bluntschli, vol. x, p. 146.) - -M. Thiers, the French statesman and economist, was also a believer and -earnest advocate of the theory of the diffusion of taxes, and lays -down his principles in the following words: "Taxes are shifted -indefinitely, and tend to become a part of the price of commodities, -to such an extent that every one bears his share, not in proportion to -what he pays the state, but in proportion to what he consumes." And in -his book Rights to Property he thus illustrates the method in which -taxation diffuses itself: "In the same manner as our senses, deceived -by appearances, tell us that it is the sun which moves and not the -earth, so a particular tax appears to fall upon one class, and another -tax upon another class, when in reality it is not so. The tax really -best suited to the poorest member of society is that which is best -suited to the general fortune of the state; a fortune which is much -more for the possession and enjoyment of the poor man than it is for -the rich; a fact of which we are never sufficiently convinced. But of -the manner, nevertheless, in which taxes are divided among the -different classes of the state, the most certain thing we can say is: -That they are divided in proportion to what each man consumes, and for -a reason not generally recognized or understood, namely, that taxes -are reflected, as it were, to infinity, and from reflection to -reflection become eventually an integral part of the prices of things. -Hence the greatest purchasers and consumers are everywhere the -greatest taxpayers. This is what I call '_diffusion of taxation_,' to -borrow a term from physical science, which applies the expression -'diffusion of light' to those numberless reflections, in consequence -of which the light which has penetrated the slightest aperture spreads -itself around in every direction, and in such a manner as to reach all -the objects which it renders visible. So a tax which at first sight -appears to be paid directly, in reality is only advanced by the -individual who is first called upon to pay it." - -[19] As applied to the wages of labor, the truth of this principle is -equally incontestable. "The sewing girl performing her toilsome work -by the needle at one dollar a day, the street sweeper working the mud -with his broom at a dollar and a half, the skilled laborer at two and -three dollars, the professor at five, the editor at five or ten, the -artist and the songstress at ten or five hundred dollars a day are all -members of the working classes, though working at different rates. And -it is only the difference in their effectiveness that causes the -difference in their earnings. Bring them all to the same point of -efficiency, and their earnings also will be the same."--_W. Jungst, -Cincinnati._ - -John Locke, in his treatise On the Standard of Value, treats of -taxation, and shows conclusively that if all lands were nominally free -from taxation, the owners of lands would proportionally pay more taxes -than now, because the same amount of money must continue to be -collected in some form, and the average profits of lands would only be -equal to the average profits of other investments; and further, that -the expense and annoyance (another form of expense) would be increased -if the tax were exclusively levied in the first instance upon personal -property; and hence the landowner would be burdened with his -proportion of the unnecessary expense and annoyance. He also shows -that you may change the form of a uniform tax, but that you can not -change the burden; and that the change will increase the burden, if -the new system is more expensive and annoying than the old. Locke -wrote nearly a century before Adam Smith published his Wealth of -Nations, and it would seem probable that Smith acquired his ideas -relative to the average profits of investments from Locke. - - - - -THE GREAT BOMBARDMENT. - -BY CHARLES F. HOLDER. - - -A thin stratum of air, an invisible armor of great tenuity, lies -between man and the menace of possible annihilation. - -The regions of space beyond our planet are filled with flying -fragments. Some meet the earth in its onward rush; others, having -attained inconceivable velocity, overtake and crash into the whirling -sphere with loud detonation and ominous glare, finding destruction in -its molecular armor, or perhaps ricocheting from it again into the -unknown. Some come singly, vagrant fragments from the infinity of -space; others fall in showers like golden rain; all constituting a -bombardment appalling in its magnitude. It has been estimated that -every twenty-four hours the earth or its atmosphere is struck by _four -hundred million_ missiles of iron or stone, ranging from an ounce up -to tons in weight. Every month there rushes upon the flying globe at -least twelve billion iron and stone fragments, which, with lurid -accompaniment, crash into the circumambient atmosphere. Owing to the -resistance offered by the air, few of these solid shots strike the -earth. They move out of space with a possible velocity of thirty or -forty miles per second, and, like moths, plunge into the revolving -globe, lured to their destruction by its fatal attraction. The moment -they enter our atmosphere they ignite; the air is piled up and -compressed ahead of them with inconceivable force, the resultant -friction producing an immediate rise in temperature, and the shooting -star, the meteor of popular parlance, is the result. - -[Illustration: IDEAL VIEW OF THE EARTH AS IT IS BOMBARDED BY THE -ESTIMATED FOUR HUNDRED MILLION METEORITES EVERY TWENTY-FOUR -HOURS.[20]] - -A simple experiment, made by Joule and Thomson, well illustrates the -possibility of this rise in temperature by atmospheric friction. If a -wire is whirled through the air at a rate of one hundred and -seventy-five feet per second, a rise of one degree, centigrade, will -be noticed. If the revolutions are increased to three hundred and -seventy-two feet per second, the elevation will be 5.3° C. If the -temperature increases as the square of the velocity, a rate of speed -of twenty miles per second would develop a temperature not far from -360,000° C., which is probably far less than that at the surface of -the ordinary meteor as it is seen blazing through our atmosphere. If -the meteor is small it is often consumed by the intense heat -generated; but larger fragments, owing to their velocity and the fact -that they are poor conductors of heat and burn slowly, reach the -surface and bury themselves in the sea or earth. But few escape the -inevitable consequences of the contact, and of the untold millions -which have struck the earth within the memory of man but five hundred -and thirty have been seen to fall. The phenomena associated with the -plunging meteor is most interesting. A blaze of light, as the -terrific heat ignites the iron, announces its entrance into our -atmosphere. It may be red, yellow, white, green, or blue, all these -hues having been observed. Then follows the explosion, caused by the -contact with the air piled up ahead, and in certain instances a loud -detonation or a series of noises is heard, which may be repeated -indefinitely until the meteoric mass is completely destroyed, and -drops, a shower of disintegrated particles, which fall rattling to the -ground. - -The blaze of light does not continue to the earth, nor does the -meteor, should it survive, strike the ground with the velocity with -which it entered the atmosphere, as the latter often arrests its -motion so completely that it drops upon the earth by its own weight, -well illustrated by the meteorites of the Hesslefall, which dropped -upon ice but a few inches thick, rebounding as they fell. Thus the -atmosphere protects the inhabitants of the globe from a terrific -bombardment by destroying many of the largest meteorites, reducing the -size of others before they reach the surface and arresting the -velocity so that few bury themselves deeply in the soil. - -The writer observed a remarkable meteor in 1894. It entered our -atmosphere, apparently, over the Mojave Desert, in California, and -exploded over the San Gabriel Valley, though without any appreciable -sound, and after the first flash disappeared, leaving in the air a -large balloon-shaped object of yellow light which lasted some moments, -presenting a remarkable spectacle. In this instance the meteor had -probably exploded or been consumed, leaving only the light to tell the -story, the atmospheric armor of the earth having successfully warded -off the blow. - -Viewing the facts as they exist, the earth, a seeming fugitive mass -flying through space, vainly endeavoring to break the bonds which bind -it to the sun, hunted, bombarded with strange missiles hurled from -unseen hands or forces from the infinity of space, it is little wonder -that the ancients and some savage races of later times invested the -phenomena with strange meanings. It requires but little imagination to -see in the flying earth a living monster followed by shadowy furies -which hurl themselves upon it, now vainly attempting to reach the -air-protected body or again striking it with terrific force, lodging -deep in its sides amid loud reverberation and dazzling blaze of light. - -Meteorites have been known from the very earliest times, and have -often been regarded as miraculous creatures to be worshiped and handed -down from family to family. The famous meteorite which fell in -Phrygia, centuries ago, was worshiped as Cybele, "the mother of the -gods," and about the year 204 B.C. was carried to Rome with much -display and ceremony, when people of all classes fell down before it, -deeming it a messenger from the gods. Diana of Ephesus and the famous -Cyprian Venus were, in all probability, meteoric stones which were -seen to fall, and were worshiped for the same reason as above. Livy -describes a shower of meteorites which fell about the Alban Mount 652 -B.C. The senate was demoralized, and certain prophets announced it a -warning from heaven, so impressing the lawmakers that they declared a -nine-days' festival with which to propitiate the gods. The visitor to -Mecca will find enshrined in a place of honor a meteorite which can be -traced back beyond 600 A.D., and which is worshiped by pilgrims. The -Tartars pointed out a meteorite to Pallas, in 1772, which had fallen -at Krasnojarsk, and which they considered a holy messenger from -heaven. A large body of meteoric iron found in Wichita County, Texas, -was regarded by the Indians as a fetich. They told strangers that it -came from the sky as a messenger from the Great Spirit. This meteorite -was stationed at a point where two Indian trails met, and was observed -and worshiped as a shrine. - -The Chinese have records of meteors which fell 644 B.C. The oldest -authentic fall in which the stone is preserved is that of Ensisheim, -Elsass, Germany, in 1492. The stone, which weighed two hundred and -sixty pounds, fell with a loud roar, much to the dismay of the -peasantry, penetrating the ground to a depth of five feet. It was -secured by King Maximilian, who, after presenting the Duke Sigismund -with a section, hung the remainder in the parish church as a holy -relic, where, it is said, it may still be seen. - -Meteorites vary in size from minute objects not larger than a pea to -masses of iron of enormous size. The Chupaderos meteorite, which fell -in Chihuahua, Mexico, weighs twenty-five tons. Another, which fell in -Kansas, broke into myriads of pieces, the sections found weighing -thirteen hundred pounds. A meteorite in the Vienna Museum, which fell -in Hungary, weighs six hundred and forty-seven pounds, while the -Cranbourne meteorite in the British Museum weighs four tons. The Red -River meteorite in the Yale Museum weighs sixteen hundred and thirty -pounds. The largest meteorite known was discovered within the Arctic -Circle by Lieutenant Peary. The Eskimos had known of it for -generations as a source of supply for iron. It was found by Lieutenant -Peary in May, 1894, but, owing to its enormous weight, could not be -removed until the summer of 1897, when, after much labor, it was -excavated and hoisted into the hold of the steam whaling bark Hope and -carried to New York, where it has found a resting place in the cabinet -of the American Museum of Natural History. It is believed to weigh one -hundred tons. - -Up to 1772 the stories of bodies falling from space were not -entertained seriously by scientific men. So eminent a scientist as -Lavoisier, after thoroughly investigating a case, decided that it was -merely a stone which had been struck by lightning. Falls finally -occurred which demonstrated beyond dispute that the missiles came from -space, and science recognized the fact that the earth was literally -being bombarded, and that human safety was due to the atmospheric -armor, scarcely one hundred miles thick, that enveloped the earth. -Instances of the destruction of human life from this cause are very -rare. Some years ago a meteorite crushed into the home of an Italian -peasant, killing the occupant; and cattle have been known to be -destroyed by them; but such instances are exceptional. In 1660 a -meteorite fell at Milan, on the authority of the Italian physicist -Paolo Maria Tezzayo, killing a Franciscan monk. Humboldt is authority -for the statement that a monk was struck dead by a meteorite at Crema, -September 4, 1511; and in 1674, on the same authority, a meteorite -struck a ship at sea and killed two Swedish sailors. - -In December, 1795, at Wold Cottage, in Yorkshire, England, a stone -weighing fifty pounds dashed through the air with a loud roar, -alarming people in the vicinity, and burying itself in the ground not -thirty feet from a laborer. This mass, though undoubtedly traveling, -when it struck our atmosphere, at a rate of at least thirty miles a -second, was checked so completely that it sank but twelve inches into -the soft chalk. Great as is the heat generated during the passage of a -meteorite through the air, it does not always permeate the entire -body. This was well illustrated in the case of the meteorite which -fell at Dhurmsala, Kangra, Punjaub, India, in 1860, fragments of which -can be seen in the Field Museum in Chicago. Of it Dr. Oliver C. -Farington says: "The fragments were so cold as to benumb the fingers -of those who collected them. This is perhaps the only instance known -in which the cold of space has become perceptible to human senses." - -Some of the individual falls during recent years have attracted -widespread attention. One of the most remarkable is known as the Great -Kansas Meteor. It was evidently of large size, flashing into sight -eighty or ninety miles from the earth, on the 20th of June, 1876, over -the State of Kansas. To the first observers it appeared to come from -the vicinity of the moon, and resembled a small moon or a gigantic -fire ball, blazing brightly, and creating terror and amazement among -thousands of spectators who witnessed its flight. It passed to the -east, disappearing near the horizon in a blaze of light. The entire -passage occupied nearly fifty seconds, being visible to the -inhabitants of Iowa, Nebraska, Missouri, Indiana, Wisconsin, Illinois, -Michigan, Kentucky, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia. - -This visitor created the greatest alarm and apprehension along its -path, the blaze of light being accompanied by repeated explosions and -detonations which sounded like the rumble and roar of cannonading. To -some it appeared like the rattling of heavy teams over a rough, rocky -road; others believed subterranean explosions accompanied the fall. -Horses ran away, stock hurried bellowing to cover, and men, women, and -children crouched in fear or fled before the fiery visitor whose roar -was distinctly heard several minutes after it had disappeared. As the -meteor crossed the Mississippi River the noise of the explosions -increased in severity, and were distinctly heard sixty or seventy -miles from its path, or a distance of one hundred and forty miles -apart. The great ball of flame remained intact as it crossed five or -six States, but as it passed over central Illinois loud detonations -were heard and the light spread out like an exploding rocket with -flashing points. This was the death and destruction of the monster, -and from here it dashed on, a stream or shower of countless meteors -instead of a solid body, forming over Indiana and Ohio a cluster over -forty miles long and five in breadth, showing that while the meteor -had broken up it was still moving with great velocity. How far it -traveled is not known, as it was not seen to strike. Observers in -Pennsylvania saw it rushing in the direction of New York, and people -in that State, where the day was cloudy, heard strange rumblings and -detonations. Houses rattled, and the inhabitants along the line the -meteor was supposed to have passed accredited the phenomena to an -earthquake. Somewhere, perhaps in the forest region of the -Adirondacks, or in the Atlantic, lies the wreck of this meteor. But -one fragment was found. A farmer in Indiana, while watching its -passage heard the thud of a falling object, and going to the spot the -following morning found a small meteorite weighing two thirds of a -pound. - -This marvelous body was first observed in all probability in the -northwestern corner of the Indian Territory, possibly sixty or seventy -miles above the earth, and from here it dashed along with repeated -explosions, almost parallel to the earth's surface, disappearing over -New York. - -Another remarkable meteor fell into the Atlantic Ocean far out at sea, -July 20, 1860. It resembled the one mentioned above in that it was -accompanied by a marvelous pyrotechnic display. It first appeared in -the vicinity of Michigan, blazing out with a fiery glow that filled -the heavens with light. Cocks crowed, oxen lowed, and people rushed -from their homes along its course over the States of New York, -Pennsylvania, and New Jersey. When last seen, over the Atlantic, it -had separated into three parts, which followed each other as separate -fire bodies, without the noise which was the accompanying feature of -the Kansas meteor. - -Doubtless the majority of meteors plunge into the ocean, and in modern -times several large meteoric bodies have narrowly escaped passing -vessels. On December 1, 1896, the officers of the ship Walkomming, -bound from New York to Bremen, noticed a large and brilliant meteor -flashing down upon them. Its direction was from southeast to -northwest, and it plunged into the sea ahead of the vessel with a loud -roar and hissing sound; a few minutes later an immense tidal wave, -presumably caused by the fall, struck the ship, doing no little -damage. Even more remarkable was the escape of the British ship -Cawdor, which was given up by the underwriters, but which reached San -Francisco November 20, 1897. During a heavy storm, August 20th, a -large meteor flashed from the sky and passed between the main and -mizzen masts, crashing into the sea with a blinding flash and -deafening detonation. For a moment it was thought the ship was on -fire, and the air was filled with sulphurous fumes. - -In 1888 a meteor dashed into the atmosphere of the earth and made a -brilliant display over southern California. It appeared between -twelve and one o'clock in the morning, and shot across the heavens, a -fiery red mass--not like the ordinary meteor, but writhing and -twisting in a manner peculiarly its own, resembling a huge serpent. -When it had passed nearly across the sky it apparently stopped and -doubled in the form of a horseshoe, according to the informant of the -writer, as large as a half-mile race track. The horseshoe remained -visible several minutes, gradually disappearing. The brilliancy of -this meteor can be imagined when it is known that the entire San -Gabriel Valley was illumined as though an electric light of great -power had suddenly been flashed upon it. - -[Illustration: COON BUTTE, ON SLOPE OF WHICH TEN TONS OF METEORIC IRON -HAS BEEN FOUND, AND WHICH WAS SUPPOSED TO HAVE BEEN MADE BY A METEOR.] - -[Illustration: SECTION OF INTERIOR OF COON BUTTE.] - -[Illustration: SECTION OF COON BUTTE.] - -Some time in past ages a meteorite weighing at least ten tons shot -into our atmosphere and struck the earth near the famous Cañon Diablo -in Arizona, the mysterious gulch crossed by the Atchison, Topeka and -Santa Fé Railroad. The discovery was made several years ago by a sheep -herder, named Armijo. Finding a piece of iron with a peculiar lustrous -surface which he believed to be silver, he carried it to one of the -towns, where it finally fell into the hands of a geologist, who -pronounced it a meteorite. The discovery was followed up, and on the -crest and in the vicinity of a singular cone about four thousand feet -in diameter pieces of a meteorite were found on the surface, which -gave a combined weight of ten tons, in all probability but a fraction -of the real monster. The iron masses were widely scattered over the -slope and the adjacent _mesa_, and it was assumed that a gigantic -meteorite or star had fallen and produced the cone, another striking -the earth and forming what is now known as the Cañon Diablo. A large -piece of meteoric iron was found twenty miles from the cone; another -eight miles east of it; two thousand pieces weighing not over a few -pounds or ounces were taken from the slopes; two exceeding a thousand -pounds were found within a half mile, while forty or fifty weighing -about one hundred pounds were discovered within a radius of half a -mile. Here not only a meteor, but a large-sized meteoric shower, had -succeeded in penetrating the armor of the earth, leaving many -evidences of the extraordinary occurrence which may have been -witnessed by the early man of what is now known as Arizona. From the -peculiar and interesting evidence a geologist deduced the hypothesis -that the crater known as Coon Butte could have been produced by a -meteor with a diameter of fifteen hundred feet, and a careful -examination with a view of discovering it was made with nicely -adjusted magnetic instruments; but in no instance did they indicate -the presence of a vast body of metal buried in the earth, and it was -assumed that the striking of the crater by the colossal meteorite was -a chance blow. - -[Illustration: THE CRATER OF COON BUTTE NEAR CAÑON DIABLO, near which -the fragments of a meteorite have been found, and which was supposed -at one time to have been made by the meteorite.] - -[Illustration: ONE HUNDRED AND SIXTY-ONE POUND METEORITE. A part of -the ten-ton meteorite which fell at Coon Butte, near Cañon Diablo.] - -[Illustration: ONE HUNDRED AND SIXTY-ONE AND A HALF POUND METEORITE -FOUND NEAR CRATER OF COON BUTTE.] - -[Illustration: CROSSES SHOW LARGE PIECES OF THE METEORITE FOUND AT -COON BUTTE. (Seven miles in diameter.)] - -The meteorites or foreign bodies which bombard the earth may be -included in three classes--meteoric irons or aërosiderites, meteoric -iron stones or aërosiderolites, and meteoric stones, aërolites--all -containing elements, about twenty-five in number, which have been -found upon the earth. The most conspicuous and important are silicon, -iron, nickel, magnesium, sulphur, carbon, and phosphorus, while the -others are aluminum, antimony, arsenic, calcium, chlorine, chromium, -cobalt, copper, hydrogen, lithium, manganese, oxygen, potassium, -sodium, tin, and titanium. Hydrogen and the diamond have also been -observed. A number of interesting chemical compounds are found in -meteorites not known on the earth, and a study of their character -shows that the conditions under which the meteors were formed were -entirely different from those which saw the beginning of things -terrestrial. In brief, where meteors were born there was an absence of -air and water. On the other hand, there was at some stage in the -history of meteorites an abundance of hydrogen. The meteoric irons are -made up principally of iron with an alloy of nickel, and show a rich -crystalline structure, the various angles producing a variety of -forms known as _Widmanstatten_ figures which a few years ago formed -the basis of a singular sensation. The figures were supposed to be -fossil shells and various animals of a diminutive size which once -populated the wrecked world of which the meteor was assumed to be a -part. These meteoric animals from space were named and classified by -several observers, who were finally forced to acknowledge that their -creations were the fanciful markings of crystallization. - -Another class of meteorites (meteoric iron stones) may be described as -spongy masses of nickeliferous iron in whose pores are found grains of -chryosite and other silicates. A type of these bodies is the meteor of -Pallas, which was discovered by him in 1772. The third class of -meteoric stones are those in which the stony or silicous predominates. -As a rule they contain scattered metallic grains, but certain ones, as -the aërolite which fell at Gara, France, in 1806, contain metallic -constituents. - -The aërolites present an attractive appearance when made into -sections, showing crystals and splinterlike fragments, and under the -glass seem to be made up of many minute spheres ranging from those the -size of a cherry down to others invisible to the naked eye. The -minerals prominent in their composition are chrysolite, bronzite, -augite, enstatite, feldspar, chronite, etc., showing a marked -similarity to the eruptive rocks so well known on the earth. The -collections of famous meteorites in the various museums of the world -have constantly been examined and studied with a view to determine -their origin, the question being a fascinating one to layman and -scientist. Astronomers in the past have variously answered the -question. The flying fragments were believed by some to be the -wreckage of other worlds. Planets had perhaps collided and been rent -asunder in former ages, and space filled with the flying fragments. -Others thought that meteors were molten matter thrown from the earth -or moon. All these theories have been relinquished in view of evidence -of a more or less convincing character pointing to the conclusion that -the bombardment of the earth is one of the results of the -disintegration of comets. In other words, cometary matter flying not -always blindly through space, but in the orbit of the comet of which -it originally formed a part, constituting the missiles. - -It is known that the meteors were formed in a region where air and -water were absent. It is equally evident that life was not a factor in -the past history of the bodies, though it must be acknowledged that -the hydrocarbons resembling terrestrial bitumens which are found in -some meteorites suggest the possibility of vegetable life. These -comets, the mysterious bodies which seem to be roving through space, -misconceived planets, as it were, forced into the world half made up, -offer the best known solution, as they are literally worlds without -air or water, enveloped in a strange and ever-changing substitute for -atmosphere; ghostly worlds, which seem to be drawn to the sun, then -thrown out into space again to repeat the act until the mighty change -from close contact with the fiery mass to the intense cold of distant -realms wrecks them, scatters their fragments through the infinity of -space where they form gigantic rings or clusters of meteoric matter, -raining down upon the sun and planets and all heavenly bodies which -meet them, adding fuel to the former, material substance to the -latter, and in the case of the moon pitilessly bombarding her -crust--illustrating the effect of the bombardment of the earth were it -deprived of its atmospheric armor. - -The evidence which enabled astronomers to definitely associate comets -with meteoric showers and falling stars leads one into a world of -romance. Schiaparelli, the distinguished Italian astronomer, made the -discovery that meteors had a cometic origin. He had been calculating -the orbit and motion of the meteorites which produce the August -showers, when it occurred to him that they corresponded with those of -a certain comet. By following up this clew it was discovered that the -orbit of Tempel's comet corresponded with that of the meteors of the -November star shower. The most remarkable evidence was that produced -by Biela's comet, discovered in 1826. It had a revolution about the -sun of six years and eight months. It was seen in 1772, 1805, 1832, -1845, and 1852. The vast mass, which appeared to be rushing around the -sun with remarkable velocity, became separated in 1846, dividing into -two parts, one hundred and fifty thousand or two hundred thousand -miles from each other. In six years the separation had increased to -about one and a half million miles. What mighty cataclysm in infinite -space caused this rupture the mind of man can not conceive, but -something occurred which rent the aërial giant asunder, and so far as -known completed its wreck, as from that time Biela's comet has not -been seen. In 1872 the comet was looked for, and astronomers predicted -that if it did not appear a shower of stars or meteors would be -visible--the remains of the lost traveler through space--and that they -would diverge from a point in Andromeda. - -This remarkable prediction was verified in every particular. When the -moment for the appearance of the comet arrived, November 27, 1872, -there burst upon the heavens, not Biela's comet, but a marvelous -shower of shooting stars, which dashed down from the constellation of -Andromeda as predicted. In 1885 this was duplicated, and the -atmosphere was apparently filled with shooting stars. Biela's comet -had met disaster in infinite space, and the earth was being bombarded -with the wreckage. - -It is difficult to comprehend the vastness of these clusters of -meteors which constitute the wreck of comets and the source of the -principal bombardments. Thus the August stream, which gives us the -brilliant displays of summer nights, is supposed to be ten million -miles in thickness, as the earth dashing through at a rate of two -million miles a day is several days in passing it. We cross the -November stream of meteors in a few hours, suggesting a width of forty -thousand or fifty thousand miles. This stream of metallic bodies is -hundreds of millions of miles in length, and contains myriads of -projectiles which may yet be hurled upon the earth or some of the -planets of the solar system. - -[Illustration: THE NOVEMBER SHOWER OF METEORS AT SEA FROM SANDY -HOOK.] - -But one piece of Biela's comet, so far as known, was found--a fragment -weighing eight pounds falling at Mazapil, Mexico, where it remains one -of the most inspiring and interesting of inanimate objects. For years -the vast metallic mass, of which this piece formed a part, rushed -through space, covering millions of miles; now near the burning -surface of the sun, now in regions of space where its heat was -scarcely perceptible. For over a century this monster was observed by -the inhabitants of the earth, and finally a portion fell and human -beings handled and examined it. - -The fiery messengers which dash down singly upon the earth, the -showers of meteoric stones which flash through our atmosphere with -ephemeral gleams, are, then, the remains of gigantic comets which have -been seen rushing with apparent erratic course through space, and -which by unknown causes have been destroyed and now as meteoric -clusters, one of which is estimated to be one billion miles in length -and one hundred thousand miles in thickness, and to contain one -hundred thousand million meteors, are swinging through space, with -many erratic and wandering forms, pouring upon the earth and all the -planets of the solar system a mighty and continuous bombardment. - - -FOOTNOTE: - -[20] The meteors shown in the two ideal pictures are, of course, -entirely disproportionate in size to the earth and stars. If seen by -an observer above the earth, we might imagine an envelope of light -around the globe from the continuous ignition of the 150,000,000,000 -or more meteors which it is estimated strike the earth every year; in -which case, the striking meteors would be represented in the -illustrations as a thin light line surrounding the atmospheric -envelope of the earth. - - - - -THE SPIRIT OF CONQUEST. - -BY J. NOVICOW. - - -The spirit of conquest produces a gigantic aggregation of calamities -and sufferings. A large number of persons still regard conquests with -a favoring eye. Now, what does a conquest signify? It is the arming of -a band of soldiers and going and taking possession of a territory. -Although such expeditions may appear useful, lucrative, legitimate, -and even glorious, little regard is paid, in conducting them, to the -good of societies; for, in spite of all euphemisms, such military -enterprises are robbery, and nothing else, all the time. - -Generous spirits who talk about suppressing war do great injury to -mankind. Setting themselves in pursuit of a chimera, they abandon the -road that leads to concrete and positive results. Realists treat the -partisans of perpetual peace as Utopian dreamers, and refuse to follow -them. The noblest and most generous efforts are thus wholly lost. The -direction of public opinion is left to empirics and retrogrades, to -narrow-minded people, who are satisfied with living from day to day -and have not the courage to look the social problems of the time in -the face. War will never be abolished any more than murder. The -propaganda should not be directed on that side. The spirit of conquest -is the thing to combat. And this colossal error must be fought not in -the name of a vague and intangible fraternity, but by appealing to the -egoistic interest of every one. There will always be wars, because man -will never be absolutely sound-minded. At times passion and folly will -prevail over reason. But the idea that conquest is the quickest means -of increasing prosperity will not be everlasting, because it is -utterly false. - -Man acts conformably to what seems to be his interest. The idea he has -of this depends on his judgment, which varies every day, as do also -his desires. There is only one efficacious method of effecting social -changes: it is, to modify the desires of men, to bring them to seek -new objects, different from the old ones. - -A great many Germans are saying now, "We would give up the last drop -of our blood rather than surrender Alsace-Lorraine." Why do they say -that? Because the possession of the provinces annexed in 1871 procures -them some sort of real or imaginary satisfaction. But if, on the other -hand, this annexation caused them extreme sufferings, the Germans -would say, "We would give up the last drop of our blood to get rid of -Alsace-Lorraine." Now, if the Germans (or any other people) could -comprehend how largely the spirit of conquest diminishes the sum of -their enjoyment, they would certainly express themselves in language -of the latter sort. The apostles of perpetual peace have therefore -taken the wrong road. Their efforts should bear upon the single object -of showing that the appropriation of a neighbor's territories in no -way increases the welfare of men. The pessimists answer us that it -will take many years for the uselessness of conquests to be accepted. -Well, then, man shall have to continue many years in suffering; that -is all there is of it. - -When will the day come that we shall find out that it is no longer -advantageous to seize a neighbor's territory? We do not know. The only -thing we can affirm with absolute certainty is, that when it arrives -our prosperity will be increased five or ten fold.[21] - -This ctesohedonic error (lust for possession) has produced -consequences of which we proceed to speak. Just as individuals fancy -that they will be better off with larger possessions, so peoples -imagine that their prosperity and happiness will be in direct -proportion to the territorial extent of their country. Hence one of -the silliest aberrations of the human mind--the fatuous idolatry of -square miles. A great many Germans still figure it out that they will -have a larger sum of happiness if their country contains 208,670 -square miles instead of 203,070.[22] Few errors are more evident. -There are thousands of examples to prove that the welfare of citizens -is in no way a function of the extent of the state. If it were so, -Russia would be the richest country in Europe, while everybody knows -it is exactly the contrary. Taxation in that country is pushed to -limits that might almost be called absurd, and for that reason the -extent of the nation is one of the greatest obstacles to its -prosperity. - -As an example to illustrate the absurdity of the idolatry of square -miles, take California, which now has 158,360 square miles,[23] and -1,200,000 inhabitants. If in another century the population should -rise to forty millions, it might be expedient for the good government -of these men to divide the State into several. If the conservatives of -that period should declare that they would give the last drop of their -blood to preserve the unity of their Commonwealth, they would be -afflicted with the square-mile craze, and as foolish as the Europeans. -Territorial divisions are made for men, not men for territorial -divisions. The object enlightened patriots should pursue is not that a -certain geographical extent should be included under one name or many, -but that the divisions should conform to the aspirations and desires -of the citizens. They should impose as little restraint as possible -upon the economical and intellectual progress of societies. - -The inhabitants of the province of Rio Grande recently wanted to -secede from Brazil. The Government at Rio Janeiro, afflicted like -other governments by the square-mile craze, would not consent to it, -and hostilities broke out. Suppose the Rio Grandians had been -victorious in this war; what would have been the result? There would -have been eleven states in South America instead of ten. No modern -political theorist would see the presage of an extraordinary calamity -in such an event as that. The new state would have been recognized by -the other powers, and things would have gone on as before. But if the -central Government, respecting the wishes of the Rio Grandians, had -consented to the secession, the empirical politicians of our time -would have affirmed that the world had been unbalanced. Yet the -situation would have been exactly the same in point of territorial -divisions--eleven independent states instead of ten. We have then to -think that, in the eyes of modern politicians, the avoidance of a war, -the fact of sparing hundreds of millions of money and thousands of -human lives, diminishes wealth, while the waste of capital and -massacres should increase it! It would be hard to be less logical or -more absurd. - -The great North American federation is composed of forty-four States, -of from 1,250 square miles (the size of Rhode Island) to 265,780 -square miles (the size of Texas). If one hundred States should be -established to-morrow of about 30,000 square miles each, there would -not necessarily follow either an increase or a diminution of the -welfare of the population. The Americans can make equally rapid -progress whether divided into forty republics or one hundred, and as -slow under one division as under the other. Wealth is not a function -of political divisions. So Europe is now divided into twenty-four -independent states, having from 8 to 2,100,000 square miles of -territory. If it were divided to-morrow into one hundred independent -states of 35,000 square miles each, it would as easily be poorer as -richer. All would depend upon the interior organization of each of -these states, and on the relations which they might establish with one -another. - -Very few persons understand this truth. When we see the most civilized -nations of Europe imagining that their welfare depends on 5,000 or -6,000 square miles more or less, we stand really stupefied before the -persistence of the ancient routines. The simple disarmament of three -military corps would procure ten times as many benefits for the German -people as the possession of Alsace-Lorraine. In short, as long as the -false association between the territorial extent of a state and its -wealth persists its progress in real wealth will be very slow. - -To return to the spirit of conquest. A great many things, as we have -shown in another place, are not appropriable. Foreign territories are -not so for entire nations. A military chief with his staff may be -better off through the conquest of a country, but a nation never. - -When William of Normandy seized England he committed an act that was -not according to his interest as properly understood. He destroyed by -war a considerable quantity of wealth, and he and his barons in turn -suffered by the general diminution of welfare. These sufferings were, -however, infinitesimal and very hard to appreciate. True views of the -nature of wealth were, moreover, not accessible to the brains of men -of the eleventh century. Certainly, when William and his army had -possessed themselves of England they experienced an increase of wealth -that was very evident to them. The king had more revenue; every Norman -soldier got land or a reward in money, and he became richer after -Hastings than he had ever been before. - -But what did the Roman _people_, for example, gain by the conquest of -the basin of the Mediterranean? Four or five hundred grand personages -divided the provincial lands alienated by the state among themselves, -but what benefit did the masses derive from the bloody campaigns of -the republic? The distribution of the _annone_, 280 grammes of bread -each a day, given to 200,000 persons out of the 1,500,000 inhabitants -of the Eternal City! Surely the Romans would have gained a great deal -more by working themselves than by pillaging other nations! - -Things are exactly the same now. In 1871 twenty-eight persons received -from the Emperor William donations forming a total of $3,000,000. But -what benefit did the German _people_ derive from the conquest of -Alsace-Lorraine? None. Dividing the 3,600,000 acres of that province -among the 6,400,000 families that were living in Germany at the time -of the Treaty of Frankfort would make two and a half acres each. This -is not opulence. Of the 5,000,000,000 of francs extorted from France -as damage for the expenses of the war there remained 3,896,250,000 -francs, which, divided among 6,400,000 families, represent a gain of -609 francs, or about $121.80 per family--hardly enough to live -scantily upon for four months; and this was the most lucrative war of -which history makes mention! Consider, further, at what amount of -sacrifice these $121.80 have been gained. In 1870 the military -expenses of the North German Confederation and the four southern -states amounted to 349,000,000 francs a year. They now exceed -795,000,000, and in another year (from 1894) will exceed 870,000,000. -Here, then, is an increase of 521,000,000 francs, or a charge of 60 -francs per family. As 609 francs, even at five per cent, will only -return 30 francs, we have here a clear loss of 30 francs (or $6) a -family per year. It thus appears that the conquest of Alsace-Lorraine -would have been a bad speculation, even if the French indemnity had -been distributed in equal parts among all the German families. But, in -fact, it has not been so; so that the 60 francs of supplementary -expenditure are paid without any compensation. - -It might be said that the conquest of Alsace-Lorraine was not dictated -solely by sordid economical considerations. Other interests, purer and -more elevated, stir the hearts of modern nations. But we ask, Is it -grand, noble, and generous to hold unwilling populations under the -yoke? On the contrary, it is most base, vile, and degrading. It is -difficult to comprehend how brutal conquest can still arouse -enthusiasm. Ancient survivals and routines must for a time have -suppressed all our reflective faculties. - -Suppose, again, 3,000,000 German soldiers should penetrate into Russia -and should gain a complete victory: how would they apportion the -territory? The parts here would indeed be larger--Russia contains -5,471,500,000 acres. But a third of this territory, at least, is -desert; subtracting this, there remain about 3,600,000,000 acres, -which, divided among the German families, would give about 5-1/2 acres -to each. It may be asked, How will the conquerors take possession of -these lands? If each family delegated only one of its members, that -would suppose an exodus of 6,400,000 men, going to scatter themselves -from the Vistula to the Amoor. What a disturbance so great an -emigration would make in the economical condition of Germany! -Moreover, would every German colonist be willing to leave his home, -his family, his business, and all his cherished associations, to -install himself on the banks of the Volga, in Siberia, the Caucasus, -or Central Asia? He would acquire 5-1/2 acres, more or less, it is -true, but is it certain that that would bring him more than it would -take from him? On the other hand, if the Germans should have their -shares administered by agents chosen from among the natives, what -complications, what annoyances would arise! The Germans might perhaps -get rid of these difficulties by selling their lands. But what price -could they command, with 3,600,000,000 acres all put into the market -at once? Who would buy it? It is only necessary to look at the facts -at close range (besides a mass of difficulties we have not spoken of) -to comprehend that the direct appropriation of the territory of one -great modern nation by individuals of another does not enter into the -domain of realizable things. - -The appropriation of the landed properties is therefore chimerical. -The confiscation of personal goods to the profit of the conquerors -also offers insurmountable difficulties. There remain the public -riches. Few countries could pay indemnities of 5,000,000,000 francs. -But even that colossal sum becomes absurdly insufficient when it is -equally divided among millions of takers. - -All this is most plainly evident, and yet the spirit of conquest and -the fatuous idolatry of square miles are more active than ever in the -old world of Europe. - -Let us see now what this mad aberration costs. We will begin with the -direct losses. - -A whole continent of our globe, twice as large as the European -continent, having 8,000,000 square miles and 80,000,000 -inhabitants--North America--is divided into three political dominions: -Canada, the United States, and Mexico. As none of these countries -covets the territory of the other, there are on this vast continent -only 114,453 soldiers and marines, one military man for 700 -inhabitants, while in Europe there is one for 108. The American -proportion would give 514,286 men for all the European armies. As -there are no savage elements in Europe to be restrained by arms, half -of the North American contingent ought to be enough to maintain -internal order there. Europe needs only 300,000 soldiers at most; all -the others are supported in deference to the idolatry for square -miles. This additional military force exceeds 3,300,000 men, and costs -4,508,000,000 francs ($901,600,000) a year. And this is the direct -loss entailed by the spirit of conquest; and yet it is trifling as -compared with the indirect losses. - -First, there are 3,300,000 men under the flags. If they were not -soldiers, and were following lucrative occupations and earning only -1,000 francs ($200) a head, they might produce $760,000,000. The -$900,000,000 absorbed now by military expenditures would bring five -per cent if invested in agricultural and industrial enterprises. This -would make another $45,000,000. The twenty-eight days of the reserves -are worth at least $40,000,000. Here, then, is an absolutely palpable -sum of $845,000,000. But what a number of colossal losses escape all -valuation! Capital produces capital. If $1,800,000,000 were saved -every year from military expenses and poured into industrial -enterprises, they would produce benefits beyond our power to estimate. - -To obtain a correct appreciation of the evils derived from the spirit -of conquest, we must take a glance at the past. We need not go back of -the middle ages, from which we shall only take a few examples. The -destruction of wealth wrought by war has been nowhere so frightful as -in Spain. In 1073 the Castilians tried to capture Toledo from the -Moors. With the military engines of the time it was impossible to -accomplish the purpose by a direct attack on a place so admirably -fortified by Nature and man; so the King of Castile, Alfonso VI, -ravaged the country for three successive years, destroyed the crops, -harassed the people and the cattle, and, in short, made a desert -around the old capital of the Visigoths. - -From 1110 till 1815--seven hundred and five years--there were two -hundred and seventy-two years of war between France and England. Now -the two nations have lived in peace for eighty years, and it has not -prevented them from prospering. What better proof could we have that -all the previous wars were useless? - -We need not speak of the massacres of the Thirty Years' War, by which -a third of the population of Germany perished, or of the frightful -hecatombs of Napoleon I, for these facts are in everybody's memory. We -shall confine our attention to the losses caused by the spirit of -conquest, at least since the Thirty Years' War. Here, again, we shall -proceed by analogies. From 1700 to 1815 England expended 175,000,000 -francs ($35,000,000) a year for war. Suppose that the expenditures of -the other great powers--Germany (including Prussia), Austria, Spain, -France, and Russia--were similar. This would make, without counting -the smaller states, 1,050,000,000 francs ($210,000,000) for all -Europe. Still, as war was not so costly to Russia or Prussia as to -England, we will reduce this figure one fourth. We shall then have, -between 1700 and 1815, an annual expenditure of 787,500,000 francs -($157,500,000).[24] Let us estimate the cost of the wars of the -seventeenth century at a slightly lower sum, putting it at only -500,000,000 francs (or $100,000,000) a year for all Europe. That would -make 41,000,000,000 francs ($8,200,000,000), or for the entire period -from 1618 to 1815, 131,562,500,000 francs ($26,312,500,000). - -We have more certain data for the nineteenth century. The Crimean, -Italian, Schleswig-Holstein, and American Wars, and the war of 1866, -cost 46,830,000,000 francs ($9,366,000,000).[25] The war of France -cost 15,000,000,000 francs ($3,000,000,000) at the lowest; that of -1877 at least 4,000,000,000 francs ($800,000,000). Add for the war of -Greek independence, the French and Austrian expeditions to Spain and -Naples, the Polish war of 1830, the Turco-Russian war of 1828-'29, and -the wars of 1848, 3,000,000,000 francs ($600,000,000) more--a very -moderate estimate; we reach a total sum of 68,830,000,000 francs -($13,766,000,000). None of the extra-European conflicts are comprised -in this figure; neither the war between Russia and Persia in 1827, -that of Mehemet Ali against the Turks, the struggle against the -mountaineers of the Caucasus and against the Arabs in Algeria, or the -English campaign in Afghanistan--concerning all of which we have no -figures. - -Counting only the figures we have been able to obtain, we have for the -period from 1618 till our own days 200,392,000,000 francs -($50,078,500,000) as the bare direct losses by war, which have had to -be defrayed by the budgets of the different European states. How shall -we calculate the indirect losses? Between 1618 and 1648 Germany lost -6,000,000 inhabitants. The destruction of property was prodigious, the -ravages were frightful. How can we represent them in money? It is -absolutely impossible. There are, too, some expenses arising from the -spirit of conquest that almost wholly escape observation. We shall -give only two examples of them. - -The ctesohedonic fallacy (lust for possession) raged in the middle -ages between the nearest neighbors. No city could offer any security -unless it was surrounded by strong walls. Since these required great -expenditures, they could not be rebuilt every few days. For this -reason space was greatly economized in the cities, and their streets -were very narrow. At a later period, when security had become -established, the walls were demolished. In our own time the needs of -hygiene and luxury have urged the opening of broad ways in the ancient -European cities. It has been necessary to buy houses and demolish them -in order to create the grand modern avenues. There would have been no -walls in the middle ages except for the spirit of conquest, and the -broad streets would have been established then, as has been done in -the new cities of Russia and America. To pierce these new avenues, -Paris, for example, has had to contract debts, the annual interest on -which amounts to at least 50,000,000 or 60,000,000 francs ($10,000,000 -to $12,000,000). This expense should be charged to the account of the -spirit of conquest. But nobody has ever thought of attributing these -50,000,000 or 60,000,000 of the city budget to military waste. And how -many other cities are in the same situation? Another example: during -six centuries France and England were trying to take provinces from -one another. Hence a permanent hostility existed between the two -nations. Later on the circumstances changed, but by virtue of the -routine inherent in the human mind the old resentments remained, -though the motive for them had gone. To thwart the progress of France -was considered a patriotic duty by such English ministers as Lord -Palmerston. In 1855 M. de Lesseps formed a company to construct the -Suez Canal. As M. de Lesseps was a Frenchman, Lord Palmerston and the -British Cabinet thought themselves obligated to oppose his project, -and their opposition cost about 200,000,000 francs ($40,000,000). The -canal might have been constructed then for that sum, but in -consequence of the machinations of the English it cost 400,000,000 -francs ($80,000,000). Who has ever thought of charging that loss to -the account of the spirit of conquest? Nevertheless, that is where it -belongs.[26] - -The indirect losses of war defy valuation. But the matter may be -looked at from another point of view: that of the profits which they -prevent being made. The American war against secession cost the -treasury of both combatants $7,000,000,000. Now, if, without speaking -of the destruction of property,[27] we only consider the benefits -nonrealized, the most moderate estimates make them $12,000,000,000 -for the year 1890,[28] and the figure goes on every year increasing in -geometrical progression. - -Further, the debts must be considered. The largest proportion of them -are consequences of the idolatry for square miles. This entails an -annual expenditure of $644,800,000 which we should not have to bear -were it not for the ctesohedonic fallacy.[29] - -Yet another factor has so far not been mentioned: men. The wars of the -last three centuries have cost, at the lowest figure, 30,000,000 or -40,000,000 victims. Some authors raise this very moderate estimate to -20,000,000 per century. Without speaking of the frightful sufferings -of these unfortunates, they represent an enormous capital.[30] Let us -add, further, that these men, if they had not been killed, might have -had children that now have no existence. Without the wars of Napoleon -I and Napoleon III Europe would have had 45,000,000 more inhabitants -than it has, and they might have been producing $2,700,000 a year.[31] - -We hope the reader will admit, after these considerations, that the -indirect losses of war certainly exceed the direct ones. Still, -adhering to our method of underrating rather than exaggerating, we -will regard them as equal. We may therefore affirm that the spirit of -conquest has cost, since 1618, in the group of European nations alone, -the trifle of $80,156,800,000. Suppose we should go farther back--into -antiquity even? Imagination refuses to set down the gigantic sums. - -This is not all; the cost of civil wars has to be counted, for the -conquest of power within the state is attended by massacres which are -often not inferior to those of foreign ones. The chiefs of the Roman -legions contending for the empire carried on as bloody and costly -campaigns against their rivals as against the Parthians or the -Germans. The war between Paris and Versailles in 1871 occasioned -considerable expenditures, not to speak of the indirect losses, which -were immense. We are, unfortunately, absolutely without data -concerning the cost of civil wars, and shall have to satisfy ourselves -with what we have been able to obtain concerning foreign wars. -$80,156,800,000 used up in two centuries! We need not go outside of -this for a solution of the social question. Without this unrestricted -waste the earth would now have ten times more wheat, sugar, linen, -cotton, meat, wool, etc.; there would be ten times as many houses on -the globe, and they would be more spacious, better warmed, and better -ventilated; a network of roads, with frequent mails, would cover -Europe, Asia, Africa, and America. In short, if conquest had been -considered an evil, even during only two centuries, our wealth would -have been infinitely superior to what we now possess. But if the -ctesohedonic fallacy had been seen through by the civilized societies -of the Roman period, the face of the earth would have been very -different from what it is. Our planet would have been completely -appropriated to the satisfaction of our wants. Waste lands would have -been tilled and swamps dried; everywhere that a drop of water could be -made to serve for irrigation it would have been applied to that use. -Magnificent cities, inhabited by active and industrious populations, -would have arisen in numerous places where now are found only briers -and stones. In short, we should have been able to see men now, in the -year of grace 1894, as we expect to see them in three or four thousand -years. - -The past can not be changed. We have laid bare the unhappy -consequences of our ancient errors simply in order to show how we can -assure our welfare in the future. As long as the spirit of conquest -rages among men, misery will be the lot of our species. Our savage and -barbarous ancestors did not know what we know. Attila, Tamerlane, and -even Matabele, a chief of our own times, might be excused for fancying -that conquest increases the wealth of the conquerors; but a Moltke and -a Prince Bismarck can not. The masses are still too deeply imbued with -military vainglory. Happily, they are beginning to open their -eyes.--_Translated for the Popular Science Monthly from the book Les -Gaspillages des Sociétés Modernes_ (The Wastes of Modern Societies), -Paris, 1894. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[21] The pessimists are further mistaken. The idea that conquest is -disastrous, even to the conqueror, is much more widespread in modern -societies than is generally thought. But social reflexes urge the -masses to obey their chief blindly. It requires only a Gothic -spirit--like Bismarck, for example--to set a whole army in motion, and -make it do things which every officer and every soldier would condemn -as a personal act. - -[22] The difference is the extent of Alsace-Lorraine. - -[23] About the extent of the British Isles, Belgium, Holland, and -Switzerland combined. - -[24] See Seeley's Expansion of England, p. 21. This figure is very -moderate. Between 1802 and 1813 France alone spent 498,000,000 francs -($99,600,000) a year. See Laroque, La Guerre et les Armées -permanentes, Paris, 1870, p. 203. - -[25] See P. Leroy-Beaulieu, Recherches économiques sur les Guerres -contemporaines, Paris, p. 181. - -[26] We may refer here to another loss which has never been thought of -till now. It was long fancied that wealth could be acquired more -rapidly by war than by work; consequently, conquest seeming to be the -most rapid and therefore most efficacious way, was honored, and labor, -appearing to be a slower process, was despised. In our days a large -number of descendants of the knights of the middle ages retain the -ideas of their ancestors and look upon labor as degrading. -Hence thousands of aristocrats do nothing, but remain social -good-for-nothings, retarding the increase of wealth by their -inactivity. - -[27] Sherman, in his march from Atlanta to Savannah alone, destroyed -more than $400,000,000. The cotton famine occasioned by this war cost -Great Britain a loss of $480,000,000. Who has ever thought of charging -this against militarism? - -[28] See E. Reclus, Nouvelle geographie universelle (French edition), -vol. xvi, p. 810. - -[29] A justification of this figure may be found in my Luttes entre -les sociétés humaines, p. 220. - -[30] A half million negroes are massacred every year in Africa in the -tribal wars, which also are caused by the ctesohedonic fallacy. -Suppose each one of them might have earned $20 a year. Capitalized at -four per cent, this sum would have amounted to $400,000,000. - -[31] See my Luttes, p. 228. Let us say, in passing, that we owe our -existing savagery partly to the ctesohedonic fallacy. When we think -that the most rapid way of enriching ourselves is by seizing our -neighbor's territories, the fewer defenders that territory has, the -better. So all pretended political geniuses glorify themselves on -having killed the largest number of their fellow-men. Cæsar boasted of -having killed a million and a half of Gauls. At the moment of writing -these lines a terrible accident has occurred at Santander. Hundreds of -persons were killed by the explosion of a boat loaded with dynamite. -Great pity was expressed for the victims. Collections for their -benefit were taken in France. Suppose France and Spain were now at -war. If somebody had blown up some thousand Spaniards in a fortress, -we should have sung _Te Deums_. Oh, man's logic! - - * * * * * - - Until within a few years the field for the study of glaciers - and their action has been the Alps; but now, as Prof. H.L. - Fairchild said in his address as chairman of the Geological - Section of the American Association, the North American - continent is recognized as a field of the greatest activity, - both in the past and at the present time; and, moreover, it - presents types of glaciers not known in Europe. It must - therefore become the Mecca of foreign students of glaciers. - - - - -A SHORT HISTORY OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUCTION.[32] - -BY J. NORMAN LOCKYER, K.C.B., F.R.S. - - -II. - -I must come back from this excursion to call your attention to the -year 1845, in which one of the germs of our college first saw the -light. - -What was the condition of England in 1845? Her universities had -degenerated into _hauts lycées_. With regard to the university -teaching, I may state that even as late as the late fifties a senior -wrangler--I had the story from himself--came to London from Cambridge -expressly to walk about the streets to study crystals, prisms, and the -like in the optician's windows. Of laboratories in the universities -there were none; of science teaching in the schools there was none; -there was no organization for training science teachers. - -If an artisan wished to improve his knowledge he had only the moribund -Mechanics' Institutes to fall back upon. - -The nation which then was renowned for its utilization of waste -material products allowed its mental products to remain undeveloped. - -There was no minister of instruction, no councilors with a knowledge -of the national scientific needs, no organized secondary or primary -instruction. We lacked then everything that Germany had equipped -herself with in the matter of scientific industries. - -Did this matter? Was it more than a mere abstract question of a want -of perfection? - -It mattered very much! From all quarters came the cry that the -national industries were being undermined in consequence of the more -complete application of scientific methods to those of other -countries. - -The chemical industries were the first to feel this, and because -England was then the seat of most of the large chemical works.[33] - -Very few chemists were employed in these chemical works. There were in -cases some so-called chemists at about bricklayer's wages--not much of -an inducement to study chemistry; even if there had been practical -laboratories, where it could have been properly learned. Hence, when -efficient men were wanted they were got from abroad--i.e., from -Germany, or the richer English had to go abroad themselves. - -At this time we had, fortunately for us, in England, in very high -place, a German fully educated by all that could be learned at one of -the best-equipped modern German universities, where he studied both -science and the fine arts. I refer to the Prince Consort. From that -year to his death he was the fountain of our English educational -renaissance, drawing to himself men like Playfair, Clark, and De la -Beche; knowing what we lacked, he threw himself into the breach. This -college is one of the many things the nation owes to him. His service -to his adopted country, and the value of the institutions he helped to -inaugurate, are by no means even yet fully recognized, because those -from whom national recognition full and ample should have come, were, -and to a great extent still are, the products of the old system of -middle-age scholasticism which his clear vision recognized was -incapable by itself of coping with the conditions of modern civilized -communities. - -It was in the year 1845 that the influence of the Prince Consort began -to be felt. Those who know most of the conditions of science and art -then and now, know best how beneficial that influence was in both -directions; my present purpose, however, has only reference to -science. - -The College of Chemistry was founded in 1845, first as a private -institution; the School of Mines was established by the Government in -1851. - -In the next year, in the speech from the throne at the opening of -Parliament, her Majesty spoke as follows: "The advancement of the fine -arts and of practical science will be readily recognized by you as -worthy the attention of a great and enlightened nation. I have -directed that a comprehensive scheme shall be laid before you having -in view the promotion of these objects, toward which I invite your aid -and co-operation." - -Strange words these from the lips of an English sovereign! - -The Government of this country was made at last to recognize the great -factors of a peaceful nation's prosperity, and to reverse a policy -which has been as disastrous to us as if they had insisted upon our -naval needs being supplied by local effort as they were in Queen -Elizabeth's time. - -England has practically lost a century; one need not be a prophet to -foresee that in another century's time our education and our -scientific establishments will be as strongly organized by the British -Government as the navy itself. - -As a part of the comprehensive scheme referred to by her Majesty, the -Department of Science and Art was organized in 1853, and in the -amalgamation of the College of Chemistry and the School of Mines we -have the germ of our present institution. - -But this was not the only science school founded by the Government. -The Royal School of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering was -established by the department at the request of the Lords -Commissioners of the Admiralty, "with a view of providing especially -for the education of shipbuilding officers for her Majesty's service, -and promoting the general study of the science of shipbuilding and -naval engineering." It was not limited to persons in the Queen's -service, and it was opened on November 1, 1864. The present Royal -College of Science was built for it and the College of Chemistry. In -1873 the school was transferred to the Royal Naval College, Greenwich, -and this accident enabled the teaching from Jermyn Street to be -transferred and proper practical instruction to be given at South -Kensington. The Lords of the Admiralty expressed their entire -satisfaction with the manner in which the instruction had been carried -on at South Kensington; and well they might, for in a memorandum -submitted to the Lord President in 1887, the president and council of -the Institute of Naval Architects state: "When the department dealt -with the highest class of education in naval architecture by assisting -in founding and by carrying on the School of Naval Architecture at -South Kensington, the success which attended their efforts was -phenomenal, the great majority of the rising men in the profession -having been educated at that institution." - -Here I again point out, both with regard to the School of Mines, the -School of Naval Architecture, and the later Normal School, that it was -stern need that was in question, as in Egypt in old times. - -Of the early history of the college I need say nothing after the -addresses of my colleagues, Professors Judd and Roberts-Austen, but I -am anxious to refer to some parts of its present organization and -their effect on our national educational growth in some directions. - -It was after 1870 that our institution gradually began to take its -place as a normal school--that is, that the teaching of teachers -formed an important part of its organization, because in that year the -newly established departments, having found that the great national -want then was teachers of science, began to take steps to secure them. -Examinations had been inaugurated in 1859, but they were for -outsiders, conferring certificates and a money reward on the most -competent teachers tested in this way. These examinations were really -controlled by our school, for Tyndall, Hofmann, Ramsay, Huxley, and -Warington Smyth, the first professors, were also the first examiners. - -Very interesting is it to look back at that first year's work, the -first cast of the new educational net. After what I have said about -the condition of chemistry and the establishment of the College of -Chemistry in 1845, you will not be surprised to hear that Dr. Hofmann -was the most favored--he had forty-four students. - -Professor Huxley found one student to tackle his questions, and he -failed. - -Professors Ramsay and Warington Smyth had three each, but the two -threes only made five; for both lists were headed by the name of - - Judd, John W., - Wesleyan Training College, - Westminster. - -Our present dean was caught in the first haul. - -These examinations were continued till 1866, and upward of six hundred -teachers obtained certificates, some of them in several subjects. - -Having secured the teachers, the next thing the department did was to -utilize them. This was done in 1859 by the establishment of the -science classes throughout the country, which are, I think, the only -part of our educational system which even the Germans envy us. The -teaching might go on in schools, attics or cellars, there was neither -age limit nor distinction of sex or creed. - -Let me insist upon the fact that from the outset practical work was -encouraged by payments for apparatus, and that latterly the -examinations themselves, in some of the subjects, have been practical. - - * * * * * - -The number of students under instruction in science classes under -examined in the first year in which local examinations were held was -442; the number in 1897 was 202,496. The number of candidates examined -in the first year in which local examinations were held was 650, who -worked 1,000 papers; in 1897 the number was 106,185, who worked -159,724 papers, chemistry alone sending in 28,891 papers, mathematics -24,764, and physiography 16,879. - -The total number of individual students under instruction in science -classes under the department from 1859 to 1897 inclusive has been, -approximately, 2,000,000. Of these about 900,000 came forward for -examination, the total number of papers worked by them being -3,195,170. - -Now why have I brought these statistics before you? - -Because from 1861 onward the chief rewards of the successful students -have been scholarships and exhibitions held in this college; a system -adopted in the hope that in this way the numbers of perfectly trained -science teachers might be increased, so that the science classes -throughout the country might go on from strength to strength. - -The royal exhibitions date from 1863, the national scholars from 1884. -The free studentships were added later. - -The strict connection between the science classes throughout the -country and our college will be gathered from the following statement, -which refers to the present time: - -Twenty-one royal exhibitions--seven open each year--four to the Royal -College of Science, London, and three to the Royal College of Science, -Dublin. - -Sixty-six national scholarships--twenty-two open each year--tenable, -at the option of the holder, at either the Royal College of Science, -London, or the Royal College of Science, Dublin. - -Eighteen free studentships--six open each year--to the Royal College -of Science, London. - -A royal exhibition entitles the holder to free admission to lectures -and laboratories, and to instruction during the course for the -associateship--about three years--in the Royal College of Science, -London, or the Royal College of Science, Dublin, with maintenance and -traveling allowances. - -A national scholarship entitles the holder to free admission to -lectures and laboratories and to instruction during the course of the -associateship--about three years--at either the Royal College of -Science, London, or the Royal College of Science, Dublin, at the -option of the holder, with maintenance and traveling allowances. - -A free studentship entitles the holder to free admission to the -lectures and laboratories and to instruction during the course for the -associateship--about three years--in the Royal College of Science, -London, but not to any maintenance or traveling allowance. - -Besides the above students who have been successful in the -examinations of the science classes, a limited number (usually about -sixty) of teachers, and of students in science classes who intend to -become science teachers, are admitted free for a term or session to -the courses of instruction. They may be called upon to pass an -entrance examination. Of these, there are two categories--those who -come to learn and those who remain to teach; some of the latter may be -associates. - -Besides all these, those holding Whitworth scholarships--the award of -which is decided by the science examinations--can, and some do, spend -the year covered by the exhibition at the college. - -In this way, then, is the _École Normale_ side of our institution -built up. - -The number of Government students in the college in 1872 was 25; in -1886 it was 113; and in 1897 it was 186. - -The total number of students who passed through the college from -1882-'83 to 1896-'97, inclusive, was 4,145. Of these, 1,966 were -Government students. The number who obtained the associateship of the -Royal School of Mines from 1851 to 1881 was 198, of whom 39 were -Government students, and of the Royal College of Science and Royal -School of Mines from 1882 to 1897 the number was 525, of whom 323 were -Government students. Of this total of 362 Government students 94 were -science teachers in training. - -With regard to the Whitworth scholarships, which, like the -exhibitions, depend upon success at the yearly examinations throughout -the country, I may state that six have held their scholarships at the -college for at least a part of the scholarship period, and three -others were already associates. - -So much for the prizemen we have with us. I next come to the teachers -in training who come to us. The number of teachers in training who -have passed through the college from 1872 to 1897, inclusive, is about -six hundred; on an average they attended about two years each. The -number in the session 1872-'73, when they were first admitted, was -sixteen, the number in 1885-'86 was fifty, and in 1896-'97 sixty. -These have not as a rule taught science classes previously, but before -admission they give an undertaking that they intend to teach. In the -earlier years some did not carry out this undertaking, doubtless -because of the small demand for teachers of science at that time. But -we have changed all that. With but very few exceptions, all the -teachers so trained now at once begin teaching, and not necessarily in -classes under the department. It is worthy of note, too, that many -royal exhibitioners and national scholars, although under no -obligation to do so, also take up science teaching. It is probable -that of all the Government students now who pass out of the college -each year not less than three fourths become teachers. The total -number of teachers of science engaged in classes under the department -alone at the present time is about six thousand. - -I have not yet exhausted what our college does for the national -efforts in aiding the teaching of science. - -When you, gentlemen, leave us about the end of June for your -well-earned holidays, a new task falls upon your professors in the -shape of summer courses to teachers of science classes brought up by -the department from all parts of the four kingdoms to profit by the -wealth of apparatus in the college and museum, and the practical work -which it alone renders possible. - -The number of science teachers who have thus attended the summer -courses reaches 6,200, but as many of these have attended more than -one course, the number of separate persons is not so large. - -RESEARCH.--From time to time balances arise in the scholarship fund -owing to some of the national scholarships or royal exhibitions being -vacated before the full time for which they are tenable has expired. -Scholarships are formed from these balances and awarded among those -students who, having completed the full course of training for the -associateship, desire to study for another year at the college. _It is -understood that the fourth year is to be employed in research in the -subject of the associateship._ - -The gaining of one of the Remanet scholarships, not more than two on -the average annually, referred to, furnishes really the only means by -which deserving students are enabled to pursue research in the -college; as, although a professor has the power to nominate a student -to a free place in his laboratory, very few of the most deserving -students are able to avail themselves of the privilege owing to want -of means. - -The department only very rarely sends students up as teachers in -training for research work, but only those who intend making teaching -their profession are eligible for these studentships. - -I trust that at some future day, when we get our new buildings--it is -impossible to do more than we do till we get them--more facilities for -research may be provided, and even an extension of time allowed for it -if necessary. I see no reason why some of the 1851 exhibition -scholarships should not be awarded to students of this college, but to -be eligible they must have published a research. Research should -naturally form part of the work of the teachers in training who are -not brought up here merely to effect an economy in the teaching staff. - -Such, then, in brief, are some of our normal-school attributes. I -think any one who knows the facts must acknowledge that the -organization has justified itself not only by what it has done, but -also by the outside activities it has set in motion. It is true that -with regard to the system of examining school candidates by means of -papers sent down from London, the department was anticipated by the -College of Preceptors in 1853, and by Oxford and Cambridge in 1858; -but the action of 1861, when science classes open to everybody, was -copied by Oxford and Cambridge in 1869. The department's teachers got -to work in 1860, but the so-called "University Extension Movement" -dates only from 1873, and only quite recently have summer courses been -started at Oxford and Cambridge. - -The chemical and physical laboratories, small though they were in the -department's schools, were in operation long before any practical work -in these subjects was done either at Oxford or Cambridge. When the -college laboratories began, about 1853, they existed practically -alone. From one point of view we should rejoice that they are now -third rate. I think it would be wrong of me not to call your attention -to the tenacity, the foresight, the skill, the unswerving patience, -exhibited by those upon whom has fallen the duty of sailing the good -ship "Scientific Instruction," launched, as I have stated, out upon a -sea which was certain, from the history I have brought before you, to -be full of opposing currents. - -I have had a statement prepared showing what the most distinguished of -our old students and of those who have succeeded in the department's -examinations are now doing. The statement shows that those who have -been responsible for our share in the progress of scientific -instruction have no cause to be ashamed. - -CONCLUSION.--I have referred previously to the questions of secondary -education and of a true London University, soon, let us hope, to be -realized. - -Our college will be the first institution to gain from a proper system -of secondary education, for the reason that scientific studies gain -enormously by the results of literary culture, without which we can -neither learn so thoroughly nor teach so effectively as one could -wish. - -To keep a proper mind-balance, engaged as we are here continuously in -scientific thought, literature is essential, as essential as bodily -exercise, and if I may be permitted to give you a little advice, I -should say organize your athletics as students of the college, and -organize your literature as individuals. I do not think you will gain -so much by studying scientific books when away from here as you will -by reading English and foreign classics, including a large number of -works of imagination; and study French and German also in your -holidays by taking short trips abroad. - -With regard to the university. If it be properly organized, in the -light of the latest German experience, with complete science and -technical faculties of the highest order, it should certainly insist -upon annexing the School of Mines portion of our institution; the past -history of the school is so creditable that the new university for its -own sake should insist upon such a course. It would be absurd, in the -case of a nation which depends so much on mining and metallurgy, if -these subjects were not taught in the chief national university, as -the University of London must become. - -But the London University, like the Paris University, if the little -history of science teaching I have given you is of any value, must -leave our normal college alone, at all events till we have more than -trebled our present supply of science teachers. - -But while it would be madness to abolish such an institution as our -normal school, and undesirable if not impossible to graft it on the -new university, our school, like its elder sister in Paris, should be -enabled to gain by each increase in the teaching power of the -university. The students on the scientific side of the Paris school, -in spite of the fact that their studies and researches are looked -after by fourteen professors entitled Maîtres de Conférences, attend -certain of the courses at the Sorbonne and the Collége de France, and -this is one of the reasons why many of the men and researches which -have enriched French science hail from the _École Normale_. - -One word more. As I have pointed out, the French _École Normale_ was -the result of a revolution; I may now add that France since Sedan has -been doing, and in a tremendous fashion, what, as I have told you, -Prussia did after Jena. Let us not wait for disastrous defeats, either -on the field of battle or of industry, to develop to the utmost our -scientific establishments and so take our proper and complete place -among the nations.--_Nature._ - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[32] An address delivered at the Royal College of Science on October -6, 1898. - -[33] Perkin. Nature, vol. xxxii, p. 334. - - - - -THE SERIES METHOD: A COMPARISON. - -BY CHARLOTTE TAYLOR. - - -Broadly speaking, there are two methods which are used for the -teaching of a language: that of the mother and that of the grammarian. -The child learns its own or _mother_ tongue from the mother; it learns -a foreign tongue from a teacher, whose highest ambition is to be a -grammarian. Does the child learn better from the mother or from the -grammarian? Without doubt, from the mother, according to the mother -method. If this is so, must we use the example of the mother or of the -grammarian when we are to begin the teaching of a foreign language? Is -there any reason why a foreign tongue should be otherwise taught than -the mother tongue? Is it not at least worth the trouble to try the -method of the mother, when it is every day demonstrated that pupils -who have had five, six, seven years of teaching are unable, on leaving -school, so much as to understand when the language they have been -studying is used in conversation? - -Let us attempt to obtain light on the differences between these two -principal methods that exist for teaching a language. What is the -mother's method? How does she teach the child to speak? First let us -notice that the mother follows the child: she allows him first to show -interest in something and then helps him to express _himself_. Here we -must pause to notice that what most interests the child is not a -thing, an object for itself, but the capacity of the thing to do -something, the possibilities of the thing for the performance of an -action. A young child takes a thing in its hand and waves it, or -strikes it against something, or passes it from one hand to the other; -when it is older, it asks invariably, "What for?" The mother names the -thing to the child, and also the action that may be therewith -performed. The child begins to play. Here a specialty of the mother -method comes into view. The mother tells the child that she is -_pleased_ or _displeased_ with him, that it makes her _happy_ or -_unhappy_ when the child does this or that, that she _thinks_ he is a -good or a naughty boy, etc.--all of which remarks express her -feelings, her thoughts, in contradistinction to the actions which have -occasioned these feelings and thoughts; the realm of the mind as -opposed to the world of activity. Let us here notice that the speech -of every people contains these two classifications of words, the -objective and the subjective; and indeed it must be so, since we -perform actions and we judge of our actions. By this method the child -learns in about a year from the time it begins to speak to express -itself about what it does and what it thinks. - -Now what is the method of the grammarian? The child learns first the -names of things that do not appeal to his consciousness, for they do -not start from his point of view, but from that of the maker of a -book. He learns lists of words--that is, he learns to know the -_symbol_, and not the _thing_; he translates. He learns about Cæsar's -wars and the book of his father's uncle in what is called an exercise. -For both of these subjects he feels no interest, which is to be -expected, as they are abstract. He sees no action. Of the great part -of language, which may be called the speech of feeling, he also learns -only in the abstract. He reads that Cæsar was glad or that his -father's uncle was angry, but the happiness and the anger are outside -of his consciousness; they have been presented to him by symbols, that -is, printed words. By this method the child learns in about four years -to read fairly well; as a rule, speaking the language is entirely out -of the question. The pupils can not talk of their actions and their -feelings, because these are represented to them by symbols, for such -are printed words; they have not grasped them as actualities. If on -going into a foreign country they are able to understand what is being -said, the teacher may consider himself lucky. He has done his utmost -with the method he has chosen to employ. He has attained something. It -remains true that the mother accomplishes more in a shorter time than -the grammarian. - -But is it perhaps possible to put the two methods together, and thus -to create a method which shall contain the good of both? We must not -continue always to act as the mother does, to teach after her method, -or our pupils will continue to talk like a child of two years, and be -furthermore unable to write at all. How shall we manage to melt the -two into one compact, inseparable whole? - -Let us imagine a class is to take its first lesson in the foreign -tongue. First, what shall be the matter of the lesson; then, how shall -it be presented? We shall be careful to choose a subject that can be -interesting to the pupil, hence a subject containing activity. It is -not necessary that it should be anything astonishing or unusual. Let -us consider with the pupils how one opens the classroom door. Let us -ask the pupil in his mother tongue how he does it, carefully drawing -his attention to the number of actions necessary to the accomplishment -of our aim, such as walking, standing still, extending the arm, -grasping the knob, etc., together with the resulting actions on the -part of the door, opening, swinging, etc. We will then draw his -attention to the words of activity, the verbs, and tell him he is -going to learn those words in the new language--say German. We will -now take the first verb necessary to the accomplishment of our aim, -that of walking. We will say, _while we walk_, such sentences as "This -is gehe," "See how I gehe," "My feet move when I gehe," etc. We do the -same with each verb, always with its accompanying action. We will take -the first four verbs of our subject, repeat them the first time with -many explanatory phrases, the second time with fewer, the third and -last time we shall simply repeat the verbs "gehe," "stehe still," -"strecke aus," "fasse an," always with the actions. By this time the -pupils will know these, they having heard each one at least seven -times. We can now allow them to recite, we still giving the clew by -the production of the appropriate action. Having taught these first -four verbs, we are now ready for the full sentence "I walk toward the -door," "I stand still by the door," "I reach out my arm," "I take hold -of the knob." We can teach the subject "ich" without difficulty, as it -remains the same in all the sentences. Let us take the nouns and teach -in this manner: "Ich gehe"--pointing--"Thür," then a repetition of -"Thür" contained in sentences describing it, with at least three -repetitions of the word. Then come the words showing direction and -relation. If you say "Ich gehe"--pointing--"Thür," the pupil will know -that there is a word lacking, and he will be unsatisfied till he knows -it. We now have a sentence, "Ich gehe nach der Thür." We will teach -the other sentences in the same way; we will repeat each sentence at -least three times in its entirety, and we will allow the pupils to -recite. Here it is of interest to show the pupil that the sentence has -sprung from the verb, that the verb is the germ of the sentence. -Whether we do this with the words "verb," "sentence," "germ," must -depend on the capacity of the class. It is not a question of words, -but of ideas. Let us present our subject as a living thing. To supply -the pupil with an old-fashioned grammar exercise is like inviting him -to make a dinner off papier-maché joints and steaks. - -All this time we have been considering the part of language which -deals with the _outside_ world. It is now time to consider how we -shall present the part of language which deals with the inner life. We -must make the pupil capable of expressing his states of mind, his -thoughts, because these thoughts are interesting to him. There is, -broadly speaking, only one situation in class about which his mind is -working: his own success or failure to recite. Hence, before each -recitation we shall speak a sentence of encouragement or command, such -as "Please begin," "I think you are going to do well." After each -recitation we shall speak a sentence of praise or blame, such as "Very -good," "It might have been better." These, as they can not be -expressed by actions, may be translated when necessary into equivalent -phrases in the mother tongue. We shall illustrate each phrase by -stories, riddles, quotations, whatever you like. The pupil will be -interested, and hence will remember. It is not necessary to the -acquisition of knowledge that the pupil should be thoroughly bored -while trying to learn. After a sufficient number of repetitions of a -phrase by the teacher, it will be handed over to the pupils, who will -then address to each other phrases of encouragement, command, praise, -blame, etc. We have now enabled the pupil to express an action and his -thought; the outside and the inside world are his; he needs only to -advance as he began. Each lesson proceeds in this wise: - - -EXAMPLE. - -PART I.--Teacher: "We shall learn about opening the door." General -subjective phrase, "Pay attention." Explanation of the phrase through -stories. - -Teaching of _verbs_. - -First subjective phrase before recitation, "Please begin." Explanation -through stories. - -Recitation. - -First subjective phrase after recitation, "Very good." Explanations -through stories. - -After the teaching of the _sentences_, the subjective phrases are -spoken by the pupils. - -It lies in the intelligence of the teacher to recognize the moment for -introducing phrases. - -The lesson then proceeds to the movements of the door as Part II, and -to our leaving the door as Part III. The scheme is the same. - -All this is a copy (systematized, of course) of the method employed by -the mother. Now, first, can the grammarian be useful to us? Let us -remember that to begin with his method is to put the cart before the -horse. He must play the second but also an important part. The child -learns to speak first, but he also learns to read and to write. We -will give the same lesson to the pupil in printed form; he will be -asked to read it, and then to copy it or write it from dictation. He -will receive the new speech through the sense of hearing; it will then -be communicated to the sight, and then to the touch. In this manner a -class of twenty girls of about thirteen years had been taught English. -After about thirty printed lessons had been mastered with the -anecdotes, riddles, etc., which had occupied about half a German -school year, they were not only able to read and write without many -mistakes, but showed a strong desire to express themselves in the new -tongue, and were, indeed, able to do so very satisfactorily, as -compared with the results obtained by the grammarian after a seven -years' course. - -Who first thought of combining the two original methods of language -teaching in this way? A Frenchman, named François Gouin. He gave it -the name of the "Series Method," because each lesson contains a series -of actions. After the pupil has learned to express himself in regard -to his immediate surroundings he continues to learn in series in -regard to the lives of animals and of plants, the processes of -housekeeping, traveling, trade, etc. It is all presented simply, but -each has its own appropriate words and expressions. As soon as the -pupil has mastered the rudiments he will also have the subjective -matter presented in a series; in one lesson the teacher will be -inclined to mirth, in another to (mock) anger, in another to hope, in -another to (mock) despair. - -The most important result of education being the evolution of the -character already present in the child, let us not consider him a -little empty jug to be filled with knowledge; rather let us seek to -draw out the riches of his character. When he is able to _live_ in a -new language, he will be ever broadened, refreshed, and renewed. - -This method, resting on a psychological basis, is, with modifications -of manner, which it remains the duty of the teacher to recognize, just -as good for an adult as for a child. Rules of grammar will be earlier -given to the adult, because he will notice correspondences and -differences sooner than the child. But no rule will ever be given to a -pupil of any age till he himself can appreciate its value, till he is -mentally beginning to ask "why?" This questioning state of mind is one -highly to be desired, as it is a state of receptivity. - - * * * * * - - The highest point yet reached by a kite was attained by the - leader of a tandem sent up from the Blue Hill Observatory by - Messrs. Clayton and Ferguson, August 26th, 12,124 feet above - the sea, 277 feet higher than had previously been reached by - any kite. The five miles of line weighed seventy-five - pounds, and the weight of the whole was one hundred and - twelve pounds. With a temperature of 75° and wind velocity - thirty-two miles an hour on the ground, the temperature was - 38° and the wind velocity thirty-two miles an hour at the - highest point reached, while the highest wind velocity - recorded was forty miles an hour at 11,000 feet. - - - - -THE EARLIEST WRITING IN FRANCE. - -BY M. GABRIEL DE MORTILLET. - - -The ancient Celts and Gauls of France had no real letters. A few -Celtiberian pieces of money bear characters belonging to the -Phoenician and Carthaginian alphabets. In Cisalpine Gaul we find -Gallic written in ancient Italian characters. The Greeks, when they -founded Massilia and spread themselves along the Mediterranean coast -of France, brought their language and writing into the country. The -Gauls took advantage of this, and many Gallic inscriptions in Greek -characters occur scattered through the south of France, among much -more numerous inscriptions in the Greek language and character. - -When the Romans came, the Latin alphabet rapidly took the place of the -Greek, and the few Gauls that continued faithful to the old tongue -used Latin characters in engraving the inscriptions they have left us. -Similar changes took place in Gallic pieces of money. Excepting the -Celtiberian coins with their Semitic legends and characters, which are -found only in a very limited district in the southwest of France, -Gallic coins, when they have characters upon them, may be classified -as those with Greek and those with Latin legends. The former are very -abundant in the south of France, and extend, growing more rare, as we -go on into the center and north. Gallic coins with legends in Roman -characters gradually become more numerous, and were general after the -conquest of Gaul by Julius Cæsar, some of the Gallic populations -having only begun to coin money during the earlier period of the Roman -occupation. - -There are some evidences of the use of a symbolical and hieroglyphical -writing before alphabetical writing. On some of the megalithic -monuments, principally in Morbihan, stones are found bearing incised -engravings, and sometimes sculptures in relief. Are the engravings -simply ornamental motives, have they a symbolical meaning, or are they -hieroglyphic emblems? Opinions are divided. - -The supports of the large and handsome dolmen of the little island of -Gavrinis, Morbihan, are filled with engraved lines running into one -another and conforming to the shape of the stone or to its -composition--all the siliceous and consequently very hard parts being -free from them. This indicates a simple ornamentation or decoration -executed without any special plan made in advance, according to the -nature and form of the stone worked upon. Yet, among the lines of the -apparently fanciful ornament a number of polished stone hatchets are -very distinctly represented. In all the other dolmens the carvings are -much less numerous and not so close. Sometimes they are distributed -around, and sometimes they are isolated. Among them we remark the -frequent repetition of some forms in groups or singly, which suggest -the thought of signs with a determined sense. Upon a large support of -the dolmen of the Petit-Mont at Arzan (Morbihan) there are at the -lower left hand three crosses, a sign of frequent occurrence on the -megalithic carvings. Above these are two very wide open U's. Seidler -sees in these signs letters of the Libyan alphabet, the cross -corresponding to C, and the other sign to M. Some persons have further -thought they could distinguish an Egyptian letter in the cross. Taking -a more general view of the question, Letourneau[34] has tried to prove -that the sculptures on the megaliths are inscriptions, and the -engraved signs correspond to letters of the ancient alphabets, most -probably Semitic. Adrien de Mortillet answered that the thought of -writing involved arrangement, and no arrangement could be predicated -of the signs. - -A short time afterward, Adrien de Mortillet, in a paper on the Figures -sculptured on the Megalithic Monuments of France, proved that the -figures are more or less rude designs representing a well-determined -series of objects. Thus the U's, with branches very widely separated, -represent boats, and are emblems of migrations by sea; the crosses are -shipmasters' staffs, or insignia of chiefs similar in character to -bishops' crosses. The polished hatchet is frequently figured, and -often with a handle, and is the emblem of labor, or, more probably, of -combat. The scutcheons, which are also frequent, are bucklers, or -military symbols. They are usually adorned on the inner side with a -variety of symbolical figures variously grouped, which evidently -served as the owner's coat of arms, and are the most ancient known -specimens of the kind, going back to the stone age, or at least to the -transition age from stone to bronze. After that time the custom of -putting their owners' arms upon bucklers spread widely. It lasted till -the end of the middle ages. The painted vases of classical antiquity -furnish numerous and very curious examples of such marks. The -interpretation of the megalithic sculptures may furnish probable if -not certain details concerning an epoch which is very little known to -us. Thus, the scutcheon of the dolmen _des Marchands_, containing four -series of crosses, one above the other, and each series divided into -two parts, fifty-six crosses in all, may have been the arms of a chief -of a powerful confederation having fifty-six less important chiefs -under his orders. The supposition is confirmed by the dimensions of -the monument and a large handled hatchet engraved under the tablet -between two other crosses. - -Near the dolmen _des Marchands_, and not far from the sea, is the -large tumulus of Marie-Hroeck, which includes a small dolmen -containing rich funerary furnishings. In front of the entrance to the -cavern is a rectangular slab that bears on its face a scutcheon -containing two crosses, symbolical of power, and several very rudely -drawn representations of boats. The engravers of this period were not -artists, but stone-cutters, working upon a very hard rock with very -poor tools. Unable to figure distinctly what they wanted to, they did -the best they could. Handled hatchets were distributed irregularly all -round the scutcheons. Does not this epitaph seem to mean that the tomb -was erected in memory of a powerful maritime chief by soldiers, his -companions in arms? - -From these bucklers we pass to generalized feminine representations -characterized by concentric necklaces and pairs of prominent globular -breasts. Such sculptures, which are repeated in various dolmens and -artificial mortuary caves in the valley of the Seine, may be of -religious import. They seem to be replaced in the south of France by -attempts at statues. Of such character are the two sculptures of the -dolmen of Collorgues in Gard, which also have the symbolical cross on -their breasts. - -Whatever they may be, the megalithic engravings are the earliest -graphic historical documents of the country. It is therefore important -to collect and preserve them. - -They may be divided into simple ornamental motives, which may further -suggest interesting resemblances; figurative engravings representing -known and definite objects and forming commemorative pictures capable -of affording important historical or legendary hints--the most ancient -documents in our archives; and symbolical engravings of more difficult -determination, and independent of any alphabet. - -Among the specimens of the last class, one sort, the cupule, is -extremely widespread. It is a very regularly shaped hemispherical cup, -generally represented by itself, but sometimes mingled with other -figures, most usually occurring in groups without arrangement, but -very rarely isolated. Entire surfaces are sometimes covered with this -design. It is a very ancient design, as such cupules are found on the -dolmens. In the dolmen of Kériaval, at Locmariquer, the lower side of -the horizontal slab is starred with numerous cupules, which antedate -the construction of the monument, for they appear on the parts that -rest on the supports. There may also, however, be more recent cupules. -We are totally in the dark as to what they represent. - -Cupules are sometimes cut on the surface of rocks in place. Engravings -similarly cut have been designated sculptures on rocks, and are found -almost everywhere. Those which have been most studied and afford the -most features of interest for us are on the Scandinavian coasts, and -these have been largely utilized by Adrien de Mortillet for the -determination of the figures of megaliths. We cite only one example -from Gaul, the sculptures in the rocks of the Lago dei Maraviglie, in -a lateral valley on the left, going from San Dalmazo to Tende, in -Piedmont. Some of the walls of the rock there and large surfaces of -detached blocks are covered with extremely rude figures formed by the -accumulation of dints resulting from frequently repeated blows. Among -these figures, which are without order in the grouping, and in which -no regard is paid to proportions, are stags, rams, human figurines, -hatchets, pikes, baskets, and lance points. These sculptures have been -ascribed to the neolithic or the bronze age; but the existence of -figures of similar style on the walls of a lead mine near Valauri has -suggested that they may be more recent. Human figurines are numerous, -but heads of horned animals are more so. Some are perhaps stags and -rams, while bulls and cows are abundant. The shepherds are accustomed -to take their herds and keep them for two or three months every year -in this valley, which is so lonely and melancholy in aspect that it -has been called Vallée d'Enfer, or Hell Valley. It would not be -strange if these herdsmen, for want of something better to do, should -have amused themselves delineating the things that were before their -eyes--the cattle, the miners, and things appertaining to the mine. As -to special traits, the representations are so badly executed as to -leave a wide range open for interpretation.--_Translated for the -Popular Science Monthly from the Book Formation de la Nation -française_ (Paris: Félix Alcan). - - -FOOTNOTE: - -[34] Ch. Letourneau. Alphabet Forms in Megalithic Inscriptions. -Bulletin of the Society of Anthropology, 1893. - - * * * * * - - An old Newcomen steam engine at North Ashton, near Bristol, - England, as described by Mr. W.H. Pearson in the British - Association, is still doing practical work after an active - career of nearly one hundred and fifty years, it having been - erected in 1750 at a cost of seventy pounds. The piston is - packed with rope, and has a covering of water on the top to - make it steam tight. The working of the engine is aided by - the vacuum formed by the injection of water into the - cylinder. The old man now engaged in working this engine has - held his post since he was a lad, and his father and - grandfather occupied the same position. - - * * * * * - - The excavation of the Roman town of Calleva Attrebatum at - Silchester, near Reading, England, has brought to light - nearly forty complete houses, a private bathing - establishment, two square temples, the west gate, a - Christian church possibly of the fourth century, a basilica - and forum, an extensive system of dye works, a series of - drains, other works, and a multitude of ornaments and - utensils--remains of Roman civic life and institutions, - complementing previous discoveries of Roman monuments in - England, which have been mostly military. - - - - -SKETCH OF GABRIEL DE MORTILLET. - - -"The École d'Anthropologie feels with a profound emotion the loss of -the eminent master, one of its glories, whose labors have contributed -in so large a measure to honor and magnify it, and to extend and -confirm its legitimate authority, and who had the exceedingly rare -merit of constituting a science which by means of him has become a -French science--that of prehistoric archæology." Such is the eminently -fitting tribute spoken by the professors of the Paris École -d'Anthropologie through their _Revue Mensuelle_ to the memory of -Gabriel de Mortillet. - -LOUIS LAURENT GABRIEL DE MORTILLET was born at Meylan, Isère, France, -August 29, 1821, and died September 25, 1898. He began his studies -with the Jesuits at Chambéry, and continued them in Paris at the -Museum of Natural History and at the Conservatoire des Arts et -Métiers. He was interested in the revolutionary movements of 1848; and -in the insurrectionary demonstration of the 13th of June, 1849, which -followed the presentation by Ledru Rollin, on the 11th, of a -resolution of impeachment against President Louis Napoleon for -repressing the republican movement in Rome, it was with his help that -the eminent deputy was enabled to escape arrest. In the same year he -was condemned for a press offense and took refuge in Savoy. During his -exile he classified the collections of the Natural History Museum in -Geneva; had charge of the arrangement of the Museum at Annecy in 1854; -directed an exploitation of hydraulic lime in Italy; and served as -geological adviser in the construction of the northern railways of -that country. He was also associated with Agassiz in his studies of -the glaciers of Switzerland. He returned to Paris in 1864, and in 1867 -was charged with the organization of the first hall or prehistoric -department of the History of Labor at the Universal Exposition of -1867. In 1868 he was called to the Museum of National Antiquities at -Saint-Germain-en-Laye, where he continued till 1885. It is specially -mentioned that he carried this institution safely through the perils -of the war of 1870-'71. While engaged in these museum tasks he was -struck with the insufficiency of the then universally accepted -paleontological and prehistoric classifications, and his attention -became fully absorbed in the subject. He held long consultations with -Edouard Lartet, the eminent paleontologist and his learned friends -concerning it. As a result of these deliberations, after careful study -of the formations and specimens, he proposed a scheme of -classification in 1869, which was completed at the congress held in -Brussels in 1872, and has become generally accepted in its -fundamentals, after having withstood the often-repeated attacks of -persistent criticism, and has received confirmation after confirmation -from innumerable discoveries made throughout the world. "Had his -activity concerned only the classification of the different stone -ages," says Dr. Capitan, whose eulogy of M. de Mortillet we follow -most largely in our sketch, "de Mortillet would for that work alone -have been by good right considered a great man of science. Actually to -illuminate a number of dark points, to group a thousand scattered -facts in regular order, to synthesize numerous isolated researches, to -constitute a cohesive theory of them--that is what de Mortillet did. -Thus he became long ago the uncontested master, the leader of a -school, who was able to group and hold around him the scientific -students and workers of the entire world." - -M. de Mortillet was in 1866 one of the founders of the International -Congress of Prehistoric Archæology. He was one of the first professors -in the École d'Anthropologie founded by Broca in 1875, the greatest -achievement, as he writes in the preface to his _Formation de la -Nation française_, of the Association for the Teaching of -Anthropological Sciences. The school was opened in November, 1875, in -a building gratuitously lent it by the École de Médecine, to give -instruction free of tuition charges, and was to be maintained by a -fund subscribed by anthropological societies and private persons, a -gift of fifteen hundred dollars a year by M. Wallon for laboratory -purposes, and a grant of twenty-five hundred dollars from the -Municipal Council of Paris for the payment of professors' salaries. -Five courses of lectures were to be delivered, to be increased as the -resources of the association multiplied. The association and the -school were recognized as of public utility by a law of 1889; the -school being the first establishment of private instruction, Dr. -Capitan said in his memorial address, "and up to this time (1897) the -only one that has had that honor, an honor that creates duties for us. -We are under obligation to clarify and extend our teaching." De -Mortillet's work was so true to the sentiment expressed in this -sentence that one of the characteristics attributed to him in the -short biography published in Vaporeau's _Dictionnaire Universel des -Contemporains_ is that he was one of the men who contributed most to -the popularizing of prehistoric studies in France. During the more -than twenty years of his professorship of prehistoric anthropology in -the École, de Mortillet "gave precious instruction to numerous -students, many of whom, foreigners, have in their turns become masters -in their own countries." He was also president of the Society of -Anthropology, subdirector of the École d'Anthropologie, president of -the Association for Teaching Anthropological Sciences, and president -of the Commission on Megalithic Monuments--the various functions of -which offices he filled with remarkable exactness and distinction. -"In all these important positions," says Dr. Capitan in his eulogy, -"de Mortillet unfailingly brought a uniform ardor to his work, a -uniform activity, a clear and acute wit, and a remarkable precision. -He performed his numerous duties almost to the end of his life. Only -last month (July, 1898) he made another journey for the execution of a -mission which the commission on megalithic monuments had intrusted to -him." - -In connection with these multifarious labors, M. de Mortillet -published a considerable number of memoirs and of books of the highest -order. He was a transformist from the very first, and performed all -his various researches in the spirit of an evolutionist. His first -publications were on conchology, and numerous memoirs between 1851 and -1862 related to subjects in that branch. During the same period he -contributed many important works on the geology and mineralogy of -Savoy. Among these were the History of the Land and Fresh-water -Mollusks of Savoy and the Basin of Lake Leman, and a Guide to the -Traveler in Savoy. His attention was afterward more entirely directed -to prehistoric archæology and anthropology, and he published in 1866 a -curious Study on the Sign of the Cross previous to Christianity. Of -this period, too, are his Promenades, or Walks, in the Universal -Exposition of 1867, and his Walks in the Museum of Saint-Germain, -1869. He founded, in 1864, the Recueil, or Collection of Materials for -the Positive History of Man, which was afterward continued at Toulouse -by M.E. Cartailhac. In 1879 he published a work on pottery -marks--_Potiérs allobroges, ou les Sigles figulins étudiés par les -Méthodes de l'Histoire naturelle_. In 1881, in co-operation with his -son, Adrien de Mortillet, as artist, he published a magnificent -illustrated work or album, _Le Musée Préhistorique_ (The Prehistoric -Museum); and in 1883, the volume _Le Préhistorique_ (Prehistoric -Archæology); two books which have taken rank as master works. A second -edition of the _Préhistorique_ appeared in 1885, and at the time of -his death he was preparing a third, in which he was taking great pains -to bring the matter up to the present condition of the science. -Another important work was the _Origines de la Chasse et de la Pêche_ -(Origin of Hunting and Fishing). A considerable number of memoirs by -M. de Mortillet appeared in various scientific journals, especially in -the two founded by him--_Les Matériaux pour l'Histoire primitive et -naturelle de l'Homme_, already mentioned, and _L'Homme_, which was -established in 1884. - -An epoch in M. de Mortillet's life was marked in 1873, when a -discussion took place at the Anthropological Congress, in Lyons, -between him and M. Abel Hovelacque concerning the precursors of man. -The researches of the two masters had already led them, by a series -of observations and deductions, to regard as certain the geological -existence of a being intermediate between man and the monkey, which -they called the _Anthropopithecus_, and they were trying to indicate, -hypothetically, its leading characteristics. - -M. de Mortillet's reasons for believing in the existence of this -precursor of man as a definite being were presented in the _Revue -d'Anthropologie_, in an article which was translated and published in -the Popular Science Monthly for April, 1879. In this paper the author -summarized the evidence, already copious, in favor of the existence of -Quaternary man, and then took up the question, "Did there exist in the -Tertiary age beings sufficiently intelligent to perform a part of the -acts which are characteristic of man?" He then reviewed the researches -of the Abbé Bourgeois at Thenay in the light of a collection of -fire-marked flints which he had exhibited at the International -Congress of Prehistoric Archæology and Anthropology held in Paris in -1867, and deduced from the result that "during the Middle Tertiary -there existed a creature, precursor of man, an anthropopithecus, which -was acquainted with fire, and could make use of it for splitting -flints. It also was able to trim the flint flakes thus produced, and -to convert them into tools. This curious and interesting discovery for -a long time stood alone, and arguments were even drawn from its -isolated position to favor the rejection of it. Fortunately, another -French observer, M.J.B. Rames, has found in the vicinity of Aurillac -(Cantal), in the strata of the upper part of the Middle -Tertiary--here, too, in company with mastodons and dinotheriums, -though of more recent species than those of Thenay--flints which also -have been redressed intentionally. In this case, however, the flints -are no longer split by fire, but by tapping. It is something more than -a continuation, it is a development. Among the few specimens exhibited -by M. Rames, whose discoveries are quite recent, is one which, had it -been found on the surface of the ground, would never have been called -in question." The evidence afforded by these flints was confirmed by a -collection of flints from the Miocene and the Pliocene of the valley -of the Tagus shown by Señor Ribeiro in the same exhibition, a -considerable proportion of which bore evidence of intentional -chipping. - -Bearing upon this point was a chart of the Palæolithic Age in Gaul, -drawn up by M. de Mortillet in 1871, and published in the _Bulletin de -la Société d'Anthropologie de Paris_--"the only work of the kind -extant"--in which were recorded five localities in which occurred -supposed traces of man in the Tertiary, forty-one alluvial deposits in -the Quaternary yielding human bones and industrial remains, and two -hundred and seventy-eight caverns containing Quaternary fauna with -traces of prehistoric man. - -M. de Mortillet gave in another form his view of the sort of creature -the hypothetical anthropopithecus should be in a paper on Tertiary -Man, read before the Anthropological Section of the French Association -for the Advancement of Science in 1885, when he said the question was -not to find whether man already existed in the Tertiary epoch as he -exists at the present day. Animals varied from one geological epoch to -another, and the higher the animals the greater was the variation. It -was to be inferred, therefore, that man would vary more rapidly than -the other mammals. The problem was to discover in the Tertiary period -an ancestral form of man a predecessor of the man of historical times. -There were, he affirmed, unquestionably in the Tertiary strata objects -which implied the existence of an intelligent being--animals less -intelligent than existing man, but much more intelligent than existing -apes. While the skeleton of this ancestral form of man had not yet -been discovered, he had made himself known to us in the clearest -manner by his works. The general opinion of the meeting after hearing -M. de Mortillet's paper is said to have been that there could be no -longer any doubt of the existence of the supposed ancestral form of -man in the Tertiary period. - -The discovery in Java, announced by Dr. Dubois, in 1896, of fossil -remains presenting structural characteristics between those of man and -those of the monkey, to which the name _Pithecanthropus erectus_ was -given, were accepted with hardly a question by M. de Mortillet and his -colleagues as confirming his views. - -At a banquet given to M. de Mortillet, May 1, 1884, by a number of -anthropologists, when his portrait was presented to him, the hall was -decorated for the occasion with a life-size picture of an ancient -Gaul, executed according to his latest researches. The man was -represented as having no hair on his body; with very long arms and -very powerful muscles; his feet capable of being used in climbing -trees, but with toes not opposable; his jaw strongly prognathous, but -not at all equal to that of an anthropoid ape; his breadth strongly -compressed laterally and his abdomen prominent; the skin not negroid, -but of our present color; and the expression of his face was about as -intelligent as that of an Australian. - -In his _Le Préhistorique_ M. de Mortillet attempted to determine how -far distant was the epoch when _Homo sapiens_ first appeared on the -earth, by estimating the rate of progression of blocks which were -carried by former ice fields, as he had observed them in Switzerland -with Agassiz. His conclusion was that more than two hundred thousand -years had elapsed since that event. - -In 1894 M. de Mortillet proposed in the Société d'Anthropologie an -important reform in chronology. Pointing out the inconvenience of -using several different eras, such as the Foundation of Rome, the -Flight of Mohammed, and the Proclamation of the French Republic, he -suggested that ten thousand years before the Christian era be adopted -as a general starting point. This would include all Egyptian -chronology as known at the present day, and would leave five thousand -years at the disposal of future discoverers. - -"A spirit always youthful, a man of progress," says Dr. Capitan in his -eulogy, "our dear master kept himself fully in the current with all -work relating to prehistoric archæology. He knew how to profit by -whatever would contribute to perfect his own work. He therefore, on -different occasions, modified his classification so as to keep it up -to date, realizing that a classification is an admirable instrument of -study, which ought to go through the same evolution as the science to -which it is applied." This high quality of his mind appears clearly in -his last book, published in 1897--_Formation de la Nation française_ -(Formation of the French Nation). This book comprised the substance of -his lectures of the term 1889-'90. In publishing it he disavowed all -intention of producing a new history of France. There were enough of -these in all shapes and sizes, written in the most varied styles, with -diverse tendencies, and from the most different points of view, and -there were some most excellent works among them, particularly that of -M. Henri Martin, which seemed to him to contain all the historical -information known. But all these histories, even that of Henri Martin, -although he had been president of the Anthropological Society of -Paris, appeared to M. de Mortillet to be at fault in their starting -point. They gave too much place in their beginnings to the legendary -and the imaginary, and not enough to natural history and -palæethnology. It was M. de Mortillet's purpose to follow an inverse -method--to regard direct observation alone; and he would rest only on -the impartial and precise discussion of texts and facts. "Texts, -documents, and facts," he said, "become more and more rare as we go -back in time. I shall collect and examine them with the greatest care -in order to make our origins as clear as possible, and to enlarge the -scale of our history. I shall appeal in succession to all the sciences -of observation, and when I have recourse to the texts, I shall subject -them to the closest criticism and the most complete analysis." The -texts on which historians had so far relied did not go back far -enough. They told of events three thousand or, including the Egyptian -hieroglyphic texts, seven thousand years old, but what was this -compared with the immense lapse of time during which man has lived, -going back into the Quaternary epoch? On this vast period the texts -furnish no information. They were, besides, inaccurate, tinged with -fable and poetry, with local and personal prejudice and ignorance, -even as to the times to which they relate after history is supposed -to have come in. If we want light upon this unrecorded past, we must -seek it by the aid of palæethnological data; and anthropology may be -very advantageously united with palæethnology to furnish valuable -instruction concerning the autochthonic race of France, its -development, transformations, customs, and migrations, and the -invasions it suffered in the most remote antiquity. "With the aid of -these two sciences, both of wholly new origin, we are able to trace -the earliest pages of the history of France." The book begins with a -review of what the texts afford regarding the earlier peoples of -France; then brings forward the evidence yielded by language and the -study of the evolution of writing; next presents the results of -research respecting the precursors of man, the rise and development of -industries, societies, and civilization; and studies the primitive -races of perhaps two hundred and thirty thousand or two hundred and -forty thousand years ago; their mixture with the other races that came -in from abroad and possessed the country; and, finally, the formation -of the French population as we now find it. - -M. de Mortillet's relations with his pupils and with his country, and -his private character, are spoken of in the highest terms. For more -than twenty years his lectures at the École d'Anthropologie, treating -the most various questions respecting prehistoric times, attracted -large and attentive audiences, often including students from abroad, -who afterward became masters of the science in their own countries. -"He was always ready to receive workers in the science, even the least -and humblest, to bestow advice and encouragement upon them, and to -give them the benefit of his experience and extensive erudition, and -for this his pupils and friends lament him." Against his integrity no -suspicion was ever breathed. - -In political faith he was always advanced, and ever true to his -convictions. He was _maire_ of Saint-Germain from 1882 to 1888, and -deputy from the department of Seine-et-Oise from 1885 to 1889. - - * * * * * - - In the observations of the meteoric shower of November 13, - 1897, at Harvard College Observatory, one of the meteors - appeared, according to the calculations, at the height of - 406 miles, and disappeared at the height of 43 miles, and at - a distance of 196 miles. Another appeared at a height of 182 - miles and disappeared at a height of 48 miles, and a - distance of 74 miles. The first meteor was red or orange, - or, to Prof. W.H. Pickering, the color of a sodium flame, - and the other white. Both penetrated the atmosphere to about - the same depth, and both were clearly Leonids. These facts - go to show, Professor Pickering thinks, that the difference - in color noted is not due to a mere grazing of our - atmosphere in some cases, and a correspondingly low - temperature, but to an actual difference in the chemical - composition of the individual meteors. - - - - -Correspondence. - - -THE FOUNDATION OF SOCIOLOGY. - - _Editor Popular Science Monthly_: - -SIR: May I be permitted a word of comment upon your editorial entitled -A Borrowed Foundation, published in the December number of the Popular -Science Monthly? Whatever my readers and reviewers may have claimed -for me, I myself have never claimed to be the discoverer of "the -consciousness of kind." Not only Mr. Spencer, as he and you have -shown; not only Hegel, as Professor Caldwell has shown; but also -nearly every philosophical writer and psychologist from Plato and -Aristotle down to the present time has more or less clearly recognized -the phenomenon of "the consciousness of kind," although I do not know -that any one but myself has called it by just this phrase. The only -claim, then, that I put forward for my own work is that, in a somewhat -systematic way, I have attempted to use the consciousness of kind as -the postulate of sociology and to interpret more special social -phenomena by means of it. In other words, I have used it as a -"foundation"; and I am not aware that any other writer on sociology -has ever done so. Mr. Spencer, I feel quite sure, makes no such claim -for himself. The passage which he and you have quoted is taken from -the Principles of Psychology; it is not repeated in the Principles of -Sociology, where, if it had been regarded by Mr. Spencer as a -"foundation," it should have been put forward as the major premise of -social theory. Passing over the consciousness of kind, Mr. Spencer has -chosen to build his system of sociology in part upon other -psychological inductions, in part upon a biological analogy. The -tables of the Descriptive Sociology are arranged in accordance with -the organic conception, and nine and one half chapters of the -Inductions of Sociology in the first volume of the Principles of -Sociology are formulated in terms of it. Throughout the remaining -parts of the Principles, however, sociological phenomena are explained -in terms of two closely correlated generalizations that are -psychological in character--namely, first, the generalization that -"while the fear of the living becomes the root of the political -control, the fear of the dead becomes the root of religious control"; -and second, the generalization that militancy and industrialism -produce opposite effects on mind and character, and, through them, on -every form of social organization. The work that Mr. Spencer has done -in elaborating these explanations is of inestimable value, but surely -it is not an interpretation of society in terms of the consciousness -of kind. Is it then quite fair to suggest that the use made of the -consciousness of kind in my own work is a borrowed "foundation"? - -However you and Mr. Spencer and my own readers may answer this -question, I can sincerely subscribe to your affirmation that there is -much more in Mr. Spencer's writings than most even of his truest -admirers and most diligent readers have ever explored; and I should be -sorry to be regarded as behind the foremost in appreciation of the -great work which he has accomplished not only for philosophy in -general, but especially for that branch of knowledge which has engaged -my own interest. - - FRANKLIN H. GIDDINGS. - - NEW YORK, _December 19, 1898_. - - -Professor Giddings, in his Principles of Sociology, spoke of the -"consciousness of kind" as the "new datum which has been hitherto -sought without success." Mr. Spencer, on the other hand, showed that -this was not a new datum, inasmuch as he had formulated it himself in -a work published many years previously. Professor Giddings says that -the passage to which Mr. Spencer referred occurred in his Principles -of Psychology, and not in his Principles of Sociology, where, "if it -had been regarded by Mr. Spencer as a foundation, it should have been -put forward as the major premise of social theory." But Professor -Giddings surely does not forget that Mr. Spencer, in laying out his -system of synthetic philosophy, made the whole of psychology the basis -of, and immediate preparation for, sociology. Quite naturally a writer -who is dealing with sociology separately, and not as part of a -philosophical system, will find it necessary in laying his foundations -to fall back on data furnished by the immediately underlying science; -and this explains why Professor Giddings makes use in his Principles -of Sociology of a datum which, whether drawn from Mr. Spencer's -Psychology or not, was at least to be found there very distinctly -expressed. Mr. Spencer himself says that he regarded it as a "primary -datum," and calls attention to the fact that he devoted "a dozen pages -to tracing the development of sympathy as a result of gregariousness." -We are quite prepared to recognize the valuable use which Professor -Giddings has made of the doctrine in question, and to admit that, by -the extensive development he has given to it, he has imparted a -special character and a special interest both to his Principles of -Sociology and to his Elements of Sociology noticed elsewhere.--ED. -P.S.M. - - -EVOLUTION AND EDUCATION AGAIN. - - _Editor Popular Science Monthly_: - -SIR: I have not before this acknowledged your reference to me in a -spirited and instructive editorial that appeared in the December -number of your excellent magazine, because an immediate reply might -have been taken to indicate a desire, on my part, for a controversy, -which I expressly disclaim; and besides, I have desired that the -public might read and consider your views dispassionately. I care but -little for the effect upon myself, if the cause of truth shall be -materially strengthened. - -I am not surprised that you refer to me as "ignorant," "negligible," -etc., because it has for a long time been painfully clear that the -"scientific mind" is exceedingly sensitive, and while much given to -praising forbearance and kindness, still resorts to language -reasonably regarded as abusive. I have always found this to be true, -and the present controversy is no exception to the rule. The "broadly -scientific mind" is, alas! too often narrow and intolerant in treating -opposing views. I do not wish, however, to find fault with the -abuse--it may prove to be good discipline, and is, therefore, -thankfully accepted; but I do very much desire to correct a mistaken -inference that you drew from my reference to Herbert Spencer. There -are some typographical errors in the quotations that you make, which, -however, do not change the meaning. Allow me then to say that I have a -great regard for Mr. Spencer; that I have read his writings with much -profit, and that I have never failed to accord him full credit for the -work he has accomplished. That I can not understand and accept all his -teachings does not lessen my respect for him. - -At the time that I made my informal talk to the teachers of this city, -I had no thought that my remarks would be published or would excite -public criticism, or that I would be honored with so distinguished, so -critical an audience, or I should have been more careful in the use of -terms; but it does seem to me that there is no excuse for the -distorted meaning that you and others have given to the quotations. I -referred to Mr. Spencer's age to show that we could hope for no change -in his philosophy, and the criticism that follows, if it may be styled -a criticism at all, is that he has refused to recognize the Deity, and -thereby fails to "bless, cheer, and comfort suffering humanity." You -discuss it as if I had said that he had not _bettered_ the condition -of his fellows; but that idea is not in the statement that you quote -at all. The word "suffering" was intended to apply to those who, by -reason of the misfortunes of this life, are compelled to look beyond -themselves and their surroundings for comfort, and who in all ages and -among all peoples have turned their thoughts toward a Divine Being for -comfort. I merely intended to say, in a very mild and harmless way, -that the consolations of a religion based upon a belief in a Divine -Providence are necessary for _suffering_ humanity, and my immediate -reference to Cardinal Newman by way of contrast in almost the same -language clearly shows this to be the true meaning of my remarks. The -emphasis was on the word "suffering," which was not intended to -include more than a fraction of mankind. - -I am obliged to you for your reference to Mr. Gladstone, who in his -last illness illustrated most fully what I had in my mind. However -great his pain, or cheerless the outlook, he continually with serene -cheerfulness murmured, "I know that my Redeemer liveth," and "Our -Father," etc. It is perhaps unnecessary to add that I am sorry that -any one has been led to believe that I underrate the value of the life -and work of Herbert Spencer. - -Please allow me to refer to the statement in your editorial, "Again -dealing with the modern scientific view, that in the development of -the human individual all antecedent stages of human development are -_in a manner_ passed through," etc., in order that I may express my -regret that you seem to vitiate the force of the statement altogether -by the use of the unscientific phrase "in a manner." The tremendous -consequences growing out of the view make serious and exact definition -and treatment imperative, and I had hoped that I was entering upon a -helpful discussion of it, but was greatly disappointed. I am also -unwilling to believe that students of Emerson will be easily convinced -that he looked at life "from a stationary point of view," but I do not -feel that I can claim your valuable time for a discussion of this -point. - -May I trust your forbearance in pointing out a manifest misconception -in your statement, "We are not imposed upon by childish imitations of -mature virtues"? The remark indicates that you have not been brought -into immediate association with school children in a schoolroom, at -least in recent years. - -I refer very reluctantly, but I trust without seeming egotism, to your -remarks touching my election to the position which I hold. I am -innocent of all responsibility in the matter. I had no "pull" (is the -term scientific?). I wrote to the board declining to be a candidate. I -refused to allow my friends to speak to the members of the board in my -behalf; I preferred the position (Principal of the St. Paul High -School) which I had held for years, and I accepted the office with -much hesitation; but the intimation that our Board of School -Inspectors, composed of business men in every way highly esteemed by -the citizens of St. Paul, and deemed worthy of all confidence, had -been actuated by unworthy motives, is entirely gratuitous and out of -place in a journal such as you would have us believe yours to be. -Could there be offered better evidence of haste and unfairness than -this uncalled-for assault upon those of whom you know absolutely -nothing, and does it not show the scientific inclination to have -theory with or without facts, but certainly theory? - - Yours very truly, A.J. SMITH, - _Superintendent of Schools_. - - ST. PAUL, MINN., _January 4, 1899_. - - -We took the report of Superintendent Smith's address which appeared in -the St. Paul papers. If there were any "typographical errors" in our -quotations, they were not of our making; and Mr. Smith admits that, -such as they were, they did not affect the sense. Well, then, we found -Mr. Smith using his position as Superintendent of Schools to disparage -a man whom the scientific world holds in the highest honor, and for -whom he now tells us he himself has "a great regard"--whose writings -he has "read with much profit." We judged the speaker by his own -words, and certainly drew an unfavorable inference as to his knowledge -and mental breadth. If Mr. Smith did injustice to himself by speaking -in an unguarded way, or by not fully expressing his meaning, that was -not our fault; and we do not think we can properly be accused of -having lapsed into abuse. The explanation he offers of his language -regarding Mr. Spencer is wholly unsatisfactory. He gave his hearers to -understand that there was an "old man" in London who had devoted all -his energies to creating a system of thought which should entirely -ignore the name of the Deity, and of whom, after his death, it would -not be remembered that he had "ever performed an act or said a word -that blessed or comforted or relieved his suffering fellows." The -stress, he now says, should be laid on the word "suffering." He did -not wish to imply that Mr. Spencer had not bettered the condition of -his fellows generally; he only meant that he had done nothing for the -_suffering_. On this we have two remarks to make: First, it is not -usual, when a man is acknowledged to have given a long lifetime to -useful work, to hold him up to reprobation because he is not known to -have had a special mission to the "suffering"; and, second, that no -man can be of service to mankind at large without being of benefit to -the suffering. It is mainly because Mr. Spencer believes so strongly -in the broad virtues of justice and humanity, has so unbounded a faith -in the efficacy of what may be called a sound social hygiene, that he -has had, comparatively, so little to say upon the topics which most -interest those who apply themselves specifically, but not always -wisely, to alleviating the miseries and distresses of humanity. - -As to the means by which Mr. Smith obtained his present position, we -know nothing beyond what he now tells us. We saw his appointment -criticised as an unsuitable one in the St. Paul papers; and his -published remarks seemed to justify the criticism. There are -"pulls"--the word is "scientific" enough for our purpose--even in -school matters; and it seemed that this was just such a case as a -"pull" would most naturally explain. We quite accept, however, -Superintendent Smith's statement as to the facts; and we sincerely -trust that the next address he delivers to his teachers will better -justify his appointment than did the one on which we felt it a duty to -comment. - - -EMERSON AND EVOLUTION. - - _Editor Popular Science Monthly_: - -SIR: The editorial in the December Popular Science Monthly on the -relations of Emerson to evolution must have surprised many of the -students of Emerson. A little over two years ago Moncure D. Conway -pointed out (Open Court, 1896) that soon after his resignation from -the pulpit of the Unitarian Church with which he was last connected, -Emerson taught zoölogy, botany, paleontology, and geology, and that he -was a pronounced evolutionist who used in his lectures the argument in -favor of evolution drawn from the practical identity of the -extremities of the vertebrates. That Emerson was an evolutionist of -the Goethean type is clear from most of his essays. In an essay -appearing before the Origin of Species, he wrote as follows: - -"The electric word pronounced by John Hunter a hundred years ago, -_arrested and progressive development_, indicating the way upward from -the invisible protoplasm to the highest organisms, gave the poetic key -to Natural Science, of which the theories of Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, -of Oken, of Goethe, of Agassiz and Owen and Darwin in zoölogy and -botany are the fruits--a hint whose power is not exhausted, showing -unity and perfect order in physics. - -"The hardest chemist, the severest analyzer, scornful of all but the -driest fact, is forced to keep the poetic curve of Nature, and his -results are like a myth of Theocritus. All multiplicity rushes to be -resolved into unity. Anatomy, osteology, exhibit arrested or -progressive ascent in each kind; the lower pointing to the higher -forms, the higher to the highest, from the fluid in an elastic sac, -from radiate, mollusk, articulate, vertebrate, up to man; as if the -whole animal world were only a Hunterian museum to exhibit the genesis -of mankind." - -The Darwin to whom reference is made in this essay is not Charles, but -his grandfather, one of the poets of evolution, Erasmus. The essay -also shows the belief in evolution held by both Owen and Louis Agassiz -before theological timidity made them unprogressive. The names quoted -illustrate further the factors which influenced Emerson's thought in -regard to evolution. Saint-Hilaire gave the _coup de grâce_ to -Cuvier's fight against evolution. Oken is one of the great pioneers of -evolution. Goethe shares with Empedocles, Lucretius, and Erasmus -Darwin the great honor of being a poet of evolution. Of the four, -Goethe was by all odds the greatest. To him, the doctrine of evolution -was of more importance than the downfall of a despot. The eve of the -Revolution of 1830 found him watching over the dispute between Cuvier -and Saint-Hilaire with an interest that obscured every other. - -"'Well,' remarked Goethe to Soret," (Conversations with Eckermann) -"'what do you think of this great event? The volcano has burst forth, -all in flames, and there are no more negotiations behind closed -doors.' 'A dreadful affair,' I answered, 'but what else could be -expected under the circumstances, and with such a ministry, except -that it would end in the expulsion of the present royal family?' 'We -do not seem to understand each other, my dear friend,' replied Goethe. -'I am not speaking of those people at all; I am interested in -something very different. I mean the dispute between Cuvier and -Geoffroy de Saint-Hilaire, which has broken out in the Academy, and -which is of such great importance to science.' This remark of Goethe's -came upon me so unexpectedly that I did not know what to say, and my -thoughts for some minutes seemed to have come to a complete -standstill. 'The affair is of the utmost importance,' he continued, -'and you can not form any idea of what I felt on receiving the news of -the meeting on the 19th. In Geoffroy de Saint-Hilaire we have now a -mighty ally for a long time to come. But I see also how great the -sympathy of the French scientific world must be in this affair, for, -in spite of a terrible political excitement, the meeting on the 19th -was attended by a full house. The best of it is, however, that the -synthetic treatment of Nature introduced into France by Geoffroy -Saint-Hilaire can now no longer be stopped. This matter has now become -public through the discussion in the Academy carried on in the -presence of a large audience; it can no longer be referred to secret -committees or be settled or suppressed behind closed doors.'" - -It is obvious to any reader of Emerson's essays that Goethe exercised -an enormous influence over him, and that Emerson was much more in -sympathy with Goethe than was the fetichistic dualist Carlyle. This -influence of Goethe over Emerson's views of evolution is clearly -evident in the citation already made. - -The evolutionary views of Emerson appear so frequently in his essays -that it is astonishing that he should have been misunderstood. The -citation by the Minneapolis clergyman from the essay on Nature that -"man is fallen" does not refer to the Adamic fall, but the -degenerating influence of cities. At the slightest glance, the -evolutionary tendency of this essay on Nature is evident. In the -paragraph immediately after that containing the reference to fallen -man occurs the following: - -"But taking timely warning and leaving many things unsaid on this -topic, let us not longer omit our homage to the efficient Nature, -_natura naturans_, the quick cause before which all forms flee as the -driven snows, itself secret, its works driven before it in flocks and -multitudes (as the ancient represented Nature by Proteus, a shepherd), -and in indescribable variety. It published itself in creatures -reaching from particles and spicula through transformation on -transformation to the highest symmetries, arriving at consummate -results without a shock or a leap. A little heat, that is a little -motion, is all that differences the bald dazzling white and deadly -cold poles of the earth from the prolific tropical climates. All -changes pass without violence by reason of the two cardinal conditions -of boundless space and boundless time. Geology has initiated us into -the secularity of Nature and taught us to disuse our school-dame -measure and exchange our Mosaic and Ptolemaic scheme for her large -style. We knew nothing rightly for want of perspective. Now we learn -what patient ages must round themselves before the rock is broken and -the first lichen race has disintegrated the thinnest external plate -into soil and opened the door for the remote flora, fauna, Ceres and -Pomona to come in. How far off yet is the trilobite, how far the -quadruped, how inconceivably remote is man! All duly arrive, and then -race after race of men. It is a long way from granite to the oyster; -farther yet to Plato and the preaching of the immortality of the soul. -Yet all must come, as surely as the first atom has two sides." - -It would be useless to multiply citations along this line to -demonstrate not only that Emerson was an evolutionist, but that his -whole philosophy was pervaded by the doctrine. It should be remembered -that, at the time Emerson wrote, evolution had won wide favor among -thinkers and that the success of the Origin of Species was an -evidence, not of the creation of the evolution sentiment by that work, -but of a pre-existing mental current in favor of evolution. - - Very respectfully, - HARRIET C.B. ALEXANDER. - - CHICAGO, _December 20, 1898_. - - - - -Editor's Table. - - -_THE NEW SUPERSTITION._ - -The death of a prominent man of letters in the hands of certain -individuals of the "Christian Science" persuasion has given rise to a -good deal of serious discussion as to the principles and practices of -that extraordinary sect. That a considerable number of persons should -have banded themselves together to ignore medical science, and apply -"thought" as a remedy for all physical ills, has excited no little -alarm and indignation in various quarters. Some of the severest -criticisms of this outbreak of irrationality have come from the -religious press, which takes the ground that, while the Bible -doubtless contains numerous accounts of miraculous healing, it -nevertheless fully recognizes the efficacy of material remedies. A -"beloved physician" is credited with the authorship of one of the -gospels and of the book of Acts. An apostle recommends a friend to -"take a little wine for his stomach's sake and his often infirmities." -The man who was attacked by robbers had his wounds treated in the -usual way. The soothing effect of ointments is recognized; and the -disturbing effects of undue indulgence in the wine cup are forcibly -described. The peculiar character of a miracle, it is contended, lies -in the fact that it passes over natural agencies; but, because these -may be dispensed with by Divine Power, they are not the less -specifically efficacious in their own place. - -These, and such as these, are the arguments which are urged by the -representatives of orthodox religion against the new heresy, or, as we -have called it, "the new superstition." To argue against it on -scientific grounds would be almost too ridiculous. When people make a -denial of the laws of matter the basis of their creed, we can only -leave them to work it out with Nature. They will find that, like all -the world, they are subject to the law of gravitation and to the laws -of chemistry and physics. If one of them happens to be run over by a -railway train the usual results will follow; and so of a multitude of -conceivable accidents. A Christian Scientist who "blows out the gas" -will be asphyxiated just like anybody else; and if he walks off the -wharf into the water he will require rescue or resuscitation just as -if he were a plain "Christian" or a plain "scientist." Like Shylock, -he is "fed with the same food, hurt with the same weapons, subject to -the same diseases" as the rest of the community; and little by little -the eternal course of things will chastise his extravagant fancies -into reasonable accord with facts. - -To tell the truth, we have not much apprehension that the health of -the community will suffer, or the death rate go up, as the result of -this new craze. On the contrary, we rather expect that any influence -it may have in these respects will, on the whole, be for the better; -and for a very simple reason: The laws of health are not so difficult -to master, and, as every adherent of "Christian Science" will be -anxious to reflect credit on it by the satisfactory condition of his -or her personal health, we quite believe that in the new sect more -diseases will be avoided than incurred. Moreover, the elevated -condition of mind of these enthusiasts makes in itself for health, so -long as it does not turn to hysteria. We certainly can not refuse all -sympathy to people who make it a principle to enjoy good health. Of -course, if they were thoroughly consistent, they might do mischief in -direct proportion to their numbers. A "Christian-Science" school board -who did not believe in ventilating or adequately warming school rooms, -holding that it made no difference whether the children breathed pure -air or air laden with carbon dioxide and ptomaines, or whether or not -they were exposed to chills and draughts, would be about as -mischievous a body of men as could well be imagined. If "Christian -Science" in the house means an indifference to the ordinary physical -safeguards of health, it will quickly make a very evil repute for -itself. But, as we have already said, we do not anticipate these -results. Having undertaken to avoid and to cure diseases by "thinking -truth," we believe our friends of the new persuasion will think enough -truth to get what benefit is to be got from cleanliness, fresh air, -and wholesome food,--and that will be quite a quantity. - - -_EMERSON._ - -We publish on another page a letter from a correspondent who thinks -that much injustice is done to Emerson in the remarks we quoted in our -December number from Mr. J.J. Chapman's recent volume of essays. What -Mr. Chapman said was, in effect, that Emerson had not placed himself -in line with the modern doctrine of evolution--that he was probably -"the last great writer to look at life from a stationary standpoint." -Mrs. Alexander says in reply that Emerson was an evolutionist before -Darwin, having learned the doctrine from Goethe and made it a -fundamental principle of his philosophy. No one who has read Mr. -Chapman's essay could think for a moment that there was any intention -on his part to deal ungenerously or unfairly with the great writer of -whom America is so justly proud; nor would many readers be disposed to -question his competence to pronounce a sound judgment upon his -subject. There must, therefore, it seems to us, be some way of -reconciling the verdict of Mr. Chapman with the claims set forth in -our correspondent's letter. - -The true statement of the case doubtless is that Emerson received the -doctrine of evolution--so far as he received it--as a poet. He -welcomed the conception of a gradual unfolding of the universe, and a -gradually higher development of life; but it dwelt in his mind rather -as a poetical imagination than as a scientific theory. The consequence -was that he was still able to speak in the old absolute manner of many -things which the man of science can only discuss from a relative -standpoint. When, for example, Emerson says, "All goes to show that -the soul in man is not an organ, but animates and exercises all the -organs; is not a function, like the power of memory, of calculation, -of comparison, but uses these as hands and feet; is not a faculty, but -a light; is not the intellect or the will, but the master of the -intellect and the will; is the background of our being in which they -lie--an immensity not possessed and that can not be possessed"--he may -be uttering the sentence of a divine philosophy, or the deep intuition -of a poet; but he is not speaking the language of science, nor -evincing any sense of the restrictions which science might place on -such expressions of opinion. Certainly he is not at the standpoint of -evolution; and it is very hard to believe that the views he announces -could in any way be harmonized with, say, Mr. Spencer's Principles of -Psychology. Or take such a passage as the following: "All the facts of -the animal economy--sex, nutriment, gestation, birth, growth--are -symbols of the passage of the world into the soul of man, to suffer -there a change and reappear a new and higher fact. He uses forms -according to the life, and not according to the form. This is true -science. The poet alone knows astronomy, chemistry, vegetation, and -animation, for he does not stop at these facts, but employs them as -signs. He knows why the plain or meadow of space was strewn with those -flowers we call suns and moons and stars; why the great deep is -adorned with animals, with men, and gods; for in every word he speaks -he rides on them as the horses of thought." Now, we should be sorry to -crumple one leaf in the laurel wreath of the poet; but is there much -sense in saying that he is our only astronomer, or that he could -inform us why suns and planets were disposed through space so as to -make the forms we see? We do not think Goethe held these ideas; if he -did, they were certainly not part of his evolution philosophy. The -doctrine of evolution is not at war, we trust, with poetic -inspiration; but if it teaches anything, it teaches that the world is -full of infinite detail, and that without a certain mastery of details -general views are apt to be more showy than solid. It also brings home -to the mind very forcibly that one can only be sure of carefully -verified facts, and, even of these, ought not to be too sure. It -teaches that time and place and circumstance are, for all practical -purposes, of the essence of the things we have to consider; that -nothing is just what it would be if differently conditioned. There is -nothing of which Emerson discourses with so much positiveness as the -soul, an entity of which the serious evolutionist can only speak with -all possible reserve. The evolutionist labors to construct a -psychology; but Emerson has a psychology ready-made, and scatters its -affirmations with a liberal hand through every chapter of his -writings. That these are stimulating in a high degree to well-disposed -minds we should be sorry to deny. They are a source, which for many -long years will not run dry, of high thoughts and noble aspirations. -No one has more worthily or loftily discoursed of the value of life -than has the New England philosopher; and for this the world owes him -a permanent debt of gratitude. But he was not an evolutionist in the -modern sense--that is, in the scientific sense. If, as Mr. Chapman -says, he was the last great writer to look at life from a stationary -standpoint, then we can only add that the old philosophy had a golden -sunset in his pages. - - - - -Scientific Literature. - - -SPECIAL BOOKS. - -There are a great many different ways of conceiving the science of -society, and until the study of the subject is more advanced than it -is as yet, it would be rash to set up any one method as superior to -all others. All that can reasonably be asked is that the subject -should be approached with a competent knowledge of what has -previously been thought and written in regard to it, that the aspects -presented should possess intrinsic importance, and that the treatment -should be scientific. The work which Professor _Giddings_ has -published under the title of _Elements of Sociology_[35] fulfills -these conditions entirely, and we consider it, after careful -examination, as admirably adapted to the purpose it is meant to -serve--namely, as "a text book for colleges and schools." For use in -schools--that is to say, in secondary schools of the ordinary -range--the treatment may be a little too elaborate, but for college -use we should say that it is, so far as method is concerned, precisely -what is wanted. We do not know any other work which gives in the same -compass so interesting and satisfactory an analysis of the -constitution and development of society, or so many suggestive views -as to the springs of social action and the conditions of social -well-being. Professor Giddings writes in a clear and vigorous style, -and the careful student will notice many passages marked by great -felicity of expression. In a text-book designed to attract the young -to a subject calling for considerable concentration of attention, this -is an advantage that can hardly be overestimated. - -In the first chapter the writer gives us his definition of society as -"any group or number of individuals who cultivate acquaintance and -mental agreement--that is to say, like-mindedness." The unit of -investigation in sociology is declared to be the individual member of -society, or, as the writer calls him, in relation to the investigation -in hand, the "socius." Whether in strict logic the unit of -investigation in _sociology_ can be the individual, even granting, as -must be done, that he is born social, is a point on which we are not -fully satisfied. We should be disposed to think that the study of the -individual was rather what Mr. Spencer would call a "preparation" for -sociology than an integral part of the science itself. From a -practical point of view, however, it must be conceded that a treatise -on sociology would begin somewhat abruptly if it did not present in -the first place an adequate description of the "socius," especially -setting forth those qualifications and tendencies which fit and impel -him to enter into relations with other members of the human race. -Chapter V of the present work deals with The Practical Activities of -Socii, and shows in an interesting manner what may be called the lines -of approach of individuals to one another in society. Sometimes the -approach is by means of conflict, and the writer shows how this may be -a preparation for peaceful relations through the insight it gives into -opposing points of view. He distinguishes between primary and -secondary conflict--the first being a struggle in which one individual -violently strives to suppress or subdue an opposing personality, the -second a mere trial of differing opinions and tastes, leading often to -a profitable readjustment of individual standpoints. - -Chapter X, entitled The Classes of Socii, is an excellent one. The -author classifies socii with reference (1) to vitality, (2) to -personality--i.e. personal resource and capacity--and (3) to social -feeling. Under the third classification he distinguishes (1) the -social class, (2) the non-social class, (3) the pseudo-social class, -and (4) the anti-social class. The first of these, the "social class," -is well characterized as follows: "Their distinguishing characteristic -is a consciousness of kind that is wide in its scope and strong in -its intensity. They are sympathetic, friendly, helpful, and always -interested in endeavoring to perfect social relations, to develop the -methods of co-operation, to add to the happiness of mankind by -improving the forms of social pleasure, to preserve the great social -institutions of the family and the state. To this class the entire -population turns for help, inspiration, and leadership, for unselfish -loyalty and wise enterprise. It includes all who in the true sense of -the word are philanthropic, all whose self-sacrifice is directed by -sound judgment, all true reformers whose zeal is tempered by common -sense and sober patience, and all those who give expression to the -ideals and aspirations of the community for a larger and better life." -The Pre-eminent Social Class is further discussed in Chapter XII; and -the subsequent chapters, as far as, and including, XIX, describe the -processes by which social results in the balancing of interests, -establishment of rights, assimilation of characters, and general -improvement of social conditions, are realized. The limits which -expediency sets to the pursuit of "like-mindedness" are well shown, -and the advantage and necessity for social progress of free discussion -and wide toleration of individual differences are strongly insisted -on. Chapter XX deals with The Early History of Society, and contains -the statement that "from an apelike creature, no longer perfectly -represented in any existing species, the human race is descended." - -The subject of Democracy is well treated in a special chapter (XXIV). -The author is of opinion that, if the natural leaders of society do -their duty, they will wield a moral influence that will give a right -direction to public policy, and secure the continuous advance of the -community in prosperity and true civilization. The "if" is an -important one, but the author has strong hope, in which all his -readers will certainly wish to share, that in the main everything will -turn out well. - -The remarks on the State in Chapter XXIII are, as far as they go, -judicious; but we could have wished that the author, who we are sure -desires to make his treatise as practically useful as possible, had -dwelt somewhat on the dangers of over-legislation, and had brought -into fuller relief than he has done the difference between state -action and voluntary enterprise, arising from the fact that the former -always involves the element of _compulsion_. We pass a law when we can -not get our neighbor to co-operate or agree with us in something, and -consequently resolve to compel him. Surely this consideration should -suffice to make parsimony the first principle of legislation. We agree -with our author that it is not well to "belittle" the state (page -214), but it is hardly belittling the state to wish to be very sparing -in our appeals to it for the exercise of coercive power. - -We miss also in the work before us such a treatment of the _family_ as -might have been introduced into it with advantage. The family -certainly has an important relation to the individual, and in all -civilized countries it is specially recognized by the state. Mr. -Spencer, in the chapter of his Study of Sociology entitled Preparation -in Psychology, has dwelt on the encroachments of the state on the -family; and Mr. Pearson, in his National Life and Character, published -half a dozen years ago, sounded a note of alarm on the same subject. -What position Professor Giddings would have taken as to the importance -of family life and the rights and duties of the family we do not, of -course, know; but we are disposed to think he could have increased the -usefulness and interest of his book by some discussion of these -points. We would only further say that, while the book is specially -intended for scholastic use, it is well adapted for general reading, -and that it could not be read carefully by any one without profit. - - * * * * * - -Prof. _Wesley Mills_ holds the opinion that in the present stage of -the study of animal life,[36] facts are much more desirable than -theories. Experiment and observation must go on for many years before -generalizations will be worth the making. Putting this belief into -practice, he has bred and reared a large number of animals, making -most careful notes on their physical and mental development, and -furnishes in his book, resulting from these studies, a contribution of -unquestionable value to comparative psychology. - -In his investigation of the habits of squirrels, he finds the red -squirrel, or chickaree, much more intelligent than the chipmunk. The -latter is easily trapped, but the former profits by experience and is -rarely secured a second time. These little creatures are also adepts -in feigning. Two examples are cited in which squirrels apparently ill -recovered rapidly when left alone and made their escape in vigorous -fashion. Many instances of animals shamming death are judged to be -cases of catalepsy induced by excessive fear. The chickaree is also -credited with some musical capacity, one being observed, when excited, -to utter tones that were birdlike; whence it is concluded "likely that -throughout the order _Rodentia_ a genuine musical appreciation exists, -and considerable ability in expressing states of emotion by vocal -forms." - -While experimenting with hibernating animals, Professor Mills kept a -woodchuck in confinement five years, and noted that it had a drowsy or -torpid period from November to April. Another specimen subjected to -the same conditions did not hibernate for an hour during the entire -season. Bats began to hibernate at 45° to 40° F., and were so affected -by temperature that they could be worked like a machine by varying it. -The woodchuck, however, was comparatively independent of heat and -cold, but very sensitive to storms. This is found to be true of many -wild animals, that they "have a delicate perception of meteorological -conditions, making them wiser than they know, for they act reflexly." - -Some records are given of cases of lethargy among human beings, and in -regard to these, as well as normal sleep and hibernation, it is -suggested that their conditioning and variability throw great light -upon the evolution of function. - -In order to observe closely the psychic development of young animals, -Professor Mills raised families of dogs, cats, chickens, rabbits, -guinea-pigs, and pigeons. The data obtained by him, given in the form -of diaries with comparisons and conclusions, constitute Part III, the -larger half of the book, unquestionably first in importance and -interest. It is scarcely possible to overvalue careful studies like -these, undertaken not to justify theories, but to bring to light -whatever truths may be apprehended of the nature of growth and -connection of mind and body. - -The last division of the book contains the discussions on instinct by -Professors Mills, Lloyd Morgan, Baldwin, and others, first published -in Science. The beginning of the volume, devoted to a general -consideration of the subject, consists of papers on methods of study -and comparative psychology which have appeared in various scientific -periodicals, including this magazine. - - -GENERAL NOTICES. - -In _Four-Footed Americans and their Kin_[37] a similar method is -applied by _Mabel Osgood Wright_ to the study of animals to that which -was followed with reference to ornithology in Citizen Bird. The -subject is taught in the form of a story, with dramatic incident and -adventure, and miniature exploration, and the animals are allowed -occasionally to converse and express their opinions and feelings. The -scene of the action is "Orchard Farm and twenty miles around." Dr. -Hunter and his daughter and colored "mammy" have returned there to -their home after several years of travel, with two city youths who -have been invited to spend the summer at the place and are told the -story of the birds. Another family have come to make an autumn visit, -but it is arranged that they should spend the winter at the farm. -"What they did, and how they became acquainted with the four-footed -Americans, is told in this story." Most of the common animals of the -United States are met or described in the course of the party's -wandering, as creatures of life rather than as in the cold and formal -way of treating museum specimens, and a great deal of the lore of -other branches of natural history is introduced, as it would naturally -come in in such excursions as were taken. The scientific accuracy of -the book is assured by the participation of Mr. Frank M. Chapman as -editor. At the end a Ladder for climbing the Family Tree of the North -American Mammals is furnished in the shape of a table of -classification; and an index of English names is given. The -illustrations, by Ernest Seton Thompson, give lifelike portraits and -attitudes and are very attractive. - -_St. George Mivart_, whose enviable reputation as a specialist in -natural history has perhaps given some justification for his attempts -at philosophy, has recently published a new philosophical work -entitled _The Groundwork of Science_[38]. It is an effort to work out -the ultimate facts on which our knowledge, and hence all science, is -based. A short preface and introductory chapter are devoted to a -statement of the aims of the work and some general remarks regarding -the history of the scientific method. An enumeration of the sciences -and an indication of some of their logical relations are next given. -The third chapter, entitled The Objects of Science, is given up -chiefly to a refutation of idealism. The methods of science, its -physical, psychical, and intellectual antecedents, language and -science, causes of scientific knowledge, and the nature of the -groundwork of science are the special topics of the remaining -chapters. The general scheme of the inquiry is based on the theory -that the groundwork of science consists of three divisions. "The -laborers who work, the tools they must employ, and that which -constitutes the field of their labor.... Science is partly physical -and partly psychical.... The tools are those first principles and -universal, necessary, self-evident truths which lie so frequently -unnoticed in the human intellect, and which are absolutely -indispensable for valid reasoning.... The nature of the workers must -also be noticed as necessarily affecting the value of their work.... -And, last of all, a few words must be devoted to the question whether -there is any and, if any, what foundation underlying the whole -groundwork of science." The result at which the author arrives is -stated as follows: "The groundwork of science is the work of -self-conscious material organisms making use of the marvelous first -principles which they possess in exploring all the physical and -psychical phenomena of the universe, which sense, intuition, and -ratiocination can anyhow reveal to them as real existences, whether -actual or only possible.... The foundation of science can only be -sought in that reason which evidently to us pervades the universe, -and is that by which our intellect has been both produced and -illumined." - -A large amount of information, mainly of a practical character, has -been gathered by Mr. _William J. Clark_ in his book on _Commercial -Cuba_[39]--information, as Mr. Gould well says in the introduction he -has contributed to the work, covering almost the entire field of -inquiry regarding Cuba and its resources. The data have been partly -gained from the author's personal observation and during his travels -on the island, and partly through laborious and painstaking -classification of existing material, collected from many and diverse -sources. The subject is systematically treated. The first chapter--How -to Meet the Resident of Cuba--relates to the behavior of visitors to -the island, really a considerably more important matter than it would -be in this country, for the Spaniards are strict in their regard for -correct etiquette. It is natural that a chapter on the population and -its characteristics and occupations should follow this. Even more -important than correct behavior--to any one at least but a -Spaniard--is the subject of climate and the preservation of health; -and whatever is of moment in relation to these subjects is given in -the chapter devoted to them. Next the geographical characteristics of -Cuba are described, and the facilities and methods of transportation -and communication; also social and political matters, including -government, banking, and commercial finance, and legal and -administrative systems of the past and future. A chapter is given to -Animal and Vegetable Life, another to Sugar and Tobacco, and a third -to Some General Statistics, after which the several provinces--Pinar -del Rio, the city and province of Havana (including the Isle of -Pines), and the provinces of Matanzas, Santa Clara, Puerto Principe, -and Santiago--are described in detail, with their physical -characteristics, their agricultural or mining resources, their various -towns, and whatever else in them is of interest to the student of -economics. A Cuban Business Directory is given in the appendix. - -A Collection of Essays is the modest designation which Professors -_J.C. Arthur_ and _D.T. MacDougal_ give to the scientific papers -included in their book on _Living Plants and their Properties_.[40] -The authors deserve all praise for having taken the pains without -which no book composed of occasional pieces can be made complete and -symmetrical, to revise and rewrite the articles, omitting parts "less -relevant in the present connection," and amplifying others "to meet -the demands of continuity, clearness, and harmony with current -botanical thought." Of the twelve papers, those on the Special Senses -of Plants, Wild Lettuce, Universality of Consciousness and Pain, Two -Opposing Factors of Increase, The Right to Live, and Distinction -between Plants and Animals, are by Professor Arthur; and those on The -Development of Irritability, Mimosa--a Typical Sensitive Plant, The -Effect of Cold, Chlorophyll and Growth, Leaves in Spring, Summer, and -Autumn, and the Significance of Color, are by Professor MacDougal. -Based to a large extent on original investigations or careful studies, -they present many novel thoughts and aspects, and constitute an -acceptable addition to popular botanical literature. - -Having described the great and growing interest taken in child study, -President _A.R. Taylor_ announces as the principal aim of his book, -_The Study of the Child_,[41] to bring the subject within the average -comprehension of the teacher and parent. Besides avoiding as much as -possible technical terms and scientific formulas, the author has made -the desire to announce new principles subservient to that of assisting -his fellow-workers to a closer relationship with the child. As -teachers and parents generally think it extremely difficult to pursue -the study of the child without at least a fair understanding of the -elements of psychology, the author intimates that they often forget -that the study will give them that very knowledge, and that, properly -pursued, it is the best possible introduction to psychology in -general. Every chapter in the present book, he says, is an attempt to -organize the knowledge already possessed by those who know little or -nothing of scientific psychology, and to assist them to inquiries -which will give a clearer apprehension of the nature and possibilities -of the child. The treatise begins with the wakening of the child to -conscious life through the senses, the nature and workings of each of -which are described. The bridge over from the physical to the mental -is found in consciousness, which for the present purpose is defined as -the self knowing its own states or activities. The idea of identity -and difference arises, symbols are invented or suggested, and language -is made possible. The features of language peculiar to children are -considered. Muscular or motor control, the feelings, and the will are -treated as phases or factors in development, and their functions are -defined. The intellect and its various functions are discussed with -considerable fullness; and chapters on The Self, Habit, and Character; -Children's Instincts and Plays; Manners and Morals; Normals and -Abnormals; and Stages of Growth, Fatigue Point, etc., follow. A very -satisfactory bibliography is appended. - -_The Discharge of Electricity through Gases_[42] is an expansion of -four lectures given by the author, Prof. _J.J. Thomson_, of the -University of Cambridge, at Princeton University in October, 1896. -Some results published between the delivery and printing of the -lectures are added. The author begins by noticing the contrast between -the variety and complexity of electrical phenomena that occur when -matter is present in the field with their simplicity when the ether -alone is involved; thus the idea of a charge of electricity, which is -probably in many classes of phenomena the most prominent idea of all, -need not arise, and in fact does not arise, so long as we deal with -the ether alone. The questions that occur when we consider the -relation between matter and the electrical charge carried by it--such -as the state of the matter when carrying the charge, and the effect -produced on this state when the sign of the charge is changed--are -regarded as among the most important in the whole range of physics. -The close connection that exists between chemical and electrical -phenomena indicates that a knowledge of the relation between matter -and electricity would lead to an increase of our knowledge of -electricity, and further of that of chemical action, and, indeed, to -an extension of the domain of electricity over that of chemistry. For -the study of this relation the most promising course is to begin with -that between electricity and matter in the gaseous or simpler state; -and that is what is undertaken in this book. The subject is presented -under the three general headings with numerous subheadings of The -Discharge of Electricity through Gases, Photo Electric Effects, and -Cathode Rays. - -For a clear and concise presentation of the framework of psychology -and its basal truths, the _Story of the Mind_[43] may be commended. -Although the space afforded is only that of a bird's-eye view, no -skeleton bristling with technical terms confronts us, but an -attractive and well-furnished structure with glimpses of various -divisions that tempt us to further examination. The text is simply and -charmingly written, and may induce many to search the recesses of -psychology who, under a less skillful guide, would be frightened away. -A bibliography at the end of the volume supplies what other direction -may be needed for more advanced study. Admirable in construction and -treatment as the book is, there are, however, paths in which we can -not follow where Professor Baldwin would lead, and in others that we -undertake with him we do not recognize our surroundings as those he -describes. This is especially the case with the environment of the -genius. We do not find that "he and society agree in regard to the -fitness of his thoughts," nor that "for the most part his judgment is -_at once_ also the social judgment." If such were the case, how would -he "wait for recognition," or be "muzzled" for expressing his -thoughts? In almost all cases it is the story of Galileo over again. -In art, science, and social reform he sees far beyond his fellows. -Society can not accept him because it has not the vision of a genius. -He contradicts its judgment and is fortunate when he escapes with the -name of "crank." The military hero does not enter into this category: -he glorifies the past rather than the future; he justifies the -multitude in a good opinion of itself and, is therefore always -received. - -The first edition of Professor _Bolton's Catalogue of Scientific and -Technical Periodicals_[44] was issued in 1885, and was intended to -embrace the principal independent periodicals of every branch of pure -and applied science, published in all countries from the rise of this -literature to the present time, with full titles, names of editors, -sequence of series, and other bibliographical details, arranged on a -simple plan convenient for reference; omitting, with a few exceptions, -serials constituting transactions of learned societies. In cases where -the scientific character of the journal or its right to be classed as -a periodical was doubtful, and in other debatable cases, the compiler -followed Zuchold's maxim, that "in a bibliography it is much better -that a book should be found which is not sought, than that one should -be sought for and not found." The new edition contains as Part I a -reprint from the plates of the first edition, with such changes -necessary to bring the titles down to date as could be made without -overrunning the plates; and in Part II additions to the titles of Part -I that could not be inserted in the plates, together with about 3,600 -new titles, bringing the whole number of titles up to 8,477, together -with addenda, raising this number to 8,603, minus the numbers 4,955 to -5,000, which are skipped between the first and second parts. -Chronological tables give the dates of the publication of each volume -of the periodicals entered. A library check list shows in what -American libraries the periodicals may be found. Cross-references are -freely introduced. The material for the work has been gathered from -all available bibliographies, and by personal examination of the -shelves and catalogues of many libraries in the United States and -Europe, and from responses to circulars sent out by the Smithsonian -Institution. The whole work is a monument of prodigious labor -industriously and faithfully performed. - -In _Theories of the Will in the History of Philosophy_[45] a concise -account is given by _Archibald Alexander_ of the development of the -theory of the will from the early days of Greek thought down to about -the middle of the present century; including, however, only the -theories of the more important philosophers. In addition to -contributing something to the history of philosophy, it has been the -author's purpose to introduce in this way a constructive explanation -of voluntary action. The account closes with the theory of Lotze; -since the publication of which the methods of psychology have been -greatly modified, if not revolutionized, by the development of the -evolutional and physiological systems of study. The particular -subjects considered are the theories of the will in the Socratic -period, the Stoic and Epicurean theories; the theories in Christian -theology, in British philosophy from Bacon to Reid, Continental -theories from Descartes to Leibnitz, and theories in German philosophy -from Kant to Lotze. The author has tried to avoid obtruding his own -opinions, expressing an individual judgment only on matters of -doubtful interpretation; and he recognizes that speculation and the -introspective method of studying the will appear to have almost -reached their limits. - -Dr. _Frank Overton's_ text-book of _Applied Physiology_[46] makes a -new departure from the old methods of teaching physiology, in that it -begins with the cells as the units of life and shows their relations -to all the elements of the body and all the processes of human action. -The fact of their fundamental nature and importance is emphasized -throughout. The relation of oxidation--oxidation within the cells--as -the essential act of respiration--to the disappearance of food, the -production of waste matters, and the development of force, is dwelt -upon. The influence of alcohol is discussed in all its aspects, not in -a separate chapter, but whenever it comes in place in connection with -the several topics and subjects treated. Other narcotics are dealt -with. A chapter on inflammation and taking cold is believed to be an -entirely new feature in a school text book. Summaries and review -topics are arranged at the end of each chapter; subjects from original -demonstrations and the use of the microscope are listed; and many -hygienic topics, such as air, ventilation, drinking water, clothing, -bathing, bacteria, etc., are specially treated. - -The prominent characteristic of Professors _F.P. Venable_ and _J.L. -Howe's_ text-book on _Inorganic Chemistry according to the Periodic -Law_[47] is expressed in the title, and is the adoption of the -periodic law as the guiding principle of the treatment, and the -keeping of it in the foreground throughout. So far as the authors have -noticed, the complete introduction of this system has not been -attempted before in any text book. They have made the experiment of -following it closely in their classes, and their success through -several years has convinced them of its value. "In no other way have -we been able to secure such thorough results, both as to thorough, -systematic instruction and economy of time. The task is rendered -easier for both student and teacher." After the setting forth of -definitions and general principles in the introduction, the elements -are taken up and described according to their places and relations in -the periodic groups, and then their compounds are described -successively, with hydrogen, the halogens, oxygen, sulphur, and the -nitrides, phosphides, carbides, silicides, and the alloys. The -treatment is systematic, condensed, and clear. - -The purpose of Mr. _John W. Troeger's_ series of Nature-Study Readers -is declared by the editor to be to supply supplementary reading for -pupils who have been two years or more at school. They are composed, -moreover, with a view to facilitating the recognition in the printed -form of words already familiar to the ear, and to making the child at -home with them. In carrying out this purpose the author takes -advantage of the child's fondness for making observations, especially -when attended by his companions or elders. In doing this the aim has -been kept in view not to weary the child with details, and yet to give -sufficient information to lead to accurate and complete observations. -Most of the chapters in the present volume, _Harold's Rambles_, the -second of the series, contain the information gleaned during walks and -short excursions. Among the subjects concerned are birds, mammals, -insects, earthworms, snails, astronomy, minerals, plants, grasses, -vegetables, physics, and features connected with the farm. These -Nature-study readers are published as a branch of Appletons' -Home-Reading series. (New York: D. Appleton and Company. Price, 40 -cents.) - -Another of Appletons' Home-Reading Books is _News from the Birds_, -which the author, _Leander S. Keyser_, explains has been written with -two purposes in mind: first, to furnish actual instruction, to tell -some new facts about bird life that have not yet been recited; and, -second, to inspire in readers a taste for Nature study. It is by no -means a key for the identification of the birds; but, instead of -telling all that is or may be known respecting a particular bird, the -author has sought only to recite such incidents as will spur the -reader to go out into the fields and woods and study the birds in -their native haunts. For the most part the author has given a record -of his own observations, and not a reiteration of what others have -said. He has gone to the birds themselves for his facts, and has made -very little use of books. - -It has been Mr. _Ernest A. Congdon's_ aim, in preparing his _Brief -Course in Qualitative Analysis_ (New York: Henry Holt; 60 cents), to -render it as concise as possible while making the least sacrifice of a -study of reactions and solubilities of chemical importance. The manual -covers the points of preliminary reactions on bases and acids; schemes -of analysis for bases and acids; explanatory notes on the analyses; -treatment of solid substances (powders, alloys, or metals); and -tables of solubilities of salts of the bases studied. A comprehensive -list of questions, stimulative of thought, is appended. The book is -intended merely as a laboratory guide, and should be supplemented by -frequent "quiz classes" and by constant personal attention. The course -has been satisfactorily given in the Drexel Institute within the -allotted time of one laboratory period of four hours, and one hour for -a lecture or quiz per week, during the school year of thirty-two -weeks. - -_Lest we Forget_ is the title which President _David Starr Jordan_ has -given to his address before the graduating class of Leland Stanford -Junior University, May 25, 1898--"lest we forget" the dangers and -duties and responsibilities laid upon us by the war with Spain. Though -delivered before the "policy of expansion" was fully developed, the -address describes with prophetic accuracy the dream of imperialism -with which the minds even of men usually sane and honest have become -infected, and points out a few of the logical results to which they -would lead, and the dangers which will have to be incurred in -gratifying them. We cite a few of the strong points made by the -author: "Our question is not what we shall do with Cuba, Porto Rico, -and the Philippines; it is what these prizes will do to us." "Shall -the war for Cuba Libre come to an inglorious end? If we make anything -by it, it will be most inglorious." "I believe that the movement -toward broad dominion, so eloquently outlined by Mr. Olney, would be a -step downward." - - -PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED. - -Adams, Enos, 2072 Second Avenue, New York. What is Science? Pp. 14. - -Agricultural Experiment Stations. Bulletins. Delaware College: No. 41. -Pea Canning in Delaware. By G.H. Powell. Pp. 16.--New Hampshire -College: No. 55. The Feeding Habits of the Chipping Sparrow. By C.M. -Weed. Pp. 12; No. 56. Poisonous Properties of Wild Cherry Leaves. By -F.W. Morse and C.D. Howard. Pp. 12.--New Jersey: No. 130. Forage -Crops. By E.B. Voorhees and C.B. Lane. Pp. 22; No. 131. Feeds Rich in -Protein, etc. By E.B. Voorhees. Pp. 14.--New York: No. 145. Analysis -of Commercial Fertilizers. By L.L. Van Syke. Pp. 100.--United States -Department of Agriculture. Some Books on Agriculture and Sciences -related to Agriculture published in 1896-'98. Pp. 45.; List of -Publications relating to Forestry in the Department Library. Pp. 93. - -Allen, W.D., and Carlton, W.N., Editors In Lantern Land, Vol. I, No. -1, December 3, 1898. Monthly. Hartford, Conn. Pp. 16. 10 cents. - -Amryc, C. Pantheism, the Light and Hope of Modern Reason. Pp. 302. - -Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, The Journal -of. New Series, Vol. I, Nos. 1 and 2, August and November, 1898. -London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co. Pp. 200. - -Atkinson, Edward. I. The Cost of a National Crime. II. The Hell of War -and its Penalties. Brookline, Mass. Pp. 26. - -Babcock Printing Press Manufacturing Company. Some Facts about Modern -Presses. Pp. 8. - -Brinton, Daniel G. A Record of Study on Aboriginal American Languages. -Pp. 24. - -Bulletins, Proceedings, and Reports. American Society of Naturalists: -Records, Vol. II, Part 3. Providence, R.I.: Published by the Society. -Pp. 58.--Argentine Republic. Anales de la Oficina Meteorologica -Argentina, Vol. XII. Climate of Asuncion, Paraguay, and Rosario -de Santa Fé. Walter G. Davis, Director. Buenos Aires. Pp. -684.--Association of Economic Entomologists: Proceedings of the Tenth -Annual Meeting. Washington: United States Department of Agriculture. -Pp. 104.--Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History: Biennial -Report of the Director for 1897-'98. Urbana, Ill. Pp. 31, with -plates.--Johns Hopkins University Circulars: Notes from the Biological -Laboratory, November, 1898. Pp. 34. 10 cents.--Secretary of the -Interior: Report for the Fiscal Year ended June 30, 1898. Pp. -242.--Wagner Free Institute of Science of Philadelphia: Transactions, -Vol. III, Part IV, April, 1898. Pp. 150, with plates. - -De Morgan, Augustus. On the Study and Difficulties of Mathematics. New -edition. Chicago: The Open Court Publishing Company. Pp. 288. - -Gowdy, Jean L. Ideals and Programmes. Syracuse, N.Y.: C.W. Bardeen. -Pp. 102. 75 cents. - -Grand View Institute Journal. Monthly. Grand View, Texas. Vol. I, No. -1, October, 1898. Pp. 18. - -Hinsdale, Guy, M.D. Acromegaly. Detroit, Mich.: W.M. Warren. Pp. 88. - -Holland, W.J. The Butterfly Book. A Popular Guide to a Knowledge of -the Butterflies of North America. New York: Doubleday & McClure -Company. Pp. 382, with 48 colored plates. $3. - -James, Alice J. Catering for Two. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. Pp. -292. $1.25. - -Lagrange, Joseph Louis. Lectures on Elementary Mathematics. Translated -by T.J. McCormick. Chicago: Open Court Publishing Company. Pp. 172. -$1. - -Loomis, Ernest. Practical Occultism. Chicago: Ernest Loomis & Co., 70 -Dearborn Street. Pp. 155. $1.25. - -Merrill, G.P. The Physical, Chemical, and Economic Properties of -Building Stones. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press. Pp. 80. - -National Pure Food and Drug Congress: Memorial to Congress against -Adulterations. Pp. 15. - -Owen, Luella A. Cave Regions of the Ozark and Black Hills. Cincinnati: -The Editor Publishing Company. Pp. 228. - -Payson, E.P. Suggestions toward an Applied Science of Sociology. New -York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. Pp. 237. - -Reprints. Baldwin, J. Mark. Princeton Contributions to Psychology, -Vol. II, No. 4, May, 1898. Pp. 32.--Brinton, Daniel G. The Linguistic -Cartography of the Chaco Region. Pp. 30.--Gerhard, William Paul. -Theater Sanitation. Pp. 15.--Kuh, Sydney, M.D. The Medico-Legal -Aspects of Hypnotism. Pp. 12.--McBride, T.H. Public Parks for Iowa -Towns. Pp. 8.--Macmillan, Conway. On the Formation of Circular Muskeag -in Tamarack Swamps. Pp. 8, with 3 plates.--Smith, J.P. The Development -of Lytoceras and Phylloceras. San Francisco. Pp. 24, with -plates.--Stuver, E., M.D. What Influence do Stimulants and Narcotics -exert on the Development of the Child? Chicago. Pp. 20.--Turner, H.W. -Notes on Some Igneous, Metamorphic, and Sedimentary Rocks of the Coast -Ranges of California. Chicago. Pp. 16.--Washburn, F.L., Eugene, Ore. -Continuation of Experiment in Propagating Oysters on the Oregon Coast, -Summer of 1898. Pp. 5. - -Spencer, Herbert, The Principles of Biology. Revised and enlarged -edition, 1898. Vol. I. New York: D. Appleton and Company. Pp. 706. $2. - -Winthrop, Alice Worthington. Diet in Illness and Convalescence. New -York: Harper & Brothers. Pp. 287. - -United States Geological Survey. The Kaolins and Fire Clays of Europe, -and the Clay-working Industry of the United States in 1897. By -Heinrich Ries. Pp. 114; Bulletin No. 150. The Educational Series of -Rock Specimens collected and distributed by the Survey. By J.S. -Diller. Pp. 400; No. 151. The Lower Cretaceous Gryphæas of the Texas -Region. By R.T. Hill and T.W. Vaughan. Pp. 139, with plates; No. 152. -Catalogue of the Cretaceous and Tertiary Plants of North America. By -F.H. Knowlton. Pp. 247; No. 153. A Bibliographical Index of North -American Carboniferous Invertebrates. By Stuart Weller. Pp. 653; No. -154. A Gazetteer of Kansas. By Henry Gannett. Pp. 246; No. 155. -Earthquakes in California in 1896 and 1897. By C.D. Perrine Pp. 18; -No. 156. Bibliography and Index of North American Geology, -Paleontology, Petrology, and Mineralogy for 1897. By F.B. Weeks. Pp. -130. - -United States National Museum. Bean, Barton A. Notes on the Capture of -Rare Fishes. Pp. 2.--Bean, Tarleton H. and Barton A. Notes on -Oxycoltus Acuticeps (Gilbert) from Sitka and Kadiak, Alaska. Pp -2.--Lucas, F.A. A New Snake from the Eocene of Alabama. Pp. 2, with 2 -plates. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[35] The Elements of Sociology. By Franklin Henry Giddings. New York: -The Macmillan Company, 1898. Pp. 353. Price, $1.10. - -[36] The Nature and Development of Animal Intelligence. By Wesley -Mills, F.R.S.C. New York: The Macmillan Company. Pp. 307. Price, $2. - -[37] Four-Footed Americans and their Kin. By Mabel Osgood Wright. -Edited by Frank M. Chapman. New York: The Macmillan Company. Pp. 432, -with plates. Price, $1.50. - -[38] The Groundwork of Science. A Study of Epistemology. By St. George -Mivart. Pp. 328. Price, $1.75. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. London; -Bliss, Sands & Co. - -[39] Commercial Cuba. A Book for Business Men. By William J. Clark. -Illustrated. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. Pp. 514, with maps. - -[40] Living Plants and their Properties. A Collection of Essays. By -Joseph Charles Arthur (Purdue University) and Daniel Trembly MacDougal -(University of Minnesota). New York: Baker & Taylor. Minneapolis: -Morris & Wilson. Pp. 234. - -[41] The Study of the Child. A Brief Treatise on the Psychology of the -Child, with Suggestions for Teachers, Students, and Parents. By A.R. -Taylor. New York: D. Appleton and Company. (International Education -Series.) Pp. 215. Price, $1.50. - -[42] The Discharge of Electricity through Gases. Lectures delivered on -the occasion of the Sesquicentennial Celebration of Princeton -University. By J.J. Thomson. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. Pp. -203. Price, $1. - -[43] The Story of the Mind. By James Mark Baldwin. New York: D. -Appleton and Company. Pp. 232. Price, 40 cents. - -[44] A Catalogue of Scientific and Technical Periodicals 1665-1895, -together with Chronological Tables and a Library Check List. By Henry -Carrington Bolton. Second edition. City of Washington: Published by -the Smithsonian Institution. Pp. 1247. - -[45] Theories of the Will in the History of Philosophy. By Archibald -Alexander. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. Pp. 357. Price, $1.50. - -[46] Applied Physiology for Advanced Grades. Including the Effects of -Alcohol and Narcotics. American Book Company. Pp. 432. Price, 80 -cents. - -[47] Inorganic Chemistry according to the Periodic Law. By F.P. -Venable and James Lewis Howe. Easton, Pa: The Chemical Publishing -Company. Pp. 266. Price, $1.50. - - - - -Fragments of Science. - - -=Early Submarine Telegraphy.=--The actual date of the beginning of -subaqueous telegraphy was admitted by Professor Ayrtoun, in a lecture -delivered before the Imperial Institute in 1897, to be uncertain. -Baron Schilling is said to have exploded mines under the Neva by means -of the electric current as early as 1812; and this method was used by -Colonel Pasley to blow up the wreck of the Royal George at Spithead in -1838; but our Morse has the credit of having first used a wire -insulated with India rubber under water. In 1837, Wheatstone and Cooke -were experimenting with land telegraphy, and were considering the -possibility of laying an insulated wire under water. Morse's -successful experiments date from 1842, when he personally laid a cable -between Castle Garden and Governor's Island and sent messages over it; -the next morning it was broken. With the introduction of gutta percha -as an insulator in 1847, submarine telegraphy became practicable. The -Central Oceanic Telegraph Company had been registered by Jacob Brett -in 1845, and a cable was laid under the English Channel by Brett and -his brother in 1850. Messages were sent through it, but, like Morse's -earlier effort, it immediately became silent. Better success attended -the cable of the next year, which was sheathed with iron; and the -first public submarine message was sent over it November 13, 1851. -Morse wrote of the possibility of establishing electro-magnetic -communication across the ocean as early as 1844. A syndicate was -formed for this purpose in 1855, Cyrus W. Field being the most -conspicuous figure in it. An understanding was reached with the Brett -company, and the Atlantic Telegraph Company was formed. The first -effort to lay the cable was made in 1857 by the United States frigate -Niagara and H.M.S. Agamemnon, but the wires broke in deep water when -about a third of the work was done. A cable was successfully laid the -next year, but it died out in a month. Finally, electric communication -was permanently established across the Atlantic by the Telegraph -Construction and Maintenance Company, which, capturing a cable that -had been lost, soon had two. Transatlantic cables have now become so -numerous and so regular in their working that the danger of even a -temporary failure has become very remote. - -=The White Lady Mountain.=--Iztaccihuatl (pronounced Is-tak-see-watl) -is about ten miles, measuring to its principal peak, north of -Popocatepetl. In shape it consists of a long, narrow ridge cut into -three well-defined peaks about equally distant from one another, of -which the central is the highest; and the snow-covered peak resembles -the figure of a woman lying on her back; whence the name of the -mountain, which means _white woman_. According to the Aztecs, Dr. -O.C. Farrington, of the Field Columbian Museum, tells us, this woman -was a goddess who for some crime had been struck dead and doomed to -lie forever on this spot. Popocatepetl was her lover, and had stood by -her. Tastes differ as to whether it or Popocatepetl presents a more -striking view, but either is a beautiful enough object to look upon. -The first authenticated record of an ascent to the summit of the -mountain is that of Mr. H. Reniere Whitehouse, who reached the top -November 9, 1889, and found there undoubted evidence that an ascent -had been made five days previously by Mr. James de Salis. Prof. Angelo -Heilprin and Mr. F. C. Baker attempted an ascent in the following -April, but were turned back when about seventy-five yards below the -summit, at a height of 16,730 feet, by two impassable crevasses. "The -ascent of Iztaccihuatl seems, therefore, pretty generally to have -foiled those who have attempted it. Dr. Farrington, who ascended to -the Porfirio Diaz Glacier in February, 1896, describes the route as -steeper than that which leads up to Popocatepetl." The brilliant and -varied flora, picturesque barrenness, and beautiful cascades lend -everywhere a charm to the scene which contrasts favorably with the -somber monotony which characterizes the route by which Popocatepetl is -ascended. The slopes of the mountain are cultivated to a considerable -height--10,860 feet. The lower slopes are largely covered with soil, -and the andesite rock, of gray and red colors, differs completely in -character from that of Popocatepetl. The aiguillelike character of -many of the spurs extending at right angles to the course of the -mountain is a prominent feature. Many caves in the rock furnish -shelter to cattle and persons attempting the ascent. Dr. Farrington -examined the Porfirio Diaz Glacier, and concluded that it formerly had -a much greater extent than now. - -=The Adulteration of Butter with Glucose.=--The following is from an -article by C.A. Crampton in the Journal of the American Chemical -Society: In domestic practice the addition of sugar to butter for -purposes of preservation is doubtless almost as old as the art of -butter-making itself; salt, however, is the usually preferred -preservative. Sugar appears in several of the various United States -patents for so-called "improving" or renovating processes for butter, -being added to it along with salt, saltpeter, and in some cases sodium -carbonate. Within the past few years glucose has been used in butter -specially prepared for export to tropical countries, as the West -Indies or South America. It is usually put up in tins, and various -means are resorted to for preventing the decomposition of their goods -before they reach the consumer. Very large quantities of salt are used -by the French exporters, as the following two analyses show: - - Butter for Export. - - To Brazil. To Antilles. - - Water 10.29 10.19 - Curd 1.24 1.31 - Ash 10.29 10.06 - Fat 78.18 78.44 - ------ ------ - 100.00 100.00 - -Chemical antiseptics, borax, salicylic acid, etc., are sometimes used, -but the method found most efficacious by exporters in this country -seems to be the use of glucose in conjunction with moderately heavy -salting. The glucose used is a heavy, low-converted sirup, known as -confectioners' glucose. The detection of glucose in butter presents no -difficulty. The butter is thoroughly washed with hot water, which will -readily take up whatever glucose is present. This solution is then -tested by means of Fehling's solution. The following is an analysis of -the so-called _beurre rouge_, or red butter, which is exported to -Guadeloupe. It is a peculiar highly colored compound, containing large -quantities of salt and glucose: - - Water 21.60 - Curd 0.81 - Ash 16.42 - Fat 51.15 - Glucose 10.02 - ------ - 100.00 - -=Decorated Skulls and the Power ascribed to them.=--A collection of -sixteen skulls--eight of men, seven of women, and one of a child--from -New Guinea, is described by George A. Dorsey in the publications of -the Field Columbian Museum, Chicago. They were received from a native -chief, who used them for the adornment of his house, and is said to -have prized them as trophies of war. They are decorated in the frontal -region by engraved designs, and the parts are attached to one another -by very skillfully adjusted cords. The ornamentation and the bindings -are the subject of a special comment by William H. Holmes. Importance -is attached by natives of New Guinea to the preservation of the skulls -of friends as mementoes and of foes as trophies, and of both -categories on account of the virtue--the best qualities of the -individuals whose skulls they are--which they are supposed to impart -in some mysterious way to their possessor. Hence special care is taken -to have them preserved in detail, and that no part be lost. In the -present specimens the jaws were secured by fastenings at right and -left and in front. The teeth were carefully tied in, and when lost -were replaced by artificial teeth. A cord was fastened around the back -molar on one side, and carried along, inclosing each tooth in turn, in -a loop, so as to make a very effective fastening when the cord was -tightly drawn and attached to the back molar on the other side. The -lower jaw was very firmly fastened to the skull by closely wrapped -cords tightened by binding the strands around the middle portion. In -some cases these fastenings are very elaborate and neat; in others, -imperfect and slovenly. All the skulls in the collection are decorated -with designs engraved on the frontal bone, and in some cases the -figures run back. The execution of the work is not of a very high -order, but is rather irregular and scratchy. Nearly all embody easily -distinguished animal forms, and the more formal or nearly geometric -ones are probably animal derivatives or representations of land, -water, or natural phenomena. They are possibly totemic or -mythological. - -=Galax and its Affinities.=--One of the most interesting plants of the -Southern mountain region is the galax (_Galax aphylla_), which grows -in the highlands more or less abundantly from Virginia southward. The -slopes of Grandfather Mountain, North Carolina, are carpeted with it -for many square miles of almost uninterrupted extent. Besides being an -attractive plant at home, its thick, leathery, rounded cordate leaves, -deep green or crimson or mixed, according to the season, make it much -in demand for decoration, and tons of it in the aggregate are shipped, -from places where it grows abundantly, for that purpose. Its -affiliations with certain other Alpine and arctic plants are described -in a carefully studied paper on the Order Diapensisceæ, published by -Margaret Farsman Boynton in the Journal of the National Science Club, -Washington. Linnæus found in Lapland a creeping evergreen herb, -matting the surface with its stiff, spatulate leaves, and described it -in 1737 as _Diapensia lapponica_. Then galax was discovered by -Gronovius and given a place by Linnæus--because of its stamens rather -than of its natural affinities--along with Diapensia. Michaux, in the -last decade of the eighteenth century, found _Pyxidanthera barbulata_, -resembling diapensia, in the pine barrens of New Jersey and North -Carolina. More recently other species of diapensia and _Berneuxia_ -have been found among the Himalayas, and _Schizocodon_ of several -species in Japan. One of the most remarkable discoveries in the list -was that by Michaux in the mountains of North Carolina of a plant -which was afterward called _Shortia galacifolia_, from the resemblance -of its leaves to those of galax. This plant in a living state was then -lost, and when Gray and Torrey looked for it in 1831 in vain, only one -preserved specimen of it was known to be extant and that in fruit; and -it was not till 1877 that it was collected, rediscovered, in fact, in -flower, as Gray has said, "by an herbalist almost absolutely ignorant -of botany, who was only informed of his good fortune on sending to a -botanist one of the two specimens collected by him." The Shortia, so -far as is known, grows only in a very narrow district, and those who -know the place are careful not to direct the public to it. Specimens -have been collected by a few nurserymen, who cultivate it and have it -for sale. The plants of this list are variously classified as among -one another by botanists, but are regarded as belonging to a common -group. "The real story of their development," says the author of the -paper, "can be gathered only in hints from their present distribution, -for unfortunately they have neither gallery of ancestral portraits nor -recorded geological tree." But their ancestors are supposed to have -been pushed down by the glaciers and left where the modern forms are -found. Almost anywhere in the boreal flora _Diapensia lapponica_ may -be found, whether in northern Asia, or Europe, or America, or even on -the mountains of Labrador and in the Pyrenees, the Scotch mountains, -and our own White Mountains. - -=The Academy della Crusca.=--"For three hundred years," says a -correspondent of the London Athenæum, "the learned body, the Academy -of la Crusca (the bran), Florence, has been scrupulously sifting the -Italian tongue and producing successive editions of its monumental -dictionary. Its present seat is in the monastery of St. -Mark--Savonarola's cloister--where it occupies the hall behind the -great library. When an associate is promoted to full membership, his -official reception is still accompanied by the traditional rite. -First, he is solemnly conducted to the Cruscan museum, and left to -solitary meditation among shovel-backed chairs surmounted by the -symbolical sieve and bookcases ingeniously fashioned in the likeness -of corn sacks. The walls are covered with the names, crests, and -mottoes of former members, who in past times usually assumed fantastic -titles descriptive of the academy's labors." Some of these printed -inscriptions and comical devices are more or less quaint. Thus, Dr. -Giulio Maxi in 1590 took the name of _Il Fiorito_, or the flowery one, -with the device of a basket of wheat in bloom and the motto from -Petrarch (translation): - - "I enjoy the present and hope for better." - -In 1641 the Senator Vieri appeared as _Le Svanito_, the evaporated, -with an uncorked wine flask, the stopper beside it, and the motto: - - "Oh, how I long for the medicine!" - -In 1660 the Marquis Malaskini adopted the title of _Il Preservato_, -the preserved, the device of olives packed in straw, and the motto -from Petrarch: - - "Keep the prize green." - -In 1764, the Abbot Giuseppe Pelli, surnamed _Il Megliorato_, the -improved, took the device of a newly invented sieve for the better -sifting of grain, with the Petrarchian motto: - - "Follow the few, and not the throng." - -In 1770, Signor Domenico Manni assumed the title of _Il Sofferente_, -the sufferer, with a straw chair as his device, and a motto from -Dante: - - "The master said that lying in a feather bed - One would not come to fame--nor under the plowshare." - -In due time the new member is escorted to the hall where the academy -is assembled, and the chief consul, head of the academy, greets him -with a speech, to which he has to make a fitting reply. Historical -Italian families are numerously represented on the academy's rolls, -and among the foreign members are the names of William Roscoe and Mr. -Gladstone. - -=Aboriginal Superstitions about Bones.=--A very interesting -archaeological site in Mexico, visited by Carl Lumholtz and Ale[vs] -Hedli[vc]ka in the fall of 1896, is near Zacápu, in the State of -Michoacan. The region is marked by many stone mounds on or near the -edge of the old flow of lava, extending for several miles; and -directly above the village stands a large stone fortress, called El -Palacio. Excavating near this fortress, Mr. Lumholtz unearthed several -skeletons, which had been buried without any order, and accompanied by -"remarkably few objects," but some of these were well worthy of study. -The most curious things found were some bones, strangely marked with -grooves across them, exhibiting a little variety in arrangement, but -all similarly executed, and evidently after a carefully devised -system. This feature is so far unique in archæology, and its purpose -can as yet be only a matter of conjecture. Two ways are proposed by -the author of explaining it. The marking may have been an operation -undertaken for the purpose of dispatching the dead. Mr. Lumholtz is -knowing to a belief among the tribes of Mexico that the dead are -troublesome to the survivors for at least one year, and certain -ceremonies and feasts in regard to them have to be observed in order -to prevent them from doing harm, and to drive them away. The -Tarahumares guard their beer against them, and others provide a -special altar with food for the dead on it at their rain-making -feasts, else the spirits would work some mischief. Among many tribes -an offering is made to the dead, before drinking brandy, of a few -drops of the liquor. A relation is also supposed to exist between -disease and pain and the bones of the deceased person. A whole class -of diseases are supposed to have their seat in the bones or the marrow -of them. If the disease does not yield to the shaman's efforts, and -causes death, the Indians think that the pain will continue after -death and vex the ghost, making him malignant and troublesome. -Therefore the pain must be conquered, and driven away from the bones -and the marrow. Hence the markings may have been made in order to -sever all connection between the spirit and his former life, and from -the disease that caused his death. The other explanation is that the -bones were taken from slain enemies for other purposes than as mere -trophies. Personal or bodily relics are supposed to possess some of -the qualities of the deceased, and to give power. This view is -supported by some observations of Mr. Cushing relative to Zuñi -customs; and the author is inclined to favor it rather than the other. - -=Estrays from Civilization.=--A curious study of a community of -estrays from civilization who are leading the life of savages is -published by M. Zaborowski in the _Revue de l'École d'Anthropologie_ -and _La Nature_. The settlement is about a mile from Ezy, on the -eastern edge of the plateau of Normandy, in a group of caves that were -excavated and used as wine cellars when, several hundred years ago, -wine culture flourished in the now uncongenial region. Later the spot -was a resort for picnics till the old buildings fell into decay, and -about fifty years ago it was given up to wanderers. About eighty men, -women, and children live there, the adults, though not perhaps really -criminals, having been lost to society on account of some offense -committed against it. They have no regular means of subsistence, are -beneath the tramps in grade, and possess, with one or two exceptions, -no articles of property other than what they pick up. Their beds are -wooden bunks set upon stones, filled with leaves, and the coverings -are wrapping canvas. A "family" of seven persons lived in one of the -cellars with only a single bed of this kind. Their kitchen utensils -are old tin cans picked out of rubbish heaps, and their stoves are -obtained in the same way, or often consist of plates and pieces of -iron adjusted so as to make a sort of fireplace. They have a well from -which they draw water with some old kettle suspended on a hooked -stick, each "family" having its own hook. Their clothes are rags, -partly covering portions of the body, and it is not considered -necessary that the younger ones should have even these. Their -housekeeping and their ideas of neatness are such as might correspond -with these conditions. One woman, mother of four children, and the -only one that was adequately dressed, was a native of a neighboring -village, and had been brought to the cave by her mother when she was -eight years old. An old man had been a charge upon the town and was -sent to the cave by the _maire_ to get rid of him. He had found a -woman there and had several children. A woman, still active, who had -lived in the caves three years, had children living in Ezy. The -complaint, so common in other parts of France, that the natural -increase of population has failed, does not apply to the caves. Five -or six of the "families" have four or five children. On these -children, of whom only the most vigorous survive, "the influence of -their debasing misery and of the vices of their parents impresses a -common aspect. Their mental condition has fallen shockingly low, and, -their physical needs satisfied, they seem to want nothing further. No -attraction will induce them to attend school, which is like -imprisonment to them. Their mode of life and the marks of degradation -in their faces separate them from others. Earnest attempts to develop -their intelligence and moral consciousness have been without result." - -=German School Journeys.=--It is very common in Germany, says Miss -Dodd, of Owens College, in one of the English educational reports, to -find definite teaching taking place outside the school walls--in the -gardens attached to the schools, and in the neighboring forests, where -the children are instructed in observation of the local forms of plant -and animal life. Further, they are often taken on longer expeditions -to spend the whole day in the forest or on the mountain with their -teachers, who direct them "what to see, and how to see it." More -definite and more ambitious than these minor excursions is the school -journey, which may last from three days to three weeks. It is usually -taken on foot, and is as inexpensive as possible, with plain food and -simple accommodation. Each boy carries his own knapsack charged with a -change of underclothing, towels, soap, etc., and overcoat or umbrella; -while for the common use of the party are distributed clothes brushes -and shoe brushes, needles, thread, string, and pins, ointment for -rubbing on the feet, a small medicine chest, a compass, a field glass, -a pocket microscope, a barometer, and a tape measure. The district -visited is chosen on account of its historical associations or the -geographical illustrations it furnishes, or the richness and variety -of plant life to be studied. Constant pauses are made to afford -opportunities for the examination of features inviting study; and the -scenes visited are often closely connected with the subjects included -in the year's work of the school. In a journey, of which Miss Dodd was -a member, preparations were begun three months beforehand, with the -collection of subscriptions, drawing of road maps, and special -lessons. The fifty boys from ten to fifteen years old, marched off in -groups of four, assorting themselves according to their affinities for -companionship, with advance and rear guards; the regions passed -through were explored for what might be found in them; the roads were -marked and identified, mountains and rivers were named, and the -courses of streams determined; and at each place of considerable -interest its characteristic features and associations of Nature, art, -and history were discussed and studied. - -=The Huichol Indians of Jalisco.=--The Huichol Indians of Mexico, the -subject of a study by Carl Lumholtz, four thousand people living in -the mountains of northern Jalisco, have a tradition that they -originated in the south, got lost underneath the earth, and came -forward again in the east, in the country of the _Kikuli_, near San -Luis Potosi. Franciscan missionaries converted them nominally to -Christianity, but there are now no priests in their country, and there -is probably no tribe in Mexico where the ancient beliefs have been so -well maintained as with them. Their exterior conditions have been -somewhat altered by the introduction of cattle and sheep, and cattle -are now the favorite animals for sacrifice at the feasts for making -rain during the dry season. The people are healthy, very emotional, -easily moved to laughter or tears, imaginative and excitable. Young -people show affection in public, kissing or caressing one another. -They are kind-hearted and not inhospitable to those who can gain their -confidence, but have the reputation of being wanting in regard for -truth. They live mostly in circular houses made from loose stones, or -stones and mud, and covered with thatched roofs. Their temples, -devoted to various gods, are of similar shape, but much larger, with -the entrances toward sunrise. Outside of the door is an open space -surrounded by small rectangular god-houses, with gabled and thatched -roofs. The god-houses are also frequently found in the forests, and -are sometimes circular. There are nineteen temples in the country -which are frequented at the times of the feasts, when the officials -and their families camp in the small god-houses. Idols are not kept in -the temples, but are hidden in caves or in special buildings. There -are a great many sacred caves devoted to various gods, and generally -containing some pool or spring that gives them sanctity, and the water -of which is supposed to have salutary virtues. Much religious -importance is attached to the _Kikuli_ cactus, which produces an -exhilarating effect on the system. Ceremonial arrows are inseparably -connected with their life, the arrow representing the Indian himself -in his prayers to the gods. They have other interesting ceremonies and -ceremonial objects, and a curious system of distilling, which Mr. -Lumholtz describes at length. - -=Herrings at Dinner.=--The food of the herring consists of small -organisms, often of microscopic dimensions. It is entirely animal, and -in Europe, according to those who have investigated the matter, it -consists of copepods, schizopods (shrimplike forms), amphipods (sand -fleas and their allies), the embryos of gasteropods and -lamellibranchia, and young fishes, often of its own kind. In the -examination of about fifteen hundred specimens of herring at Eastport, -Maine, and vicinity, in the summer and fall of 1893, Mr. H.F. Moore, -of the Fish Commission, found only two kinds of food--copepods or "red -seed," which appeared to constitute the sole food of the small -herrings, and shrimps the principal food of the larger ones. In many -cases the stomachs of the fish were densely gorged with these shrimps, -which are extremely abundant in the waters of the vicinity. Excepting -the eyes and phosphorescent spots beneath, which are bright red, the -bodies of the crustaceans are almost transparent, yet such is the -density of the schools in which they congregate that a distinctly -reddish tinge is often imparted to the water. They are very active, -and frequently avoid the rush of the fish by vigorous strokes of their -powerful caudal paddles, which throw them several inches above the -surface. To capture them requires some address on the part of the -herring, and the fish likewise frequently throw themselves almost -clear of the surface. When feeding upon copepods the movements of the -herrings are less impetuous. They swim open-mouthed, often with their -snouts at the surface, crossing and recrossing on their tracks, and -evidently straining out the minute crustaceans by means of their -branchial sieves. After they have passed the stage known as "brit," -the herrings appear to feed principally at night, or if they do so to -any considerable extent during bright daylight it is at such a depth -that they escape observation. At night it is often possible to note -the movements of the fish at a depth of several fathoms, and at such -times Mr. Moore has seen them swimming back and forth, "apparently -screening the water, their every movement traced by a phosphorescent -gleam, evoked perhaps from the very organisms which they were -consuming." The herrings evidently follow their prey by night, and the -fact that the shrimps possess phosphorescent spots may explain the -apparent ability of the fish to catch them then. - - -MINOR PARAGRAPHS. - -The phosphorescence, which is so beautiful a characteristic of certain -forms of animal life in the sea, has been the cause of much -speculation among the fishermen and scientists; none of the proposed -theories have been entirely satisfactory. It is now stated, however, -that an adequate and provable cause has been discovered in a so-called -species of photo-bacteria; by means of this germ it is stated that sea -water, containing nutrient media, can be inoculated and rendered -phosphorescent; that newly caught herrings with the sea water still -fresh can be rendered phosphorescent by a treatment which favors the -growth of the photo-bacteria. Oxygen is an essential to their growth. - -Personal equation was defined by Prof. T.H. Safford, in a paper read -at the American Association, as in reality the time it takes to think; -and as that time is different in different persons, observations are -liable to be affected by it unless correct allowance is made for it in -the case of each one. It has been a subject of discussion since the -end of the last century. The Astronomer Royal of England discharged a -good assistant in 1795, because he was liable to observe stars more -than half a second too late. Bond, several years afterward, took the -subject up and found that astronomers were liable to vary a little in -their observations; some to anticipate the time by a trifle, and -others falling a little behind. The subject has since been studied by -Professor Wundt. In the days when the eye-and-ear method of -observation prevailed, the astronomer had both to watch his object and -to keep note of the time; with the introduction of the chronograph, -the errors resulting from this necessity are in part obviated. But -error enough still exists to be troublesome. - -The Educational Extension Work in Agriculture of Cornell University -Experiment Station is carried on by the publication and distribution -of leaflets, visitation of teachers' institutes, and other means that -may bring the station in contact with the people. The results of the -work have been generally satisfactory. Eight leaflets, on such -subjects as How a Squash Plant gets out of the Seed, A Children's -Garden, etc., were published last year in from two to six editions, -and still meet a lively demand. Thirty thousand teachers were enrolled -on the lists as receiving leaflets, or as students of methods of -presenting Nature study to their pupils, sixteen thousand school -children were receiving leaflets suitable to them, and twenty-five -hundred young farmers were enrolled in the Agricultural Reading -Course. Much interest seems to have been shown by farmers in -sugar-beet culture, in investigations of which more than three hundred -of them are cooperating with the station, and two hundred in -experiments with fertilizers. - - -NOTES. - -An important feature in the evolution of trade journalism is pointed -out in the presidential address of E.C. Brown, of the American Trade -Press Association, in the establishment of small trade journals, -covering limited fields. Such industries as brickmaking, stenography, -advertising, acetylene, hospital practice, etc., are ably represented -by their respective trade journals; and this tendency is promoted by -the complementary one of the trades, in their centralization and -concentration, compelling even journals in the same business to make -their field distinct and restricted. The public demands specific -information, not for the purpose of catering to a passing interest, -but for its application directly in the conduct of business or the -formation of a policy; and those trade journals succeed best which -supply accurate information of value to their readers. - -The ascent of Mont Blanc was accomplished between June 21st and -September 16th by one hundred and nineteen persons, eleven of whom -were women. By nationality the climbers included forty-four Frenchmen -and eleven Frenchwomen, fifteen Englishmen and one Englishwoman, and -fifteen Swiss, with Germans, Americans, Belgians, Hollanders, Irish, -and Russians. A Belgian lady and a Dutch lady were of this company. A -Frenchwoman, seventy-five years old, was one of the party that reached -the summit on one of the last days in September. - -Mr. Horace Brown, whose interesting researches on the enzymes have -attracted much attention during the past few years, has recently -announced the results of some important experiments on the vitality of -seeds. He found that certain seeds subjected to the very low -temperature of evaporating liquid air, about -192° C., for one hundred -and ten consecutive hours, retained perfectly their power of -germinating. - -The report made by Prof. W.A. Herdman to the British Association -concerning the liability to disease through oysters recognizes the -possibility of contamination through the proximity of the beds to -sewage water, and recommends steps to be taken, through either -legislative control or association, to induce the oyster trade to -remove any possible suspicion of contamination of the beds; provision -for the inspection of foreign oysters or their subjection to a -quarantine by deposition for a stated period in British waters, as -already takes place in many instances; and the periodical inspection -of the grounds from which mussels, cockles, and periwinkles are -gathered. - -As the result of long-continued observations of annual temperatures -the appearance of the earliest leaves, and the return of birds of -passage, M. Camille Flammarion has published the conclusions that the -maximum temperatures correspond with abundant sun spots and the least -humidity, and the minimum temperatures with scarcity of sun spots and -great humidity; and that sparrows begin to sit when horse-chestnuts, -lilacs, and peonies begin to bloom, and the young are hatched about -two days after these plants are in full inflorescence. M. Flammarion -also believes that the temperatures of March and April indicate those -of the entire year. - -Little steel capsules containing a small quantity of liquefied -carbonic acid are made, _La Nature_ says, at Zurich, Switzerland. One -of them is placed in the neck of a bottle of water which is provided -with a faucet and the capsule is pricked. The carbonic acid escapes -and charges the water, and a bottle of soda water is the result. The -capsules are cheap and convenient, and are very popular in Switzerland -and Germany. - -It is proposed to erect a memorial to James Clerk Maxwell in the -parish church of Corsock, of which he was a trustee and elder. -Subscriptions may be sent to the Rev. George Stimock, The Manse, -Corsock by Dalbeattie, N.B. - -Our obituary list includes among men well known in science the names -of Edward Dunkin, an English practical astronomer, for fifty years an -assistant and part of the time chief assistant at the Royal -Observatory, Greenwich, a contributor of many paper on practical -astronomy, aged seventy-seven years; H. Vogel, professor of -photography, photo-chemistry, and spectroscopy in the Technical High -School, Berlin, author of The Chemistry of Light and Photography, in -the International Scientific Series, in his sixty-fifth year; -Alexandre Pillet, curator of the Musée Dupuytre, Paris, and well known -for his contributions on morbid anatomy, at Paris, November 2d, aged -eighty-eight years; George T. Allmann, formerly professor of botany in -Dublin and of natural history in Edinburgh, who described the hydroids -collected by the Challenger Expedition, and was author of a number of -monographs on the invertebrates, aged eighty-six; Thomas Sanderson -Bulmer, investigator in American archæology and ethnography, and -contributor to Filling's Bibliographies of American Languages, at -Sierra Blanca, Texas, October 5th; and Dr. Ewald Geissler, professor -of chemistry at the veterinary school of Dresden, aged fifty years. - - - - -Transcriber's Notes: - - -Words surrounded by _ are italicized. - -Words surrounded by = are bold. - -Diacritical mark caron (v-shaped symbol) is represented as [vx] in -this e-text (x being the letter with the symbol caron above it). - -Obvious printer's errors have been repaired, other inconsistent -spellings have been kept, including inconsistent use of hyphen -(e.g. "text book" and "text-book"). - -Illustrations were relocated to correspond to their references in the -text. - -Pg 568, year assumed in sentence "...Report for the Fiscal Year ended -June 30, 1898..." as the original is unclear. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Appletons' Popular Science Monthly, -February 1899, by Various - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK APPLETONS' POPULAR SCIENCE, FEB 1899 *** - -***** This file should be named 43695-8.txt or 43695-8.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/3/6/9/43695/ - -Produced by Judith Wirawan, Greg Bergquist, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by Biodiversity Heritage Library.) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Appletons' Popular Science Monthly, February 1899 - Volume LIV, No. 4, February 1899 - -Author: Various - -Editor: William Jay Youmans - -Release Date: September 11, 2013 [EBook #43695] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK APPLETONS' POPULAR SCIENCE, FEB 1899 *** - - - - -Produced by Judith Wirawan, Greg Bergquist, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by Biodiversity Heritage Library.) - - - - - - -</pre> - +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 43695 ***</div> <p class="center"> Established by Edward L. 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You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Appletons' Popular Science Monthly, February 1899 - Volume LIV, No. 4, February 1899 - -Author: Various - -Editor: William Jay Youmans - -Release Date: September 11, 2013 [EBook #43695] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK APPLETONS' POPULAR SCIENCE, FEB 1899 *** - - - - -Produced by Judith Wirawan, Greg Bergquist, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by Biodiversity Heritage Library.) - - - - - - - - - - Established by Edward L. Youmans - - APPLETONS' - POPULAR SCIENCE - MONTHLY - - EDITED BY - WILLIAM JAY YOUMANS - - VOL. LIV - - NOVEMBER, 1898, TO APRIL, 1899 - - NEW YORK - D. APPLETON AND COMPANY - 1899 - - - - - COPYRIGHT, 1899, - BY D. APPLETON AND COMPANY. - - - - -VOL. LIV. ESTABLISHED BY EDWARD L. YOUMANS. NO. 4. - -APPLETONS' POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. - -FEBRUARY, 1899. - -_EDITED BY WILLIAM JAY YOUMANS._ - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - PAGE - - I. Vegetation a Remedy for the Summer Heat of Cities. By - STEPHEN SMITH, M.D., LL.D 433 - - II. Mivart's Groundwork of Science. By Prof. WM. KEITH - BROOKS 450 - - III. The Science of Observation. By CHARLES LIVY WHITTLE. - (Illustrated.) 456 - - IV. Death Gulch, a Natural Bear-Trap. By T.A. JAGGAR, Jr. - (Illustrated.) 475 - - V. The Labor Problem in the Tropics. By W. ALLEYNE IRELAND 481 - - VI. Principles of Taxation. XX. The Law of the Diffusion of - Taxes. Part II. By the Late Hon. DAVID A. WELLS 490 - - VII. The Great Bombardment. By CHARLES F. HOLDER. (Illustrated.) 506 - - VIII. The Spirit of Conquest. By J. NOVICOW 518 - - IX. A Short History of Scientific Instruction. II. By Sir - J.N. LOCKYER 529 - - X. The Series Method: a Comparison. By CHARLOTTE TAYLOR 537 - - XI. The Earliest Writing in France. By M. GABRIEL DE MORTILLET 542 - - XII. Sketch of Gabriel de Mortillet. (With Portrait.) 546 - - XIII. Correspondence: The Foundation of Sociology.--Evolution and - Education again.--Emerson and Evolution 553 - - XIV. Editor's Table: The New Superstition.--Emerson 557 - - XV. Scientific Literature 559 - - XVI. Fragments of Science 569 - - - - - NEW YORK: - D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, - 72 FIFTH AVENUE. - - SINGLE NUMBER, 50 CENTS. YEARLY SUBSCRIPTION, $5.00. - - COPYRIGHT, 1899, BY D. APPLETON AND COMPANY. - - Entered at the Post Office at New York, and admitted for - transmission through the mails at second-class rates. - - - - -[Illustration: GABRIEL DE MORTILLET.] - - - - -APPLETONS' POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. - -FEBRUARY, 1899. - - - - -VEGETATION A REMEDY FOR THE SUMMER HEAT OF CITIES. - - A PLEA FOR THE CULTIVATION OF TREES, SHRUBS, PLANTS, VINES, AND - GRASSES IN THE STREETS OF NEW YORK FOR THE IMPROVEMENT - OF THE PUBLIC HEALTH, FOR THE COMFORT OF SUMMER - RESIDENTS, AND FOR ORNAMENTATION.[1] - -BY STEPHEN SMITH, M.D., LL.D. - - -One of the most prolific sources of a high sickness and death rate in -the city of New York is developed during the summer quarter. It has -been estimated that from three to five thousand persons die and sixty -to one hundred thousand cases of sickness occur annually in this city, -from causes which are engendered during the months of June, July, -August, and September. An examination of the records of the Health -Department for any year reveals the important fact that certain -diseases are not only more frequent during the summer quarter than at -any other time, but that they are far more fatal, especially in the -months of July and August, than during any other period of the year. -These are the "zymotic diseases," or those depending upon some form of -germ life. The following table illustrates the course of mortality -from those diseases in one year: - - Month. Deaths. - - January 541 - February 475 - March 476 - April 554 - May 584 - June 798 - July 1,433 - August 1,126 - September 791 - October 522 - November 460 - December 504 - -It appears that during eight months of the year, excluding June, July, -August, and September, the average monthly mortality from "zymotic -diseases" was 452. Had the same average continued during the remaining -four months the total mortality from those diseases for that year -would have been 4,424; but the actual mortality was 7,764, which -proves that 3,340 persons were sacrificed during those four fatal -months to conditions which exist in the city only at that period of -the year. Still more startling is the estimate of the sickness rate -caused by the unhealthful conditions created in the summer months in -New York city. If we estimate that there are twenty cases of sickness -for every death by a zymotic disease there were 66,800 more cases of -sickness in the year above referred to than there would have been had -the sickness rate been the same in the summer as in the other months -of that year. - -One of the saddest features of this high sickness and death rate -appears when we notice the ages of those who are especially the -victims of these fatal diseases. During the week ending July 9th last -there were 399 deaths from diarrhoeal diseases, of which number 382 -were children under five years of age. The following table taken from -the records of the Health Department show in a very striking manner -how fatal to child life are the conditions peculiar to our summer -season: - - ----------+------------------------------------------------ - | DEATHS FROM DIARRHOEAL DISEASES. - |-----------+-----------+------------+----------- - MONTH. | Under one | Under two | Under five | - | year. | years. | years. | All ages. - ----------+-----------+-----------+------------+----------- - January | 50 | 55 | 58 | 82 - February | 47 | 51 | 58 | 75 - March | 75 | 80 | 83 | 96 - April | 82 | 91 | 97 | 108 - May | 101 | 117 | 121 | 104 - June | 387 | 430 | 436 | 467 - July | 809 | 990 | 1,020 | 1,100 - August | 464 | 565 | 697 | 762 - September | 267 | 394 | 409 | 462 - October | 114 | 148 | 154 | 190 - November | 59 | 70 | 72 | 89 - December | 57 | 62 | 64 | 82 - ----------+-----------+-----------+------------+----------- - -These statistics demonstrate the extreme unhealthfulness of New York -during the summer, and the vast proportion of children who perish from -the fatal agencies which are then brought into activity. It is a -matter of great public concern to determine the nature of the -unhygienic conditions on which this excessive mortality depends, and -thus discover the proper remedial measures. - -As high temperature is the distinguishing feature of the summer -months, we very naturally conclude that excessive heat is a most -important factor, if not the sole cause, of the diseases so fatal to -human life at this period. A close comparison of the temperature and -mortality records of any summer in this city demonstrates the direct -relation of the former to the latter. For illustration, we will take -the records of the Health Department during the past summer, selecting -diarrhoeal diseases for comparison, as they prevail and are most fatal -at that season of the year. The table gives the total mortality from -these diseases and the mortality from those diseases of children under -five years of age. To the four months, June, July, August, and -September, are added May and October, for the purpose of showing the -gradual increase of the mortality from these diseases as the hot -weather approaches and its decline as the hot weather abates. - - Key: TF. = Temperature (Fahrenheit) - - --------------+------------+--------------+-------+-------+------- - | Total | Diarrhoeal | | | - WEEK ENDING | diarrhoeal |diseases under| Mean |Maximum|Minimum - | diseases. | five yrs. | TF. | TF. | TF. - --------------+------------+--------------+-------+-------+------- - May 7th | 10 | 8 | 52.4 deg. | 72 deg. | 47 deg. - May 14th | 20 | 17 | 55.5 deg. | 71 deg. | 40 deg. - May 21st | 14 | 12 | 63.3 deg. | 86 deg. | 52 deg. - May 28th | 22 | 19 | 60.9 deg. | 70 deg. | 56 deg. - June 4th | 18 | 16 | 65.8 deg. | 76 deg. | 54 deg. - June 11th | 26 | 20 | 71.6 deg. | 86 deg. | 58 deg. - June 18th | 36 | 32 | 73.0 deg. | 89 deg. | 59 deg. - June 25th | 74 | 69 | 69.3 deg. | 94 deg. | 54 deg. - July 2d | 170 | 164 | 78.6 deg. | 94 deg. | 67 deg. - July 9th | 399 | 382 | 77.4 deg. | 100 deg. | 61 deg. - July 16th | 330 | 321 | 71.1 deg. | 91 deg. | 57 deg. - July 23d | 388 | 356 | 77.4 deg. | 91 deg. | 67 deg. - July 30th | 380 | 353 | 78.5 deg. | 95 deg. | 70 deg. - August 6th | 380 | 353 | 78.8 deg. | 92 deg. | 67 deg. - August 13th | 342 | 306 | 73.9 deg. | 90 deg. | 65 deg. - August 20th | 290 | 261 | 74.8 deg. | 89 deg. | 64 deg. - August 27th | 268 | 246 | 76.6 deg. | 93 deg. | 63 deg. - September 3d | 289 | 256 | 79.0 deg. | 93 deg. | 59 deg. - September 10th| 283 | 255 | 74.0 deg. | 92 deg. | 58 deg. - September 17th| 179 | 158 | 67.3 deg. | 85 deg. | 52 deg. - September 24th| 193 | 167 | 68.7 deg. | 90 deg. | 52 deg. - October 1st | 132 | 117 | 66.5 deg. | 80 deg. | 54 deg. - October 8th | 90 | 78 | 69.6 deg. | 81 deg. | 53 deg. - October 15th | 71 | 58 | 60.1 deg. | 74 deg. | 49 deg. - October 22d | 54 | 42 | 55.9 deg. | 71 deg. | 44 deg. - October 29th | 39 | 32 | 53.9 deg. | 67 deg. | 41 deg. - --------------+------------+--------------+-------+-------+------- - -Again, if we compare the temperature and mortality records for a -series of days instead of months, it will be noticed that the -mortality record follows the fluctuations of the heat record with as -much precision as effect follows cause. The summer heat generally -begins about the 20th of June and continues with varying intensity -until the 15th of September. Within that period we can select many -examples which strikingly illustrate the relations of temperature to -mortality. For example, the first heated term of the year before us -began on the 19th of June and lasted until the 26th of that month. The -two records are as follows: - - -----+------------+---------- - DAY. |Temperature.|Mortality. - -----+------------+---------- - 19th | 78 deg. | 83 - -----+------------+---------- - 20th | 80 | 100 - -----+------------+---------- - 21st | 82 | 122 - -----+------------+---------- - 22d | 80 | 116 - -----+------------+---------- - 23d | 77 | 104 - -----+------------+---------- - 24th | 68 | 119 - -----+------------+---------- - 25th | 65 | 88 - -----+------------+---------- - -On the 28th of June a second heated term began, when the temperature -rose to 80 deg., and continued above that figure until July 5th, a period -of eight days. The following is the record, including the temperature -in the sun: - - ----------+------------------------------ - | TEMPERATURE - DAY. +-----------+-------+---------- - | In shade. |In sun.|Mortality. - ----------+-----------+-------+---------- - June 28th | 80 deg. | 118 deg. | 118 - ----------+-----------+-------+---------- - June 29th | 84 | 120 | 163 - ----------+-----------+-------+---------- - June 30th | 85 | 124 | 191 - ----------+-----------+-------+---------- - July 1st | 88 | 125 | 247 - ----------+-----------+-------+---------- - July 2d | 87 | 128 | 351 - ----------+-----------+-------+---------- - July 3d | 82 | 120 | 238 - ----------+-----------+-------+---------- - July 4th | 84 | 122 | 227 - ----------+-----------+-------+---------- - July 5th | 80 | 121 | 184 - ----------+-----------+-------+---------- - -It will be noticed that during the last heated period there was a more -prolonged high temperature than during the first, and that the -mortality of the second was higher for the same temperature than that -of the first. These facts are in accord with the history of our summer -months. The range of temperature increases as the season advances, and -the rate of mortality rises, owing to the diminished resisting power -to the effects of high heat on the part of the people, especially of -the children, the aged, and those already enfeebled by disease. - -In order to fully understand the influence of heat and its effects -upon the public health, we must first notice the conditions regulating -the temperature of the body in health and disease. - -The temperature of animals in a state of health is not a fixed -quantity, but has a limited range which depends upon internal and -external conditions not incompatible with health. In man the range of -temperature in health is fixed at 97.25 deg. F. to 99.5 deg. F. Any -temperature above or below these extremes, unless explained by special -circumstances not affecting the normal condition of the person, is an -indication of disease. This comparatively fixed temperature in health -is a remarkable feature of the living animal. When subjected to a -temperature above or below the extremes here given it will still -maintain its equilibrium. This fixed temperature under varying -conditions of heat and cold is due to a "heat-regulating power," -inherent in the constitution of every animal, by which it imparts heat -when the temperature of the air is high and conserves heat when the -latter is low. The heat escapes from the body--1, by radiation from -the surface; 2, by transmission to other bodies; 3, by evaporation; -and 4, by the conversion of heat into motion. The surface of the body -furnishes the principal medium for the loss of heat by the first three -methods--viz., radiation, transmission, and evaporation. It is -estimated that 93.07 per cent of the heat produced escapes by the -processes of radiation, evaporation, conduction, and mechanical work. -The remaining heat units are lost by warming inspired air and the -foods and drinks taken. There are apparently other subtile influences, -so-called "regulators of heat," at work to preserve an equilibrium of -temperature in the animal body, but they are not well known. The -result of the operation of these forces is this--viz., if, by any -means, the heat of the body is increased, compensative losses of heat -quickly occur, and the normal temperature is soon restored; and if, on -the contrary, the loss of heat is unusually increased, the -compensative production of heat of the body at once follows, and the -equilibrium is at once restored. The important fact to remember is -this--viz., the production and loss of heat in the human organism when -in health and not subjected to too violent disturbing causes are so -nicely balanced that the temperature is always maintained at an -average of 98.6 deg. F., the extremes being 97.25 deg. F. and 99.5 deg. F. "So -beautifully is this balance preserved," Parkes remarks, "that the -stability of the animal temperature in all countries has always been a -subject of marvel." If, however, anything prevents the operation of -the processes of cooling--viz., radiation, evaporation, and -conduction--the bodily temperature rises by the accumulation of heat, -and death is the result from combustion. In experiments in ovens a man -has been able to bear a temperature of 260 deg. F. for a short period, -provided the air was dry so that evaporation could be carried on -rapidly. But if the air is very moist, and perspiration is impeded, -the temperature of the body rises rapidly, and the person soon -succumbs to the excessive heat. Another important fact is this, viz., -the normal temperature of the young and of the very old is higher -than the middle-aged. The infant at birth has a temperature of 99 deg. F. -to 100 deg. F., and it maintains a temperature of 99 deg. F. and upward for -several days. The variations of temperature from other causes are much -greater in children than in adults, as also the normal daily -variations of temperature. About the sixtieth year the average -temperature of man begins to rise, and approximates that of the -infant. In the young and old the "heat-regulating power" is more -readily exhausted, and hence continued high temperature is far more -fatal to these classes. - -The first noticeable fact in regard to bodily temperature in disease -is that there are daily fluctuations as in health, but much more -extreme. In general, the remission of temperature in disease occurs in -the morning, and the exacerbation in the afternoon and evening; the -minimum is reached between six and nine o'clock in the morning, and -the maximum between three and six o'clock in the evening. In many -diseases the minimum temperature is not below 100 deg. F., and usually it -is one or two degrees above that point, while the maximum has no -definite limit and may reach the dangerous height of 107 deg. F. It should -be noticed that the highest daily temperature in disease, as in -health, occurs in the afternoon, when the temperature of the air in -summer is the greatest. - -The conditions affecting the temperature of the body other than those -due to physiological conditions are very numerous. First and most -obvious is the temperature of the surrounding atmosphere. It is a -well-established fact that an average temperature of the air of 54 deg. F. -is best adapted to the public health, for at that temperature the -decomposition of animal and vegetable matter is slight, and normal -temperature is most easily maintained. Every degree of temperature -above or below that point requires a more or less effort of the -heat-regulating power to maintain the proper equilibrium. Even more -potent in elevating the bodily temperature is the introduction into -the blood, whether by respiration or by direct injection, of putrid -fluids and the gases of decomposing matters. If this injection is -repeated at short intervals, death will occur with a high temperature. -The air of cities contains emanations, in hot weather, from a vast -number of sources of animal and vegetable decomposition, and the -inhalation of air so vitiated brings in contact with the blood these -deleterious products in a highly divided state which cause a fatal -elevation of temperature in the young, old, and enfeebled. The same -effect is produced by the air in close and heated places, as in -tenement houses, workshops, schoolhouses, hospital wards, and other -rooms where many persons congregate for hours. Air thus charged with -poisonous gases becomes more dangerous if the temperature of the -place is raised, as happens almost daily in the summer months in -cities. - -From the preceding facts we may conclude that, as long as the body -continues in health, the "heat-regulating power," which constantly -tends to preserve an equilibrium of temperature, is capable of -resisting the ordinary agencies that, operating externally or -internally, exaggerate the heat-producing conditions, and thus destroy -the individual. But if the person is suffering from a disease which -weakens the "heat-regulating power" these deleterious agencies, which -the healthy person may resist, will readily overpower the already -quite exhausted heat-regulating forces, and he perishes by combustion. -It is very evident that in an organism having complicated functions, -like that of man, and subject to such a multitude of adverse -influences, the balance between health and disease must be very nicely -adjusted. Too great an elevation or too great a depression of -temperature may destroy the "heat-regulating power," and disease or -death will be the consequence. Or this "heat-regulating power" may be -weakened or destroyed by causes generated within the body, or received -from without, and the heat-producing agencies are then under -influences which may prove to be powerfully destructive forces. - -It will not now be difficult to understand in what manner high -temperature affects the public health of large cities. Evidently in -the _direct_ action of heat upon the human body we have the most -powerful agency in the production of our great summer mortality. While -sunstroke represents the maximum direct effect of solar heat upon the -human subject, the large increase of deaths from wasting chronic -diseases and diarrhoeal affections, of children under one year of age -and persons upward of seventy years of age, shows the terrible effects -of the prevailing intense heat of summer upon all who are debilitated -by disease or age and thereby have their "heat-regulating power" -diminished. The fact has been established by repeated experiment that -when solar or artificial heat is continually applied to the animal the -temperature of its body will gradually rise until all of the -compensating or heat-regulating agencies fail to preserve the -equilibrium, and the temperature reaches a point at which death takes -place from actual combustion. In general, a temperature of 107 deg. F. in -man would be regarded as indicating an unfavorable termination of any -disease. In persons suffering from sunstroke the temperature often -ranges from 106 deg. F. to 110 deg. F., the higher temperature appearing just -before a fatal termination. - -The _indirect_ effects of heat appear in the production of poisonous -gases which vitiate the air and render it more or less prejudicial to -health. Decomposition of all forms of refuse animal and vegetable -matter proceeds with far greater rapidity during the summer quarter -than during other months of the year. Among the early results of -summer heat is the damage to food. Milk retailed through the city, the -sole or chief diet of thousands of hand-fed infants, undergoes such -changes as to render it not only less nutritious but also hurtful to -the digestive organs. The vegetables and fruits in the markets rapidly -deteriorate and become unfit for food. Meats and fish quickly take on -putrefactive changes which render them more or less indigestible. The -effect of this increase of temperature upon the refuse and filth of -the streets, courts, and alleys, upon the air in close places, in the -tenement houses, and upon the tenants themselves is soon perceptible. -The foul gases of decomposition fill the atmosphere of the city and -render the air of close and unventilated places stifling; while -languor, depression, and debility fall upon the population like a -widespread epidemic. The physician now recognizes the fact that a new -element has entered into the medical constitution of the season. The -sickly young, the enfeebled old, those exhausted from wasting -diseases, whose native energies were just sufficient to maintain their -tenure of life, are the first to succumb to this pressure upon their -vital resources. Diarrhoeal diseases of every form next appear and -assume a fatal intensity, and finally the occurrence of sunstroke (or -heat-stroke) determines the maximum effects of heat upon the public -health. The sickness records of dispensaries and the mortality records -of the Health Department show that a new and most destructive force is -now operating, not only in the diseases above mentioned, but in nearly -all of the diseases of the period. Fevers, inflammatory diseases, and -others of a similar nature run a more rapid course, and are far less -amenable to treatment. This is due, in the opinion of eminent medical -authority, to the addition of the heat of the air to the heat of the -body. Indeed, the only safety is in flight from the city to the -country and to cool localities, as the seashore or the mountains. The -immediate improvement of those suffering from affections of the city -when transferred to the country is often marvelous, and shows -conclusively how fatal is the element of heat in its direct and -indirect effects upon the residents of the city. - -Let us next consider the causes of high temperature in the city of New -York. It is a well-established fact that the temperature of large and -densely populated towns is far higher than the surrounding country. -This is due to a variety of causes, the chief of which are the absence -of vegetation; the drainage and hence the dryness of the soil; the -covering of the earth with stone, bricks, and mortar; the aggregation -of population to surface area; the massing together of buildings; and -the artificial heat of workshops and manufactories. The difference -between the mean temperature of the city at Cooper Institute and at -the Arsenal, Central Park, for a single month, illustrates this fact. -Another striking difference between the temperature of these two -points of observation is that the range is much greater at Central -Park than at Cooper Institute, the temperature falling at night more -at the former than at the latter place. The effect of vegetation is to -lower the temperature at night, while brick and stone retain the heat -and prevent any considerable fall of temperature during the -twenty-four hours. It may be said of New York that it has all the -conditions of increased temperature above given in an intensified -form. It has a southern exposure; all of its broad avenues run north -and south; the surface is covered with stone, brick, and asphalt; it -is destitute of vegetation except in its parks, which have a very -limited area compared with the needs of the city; its buildings are -irregularly arranged and crowded together so as to give the largest -amount of elevation with the least superficial area; ventilation of -courts, areas, and living rooms is sacrificed; its ill-constructed and -overcrowded tenement houses, especially of certain districts, have the -largest population to surface area of any city in the civilized world. -To these natural and structural unfavorable sanitary conditions must -be added the enormous production of artificial heat in dwellings. When -the summer temperature begins to rise the solar heat is constantly -added to the artificial heat already existing. The temperature of the -whole vast mass of stones, bricks, mortar, and asphalt gradually -increases, with no other mitigation or modification than that caused -by the inconstant winds and occasional rainstorms. And the evils of -high temperature are yearly increasing as the area of brick, stone, -and asphalt extends. The records of sunstroke during the past few -years is appalling, both on account of the number of cases and their -comparative increase. If no adequate remedy is discovered and applied, -the day would not seem to be distant when the resident, especially if -he is a laborer, will remain in the city and pursue his work during -the summer at the constant risk of his life. - -Turning now to consider the question of the measures which are best -adapted to protect the present and future population of New York from -the effects of high summer temperatures, we are met by many -suggestions of more or less value. The more important methods proposed -are: a large supply of public baths; the daily flushing of the streets -with an immense volume of river water; recreation piers; excursions to -the seashore; temporary residence in the country, etc. But these are -for the most part temporary expedients, applicable to individuals, and -are but accessory to some more radical measure which aims to so change -the atmospheric conditions that excessive heat can not occur. The -real problem to be solved may be thus stated: How can the temperature -of the city of New York be so modified during the summer months as to -prevent that extreme degree of heat on which the enormous sickness and -death rate of the people depend? Discussing the subject broadly from -this standpoint, it becomes at once evident that we must employ those -agencies which in the wide field of Nature are designed to mitigate -heat and purify the air and thus create permanent climatic conditions -favorable for the habitation of man. - -It requires but little knowledge of the physical forces which modify -the climate of large areas of the earth's surface to recognize the -fact that vegetation plays a most important part. And of the different -forms of vegetation, trees, as compared with shrubs, plants, vines, -and grasses, are undoubtedly the most efficient. This is due to the -vast area of surface which their leaves present to the air on a very -limited ground space. The sanitary value of trees has hitherto been -practically unrecognized by man. With the most ruthless hand he has -everywhere and at all times sacrificed this most important factor in -the conservation of a healthful and temperate climate. He has found, -too late, however, that by this waste of the forests he has by no -means improved his own condition. The winters have become colder, the -summers hotter; the living springs have ceased to flow perpetually; -the fertilizing streams have disappeared; the earth is deeply frozen -in winter and parched in summer; and, finally, new and grave diseases -have appeared where formerly they were unknown. - -It is well understood that the temperature in a forest, a grove, or -even a clump of trees, is cooler in summer and warmer in winter than -the surrounding country. Man and animals alike seek the shade of -groves and trees during the heat of the day, and are greatly refreshed -and revived by the cool atmosphere. The difference between the -temperature of the air under and among the branches of a single tree, -densely leaved, and the surrounding air, on a hot day, is instantly -realized by the laborer or traveler who seeks the shade. The -thermometer in the sun and shade shows a difference of twenty, thirty, -and forty degrees, and in the soil a difference of ten to eleven -degrees. The reverse is true in winter. The laborer and traveler -exposed to the cold of the open country find in the forest a degree of -warmth quite as great as in a building but imperfectly inclosed. -Railroad engineers inform us that they have occasion to use far less -fuel in passing through forests in winter than in traversing the same -distance in the open country. When the ground in the fields is frozen -two or three feet deep, its temperature in the forest is found above -the freezing point. - -Forests and even single trees have, therefore, a marked influence upon -the surrounding atmosphere, especially during the summer, and they -evidently tend to equalize temperature, preventing extremes both in -summer and winter. Hence they become of immense value as sanitary -agencies in preserving equality of climatic conditions. - -It is believed by some vegetable physiologists that trees exert this -power through their own inherent warmth, which always remains at a -fixed standard both in summer and winter. "Observation shows," says -Meguscher,[2] "that the wood of a living tree maintains a temperature -of from 54 deg. to 56 deg. F., when the temperature stands from 37 deg. to 47 deg. F. -above zero, and that the internal warmth does not rise and fall in -proportion to that of the atmosphere. So long as the latter is below -67 deg. F., that of the tree is always highest; but, if the temperature of -the air rises to 67 deg. F., that of the vegetable growth is the lowest." -Since, then, trees maintain at all seasons a constant mean temperature -of 54 deg. F., it is easy to see why the air in contact with the forest -must be warmer in winter and cooler in summer than in situations where -it is deprived of that influence.[3] - -Again, the shade of trees protects the earth from the direct rays of -the sun, and prevents solar irradiation from the earth. This effect is -of immense importance in cities where the paved streets become -excessively heated, and radiation creates one of the most dangerous -sources of heat. Whoever has walked in the streets of New York, on a -hot summer's day, protected from the direct rays of a midday sun by -his umbrella, has found the reflected heat of the pavement -intolerable. If for a moment he passed into the dense shade of a tree, -he at once experienced a marked sense of relief. This relief is not -due so much to the shade as to the cooling effect of the vaporization -from the leaves of the tree. - -Trees also have a cutaneous transpiration by their leaves. And -although they absorb largely the vapor of the surrounding air, and -also the water of the soil, they nevertheless exhale constantly large -volumes into the air. This vaporization of liquids is a frigorific or -cooling process, and when most rapid the frigorific effect reaches its -maximum. The amount of fluid exhaled by vegetation has been, at -various times, estimated with more or less accuracy. Hales[4] states -that a sunflower, with a surface of 5.616 square inches, throws off at -the rate of twenty to twenty-four ounces avoirdupois every twelve -hours; a vine, with twelve square feet of foliage, exhales at the rate -of five or six ounces daily. Bishop Watson, in his experiments on -grasses, estimated that an acre of grass emits into the atmosphere -6.400 quarts of water in twenty-four hours. - -It is evident, therefore, that vegetation tends powerfully to cool the -atmosphere during a summer day, and this effect increases in -proportion to the increase of the temperature. The influence of trees -heavily leaved, in a district where there is no other vegetation, in -moderating and equalizing the temperature, can not be overestimated. -The amount of superficial surface exposed by the foliage of a single -tree is immense. For example, "the Washington elm, of Cambridge, -Mass., a tree of moderate size, was estimated several years since to -produce a crop of seven million leaves, exposing a surface of two -hundred thousand square feet, or about five acres of foliage." - -Trees regulate the humidity of the air by the process of absorption -and transpiration. They absorb the moisture contained in the air, and -again return to the air, in the form of vapor, the water which they -have absorbed from the earth and the air. The flow of sap in trees for -the most part ceases at night, the stimulus of light and heat being -necessary to the function of absorption and evaporation. During the -heated portions of the day, therefore, when there is the most need of -agencies to equalize both temperature and humidity, trees perform -their peculiar functions most actively. Moisture is rapidly absorbed -from the air by the leaves, and from the earth by the roots, and is -again all returned to the air and earth by transpiration or exudation. -The effect of this process upon temperature and humidity is thus -stated by Marsh: "The evaporation of the juices of the plant by -whatever process effected, takes up atmospheric heat and produces -refrigeration. This effect is not less real, though much less sensible -in the forest than in meadow and pasture land, and it can not be -doubted that the local temperature is considerably affected by it. But -the evaporation that cools the air diffuses through it, at the same -time, a medium which powerfully resists the escape of heat from the -earth by radiation. Visible vapor or clouds, it is well known, prevent -frosts by obstructing radiation, or rather by reflecting back again -the heat radiated by the earth, just as any mechanical screen would -do. On the other hand, clouds intercept the rays of the sun also, and -hinder its heat from reaching the earth." Again, he says, upon the -whole, their general effect "seems to be to mitigate extremes of -atmospheric heat and cold, moisture and drought. They serve as -equalizers of temperature and humidity." - -Again, let us notice the effects of trees upon malarial emanations. -The power of trees, when in leaf, to render harmless the poisonous -emanations from the earth has long been an established fact. Man may -live in close proximity to marshes from which arise the most -dangerous malaria with the utmost impunity, provided a grove intervene -between his home and the marsh. This function of trees was known to -the Romans, who enacted laws requiring the planting of trees in places -made uninhabitable by the diffusion of malaria, and placed groves -serving such purposes under the protection of some divinity to insure -their protection. It is a rule of the British army in India to select -an encampment having a grove between the camp and any low, wet soil. - -Finally, trees purify the atmosphere. The process of vegetable -nutrition consists in the appropriation by the plant or tree of -carbon. This element it receives from the air in the form principally -of carbonic acid, and in the process of digestion the oxygen is -liberated and again restored to the air, while the carbon becomes -fixed as an element of the woody fiber. Man and animals, on the -contrary, require oxygen for their nutrition, and the supply is in the -air they breathe. Carbon is a waste product of the animal system, and, -uniting with the oxygen, is expired as carbonic acid, a powerful -animal poison. A slight increase of the normal quantity of carbonic -acid in the air renders it poisonous to man, and continued respiration -of such air, or a considerable increase of the carbonic acid, will -prove fatal. The animal and vegetable world, therefore, complement -each other, and the one furnishes the conditions and forces by which -the other maintains life and health. "Plants," says Schacht, "imbibe -from the air carbonic acid and other gaseous or volatile products -exhaled by animals, developed by the natural phenomena of -decomposition. On the other hand, the vegetable pours into the -atmosphere oxygen, which is taken up by animals and appropriated by -them. The tree, by means of its leaves and its young herbaceous twigs, -presents a considerable surface for absorption and evaporation; it -abstracts the carbon of carbonic acid, and solidifies it in wood -fecula, and a multitude of other compounds. The result is that a -forest withdraws from the air, by its great absorbent surface, much -more gas than meadows or cultivated fields, and exhales proportionally -a considerably greater quantity of oxygen. The influence of the -forests on the chemical composition of the atmosphere is, in a word, -of the highest importance."[5] - -In large cities, where animal and vegetable decomposition goes on -rapidly during the summer, the atmosphere is, as already stated, at -times saturated with deleterious gases. At the period of the day when -malaria and mephitic gases are emitted in the greatest quantity and -activity, this function of absorption by vegetation is most active and -powerful. Carbonic acid, ammoniacal compounds, and other gases, -products of putrefaction, so actively poisonous to man, are absorbed, -and in the process of vegetable digestion the deleterious portion is -separated and appropriated by the plant, while oxygen, the element -essential to animal life, is returned to the air. Trees, therefore, in -cities, are of immense value, owing to their power to destroy or -neutralize malaria, and to absorb the poisonous elements of gaseous -compounds, while they render the air more respirable by emitting -oxygen. - -The conclusion from the foregoing facts is inevitable that one of the -great and pressing sanitary wants of New York city is an ample supply -of trees. It is, in effect, destitute of trees; for the unsightly -shrubs which are planted by citizens are, in no proper sense, adequate -to the purpose which we contemplate. Its long avenues, running north -and south, without a shade tree, and exposed to the full effect of the -sun, are all but impassable at noonday in the summer months. The -pedestrian who ventures out at such an hour finds no protection from -an umbrella, on account of the radiation of the intense heat from the -paved surface. Animals and man alike suffer from exposure in the -glowing heat. Nothing mitigates its intensity but the winds or an -occasional rainstorm. And when evening comes on, the cooling of the -atmosphere produced by vegetation does not occur, and unless partially -relieved by favoring winds or a shower the heat continues, but little -abated, and the atmosphere remains charged with noxious and -irrespirable gases. It is evident that shade trees, of proper kinds, -and suitably arranged, supply the conditions necessary to counteract -the evils of excessive heat. They protect the paved streets and the -buildings largely from the direct rays of the sun; they cool the lower -stratum of air by evaporation from their immense surfaces of leaves; -they absorb at once the malarious emanations and gases of -decomposition, and abstract their poisonous properties for their own -consumption; they withdraw from the air the carbonic acid thrown off -from the animal system as a poison, and decomposing it, appropriate -the element dangerous to man, and give back to the atmosphere the -element essential to his health and even life.[6] - -And we may add that cultivated shade trees in New York would be an -artistic and attractive feature of the streets. Every citizen enjoys -trees, as is evident from the efforts made to cultivate them -throughout the city. - -It is frequently alleged that trees can not be successfully cultivated -in cities on account of the gases in the soil. There are ample proofs -to the contrary. The city of Paris strikingly illustrates the -possibility of cultivating a large variety of trees in the streets and -public places of large cities when the planting and cultivation is -placed under competent authority. In our own country the cities of New -Haven and Washington are examples of the successful cultivation of -trees to an extent sufficient to greatly modify the summer -temperature. Authorities on landscape gardening and forestry sustain -the view that under proper supervision by competent and skilled -persons a great variety of trees, shrubs, plants, and vines can be -cultivated in the streets and public places of this city. Mr. -Frederick Law Olmstead, to whom the city is so much indebted for his -intelligent supervision of Central Park in its early period, warmly -supported a movement to cultivate trees, shrubs, plants, and vines in -the streets of New York. Dr. J.T. Rothrock, the very able and -experienced Commissioner of Forestry of Pennsylvania, under date of -October 10, 1898, speaking of the proposed plan of securing the -cultivating trees in the streets of this city, remarks: "I think it an -excellent measure, and I am sure that during the torrid season the -more tree shade you have the fewer will be your cases of heat -exhaustion. It is idle to say, as is often said in this country, that -trees can not be made to grow in our cities. Under existing conditions -the wonder is, not that trees look unhealthy in most cities, but that -any of them manage to live at all. It is perfectly well known that the -city of Paris has thousands of trees growing vigorously under such -surroundings as the American gardener would think impossible. Two -things are necessary to success--viz., first, the kinds of trees to -endure city life must be found; and, second, select from among them -such as are adapted by their size and shape to each special place." - -Mr. Gifford Pinchot, of the Division of Forestry, Department of -Agriculture, Washington, writes under date of December 2, 1898: -"Street trees are successfully planted in great numbers in all of the -most beautiful cities of the world. Washington and Paris are -conspicuous examples. That such trees succeed is largely due to the -great care taken in setting them out. The attractiveness of cities has -come to be reckoned among their business advantages, and nothing adds -to it more than well-selected, well-planted, and well-cared-for trees. -On the score of public health trees in the streets of cities are -equally desirable. They become objectionable only when badly selected -and badly maintained." - -In a recent paper on Tree Planting in the Streets of Washington, Mr. -W.P. Richards, surveyor of the District of Columbia, remarks that, -under the plan adopted, "tree planting has never been at an -experimental stage" in that city. "Washington was a city of young -trees during the seventies, and in the spring of 1875 more than six -thousand trees were planted, consisting of silver maples, Norway -maples, American elms, American and European lindens, sugar maples, -tulip trees, American white ash, scarlet maples, various poplars, and -ash-leaved maples.... A careful count was made of the trees in 1887, -and by comparing this with the number of trees since planted and those -removed, there is found to be more than seventy-eight thousand trees, -which if placed thirty feet apart would line both sides of a boulevard -between Washington and New York. These consist of more than thirty -varieties." Mr. Richards adds: "The planting and care of trees in -Washington grows from year to year, and the future will probably -demand more skill and judgment than in years past. About twenty -thousand dollars is spent annually, most of it in the care of old -trees. From one to three thousand young trees are planted during the -spring and fall of each year. The nursery has several thousand of the -best varieties ready for planting." - -The opinions of these authorities and the success of the work in -Washington, now extending over a quarter of a century, determine -beyond all question the feasibility and practicability of successfully -cultivating trees in the streets of cities. And if any one doubts the -power of trees cultivated in the streets to change the temperature of -a city let him calculate the amount of foliage which the seventy-eight -thousand trees, when full-grown, will furnish the city of Washington, -taking as his basis the fact that a single tree, the Washington elm, -at Cambridge, Massachusetts, when in full leafage, equals five acres -of foliage, and that one acre of grass emits into the atmosphere 6.400 -quarts of water in twenty-four hours, a powerfully cooling process. - -We have, finally, to consider through what agency the proposed -cultivation of trees in the city of New York can be accomplished most -rapidly and successfully. Three methods may be suggested, viz.: 1. -Encourage citizens each to plant and cultivate trees on his own -premises. 2. Organize voluntary "tree-planting associations," which -shall aid citizens or undertake to do the work at a minimum cost. 3. -Place the work under the entire supervision and jurisdiction of public -authority. The first method has been on trial from the foundation of -the city, and its results are a few stunted apologies for trees which -are useless for sanitary purposes and unsightly for ornamentation. The -average citizen is entirely incompetent either to select the proper -tree or to cultivate it when planted. Tree-planting associations have -proved useful agencies in exciting a popular interest in the subject, -and in aiding citizens in the selection of suitable trees and in -cultivating them. The Tree-Planting and Fountain Society of Brooklyn, -under the very able management of its accomplished secretary, Prof. -Lewis Collins, is a model organization of the kind, and has -accomplished a vast amount of good in this field in that city. But it -may well be questioned if we have not reached a period of sanitary -reform in cities when a work of the kind we contemplate in New York -should not be undertaken by the strong arm of the city government, as -a matter of public policy, and carried steadily forward to its -completion. The growth of the greater city is far too rapid in every -direction to await the slow movements of the people under the pressure -of voluntary organizations. The best work can be done in those -outlying districts where the streets are as yet but sparsely built -upon, and the soil has been undisturbed. Again, it is of the utmost -importance that a work of this kind, which will largely prove one of -city ornamentation, should be under the exclusive direction of a -skilled central authority having ample power and means to harmonize -every feature of the work from the center of the city to its remotest -limits. Finally, the successful cultivation of trees and other -vegetation in our streets can be successfully carried on only by -experts in the art of tree culture, who devote their entire time and -energies to these duties, and are sustained by the power of the city -government. Mr. Frederick Law Olmstead remarks, "Not one in a hundred -of all that may have been planted in the streets of our American -cities in the last fifty years has had such treatment that its species -would come to be if properly planted and cared for." Mr. Richards, in -the paper referred to on Tree Planting in the Streets of Washington, -makes the following statement: "The selection, planting, and care of -all trees in the streets of Washington are under the direction of the -District authorities; individual preferences and private enterprises -are not allowed to regulate this improvement, as is generally done in -other cities. Moreover, the city has its own nursery, where seeds -planted from its own trees grow and supply all the needed varieties." - -It is apparent that to accomplish such a work as we propose the -undertaking must be placed under the jurisdiction of a department of -the city government, skilled in the performance of such duties, fully -equipped with all needful appliances, and clothed with ample power and -supplied with the financial resources necessary to overcome every -obstacle. Fortunately, we have in our Department of Parks an organized -branch of the city administration endowed with every qualification for -the performance of these duties. The charter provides as follows: "It -shall be the duty of each commissioner ... to maintain the beauty and -utility of all such parks, squares, and public places as are situated -within his jurisdiction, and to institute and execute all measures for -the improvement thereof for ornamental purposes and for the beneficial -uses of the people of the city, ... and he shall have power to plant -trees and to construct, erect, and establish seats, drinking -fountains, statues, and works of art, when he may deem it tasteful or -appropriate so to do." At the head of this service is "a landscape -architect, skilled and expert, whose assent shall be requisite to all -plans and works or changes thereof respecting the conformation, -development, or ornamentation of any of the parks, squares, or public -places of the city, to the end that the same may be uniform and -symmetrical at all times." - -The conclusion seems inevitable that public policy requires that, in -the interests of the health of the people and the comfort and -well-being of that large class of the poor who can not escape the -summer heat by leaving the city, the jurisdiction of the Park -Department should be extended to all trees, shrubs, plants, and vines -now and hereafter planted and growing in the streets of New York, and -that said department should be required to plant such additional -trees, shrubs, etc., as it may from time to time deem necessary and -expedient for the purpose of carrying out the intent and purpose of -such act which should be declared to be to improve the public health, -to render the city comfortable to its summer residents, and for -ornamentation. - - "He who plants a tree, he plants love; - Tents of coolness, spreading out above - Wayfarers, he may not live to see. - Gifts that grow are best, - Hands that bless are blest. - Plant. Life does the rest." - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] In 1872, while a Commissioner of Health, I had occasion to examine -and report on the causes of the high death rate during the summer -months in the city of New York. The chief cause was determined to be -the excessive heat which characterizes those months. It was -recommended in the report to the Board of Health that legislation be -secured empowering and requiring the Department of Parks to plant and -cultivate trees, shrubs, plants, and vines in all the streets, -avenues, and public places in the city. A bill was drafted and -introduced into the Legislature, but it did not become a law, and no -further effort has been made to secure such legislation. Meantime, two -tree-planting societies have been established, one in the Borough of -Brooklyn and the other in the Borough of Manhattan, which are -endeavoring to awaken public interest to the importance of planting a -suitable number and variety of trees in the streets for purposes of -ornamentation. The aim of this paper, which is largely based on the -report of 1872, is to revive the project of giving the Department of -Parks jurisdiction over the trees in the streets, and require it to -plant and cultivate additional trees, shrubs, plants, and other forms -of vegetation for the improvement of the public health and for the -purpose of ornamentation. - -[2] Man and Nature. G.P. Marsh, New York, 1872. - -[3] It is interesting to notice, in this connection, the remark of -Angus Smith, that a temperature of 54 deg. F. is important in the -decomposition of animal and vegetable matter. - -[4] Public Parks. By John H. Rauch, M.D., Chicago, 1869. - -[5] Les Arbres, quoted by Marsh. - -[6] The late Dr. Francis remarked that he had noticed a marked -increase in the fatality of diseases in sections of the city after the -removal of trees and all vegetation. - - - - -MIVART'S GROUNDWORK OF SCIENCE.[7] - -BY PROF. WILLIAM KEITH BROOKS. - - -If books like this by Professor Mivart, who holds that "the groundwork -of science must be sought in the human mind," help to teach that the -greatest service of science to mankind is not "practical," but -intellectual, they are worthy the consideration of the thoughtful, -even if this consideration should lead some of the thoughtful to -distrust Mivart's groundwork, or to doubt whether it is firm enough -for any superstructure. - -Many, no doubt, think the desire to know a sufficient groundwork for -science, believing that they wish to know in order that they may -rightly order their lives; but the school to which Mivart belongs -tells them all this is mere vulgar ignorance, since the groundwork of -science is, and must be, something known, rather than a humble wish to -know. - -According to Mivart, the groundwork of science consists of truths -which can not be obtained by reasoning, and can not depend for their -certainty on any experiments or observations alone, since whatever -truths depend upon reasoning can not be ultimate, but must be -posterior to, and depend upon, the principles, observations, or -experiments which show that it is indeed true, and upon which its -acceptance thus depends. The groundwork of science must therefore be -composed, he says, of truths which are self-evident; and he assures us -that, if this were not the case, natural knowledge would be mere -"mental paralysis and self-stultification." - -He would tell the wayfarer who, having been lost among the mountains, -comes at last upon a broad highway winding around the foothills and -stretching down over the plain to the horizon, that an attempt to go -anywhere upon this road is "mere paralysis," unless he knows where it -begins and where it ends. He would have told the ancient dwellers upon -the shores of the Nile that their belief that they owed to the river -their agriculture, their commerce, their art and science, and all -their civilization, was mere self-stultification, because they knew -nothing of its sources in the central table-land. - -May not one believe, with Mivart, that the scientific knowledge which -arises in the mind by means of the senses through contact with the -world of Nature, thus arises by virtue of our innate reason, and yet -find good ground for asking whether physical science may not have -something useful and important to tell us about the mechanism and -history of this innate reason itself? Is proof that our reason is -innate, or born with us, proof that it is ultimate or necessary or -beyond the reach of improvement and development by the application of -natural knowledge? May not this reason itself prove, perhaps, to be a -mechanical _phenomenon_ of matter and motion, and a part of the -discoverable order of physical causation; and may not science some -time tell us how it became innate, and what it is worth? - -Questions of this sort are easy to ask but hard to answer; for many -hold our only way to reach an answer to be _to find out_ by scientific -research and discovery. While this method may be too slow for _a -priori_ philosophers, may it not be wise for those who, being no -philosophers, know of no short cut to natural knowledge, to admit -that, while they would like to know more, they have not yet learned -all there is to learn? If this suspension of judgment is indeed -self-stultification, the case of many students is hard, though they -may not really find themselves so helpless as they are told that they -must be; for he who is told by the learned faculty that he is -paralyzed need not be greatly troubled if he finds his powers for -work as much at his command as they were before. - -The modern student has heard so many versions of the story of the -two-faced shield that he is much disposed to suspect that many of the -questions which have so long divided "philosophers" may be only new -illustrations of the old fable, and he asks whether there need be any -real antagonism between those who attribute knowledge to experience -and those who attribute it to our innate reason. - -There are men of science who, seeing no good reason to challenge -Plato's belief that experience, creating nothing, only calls forth the -"ideas" which were already dormant or latent in the mind, do -nevertheless find reason to ask whether exhaustive knowledge of our -physical history may not some time show how these dormant "ideas" came -to be what they are. They ask whether errors may not be judgments -which lead us into danger and tend to our physical destruction, and -whether it may not be because a judgment has, in the long run, proved -preservative in the struggle for existence that we call it true. May -not, for example, the difference between the error that the stick half -in water is bent and the truth that the stick in air is straight, some -time prove to be that the savage who has rectified his judgment has -speared his fish, while he who has not has lost his dinner? - -So long as we can ask such questions as this, how can we be sure that -because a judgment is no more than might have been expected from us, -as Nature has made us, at our present intellectual level, it is either -necessary or ultimate or universal? Things that are innate or natural -are not always necessary or universal, for while reason is natural to -the mind of man, some men are unreasonable, and a few have been even -known to be illogical. - -It therefore seems clear that another view of the groundwork of -science than that set forth by Professor Mivart is possible, for many -believe that this groundwork is to be found in our desire to know what -we do not yet know, rather than in things known; and they believe they -wish to know in order that they may learn to distinguish truth from -error, and walk with sure feet where the ignorant grope and stumble. - -Many books are profitable and instructive even if they fail to -convince; and the question which a prospective student of Mivart's -book is likely to ask is whether it is consistent with itself; for if -the author has not so far made himself master of his subject as to -state his case without palpable contradiction, no one will expect much -help from him. It is a remark of Aristotle, in the Introduction to the -Parts of Animals, that while one may need special training to tell -whether an author has proved his point, all may judge whether he is -consistent with himself, and the attempt to learn whether Mivart's -book is consistent may not greatly tax our minds. - -He tells us that many men of science are "idealists"; and he says that -idealism, being mere self-stultifying skepticism, must be refuted and -demolished before we can begin our search for the groundwork of -science or be sure that we know anything. It would have surprised -Berkeley not a little to be told that his notions are the very essence -of skepticism, for the good bishop tells us again and again that his -only motive in writing is to make an end of idle skepticism, once for -all, that they who are no philosophers, but simple, honest folks, may -come by their own and live at ease. - -There is little ease, and less justice, even at this late day, for the -man of science who insists that he is neither an idealist nor a -materialist nor a monist, but a naturalist; and that it will be time -enough to have an opinion as to the relation between mind and matter -when we find out; but many will, no doubt, be pleased to hear that the -crime of which they are now suspected is no longer "materialism," but -"idealism," for the public attaches no odium to the idealist, whatever -may be Professor Mivart's verdict. Still all must feel an interest in -the exposure of the weakness of idealism, since we have been told, by -many shrewd thinkers, that Berkeley's statement of the case, while -inconclusive, is unanswerable; although they hold that it is lack of -experimental evidence which stands in the way of either its acceptance -or its refutation. - -Mivart begins his treatment of idealism by a simple and satisfactory -summary, pages 36-38, of Berkeley's Principles, but he forgets it on -the next page, for it is no exaggeration to assert that the "idealism" -which he refutes is a mere parody on that which he has just given his -readers, and something that no sane man would dream of holding. - -For example, he admits, on page 38, that nothing "can be more absurd -than the criticism of those persons who say that idealists, to be -consistent, ought to run up against lamp-posts, fall into ditches, and -commit other like absurdities." On page 47 he undertakes to show, "by -the natural spontaneous judgment of mankind," that external material -bodies exist "of themselves, and have a substantial reality in -addition to that of the qualities we perceive; because the spontaneous -judgment of mankind accords with what even animals learn through their -senses. A wide river is an objective obstacle to the progress of a -man's dog, as well as to that of the dog's owner." - -One who compares the extract from page 38 with this from page 47 can, -so far as I can see, reconcile them only by one of these hypotheses: -1, that Mivart holds a wide river to afford proof of reality which is -not afforded by a ditch; or, 2, that the dog which does not run -against lamp-posts affords evidence of the reality of Nature which is -not afforded by a man in the same circumstances; or, 3, that "nothing -can be more absurd than the criticism of these persons" who reason -like Professor Mivart. - -While sometimes right and sometimes wrong, like the rest of us, the -apostle of tar water was no fool, although the groundwork of Mivart's -science, in the book before us, is the assertion that idealists -idiotically deny everything which they have not perceived, and hold -that the external world has no existence. - -It is hard to see how words could be clearer than those in which -Berkeley repudiates all nonsense of this sort. "I do not argue," says -he, "against the existence of any one thing that we apprehend, _either -by sense or by reflection_. That the things I see with my eyes and -touch with my hands do exist, really exist, I make not the least -question. I am of a vulgar cast, simple enough to believe my own -senses, and to take things as I find them. To be plain, it is my -opinion that the real things are the very things that I see and feel, -and perceive by my senses. I can not for my life help thinking that -snow is white and fire hot. And as I am no skeptic with regard to the -nature of things, so neither am I as to their existence. That a thing -should be really perceived by my senses, and at the same time not -really exist, is to me a plain contradiction. Wood, stone, fire, -water, flesh, iron, and the like things, which I name and discourse -of, are things I know. Away, then, with all that skepticism, all those -ridiculous philosophical doubts! I might as well doubt of my own being -as of the being of those things I actually see and feel." - -Mivart lays great stress upon the opinion of men in general as a -refutation of idealism; and as Berkeley also says he is content to -appeal to the common sense of the world, it may be well to ask what -the verdict of "plain, untutored men" is, even if we doubt whether -such a jury is the highest tribunal. - -"Ask the gardener," says Berkeley, "why he thinks yonder cherry tree -exists in the garden, and he shall tell you, because he sees it and -feels it." - -Mivart holds it one thing to see, and quite another matter to know -that we see, for he says that while we see and feel the "qualities" of -things by those "lower faculties" which we share with the "brutes," we -perceive the "substance" in which these qualities inhere, by certain -"higher faculties," which, whether represented in the brutes by latent -potencies or not, have been "given" to man in their completeness, and -not slowly and gradually built up from low and simple beginnings in -the brutes. - -The question we are to ask the gardener is, therefore, something to -this effect: Whether he thinks the cherry tree exists because he sees -it and feels it, or because, when he sees it and feels it, he knows -that he does so? - -If he weighs his words will he not ask how he can know that he does -see it and feel it unless he knows that he does so? I, myself, am no -philosopher; but, to my untutored mind, Mivart's distinction between -things perceived by _sense_, and things _perceived_ by sense, seems a -mere verbal difference of accent and emphasis, rather than a -fundamental distinction. - -As most men use the word, "mind" implies consciousness of that sort -which Mivart calls self-consciousness, and while there is no reason -why those who choose should not so use the word as to include -unconscious or "subconscious" or "conscientious" cerebration, most -plain, untutored men prefer to use words as their neighbors do. - -If long waiting on Nature has given to the old gardener more -shrewdness than we commonly find in those whose pursuits are less -leisurely, he may say that, while he knows the tree is there because -he has planted it and tended it and watched it grow, it now falls on -his eyes day after day, without attracting his notice, unless -something about it which calls for his skill _catches_ his eye, and -_commands_ his _attention_. - -If we see reason to believe that this difference is a matter of words -and definitions, rather than a real difference in kind; if we fail to -find any sharp dividing line between unperceived cerebration and -"mind," is not this, in itself, enough to lead even Macaulay's -schoolboy to ask whether mind may not be a slow and gradual growth -from small beginnings, and a co-ordinated whole, to the common -function of which all its parts contribute, rather than a "gift" of -"lower faculties" and "higher faculties"? - -We must ask, however, whether mechanical explanations of mind are in -any way antagonistic to the conviction that it is a gift. May not one -study the history of the mechanism of mind, and the way this mechanism -works, in a spirit of profound and humble gratitude to the Giver of -all good gifts? - -Is the lamentable prevalence, among plain untutored men, of the notion -that mechanical explanations of Nature are inconsistent with belief -that all Nature is a gift, to be laid to the charge of the men of -science? - -Is it not rather the poisonous fruit of the ill-advised attempts of -"philosophers" like Professor Mivart to teach that a gift can not be a -gift at all unless it is an arbitrary interruption to the law and -order of physical Nature. - - -FOOTNOTE: - -[7] The Groundwork of Science. A Study of Epistemology. By St. George -Mivart, M.D., Ph.D., F.R.S. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1898. - - - - -THE SCIENCE OF OBSERVATION. - -BY CHARLES LIVY WHITTLE. - - -This is an era of observation; in many fields and in divers countries -the study of Nature from a strictly scientific standpoint is being -prosecuted with results which are rapidly increasing our knowledge of -the universe. This modern growth has come about as the natural rebound -of the suppressed energy that has been held forcibly under subjugation -during the last two thousand years, at a time when the closing echoes -of the warfare between the literal interpretation of the Scriptures -and science have ceased. - -A review of this long battle with the forces of the Catholic and -Protestant churches on the one hand, arrayed against a relatively few -investigators, scattered through the last ten centuries, on the other -hand, shows a record on which none can look without regret. As far as -we are able to learn, there was little opposition to the study of -science before the collection and translation of the old manuscripts -now constituting the Alexandrian version of the Bible and the -consequent upbuilding of the Jewish church. The remains of ancient -Egyptian civilization show that science prior to that period, as -measured by the discoveries in physics and astronomy, had attained no -inconsiderable prominence; and had this people endured until the -present time, uninfluenced by the strife that for many centuries -racked the inhabitants of the eastern hemisphere, we should to-day be -far more advanced in our understanding of the universe. - -In the more progressive countries, at least, the breaking of the -shackles in which the investigating mind had been imprisoned for so -long has led not only to a greater number of scientific workers, but -also to an increase in the fields of observation. The methods of -investigation have likewise undergone a transformation. In place of -deductive reasoning, even as late as a few decades in the past, -conclusions and generalizations are now founded on lines of thought -more largely inductive. Men of middle age are able to recall the time -when even our leading institutions of learning required instruction in -several branches of science to be given by one teacher. It was -possible twenty-five years ago for a man of great ability to master -the essentials of the leading sciences and to teach them, but under -the present stimulus for investigation no one can hope to excel in -more than one subject. It has thus come about that in place of the -many-sided teacher of science we now have in our larger universities -specialists in every subject. As the work of research progresses, the -specialist--for example, in geology--is compelled by the increased -scope of the information on his subject to select one branch of -geology of which he shall be master. The chair of geology is now split -up into economic, glacial, and mining geology, paleontology, etc., and -specialists are required in each division. This breaking up is true of -most other sciences. In this labyrinth of specialized subjects, and -the maze of technical terms rendered necessary thereby, the people as -a whole can only grope in darkness; but out of this bewildering -condition of affairs, from the mass of facts collected, and the -resulting generalizations and theories, there may be culled the kernel -of one important principle by means of which these facts are -ascertained and the generalizations made. The growth of science and -its ever-ramifying divisions, and the gradual establishment of new -methods of investigation, have brought forth what may be termed the -science of observation; and it is through an application of the above -principle that the people may be taught correctly to interpret Nature, -and, by their new habit of thought, to free the brain from the tangle -of superstition which is still present with most of us. - -A knowledge of how to observe natural phenomena and to draw correct -inferences therefrom has been the product of slow growth, while -through long custom, in matters closely pertaining to our daily life, -there has been observation on strictly scientific principles for -centuries. Stated succinctly, natural phenomena are due to causes, one -or more, simple or complex. These causes are the laws of the universe, -and to arrive at an understanding of them we must free our minds of -any bias and study phenomena experimentally in the laboratory, or in -our daily contact with Nature. In this way a mass of facts will be -gathered by the systematic observer which will be found to fall into -natural groups, and by inductive reasoning the laws governing each -group may be learned. It is not possible for mankind as a whole to -investigate in this exhaustive manner; but it is important that the -method of arriving at the laws of Nature be understood. Many and, in -fact, most phenomena met with in some of the sciences, particularly -those having to deal with the earth, are susceptible of correct -interpretation without attempting broad generalizations, if the -principles of scientific observation are brought to bear upon their -solution, and it is our purpose to show by practical examples drawn -from Nature how elementary students may attack and solve some of the -simple problems met with on every side. It is proposed to use for -illustration simple phenomena pertaining to the earth, drawn from -geology and its newly constituted sister science, physical geography. -These two sciences perhaps afford the greatest range of phenomena, -which are accessible to every one, in whatsoever part of the earth he -may reside. No part of the land surface is wanting in problems which -demand explanation, and which may be attacked from the standpoint of -the geologist or physical geographer, or both. - -One of the most pronounced departures taking place in -preparatory-school education at the present time is to be found in the -prominence given to these subjects, not only in the schoolroom, but by -practical experience in the laboratory of Nature, among the hills and -mountains, as well. The object of this departure is twofold: the first -and most important is to train the young early to observe phenomena -and to interpret them; the second, in a narrower sense, is purely -educational. The one inculcates a habit of thought that will be of -inestimable advantage in pursuing future study; the other, without -taking into consideration the element of mental training, constitutes -instruction in concrete things that are matters of general education. - -Before the student in the introductory schools is brought in contact -with problems in the field, it is essential that he receive text-book -or oral instruction in some of the geological processes giving rise to -the phenomena to be studied later out of doors. In practical teaching -the student is taken on excursions into the region not far removed -from the school. At first some simple geological facts are shown him, -often on a very small scale, but embodying principles which, when -understood, lead to a ready interpretation of larger problems. Step by -step the first principles are amplified by a larger and more varied -class of examples, until the student is able logically to apply the -reasoning in explanation of simple problems to the solution of the -greater problems in physical geography and geology. In the absence of -such excursions, I shall introduce a series of photographs carefully -arranged to lead the reader along the same line of reasoning up to -similar broad conclusions--a method which, if not so satisfactory and -instructive, will at least have an educative value. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.--QUARRY SHOWING FRESH AND WEATHERED ROCKS.] - -Our first excursion will be to a locality where an open cut has been -made for the purpose of carrying on quarrying operations. The -accompanying photograph has been so taken as to include both the top -and the bottom of the quarry (Fig. 1). Let us first inspect the rock -in the lower part of the quarry. The existence of planes of fracture, -or joints, crossing the rock in various directions, dividing it into -blocks, early attracts our attention. The stone appears dark-colored, -tough, and is seen to be made up of two or three different minerals: -one is black, cleaves readily into thin plates of a translucent -nature, and we easily recognize it as an iron-bearing mica, or -isinglass. Another is white, and cleaves or breaks in two directions, -making angles of about ninety degrees; this we know as common -feldspar. The third is less easily recognized as pyroxene, another of -the many minerals containing iron. Having tested our knowledge of -mineralogy, we will look about and see if all the rock exposed is -like that at the bottom of the quarry. As we ascend from the point -indicated by the lower hammer, we notice that the dark blue rock -gradually takes on a rusty hue, and its toughness has become less. -Going still higher, the rusty character increases, and along joints -the rock is so lacking in coherency as to fall to pieces when struck a -light blow with a hammer. The central portions of the blocks, however, -after we have removed the outer shell of rusty material, are seen to -be like the lower rock. In the middle foreground of the picture there -are shown several bowlders derived from above, which are merely these -residual cores, and are known as bowlders of disintegration. These are -also shown in place near the top of the picture at the extreme left. -Near the top of the quarry, at a point marked by the upper hammer, the -solid rock gives place to a rusty mass of loose material, traversing -which the cracks may still be seen, and in which there are few -indications of the solid rock[8] (see Fig. 2). This loose material -when carefully examined is found to be made up of exactly the same -minerals as the dense rock below, but we notice that the mica and -pyroxene are rusty and that the feldspar is stained yellowish brown. -The pyroxene in particular is very much changed, and quickly crumbles -away in the hand. It is clear that there is every stage between the -solid rock and the incoherent powder at the surface of the ground. The -joint planes crossing the solid rock below may still be observed -traversing the decayed portion, and also many rounded areas of rock, -which are seen to be identical with the stone at the bottom of the -quarry.[9] - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.--DETAILED VIEW OF A PORTION OF QUARRY SHOWING -WEATHERED ROCK.] - -How shall the facts before us be explained? It has been shown that the -dense rock and the loose material are the same mineralogically, and -grade from one into the other, and it is certainly rational to suppose -that the latter is merely a changed form of the first. Some force must -have been at work on the solid rock, destroying its coherency and -converting it into loose sand. If we inspect the powdered rock, it -will become apparent that this change has been brought about mainly by -the process of weathering: surface water, with its ever-present acid -impurities, has brought about the partial decay of the pyroxene and -mica and caused the disintegration of the upper part of the rock. -Water has not only attacked the rock from the upper surface, but has -penetrated to considerable depths along the joint planes, working -inward toward the center of each block until the mass becomes -completely disintegrated. This process explains the concentric shells -about cores of unaltered rock, each representing original joint -blocks, which are seen in the second photograph. All our excursions -into the field will show that this is not an isolated case, for -wherever a ledge is exposed to our view there will be found a zone of -weathered rock, varying in thickness from mere films to many feet. - -By this process the greatest part of the materials constituting soils -is formed, and the flora and fauna of the earth are rendered possible. -Upon such products of decay the food supply of running water -manifestly depends in a large measure, as will be pointed out on our -next excursion; and were the scope of this article somewhat larger, it -would be easy to show that the rock decay seen in our photograph has -taken place in a length of time measured by something like ten -thousand years. If all rock decayed as easily, and if the rate of -decomposition, as determined here, held good for great distances from -the surface, mountains two miles in height would become a prey to the -force of chemical action in six and a half million years. We can not, -however, give a time equivalent for the destruction of a mountain -range, since decay, and consequent disintegration, is only one of the -many forces acting to sap the strength of solid rocks and to tear them -asunder. The above figures are given merely to make plain that the -time necessary to accomplish the leveling of a mountain chain is but a -small part of the earth's existence as such, great as this period may -seem from the standpoint of human history. - -We shall, if possible, time the second excursion immediately after a -heavy rain, and we shall select for our objective point a place where -the rain water, in its efforts to reach a stream, is forced to run -down some steep declivity. Under such circumstances, the carrying -power of the water will be very great, and we shall hope to find -evidence of its work in transporting the products of rock weathering -and other material broken up by the action of frost. A little -diligence will soon reward us with the evidence which we seek. A local -inequality of the ground, perhaps only a few feet across, is found -filled with water--a minute, temporary lake caused by the recent heavy -rainfall. Such little water bodies are extremely common, but the -accompanying geological phenomena are, notwithstanding, none the less -interesting, and the conclusions to be drawn from the evidence thus -presented are none the less valuable. - -If we examine the pool critically, it will be noticed that its shore -line is cut by a little channel along which the overflow makes its -escape. Further investigation will show that at another point along -the shore, especially if we are fortunate enough to visit the locality -very soon after a rain, there is a small rivulet entering the pool; -and also that the entering stream is discolored with mud and carries -more or less sand, while the escaping stream is nearly clear, and is -free from all traces of coarse, sandy material. It is therefore -evident that the sediment brought in by the stream has been left -behind in the pool, and of course will be found deposited at its -bottom, and it will appear that the only explanation of the inability -of the water further to transport its burden is to be found in the -fact that water loses nearly all its motion, and therefore its -transporting power, on entering a stagnant pool. These are elementary -truths, but an amplification of such simple phenomena is often fully -capable of accounting for the most stupendous results. - -[Illustration: FIG. 3.--TEMPORARY WET-WEATHER DELTA.] - -Having made these observations, let us look at the form assumed by the -sediment when it is forced to fall to the bottom. At the point where -the stream enters the pool there is seen an accumulation of material -having a nearly level upper surface, presenting a scalloped or -lobe-shaped outer margin, upon which the stream may be seen flowing -and entering the water at one of the lobes. Other channels, though -unoccupied by water, also lead to similar lobes. If we watch closely, -we may be able to witness the growth of this body of sand, called a -delta, as the falling sediment rapidly increases the size of the lobe; -and also to perceive that as soon as the lobe is built out -considerably in advance of the main body of sand, it will be easier -for the stream to enter the water on one side of the scallop, thus -abandoning its old mouth. In this manner the stream moves from one -place to another, successively building the little scallops and -continually carving new channels for itself. Fig. 3 is a photograph of -such a delta, some three feet across, taken after the water had been -drained away, and reveals its form in a characteristic manner. As we -watch its growth, it will become evident that only the coarsest -material transported by the stream goes to make up the delta, and that -the clay and finest sand are deposited farther away, where the water -is more quiet, or else pass out in the stream draining the pool. Let -us look about a little. Not far from our miniature lake there are -several others. In some the size of the delta is much larger in -proportion to the area of the pool than is the case with the one first -studied. We find in some cases that the stream has progressively built -its delta completely across the old water surface. Taking a thin piece -of board or a large knife, we can easily cut vertically through this -sand deposit, thus exposing what is called a geological section. The -sand grains of which the deposit is largely composed are seen to be -arranged in layers nearly horizontal, and these layers are found to be -due to alternations of sediment varying in fineness. This phenomenon -is called stratification, and is what we should expect of the action -of gravity operating on material of different sizes and densities -suspended in a body of water. It has been found inexpedient to attempt -to show a photograph of this section, owing to the smallness of the -subject, but the same phenomena may be observed on a much larger scale -in Fig. 5, which will be described below. - -A few rods away the stream that feeds the pool has its origin. The -sediment carried by the water and going to build up its delta has its -source in part in a neighboring bank made up of material derived from -solid rock by weathering, similar to that shown on our first -excursion, and partly from older water deposits. Steep channels exist -in the disintegrated rock, which represent the material removed by the -fast-flowing rain water. - -Now what geological phenomena have we observed at this locality? In -the first place, it has become clear that running water possesses the -power of transporting sediment. In the second place, this sediment has -been deposited wherever the velocity of the water has been materially -checked. The sediment has been laid down in horizontal layers under -the influence of gravity. Furthermore, the material of which the delta -is composed has been shown, in part at least, to have been derived -from a solid rock such as forms our mountains. In our first excursion -we saw that chemical change promoted disintegration; in our second, -running water is observed seizing upon these products of decay, -transporting them and building them into stratified deposits in the -first convenient pool. A level-topped delta is first formed, which may -or may not grow to fill the pool in which it is born. Some of the -pools have become filled, while the delta as such has disappeared; it -has grown into a tiny sand plain. - -Let us see if the work performed by these temporary rivulets is -typical of running water in general. For this purpose we shall visit a -spot where a river enters some considerable body of water such as a -lake. Let us inspect the river. Its water is sluggish, discolored by -organic matter derived from decaying vegetation, and for some distance -up stream from its mouth it meanders slowly across a flat, marshy area -or meadow. If we also visit the spot at a time when the river is -swollen by heavy rains or melting snows, the presence of this organic -matter will be masked by the turbidity of the water; we shall learn -that only in the freshet seasons does the water attain sufficient -velocity to carry any visible load of sand and clay. The upper end of -the lake will be found to be shallow, muddy, and water lilies will -have discovered congenial surroundings. At another part of the lake -the outflowing water appears clear as crystal; the sediment brought in -by the river has manifestly been deposited in the lake, as was the -case in our little pool. The marsh at the upper end, of course, is -merely another delta, slow growing in this instance, grass-covered, -but as surely encroaching on the water area as in the earlier -examples. When an entering stream is normally of great transporting -power, owing to steep slopes down which it rushes, the form of its -delta is not unlike the one first described. - -With the data already gathered, we can not escape from the conclusion -that the growth going on at the head of the lake will in time, if -present conditions continue to exist, push its way forward until it -has occupied the whole water area. The sediment which is now deposited -therein will then be transported across the plain, and will be carried -along until another body of water is reached. Further search will -bring to light the fact that there are plenty of examples showing all -stages between the simple delta and the completely filled lake. The -innumerable marshes and meadows which characterize the northern part -of the United States are fine examples of lakes which have perished in -this manner. - -[Illustration: FIG. 4.--A COMMON FORM OF LARGE DELTA.] - -Our next excursion will be made to the locality shown in Fig. 4, which -is a sketch of a large delta occurring at a considerable height above -the general level of the country, although at the present time the -delta is not in vicinity of water.[10] It will be evident to the -reader that it differs in no important particular, excepting size, -from our little type specimen formed in a pool. Its level top and -frontal lobes are to-day nearly as strongly marked as at the time it -was made. The reader will have little difficulty in picturing the -original conditions of its formation in some ancient lake. This old -lake did not endure until the inflowing streams had filled it to a -level plain, but for some reason, which it is unnecessary for us to -consider, the water was permitted to escape, leaving the delta perched -on the valley side. Such deltas are very common, and we find them in -all stages, from simple beginnings, as above, to the completed sand -plain. - -[Illustration: FIG. 5.--GEOLOGICAL CROSS-SECTION OF A DELTA.] - -The sand of which our first delta was composed has already been -referred to as arranged in horizontal layers. In order to verify our -conclusions regarding the origin of this delta, let us seek for an -opportunity to observe its internal structure, and to compare it with -that observed in the first example. It may happen that the opportunity -does not exist at this immediate locality, but a little way off a -similar deposit occurs, and a beautiful section has been uncovered by -the vigorous attacks of a steam shovel. This section has already been -referred to on page 464, as illustrating the structure of the sand -layers making up the tiny delta, as well as water deposits in general, -and is reproduced here as Fig. 5. The reader will observe in this -picture many familiar features common to railroad excavations. The -upper part of the geological section thus exposed is somewhat masked -by a downfall of sand and loam, and the lower part is also hidden by -the same materials. Along the central part, however, the sand and -gravel may be seen arranged in horizontal layers of a varying -thickness. A close inspection of the uppermost layers will detect a -variation in coarseness among the different strata. Such alternations -of layers of coarse and fine material are due to differences in the -transporting power of the running water that brought the sand and -pebbles to their present resting place; the coarse gravel and pebbles -were carried by fast-flowing rivers, and the fine sand by streams of -less rapidity and consequently less transporting power. Beds of this -character ordinarily correspond closely in time with alternating -periods of great rainfall or snow melting and the summer seasons. The -pebbles of which the coarse layers are composed, as we should expect, -are far from spherical, and the operation of gravity on such bodies, -as they fall to the floor of a lake or ocean, is to cause them to -arrange themselves with their flat surfaces horizontal and parallel to -one another. In the example before us this fact is apparent, and -affords the basis for another line of reasoning by which all such -stratified deposits, however great their magnitude, are to be referred -to the same source--namely, stream-transported materials derived from -a decaying and wasting land surface, laid down in water under the -influence of gravity. - -We have now arrived at a most important and far-reaching -generalization so far as the work performed by running water is -concerned, and its action in filling our lakes and ponds; and we have -learned by observation on a small scale the means by which such -deposits may be recognized. Let us apply these means of recognition to -the phenomena shown by our large rivers and the more enduring oceans -into which they drain. In the same manner that we have studied the -little pool and larger lake, we will look into the work done by the -great waterways of our continents, selecting as a type of such streams -the mighty Mississippi. Careful measurement has shown that this river -annually transports two hundred million tons of sediment mechanically -suspended. What becomes of this enormous quantity of sand and clay, -equal to a cubic mile in a little over a century, as it is swept into -the waters of the Gulf of Mexico? For this purpose we have only to -visit the region about its mouth to become acquainted with the almost -impotent struggles that have been made by our Government during the -last fifty years in an effort to keep the river below New Orleans, in -part at least, confined to its present channels; and to study the -chart of that portion of the Gulf coast prepared by the United States -Coast and Geodetic Survey (see Fig. 6). We have not forgotten the -little lobes; their method of growth, and the general form of our -first-seen delta, shown in Fig. 3. In viewing the phenomena at the -mouth of the Mississippi, it is no longer necessary for our present -purposes to make a detailed study, since it will become apparent at -once that the river is doing the work on a larger scale typified by -the performance of the tiny stream flowing into its temporary pool. In -place of the little delta with its still smaller lobes, the -Mississippi has deposited at its mouth an enormous delta, thousands of -square miles in area, and its bifurcating arms may be seen building -out several scallops for miles into the waters of the gulf. For -centuries these long lobes have been building in advance of the delta -front. The arms gradually become clogged with sediment, a new passage -to the ocean is opened on the sides, where deposition will begin at a -new point, producing a lobe as before. Situated many miles up the -river, it is to-day the great fear of New Orleans that its only -navigable arm to the sea will thus be closed to that commerce upon -which the life of the city depends. - -[Illustration: FIG. 6.--THE DELTA OF THE MISSISSIPPI.] - -Only a portion of the sediment brought in by the river goes to form -its delta; a large part of the finest material, such as clay, is -transported by temporary and permanent currents thousands of miles -away, where it is deposited in the more quiet waters of the ocean. In -this manner the Mississippi has been shown to deposit a cubic mile of -mechanically transported material in a little over a century. What -shall we say of the effects produced on the continents and oceans by -thousands of rivers, each doing its proportionate share of work and -acting through millions of years? Two main results must follow, unless -interruptions occur: the lower elevations and the magnificent mountain -ranges, which rear their lofty heads above the permanent snow line, -will be divided into minor peaks; valleys will be carved out; the -whole land surface will slowly waste away, at first rapidly, at last -slowly, and be transported to the oceans, where it will form great -horizontal beds differing in no essential particular, excepting size, -from those shown in Fig. 5--great deposits that are merely deltas on a -large scale. The geologist, however, finds no evidence to indicate -that at any time in the earth's history have these theoretical results -taken place. Land masses, of continental dimensions, have not been -allowed thus to waste entirely away to a general flatness on account -of the interruptions caused by elevation--the bodily lifting of great -areas of rock, even out of the ocean floor, to become mountains or -plateaus, in some cases higher than any point in this country. If our -observations thus far and those yet to be made serve to make this -clear, one of the objects of this article will have been -accomplished. It is to be hoped that our observations have made plain -the processes of rock disintegration and water transportation; that in -the oceans all these materials are eventually deposited in beds -horizontally arranged, composed of such products of decay in the -condition of sand and mud. We have only to point out the proof that -great land masses, composed of water-deposited materials, have been -lifted from the ocean to become continents and mountain ranges. - -As the ocean deposits slowly accumulate in layers to beds of many -thousands of feet in thickness, the lower parts are gradually -subjected to greatly increased pressure produced by the overlying -beds. During this time waters of a varying temperature, carrying, -chemically dissolved, great quantities of lime, silica, and iron -oxide, are allowed free circulation through them. These conditions -promote chemical change: much silica (the mineral quartz), lesser -amounts of carbonate of lime (the mineral calcite), and iron oxide are -precipitated about the loose sand grains, firmly cementing them -together into a solid rock. A cycle has thus been completed; the dense -rocks composing a continent have passed by the process of weathering -into incoherent sand and clay, which, when transported to the ocean -floor, become again converted into solid rock. - -Historical records prove that during the last three thousand years -there have taken place many changes in the ocean's level. Old islands -have disappeared; new ones have emerged above the surface of the -water. Great stretches of seacoast exist at the present time which -within the historical period have been covered by the ocean. Even at -the present writing we are witnessing the gradual submergence of some -parts of the earth and the rising of others; terraces on the northern -Atlantic coast may be seen along the hillsides many feet above the -present level of the ocean--all of which go to show that the -relationship of the land to the water is an unstable one. These are -the evidences of continental growth and depressions from the -historical standpoint, and the validity of the data upon which the -belief is founded can not be shaken. The evidence from the geological -side is overwhelming, but before we speak of this it will be well once -more to say a word as to the causes of continental uplift. - -From an original fluid globe possessing a high temperature, the earth -has now cooled down to a degree sufficiently low to permit the -formation of a thick rock crust. Underneath this crust an approach to -the old surface temperatures is still maintained, and the existence of -a certain degree of fluidity is demonstrated to us from time to time -by the phenomenon of volcanism. Successive zones of cooling took -place. The outer part could only conform to a shrinking interior by -wrinkling, folding, or bodily lifting considerable areas above the -general level. An adjustment of strains thus set up would take place -either with or without folding of the strata. These initial wrinkles -gave rise to our first mountains, and the continuation of these -conditions at the present time is as surely nourishing mountain growth -as at any time in the past. In this way the fluctuations of the -ocean's level, above referred to, alone are to be explained, and such -form but temporary rises and falls in the history of a continent. - -[Illustration: FIG. 7.--MOUNTAIN SHOWING ROCK FOLDING.] - -The rate at which an ocean bed is raised to form a mountain range is, -no doubt, a variable one; always slow, often interrupted, but seldom -or never violent. During this time the strata usually undergo crushing -and folding; stretching takes place, and displacements of the rocks, -or faulting, are not uncommon. As an example of the wrinkling that the -strata may suffer under these conditions, the reader is referred to -the beautiful symmetrical fold shown on the side of a mountain in the -Appalachians (Fig. 7). Similar folding is the rule, but often immense -areas are raised to great heights above the ocean without disturbing -the horizontal position of the beds (see Fig. 8). Coincident with the -emergence of the rocks from beneath the water, there begin the -attacks of the forces operating to destroy them. Hand in hand there go -on growth and destruction. The two may keep an even pace; either may -obtain the mastery. In the one case, lack of considerable elevation -and flatness result; in the other, great altitudes may be attained. -The rivers may cut their valleys downward as fast as the land rises, -or the down-cutting may be relatively slower. In any case, after a -given land mass has attained its greatest height above the sea, the -larger rivers soon cut their channels down as far as river cutting is -possible--namely, to within a few feet of sea level. With relatively -rapid elevation, soft rocks, and large rivers, the resultant valley -takes the form of a canyon, examples of which are found along the -courses of the Colorado and the Yellowstone Rivers (see Fig. 8).[11] -Valleys of this nature soon lose their steep sides by the action of -weathering and all that this implies, and pass into a more open state, -like that shown in Fig. 9. - -[Illustration: FIG. 8.--HORIZONTAL ROCKS, GRAND CANYON OF THE -COLORADO.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 9.--MOUNT STEPHEN, SHOWING ITS HORIZONTAL ROCKS.] - -These views have been selected in order that a comparison of this type -of mountain structure may be made with that shown in Fig. 6. The -points of resemblance between the two sections exposed, one by a steam -shovel, the other by river action, are the horizontal position of the -strata and the alternations of beds of unlike character. The -differences are mainly that the beds making up the mountain show that -they are built up of alternating layers of sand (now converted into a -sandstone) and clay (now in the condition of a slate). Are not these -the products of a decayed continent? Is their position to be explained -otherwise than along the lines already stated? Our only difficulty in -readily accepting this conclusion is founded on a hereditary belief, -born in ignorance and nourished to maturity by superstition, that the -earth came into existence as we see it to-day, the surface dissected -by valleys in which the rivers find established courses to the sea; -possessing a multiplicity of highland and lowland, granite mountains -and marble hills, as a result of some plan carried into effect as a -creative act. Science has revealed the impossibility of this -interpretation. Considered in the light of evolution, acting through -an immense period of time, by means of the processes already -enumerated, the diversity of land form is made plain to us, and the -ever-varying characters of rock structure and composition are in the -main made easy of comprehension. Viewed in the light of the foregoing -pages, and illustrating as they do land form and the greater part of -the earth's crust, the rock structures revealed on the sides of the -mountains and canyons, as well as the broader valley itself, take on a -new and more intelligent interest. High and enduring as the mountains -may appear, resistant as their solid rocks may seem, they are doomed -as mountains to the same fate that their own structure and composition -prove to have overtaken earlier mountains before them. - -The earth has known no cessation in this cycle of decay, deposition, -and elevation; again and again have continental masses been raised -from the ocean floor only to become a prey to the forces that destroy -them. These cycles will continue--mountain ranges will fade away and -new ones will be born. A more permanent relationship between the -lowland, the upland, and the ocean level will never be attained until -the forces that warp and wrinkle the earth's crust shall have ceased -forever. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[8] The position of the solid rock is shown by the hammer at the -extreme right, standing vertically. - -[9] This photograph represents a more detailed view of the quarry wall -seen in Fig. 1. The relation of the two views will be understood by -observing the positions of the hammers, which are in the same place in -both photographs. These photographs, as well as some of the others -that follow, were taken by Mr. John L. Gardner, 2d, for the purpose of -illustrating these pages. - -[10] In order to obtain this sketch, a survey was made of the delta, -and from the information thus gathered a model was constructed out of -clay. The dimensions of the delta are about one thousand by seven -hundred feet. - -[11] The bottom of the canyon at this point is between four and five -thousand feet below the flat surfaces in the foreground--a sheer -descent of nearly a mile. - - * * * * * - - M. Henri Bourget, of the Toulouse (France) Observatory, has - called attention in Nature to a common phenomenon which he - believes has not been mentioned in any scientific book. If - one end of a bar of metal is heated, but not enough to make - the other end too hot to be held in the hand, and then - suddenly cooled, the temperature of the other end will rise - till the hand can not bear it. All workmen who have occasion - to handle and heat pieces of metal, he says, know this. - - - - -DEATH GULCH, A NATURAL BEAR-TRAP. - -BY T.A. JAGGAR, JR., PH.D. - - -Cases of asphyxiation by gas have been very frequently reported of -late years, and we commonly associate with such reports the idea of a -second-rate hotel and an unsophisticated countryman who blows out the -gas. Such incidents we connect with the supercivilization of the -nineteenth century, but it is none the less true that Nature furnishes -similar accidents, and that in regions far remote from the haunts of -men. In the heart of the Rocky Mountains of Wyoming, unknown to either -the tourist or the trapper, there is a natural hostelry for the wild -inhabitants of the forest, where, with food, drink, and shelter all in -sight, the poor creatures are tempted one after another into a bath of -invisible poisonous vapor, where they sink down to add their bones to -the fossil records of an interminable list of similar tragedies, -dating back to a period long preceding the records of human history. - -It was the writer's privilege, as a member of the expedition of the -United States Geological Survey of the Yellowstone Park, under the -direction of Mr. Arnold Hague, to visit and for the first time to -photograph this remarkable locality. A similar visit was last made by -members of the survey in the summer of 1888, and an account of the -discovery of Death Gulch was published in Science (February 15, 1889) -under the title A Deadly Gas Spring in the Yellowstone Park, by Mr. -Walter Harvey Weed. The following extracts from Mr. Weed's paper -indicate concisely the general character of the gulch, and the -description of the death-trap as it then appeared offers interesting -material for comparison with its condition as observed in the summer -of 1897. - -Death Gulch is a small and gloomy ravine in the northeast corner of -the Yellowstone National Park. "In this region the lavas which fill -the ancient basin of the park rest upon the flanks of mountains formed -of fragmentary volcanic ejecta, ... while the hydrothermal forces of -the central portion of the park show but feeble manifestations of -their energy in the almost extinct hot-spring areas of Soda Butte, -Lamar River, Cache Creek, and Miller Creek." Although hot water no -longer flows from these vents, "gaseous emanations are now given off -in considerable volume." On Cache Creek, about two miles above its -confluence with Lamar River, are deposits of altered and crystalline -travertine, with pools in the creek violently effervescing locally. -This is due to the copious emission of gas. Above these deposits "the -creek cuts into a bank of sulphur and gravel cemented by this -material, and a few yards beyond is the _debouchure_ of a small -lateral gully coming down from the mountainside. In its bottom is a -small stream of clear and cold water, sour with sulphuric acid, and -flowing down a narrow and steep channel cut in beds of dark-gray -volcanic tuff. Ascending this gulch, the sides, closing together, -become very steep slopes of white, decomposed rock.... The only -springs now flowing are small oozes of water issuing from the base of -these slopes, or from the channel bed, forming a thick, creamy, white -deposit about the vents, and covering the stream bed. This deposit -consists largely of sulphate of alumina.... About one hundred and -fifty feet above the main stream these oozing springs of acid water -cease, but the character of the gulch remains the same. The odor of -sulphur now becomes stronger, though producing no other effect than a -slight irritation of the lungs. - -"The gulch ends, or rather begins, in a scoop or basin about two -hundred and fifty feet above Cache Creek, and just below this was -found the fresh body of a large bear, a silver-tip grizzly, with the -remains of a companion in an advanced stage of decomposition above -him. Near by were the skeletons of four more bears, with the bones of -an elk a yard or two above, while in the bottom of the pocket were the -fresh remains of several squirrels, rock hares, and other small -animals, besides numerous dead butterflies and insects. The body of -the grizzly was carefully examined for bullet holes or other marks of -injury, but showed no traces of violence, the only indication being a -few drops of blood under the nose. It was evident that he had met his -death but a short time before, as the carcass was still perfectly -fresh, though offensive enough at the time of a later visit. The -remains of a cinnamon bear just above and alongside of this were in an -advanced state of decomposition, while the other skeletons were almost -denuded of flesh, though the claws and much of the hair remained. It -was apparent that these animals, as well as the squirrels and insects, -had not met their death by violence, but had been asphyxiated by the -irrespirable gas given off in the gulch. The hollows were tested for -carbonic-acid gas with lighted tapers without proving its presence, -but the strong smell of sulphur, and a choking sensation of the lungs, -indicated the presence of noxious gases, while the strong wind -prevailing at the time, together with the open nature of the ravine, -must have caused a rapid diffusion of the vapors. - -"This place differs, therefore, very materially from the famous Death -Valley of Java and similar places, in being simply a V-shaped trench, -not over seventy-five feet deep, cut in the mountain slope, and not a -hollow or cave. That the gas at times accumulates in the pocket at the -head of the gulch is, however, proved by the dead squirrels, etc., -found on its bottom. It is not probable, however, that the gas ever -accumulates here to a considerable depth, owing to the open nature of -the place, and the fact that the gulch draining it would carry off the -gas, which would, from its density, tend to flow down the ravine. This -offers an explanation of the death of the bears, whose remains occur -not in this basin, but where it narrows to form the ravine, for it is -here that the layer of gas would be deepest, and has proved sufficient -to suffocate the first bear, who was probably attracted by the remains -of the elk, or perhaps of the smaller victims of the invisible gas; -and he, in turn, has doubtless served as bait for others who have in -turn succumbed. Though the gulch has doubtless served as a death-trap -for a very long period of time, these skeletons and bodies must be the -remains of only the most recent victims, for the ravine is so narrow -and the fall so great that the channel must be cleared out every few -years, if not annually. The change wrought by the water during a -single rainstorm, which occurred in the interval between Mr. Weed's -first and second visits, was so considerable that it seems probable -that the floods of early spring, when the snows are melting under the -hot sun of this region, must be powerful enough to wash everything -down to the cone of _debris_ at the mouth of the gulch." Mr. Arnold -Hague, on the occasion of his visit, was more successful in obtaining -evidence of the presence of carbonic-dioxide gas. He writes: "The day -I went up the ravine I was able in two places to extinguish a long -brown paper taper. The day I was there it was very calm, and where I -made the test the water was trickling down a narrow gorge shut in by -shelving rocks above." - -It was at noon on the 22d of July in the summer of 1897 that we made -camp near the mouth of Cache Creek, about three miles southeast of the -military post and mail station of Soda Butte. In company with Dr. -Francis P. King I at once started up the creek, keeping the left bank, -that we might not miss the gulch, which joins the valley of Cache -Creek from the southern side. We had a toilsome climb through timber -and over steep embankments, cut by the creek in a loose conglomerate, -and after going about a mile and a half we noticed that some of these -banks were stained with whitish and yellow deposits of alum and -sulphur, indicating that we were nearing the old hot-spring district. -Soon a caved-in cone of travertine was seen, with crystalline calcite -and sulphur in the cavities, and the bed of the creek was more or less -completely whitened by these deposits, while here and there could be -seen along the banks oozing "paint-pots" of calcareous mud, in one -case inky black, with deposits of varicolored salts about its rim, and -a steady ebullition of gas bubbles rising from the bottom. In other -cases these pools were crystal clear, and always cold. The vegetation, -which below had been dense close to the creek's bank, here became more -scanty, especially on the southern side, where the bare rock was -exposed and seen to be a volcanic breccia, much decomposed and stained -with solfataric deposits. A mound of coarse _debris_ seen just above -on this side indicated the presence of a lateral ravine, which from -its situation and character we decided was probably the gulch sought -for. A strong odor of sulphureted hydrogen had been perceptible for -some time, and when we entered the gully the fumes became oppressive, -causing a heavy burning sensation in the throat and lungs. The ravine -proved to be as described, a V-shaped trench cut in the volcanic rock, -about fifty feet in depth, with very steep bare whitish slopes, -narrowing to a stony rill bed that ascended steeply back into the -mountain side. - -[Illustration: GENERAL VIEW, LOOKING DOWNSTREAM, OF LOWER PART OF -DEATH GULCH.] - -Climbing through this trough, a frightfully weird and dismal place, -utterly without life, and occupied by only a tiny streamlet and an -appalling odor, we at length discovered some brown furry masses lying -scattered about the floor of the ravine about a quarter of a mile from -the point where we had left Cache Creek. Approaching cautiously, it -became quickly evident that we had before us a large group of huge -recumbent bears; the one nearest to us was lying with his nose between -his paws, facing us, and so exactly like a huge dog asleep that it did -not seem possible that it was the sleep of death. To make sure, I -threw a pebble at the animal, striking him on the flank; the distended -skin resounded like a drumhead, and the only response was a belch of -poisonous gas that almost overwhelmed us. Closer examination showed -that the animal was a young silver-tip grizzly (_Ursus horribilis_); a -few drops of thick, dark-red blood stained his nostrils and the ground -beneath. There proved to be five other carcasses, all bears, in -various stages of decay; careful search revealed oval areas of hair -and bones that represented two other bears, making a total of eight -carcasses in all. Seven were grizzlies, one was a cinnamon bear -(_Ursus americanus_). One huge grizzly was so recent a victim that -his tracks were still visible in the white, earthy slopes, leading -down to the spot where he had met his death. In no case were any marks -of violence seen, and there can be no question that death was -occasioned by the gas. The wind was blowing directly up the ravine -during our visit, and we failed to get any test for carbonic acid, -though we exhausted all our matches in the effort, plunging the flames -into hollows of the rill bed in various parts of its course; they -invariably burned brightly, and showed not the slightest tendency to -extinguish. The dilution of the gas in such a breeze would be -inevitable, however; that the gas was present was attested by the -peculiar oppression on the lungs that was felt during the entire -period that we were in the gulch, and which only wore off gradually on -our return to camp. I suffered from a slight headache in consequence -for several hours. - -[Illustration: LOOKING DOWN THE GULCH--THE LATEST VICTIM, A LARGE -SILVER-TIP GRIZZLY.] - -There was no difference in the appearance of the portion of the gulch -where the eight bears had met their end and the region above and -below. A hundred yards or more up stream the solfataric deposits -become less abundant, and the timber grows close to the brook; a short -distance beyond this the gulch ends. No bodies were found above, and -only bears were found in the locality described. It will be observed -that Weed's experience differs in this respect from ours, and the -appearance of the place was somewhat different: he found elk and small -animals in addition to the bears, and describes the death-trap as -occupying the mouth of the basin at the head of the gulch, above the -point where the last springs of acid water cease. The rill observed by -us has its source far above the animals; indeed, it trickles directly -through the worm-eaten carcass of the cinnamon bear--a thought by no -means comforting when we realized that the water supply for our camp -was drawn from the creek only a short distance down the valley. - -It is not impossible that there may be two or three of these gullies -having similar properties. That we should have found only bears may -perhaps be accounted for on the ground that the first victim for this -season was a bear, and his carcass frightened away all animals except -those of his own family. For an illustration of a process of -accumulation of the bones of large vertebrates, with all the -conditions present necessary for fossilization, no finer example can -be found in the world than Death Gulch; year after year the snow -slides and spring floods wash down this fresh supply of entrapped -carcasses to be buried in the waste cones and alluvial bottoms of -Cache Creek and Lamar River. Probably the stream-formed conglomerate -that we noted as we ascended the creek is locally filled with these -remains. - -The gas is probably generated by the action of the acid water on the -ancient limestones that here underlie the lavas at no great depth; -outcrops of these limestones occur only a few miles away at the mouth -of Soda Butte Creek. This gas must emanate from fissures in the rock -just above the bears, and on still nights it may accumulate to a depth -of two or three feet in the ravine, settling in a heavy, wavy stratum, -and probably rolling slowly down the bed of the rill into the valley -below. The accompanying photographs were made during our visit. - - - - -THE LABOR PROBLEM IN THE TROPICS. - -BY W. ALLEYNE IRELAND. - - -A great deal of space has been devoted in American magazines and -newspapers recently to the question of how this country has become a -colonial power. Destiny and duty, strength and weakness, accident and -design, honesty and corruption have been called on by writers, singly -and in various combinations, to bear the responsibility of the new -departure in the national policy. - -Whatever interest such speculations may possess for the student who -seeks to discover in the events of history some indication of the -evolution of national character, there can be little doubt that the -eyes of the people at large are turned in another direction. - -What are our new possessions worth? is the question which intelligent -men of all classes are beginning to ask; and it is not surprising, in -view of the comparative isolation of this country in the past, that -there are few who have sufficient confidence in their own opinion to -answer the query. - -In England, whose colonial and Indian empire embraces nearly one -fourth of the population of the globe, there is an astounding lack of -knowledge in relation to colonial affairs; and those who follow the -debates in the House of Commons will have noticed that when the -colonies are the subject under discussion the few members who remain -in their seats seldom fail to exhibit a degree of ignorance which must -be most disheartening to the able and learned Colonial Secretary. - -It is not to be wondered at, then, that in the United States, where -the people have been too much occupied with the problems continually -arising at home to pay any attention to affairs which, until very -recently, have appeared entirely outside the range of practical -politics, there should be few men who have given their time to that -careful study of tropical colonization which alone can impart any -value to opinions in regard to the practical issues involved in the -colonial expansion of this country. Discussion of the subject has -been almost entirely along the line of the possible effects of the new -policy on the political institutions and popular ideals of the United -States, and little has been written which may be said to throw any -light on the problem of tropical colonization _per se_. - -A residence of ten years in the tropical colonies of France, Spain, -Holland, and Great Britain--a period during which I devoted much time -to the study of colonial affairs--leaves me of opinion that there are -two points in regard to which discussion is peculiarly opportune: 1. -The value of the Philippines and Puerto Rico as a field for the -cultivation of those tropical products which are consumed in the -temperate zones. 2. The value of the islands as a market for products -and manufactures of the temperate zones. - -It will at once be seen that only in so far as the islands are -valuable in the former respect can they be important in the latter, -for in the absence of production there can not be any considerable -consumption of commodities. - -The first point to be considered, and it is the one to which I shall -confine myself in the present article, is by what means the productive -possibilities of Puerto Rico and the Philippines can be developed. - -Basing my calculation on official reports covering a number of years, -I find that the average value _per capita_ of the annual exports of -native products from a number of tropical colonies selected by me for -the purpose of this inquiry is as follows: - - Trinidad $26.48 - British Guiana 34.26 - Martinique 23.48 - Mauritius 20.28 - Dominica 7.28 - St. Vincent 7.68 - Ceylon 7.24 - Montserrat 7.89 - -An examination of these figures will serve to show that the value of -the colonies in the first column, measured by the standard of their -productiveness, is three times that of the colonies in the second -column. Reference to the population returns of the colonies named -discloses the fact that in the colonies in the first column the -population contains a very large proportion of imported contract -laborers and their descendants, while in the other colonies -practically the whole population is home-born for at least two -generations. - -A moment's reflection will show the importance of the comparison -instituted above, and if the space at my command permitted a more -extensive analysis of the trade of tropical colonies, it could be -demonstrated that the theory holds good, almost without exception, -that of tropical countries those only are commercially valuable in -which a system of imported contract labor is in force. - -There are one or two colonies (Barbados is the most striking example) -in which the pressure of population is so great that the labor supply -suffices for the utmost development of which the country is capable; -but such instances are rare. - -The experience of England in governing tropical colonies is frequently -cited by those who favor the so-called imperial policy for the United -States as a proof that tropical colonization in itself presents no -difficulties which can not be overcome by enlightened administration. -It would be difficult to point out in just what manner Great Britain -derives any benefit from her tropical possessions, but her experience -confirms the theory I have stated above--that the commercial -development of tropical colonies is possible only where there is an -extraordinary density of population or where a system of imported -contract labor is in force. - -A glance through the list of Great Britain's tropical colonies will -serve to prove the correctness of this theory. Imported contract labor -is used in British Guiana, Trinidad, Jamaica, Queensland, the Fiji -Islands, the Straits Settlements, and Mauritius; while the pressure of -population is extreme in Lagos and Barbados, which support -respectively 1,333 and 1,120 persons to the square mile. - -The remaining tropical colonies of Great Britain--using the term -"tropical colony" in its strictest sense--are the Gold Coast, Sierra -Leone, Gambia, Hongkong, St. Helena, British Honduras, Grenada, St. -Vincent, St. Lucia, Antigua, St. Kitts-Nevis, Dominica, Montserrat, -and a few islands in the Pacific which are insignificant commercially. - -A careful examination of the British trade returns shows that the -total export and import trade between the United Kingdom and all the -British tropical colonies in 1896 reached a value of $146,000,000, and -that of this sum $121,000,000 represented trade with the tropical -colonies which employ imported contract labor and with Lagos and -Barbados. In other words, the trade between the United Kingdom and -those British tropical colonies where free labor is used and where -there is no great pressure of population made up less than eighteen -per cent of the total trade with the British tropical colonies. - -It would appear from the facts I have given that the commercial -development of those parts of the tropics where the population is -sparse will be dependent on the importation of labor from more densely -peopled areas. - -If the question is approached from an entirely different standpoint -the necessity of contract labor in the tropics becomes more strikingly -apparent. The development of the tropics will be in the direction of -agriculture rather than manufacturing, and the requirements of -tropical agriculture in respect of labor are most arbitrary. It is not -sufficient that the labor supply is ample, in the ordinary sense of -the word; it must be at all times immediately available. - -Thus, a mine owner whose men go out on strike is, briefly, placed in -this position: He will lose a sum of money somewhat larger than the -amount of profit he could have made during the period of the strike -had it not occurred. His coal, however, is still there, and is not -less valuable--indeed, in the case of a prolonged strike, may actually -be more valuable--when the strike is over; work can easily be resumed -where it was dropped, and during the idle days the ordinary running -expenses of the mine cease. The greater part of the loss sustained in -the instance I have supposed is not out-of-pocket loss, but merely the -failure to realize prospective profits. - -On the other hand, a sugar estate in the tropics spends about eight -months out of the twelve in cultivating the crop, and the remaining -four in reaping and boiling operations. By the time the crop is ready -to reap many thousands of dollars have been expended on it by way of -planting, weeding, draining, and the application of nitrogenous -manures. If from any cause the labor supply fails when the cutting of -the canes is about to commence, every cent expended on the crop is -wasted; and if for want of labor the canes which are cut are not -transported within a few hours to the mills, they turn sour and can -not be made into sugar. It will thus be seen that in the case of -sugar-growing a perfectly reliable labor supply is the first -requisite. - -The same might be said of the cultivation of tea, coffee, cocoa, -spices, and tropical fruits. - -This problem--the securing of a reliable labor supply--has been solved -in the case of several of the tropical possessions of England by the -importation of East Indian laborers under contract to serve for a -fixed period on the plantations. - -As, in my opinion, the East Indian contract laborer will play an -important part in the development of the tropics, I describe in detail -the most perfect system of contract labor with which I am acquainted, -that existing at the present time in the colony of British Guiana. The -system of imported indentured labor which is in force in many of the -British colonies has been referred to frequently, both in this country -and in England, as "slavery," "semislavery," "the new slavery." The -use of such terms to describe such a system indicates a complete -ignorance of the facts. As some of the best-informed journals in this -country, in noticing my writings on tropical subjects, have fallen -into this error, I hope that the description I give here, which is -based on several years' experience of the actual working of the -system, will serve to convince the readers of this article that the -indenture of the East Indian coolie in the British colonies is no more -a form of slavery than is any contract entered into between an -employer and an employee in this country. - -When the British Guiana planter was informed by the home Government -in 1834 that four years later slavery would be entirely abolished -throughout the British Empire, he foresaw at once that unless a new -source of labor was thrown open a very short time would elapse before -the cane fields would fall out of cultivation. He listened, not -without some irritation, to the assurances of the agents of the -Antislavery Society that as soon as the slaves were freed they would -work with redoubled energy, and that the labor supply, instead of -deteriorating, would, in fact, improve. The planters knew better, and -began at once to arrange for the importation of contract labor. With -the year 1834 began the period of apprenticeship for the slaves, prior -to their complete emancipation four years later. - -During this time, and before the imported labor sufficed for the needs -of the plantations, several estates were ruined and fell out of -cultivation because the apprenticed laborers would not work. - -On October 11, 1838, the governor of the colony, Henry Light, Esquire, -issued a proclamation to the freed slaves. The proclamation stated -that the governor had learned with regret that the labor of the freed -slaves was irregular; that their masters could not depend on them; -that they worked one day and idled the next; that when they had earned -enough to fill their bellies they lay down to sleep or idled away -their time; that they left their tasks unfinished, and then expected -to be paid in full for them. - -In the meanwhile the planters imported labor from the West Indian -Islands, Malta, Madeira, China, and Germany; and eventually the system -of immigration from India was organized. - -The system is under the control of the Indian Council in Calcutta on -the one hand and the British Guiana Government and the Colonial Office -on the other. In Georgetown, the capital of the colony, is the -immigration department, under the management of the immigration agent -general, who has under him a staff of inspectors, subagents, clerks, -and interpreters, all of whom must speak at least one Indian dialect. -In Calcutta resides the emigration agent general, also an official of -the British Guiana Government, who has under him a staff of medical -officers, recruiting agents, and clerks. - -Each year the planters of British Guiana send in requisitions to the -immigration department stating the number of immigrants required for -the following year. These requisitions are examined by the agent -general, and if, in his opinion, any estate demands more coolies than -the extent of its cultivation justifies, the number is reduced. As -soon as the full number is decided on, the agent in Calcutta is -informed, and the process of recruiting commences. The laborers are -secured entirely by voluntary enlistment. The recruiting agents go -about the country and explain the terms offered by the British Guiana -planters, and those men and women who express their willingness to -enter into a contract are sent down to Calcutta at the expense of the -colony. - -On arrival in Calcutta they are provided with free food and quarters -at the emigration depot until such time as a sufficient number are -assembled to form a full passenger list for a transport. During the -period of waiting, which may extend to several weeks, a careful -medical inspection of the laborers is made, and all those who may be -deemed unfit for the work of the estates are sent back to their homes -at the expense of the colony. Prior to embarkation the coolies are -called up in batches of fifteen or twenty, and the emigration agent or -a local magistrate reads over to them in their own language the terms -of the indenture. Each one is then given an indenture ticket on which -the terms of indenture are printed in three dialects. The agent -general affixes his signature to each ticket; and a special provision -in the laws of British Guiana makes his signature binding on the -planters who employ the coolies. The ticket thus constitutes a -contract valid as against either party in the courts of the colony. - -The coolies have the right to carry with them any children they may -wish, and those under twelve years of age are exempt from indenture. -The transportation is effected in sailing vessels, which are for the -time being Government transports. The reason why steamers are not -employed is that sailing vessels are found to be much healthier, and -that the long sea voyage has an excellent effect on the immigrants. -The regulations governing the voyage are very strict. As far as the -coolies are concerned, the ship is in charge of a medical officer. The -captain of the ship, the officers, and the crew are all under the -command of the doctor, except in so far as the actual sailing of the -vessel is in question. The vessel has ample hospital accommodation, a -complete dispensary in charge of a qualified dispenser, and all the -arrangements must be passed by a Government inspector before the ship -is given her clearance. The food to be furnished during the voyage is -specified by law. The bill of fare consists chiefly of bread, butter, -rice, curry, sago, condensed milk, and fresh mutton, a number of sheep -being carried on the ship. - -Every morning and evening the doctor makes an inspection of the -vessel, and enters in his log-book all essential details, such as -births, deaths, cases treated in the hospital, and so forth. - -On arrival in the colony the coolies are allotted to the different -estates. The coolie is bound to remain for five years on the -plantation to which he is allotted, and to work during that time five -days a week, the day's work being seven hours. In return for this the -planter must furnish him with a house free of rent, and built in such -a way as to meet the requirements of the inspector of immigrants' -dwellings in regard to ventilation, size, and water supply; and no -immigrants are sent to any estate until these houses have been -inspected and passed as satisfactory. The planter must also furnish on -the estate free hospital accommodation and medical attendance, and in -addition provide free education for the children of indentured -immigrants. - -The medical officers are Government servants, and the colony is -divided into districts, each of which has its own doctor, who is -compelled by law to visit each estate in his district at least once in -forty-eight hours and examine and prescribe for all immigrants -presenting themselves at the hospital. - -The planter is further bound to pay a minimum daily wage of -twenty-four cents to each man and sixteen cents to each woman. This -appears at first sight a very small sum, but when it is taken into -account that a coolie can live well on eight cents a day it will be -seen that the wage is three times the living expense, a rate very -rarely paid to agricultural laborers in any part of the world. - -That the coolies do, in fact, save considerable sums of money will be -seen when the statistics of the immigration department are examined. -These records show that during the years 1870 to 1896 38,793 -immigrants returned to India after completing their terms of -indenture, and that they carried back with them to their native land -over $2,800,000. At the end of 1896 there were over five thousand East -Indian depositors in the British Guiana Government Savings Bank and -the Post-Office Savings Bank, with a total sum of more than $450,000 -to their credit. - -At the end of five years the indentured coolie becomes absolutely -free. He may cease work, or, if he prefer it, remain on the estates as -a free laborer. The whole colony is open to him, and he may engage in -any trade or profession for which he may be fitted. If he remains for -five years longer in the colony, even though he be idle during the -whole of that time, he becomes entitled to a grant of land from the -Government. The law in this respect has been recently changed. All -coolies who came to the colony prior to 1898 have the choice at the -end of ten years of a free grant of land or an assisted passage back -to their native place. - -It may be objected by those persons who are unacquainted with the -system that all this sounds very well on paper, but that the -opportunities for fraud and oppression must be very frequent, and, -human nature being what it is, very frequently taken advantage of, to -the injury of the coolies' interests. Such charges have, in fact, been -made from time to time, but they have, on investigation, proved to be -unfounded, or, at the worst, highly exaggerated. The treatment of the -indentured immigrants in British Guiana was the subject of a Royal -commission of inquiry in 1870. The appointment of the commission -followed a series of charges made by a certain Mr. Des Voeux, a -magistrate in the colony, in a letter to Earl Granville, at that time -Secretary of State for the Colonies. - -The commission visited the colony and conducted a most searching -inquiry. Hundreds of witnesses were examined, and the commissioners -visited several estates, without giving any warning of their -intentions, and questioned many of the coolies as to their treatment. -Mr. Des Voeux entirely failed to substantiate his charges; and Sir -Clinton Murdoch, the chairman of the emigration board--a permanent -department of the Colonial Office--in referring to the report of the -commission in a blue book issued in 1872, said: "It may, I think, be -considered that the report of the commissioners is generally -satisfactory, both as regards the magistracy, the planters, and the -immigrants. Many defects in the system and mode of working it are no -doubt pointed out, but they are defects caused by errors of judgment, -by insufficiency of the law, or by want of foresight, not by -intentional neglect or indifference to the well-being of the people, -still less by oppression or cruelty. The vindication of the magistracy -and of the medical officers appears to be complete, and the fair -dealing and kindness of the managers toward the immigrants is -acknowledged." - -The laws have been amended, the Government inspection has been made -more complete, and to-day it is impossible that any abuse of power on -the part of the planters can pass unnoticed. - -To give an instance of the effectiveness of the Government -supervision--each estate is compelled by law to keep pay lists -according to a form specified by the immigration department, in which -the name of each indentured immigrant must be entered with a record of -each separate day's work during the five years of the indenture. Thus, -if the pay list shows that in a certain week a man worked only two -days out of the legal five, it must also show the reason why he did -not work on the other three days. It may have been that the man was in -the hospital, in which case the letter "H" must appear opposite his -name for those days; or he may have been granted leave of absence, -when the letter "L" would account for him. These pay lists are -inspected by a Government officer twice a month, and any faults -disclosed by the examination become the subject of a severe reprimand -from the agent general, followed in the case of persistent neglect by -the cutting off of the supply of coolies. - -So minute are the records of the immigration department that were an -application made to the agent general for information regarding some -particular indentured coolie, that official could without difficulty -supply the name of the man's father and mother, his caste, age, -native place, with the same information in regard to the man's wife. -He could also make out an account showing every day the man had worked -during the term of his indenture, and the reasons why he had not -worked on the other days, with the exact amount earned on each working -day. In addition to this he could state how many days the man had -spent in the estate's hospital and what was the matter with him on -those occasions, besides furnishing a copy of every prescription made -up for the man in the estate's dispensary. - -A striking evidence of the desire of the Government to protect the -coolies from ill treatment of any kind is afforded by the rule of the -immigration department that, if any overseer on an estate is convicted -of an offense against an indentured immigrant, the dismissal of the -offender is demanded, and each estate in the colony is warned that if -it employ the man the supply of immigrants will be cut off. - -The coolies are given every facility to complain of ill-treatment or -breach of contract on the part of the planters, for, in addition to -the opportunity afforded by the regular visits of the subagents, the -right is secured to them by law of leaving any estate without -permission in order to visit the agent general or the nearest -magistrate; and either of these officials has the power to issue all -process of law free of cost to any coolie who satisfies him that there -is a _prima facie_ cause of complaint. - -Such, in brief, are the features of the East Indian immigration system -of British Guiana.[12] - -Those who approach the question of the labor supply for the American -colonies with an unprejudiced mind will see that there is nothing in -the system I have described which is at variance with the principles -of the American people. - -All that is required to make such a system a boon both to the employer -and to the laborer is that the officials charged with the inspection -of the system and the protection of the immigrants' interests should -be intelligent, honest, and fearless in the discharge of their duties. - - -FOOTNOTE: - -[12] To those who are interested in the subject of indentured labor in -the tropics, the following statistics, compiled by me from official -sources, may be of interest. The figures relate to British Guiana: - - Year. - |Number of indentur'd laborers imported from India. - | |Number of time-expired immigrants who returned to India. - | | |Value in dollars of money and ornaments - | | |carried back to India by returning immigrants. - | | | |Number of East Indian depositors in the - | | | |Gov't Savings Bank. - | | | | |Total amount of their deposits, in - | | | | |dollars. - | | | | | |Number of planters convicted - | | | | | |of offenses against - | | | | | |immigrants. - | | | | | | |Death rate per 1,000 among - | | | | | | |indentured laborers. - | | | | | | | |General death rate - | | | | | | | |of the colony. - ----+------+------+--------+------+--------+--+------+------------------- - 1886| 4,796| 1,889| 111,775| 5,558| 425,956| 9| 27.40| 25.56 - 1887| 3,928| 1,420| 92,613| 5,821| 438,600| 4| 23.20| 32.41 - 1888| 2,771| 1,938| 95,074| 5,904| 457,886| 1| 19.73| 29.27 - 1889| 3,573| 2,042| 112,124| 6,802| 513,220| 1| 12.57| 28.13 - 1890| 3,432| 2,125| 142,611| 7,269| 558,734| 3| 20.40| 39.80 - 1891| 5,229| 2,151| 134,225| 6,398| 515,246| 2| 20.40| 37.00 - 1892| 5,241| 2,014| 97,529| 6,085| 527,203| 1| 25.20| 39.00 - 1893| 4,146| 1,848| 104,763| 6,179| 544,420| 1| 24.91| 35.00 - 1894| 9,585| 1,998| 113,308| 6,128| 529,161| 2| 24.22| 33.53 - 1895| 2,425| 2,071| 119,289| 4,950| 453,950| 1| 20.36| 29.58 - 1896| 2,408| 2,059| 76,470| 4,520| 434,759| 1| 16.50| 24.10 - ----+------+------+--------+------+--------+--+------+------------------- - - - - -PRINCIPLES OF TAXATION. - -BY THE LATE HON. DAVID A. WELLS. - - -XX.--THE LAW OF THE DIFFUSION OF TAXES. - -PART II. - -Attention is next asked to an analysis of the incidence of taxation, -what is mainly direct, on processes and products, and on the machinery -by which one is effected and the other distributed, and at the outset -the following propositions in the nature of economic axioms are -submitted, which it is believed will serve as stepping stones to the -attainment of broad generalizations. - -Thus, property is solely produced to supply human wants and desires; -and taxes form an important part of the cost of all production, -distribution, and consumption, and represent the labor performed in -guarding and protecting property at the expense of the State, in all -the processes of development and transformation. The State is thus an -active and important partner in all production. Without its assistance -and protection, production would be impeded or wholly arrested. The -soldier or policeman guards, while the citizen performs his labor in -safety. As a partner in all the forms of production and business, the -State must pay its expenses--i.e., its agents, for their services; and -its only means of paying are through its receipts from taxation. -Taxes, then, are clearly items of expense in all business, the same as -rent, fuel, cost of material, light, labor, waste, insurance, clerical -service, advertising, expressage, freight, and the like, and on -business principles they find their place on the pages of profit and -loss; and, like all other expenses which enter into the cost of -production, must finally be sustained by those who gratify their wants -or desires by consumption. Production is only a means, and consumption -is the end, and the consumer must pay in the end all the expenses of -production. Every dealer in domestic or imported merchandise keeps on -hand, at all times, upon his shelves, a stock of different and -accumulated taxes--customs, internal revenue, State, school, and -municipal--with his goods; and when we buy and carry away from any -store or shop an article, we buy and carry away with it the -accompanying and inherential taxes. - -Any primary taxpayer, who does not ultimately consume the thing taxed, -and who does not include the tax in the price of the taxed property or -its products, must literally throw away his money and must soon become -bankrupt and disappear as a competitor; and accordingly the tax -advancer will add the tax in his prices if he understands simple -addition. How rapidly bankruptcy would befall dealers in imported -goods, wares, and merchandise in the United States who did not -strictly observe this rule will be realized when one remembers that -the average tax imposed by its Government (in 1896) on all dutiable -imports is in excess of fifty per cent. - -When Dr. Franklin was asked by a committee of the English House of -Commons, prior to the American Revolution, if the province of -Pennsylvania did not practically relieve farmers and other landowners -from taxation, and at the same time impose a heavy tax on merchants, -to the injury of British trade, he answered that "if such special tax -was imposed, the merchants were experts with their pens, and added the -tax to the price of their goods, and thus made the farmers and all -landowners pay their part of the tax as consumers." - -Taxes uniformly levied on all the subjects of taxation, and which are -not so excessive as to become a prohibition on the use of the thing -taxed, become, therefore, a part of the cost of all production, -distribution, and consumption, and diffuse and equate themselves by -natural laws in the same manner and in the same minute degree as all -other elements that constitute the expenses of production. We produce -to consume and consume to produce, and the cost of consumption, -including taxes, enters into the cost of production, and the cost of -production, including taxes, enters into the cost of consumption, and -thus taxes levied uniformly on things of the same class, by the laws -of competition, supply, and demand, and the all-pervading mediums of -labor, will be distributed, percussed, and repercussed to a remote -degree, until they finally fall upon every person, not in proportion -to his consumption of a given article, but in the proportion his -consumption bears to the aggregate consumption of the taxed community. - -A great capitalist, like Mr. Astor, bears no greater burden of -taxation (and can not be made to bear more by any laws that can be -properly termed tax laws) than the proportion which his aggregate -individual consumption bears to the aggregate individual consumption -of all others in his circuit of immediate competition; and as to his -other taxes, he is a mere tax collector, or conduit, conducting taxes -from his tenants or borrowers to the State or city treasury. A whisky -distiller is a tax conduit, or tax collector, and sells more taxes -than the original cost of whisky, as finds proof and illustration in -the fact that the United States imposes a tax of one dollar and ten -cents per gallon on proof whisky which its manufacturer would be very -glad to sell free of tax for an average of thirteen cents per gallon. -The tax, furthermore, is required to be laid before the whisky can be -removed from the distillery or bonded warehouse and allowed to become -an article of merchandise. Tobacco in like manner can not go into -consumption till the tax is paid. In Great Britain, where all tobacco -consumed is imported, for every 3_d._ paid by the consumer, 2.5_d._ -represents customs duties or taxes. In Russia it is estimated that the -Government annually requires of its peasant producers one third the -market value of their entire crop of cereals in payment of their -taxes, and fixes the time of collecting the same in the autumn, when -the peasant sells sufficient of his grain (mainly for exportation), -and with the purchase money meets the demands of the tax collector. -Can it be doubted that the sums thus extorted enter into and form an -essential part of the cost of the entire crop or product of the land? -It is, therefore, immaterial where the process of manufacture takes -place; the citizens of a State pay in proportion to the quantity which -they consume. The traveler who stops at one of the great city hotels -can not avoid reimbursing the owner for the tax he primarily pays on -the property; and the owner, in respect to the taxation of his hotel -property, is but a great and effective real-estate and diffused tax -collector. Again, the farmer charges taxes in the price of his -products; the laborer, in his wages; the clergyman, in his salary; the -lender, in the interest he receives; the lawyer, in his fees; and the -manufacturer, in his goods. - -The American Bible Society is always in part loaded with the whisky -and tobacco taxes paid by the printers, paper-makers, and -book-binders, or by the producers of articles consumed by these -mechanics, and reflected and embodied in their wages and the products -of their labor according to the degree of absence of competition from -fellow-mechanics who abstain from the use of these and other taxed -articles. - -These conclusions respecting the diffusion of taxes may be said to be -universally accepted by economists so far as they relate to the -results of production before they reach the hands of the final -consumers; but they are not accepted by many, as Mr. Henry George has -recently expressed it, in respect to taxes on special profits or -advantages on things of which the supply is strictly limited, or of -wealth in the hands of final consumers, or in the course of -distribution by gift, and finally in respect to taxes on land. But a -little examination would seem to show that all of these exceptions are -of the kind that are said to prove the rule. _Special profits_ and -advantages in this age of quick diffusion of knowledge and intense -competition are exceedingly ephemeral, and are mainly confined to -results which the State with a view of encouraging removes for a -limited time from the natural laws of competition by granting patents, -copyrights, and franchises. Of things which are strictly limited in -respect to supply, what and where are they? Only a very few can be -specified: ivory, Peruvian guano, whalebone, ambergris, and the pelts -of the fur seal. Of wealth in the process of transmission, or in the -hands of final consumers, it is not _tangible_ wealth unless it is -_tangible_ property, which conforms under any correct system of -taxation to the principles of taxation; and if any one advocates the -taxation of the right to receive property which has already been -taxed, he in effect advocates a double exaction of one and the same -thing. If it be asked, Will an income tax on a person retired from -business be diffused? the answer, beyond question, must be in the -affirmative, if the tax is uniform on all persons and on all amounts, -and is absolutely collected in minute sums. Would any one pay the same -price for a railroad bond which is subject to an income tax as he -would for it if it was free from tax? If one's land is taxed, either -in the form of rent or income, will not the tenant have the burden -primarily thrown upon him? And, finally, will not the consumer of the -tenant's goods pay through or by reason of such consumption? - -Respecting the incidence of the tax on mortgages, it does not make any -difference how mortgages are taxed--no earthly power can make the -lender pay it. If the borrower would not agree to pay the tax, the -lender would not loan him money, and whenever possible loans would be -foreclosed and payment insisted upon if the borrower should refuse to -pay the tax. - -Let us next subject to analysis the incidence of the so-called -taxation of land. Considered _per se_ (or in itself), land, in common -with unappropriated air and water, has no value; and it can not in any -strict sense be affirmed that we tax land; and when such affirmation -is made, its only legitimate and justifiable meaning is that we tax -the value of land; which value is due entirely to the amount of -personal property (in the sense of embodied labor) expended upon it, -and the pressure or demand of such property or labor to use, possess, -and occupy it. - -Vattel, in his Law of Nations, enunciates as a self-evident and -irrefutable proposition that "Nature has not herself established -property, and in particular with regard to lands. She only approves -this introduction for the advantage of the human race." - -One of the most striking examples of evidence in illustration and -proof of this proposition is to be found in an incident, which has -heretofore escaped attention, which occurred during a debate in the -Senate of the United States in 1890 on a bill for revision of duties -on imports, in respect to the article borax (borate of soda). Formerly -the world's supply of this mineral substance, which enters largely -into industrial processes and medicine, was limited, and mainly -derived from certain hot springs in Tuscany, Italy; but within a -comparatively recent period it has been found that it exists in such -abundance in certain of the desert regions of California, Nevada, and -Arizona, that it can be gathered with the minimum of labor from the -very surface of the ground. Were a single acre of similar desert to be -found in any section of a country enjoying the most ordinary -privileges in respect to transportation and water supply, it would be -a source of wealth to its proprietor. But under existing -circumstances, although thousands and thousands of acres of this land -can be bought with certain title from its owner--the Federal -Government--for two dollars and twenty-five cents an acre, no one -wants it at any price; and the prospective demand for it has not yet -been sufficient to warrant the Government in instituting even a survey -as a preliminary to effecting a sale. In the Senate debate above -alluded to it was proposed to increase the duty on imported borax, -with the expectation that a consequent increase in its domestic price -would afford sufficient profit to induce such construction of roads -and such a supply of water and labor on the borax tracts of the -deserts as to enable them to become property.[13] - -In the oases of the deserts of North Africa and Egypt the value of a -tract of land depends very little upon its size or location, but -almost exclusively upon the number of the date-bearing palms, the -result of labor, growing upon it, and the quality of their fruit. John -Bright on one occasion stated that if the land of Ireland were -stripped of the improvements made upon it by the labor of the -occupier, the face of the country would be "as bare and naked as an -American prairie." - -An exact parallel to this state of things is afforded in the case of -lands of no value reclaimed from the sea and made valuable, as has -been often done in England, Holland, and other countries, by embodying -labor upon them in the shape of restraining embankments and the -transportation and use of filling material. Again, the value of -springs or running streams of water is generally limited and of little -account. But when, through direct labor, or the results of labor, the -water is collected in reservoirs and made the instrumentality of -imparting power to machinery, or conducted through conduits to centers -of population which otherwise could not obtain it, it becomes -extremely valuable, and capable of being sold in large or small -quantities. Another similar illustration is to be found in the case of -atmospheric air, which in its natural and ordinary state has no -marketable value, but when compressed by labor embodied in the form of -machinery and made capable of transmitting force, it at once becomes -endowed with value and can be sold at a high price. - -An opinion entertained and strongly advocated by not a few economic -writers and teachers of repute (more especially in Europe, but not in -the United States)[14] is, that taxes on land do not diffuse -themselves, but fall wholly on the landowner, and that there is no way -in which he can throw it off and cause any considerable part of them -to be paid by anybody else. The concrete argument in support of this -opinion has been thus stated: "When land is taxed, the owner can not, -as a general rule, escape the tax, for the reason that, to get rid of -the tax, the price of the land or of the rent must be raised the full -amount of the tax, and the only way in which this can be done is by -reducing the supply or quantity offered in market, or else by -increasing the demand. The supply of land can not be reduced, and the -demand being created by capital and population, both of which are -beyond the control of the landowner, he can do nothing to raise the -price of land, and hence can not get rid of the tax. It may be stated, -then, as a general rule, that a tax on land, or on any commodity the -supply of which is limited absolutely, must be paid by the owner. It -is possible to suggest cases in which, through combination of owners -and the necessities of consumers, a demand may be created strong -enough to raise the price to the full amount of such tax, but it is -doubted if such cases ever really occur."[15] - -The source of the contention on this important economic and social -question, and the difficulty in the way of the attainment of -harmonious conclusions, is due to a nonrecognition of the fact that -land is taxed under two conditions, and can not be taxed otherwise. -Thus, if a person holds land for his exclusive use or enjoyment, and -consumes all of its product, a tax on such land, which has been -characterized by some economists as its "pure rent," will not diffuse -itself, because it is a tax on personal enjoyment or final -consumption. The same is the case when a portion of a river or lake or -its shore is rented for fishing for the purposes of sport. A like -result will also follow, in a greater or less degree, from the -inability or unwillingness of tenants, as has been often the case in -Ireland, to pay rent sufficient to reimburse the landowner for -interest on his investment of capital and cost of repairs. But if one -employs land as an instrumentality for acquiring gain through its -uses, the taxation of land must include the taxation of its uses--its -contents, all that rests upon it, all that is produced, sold, -expended, manufactured, or transported on it--and all such taxes will -diffuse themselves. On the other hand, if the taxation of land under -such circumstances and conditions does not diffuse itself, then the -taking is simply a process of confiscation, which if continued will -ultimately rob the owner of his property, and is not governed by any -principle. - -It is indeed difficult to see how a theory so wholly inapplicable to -fact and experience as that of the nondiffusion of taxes on -land--which makes property in land an exception to the rule -acknowledged to be applicable to all other property--could originate -and be strenuously maintained to the extent even of stigmatizing any -opposite view "as so very superficial as scarcely to deserve a -refutation."[16] No little of confusion and controversy on this -subject has arisen from the assumption that land specifically, and the -rent of land, constitute two distinct and legitimate subjects for -taxation, when the fact is just the contrary. The rent of land is in -the nature of an income to its owner; and it is an economic axiom that -when a government taxes the income of property it in reality taxes the -property itself. In England and on the continent of Europe land is -generally taxed on its yearly income or income value, and these taxes -are always considered as land taxes. Alexander Hamilton, in discussing -the taxation of incomes derived directly from property, used this -language: "What, in fact, is property but a fiction, without the -beneficial use of it? In many instances, indeed, the income is the -property itself." The United States Supreme Court, in its recent -decision of the income tax (1895), also practically indorsed this -conclusion. To levy taxes on the rent of land and also upon the land -itself is, therefore, double taxation on one and the same property, -which in common with all other unequal and unjust taxes can not be -diffused; and for this reason should be regarded as in the nature of -exactions or confiscation, concerning the incidence of which nothing -can be safely predicated. In short, this whole discussion, and the -unwarranted assumption involved in it and largely accepted, is an -illustration of what may be regarded as a maxim, that the greatest -errors in political economy have arisen from overlooking the most -obvious facts or deductions from experience. - -With a purpose of further elucidating this problem, attention is asked -first to its consideration from an "abstract," and next from a -practical standpoint of view. Let us endeavor to clearly understand -the common meaning of the word "_rent_." It is derived from the Latin -_reddita_, "things given back or paid," and in plain English is a word -for price or hire. It may be the hire of anything. It is the price we -pay for the right of exclusive use over something which is not our -own. Thus we speak of the rent of land, of buildings and apartments, -of a fishery, of boats, of water, of an opera box, of a piano, sewing -machines, furniture, vehicles, and the like. In Scotland at the -present time farmers hire cows to dairymen, who pay an agreed-upon -price by the year or for a term of years for each cow, and reimburse -themselves for such payment and make a profit on the transaction by -the sale of the products of the animal. This hire is called a rent, -and is clearly the same in kind as the rent of land. We do not apply -the word "hire" to the employment of men, because we have a separate -word--"wages"--for that particular case of hire. Neither do we apply -the word "rent" in English to the hire of money, because we have -another separate word--"interest"--which has come into special use for -the price paid for the loan or hire of money. But in the French -language the word _rent_ is habitually and specially used to signify -the price of the hire money, and that of "_rentes_" to investments of -money paying interest; the French national debt being always spoken of -as "_les rentes_"; while the men who live on the lending of money, or -capital in any form, are called "_rentiers_." - -The question next naturally arises, Why is it necessary to set up any -special theory at all about the natural disposition of the price which -we pay for the hire of land, any more than about the price we pay for -the hire of a house, of furniture, of a boat, of an opera box, or of a -cow? The particular kind of use to which we put each of these various -things is no doubt very different from the kind of use to which we put -each or all the others. But all of these uses resolve themselves into -the desire we have to derive some pleasure or some profit by the -possession for a time of the right of exclusive use of something which -is not our own, and for which we must pay the price, not of purchase, -but of hire. - -The explanation of this curious economic phenomenon is to be found in -the assumption and positive assertion on the part of not a few -distinguished economists that the truly scientific and only correct -use of the term "rent" is its application to the "income derived from -things of all kinds of which the supply is limited, and can not be -increased by man's action."[17] As a rule, economists who accept this -definition confine its application to the hire of land alone, although -it professes to include other things, "of all kinds," to which the -same description applies--namely, that they can not be increased in -quantity by any human action. There are, however, no such other things -specified, and in any literal sense there are no such other things -existing, unless water and the atmosphere be intended. - -Now, although it is indisputably true that man by his action can not -increase the absolute or total quantity of land, any more than of -water and air, appertaining to the whole globe on which we live, there -is practically no limitation to the degree of value which man's action -can impart to land, and which is the only thing for which land is -wanted, bought, or sold, and which, as already shown, can be truly -made the subject of taxation. The tracts of land on the earth's -surface which are of no present marketable value are its deserts, its -wildernesses, the sides and summits of its mountains, and its -continually frozen zones, where no results of labor are embodied in or -reflected upon it; while, on the other hand, its tracts of greatest -value are in the large cities and marts of trade and commerce, as in -the vicinity of the Bank of England, or in Wall Street, where the -results of labor are so concentrated and reflected upon land that it -is necessary to cover it with gold in order to acquire by purchase a -title to it and a right to its exclusive use. The difference between -land at twenty-five dollars an acre and twenty-five dollars a square -foot is simply that the latter is or may be in the near future covered -or surrounded by capital and business, while the former is remote from -these sources of value. One of the greatest possible, perhaps -probable, outcomes of the modern progress of chemistry is that through -the utilization of microbic organizations the value of land as an -instrumentality for the production of food may be increased to an -extent that at the present time is hardly possible of conception. -Again, in the case of air and water, although their total absolute -quantity can not be increased, their available and useful quantity in -any place, as before shown, can be by the agency of man, and their use -made subject to hire or rent. - -Consideration is next asked to the question at issue from what may be -termed its practical standpoint. We have first a proposition in the -nature of an economic axiom, that the price of everything necessary -for production, or the hire of anything--land, money, and the -like--without which the product could not arise, is, and must be, -without exception, a part of the cost of that product; second, that -all levies of the State which are worthy of being designated as taxes -constitute an essential element of the cost of all products. The rent -of an opera box, given to obtain a mere pleasure, constitutes a part -of the fund out of which the musicians are paid, and if they are not -so paid they will not play or sing. The rent given for the right to -fish on a certain part of a river or its shores is a part of the cost -of producing the fish as a marketable commodity. If a house is hired -for the purpose of conducting any business in it, the price of that -hire does most certainly enter into the cost of that business, -whatever it may be, assuming that the use of the house is a necessity -for carrying it on. As no man will produce a commodity by which he is -sure to lose money, or fail to obtain the ordinary rate of profit, the -tax must be added to the price, or the production will cease. If a -uniform tax is imposed on all land occupied, it will be paid by the -occupier, because occupation (house-building) will cease until the -rent rises sufficiently to cover the tax. The landlord assesses upon -his tenants the tax he has paid upon his real estate; each tenant -assesses his share upon each of his customers; and so perfect is this -diffusion of land taxation that every traveler from a distant part of -the country who remains for even a single day at a hotel pays, without -stopping to think about it, a portion of the taxes on the building, -first paid by the owner, then assessed upon the lessees, and next cut -up by them minutely in the _per diem_ charge. But of course neither -the owner nor lessee really escapes taxation, because a portion of -somebody else's tax is thrown back upon them. - -Is it possible to believe that in a city like New York, where less -than four per cent of its population pay any direct tax on real -estate, or in a city like Montreal, where the expenses of the city are -mainly derived from taxes on land and the building occupancy of land, -the great majority of the inhabitants of those cities are exempt from -all land taxation? In China, where, as before shown, the title or -ownership of all land vests in the emperor, and the revenue of the -Government is almost exclusively derived from taxation of land in the -form of rent, does the burden of tax remain upon the owner of the -land? If the tax in the form of rent is paid in the products of the -land, as undoubtedly it is in part, will not the cost of the -percentage of the whole product of the land that is thus taken -increase to the renter the cost of the percentage that is left to him; -or, if the product is sold for money with which to pay the tax rent, -will not its selling price embody the cost of the tax, as it will the -cost of every other thing necessary for production? To affirm to the -contrary is to say that the price which the Chinese farmer pays for -the right of the exclusive use of his land is no part of the crops he -may raise upon it. - -Consider next the assertion of those who maintain the nondiffusion -theory that taxes on land are paid by the owners because the supply -of land can neither be increased nor diminished. In answer to it we -have the indisputable fact that the owners of land, whenever taxes are -increased, attempt to obtain an increased rental for it if the -circumstances will permit it. And the very attempt tends to increase -the rent. Nothing but adverse circumstances, such as diminishing -population or commercial and industrial distress, can prevent a rise -in the rental of land on which the taxes are increased; and in the -case of dwellings and warehouses the rise is almost always very -prompt, because no man will erect new dwellings or warehouses unless -their rent compensate fully the increase of taxation. And in any -prosperous community, in which population increases in the natural -ratio, there must be a constant increase of dwellings and warehouses -to prevent a rise of rent, independent of higher wages and higher -taxation. In no other occupation is capital surer of obtaining the -average net remuneration than in the erection of dwellings and -warehouses, and nothing but lack of general prosperity and diminishing -population can throw the burden of taxation on real estate or its -owners, without the slightest attempt at combination on their part. If -the owners of land are not reimbursed for its taxation by its -occupants, new houses "would not be erected, the old ones would wear -out, and after a time the supply would be so small that the demand -would raise rents, and house building begin again, the tax having been -transferred to the occupier." - -It is pertinent at this point to notice the averment that is -frequently made, that cultivators of the soil can not incorporate -taxes on the land in the price of their products, because the price of -their whole crop is fixed by the price at which any portion of it can -be sold in foreign markets. In answer to this we have first the fact -that, to give the population of the world an adequate supply of food -and other agricultural products, it is not only necessary that all the -land at present under cultivation shall continue to be so employed, -but further that new lands shall each year be brought under -cultivation, or else the land already cultivated shall be made more -productive. - -The population of the world steadily increases, notwithstanding wars, -epidemics, and all the evils which are consequences of man's ignorance -and of his improper use of things, his own faculties included. Hence, -in case of increased taxation on land, the cultivator of the soil is -generally enabled to transfer easily and promptly the burden of the -tax to the purchasers of the products he raises, without abandoning -the cultivation even of the least productive soil. - -Furthermore, the exports of many agricultural products are due not to -the cheapness of their cost of production, but to the variations which -occur in the productiveness of the crops of other countries. M. -Rouher, a French economist, and for a period a minister of commerce, -thoroughly investigated this matter, and proved by incontestable data -that almost invariably when the yield of breadstuffs in Europe was -large in the country drained by the Black and Baltic Seas, it was -small in the countries drained by the Atlantic. This variation in the -yield of agricultural crops forces the countries where crops are -deficient to purchase from those where they are abundant, or who have -a surplus on hand from previous abundant harvests. In the United -States, when the harvests are abundant, the American farmers, rather -than sell below a certain price, keep a portion of their crops on hand -until bad crops in Europe produce a foreign demand, which has to be -supplied at once. Under such circumstances those who hold the surplus -stock of breadstuffs, or any other product, would control the price, -and not the foreigners who stand in need of it. The only check, then, -to the cupidity of the holders of breadstuffs is the competition -between themselves, which invariably suffices to prevent any undue -advantage being taken of the necessities of the countries whose -harvests are deficient. These bad crops occur frequently enough to -consume all the surplus of the countries that produce in excess of -their own wants. In fact, this transient, irregular demand is counted -upon and provided for by producers just as much so as the regular home -demand--hence is one of the elements that regulate production and -control prices. - -At this point of the discussion it is desirable to obtain a clear and -true idea of the meaning or definition of the phrase "diffusion of -taxes." As sometimes used in popular and superficial discussions, it -is held to imply that every tax imposed by law distributes itself -equitably over the whole surface of society. Such implication would, -however, be even more fallacious than an assumption that every -expenditure made by an individual distributes itself in such a way -that it becomes equally an expenditure by every other individual. On -the other hand, a fair consideration of the foregoing summary of facts -and deductions would seem to compel every mind not previously warped -by prejudice to accept and indorse the following as great fundamental -principles in taxation: _First_, that in order to burden equitably and -uniformly all persons and property, for the purpose of obtaining -revenue for public purposes, it is not necessary to tax primarily and -uniformly all persons and property within the taxing district. -_Second_, equality of taxation consists in a uniform assessment of the -same articles or class of property that is subject to taxation. -_Third_, taxes under such a system equate and diffuse themselves; and -if levied with certainty and uniformity upon tangible property and -fixed signs of property, they will, by a diffusion and repercussion, -reach and burden all visible property, and also all of the so-called -"invisible and intangible" property, with unerring certainty and -equality. - -All taxation ultimately and necessarily falls on consumption; and the -burden of every man, under any equitable system of taxation, and which -no effort will enable him to avoid, will be in the exact proportion or -ratio which his aggregate consumption maintains to the aggregate -consumption of the taxing district, State, or community of which he is -a member. - -It is not, however, contended that unequal taxation on competitors of -the same class, persons, or things diffuses itself whether such -inequality be the result of intention or of defective laws, and their -more defective administration. And doubtless one prime reason why -economists and others interested have not accepted the law of -diffusion of taxes as here given is that they see, as the practical -workings of the tax systems they live under, or have become -practically familiar with, that taxes in many instances do seem to -remain on the person who immediately pays them; and fail to see that -such result is due--as in the case of the taxation of large classes of -the so-called personal property--to the adoption of a system which -does not permit of equality in assessment, and therefore can not be -followed by anything of equality in diffusion. Such persons may not -unfairly be compared to physicists, who, constantly working with -imperfect instruments, and constantly obtaining, in consequence, -defective results, come at last to regard their errors as in the -nature of established truths.[18] - -According to these conclusions, the greatest consumers must be the -greatest taxpayers. The man also who evades a tax clearly robs his -neighbors. The thief also pays taxes indirectly, for he is a consumer, -and must pay the advanced price caused by his own roguery for all he -consumes, although he does steal the money to pay with. Idlers and -even tramps pay taxes, but the amount that they indirectly pay into -the fund is much less than they take out of it. People are sometimes -referred to or characterized as non-taxpayers, and in political -harangues and socialistic essays measures or policies are recommended -by which certain persons or classes, by reason of their extreme -poverty, shall be entirely exempt from all incidence or burden of -taxation. Such a person does not, however, exist in any civilized -community. If one could be found he would be a greater curiosity than -exists in any museum. To avoid taxation a man must go into an -unsettled wilderness where he has no neighbors, for as soon as he has -a companion, if that companion be only a dog, which he in part or all -supports, taxation begins, and the more companions he has, the greater -improvements he makes, and the higher civilization he enjoys, the -heavier will be the taxes he must pay. - -Taxes _legitimately_ levied, then, are a part of the cost of all -production, and there can be no more tendency for taxes to remain upon -the persons who immediately pay them than there is for rents, the cost -of insurance, water supply, and fuel to follow the same law. The -person who wishes to use or destroy the utility of property by -consumption to gratify his desires, or satisfy his wants, can not -obtain it from the owners or producers with their consent, except by -gift, without giving pay or services for it; and the average price of -all property is coincident with the cost of production, including the -taxes advanced upon it, which are a part of its cost in the hands of -the seller. Again, no person who produces any form of property or -utility, for the purpose of sale or rent, sustains any burden of -legitimate taxation, although he may be a tax advancer; for, as a tax -advancer, he is the agent of the State, and a tax collector from the -consumer. But he who produces or buys, and does not sell or rent, but -consumes, is the taxpayer, and sustains a tax in his aggregate -consumption, where all taxation must ultimately rest. In short, no -person bears the burden of taxation, under an equitable, legitimate -system, except upon the property which he applies to his own exclusive -use in ultimate consumption. The great consumer is the only great -taxpayer. - -Finally, a great economic law pointed out by Adam Smith, which has an -important and almost conclusive bearing upon this vexed problem of the -diffusion of taxes, should not be overlooked--namely, his statement in -The Wealth of Nations that "_no tax can ever reduce for any -considerable time the rate of profit in any particular trade, which -must always keep its level with other trades in the neighborhood_." In -other words, taxes and profits, by the operation of the laws of human -nature, constantly tend to equate themselves. Man is always prompted -to engage in the most profitable occupation and to make the most -profitable investment. And since the emancipation from feudalism with -its sumptuary laws, legal regulations of the price of labor and -merchandise, and other arbitrary governmental invasions of private -rights, individual judgment and self-interest have been recognized as -the best tests or arbiters of the profitableness of a given investment -or occupation. The average profits, therefore, of one form of -investment, or of one occupation (as originally shown by Adam Smith), -must for any long period equal the average profits of other -investments and occupations, whether taxed or untaxed, skill, risk, -and agreeableness of occupation being taken into consideration.[19] -Natural laws will, accordingly, always produce an equilibrium of -burden between taxed and untaxed things and persons. There is a level -of profit and a level of taxation by natural laws, as there is a level -of the ocean by natural laws. In fact, all proportional contributions -to the State from direct competitors are diffused upon persons and -things in the taxing jurisdiction by a uniformity as manifest as is -the pressure upon water, which is known to be equal in every -direction. - -A word here in reference to the popular idea that the exemption of any -form of property is to grant a favor to those who possess such -property. This idea has, however, no warrant for its acceptance. Thus, -an exemption is freedom from a burden or service to which others are -liable; but in case of the exclusion of an entire class of property -from primary taxation, no person is liable, and therefore there is no -exemption. An exclusion of all milk from taxation, while whisky is -taxed, is not an exemption, for the two are not competing articles, or -articles of the same class. It is true that highly excessive taxation -of a given article may cause another and similar article, in some -instances, to become a substitute or competing article; and hence the -necessity of care and moderation in establishing the rate of taxation. -We do not consider that putting a given article into the free list, -under the tariff, is an exemption to any particular individual; but if -we make the rate higher on one taxpayer or on one importer of the same -article than on another taxpayer or importer, we grant an exemption. -We use the word "exemption," therefore, imperfectly, when we speak of -"the exemption of an entire class of property," as, for example, upon -all personal property; for if the removal of the burden operates -uniformly on all interested, or owning such property, then there can -be no primary exemption. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[13] "Senator Paddock: I should like to ask the Senator from Nevada -if, in the region of country where borax is found, by reason of -finding it the land in the particular State or Territory is -appreciated in value on account of its existence. - -"Senator Stewart: Not at all. - -"Senator Paddock: The value then given to it is all in -labor."--_Congressional Record, July, 1890._ - -[14] "In America, where there has been but little serious study of -taxation, the few writers of prominence are, remarkable to relate, -almost all abject followers of Thiers," the French economist and -statesman, who claimed to have invented the term "diffusion" of taxes. - -[15] "Our conclusion is, that under actual conditions in America -to-day the landowner may virtually be declared to pay in the last -instance the taxes that are imposed on his land, and that at all -events it is absolutely erroneous to assume any general shifting to -the consumer. In so far as our land tax is a part of a general -property tax, it can not possibly be shifted; in so far as it is more -or less an exclusive tax, it is even then apt to remain where it is -first put--on the landowner."--_Seligman: Incidence of Taxation, p. -99._ - -[16] Seligman. Shifting and Incidence of Taxation. - -[17] Professor Marshall. - -[18] In a like experience the Duke of Argyll, in his work The Unseen -Foundations of Society, finds an explanation of the so-called theory -of Ricardo, that the rent which a farmer of agricultural land pays as -the price of its hire--that is to say, the price which he pays for the -exclusive use of it--is no part of the cost of the crops he may raise -upon it; a conclusion that can not be possibly true, unless it be also -true that rent is paid for something that is not an indispensable -condition of agricultural production. "Thus rights are in their very -nature impalpable and invisible. They are not material things, but -relations between many material things and the human mind and will. -The right of exclusive use over land is a thing invisible and -immaterial, as other rights are, and, although it is, and has been -since the world began, the basis of all agricultural industry, it is a -basis impalpable and invisible, whereas the material visible -implements and tools, whose work depends upon it, are all visible and -palpable enough, and all of which would never be were we to see them -without the invisible rights upon which they depend. All of the -former, in their place and order, are instruments of production; all -of them catch the eye, and may easily engross the attention. On the -other hand, if we are induced to forget those other elements, which -are equally essential instruments of production, merely because they -are out of sight, then our deception may be complete, and fallacies -which become glaring when memory and attention are awakened may find -in our half-vacant minds an easy and even a cordial reception." - -Adam Smith may be fairly considered as having fully committed himself -beyond all controversy in his great work, The Wealth of Nations, to -the principle that taxes, with a degree of infallibility, diffuse -themselves when they are levied uniformly on the same article; and he -even goes so far as to admit that a tax upon labor, if it could be -uniformly levied and collected, would be diffused, and that the -laborer would be the mere conduit through which the tax would pass to -the public treasury. Thus he says, "While the demand for labor and the -price of provisions, therefore, remain the same, a direct tax upon -wages can have no other effect than to raise them somewhat higher than -the tax." - -The German economist Bluntschli, who has carefully studied this -question of the final incidence of all just and equitable taxes, is in -substantial agreement with the above conclusions, but prefers to use a -different term for characterizing such finality than consumption, and -expresses himself as follows: "In the end taxes fall on _enjoyments_. -Hence the amount of each man's enjoyments and not his income is the -justest measure of taxation." (Bluntschli, vol. x, p. 146.) - -M. Thiers, the French statesman and economist, was also a believer and -earnest advocate of the theory of the diffusion of taxes, and lays -down his principles in the following words: "Taxes are shifted -indefinitely, and tend to become a part of the price of commodities, -to such an extent that every one bears his share, not in proportion to -what he pays the state, but in proportion to what he consumes." And in -his book Rights to Property he thus illustrates the method in which -taxation diffuses itself: "In the same manner as our senses, deceived -by appearances, tell us that it is the sun which moves and not the -earth, so a particular tax appears to fall upon one class, and another -tax upon another class, when in reality it is not so. The tax really -best suited to the poorest member of society is that which is best -suited to the general fortune of the state; a fortune which is much -more for the possession and enjoyment of the poor man than it is for -the rich; a fact of which we are never sufficiently convinced. But of -the manner, nevertheless, in which taxes are divided among the -different classes of the state, the most certain thing we can say is: -That they are divided in proportion to what each man consumes, and for -a reason not generally recognized or understood, namely, that taxes -are reflected, as it were, to infinity, and from reflection to -reflection become eventually an integral part of the prices of things. -Hence the greatest purchasers and consumers are everywhere the -greatest taxpayers. This is what I call '_diffusion of taxation_,' to -borrow a term from physical science, which applies the expression -'diffusion of light' to those numberless reflections, in consequence -of which the light which has penetrated the slightest aperture spreads -itself around in every direction, and in such a manner as to reach all -the objects which it renders visible. So a tax which at first sight -appears to be paid directly, in reality is only advanced by the -individual who is first called upon to pay it." - -[19] As applied to the wages of labor, the truth of this principle is -equally incontestable. "The sewing girl performing her toilsome work -by the needle at one dollar a day, the street sweeper working the mud -with his broom at a dollar and a half, the skilled laborer at two and -three dollars, the professor at five, the editor at five or ten, the -artist and the songstress at ten or five hundred dollars a day are all -members of the working classes, though working at different rates. And -it is only the difference in their effectiveness that causes the -difference in their earnings. Bring them all to the same point of -efficiency, and their earnings also will be the same."--_W. Jungst, -Cincinnati._ - -John Locke, in his treatise On the Standard of Value, treats of -taxation, and shows conclusively that if all lands were nominally free -from taxation, the owners of lands would proportionally pay more taxes -than now, because the same amount of money must continue to be -collected in some form, and the average profits of lands would only be -equal to the average profits of other investments; and further, that -the expense and annoyance (another form of expense) would be increased -if the tax were exclusively levied in the first instance upon personal -property; and hence the landowner would be burdened with his -proportion of the unnecessary expense and annoyance. He also shows -that you may change the form of a uniform tax, but that you can not -change the burden; and that the change will increase the burden, if -the new system is more expensive and annoying than the old. Locke -wrote nearly a century before Adam Smith published his Wealth of -Nations, and it would seem probable that Smith acquired his ideas -relative to the average profits of investments from Locke. - - - - -THE GREAT BOMBARDMENT. - -BY CHARLES F. HOLDER. - - -A thin stratum of air, an invisible armor of great tenuity, lies -between man and the menace of possible annihilation. - -The regions of space beyond our planet are filled with flying -fragments. Some meet the earth in its onward rush; others, having -attained inconceivable velocity, overtake and crash into the whirling -sphere with loud detonation and ominous glare, finding destruction in -its molecular armor, or perhaps ricocheting from it again into the -unknown. Some come singly, vagrant fragments from the infinity of -space; others fall in showers like golden rain; all constituting a -bombardment appalling in its magnitude. It has been estimated that -every twenty-four hours the earth or its atmosphere is struck by _four -hundred million_ missiles of iron or stone, ranging from an ounce up -to tons in weight. Every month there rushes upon the flying globe at -least twelve billion iron and stone fragments, which, with lurid -accompaniment, crash into the circumambient atmosphere. Owing to the -resistance offered by the air, few of these solid shots strike the -earth. They move out of space with a possible velocity of thirty or -forty miles per second, and, like moths, plunge into the revolving -globe, lured to their destruction by its fatal attraction. The moment -they enter our atmosphere they ignite; the air is piled up and -compressed ahead of them with inconceivable force, the resultant -friction producing an immediate rise in temperature, and the shooting -star, the meteor of popular parlance, is the result. - -[Illustration: IDEAL VIEW OF THE EARTH AS IT IS BOMBARDED BY THE -ESTIMATED FOUR HUNDRED MILLION METEORITES EVERY TWENTY-FOUR -HOURS.[20]] - -A simple experiment, made by Joule and Thomson, well illustrates the -possibility of this rise in temperature by atmospheric friction. If a -wire is whirled through the air at a rate of one hundred and -seventy-five feet per second, a rise of one degree, centigrade, will -be noticed. If the revolutions are increased to three hundred and -seventy-two feet per second, the elevation will be 5.3 deg. C. If the -temperature increases as the square of the velocity, a rate of speed -of twenty miles per second would develop a temperature not far from -360,000 deg. C., which is probably far less than that at the surface of -the ordinary meteor as it is seen blazing through our atmosphere. If -the meteor is small it is often consumed by the intense heat -generated; but larger fragments, owing to their velocity and the fact -that they are poor conductors of heat and burn slowly, reach the -surface and bury themselves in the sea or earth. But few escape the -inevitable consequences of the contact, and of the untold millions -which have struck the earth within the memory of man but five hundred -and thirty have been seen to fall. The phenomena associated with the -plunging meteor is most interesting. A blaze of light, as the -terrific heat ignites the iron, announces its entrance into our -atmosphere. It may be red, yellow, white, green, or blue, all these -hues having been observed. Then follows the explosion, caused by the -contact with the air piled up ahead, and in certain instances a loud -detonation or a series of noises is heard, which may be repeated -indefinitely until the meteoric mass is completely destroyed, and -drops, a shower of disintegrated particles, which fall rattling to the -ground. - -The blaze of light does not continue to the earth, nor does the -meteor, should it survive, strike the ground with the velocity with -which it entered the atmosphere, as the latter often arrests its -motion so completely that it drops upon the earth by its own weight, -well illustrated by the meteorites of the Hesslefall, which dropped -upon ice but a few inches thick, rebounding as they fell. Thus the -atmosphere protects the inhabitants of the globe from a terrific -bombardment by destroying many of the largest meteorites, reducing the -size of others before they reach the surface and arresting the -velocity so that few bury themselves deeply in the soil. - -The writer observed a remarkable meteor in 1894. It entered our -atmosphere, apparently, over the Mojave Desert, in California, and -exploded over the San Gabriel Valley, though without any appreciable -sound, and after the first flash disappeared, leaving in the air a -large balloon-shaped object of yellow light which lasted some moments, -presenting a remarkable spectacle. In this instance the meteor had -probably exploded or been consumed, leaving only the light to tell the -story, the atmospheric armor of the earth having successfully warded -off the blow. - -Viewing the facts as they exist, the earth, a seeming fugitive mass -flying through space, vainly endeavoring to break the bonds which bind -it to the sun, hunted, bombarded with strange missiles hurled from -unseen hands or forces from the infinity of space, it is little wonder -that the ancients and some savage races of later times invested the -phenomena with strange meanings. It requires but little imagination to -see in the flying earth a living monster followed by shadowy furies -which hurl themselves upon it, now vainly attempting to reach the -air-protected body or again striking it with terrific force, lodging -deep in its sides amid loud reverberation and dazzling blaze of light. - -Meteorites have been known from the very earliest times, and have -often been regarded as miraculous creatures to be worshiped and handed -down from family to family. The famous meteorite which fell in -Phrygia, centuries ago, was worshiped as Cybele, "the mother of the -gods," and about the year 204 B.C. was carried to Rome with much -display and ceremony, when people of all classes fell down before it, -deeming it a messenger from the gods. Diana of Ephesus and the famous -Cyprian Venus were, in all probability, meteoric stones which were -seen to fall, and were worshiped for the same reason as above. Livy -describes a shower of meteorites which fell about the Alban Mount 652 -B.C. The senate was demoralized, and certain prophets announced it a -warning from heaven, so impressing the lawmakers that they declared a -nine-days' festival with which to propitiate the gods. The visitor to -Mecca will find enshrined in a place of honor a meteorite which can be -traced back beyond 600 A.D., and which is worshiped by pilgrims. The -Tartars pointed out a meteorite to Pallas, in 1772, which had fallen -at Krasnojarsk, and which they considered a holy messenger from -heaven. A large body of meteoric iron found in Wichita County, Texas, -was regarded by the Indians as a fetich. They told strangers that it -came from the sky as a messenger from the Great Spirit. This meteorite -was stationed at a point where two Indian trails met, and was observed -and worshiped as a shrine. - -The Chinese have records of meteors which fell 644 B.C. The oldest -authentic fall in which the stone is preserved is that of Ensisheim, -Elsass, Germany, in 1492. The stone, which weighed two hundred and -sixty pounds, fell with a loud roar, much to the dismay of the -peasantry, penetrating the ground to a depth of five feet. It was -secured by King Maximilian, who, after presenting the Duke Sigismund -with a section, hung the remainder in the parish church as a holy -relic, where, it is said, it may still be seen. - -Meteorites vary in size from minute objects not larger than a pea to -masses of iron of enormous size. The Chupaderos meteorite, which fell -in Chihuahua, Mexico, weighs twenty-five tons. Another, which fell in -Kansas, broke into myriads of pieces, the sections found weighing -thirteen hundred pounds. A meteorite in the Vienna Museum, which fell -in Hungary, weighs six hundred and forty-seven pounds, while the -Cranbourne meteorite in the British Museum weighs four tons. The Red -River meteorite in the Yale Museum weighs sixteen hundred and thirty -pounds. The largest meteorite known was discovered within the Arctic -Circle by Lieutenant Peary. The Eskimos had known of it for -generations as a source of supply for iron. It was found by Lieutenant -Peary in May, 1894, but, owing to its enormous weight, could not be -removed until the summer of 1897, when, after much labor, it was -excavated and hoisted into the hold of the steam whaling bark Hope and -carried to New York, where it has found a resting place in the cabinet -of the American Museum of Natural History. It is believed to weigh one -hundred tons. - -Up to 1772 the stories of bodies falling from space were not -entertained seriously by scientific men. So eminent a scientist as -Lavoisier, after thoroughly investigating a case, decided that it was -merely a stone which had been struck by lightning. Falls finally -occurred which demonstrated beyond dispute that the missiles came from -space, and science recognized the fact that the earth was literally -being bombarded, and that human safety was due to the atmospheric -armor, scarcely one hundred miles thick, that enveloped the earth. -Instances of the destruction of human life from this cause are very -rare. Some years ago a meteorite crushed into the home of an Italian -peasant, killing the occupant; and cattle have been known to be -destroyed by them; but such instances are exceptional. In 1660 a -meteorite fell at Milan, on the authority of the Italian physicist -Paolo Maria Tezzayo, killing a Franciscan monk. Humboldt is authority -for the statement that a monk was struck dead by a meteorite at Crema, -September 4, 1511; and in 1674, on the same authority, a meteorite -struck a ship at sea and killed two Swedish sailors. - -In December, 1795, at Wold Cottage, in Yorkshire, England, a stone -weighing fifty pounds dashed through the air with a loud roar, -alarming people in the vicinity, and burying itself in the ground not -thirty feet from a laborer. This mass, though undoubtedly traveling, -when it struck our atmosphere, at a rate of at least thirty miles a -second, was checked so completely that it sank but twelve inches into -the soft chalk. Great as is the heat generated during the passage of a -meteorite through the air, it does not always permeate the entire -body. This was well illustrated in the case of the meteorite which -fell at Dhurmsala, Kangra, Punjaub, India, in 1860, fragments of which -can be seen in the Field Museum in Chicago. Of it Dr. Oliver C. -Farington says: "The fragments were so cold as to benumb the fingers -of those who collected them. This is perhaps the only instance known -in which the cold of space has become perceptible to human senses." - -Some of the individual falls during recent years have attracted -widespread attention. One of the most remarkable is known as the Great -Kansas Meteor. It was evidently of large size, flashing into sight -eighty or ninety miles from the earth, on the 20th of June, 1876, over -the State of Kansas. To the first observers it appeared to come from -the vicinity of the moon, and resembled a small moon or a gigantic -fire ball, blazing brightly, and creating terror and amazement among -thousands of spectators who witnessed its flight. It passed to the -east, disappearing near the horizon in a blaze of light. The entire -passage occupied nearly fifty seconds, being visible to the -inhabitants of Iowa, Nebraska, Missouri, Indiana, Wisconsin, Illinois, -Michigan, Kentucky, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia. - -This visitor created the greatest alarm and apprehension along its -path, the blaze of light being accompanied by repeated explosions and -detonations which sounded like the rumble and roar of cannonading. To -some it appeared like the rattling of heavy teams over a rough, rocky -road; others believed subterranean explosions accompanied the fall. -Horses ran away, stock hurried bellowing to cover, and men, women, and -children crouched in fear or fled before the fiery visitor whose roar -was distinctly heard several minutes after it had disappeared. As the -meteor crossed the Mississippi River the noise of the explosions -increased in severity, and were distinctly heard sixty or seventy -miles from its path, or a distance of one hundred and forty miles -apart. The great ball of flame remained intact as it crossed five or -six States, but as it passed over central Illinois loud detonations -were heard and the light spread out like an exploding rocket with -flashing points. This was the death and destruction of the monster, -and from here it dashed on, a stream or shower of countless meteors -instead of a solid body, forming over Indiana and Ohio a cluster over -forty miles long and five in breadth, showing that while the meteor -had broken up it was still moving with great velocity. How far it -traveled is not known, as it was not seen to strike. Observers in -Pennsylvania saw it rushing in the direction of New York, and people -in that State, where the day was cloudy, heard strange rumblings and -detonations. Houses rattled, and the inhabitants along the line the -meteor was supposed to have passed accredited the phenomena to an -earthquake. Somewhere, perhaps in the forest region of the -Adirondacks, or in the Atlantic, lies the wreck of this meteor. But -one fragment was found. A farmer in Indiana, while watching its -passage heard the thud of a falling object, and going to the spot the -following morning found a small meteorite weighing two thirds of a -pound. - -This marvelous body was first observed in all probability in the -northwestern corner of the Indian Territory, possibly sixty or seventy -miles above the earth, and from here it dashed along with repeated -explosions, almost parallel to the earth's surface, disappearing over -New York. - -Another remarkable meteor fell into the Atlantic Ocean far out at sea, -July 20, 1860. It resembled the one mentioned above in that it was -accompanied by a marvelous pyrotechnic display. It first appeared in -the vicinity of Michigan, blazing out with a fiery glow that filled -the heavens with light. Cocks crowed, oxen lowed, and people rushed -from their homes along its course over the States of New York, -Pennsylvania, and New Jersey. When last seen, over the Atlantic, it -had separated into three parts, which followed each other as separate -fire bodies, without the noise which was the accompanying feature of -the Kansas meteor. - -Doubtless the majority of meteors plunge into the ocean, and in modern -times several large meteoric bodies have narrowly escaped passing -vessels. On December 1, 1896, the officers of the ship Walkomming, -bound from New York to Bremen, noticed a large and brilliant meteor -flashing down upon them. Its direction was from southeast to -northwest, and it plunged into the sea ahead of the vessel with a loud -roar and hissing sound; a few minutes later an immense tidal wave, -presumably caused by the fall, struck the ship, doing no little -damage. Even more remarkable was the escape of the British ship -Cawdor, which was given up by the underwriters, but which reached San -Francisco November 20, 1897. During a heavy storm, August 20th, a -large meteor flashed from the sky and passed between the main and -mizzen masts, crashing into the sea with a blinding flash and -deafening detonation. For a moment it was thought the ship was on -fire, and the air was filled with sulphurous fumes. - -In 1888 a meteor dashed into the atmosphere of the earth and made a -brilliant display over southern California. It appeared between -twelve and one o'clock in the morning, and shot across the heavens, a -fiery red mass--not like the ordinary meteor, but writhing and -twisting in a manner peculiarly its own, resembling a huge serpent. -When it had passed nearly across the sky it apparently stopped and -doubled in the form of a horseshoe, according to the informant of the -writer, as large as a half-mile race track. The horseshoe remained -visible several minutes, gradually disappearing. The brilliancy of -this meteor can be imagined when it is known that the entire San -Gabriel Valley was illumined as though an electric light of great -power had suddenly been flashed upon it. - -[Illustration: COON BUTTE, ON SLOPE OF WHICH TEN TONS OF METEORIC IRON -HAS BEEN FOUND, AND WHICH WAS SUPPOSED TO HAVE BEEN MADE BY A METEOR.] - -[Illustration: SECTION OF INTERIOR OF COON BUTTE.] - -[Illustration: SECTION OF COON BUTTE.] - -Some time in past ages a meteorite weighing at least ten tons shot -into our atmosphere and struck the earth near the famous Canyon Diablo -in Arizona, the mysterious gulch crossed by the Atchison, Topeka and -Santa Fe Railroad. The discovery was made several years ago by a sheep -herder, named Armijo. Finding a piece of iron with a peculiar lustrous -surface which he believed to be silver, he carried it to one of the -towns, where it finally fell into the hands of a geologist, who -pronounced it a meteorite. The discovery was followed up, and on the -crest and in the vicinity of a singular cone about four thousand feet -in diameter pieces of a meteorite were found on the surface, which -gave a combined weight of ten tons, in all probability but a fraction -of the real monster. The iron masses were widely scattered over the -slope and the adjacent _mesa_, and it was assumed that a gigantic -meteorite or star had fallen and produced the cone, another striking -the earth and forming what is now known as the Canyon Diablo. A large -piece of meteoric iron was found twenty miles from the cone; another -eight miles east of it; two thousand pieces weighing not over a few -pounds or ounces were taken from the slopes; two exceeding a thousand -pounds were found within a half mile, while forty or fifty weighing -about one hundred pounds were discovered within a radius of half a -mile. Here not only a meteor, but a large-sized meteoric shower, had -succeeded in penetrating the armor of the earth, leaving many -evidences of the extraordinary occurrence which may have been -witnessed by the early man of what is now known as Arizona. From the -peculiar and interesting evidence a geologist deduced the hypothesis -that the crater known as Coon Butte could have been produced by a -meteor with a diameter of fifteen hundred feet, and a careful -examination with a view of discovering it was made with nicely -adjusted magnetic instruments; but in no instance did they indicate -the presence of a vast body of metal buried in the earth, and it was -assumed that the striking of the crater by the colossal meteorite was -a chance blow. - -[Illustration: THE CRATER OF COON BUTTE NEAR CANYON DIABLO, near which -the fragments of a meteorite have been found, and which was supposed -at one time to have been made by the meteorite.] - -[Illustration: ONE HUNDRED AND SIXTY-ONE POUND METEORITE. A part of -the ten-ton meteorite which fell at Coon Butte, near Canyon Diablo.] - -[Illustration: ONE HUNDRED AND SIXTY-ONE AND A HALF POUND METEORITE -FOUND NEAR CRATER OF COON BUTTE.] - -[Illustration: CROSSES SHOW LARGE PIECES OF THE METEORITE FOUND AT -COON BUTTE. (Seven miles in diameter.)] - -The meteorites or foreign bodies which bombard the earth may be -included in three classes--meteoric irons or aerosiderites, meteoric -iron stones or aerosiderolites, and meteoric stones, aerolites--all -containing elements, about twenty-five in number, which have been -found upon the earth. The most conspicuous and important are silicon, -iron, nickel, magnesium, sulphur, carbon, and phosphorus, while the -others are aluminum, antimony, arsenic, calcium, chlorine, chromium, -cobalt, copper, hydrogen, lithium, manganese, oxygen, potassium, -sodium, tin, and titanium. Hydrogen and the diamond have also been -observed. A number of interesting chemical compounds are found in -meteorites not known on the earth, and a study of their character -shows that the conditions under which the meteors were formed were -entirely different from those which saw the beginning of things -terrestrial. In brief, where meteors were born there was an absence of -air and water. On the other hand, there was at some stage in the -history of meteorites an abundance of hydrogen. The meteoric irons are -made up principally of iron with an alloy of nickel, and show a rich -crystalline structure, the various angles producing a variety of -forms known as _Widmanstatten_ figures which a few years ago formed -the basis of a singular sensation. The figures were supposed to be -fossil shells and various animals of a diminutive size which once -populated the wrecked world of which the meteor was assumed to be a -part. These meteoric animals from space were named and classified by -several observers, who were finally forced to acknowledge that their -creations were the fanciful markings of crystallization. - -Another class of meteorites (meteoric iron stones) may be described as -spongy masses of nickeliferous iron in whose pores are found grains of -chryosite and other silicates. A type of these bodies is the meteor of -Pallas, which was discovered by him in 1772. The third class of -meteoric stones are those in which the stony or silicous predominates. -As a rule they contain scattered metallic grains, but certain ones, as -the aerolite which fell at Gara, France, in 1806, contain metallic -constituents. - -The aerolites present an attractive appearance when made into -sections, showing crystals and splinterlike fragments, and under the -glass seem to be made up of many minute spheres ranging from those the -size of a cherry down to others invisible to the naked eye. The -minerals prominent in their composition are chrysolite, bronzite, -augite, enstatite, feldspar, chronite, etc., showing a marked -similarity to the eruptive rocks so well known on the earth. The -collections of famous meteorites in the various museums of the world -have constantly been examined and studied with a view to determine -their origin, the question being a fascinating one to layman and -scientist. Astronomers in the past have variously answered the -question. The flying fragments were believed by some to be the -wreckage of other worlds. Planets had perhaps collided and been rent -asunder in former ages, and space filled with the flying fragments. -Others thought that meteors were molten matter thrown from the earth -or moon. All these theories have been relinquished in view of evidence -of a more or less convincing character pointing to the conclusion that -the bombardment of the earth is one of the results of the -disintegration of comets. In other words, cometary matter flying not -always blindly through space, but in the orbit of the comet of which -it originally formed a part, constituting the missiles. - -It is known that the meteors were formed in a region where air and -water were absent. It is equally evident that life was not a factor in -the past history of the bodies, though it must be acknowledged that -the hydrocarbons resembling terrestrial bitumens which are found in -some meteorites suggest the possibility of vegetable life. These -comets, the mysterious bodies which seem to be roving through space, -misconceived planets, as it were, forced into the world half made up, -offer the best known solution, as they are literally worlds without -air or water, enveloped in a strange and ever-changing substitute for -atmosphere; ghostly worlds, which seem to be drawn to the sun, then -thrown out into space again to repeat the act until the mighty change -from close contact with the fiery mass to the intense cold of distant -realms wrecks them, scatters their fragments through the infinity of -space where they form gigantic rings or clusters of meteoric matter, -raining down upon the sun and planets and all heavenly bodies which -meet them, adding fuel to the former, material substance to the -latter, and in the case of the moon pitilessly bombarding her -crust--illustrating the effect of the bombardment of the earth were it -deprived of its atmospheric armor. - -The evidence which enabled astronomers to definitely associate comets -with meteoric showers and falling stars leads one into a world of -romance. Schiaparelli, the distinguished Italian astronomer, made the -discovery that meteors had a cometic origin. He had been calculating -the orbit and motion of the meteorites which produce the August -showers, when it occurred to him that they corresponded with those of -a certain comet. By following up this clew it was discovered that the -orbit of Tempel's comet corresponded with that of the meteors of the -November star shower. The most remarkable evidence was that produced -by Biela's comet, discovered in 1826. It had a revolution about the -sun of six years and eight months. It was seen in 1772, 1805, 1832, -1845, and 1852. The vast mass, which appeared to be rushing around the -sun with remarkable velocity, became separated in 1846, dividing into -two parts, one hundred and fifty thousand or two hundred thousand -miles from each other. In six years the separation had increased to -about one and a half million miles. What mighty cataclysm in infinite -space caused this rupture the mind of man can not conceive, but -something occurred which rent the aerial giant asunder, and so far as -known completed its wreck, as from that time Biela's comet has not -been seen. In 1872 the comet was looked for, and astronomers predicted -that if it did not appear a shower of stars or meteors would be -visible--the remains of the lost traveler through space--and that they -would diverge from a point in Andromeda. - -This remarkable prediction was verified in every particular. When the -moment for the appearance of the comet arrived, November 27, 1872, -there burst upon the heavens, not Biela's comet, but a marvelous -shower of shooting stars, which dashed down from the constellation of -Andromeda as predicted. In 1885 this was duplicated, and the -atmosphere was apparently filled with shooting stars. Biela's comet -had met disaster in infinite space, and the earth was being bombarded -with the wreckage. - -It is difficult to comprehend the vastness of these clusters of -meteors which constitute the wreck of comets and the source of the -principal bombardments. Thus the August stream, which gives us the -brilliant displays of summer nights, is supposed to be ten million -miles in thickness, as the earth dashing through at a rate of two -million miles a day is several days in passing it. We cross the -November stream of meteors in a few hours, suggesting a width of forty -thousand or fifty thousand miles. This stream of metallic bodies is -hundreds of millions of miles in length, and contains myriads of -projectiles which may yet be hurled upon the earth or some of the -planets of the solar system. - -[Illustration: THE NOVEMBER SHOWER OF METEORS AT SEA FROM SANDY -HOOK.] - -But one piece of Biela's comet, so far as known, was found--a fragment -weighing eight pounds falling at Mazapil, Mexico, where it remains one -of the most inspiring and interesting of inanimate objects. For years -the vast metallic mass, of which this piece formed a part, rushed -through space, covering millions of miles; now near the burning -surface of the sun, now in regions of space where its heat was -scarcely perceptible. For over a century this monster was observed by -the inhabitants of the earth, and finally a portion fell and human -beings handled and examined it. - -The fiery messengers which dash down singly upon the earth, the -showers of meteoric stones which flash through our atmosphere with -ephemeral gleams, are, then, the remains of gigantic comets which have -been seen rushing with apparent erratic course through space, and -which by unknown causes have been destroyed and now as meteoric -clusters, one of which is estimated to be one billion miles in length -and one hundred thousand miles in thickness, and to contain one -hundred thousand million meteors, are swinging through space, with -many erratic and wandering forms, pouring upon the earth and all the -planets of the solar system a mighty and continuous bombardment. - - -FOOTNOTE: - -[20] The meteors shown in the two ideal pictures are, of course, -entirely disproportionate in size to the earth and stars. If seen by -an observer above the earth, we might imagine an envelope of light -around the globe from the continuous ignition of the 150,000,000,000 -or more meteors which it is estimated strike the earth every year; in -which case, the striking meteors would be represented in the -illustrations as a thin light line surrounding the atmospheric -envelope of the earth. - - - - -THE SPIRIT OF CONQUEST. - -BY J. NOVICOW. - - -The spirit of conquest produces a gigantic aggregation of calamities -and sufferings. A large number of persons still regard conquests with -a favoring eye. Now, what does a conquest signify? It is the arming of -a band of soldiers and going and taking possession of a territory. -Although such expeditions may appear useful, lucrative, legitimate, -and even glorious, little regard is paid, in conducting them, to the -good of societies; for, in spite of all euphemisms, such military -enterprises are robbery, and nothing else, all the time. - -Generous spirits who talk about suppressing war do great injury to -mankind. Setting themselves in pursuit of a chimera, they abandon the -road that leads to concrete and positive results. Realists treat the -partisans of perpetual peace as Utopian dreamers, and refuse to follow -them. The noblest and most generous efforts are thus wholly lost. The -direction of public opinion is left to empirics and retrogrades, to -narrow-minded people, who are satisfied with living from day to day -and have not the courage to look the social problems of the time in -the face. War will never be abolished any more than murder. The -propaganda should not be directed on that side. The spirit of conquest -is the thing to combat. And this colossal error must be fought not in -the name of a vague and intangible fraternity, but by appealing to the -egoistic interest of every one. There will always be wars, because man -will never be absolutely sound-minded. At times passion and folly will -prevail over reason. But the idea that conquest is the quickest means -of increasing prosperity will not be everlasting, because it is -utterly false. - -Man acts conformably to what seems to be his interest. The idea he has -of this depends on his judgment, which varies every day, as do also -his desires. There is only one efficacious method of effecting social -changes: it is, to modify the desires of men, to bring them to seek -new objects, different from the old ones. - -A great many Germans are saying now, "We would give up the last drop -of our blood rather than surrender Alsace-Lorraine." Why do they say -that? Because the possession of the provinces annexed in 1871 procures -them some sort of real or imaginary satisfaction. But if, on the other -hand, this annexation caused them extreme sufferings, the Germans -would say, "We would give up the last drop of our blood to get rid of -Alsace-Lorraine." Now, if the Germans (or any other people) could -comprehend how largely the spirit of conquest diminishes the sum of -their enjoyment, they would certainly express themselves in language -of the latter sort. The apostles of perpetual peace have therefore -taken the wrong road. Their efforts should bear upon the single object -of showing that the appropriation of a neighbor's territories in no -way increases the welfare of men. The pessimists answer us that it -will take many years for the uselessness of conquests to be accepted. -Well, then, man shall have to continue many years in suffering; that -is all there is of it. - -When will the day come that we shall find out that it is no longer -advantageous to seize a neighbor's territory? We do not know. The only -thing we can affirm with absolute certainty is, that when it arrives -our prosperity will be increased five or ten fold.[21] - -This ctesohedonic error (lust for possession) has produced -consequences of which we proceed to speak. Just as individuals fancy -that they will be better off with larger possessions, so peoples -imagine that their prosperity and happiness will be in direct -proportion to the territorial extent of their country. Hence one of -the silliest aberrations of the human mind--the fatuous idolatry of -square miles. A great many Germans still figure it out that they will -have a larger sum of happiness if their country contains 208,670 -square miles instead of 203,070.[22] Few errors are more evident. -There are thousands of examples to prove that the welfare of citizens -is in no way a function of the extent of the state. If it were so, -Russia would be the richest country in Europe, while everybody knows -it is exactly the contrary. Taxation in that country is pushed to -limits that might almost be called absurd, and for that reason the -extent of the nation is one of the greatest obstacles to its -prosperity. - -As an example to illustrate the absurdity of the idolatry of square -miles, take California, which now has 158,360 square miles,[23] and -1,200,000 inhabitants. If in another century the population should -rise to forty millions, it might be expedient for the good government -of these men to divide the State into several. If the conservatives of -that period should declare that they would give the last drop of their -blood to preserve the unity of their Commonwealth, they would be -afflicted with the square-mile craze, and as foolish as the Europeans. -Territorial divisions are made for men, not men for territorial -divisions. The object enlightened patriots should pursue is not that a -certain geographical extent should be included under one name or many, -but that the divisions should conform to the aspirations and desires -of the citizens. They should impose as little restraint as possible -upon the economical and intellectual progress of societies. - -The inhabitants of the province of Rio Grande recently wanted to -secede from Brazil. The Government at Rio Janeiro, afflicted like -other governments by the square-mile craze, would not consent to it, -and hostilities broke out. Suppose the Rio Grandians had been -victorious in this war; what would have been the result? There would -have been eleven states in South America instead of ten. No modern -political theorist would see the presage of an extraordinary calamity -in such an event as that. The new state would have been recognized by -the other powers, and things would have gone on as before. But if the -central Government, respecting the wishes of the Rio Grandians, had -consented to the secession, the empirical politicians of our time -would have affirmed that the world had been unbalanced. Yet the -situation would have been exactly the same in point of territorial -divisions--eleven independent states instead of ten. We have then to -think that, in the eyes of modern politicians, the avoidance of a war, -the fact of sparing hundreds of millions of money and thousands of -human lives, diminishes wealth, while the waste of capital and -massacres should increase it! It would be hard to be less logical or -more absurd. - -The great North American federation is composed of forty-four States, -of from 1,250 square miles (the size of Rhode Island) to 265,780 -square miles (the size of Texas). If one hundred States should be -established to-morrow of about 30,000 square miles each, there would -not necessarily follow either an increase or a diminution of the -welfare of the population. The Americans can make equally rapid -progress whether divided into forty republics or one hundred, and as -slow under one division as under the other. Wealth is not a function -of political divisions. So Europe is now divided into twenty-four -independent states, having from 8 to 2,100,000 square miles of -territory. If it were divided to-morrow into one hundred independent -states of 35,000 square miles each, it would as easily be poorer as -richer. All would depend upon the interior organization of each of -these states, and on the relations which they might establish with one -another. - -Very few persons understand this truth. When we see the most civilized -nations of Europe imagining that their welfare depends on 5,000 or -6,000 square miles more or less, we stand really stupefied before the -persistence of the ancient routines. The simple disarmament of three -military corps would procure ten times as many benefits for the German -people as the possession of Alsace-Lorraine. In short, as long as the -false association between the territorial extent of a state and its -wealth persists its progress in real wealth will be very slow. - -To return to the spirit of conquest. A great many things, as we have -shown in another place, are not appropriable. Foreign territories are -not so for entire nations. A military chief with his staff may be -better off through the conquest of a country, but a nation never. - -When William of Normandy seized England he committed an act that was -not according to his interest as properly understood. He destroyed by -war a considerable quantity of wealth, and he and his barons in turn -suffered by the general diminution of welfare. These sufferings were, -however, infinitesimal and very hard to appreciate. True views of the -nature of wealth were, moreover, not accessible to the brains of men -of the eleventh century. Certainly, when William and his army had -possessed themselves of England they experienced an increase of wealth -that was very evident to them. The king had more revenue; every Norman -soldier got land or a reward in money, and he became richer after -Hastings than he had ever been before. - -But what did the Roman _people_, for example, gain by the conquest of -the basin of the Mediterranean? Four or five hundred grand personages -divided the provincial lands alienated by the state among themselves, -but what benefit did the masses derive from the bloody campaigns of -the republic? The distribution of the _annone_, 280 grammes of bread -each a day, given to 200,000 persons out of the 1,500,000 inhabitants -of the Eternal City! Surely the Romans would have gained a great deal -more by working themselves than by pillaging other nations! - -Things are exactly the same now. In 1871 twenty-eight persons received -from the Emperor William donations forming a total of $3,000,000. But -what benefit did the German _people_ derive from the conquest of -Alsace-Lorraine? None. Dividing the 3,600,000 acres of that province -among the 6,400,000 families that were living in Germany at the time -of the Treaty of Frankfort would make two and a half acres each. This -is not opulence. Of the 5,000,000,000 of francs extorted from France -as damage for the expenses of the war there remained 3,896,250,000 -francs, which, divided among 6,400,000 families, represent a gain of -609 francs, or about $121.80 per family--hardly enough to live -scantily upon for four months; and this was the most lucrative war of -which history makes mention! Consider, further, at what amount of -sacrifice these $121.80 have been gained. In 1870 the military -expenses of the North German Confederation and the four southern -states amounted to 349,000,000 francs a year. They now exceed -795,000,000, and in another year (from 1894) will exceed 870,000,000. -Here, then, is an increase of 521,000,000 francs, or a charge of 60 -francs per family. As 609 francs, even at five per cent, will only -return 30 francs, we have here a clear loss of 30 francs (or $6) a -family per year. It thus appears that the conquest of Alsace-Lorraine -would have been a bad speculation, even if the French indemnity had -been distributed in equal parts among all the German families. But, in -fact, it has not been so; so that the 60 francs of supplementary -expenditure are paid without any compensation. - -It might be said that the conquest of Alsace-Lorraine was not dictated -solely by sordid economical considerations. Other interests, purer and -more elevated, stir the hearts of modern nations. But we ask, Is it -grand, noble, and generous to hold unwilling populations under the -yoke? On the contrary, it is most base, vile, and degrading. It is -difficult to comprehend how brutal conquest can still arouse -enthusiasm. Ancient survivals and routines must for a time have -suppressed all our reflective faculties. - -Suppose, again, 3,000,000 German soldiers should penetrate into Russia -and should gain a complete victory: how would they apportion the -territory? The parts here would indeed be larger--Russia contains -5,471,500,000 acres. But a third of this territory, at least, is -desert; subtracting this, there remain about 3,600,000,000 acres, -which, divided among the German families, would give about 5-1/2 acres -to each. It may be asked, How will the conquerors take possession of -these lands? If each family delegated only one of its members, that -would suppose an exodus of 6,400,000 men, going to scatter themselves -from the Vistula to the Amoor. What a disturbance so great an -emigration would make in the economical condition of Germany! -Moreover, would every German colonist be willing to leave his home, -his family, his business, and all his cherished associations, to -install himself on the banks of the Volga, in Siberia, the Caucasus, -or Central Asia? He would acquire 5-1/2 acres, more or less, it is -true, but is it certain that that would bring him more than it would -take from him? On the other hand, if the Germans should have their -shares administered by agents chosen from among the natives, what -complications, what annoyances would arise! The Germans might perhaps -get rid of these difficulties by selling their lands. But what price -could they command, with 3,600,000,000 acres all put into the market -at once? Who would buy it? It is only necessary to look at the facts -at close range (besides a mass of difficulties we have not spoken of) -to comprehend that the direct appropriation of the territory of one -great modern nation by individuals of another does not enter into the -domain of realizable things. - -The appropriation of the landed properties is therefore chimerical. -The confiscation of personal goods to the profit of the conquerors -also offers insurmountable difficulties. There remain the public -riches. Few countries could pay indemnities of 5,000,000,000 francs. -But even that colossal sum becomes absurdly insufficient when it is -equally divided among millions of takers. - -All this is most plainly evident, and yet the spirit of conquest and -the fatuous idolatry of square miles are more active than ever in the -old world of Europe. - -Let us see now what this mad aberration costs. We will begin with the -direct losses. - -A whole continent of our globe, twice as large as the European -continent, having 8,000,000 square miles and 80,000,000 -inhabitants--North America--is divided into three political dominions: -Canada, the United States, and Mexico. As none of these countries -covets the territory of the other, there are on this vast continent -only 114,453 soldiers and marines, one military man for 700 -inhabitants, while in Europe there is one for 108. The American -proportion would give 514,286 men for all the European armies. As -there are no savage elements in Europe to be restrained by arms, half -of the North American contingent ought to be enough to maintain -internal order there. Europe needs only 300,000 soldiers at most; all -the others are supported in deference to the idolatry for square -miles. This additional military force exceeds 3,300,000 men, and costs -4,508,000,000 francs ($901,600,000) a year. And this is the direct -loss entailed by the spirit of conquest; and yet it is trifling as -compared with the indirect losses. - -First, there are 3,300,000 men under the flags. If they were not -soldiers, and were following lucrative occupations and earning only -1,000 francs ($200) a head, they might produce $760,000,000. The -$900,000,000 absorbed now by military expenditures would bring five -per cent if invested in agricultural and industrial enterprises. This -would make another $45,000,000. The twenty-eight days of the reserves -are worth at least $40,000,000. Here, then, is an absolutely palpable -sum of $845,000,000. But what a number of colossal losses escape all -valuation! Capital produces capital. If $1,800,000,000 were saved -every year from military expenses and poured into industrial -enterprises, they would produce benefits beyond our power to estimate. - -To obtain a correct appreciation of the evils derived from the spirit -of conquest, we must take a glance at the past. We need not go back of -the middle ages, from which we shall only take a few examples. The -destruction of wealth wrought by war has been nowhere so frightful as -in Spain. In 1073 the Castilians tried to capture Toledo from the -Moors. With the military engines of the time it was impossible to -accomplish the purpose by a direct attack on a place so admirably -fortified by Nature and man; so the King of Castile, Alfonso VI, -ravaged the country for three successive years, destroyed the crops, -harassed the people and the cattle, and, in short, made a desert -around the old capital of the Visigoths. - -From 1110 till 1815--seven hundred and five years--there were two -hundred and seventy-two years of war between France and England. Now -the two nations have lived in peace for eighty years, and it has not -prevented them from prospering. What better proof could we have that -all the previous wars were useless? - -We need not speak of the massacres of the Thirty Years' War, by which -a third of the population of Germany perished, or of the frightful -hecatombs of Napoleon I, for these facts are in everybody's memory. We -shall confine our attention to the losses caused by the spirit of -conquest, at least since the Thirty Years' War. Here, again, we shall -proceed by analogies. From 1700 to 1815 England expended 175,000,000 -francs ($35,000,000) a year for war. Suppose that the expenditures of -the other great powers--Germany (including Prussia), Austria, Spain, -France, and Russia--were similar. This would make, without counting -the smaller states, 1,050,000,000 francs ($210,000,000) for all -Europe. Still, as war was not so costly to Russia or Prussia as to -England, we will reduce this figure one fourth. We shall then have, -between 1700 and 1815, an annual expenditure of 787,500,000 francs -($157,500,000).[24] Let us estimate the cost of the wars of the -seventeenth century at a slightly lower sum, putting it at only -500,000,000 francs (or $100,000,000) a year for all Europe. That would -make 41,000,000,000 francs ($8,200,000,000), or for the entire period -from 1618 to 1815, 131,562,500,000 francs ($26,312,500,000). - -We have more certain data for the nineteenth century. The Crimean, -Italian, Schleswig-Holstein, and American Wars, and the war of 1866, -cost 46,830,000,000 francs ($9,366,000,000).[25] The war of France -cost 15,000,000,000 francs ($3,000,000,000) at the lowest; that of -1877 at least 4,000,000,000 francs ($800,000,000). Add for the war of -Greek independence, the French and Austrian expeditions to Spain and -Naples, the Polish war of 1830, the Turco-Russian war of 1828-'29, and -the wars of 1848, 3,000,000,000 francs ($600,000,000) more--a very -moderate estimate; we reach a total sum of 68,830,000,000 francs -($13,766,000,000). None of the extra-European conflicts are comprised -in this figure; neither the war between Russia and Persia in 1827, -that of Mehemet Ali against the Turks, the struggle against the -mountaineers of the Caucasus and against the Arabs in Algeria, or the -English campaign in Afghanistan--concerning all of which we have no -figures. - -Counting only the figures we have been able to obtain, we have for the -period from 1618 till our own days 200,392,000,000 francs -($50,078,500,000) as the bare direct losses by war, which have had to -be defrayed by the budgets of the different European states. How shall -we calculate the indirect losses? Between 1618 and 1648 Germany lost -6,000,000 inhabitants. The destruction of property was prodigious, the -ravages were frightful. How can we represent them in money? It is -absolutely impossible. There are, too, some expenses arising from the -spirit of conquest that almost wholly escape observation. We shall -give only two examples of them. - -The ctesohedonic fallacy (lust for possession) raged in the middle -ages between the nearest neighbors. No city could offer any security -unless it was surrounded by strong walls. Since these required great -expenditures, they could not be rebuilt every few days. For this -reason space was greatly economized in the cities, and their streets -were very narrow. At a later period, when security had become -established, the walls were demolished. In our own time the needs of -hygiene and luxury have urged the opening of broad ways in the ancient -European cities. It has been necessary to buy houses and demolish them -in order to create the grand modern avenues. There would have been no -walls in the middle ages except for the spirit of conquest, and the -broad streets would have been established then, as has been done in -the new cities of Russia and America. To pierce these new avenues, -Paris, for example, has had to contract debts, the annual interest on -which amounts to at least 50,000,000 or 60,000,000 francs ($10,000,000 -to $12,000,000). This expense should be charged to the account of the -spirit of conquest. But nobody has ever thought of attributing these -50,000,000 or 60,000,000 of the city budget to military waste. And how -many other cities are in the same situation? Another example: during -six centuries France and England were trying to take provinces from -one another. Hence a permanent hostility existed between the two -nations. Later on the circumstances changed, but by virtue of the -routine inherent in the human mind the old resentments remained, -though the motive for them had gone. To thwart the progress of France -was considered a patriotic duty by such English ministers as Lord -Palmerston. In 1855 M. de Lesseps formed a company to construct the -Suez Canal. As M. de Lesseps was a Frenchman, Lord Palmerston and the -British Cabinet thought themselves obligated to oppose his project, -and their opposition cost about 200,000,000 francs ($40,000,000). The -canal might have been constructed then for that sum, but in -consequence of the machinations of the English it cost 400,000,000 -francs ($80,000,000). Who has ever thought of charging that loss to -the account of the spirit of conquest? Nevertheless, that is where it -belongs.[26] - -The indirect losses of war defy valuation. But the matter may be -looked at from another point of view: that of the profits which they -prevent being made. The American war against secession cost the -treasury of both combatants $7,000,000,000. Now, if, without speaking -of the destruction of property,[27] we only consider the benefits -nonrealized, the most moderate estimates make them $12,000,000,000 -for the year 1890,[28] and the figure goes on every year increasing in -geometrical progression. - -Further, the debts must be considered. The largest proportion of them -are consequences of the idolatry for square miles. This entails an -annual expenditure of $644,800,000 which we should not have to bear -were it not for the ctesohedonic fallacy.[29] - -Yet another factor has so far not been mentioned: men. The wars of the -last three centuries have cost, at the lowest figure, 30,000,000 or -40,000,000 victims. Some authors raise this very moderate estimate to -20,000,000 per century. Without speaking of the frightful sufferings -of these unfortunates, they represent an enormous capital.[30] Let us -add, further, that these men, if they had not been killed, might have -had children that now have no existence. Without the wars of Napoleon -I and Napoleon III Europe would have had 45,000,000 more inhabitants -than it has, and they might have been producing $2,700,000 a year.[31] - -We hope the reader will admit, after these considerations, that the -indirect losses of war certainly exceed the direct ones. Still, -adhering to our method of underrating rather than exaggerating, we -will regard them as equal. We may therefore affirm that the spirit of -conquest has cost, since 1618, in the group of European nations alone, -the trifle of $80,156,800,000. Suppose we should go farther back--into -antiquity even? Imagination refuses to set down the gigantic sums. - -This is not all; the cost of civil wars has to be counted, for the -conquest of power within the state is attended by massacres which are -often not inferior to those of foreign ones. The chiefs of the Roman -legions contending for the empire carried on as bloody and costly -campaigns against their rivals as against the Parthians or the -Germans. The war between Paris and Versailles in 1871 occasioned -considerable expenditures, not to speak of the indirect losses, which -were immense. We are, unfortunately, absolutely without data -concerning the cost of civil wars, and shall have to satisfy ourselves -with what we have been able to obtain concerning foreign wars. -$80,156,800,000 used up in two centuries! We need not go outside of -this for a solution of the social question. Without this unrestricted -waste the earth would now have ten times more wheat, sugar, linen, -cotton, meat, wool, etc.; there would be ten times as many houses on -the globe, and they would be more spacious, better warmed, and better -ventilated; a network of roads, with frequent mails, would cover -Europe, Asia, Africa, and America. In short, if conquest had been -considered an evil, even during only two centuries, our wealth would -have been infinitely superior to what we now possess. But if the -ctesohedonic fallacy had been seen through by the civilized societies -of the Roman period, the face of the earth would have been very -different from what it is. Our planet would have been completely -appropriated to the satisfaction of our wants. Waste lands would have -been tilled and swamps dried; everywhere that a drop of water could be -made to serve for irrigation it would have been applied to that use. -Magnificent cities, inhabited by active and industrious populations, -would have arisen in numerous places where now are found only briers -and stones. In short, we should have been able to see men now, in the -year of grace 1894, as we expect to see them in three or four thousand -years. - -The past can not be changed. We have laid bare the unhappy -consequences of our ancient errors simply in order to show how we can -assure our welfare in the future. As long as the spirit of conquest -rages among men, misery will be the lot of our species. Our savage and -barbarous ancestors did not know what we know. Attila, Tamerlane, and -even Matabele, a chief of our own times, might be excused for fancying -that conquest increases the wealth of the conquerors; but a Moltke and -a Prince Bismarck can not. The masses are still too deeply imbued with -military vainglory. Happily, they are beginning to open their -eyes.--_Translated for the Popular Science Monthly from the book Les -Gaspillages des Societes Modernes_ (The Wastes of Modern Societies), -Paris, 1894. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[21] The pessimists are further mistaken. The idea that conquest is -disastrous, even to the conqueror, is much more widespread in modern -societies than is generally thought. But social reflexes urge the -masses to obey their chief blindly. It requires only a Gothic -spirit--like Bismarck, for example--to set a whole army in motion, and -make it do things which every officer and every soldier would condemn -as a personal act. - -[22] The difference is the extent of Alsace-Lorraine. - -[23] About the extent of the British Isles, Belgium, Holland, and -Switzerland combined. - -[24] See Seeley's Expansion of England, p. 21. This figure is very -moderate. Between 1802 and 1813 France alone spent 498,000,000 francs -($99,600,000) a year. See Laroque, La Guerre et les Armees -permanentes, Paris, 1870, p. 203. - -[25] See P. Leroy-Beaulieu, Recherches economiques sur les Guerres -contemporaines, Paris, p. 181. - -[26] We may refer here to another loss which has never been thought of -till now. It was long fancied that wealth could be acquired more -rapidly by war than by work; consequently, conquest seeming to be the -most rapid and therefore most efficacious way, was honored, and labor, -appearing to be a slower process, was despised. In our days a large -number of descendants of the knights of the middle ages retain the -ideas of their ancestors and look upon labor as degrading. -Hence thousands of aristocrats do nothing, but remain social -good-for-nothings, retarding the increase of wealth by their -inactivity. - -[27] Sherman, in his march from Atlanta to Savannah alone, destroyed -more than $400,000,000. The cotton famine occasioned by this war cost -Great Britain a loss of $480,000,000. Who has ever thought of charging -this against militarism? - -[28] See E. Reclus, Nouvelle geographie universelle (French edition), -vol. xvi, p. 810. - -[29] A justification of this figure may be found in my Luttes entre -les societes humaines, p. 220. - -[30] A half million negroes are massacred every year in Africa in the -tribal wars, which also are caused by the ctesohedonic fallacy. -Suppose each one of them might have earned $20 a year. Capitalized at -four per cent, this sum would have amounted to $400,000,000. - -[31] See my Luttes, p. 228. Let us say, in passing, that we owe our -existing savagery partly to the ctesohedonic fallacy. When we think -that the most rapid way of enriching ourselves is by seizing our -neighbor's territories, the fewer defenders that territory has, the -better. So all pretended political geniuses glorify themselves on -having killed the largest number of their fellow-men. Caesar boasted of -having killed a million and a half of Gauls. At the moment of writing -these lines a terrible accident has occurred at Santander. Hundreds of -persons were killed by the explosion of a boat loaded with dynamite. -Great pity was expressed for the victims. Collections for their -benefit were taken in France. Suppose France and Spain were now at -war. If somebody had blown up some thousand Spaniards in a fortress, -we should have sung _Te Deums_. Oh, man's logic! - - * * * * * - - Until within a few years the field for the study of glaciers - and their action has been the Alps; but now, as Prof. H.L. - Fairchild said in his address as chairman of the Geological - Section of the American Association, the North American - continent is recognized as a field of the greatest activity, - both in the past and at the present time; and, moreover, it - presents types of glaciers not known in Europe. It must - therefore become the Mecca of foreign students of glaciers. - - - - -A SHORT HISTORY OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUCTION.[32] - -BY J. NORMAN LOCKYER, K.C.B., F.R.S. - - -II. - -I must come back from this excursion to call your attention to the -year 1845, in which one of the germs of our college first saw the -light. - -What was the condition of England in 1845? Her universities had -degenerated into _hauts lycees_. With regard to the university -teaching, I may state that even as late as the late fifties a senior -wrangler--I had the story from himself--came to London from Cambridge -expressly to walk about the streets to study crystals, prisms, and the -like in the optician's windows. Of laboratories in the universities -there were none; of science teaching in the schools there was none; -there was no organization for training science teachers. - -If an artisan wished to improve his knowledge he had only the moribund -Mechanics' Institutes to fall back upon. - -The nation which then was renowned for its utilization of waste -material products allowed its mental products to remain undeveloped. - -There was no minister of instruction, no councilors with a knowledge -of the national scientific needs, no organized secondary or primary -instruction. We lacked then everything that Germany had equipped -herself with in the matter of scientific industries. - -Did this matter? Was it more than a mere abstract question of a want -of perfection? - -It mattered very much! From all quarters came the cry that the -national industries were being undermined in consequence of the more -complete application of scientific methods to those of other -countries. - -The chemical industries were the first to feel this, and because -England was then the seat of most of the large chemical works.[33] - -Very few chemists were employed in these chemical works. There were in -cases some so-called chemists at about bricklayer's wages--not much of -an inducement to study chemistry; even if there had been practical -laboratories, where it could have been properly learned. Hence, when -efficient men were wanted they were got from abroad--i.e., from -Germany, or the richer English had to go abroad themselves. - -At this time we had, fortunately for us, in England, in very high -place, a German fully educated by all that could be learned at one of -the best-equipped modern German universities, where he studied both -science and the fine arts. I refer to the Prince Consort. From that -year to his death he was the fountain of our English educational -renaissance, drawing to himself men like Playfair, Clark, and De la -Beche; knowing what we lacked, he threw himself into the breach. This -college is one of the many things the nation owes to him. His service -to his adopted country, and the value of the institutions he helped to -inaugurate, are by no means even yet fully recognized, because those -from whom national recognition full and ample should have come, were, -and to a great extent still are, the products of the old system of -middle-age scholasticism which his clear vision recognized was -incapable by itself of coping with the conditions of modern civilized -communities. - -It was in the year 1845 that the influence of the Prince Consort began -to be felt. Those who know most of the conditions of science and art -then and now, know best how beneficial that influence was in both -directions; my present purpose, however, has only reference to -science. - -The College of Chemistry was founded in 1845, first as a private -institution; the School of Mines was established by the Government in -1851. - -In the next year, in the speech from the throne at the opening of -Parliament, her Majesty spoke as follows: "The advancement of the fine -arts and of practical science will be readily recognized by you as -worthy the attention of a great and enlightened nation. I have -directed that a comprehensive scheme shall be laid before you having -in view the promotion of these objects, toward which I invite your aid -and co-operation." - -Strange words these from the lips of an English sovereign! - -The Government of this country was made at last to recognize the great -factors of a peaceful nation's prosperity, and to reverse a policy -which has been as disastrous to us as if they had insisted upon our -naval needs being supplied by local effort as they were in Queen -Elizabeth's time. - -England has practically lost a century; one need not be a prophet to -foresee that in another century's time our education and our -scientific establishments will be as strongly organized by the British -Government as the navy itself. - -As a part of the comprehensive scheme referred to by her Majesty, the -Department of Science and Art was organized in 1853, and in the -amalgamation of the College of Chemistry and the School of Mines we -have the germ of our present institution. - -But this was not the only science school founded by the Government. -The Royal School of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering was -established by the department at the request of the Lords -Commissioners of the Admiralty, "with a view of providing especially -for the education of shipbuilding officers for her Majesty's service, -and promoting the general study of the science of shipbuilding and -naval engineering." It was not limited to persons in the Queen's -service, and it was opened on November 1, 1864. The present Royal -College of Science was built for it and the College of Chemistry. In -1873 the school was transferred to the Royal Naval College, Greenwich, -and this accident enabled the teaching from Jermyn Street to be -transferred and proper practical instruction to be given at South -Kensington. The Lords of the Admiralty expressed their entire -satisfaction with the manner in which the instruction had been carried -on at South Kensington; and well they might, for in a memorandum -submitted to the Lord President in 1887, the president and council of -the Institute of Naval Architects state: "When the department dealt -with the highest class of education in naval architecture by assisting -in founding and by carrying on the School of Naval Architecture at -South Kensington, the success which attended their efforts was -phenomenal, the great majority of the rising men in the profession -having been educated at that institution." - -Here I again point out, both with regard to the School of Mines, the -School of Naval Architecture, and the later Normal School, that it was -stern need that was in question, as in Egypt in old times. - -Of the early history of the college I need say nothing after the -addresses of my colleagues, Professors Judd and Roberts-Austen, but I -am anxious to refer to some parts of its present organization and -their effect on our national educational growth in some directions. - -It was after 1870 that our institution gradually began to take its -place as a normal school--that is, that the teaching of teachers -formed an important part of its organization, because in that year the -newly established departments, having found that the great national -want then was teachers of science, began to take steps to secure them. -Examinations had been inaugurated in 1859, but they were for -outsiders, conferring certificates and a money reward on the most -competent teachers tested in this way. These examinations were really -controlled by our school, for Tyndall, Hofmann, Ramsay, Huxley, and -Warington Smyth, the first professors, were also the first examiners. - -Very interesting is it to look back at that first year's work, the -first cast of the new educational net. After what I have said about -the condition of chemistry and the establishment of the College of -Chemistry in 1845, you will not be surprised to hear that Dr. Hofmann -was the most favored--he had forty-four students. - -Professor Huxley found one student to tackle his questions, and he -failed. - -Professors Ramsay and Warington Smyth had three each, but the two -threes only made five; for both lists were headed by the name of - - Judd, John W., - Wesleyan Training College, - Westminster. - -Our present dean was caught in the first haul. - -These examinations were continued till 1866, and upward of six hundred -teachers obtained certificates, some of them in several subjects. - -Having secured the teachers, the next thing the department did was to -utilize them. This was done in 1859 by the establishment of the -science classes throughout the country, which are, I think, the only -part of our educational system which even the Germans envy us. The -teaching might go on in schools, attics or cellars, there was neither -age limit nor distinction of sex or creed. - -Let me insist upon the fact that from the outset practical work was -encouraged by payments for apparatus, and that latterly the -examinations themselves, in some of the subjects, have been practical. - - * * * * * - -The number of students under instruction in science classes under -examined in the first year in which local examinations were held was -442; the number in 1897 was 202,496. The number of candidates examined -in the first year in which local examinations were held was 650, who -worked 1,000 papers; in 1897 the number was 106,185, who worked -159,724 papers, chemistry alone sending in 28,891 papers, mathematics -24,764, and physiography 16,879. - -The total number of individual students under instruction in science -classes under the department from 1859 to 1897 inclusive has been, -approximately, 2,000,000. Of these about 900,000 came forward for -examination, the total number of papers worked by them being -3,195,170. - -Now why have I brought these statistics before you? - -Because from 1861 onward the chief rewards of the successful students -have been scholarships and exhibitions held in this college; a system -adopted in the hope that in this way the numbers of perfectly trained -science teachers might be increased, so that the science classes -throughout the country might go on from strength to strength. - -The royal exhibitions date from 1863, the national scholars from 1884. -The free studentships were added later. - -The strict connection between the science classes throughout the -country and our college will be gathered from the following statement, -which refers to the present time: - -Twenty-one royal exhibitions--seven open each year--four to the Royal -College of Science, London, and three to the Royal College of Science, -Dublin. - -Sixty-six national scholarships--twenty-two open each year--tenable, -at the option of the holder, at either the Royal College of Science, -London, or the Royal College of Science, Dublin. - -Eighteen free studentships--six open each year--to the Royal College -of Science, London. - -A royal exhibition entitles the holder to free admission to lectures -and laboratories, and to instruction during the course for the -associateship--about three years--in the Royal College of Science, -London, or the Royal College of Science, Dublin, with maintenance and -traveling allowances. - -A national scholarship entitles the holder to free admission to -lectures and laboratories and to instruction during the course of the -associateship--about three years--at either the Royal College of -Science, London, or the Royal College of Science, Dublin, at the -option of the holder, with maintenance and traveling allowances. - -A free studentship entitles the holder to free admission to the -lectures and laboratories and to instruction during the course for the -associateship--about three years--in the Royal College of Science, -London, but not to any maintenance or traveling allowance. - -Besides the above students who have been successful in the -examinations of the science classes, a limited number (usually about -sixty) of teachers, and of students in science classes who intend to -become science teachers, are admitted free for a term or session to -the courses of instruction. They may be called upon to pass an -entrance examination. Of these, there are two categories--those who -come to learn and those who remain to teach; some of the latter may be -associates. - -Besides all these, those holding Whitworth scholarships--the award of -which is decided by the science examinations--can, and some do, spend -the year covered by the exhibition at the college. - -In this way, then, is the _Ecole Normale_ side of our institution -built up. - -The number of Government students in the college in 1872 was 25; in -1886 it was 113; and in 1897 it was 186. - -The total number of students who passed through the college from -1882-'83 to 1896-'97, inclusive, was 4,145. Of these, 1,966 were -Government students. The number who obtained the associateship of the -Royal School of Mines from 1851 to 1881 was 198, of whom 39 were -Government students, and of the Royal College of Science and Royal -School of Mines from 1882 to 1897 the number was 525, of whom 323 were -Government students. Of this total of 362 Government students 94 were -science teachers in training. - -With regard to the Whitworth scholarships, which, like the -exhibitions, depend upon success at the yearly examinations throughout -the country, I may state that six have held their scholarships at the -college for at least a part of the scholarship period, and three -others were already associates. - -So much for the prizemen we have with us. I next come to the teachers -in training who come to us. The number of teachers in training who -have passed through the college from 1872 to 1897, inclusive, is about -six hundred; on an average they attended about two years each. The -number in the session 1872-'73, when they were first admitted, was -sixteen, the number in 1885-'86 was fifty, and in 1896-'97 sixty. -These have not as a rule taught science classes previously, but before -admission they give an undertaking that they intend to teach. In the -earlier years some did not carry out this undertaking, doubtless -because of the small demand for teachers of science at that time. But -we have changed all that. With but very few exceptions, all the -teachers so trained now at once begin teaching, and not necessarily in -classes under the department. It is worthy of note, too, that many -royal exhibitioners and national scholars, although under no -obligation to do so, also take up science teaching. It is probable -that of all the Government students now who pass out of the college -each year not less than three fourths become teachers. The total -number of teachers of science engaged in classes under the department -alone at the present time is about six thousand. - -I have not yet exhausted what our college does for the national -efforts in aiding the teaching of science. - -When you, gentlemen, leave us about the end of June for your -well-earned holidays, a new task falls upon your professors in the -shape of summer courses to teachers of science classes brought up by -the department from all parts of the four kingdoms to profit by the -wealth of apparatus in the college and museum, and the practical work -which it alone renders possible. - -The number of science teachers who have thus attended the summer -courses reaches 6,200, but as many of these have attended more than -one course, the number of separate persons is not so large. - -RESEARCH.--From time to time balances arise in the scholarship fund -owing to some of the national scholarships or royal exhibitions being -vacated before the full time for which they are tenable has expired. -Scholarships are formed from these balances and awarded among those -students who, having completed the full course of training for the -associateship, desire to study for another year at the college. _It is -understood that the fourth year is to be employed in research in the -subject of the associateship._ - -The gaining of one of the Remanet scholarships, not more than two on -the average annually, referred to, furnishes really the only means by -which deserving students are enabled to pursue research in the -college; as, although a professor has the power to nominate a student -to a free place in his laboratory, very few of the most deserving -students are able to avail themselves of the privilege owing to want -of means. - -The department only very rarely sends students up as teachers in -training for research work, but only those who intend making teaching -their profession are eligible for these studentships. - -I trust that at some future day, when we get our new buildings--it is -impossible to do more than we do till we get them--more facilities for -research may be provided, and even an extension of time allowed for it -if necessary. I see no reason why some of the 1851 exhibition -scholarships should not be awarded to students of this college, but to -be eligible they must have published a research. Research should -naturally form part of the work of the teachers in training who are -not brought up here merely to effect an economy in the teaching staff. - -Such, then, in brief, are some of our normal-school attributes. I -think any one who knows the facts must acknowledge that the -organization has justified itself not only by what it has done, but -also by the outside activities it has set in motion. It is true that -with regard to the system of examining school candidates by means of -papers sent down from London, the department was anticipated by the -College of Preceptors in 1853, and by Oxford and Cambridge in 1858; -but the action of 1861, when science classes open to everybody, was -copied by Oxford and Cambridge in 1869. The department's teachers got -to work in 1860, but the so-called "University Extension Movement" -dates only from 1873, and only quite recently have summer courses been -started at Oxford and Cambridge. - -The chemical and physical laboratories, small though they were in the -department's schools, were in operation long before any practical work -in these subjects was done either at Oxford or Cambridge. When the -college laboratories began, about 1853, they existed practically -alone. From one point of view we should rejoice that they are now -third rate. I think it would be wrong of me not to call your attention -to the tenacity, the foresight, the skill, the unswerving patience, -exhibited by those upon whom has fallen the duty of sailing the good -ship "Scientific Instruction," launched, as I have stated, out upon a -sea which was certain, from the history I have brought before you, to -be full of opposing currents. - -I have had a statement prepared showing what the most distinguished of -our old students and of those who have succeeded in the department's -examinations are now doing. The statement shows that those who have -been responsible for our share in the progress of scientific -instruction have no cause to be ashamed. - -CONCLUSION.--I have referred previously to the questions of secondary -education and of a true London University, soon, let us hope, to be -realized. - -Our college will be the first institution to gain from a proper system -of secondary education, for the reason that scientific studies gain -enormously by the results of literary culture, without which we can -neither learn so thoroughly nor teach so effectively as one could -wish. - -To keep a proper mind-balance, engaged as we are here continuously in -scientific thought, literature is essential, as essential as bodily -exercise, and if I may be permitted to give you a little advice, I -should say organize your athletics as students of the college, and -organize your literature as individuals. I do not think you will gain -so much by studying scientific books when away from here as you will -by reading English and foreign classics, including a large number of -works of imagination; and study French and German also in your -holidays by taking short trips abroad. - -With regard to the university. If it be properly organized, in the -light of the latest German experience, with complete science and -technical faculties of the highest order, it should certainly insist -upon annexing the School of Mines portion of our institution; the past -history of the school is so creditable that the new university for its -own sake should insist upon such a course. It would be absurd, in the -case of a nation which depends so much on mining and metallurgy, if -these subjects were not taught in the chief national university, as -the University of London must become. - -But the London University, like the Paris University, if the little -history of science teaching I have given you is of any value, must -leave our normal college alone, at all events till we have more than -trebled our present supply of science teachers. - -But while it would be madness to abolish such an institution as our -normal school, and undesirable if not impossible to graft it on the -new university, our school, like its elder sister in Paris, should be -enabled to gain by each increase in the teaching power of the -university. The students on the scientific side of the Paris school, -in spite of the fact that their studies and researches are looked -after by fourteen professors entitled Maitres de Conferences, attend -certain of the courses at the Sorbonne and the College de France, and -this is one of the reasons why many of the men and researches which -have enriched French science hail from the _Ecole Normale_. - -One word more. As I have pointed out, the French _Ecole Normale_ was -the result of a revolution; I may now add that France since Sedan has -been doing, and in a tremendous fashion, what, as I have told you, -Prussia did after Jena. Let us not wait for disastrous defeats, either -on the field of battle or of industry, to develop to the utmost our -scientific establishments and so take our proper and complete place -among the nations.--_Nature._ - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[32] An address delivered at the Royal College of Science on October -6, 1898. - -[33] Perkin. Nature, vol. xxxii, p. 334. - - - - -THE SERIES METHOD: A COMPARISON. - -BY CHARLOTTE TAYLOR. - - -Broadly speaking, there are two methods which are used for the -teaching of a language: that of the mother and that of the grammarian. -The child learns its own or _mother_ tongue from the mother; it learns -a foreign tongue from a teacher, whose highest ambition is to be a -grammarian. Does the child learn better from the mother or from the -grammarian? Without doubt, from the mother, according to the mother -method. If this is so, must we use the example of the mother or of the -grammarian when we are to begin the teaching of a foreign language? Is -there any reason why a foreign tongue should be otherwise taught than -the mother tongue? Is it not at least worth the trouble to try the -method of the mother, when it is every day demonstrated that pupils -who have had five, six, seven years of teaching are unable, on leaving -school, so much as to understand when the language they have been -studying is used in conversation? - -Let us attempt to obtain light on the differences between these two -principal methods that exist for teaching a language. What is the -mother's method? How does she teach the child to speak? First let us -notice that the mother follows the child: she allows him first to show -interest in something and then helps him to express _himself_. Here we -must pause to notice that what most interests the child is not a -thing, an object for itself, but the capacity of the thing to do -something, the possibilities of the thing for the performance of an -action. A young child takes a thing in its hand and waves it, or -strikes it against something, or passes it from one hand to the other; -when it is older, it asks invariably, "What for?" The mother names the -thing to the child, and also the action that may be therewith -performed. The child begins to play. Here a specialty of the mother -method comes into view. The mother tells the child that she is -_pleased_ or _displeased_ with him, that it makes her _happy_ or -_unhappy_ when the child does this or that, that she _thinks_ he is a -good or a naughty boy, etc.--all of which remarks express her -feelings, her thoughts, in contradistinction to the actions which have -occasioned these feelings and thoughts; the realm of the mind as -opposed to the world of activity. Let us here notice that the speech -of every people contains these two classifications of words, the -objective and the subjective; and indeed it must be so, since we -perform actions and we judge of our actions. By this method the child -learns in about a year from the time it begins to speak to express -itself about what it does and what it thinks. - -Now what is the method of the grammarian? The child learns first the -names of things that do not appeal to his consciousness, for they do -not start from his point of view, but from that of the maker of a -book. He learns lists of words--that is, he learns to know the -_symbol_, and not the _thing_; he translates. He learns about Caesar's -wars and the book of his father's uncle in what is called an exercise. -For both of these subjects he feels no interest, which is to be -expected, as they are abstract. He sees no action. Of the great part -of language, which may be called the speech of feeling, he also learns -only in the abstract. He reads that Caesar was glad or that his -father's uncle was angry, but the happiness and the anger are outside -of his consciousness; they have been presented to him by symbols, that -is, printed words. By this method the child learns in about four years -to read fairly well; as a rule, speaking the language is entirely out -of the question. The pupils can not talk of their actions and their -feelings, because these are represented to them by symbols, for such -are printed words; they have not grasped them as actualities. If on -going into a foreign country they are able to understand what is being -said, the teacher may consider himself lucky. He has done his utmost -with the method he has chosen to employ. He has attained something. It -remains true that the mother accomplishes more in a shorter time than -the grammarian. - -But is it perhaps possible to put the two methods together, and thus -to create a method which shall contain the good of both? We must not -continue always to act as the mother does, to teach after her method, -or our pupils will continue to talk like a child of two years, and be -furthermore unable to write at all. How shall we manage to melt the -two into one compact, inseparable whole? - -Let us imagine a class is to take its first lesson in the foreign -tongue. First, what shall be the matter of the lesson; then, how shall -it be presented? We shall be careful to choose a subject that can be -interesting to the pupil, hence a subject containing activity. It is -not necessary that it should be anything astonishing or unusual. Let -us consider with the pupils how one opens the classroom door. Let us -ask the pupil in his mother tongue how he does it, carefully drawing -his attention to the number of actions necessary to the accomplishment -of our aim, such as walking, standing still, extending the arm, -grasping the knob, etc., together with the resulting actions on the -part of the door, opening, swinging, etc. We will then draw his -attention to the words of activity, the verbs, and tell him he is -going to learn those words in the new language--say German. We will -now take the first verb necessary to the accomplishment of our aim, -that of walking. We will say, _while we walk_, such sentences as "This -is gehe," "See how I gehe," "My feet move when I gehe," etc. We do the -same with each verb, always with its accompanying action. We will take -the first four verbs of our subject, repeat them the first time with -many explanatory phrases, the second time with fewer, the third and -last time we shall simply repeat the verbs "gehe," "stehe still," -"strecke aus," "fasse an," always with the actions. By this time the -pupils will know these, they having heard each one at least seven -times. We can now allow them to recite, we still giving the clew by -the production of the appropriate action. Having taught these first -four verbs, we are now ready for the full sentence "I walk toward the -door," "I stand still by the door," "I reach out my arm," "I take hold -of the knob." We can teach the subject "ich" without difficulty, as it -remains the same in all the sentences. Let us take the nouns and teach -in this manner: "Ich gehe"--pointing--"Thuer," then a repetition of -"Thuer" contained in sentences describing it, with at least three -repetitions of the word. Then come the words showing direction and -relation. If you say "Ich gehe"--pointing--"Thuer," the pupil will know -that there is a word lacking, and he will be unsatisfied till he knows -it. We now have a sentence, "Ich gehe nach der Thuer." We will teach -the other sentences in the same way; we will repeat each sentence at -least three times in its entirety, and we will allow the pupils to -recite. Here it is of interest to show the pupil that the sentence has -sprung from the verb, that the verb is the germ of the sentence. -Whether we do this with the words "verb," "sentence," "germ," must -depend on the capacity of the class. It is not a question of words, -but of ideas. Let us present our subject as a living thing. To supply -the pupil with an old-fashioned grammar exercise is like inviting him -to make a dinner off papier-mache joints and steaks. - -All this time we have been considering the part of language which -deals with the _outside_ world. It is now time to consider how we -shall present the part of language which deals with the inner life. We -must make the pupil capable of expressing his states of mind, his -thoughts, because these thoughts are interesting to him. There is, -broadly speaking, only one situation in class about which his mind is -working: his own success or failure to recite. Hence, before each -recitation we shall speak a sentence of encouragement or command, such -as "Please begin," "I think you are going to do well." After each -recitation we shall speak a sentence of praise or blame, such as "Very -good," "It might have been better." These, as they can not be -expressed by actions, may be translated when necessary into equivalent -phrases in the mother tongue. We shall illustrate each phrase by -stories, riddles, quotations, whatever you like. The pupil will be -interested, and hence will remember. It is not necessary to the -acquisition of knowledge that the pupil should be thoroughly bored -while trying to learn. After a sufficient number of repetitions of a -phrase by the teacher, it will be handed over to the pupils, who will -then address to each other phrases of encouragement, command, praise, -blame, etc. We have now enabled the pupil to express an action and his -thought; the outside and the inside world are his; he needs only to -advance as he began. Each lesson proceeds in this wise: - - -EXAMPLE. - -PART I.--Teacher: "We shall learn about opening the door." General -subjective phrase, "Pay attention." Explanation of the phrase through -stories. - -Teaching of _verbs_. - -First subjective phrase before recitation, "Please begin." Explanation -through stories. - -Recitation. - -First subjective phrase after recitation, "Very good." Explanations -through stories. - -After the teaching of the _sentences_, the subjective phrases are -spoken by the pupils. - -It lies in the intelligence of the teacher to recognize the moment for -introducing phrases. - -The lesson then proceeds to the movements of the door as Part II, and -to our leaving the door as Part III. The scheme is the same. - -All this is a copy (systematized, of course) of the method employed by -the mother. Now, first, can the grammarian be useful to us? Let us -remember that to begin with his method is to put the cart before the -horse. He must play the second but also an important part. The child -learns to speak first, but he also learns to read and to write. We -will give the same lesson to the pupil in printed form; he will be -asked to read it, and then to copy it or write it from dictation. He -will receive the new speech through the sense of hearing; it will then -be communicated to the sight, and then to the touch. In this manner a -class of twenty girls of about thirteen years had been taught English. -After about thirty printed lessons had been mastered with the -anecdotes, riddles, etc., which had occupied about half a German -school year, they were not only able to read and write without many -mistakes, but showed a strong desire to express themselves in the new -tongue, and were, indeed, able to do so very satisfactorily, as -compared with the results obtained by the grammarian after a seven -years' course. - -Who first thought of combining the two original methods of language -teaching in this way? A Frenchman, named Francois Gouin. He gave it -the name of the "Series Method," because each lesson contains a series -of actions. After the pupil has learned to express himself in regard -to his immediate surroundings he continues to learn in series in -regard to the lives of animals and of plants, the processes of -housekeeping, traveling, trade, etc. It is all presented simply, but -each has its own appropriate words and expressions. As soon as the -pupil has mastered the rudiments he will also have the subjective -matter presented in a series; in one lesson the teacher will be -inclined to mirth, in another to (mock) anger, in another to hope, in -another to (mock) despair. - -The most important result of education being the evolution of the -character already present in the child, let us not consider him a -little empty jug to be filled with knowledge; rather let us seek to -draw out the riches of his character. When he is able to _live_ in a -new language, he will be ever broadened, refreshed, and renewed. - -This method, resting on a psychological basis, is, with modifications -of manner, which it remains the duty of the teacher to recognize, just -as good for an adult as for a child. Rules of grammar will be earlier -given to the adult, because he will notice correspondences and -differences sooner than the child. But no rule will ever be given to a -pupil of any age till he himself can appreciate its value, till he is -mentally beginning to ask "why?" This questioning state of mind is one -highly to be desired, as it is a state of receptivity. - - * * * * * - - The highest point yet reached by a kite was attained by the - leader of a tandem sent up from the Blue Hill Observatory by - Messrs. Clayton and Ferguson, August 26th, 12,124 feet above - the sea, 277 feet higher than had previously been reached by - any kite. The five miles of line weighed seventy-five - pounds, and the weight of the whole was one hundred and - twelve pounds. With a temperature of 75 deg. and wind velocity - thirty-two miles an hour on the ground, the temperature was - 38 deg. and the wind velocity thirty-two miles an hour at the - highest point reached, while the highest wind velocity - recorded was forty miles an hour at 11,000 feet. - - - - -THE EARLIEST WRITING IN FRANCE. - -BY M. GABRIEL DE MORTILLET. - - -The ancient Celts and Gauls of France had no real letters. A few -Celtiberian pieces of money bear characters belonging to the -Phoenician and Carthaginian alphabets. In Cisalpine Gaul we find -Gallic written in ancient Italian characters. The Greeks, when they -founded Massilia and spread themselves along the Mediterranean coast -of France, brought their language and writing into the country. The -Gauls took advantage of this, and many Gallic inscriptions in Greek -characters occur scattered through the south of France, among much -more numerous inscriptions in the Greek language and character. - -When the Romans came, the Latin alphabet rapidly took the place of the -Greek, and the few Gauls that continued faithful to the old tongue -used Latin characters in engraving the inscriptions they have left us. -Similar changes took place in Gallic pieces of money. Excepting the -Celtiberian coins with their Semitic legends and characters, which are -found only in a very limited district in the southwest of France, -Gallic coins, when they have characters upon them, may be classified -as those with Greek and those with Latin legends. The former are very -abundant in the south of France, and extend, growing more rare, as we -go on into the center and north. Gallic coins with legends in Roman -characters gradually become more numerous, and were general after the -conquest of Gaul by Julius Caesar, some of the Gallic populations -having only begun to coin money during the earlier period of the Roman -occupation. - -There are some evidences of the use of a symbolical and hieroglyphical -writing before alphabetical writing. On some of the megalithic -monuments, principally in Morbihan, stones are found bearing incised -engravings, and sometimes sculptures in relief. Are the engravings -simply ornamental motives, have they a symbolical meaning, or are they -hieroglyphic emblems? Opinions are divided. - -The supports of the large and handsome dolmen of the little island of -Gavrinis, Morbihan, are filled with engraved lines running into one -another and conforming to the shape of the stone or to its -composition--all the siliceous and consequently very hard parts being -free from them. This indicates a simple ornamentation or decoration -executed without any special plan made in advance, according to the -nature and form of the stone worked upon. Yet, among the lines of the -apparently fanciful ornament a number of polished stone hatchets are -very distinctly represented. In all the other dolmens the carvings are -much less numerous and not so close. Sometimes they are distributed -around, and sometimes they are isolated. Among them we remark the -frequent repetition of some forms in groups or singly, which suggest -the thought of signs with a determined sense. Upon a large support of -the dolmen of the Petit-Mont at Arzan (Morbihan) there are at the -lower left hand three crosses, a sign of frequent occurrence on the -megalithic carvings. Above these are two very wide open U's. Seidler -sees in these signs letters of the Libyan alphabet, the cross -corresponding to C, and the other sign to M. Some persons have further -thought they could distinguish an Egyptian letter in the cross. Taking -a more general view of the question, Letourneau[34] has tried to prove -that the sculptures on the megaliths are inscriptions, and the -engraved signs correspond to letters of the ancient alphabets, most -probably Semitic. Adrien de Mortillet answered that the thought of -writing involved arrangement, and no arrangement could be predicated -of the signs. - -A short time afterward, Adrien de Mortillet, in a paper on the Figures -sculptured on the Megalithic Monuments of France, proved that the -figures are more or less rude designs representing a well-determined -series of objects. Thus the U's, with branches very widely separated, -represent boats, and are emblems of migrations by sea; the crosses are -shipmasters' staffs, or insignia of chiefs similar in character to -bishops' crosses. The polished hatchet is frequently figured, and -often with a handle, and is the emblem of labor, or, more probably, of -combat. The scutcheons, which are also frequent, are bucklers, or -military symbols. They are usually adorned on the inner side with a -variety of symbolical figures variously grouped, which evidently -served as the owner's coat of arms, and are the most ancient known -specimens of the kind, going back to the stone age, or at least to the -transition age from stone to bronze. After that time the custom of -putting their owners' arms upon bucklers spread widely. It lasted till -the end of the middle ages. The painted vases of classical antiquity -furnish numerous and very curious examples of such marks. The -interpretation of the megalithic sculptures may furnish probable if -not certain details concerning an epoch which is very little known to -us. Thus, the scutcheon of the dolmen _des Marchands_, containing four -series of crosses, one above the other, and each series divided into -two parts, fifty-six crosses in all, may have been the arms of a chief -of a powerful confederation having fifty-six less important chiefs -under his orders. The supposition is confirmed by the dimensions of -the monument and a large handled hatchet engraved under the tablet -between two other crosses. - -Near the dolmen _des Marchands_, and not far from the sea, is the -large tumulus of Marie-Hroeck, which includes a small dolmen -containing rich funerary furnishings. In front of the entrance to the -cavern is a rectangular slab that bears on its face a scutcheon -containing two crosses, symbolical of power, and several very rudely -drawn representations of boats. The engravers of this period were not -artists, but stone-cutters, working upon a very hard rock with very -poor tools. Unable to figure distinctly what they wanted to, they did -the best they could. Handled hatchets were distributed irregularly all -round the scutcheons. Does not this epitaph seem to mean that the tomb -was erected in memory of a powerful maritime chief by soldiers, his -companions in arms? - -From these bucklers we pass to generalized feminine representations -characterized by concentric necklaces and pairs of prominent globular -breasts. Such sculptures, which are repeated in various dolmens and -artificial mortuary caves in the valley of the Seine, may be of -religious import. They seem to be replaced in the south of France by -attempts at statues. Of such character are the two sculptures of the -dolmen of Collorgues in Gard, which also have the symbolical cross on -their breasts. - -Whatever they may be, the megalithic engravings are the earliest -graphic historical documents of the country. It is therefore important -to collect and preserve them. - -They may be divided into simple ornamental motives, which may further -suggest interesting resemblances; figurative engravings representing -known and definite objects and forming commemorative pictures capable -of affording important historical or legendary hints--the most ancient -documents in our archives; and symbolical engravings of more difficult -determination, and independent of any alphabet. - -Among the specimens of the last class, one sort, the cupule, is -extremely widespread. It is a very regularly shaped hemispherical cup, -generally represented by itself, but sometimes mingled with other -figures, most usually occurring in groups without arrangement, but -very rarely isolated. Entire surfaces are sometimes covered with this -design. It is a very ancient design, as such cupules are found on the -dolmens. In the dolmen of Keriaval, at Locmariquer, the lower side of -the horizontal slab is starred with numerous cupules, which antedate -the construction of the monument, for they appear on the parts that -rest on the supports. There may also, however, be more recent cupules. -We are totally in the dark as to what they represent. - -Cupules are sometimes cut on the surface of rocks in place. Engravings -similarly cut have been designated sculptures on rocks, and are found -almost everywhere. Those which have been most studied and afford the -most features of interest for us are on the Scandinavian coasts, and -these have been largely utilized by Adrien de Mortillet for the -determination of the figures of megaliths. We cite only one example -from Gaul, the sculptures in the rocks of the Lago dei Maraviglie, in -a lateral valley on the left, going from San Dalmazo to Tende, in -Piedmont. Some of the walls of the rock there and large surfaces of -detached blocks are covered with extremely rude figures formed by the -accumulation of dints resulting from frequently repeated blows. Among -these figures, which are without order in the grouping, and in which -no regard is paid to proportions, are stags, rams, human figurines, -hatchets, pikes, baskets, and lance points. These sculptures have been -ascribed to the neolithic or the bronze age; but the existence of -figures of similar style on the walls of a lead mine near Valauri has -suggested that they may be more recent. Human figurines are numerous, -but heads of horned animals are more so. Some are perhaps stags and -rams, while bulls and cows are abundant. The shepherds are accustomed -to take their herds and keep them for two or three months every year -in this valley, which is so lonely and melancholy in aspect that it -has been called Vallee d'Enfer, or Hell Valley. It would not be -strange if these herdsmen, for want of something better to do, should -have amused themselves delineating the things that were before their -eyes--the cattle, the miners, and things appertaining to the mine. As -to special traits, the representations are so badly executed as to -leave a wide range open for interpretation.--_Translated for the -Popular Science Monthly from the Book Formation de la Nation -francaise_ (Paris: Felix Alcan). - - -FOOTNOTE: - -[34] Ch. Letourneau. Alphabet Forms in Megalithic Inscriptions. -Bulletin of the Society of Anthropology, 1893. - - * * * * * - - An old Newcomen steam engine at North Ashton, near Bristol, - England, as described by Mr. W.H. Pearson in the British - Association, is still doing practical work after an active - career of nearly one hundred and fifty years, it having been - erected in 1750 at a cost of seventy pounds. The piston is - packed with rope, and has a covering of water on the top to - make it steam tight. The working of the engine is aided by - the vacuum formed by the injection of water into the - cylinder. The old man now engaged in working this engine has - held his post since he was a lad, and his father and - grandfather occupied the same position. - - * * * * * - - The excavation of the Roman town of Calleva Attrebatum at - Silchester, near Reading, England, has brought to light - nearly forty complete houses, a private bathing - establishment, two square temples, the west gate, a - Christian church possibly of the fourth century, a basilica - and forum, an extensive system of dye works, a series of - drains, other works, and a multitude of ornaments and - utensils--remains of Roman civic life and institutions, - complementing previous discoveries of Roman monuments in - England, which have been mostly military. - - - - -SKETCH OF GABRIEL DE MORTILLET. - - -"The Ecole d'Anthropologie feels with a profound emotion the loss of -the eminent master, one of its glories, whose labors have contributed -in so large a measure to honor and magnify it, and to extend and -confirm its legitimate authority, and who had the exceedingly rare -merit of constituting a science which by means of him has become a -French science--that of prehistoric archaeology." Such is the eminently -fitting tribute spoken by the professors of the Paris Ecole -d'Anthropologie through their _Revue Mensuelle_ to the memory of -Gabriel de Mortillet. - -LOUIS LAURENT GABRIEL DE MORTILLET was born at Meylan, Isere, France, -August 29, 1821, and died September 25, 1898. He began his studies -with the Jesuits at Chambery, and continued them in Paris at the -Museum of Natural History and at the Conservatoire des Arts et -Metiers. He was interested in the revolutionary movements of 1848; and -in the insurrectionary demonstration of the 13th of June, 1849, which -followed the presentation by Ledru Rollin, on the 11th, of a -resolution of impeachment against President Louis Napoleon for -repressing the republican movement in Rome, it was with his help that -the eminent deputy was enabled to escape arrest. In the same year he -was condemned for a press offense and took refuge in Savoy. During his -exile he classified the collections of the Natural History Museum in -Geneva; had charge of the arrangement of the Museum at Annecy in 1854; -directed an exploitation of hydraulic lime in Italy; and served as -geological adviser in the construction of the northern railways of -that country. He was also associated with Agassiz in his studies of -the glaciers of Switzerland. He returned to Paris in 1864, and in 1867 -was charged with the organization of the first hall or prehistoric -department of the History of Labor at the Universal Exposition of -1867. In 1868 he was called to the Museum of National Antiquities at -Saint-Germain-en-Laye, where he continued till 1885. It is specially -mentioned that he carried this institution safely through the perils -of the war of 1870-'71. While engaged in these museum tasks he was -struck with the insufficiency of the then universally accepted -paleontological and prehistoric classifications, and his attention -became fully absorbed in the subject. He held long consultations with -Edouard Lartet, the eminent paleontologist and his learned friends -concerning it. As a result of these deliberations, after careful study -of the formations and specimens, he proposed a scheme of -classification in 1869, which was completed at the congress held in -Brussels in 1872, and has become generally accepted in its -fundamentals, after having withstood the often-repeated attacks of -persistent criticism, and has received confirmation after confirmation -from innumerable discoveries made throughout the world. "Had his -activity concerned only the classification of the different stone -ages," says Dr. Capitan, whose eulogy of M. de Mortillet we follow -most largely in our sketch, "de Mortillet would for that work alone -have been by good right considered a great man of science. Actually to -illuminate a number of dark points, to group a thousand scattered -facts in regular order, to synthesize numerous isolated researches, to -constitute a cohesive theory of them--that is what de Mortillet did. -Thus he became long ago the uncontested master, the leader of a -school, who was able to group and hold around him the scientific -students and workers of the entire world." - -M. de Mortillet was in 1866 one of the founders of the International -Congress of Prehistoric Archaeology. He was one of the first professors -in the Ecole d'Anthropologie founded by Broca in 1875, the greatest -achievement, as he writes in the preface to his _Formation de la -Nation francaise_, of the Association for the Teaching of -Anthropological Sciences. The school was opened in November, 1875, in -a building gratuitously lent it by the Ecole de Medecine, to give -instruction free of tuition charges, and was to be maintained by a -fund subscribed by anthropological societies and private persons, a -gift of fifteen hundred dollars a year by M. Wallon for laboratory -purposes, and a grant of twenty-five hundred dollars from the -Municipal Council of Paris for the payment of professors' salaries. -Five courses of lectures were to be delivered, to be increased as the -resources of the association multiplied. The association and the -school were recognized as of public utility by a law of 1889; the -school being the first establishment of private instruction, Dr. -Capitan said in his memorial address, "and up to this time (1897) the -only one that has had that honor, an honor that creates duties for us. -We are under obligation to clarify and extend our teaching." De -Mortillet's work was so true to the sentiment expressed in this -sentence that one of the characteristics attributed to him in the -short biography published in Vaporeau's _Dictionnaire Universel des -Contemporains_ is that he was one of the men who contributed most to -the popularizing of prehistoric studies in France. During the more -than twenty years of his professorship of prehistoric anthropology in -the Ecole, de Mortillet "gave precious instruction to numerous -students, many of whom, foreigners, have in their turns become masters -in their own countries." He was also president of the Society of -Anthropology, subdirector of the Ecole d'Anthropologie, president of -the Association for Teaching Anthropological Sciences, and president -of the Commission on Megalithic Monuments--the various functions of -which offices he filled with remarkable exactness and distinction. -"In all these important positions," says Dr. Capitan in his eulogy, -"de Mortillet unfailingly brought a uniform ardor to his work, a -uniform activity, a clear and acute wit, and a remarkable precision. -He performed his numerous duties almost to the end of his life. Only -last month (July, 1898) he made another journey for the execution of a -mission which the commission on megalithic monuments had intrusted to -him." - -In connection with these multifarious labors, M. de Mortillet -published a considerable number of memoirs and of books of the highest -order. He was a transformist from the very first, and performed all -his various researches in the spirit of an evolutionist. His first -publications were on conchology, and numerous memoirs between 1851 and -1862 related to subjects in that branch. During the same period he -contributed many important works on the geology and mineralogy of -Savoy. Among these were the History of the Land and Fresh-water -Mollusks of Savoy and the Basin of Lake Leman, and a Guide to the -Traveler in Savoy. His attention was afterward more entirely directed -to prehistoric archaeology and anthropology, and he published in 1866 a -curious Study on the Sign of the Cross previous to Christianity. Of -this period, too, are his Promenades, or Walks, in the Universal -Exposition of 1867, and his Walks in the Museum of Saint-Germain, -1869. He founded, in 1864, the Recueil, or Collection of Materials for -the Positive History of Man, which was afterward continued at Toulouse -by M.E. Cartailhac. In 1879 he published a work on pottery -marks--_Potiers allobroges, ou les Sigles figulins etudies par les -Methodes de l'Histoire naturelle_. In 1881, in co-operation with his -son, Adrien de Mortillet, as artist, he published a magnificent -illustrated work or album, _Le Musee Prehistorique_ (The Prehistoric -Museum); and in 1883, the volume _Le Prehistorique_ (Prehistoric -Archaeology); two books which have taken rank as master works. A second -edition of the _Prehistorique_ appeared in 1885, and at the time of -his death he was preparing a third, in which he was taking great pains -to bring the matter up to the present condition of the science. -Another important work was the _Origines de la Chasse et de la Peche_ -(Origin of Hunting and Fishing). A considerable number of memoirs by -M. de Mortillet appeared in various scientific journals, especially in -the two founded by him--_Les Materiaux pour l'Histoire primitive et -naturelle de l'Homme_, already mentioned, and _L'Homme_, which was -established in 1884. - -An epoch in M. de Mortillet's life was marked in 1873, when a -discussion took place at the Anthropological Congress, in Lyons, -between him and M. Abel Hovelacque concerning the precursors of man. -The researches of the two masters had already led them, by a series -of observations and deductions, to regard as certain the geological -existence of a being intermediate between man and the monkey, which -they called the _Anthropopithecus_, and they were trying to indicate, -hypothetically, its leading characteristics. - -M. de Mortillet's reasons for believing in the existence of this -precursor of man as a definite being were presented in the _Revue -d'Anthropologie_, in an article which was translated and published in -the Popular Science Monthly for April, 1879. In this paper the author -summarized the evidence, already copious, in favor of the existence of -Quaternary man, and then took up the question, "Did there exist in the -Tertiary age beings sufficiently intelligent to perform a part of the -acts which are characteristic of man?" He then reviewed the researches -of the Abbe Bourgeois at Thenay in the light of a collection of -fire-marked flints which he had exhibited at the International -Congress of Prehistoric Archaeology and Anthropology held in Paris in -1867, and deduced from the result that "during the Middle Tertiary -there existed a creature, precursor of man, an anthropopithecus, which -was acquainted with fire, and could make use of it for splitting -flints. It also was able to trim the flint flakes thus produced, and -to convert them into tools. This curious and interesting discovery for -a long time stood alone, and arguments were even drawn from its -isolated position to favor the rejection of it. Fortunately, another -French observer, M.J.B. Rames, has found in the vicinity of Aurillac -(Cantal), in the strata of the upper part of the Middle -Tertiary--here, too, in company with mastodons and dinotheriums, -though of more recent species than those of Thenay--flints which also -have been redressed intentionally. In this case, however, the flints -are no longer split by fire, but by tapping. It is something more than -a continuation, it is a development. Among the few specimens exhibited -by M. Rames, whose discoveries are quite recent, is one which, had it -been found on the surface of the ground, would never have been called -in question." The evidence afforded by these flints was confirmed by a -collection of flints from the Miocene and the Pliocene of the valley -of the Tagus shown by Senor Ribeiro in the same exhibition, a -considerable proportion of which bore evidence of intentional -chipping. - -Bearing upon this point was a chart of the Palaeolithic Age in Gaul, -drawn up by M. de Mortillet in 1871, and published in the _Bulletin de -la Societe d'Anthropologie de Paris_--"the only work of the kind -extant"--in which were recorded five localities in which occurred -supposed traces of man in the Tertiary, forty-one alluvial deposits in -the Quaternary yielding human bones and industrial remains, and two -hundred and seventy-eight caverns containing Quaternary fauna with -traces of prehistoric man. - -M. de Mortillet gave in another form his view of the sort of creature -the hypothetical anthropopithecus should be in a paper on Tertiary -Man, read before the Anthropological Section of the French Association -for the Advancement of Science in 1885, when he said the question was -not to find whether man already existed in the Tertiary epoch as he -exists at the present day. Animals varied from one geological epoch to -another, and the higher the animals the greater was the variation. It -was to be inferred, therefore, that man would vary more rapidly than -the other mammals. The problem was to discover in the Tertiary period -an ancestral form of man a predecessor of the man of historical times. -There were, he affirmed, unquestionably in the Tertiary strata objects -which implied the existence of an intelligent being--animals less -intelligent than existing man, but much more intelligent than existing -apes. While the skeleton of this ancestral form of man had not yet -been discovered, he had made himself known to us in the clearest -manner by his works. The general opinion of the meeting after hearing -M. de Mortillet's paper is said to have been that there could be no -longer any doubt of the existence of the supposed ancestral form of -man in the Tertiary period. - -The discovery in Java, announced by Dr. Dubois, in 1896, of fossil -remains presenting structural characteristics between those of man and -those of the monkey, to which the name _Pithecanthropus erectus_ was -given, were accepted with hardly a question by M. de Mortillet and his -colleagues as confirming his views. - -At a banquet given to M. de Mortillet, May 1, 1884, by a number of -anthropologists, when his portrait was presented to him, the hall was -decorated for the occasion with a life-size picture of an ancient -Gaul, executed according to his latest researches. The man was -represented as having no hair on his body; with very long arms and -very powerful muscles; his feet capable of being used in climbing -trees, but with toes not opposable; his jaw strongly prognathous, but -not at all equal to that of an anthropoid ape; his breadth strongly -compressed laterally and his abdomen prominent; the skin not negroid, -but of our present color; and the expression of his face was about as -intelligent as that of an Australian. - -In his _Le Prehistorique_ M. de Mortillet attempted to determine how -far distant was the epoch when _Homo sapiens_ first appeared on the -earth, by estimating the rate of progression of blocks which were -carried by former ice fields, as he had observed them in Switzerland -with Agassiz. His conclusion was that more than two hundred thousand -years had elapsed since that event. - -In 1894 M. de Mortillet proposed in the Societe d'Anthropologie an -important reform in chronology. Pointing out the inconvenience of -using several different eras, such as the Foundation of Rome, the -Flight of Mohammed, and the Proclamation of the French Republic, he -suggested that ten thousand years before the Christian era be adopted -as a general starting point. This would include all Egyptian -chronology as known at the present day, and would leave five thousand -years at the disposal of future discoverers. - -"A spirit always youthful, a man of progress," says Dr. Capitan in his -eulogy, "our dear master kept himself fully in the current with all -work relating to prehistoric archaeology. He knew how to profit by -whatever would contribute to perfect his own work. He therefore, on -different occasions, modified his classification so as to keep it up -to date, realizing that a classification is an admirable instrument of -study, which ought to go through the same evolution as the science to -which it is applied." This high quality of his mind appears clearly in -his last book, published in 1897--_Formation de la Nation francaise_ -(Formation of the French Nation). This book comprised the substance of -his lectures of the term 1889-'90. In publishing it he disavowed all -intention of producing a new history of France. There were enough of -these in all shapes and sizes, written in the most varied styles, with -diverse tendencies, and from the most different points of view, and -there were some most excellent works among them, particularly that of -M. Henri Martin, which seemed to him to contain all the historical -information known. But all these histories, even that of Henri Martin, -although he had been president of the Anthropological Society of -Paris, appeared to M. de Mortillet to be at fault in their starting -point. They gave too much place in their beginnings to the legendary -and the imaginary, and not enough to natural history and -palaeethnology. It was M. de Mortillet's purpose to follow an inverse -method--to regard direct observation alone; and he would rest only on -the impartial and precise discussion of texts and facts. "Texts, -documents, and facts," he said, "become more and more rare as we go -back in time. I shall collect and examine them with the greatest care -in order to make our origins as clear as possible, and to enlarge the -scale of our history. I shall appeal in succession to all the sciences -of observation, and when I have recourse to the texts, I shall subject -them to the closest criticism and the most complete analysis." The -texts on which historians had so far relied did not go back far -enough. They told of events three thousand or, including the Egyptian -hieroglyphic texts, seven thousand years old, but what was this -compared with the immense lapse of time during which man has lived, -going back into the Quaternary epoch? On this vast period the texts -furnish no information. They were, besides, inaccurate, tinged with -fable and poetry, with local and personal prejudice and ignorance, -even as to the times to which they relate after history is supposed -to have come in. If we want light upon this unrecorded past, we must -seek it by the aid of palaeethnological data; and anthropology may be -very advantageously united with palaeethnology to furnish valuable -instruction concerning the autochthonic race of France, its -development, transformations, customs, and migrations, and the -invasions it suffered in the most remote antiquity. "With the aid of -these two sciences, both of wholly new origin, we are able to trace -the earliest pages of the history of France." The book begins with a -review of what the texts afford regarding the earlier peoples of -France; then brings forward the evidence yielded by language and the -study of the evolution of writing; next presents the results of -research respecting the precursors of man, the rise and development of -industries, societies, and civilization; and studies the primitive -races of perhaps two hundred and thirty thousand or two hundred and -forty thousand years ago; their mixture with the other races that came -in from abroad and possessed the country; and, finally, the formation -of the French population as we now find it. - -M. de Mortillet's relations with his pupils and with his country, and -his private character, are spoken of in the highest terms. For more -than twenty years his lectures at the Ecole d'Anthropologie, treating -the most various questions respecting prehistoric times, attracted -large and attentive audiences, often including students from abroad, -who afterward became masters of the science in their own countries. -"He was always ready to receive workers in the science, even the least -and humblest, to bestow advice and encouragement upon them, and to -give them the benefit of his experience and extensive erudition, and -for this his pupils and friends lament him." Against his integrity no -suspicion was ever breathed. - -In political faith he was always advanced, and ever true to his -convictions. He was _maire_ of Saint-Germain from 1882 to 1888, and -deputy from the department of Seine-et-Oise from 1885 to 1889. - - * * * * * - - In the observations of the meteoric shower of November 13, - 1897, at Harvard College Observatory, one of the meteors - appeared, according to the calculations, at the height of - 406 miles, and disappeared at the height of 43 miles, and at - a distance of 196 miles. Another appeared at a height of 182 - miles and disappeared at a height of 48 miles, and a - distance of 74 miles. The first meteor was red or orange, - or, to Prof. W.H. Pickering, the color of a sodium flame, - and the other white. Both penetrated the atmosphere to about - the same depth, and both were clearly Leonids. These facts - go to show, Professor Pickering thinks, that the difference - in color noted is not due to a mere grazing of our - atmosphere in some cases, and a correspondingly low - temperature, but to an actual difference in the chemical - composition of the individual meteors. - - - - -Correspondence. - - -THE FOUNDATION OF SOCIOLOGY. - - _Editor Popular Science Monthly_: - -SIR: May I be permitted a word of comment upon your editorial entitled -A Borrowed Foundation, published in the December number of the Popular -Science Monthly? Whatever my readers and reviewers may have claimed -for me, I myself have never claimed to be the discoverer of "the -consciousness of kind." Not only Mr. Spencer, as he and you have -shown; not only Hegel, as Professor Caldwell has shown; but also -nearly every philosophical writer and psychologist from Plato and -Aristotle down to the present time has more or less clearly recognized -the phenomenon of "the consciousness of kind," although I do not know -that any one but myself has called it by just this phrase. The only -claim, then, that I put forward for my own work is that, in a somewhat -systematic way, I have attempted to use the consciousness of kind as -the postulate of sociology and to interpret more special social -phenomena by means of it. In other words, I have used it as a -"foundation"; and I am not aware that any other writer on sociology -has ever done so. Mr. Spencer, I feel quite sure, makes no such claim -for himself. The passage which he and you have quoted is taken from -the Principles of Psychology; it is not repeated in the Principles of -Sociology, where, if it had been regarded by Mr. Spencer as a -"foundation," it should have been put forward as the major premise of -social theory. Passing over the consciousness of kind, Mr. Spencer has -chosen to build his system of sociology in part upon other -psychological inductions, in part upon a biological analogy. The -tables of the Descriptive Sociology are arranged in accordance with -the organic conception, and nine and one half chapters of the -Inductions of Sociology in the first volume of the Principles of -Sociology are formulated in terms of it. Throughout the remaining -parts of the Principles, however, sociological phenomena are explained -in terms of two closely correlated generalizations that are -psychological in character--namely, first, the generalization that -"while the fear of the living becomes the root of the political -control, the fear of the dead becomes the root of religious control"; -and second, the generalization that militancy and industrialism -produce opposite effects on mind and character, and, through them, on -every form of social organization. The work that Mr. Spencer has done -in elaborating these explanations is of inestimable value, but surely -it is not an interpretation of society in terms of the consciousness -of kind. Is it then quite fair to suggest that the use made of the -consciousness of kind in my own work is a borrowed "foundation"? - -However you and Mr. Spencer and my own readers may answer this -question, I can sincerely subscribe to your affirmation that there is -much more in Mr. Spencer's writings than most even of his truest -admirers and most diligent readers have ever explored; and I should be -sorry to be regarded as behind the foremost in appreciation of the -great work which he has accomplished not only for philosophy in -general, but especially for that branch of knowledge which has engaged -my own interest. - - FRANKLIN H. GIDDINGS. - - NEW YORK, _December 19, 1898_. - - -Professor Giddings, in his Principles of Sociology, spoke of the -"consciousness of kind" as the "new datum which has been hitherto -sought without success." Mr. Spencer, on the other hand, showed that -this was not a new datum, inasmuch as he had formulated it himself in -a work published many years previously. Professor Giddings says that -the passage to which Mr. Spencer referred occurred in his Principles -of Psychology, and not in his Principles of Sociology, where, "if it -had been regarded by Mr. Spencer as a foundation, it should have been -put forward as the major premise of social theory." But Professor -Giddings surely does not forget that Mr. Spencer, in laying out his -system of synthetic philosophy, made the whole of psychology the basis -of, and immediate preparation for, sociology. Quite naturally a writer -who is dealing with sociology separately, and not as part of a -philosophical system, will find it necessary in laying his foundations -to fall back on data furnished by the immediately underlying science; -and this explains why Professor Giddings makes use in his Principles -of Sociology of a datum which, whether drawn from Mr. Spencer's -Psychology or not, was at least to be found there very distinctly -expressed. Mr. Spencer himself says that he regarded it as a "primary -datum," and calls attention to the fact that he devoted "a dozen pages -to tracing the development of sympathy as a result of gregariousness." -We are quite prepared to recognize the valuable use which Professor -Giddings has made of the doctrine in question, and to admit that, by -the extensive development he has given to it, he has imparted a -special character and a special interest both to his Principles of -Sociology and to his Elements of Sociology noticed elsewhere.--ED. -P.S.M. - - -EVOLUTION AND EDUCATION AGAIN. - - _Editor Popular Science Monthly_: - -SIR: I have not before this acknowledged your reference to me in a -spirited and instructive editorial that appeared in the December -number of your excellent magazine, because an immediate reply might -have been taken to indicate a desire, on my part, for a controversy, -which I expressly disclaim; and besides, I have desired that the -public might read and consider your views dispassionately. I care but -little for the effect upon myself, if the cause of truth shall be -materially strengthened. - -I am not surprised that you refer to me as "ignorant," "negligible," -etc., because it has for a long time been painfully clear that the -"scientific mind" is exceedingly sensitive, and while much given to -praising forbearance and kindness, still resorts to language -reasonably regarded as abusive. I have always found this to be true, -and the present controversy is no exception to the rule. The "broadly -scientific mind" is, alas! too often narrow and intolerant in treating -opposing views. I do not wish, however, to find fault with the -abuse--it may prove to be good discipline, and is, therefore, -thankfully accepted; but I do very much desire to correct a mistaken -inference that you drew from my reference to Herbert Spencer. There -are some typographical errors in the quotations that you make, which, -however, do not change the meaning. Allow me then to say that I have a -great regard for Mr. Spencer; that I have read his writings with much -profit, and that I have never failed to accord him full credit for the -work he has accomplished. That I can not understand and accept all his -teachings does not lessen my respect for him. - -At the time that I made my informal talk to the teachers of this city, -I had no thought that my remarks would be published or would excite -public criticism, or that I would be honored with so distinguished, so -critical an audience, or I should have been more careful in the use of -terms; but it does seem to me that there is no excuse for the -distorted meaning that you and others have given to the quotations. I -referred to Mr. Spencer's age to show that we could hope for no change -in his philosophy, and the criticism that follows, if it may be styled -a criticism at all, is that he has refused to recognize the Deity, and -thereby fails to "bless, cheer, and comfort suffering humanity." You -discuss it as if I had said that he had not _bettered_ the condition -of his fellows; but that idea is not in the statement that you quote -at all. The word "suffering" was intended to apply to those who, by -reason of the misfortunes of this life, are compelled to look beyond -themselves and their surroundings for comfort, and who in all ages and -among all peoples have turned their thoughts toward a Divine Being for -comfort. I merely intended to say, in a very mild and harmless way, -that the consolations of a religion based upon a belief in a Divine -Providence are necessary for _suffering_ humanity, and my immediate -reference to Cardinal Newman by way of contrast in almost the same -language clearly shows this to be the true meaning of my remarks. The -emphasis was on the word "suffering," which was not intended to -include more than a fraction of mankind. - -I am obliged to you for your reference to Mr. Gladstone, who in his -last illness illustrated most fully what I had in my mind. However -great his pain, or cheerless the outlook, he continually with serene -cheerfulness murmured, "I know that my Redeemer liveth," and "Our -Father," etc. It is perhaps unnecessary to add that I am sorry that -any one has been led to believe that I underrate the value of the life -and work of Herbert Spencer. - -Please allow me to refer to the statement in your editorial, "Again -dealing with the modern scientific view, that in the development of -the human individual all antecedent stages of human development are -_in a manner_ passed through," etc., in order that I may express my -regret that you seem to vitiate the force of the statement altogether -by the use of the unscientific phrase "in a manner." The tremendous -consequences growing out of the view make serious and exact definition -and treatment imperative, and I had hoped that I was entering upon a -helpful discussion of it, but was greatly disappointed. I am also -unwilling to believe that students of Emerson will be easily convinced -that he looked at life "from a stationary point of view," but I do not -feel that I can claim your valuable time for a discussion of this -point. - -May I trust your forbearance in pointing out a manifest misconception -in your statement, "We are not imposed upon by childish imitations of -mature virtues"? The remark indicates that you have not been brought -into immediate association with school children in a schoolroom, at -least in recent years. - -I refer very reluctantly, but I trust without seeming egotism, to your -remarks touching my election to the position which I hold. I am -innocent of all responsibility in the matter. I had no "pull" (is the -term scientific?). I wrote to the board declining to be a candidate. I -refused to allow my friends to speak to the members of the board in my -behalf; I preferred the position (Principal of the St. Paul High -School) which I had held for years, and I accepted the office with -much hesitation; but the intimation that our Board of School -Inspectors, composed of business men in every way highly esteemed by -the citizens of St. Paul, and deemed worthy of all confidence, had -been actuated by unworthy motives, is entirely gratuitous and out of -place in a journal such as you would have us believe yours to be. -Could there be offered better evidence of haste and unfairness than -this uncalled-for assault upon those of whom you know absolutely -nothing, and does it not show the scientific inclination to have -theory with or without facts, but certainly theory? - - Yours very truly, A.J. SMITH, - _Superintendent of Schools_. - - ST. PAUL, MINN., _January 4, 1899_. - - -We took the report of Superintendent Smith's address which appeared in -the St. Paul papers. If there were any "typographical errors" in our -quotations, they were not of our making; and Mr. Smith admits that, -such as they were, they did not affect the sense. Well, then, we found -Mr. Smith using his position as Superintendent of Schools to disparage -a man whom the scientific world holds in the highest honor, and for -whom he now tells us he himself has "a great regard"--whose writings -he has "read with much profit." We judged the speaker by his own -words, and certainly drew an unfavorable inference as to his knowledge -and mental breadth. If Mr. Smith did injustice to himself by speaking -in an unguarded way, or by not fully expressing his meaning, that was -not our fault; and we do not think we can properly be accused of -having lapsed into abuse. The explanation he offers of his language -regarding Mr. Spencer is wholly unsatisfactory. He gave his hearers to -understand that there was an "old man" in London who had devoted all -his energies to creating a system of thought which should entirely -ignore the name of the Deity, and of whom, after his death, it would -not be remembered that he had "ever performed an act or said a word -that blessed or comforted or relieved his suffering fellows." The -stress, he now says, should be laid on the word "suffering." He did -not wish to imply that Mr. Spencer had not bettered the condition of -his fellows generally; he only meant that he had done nothing for the -_suffering_. On this we have two remarks to make: First, it is not -usual, when a man is acknowledged to have given a long lifetime to -useful work, to hold him up to reprobation because he is not known to -have had a special mission to the "suffering"; and, second, that no -man can be of service to mankind at large without being of benefit to -the suffering. It is mainly because Mr. Spencer believes so strongly -in the broad virtues of justice and humanity, has so unbounded a faith -in the efficacy of what may be called a sound social hygiene, that he -has had, comparatively, so little to say upon the topics which most -interest those who apply themselves specifically, but not always -wisely, to alleviating the miseries and distresses of humanity. - -As to the means by which Mr. Smith obtained his present position, we -know nothing beyond what he now tells us. We saw his appointment -criticised as an unsuitable one in the St. Paul papers; and his -published remarks seemed to justify the criticism. There are -"pulls"--the word is "scientific" enough for our purpose--even in -school matters; and it seemed that this was just such a case as a -"pull" would most naturally explain. We quite accept, however, -Superintendent Smith's statement as to the facts; and we sincerely -trust that the next address he delivers to his teachers will better -justify his appointment than did the one on which we felt it a duty to -comment. - - -EMERSON AND EVOLUTION. - - _Editor Popular Science Monthly_: - -SIR: The editorial in the December Popular Science Monthly on the -relations of Emerson to evolution must have surprised many of the -students of Emerson. A little over two years ago Moncure D. Conway -pointed out (Open Court, 1896) that soon after his resignation from -the pulpit of the Unitarian Church with which he was last connected, -Emerson taught zoology, botany, paleontology, and geology, and that he -was a pronounced evolutionist who used in his lectures the argument in -favor of evolution drawn from the practical identity of the -extremities of the vertebrates. That Emerson was an evolutionist of -the Goethean type is clear from most of his essays. In an essay -appearing before the Origin of Species, he wrote as follows: - -"The electric word pronounced by John Hunter a hundred years ago, -_arrested and progressive development_, indicating the way upward from -the invisible protoplasm to the highest organisms, gave the poetic key -to Natural Science, of which the theories of Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, -of Oken, of Goethe, of Agassiz and Owen and Darwin in zoology and -botany are the fruits--a hint whose power is not exhausted, showing -unity and perfect order in physics. - -"The hardest chemist, the severest analyzer, scornful of all but the -driest fact, is forced to keep the poetic curve of Nature, and his -results are like a myth of Theocritus. All multiplicity rushes to be -resolved into unity. Anatomy, osteology, exhibit arrested or -progressive ascent in each kind; the lower pointing to the higher -forms, the higher to the highest, from the fluid in an elastic sac, -from radiate, mollusk, articulate, vertebrate, up to man; as if the -whole animal world were only a Hunterian museum to exhibit the genesis -of mankind." - -The Darwin to whom reference is made in this essay is not Charles, but -his grandfather, one of the poets of evolution, Erasmus. The essay -also shows the belief in evolution held by both Owen and Louis Agassiz -before theological timidity made them unprogressive. The names quoted -illustrate further the factors which influenced Emerson's thought in -regard to evolution. Saint-Hilaire gave the _coup de grace_ to -Cuvier's fight against evolution. Oken is one of the great pioneers of -evolution. Goethe shares with Empedocles, Lucretius, and Erasmus -Darwin the great honor of being a poet of evolution. Of the four, -Goethe was by all odds the greatest. To him, the doctrine of evolution -was of more importance than the downfall of a despot. The eve of the -Revolution of 1830 found him watching over the dispute between Cuvier -and Saint-Hilaire with an interest that obscured every other. - -"'Well,' remarked Goethe to Soret," (Conversations with Eckermann) -"'what do you think of this great event? The volcano has burst forth, -all in flames, and there are no more negotiations behind closed -doors.' 'A dreadful affair,' I answered, 'but what else could be -expected under the circumstances, and with such a ministry, except -that it would end in the expulsion of the present royal family?' 'We -do not seem to understand each other, my dear friend,' replied Goethe. -'I am not speaking of those people at all; I am interested in -something very different. I mean the dispute between Cuvier and -Geoffroy de Saint-Hilaire, which has broken out in the Academy, and -which is of such great importance to science.' This remark of Goethe's -came upon me so unexpectedly that I did not know what to say, and my -thoughts for some minutes seemed to have come to a complete -standstill. 'The affair is of the utmost importance,' he continued, -'and you can not form any idea of what I felt on receiving the news of -the meeting on the 19th. In Geoffroy de Saint-Hilaire we have now a -mighty ally for a long time to come. But I see also how great the -sympathy of the French scientific world must be in this affair, for, -in spite of a terrible political excitement, the meeting on the 19th -was attended by a full house. The best of it is, however, that the -synthetic treatment of Nature introduced into France by Geoffroy -Saint-Hilaire can now no longer be stopped. This matter has now become -public through the discussion in the Academy carried on in the -presence of a large audience; it can no longer be referred to secret -committees or be settled or suppressed behind closed doors.'" - -It is obvious to any reader of Emerson's essays that Goethe exercised -an enormous influence over him, and that Emerson was much more in -sympathy with Goethe than was the fetichistic dualist Carlyle. This -influence of Goethe over Emerson's views of evolution is clearly -evident in the citation already made. - -The evolutionary views of Emerson appear so frequently in his essays -that it is astonishing that he should have been misunderstood. The -citation by the Minneapolis clergyman from the essay on Nature that -"man is fallen" does not refer to the Adamic fall, but the -degenerating influence of cities. At the slightest glance, the -evolutionary tendency of this essay on Nature is evident. In the -paragraph immediately after that containing the reference to fallen -man occurs the following: - -"But taking timely warning and leaving many things unsaid on this -topic, let us not longer omit our homage to the efficient Nature, -_natura naturans_, the quick cause before which all forms flee as the -driven snows, itself secret, its works driven before it in flocks and -multitudes (as the ancient represented Nature by Proteus, a shepherd), -and in indescribable variety. It published itself in creatures -reaching from particles and spicula through transformation on -transformation to the highest symmetries, arriving at consummate -results without a shock or a leap. A little heat, that is a little -motion, is all that differences the bald dazzling white and deadly -cold poles of the earth from the prolific tropical climates. All -changes pass without violence by reason of the two cardinal conditions -of boundless space and boundless time. Geology has initiated us into -the secularity of Nature and taught us to disuse our school-dame -measure and exchange our Mosaic and Ptolemaic scheme for her large -style. We knew nothing rightly for want of perspective. Now we learn -what patient ages must round themselves before the rock is broken and -the first lichen race has disintegrated the thinnest external plate -into soil and opened the door for the remote flora, fauna, Ceres and -Pomona to come in. How far off yet is the trilobite, how far the -quadruped, how inconceivably remote is man! All duly arrive, and then -race after race of men. It is a long way from granite to the oyster; -farther yet to Plato and the preaching of the immortality of the soul. -Yet all must come, as surely as the first atom has two sides." - -It would be useless to multiply citations along this line to -demonstrate not only that Emerson was an evolutionist, but that his -whole philosophy was pervaded by the doctrine. It should be remembered -that, at the time Emerson wrote, evolution had won wide favor among -thinkers and that the success of the Origin of Species was an -evidence, not of the creation of the evolution sentiment by that work, -but of a pre-existing mental current in favor of evolution. - - Very respectfully, - HARRIET C.B. ALEXANDER. - - CHICAGO, _December 20, 1898_. - - - - -Editor's Table. - - -_THE NEW SUPERSTITION._ - -The death of a prominent man of letters in the hands of certain -individuals of the "Christian Science" persuasion has given rise to a -good deal of serious discussion as to the principles and practices of -that extraordinary sect. That a considerable number of persons should -have banded themselves together to ignore medical science, and apply -"thought" as a remedy for all physical ills, has excited no little -alarm and indignation in various quarters. Some of the severest -criticisms of this outbreak of irrationality have come from the -religious press, which takes the ground that, while the Bible -doubtless contains numerous accounts of miraculous healing, it -nevertheless fully recognizes the efficacy of material remedies. A -"beloved physician" is credited with the authorship of one of the -gospels and of the book of Acts. An apostle recommends a friend to -"take a little wine for his stomach's sake and his often infirmities." -The man who was attacked by robbers had his wounds treated in the -usual way. The soothing effect of ointments is recognized; and the -disturbing effects of undue indulgence in the wine cup are forcibly -described. The peculiar character of a miracle, it is contended, lies -in the fact that it passes over natural agencies; but, because these -may be dispensed with by Divine Power, they are not the less -specifically efficacious in their own place. - -These, and such as these, are the arguments which are urged by the -representatives of orthodox religion against the new heresy, or, as we -have called it, "the new superstition." To argue against it on -scientific grounds would be almost too ridiculous. When people make a -denial of the laws of matter the basis of their creed, we can only -leave them to work it out with Nature. They will find that, like all -the world, they are subject to the law of gravitation and to the laws -of chemistry and physics. If one of them happens to be run over by a -railway train the usual results will follow; and so of a multitude of -conceivable accidents. A Christian Scientist who "blows out the gas" -will be asphyxiated just like anybody else; and if he walks off the -wharf into the water he will require rescue or resuscitation just as -if he were a plain "Christian" or a plain "scientist." Like Shylock, -he is "fed with the same food, hurt with the same weapons, subject to -the same diseases" as the rest of the community; and little by little -the eternal course of things will chastise his extravagant fancies -into reasonable accord with facts. - -To tell the truth, we have not much apprehension that the health of -the community will suffer, or the death rate go up, as the result of -this new craze. On the contrary, we rather expect that any influence -it may have in these respects will, on the whole, be for the better; -and for a very simple reason: The laws of health are not so difficult -to master, and, as every adherent of "Christian Science" will be -anxious to reflect credit on it by the satisfactory condition of his -or her personal health, we quite believe that in the new sect more -diseases will be avoided than incurred. Moreover, the elevated -condition of mind of these enthusiasts makes in itself for health, so -long as it does not turn to hysteria. We certainly can not refuse all -sympathy to people who make it a principle to enjoy good health. Of -course, if they were thoroughly consistent, they might do mischief in -direct proportion to their numbers. A "Christian-Science" school board -who did not believe in ventilating or adequately warming school rooms, -holding that it made no difference whether the children breathed pure -air or air laden with carbon dioxide and ptomaines, or whether or not -they were exposed to chills and draughts, would be about as -mischievous a body of men as could well be imagined. If "Christian -Science" in the house means an indifference to the ordinary physical -safeguards of health, it will quickly make a very evil repute for -itself. But, as we have already said, we do not anticipate these -results. Having undertaken to avoid and to cure diseases by "thinking -truth," we believe our friends of the new persuasion will think enough -truth to get what benefit is to be got from cleanliness, fresh air, -and wholesome food,--and that will be quite a quantity. - - -_EMERSON._ - -We publish on another page a letter from a correspondent who thinks -that much injustice is done to Emerson in the remarks we quoted in our -December number from Mr. J.J. Chapman's recent volume of essays. What -Mr. Chapman said was, in effect, that Emerson had not placed himself -in line with the modern doctrine of evolution--that he was probably -"the last great writer to look at life from a stationary standpoint." -Mrs. Alexander says in reply that Emerson was an evolutionist before -Darwin, having learned the doctrine from Goethe and made it a -fundamental principle of his philosophy. No one who has read Mr. -Chapman's essay could think for a moment that there was any intention -on his part to deal ungenerously or unfairly with the great writer of -whom America is so justly proud; nor would many readers be disposed to -question his competence to pronounce a sound judgment upon his -subject. There must, therefore, it seems to us, be some way of -reconciling the verdict of Mr. Chapman with the claims set forth in -our correspondent's letter. - -The true statement of the case doubtless is that Emerson received the -doctrine of evolution--so far as he received it--as a poet. He -welcomed the conception of a gradual unfolding of the universe, and a -gradually higher development of life; but it dwelt in his mind rather -as a poetical imagination than as a scientific theory. The consequence -was that he was still able to speak in the old absolute manner of many -things which the man of science can only discuss from a relative -standpoint. When, for example, Emerson says, "All goes to show that -the soul in man is not an organ, but animates and exercises all the -organs; is not a function, like the power of memory, of calculation, -of comparison, but uses these as hands and feet; is not a faculty, but -a light; is not the intellect or the will, but the master of the -intellect and the will; is the background of our being in which they -lie--an immensity not possessed and that can not be possessed"--he may -be uttering the sentence of a divine philosophy, or the deep intuition -of a poet; but he is not speaking the language of science, nor -evincing any sense of the restrictions which science might place on -such expressions of opinion. Certainly he is not at the standpoint of -evolution; and it is very hard to believe that the views he announces -could in any way be harmonized with, say, Mr. Spencer's Principles of -Psychology. Or take such a passage as the following: "All the facts of -the animal economy--sex, nutriment, gestation, birth, growth--are -symbols of the passage of the world into the soul of man, to suffer -there a change and reappear a new and higher fact. He uses forms -according to the life, and not according to the form. This is true -science. The poet alone knows astronomy, chemistry, vegetation, and -animation, for he does not stop at these facts, but employs them as -signs. He knows why the plain or meadow of space was strewn with those -flowers we call suns and moons and stars; why the great deep is -adorned with animals, with men, and gods; for in every word he speaks -he rides on them as the horses of thought." Now, we should be sorry to -crumple one leaf in the laurel wreath of the poet; but is there much -sense in saying that he is our only astronomer, or that he could -inform us why suns and planets were disposed through space so as to -make the forms we see? We do not think Goethe held these ideas; if he -did, they were certainly not part of his evolution philosophy. The -doctrine of evolution is not at war, we trust, with poetic -inspiration; but if it teaches anything, it teaches that the world is -full of infinite detail, and that without a certain mastery of details -general views are apt to be more showy than solid. It also brings home -to the mind very forcibly that one can only be sure of carefully -verified facts, and, even of these, ought not to be too sure. It -teaches that time and place and circumstance are, for all practical -purposes, of the essence of the things we have to consider; that -nothing is just what it would be if differently conditioned. There is -nothing of which Emerson discourses with so much positiveness as the -soul, an entity of which the serious evolutionist can only speak with -all possible reserve. The evolutionist labors to construct a -psychology; but Emerson has a psychology ready-made, and scatters its -affirmations with a liberal hand through every chapter of his -writings. That these are stimulating in a high degree to well-disposed -minds we should be sorry to deny. They are a source, which for many -long years will not run dry, of high thoughts and noble aspirations. -No one has more worthily or loftily discoursed of the value of life -than has the New England philosopher; and for this the world owes him -a permanent debt of gratitude. But he was not an evolutionist in the -modern sense--that is, in the scientific sense. If, as Mr. Chapman -says, he was the last great writer to look at life from a stationary -standpoint, then we can only add that the old philosophy had a golden -sunset in his pages. - - - - -Scientific Literature. - - -SPECIAL BOOKS. - -There are a great many different ways of conceiving the science of -society, and until the study of the subject is more advanced than it -is as yet, it would be rash to set up any one method as superior to -all others. All that can reasonably be asked is that the subject -should be approached with a competent knowledge of what has -previously been thought and written in regard to it, that the aspects -presented should possess intrinsic importance, and that the treatment -should be scientific. The work which Professor _Giddings_ has -published under the title of _Elements of Sociology_[35] fulfills -these conditions entirely, and we consider it, after careful -examination, as admirably adapted to the purpose it is meant to -serve--namely, as "a text book for colleges and schools." For use in -schools--that is to say, in secondary schools of the ordinary -range--the treatment may be a little too elaborate, but for college -use we should say that it is, so far as method is concerned, precisely -what is wanted. We do not know any other work which gives in the same -compass so interesting and satisfactory an analysis of the -constitution and development of society, or so many suggestive views -as to the springs of social action and the conditions of social -well-being. Professor Giddings writes in a clear and vigorous style, -and the careful student will notice many passages marked by great -felicity of expression. In a text-book designed to attract the young -to a subject calling for considerable concentration of attention, this -is an advantage that can hardly be overestimated. - -In the first chapter the writer gives us his definition of society as -"any group or number of individuals who cultivate acquaintance and -mental agreement--that is to say, like-mindedness." The unit of -investigation in sociology is declared to be the individual member of -society, or, as the writer calls him, in relation to the investigation -in hand, the "socius." Whether in strict logic the unit of -investigation in _sociology_ can be the individual, even granting, as -must be done, that he is born social, is a point on which we are not -fully satisfied. We should be disposed to think that the study of the -individual was rather what Mr. Spencer would call a "preparation" for -sociology than an integral part of the science itself. From a -practical point of view, however, it must be conceded that a treatise -on sociology would begin somewhat abruptly if it did not present in -the first place an adequate description of the "socius," especially -setting forth those qualifications and tendencies which fit and impel -him to enter into relations with other members of the human race. -Chapter V of the present work deals with The Practical Activities of -Socii, and shows in an interesting manner what may be called the lines -of approach of individuals to one another in society. Sometimes the -approach is by means of conflict, and the writer shows how this may be -a preparation for peaceful relations through the insight it gives into -opposing points of view. He distinguishes between primary and -secondary conflict--the first being a struggle in which one individual -violently strives to suppress or subdue an opposing personality, the -second a mere trial of differing opinions and tastes, leading often to -a profitable readjustment of individual standpoints. - -Chapter X, entitled The Classes of Socii, is an excellent one. The -author classifies socii with reference (1) to vitality, (2) to -personality--i.e. personal resource and capacity--and (3) to social -feeling. Under the third classification he distinguishes (1) the -social class, (2) the non-social class, (3) the pseudo-social class, -and (4) the anti-social class. The first of these, the "social class," -is well characterized as follows: "Their distinguishing characteristic -is a consciousness of kind that is wide in its scope and strong in -its intensity. They are sympathetic, friendly, helpful, and always -interested in endeavoring to perfect social relations, to develop the -methods of co-operation, to add to the happiness of mankind by -improving the forms of social pleasure, to preserve the great social -institutions of the family and the state. To this class the entire -population turns for help, inspiration, and leadership, for unselfish -loyalty and wise enterprise. It includes all who in the true sense of -the word are philanthropic, all whose self-sacrifice is directed by -sound judgment, all true reformers whose zeal is tempered by common -sense and sober patience, and all those who give expression to the -ideals and aspirations of the community for a larger and better life." -The Pre-eminent Social Class is further discussed in Chapter XII; and -the subsequent chapters, as far as, and including, XIX, describe the -processes by which social results in the balancing of interests, -establishment of rights, assimilation of characters, and general -improvement of social conditions, are realized. The limits which -expediency sets to the pursuit of "like-mindedness" are well shown, -and the advantage and necessity for social progress of free discussion -and wide toleration of individual differences are strongly insisted -on. Chapter XX deals with The Early History of Society, and contains -the statement that "from an apelike creature, no longer perfectly -represented in any existing species, the human race is descended." - -The subject of Democracy is well treated in a special chapter (XXIV). -The author is of opinion that, if the natural leaders of society do -their duty, they will wield a moral influence that will give a right -direction to public policy, and secure the continuous advance of the -community in prosperity and true civilization. The "if" is an -important one, but the author has strong hope, in which all his -readers will certainly wish to share, that in the main everything will -turn out well. - -The remarks on the State in Chapter XXIII are, as far as they go, -judicious; but we could have wished that the author, who we are sure -desires to make his treatise as practically useful as possible, had -dwelt somewhat on the dangers of over-legislation, and had brought -into fuller relief than he has done the difference between state -action and voluntary enterprise, arising from the fact that the former -always involves the element of _compulsion_. We pass a law when we can -not get our neighbor to co-operate or agree with us in something, and -consequently resolve to compel him. Surely this consideration should -suffice to make parsimony the first principle of legislation. We agree -with our author that it is not well to "belittle" the state (page -214), but it is hardly belittling the state to wish to be very sparing -in our appeals to it for the exercise of coercive power. - -We miss also in the work before us such a treatment of the _family_ as -might have been introduced into it with advantage. The family -certainly has an important relation to the individual, and in all -civilized countries it is specially recognized by the state. Mr. -Spencer, in the chapter of his Study of Sociology entitled Preparation -in Psychology, has dwelt on the encroachments of the state on the -family; and Mr. Pearson, in his National Life and Character, published -half a dozen years ago, sounded a note of alarm on the same subject. -What position Professor Giddings would have taken as to the importance -of family life and the rights and duties of the family we do not, of -course, know; but we are disposed to think he could have increased the -usefulness and interest of his book by some discussion of these -points. We would only further say that, while the book is specially -intended for scholastic use, it is well adapted for general reading, -and that it could not be read carefully by any one without profit. - - * * * * * - -Prof. _Wesley Mills_ holds the opinion that in the present stage of -the study of animal life,[36] facts are much more desirable than -theories. Experiment and observation must go on for many years before -generalizations will be worth the making. Putting this belief into -practice, he has bred and reared a large number of animals, making -most careful notes on their physical and mental development, and -furnishes in his book, resulting from these studies, a contribution of -unquestionable value to comparative psychology. - -In his investigation of the habits of squirrels, he finds the red -squirrel, or chickaree, much more intelligent than the chipmunk. The -latter is easily trapped, but the former profits by experience and is -rarely secured a second time. These little creatures are also adepts -in feigning. Two examples are cited in which squirrels apparently ill -recovered rapidly when left alone and made their escape in vigorous -fashion. Many instances of animals shamming death are judged to be -cases of catalepsy induced by excessive fear. The chickaree is also -credited with some musical capacity, one being observed, when excited, -to utter tones that were birdlike; whence it is concluded "likely that -throughout the order _Rodentia_ a genuine musical appreciation exists, -and considerable ability in expressing states of emotion by vocal -forms." - -While experimenting with hibernating animals, Professor Mills kept a -woodchuck in confinement five years, and noted that it had a drowsy or -torpid period from November to April. Another specimen subjected to -the same conditions did not hibernate for an hour during the entire -season. Bats began to hibernate at 45 deg. to 40 deg. F., and were so affected -by temperature that they could be worked like a machine by varying it. -The woodchuck, however, was comparatively independent of heat and -cold, but very sensitive to storms. This is found to be true of many -wild animals, that they "have a delicate perception of meteorological -conditions, making them wiser than they know, for they act reflexly." - -Some records are given of cases of lethargy among human beings, and in -regard to these, as well as normal sleep and hibernation, it is -suggested that their conditioning and variability throw great light -upon the evolution of function. - -In order to observe closely the psychic development of young animals, -Professor Mills raised families of dogs, cats, chickens, rabbits, -guinea-pigs, and pigeons. The data obtained by him, given in the form -of diaries with comparisons and conclusions, constitute Part III, the -larger half of the book, unquestionably first in importance and -interest. It is scarcely possible to overvalue careful studies like -these, undertaken not to justify theories, but to bring to light -whatever truths may be apprehended of the nature of growth and -connection of mind and body. - -The last division of the book contains the discussions on instinct by -Professors Mills, Lloyd Morgan, Baldwin, and others, first published -in Science. The beginning of the volume, devoted to a general -consideration of the subject, consists of papers on methods of study -and comparative psychology which have appeared in various scientific -periodicals, including this magazine. - - -GENERAL NOTICES. - -In _Four-Footed Americans and their Kin_[37] a similar method is -applied by _Mabel Osgood Wright_ to the study of animals to that which -was followed with reference to ornithology in Citizen Bird. The -subject is taught in the form of a story, with dramatic incident and -adventure, and miniature exploration, and the animals are allowed -occasionally to converse and express their opinions and feelings. The -scene of the action is "Orchard Farm and twenty miles around." Dr. -Hunter and his daughter and colored "mammy" have returned there to -their home after several years of travel, with two city youths who -have been invited to spend the summer at the place and are told the -story of the birds. Another family have come to make an autumn visit, -but it is arranged that they should spend the winter at the farm. -"What they did, and how they became acquainted with the four-footed -Americans, is told in this story." Most of the common animals of the -United States are met or described in the course of the party's -wandering, as creatures of life rather than as in the cold and formal -way of treating museum specimens, and a great deal of the lore of -other branches of natural history is introduced, as it would naturally -come in in such excursions as were taken. The scientific accuracy of -the book is assured by the participation of Mr. Frank M. Chapman as -editor. At the end a Ladder for climbing the Family Tree of the North -American Mammals is furnished in the shape of a table of -classification; and an index of English names is given. The -illustrations, by Ernest Seton Thompson, give lifelike portraits and -attitudes and are very attractive. - -_St. George Mivart_, whose enviable reputation as a specialist in -natural history has perhaps given some justification for his attempts -at philosophy, has recently published a new philosophical work -entitled _The Groundwork of Science_[38]. It is an effort to work out -the ultimate facts on which our knowledge, and hence all science, is -based. A short preface and introductory chapter are devoted to a -statement of the aims of the work and some general remarks regarding -the history of the scientific method. An enumeration of the sciences -and an indication of some of their logical relations are next given. -The third chapter, entitled The Objects of Science, is given up -chiefly to a refutation of idealism. The methods of science, its -physical, psychical, and intellectual antecedents, language and -science, causes of scientific knowledge, and the nature of the -groundwork of science are the special topics of the remaining -chapters. The general scheme of the inquiry is based on the theory -that the groundwork of science consists of three divisions. "The -laborers who work, the tools they must employ, and that which -constitutes the field of their labor.... Science is partly physical -and partly psychical.... The tools are those first principles and -universal, necessary, self-evident truths which lie so frequently -unnoticed in the human intellect, and which are absolutely -indispensable for valid reasoning.... The nature of the workers must -also be noticed as necessarily affecting the value of their work.... -And, last of all, a few words must be devoted to the question whether -there is any and, if any, what foundation underlying the whole -groundwork of science." The result at which the author arrives is -stated as follows: "The groundwork of science is the work of -self-conscious material organisms making use of the marvelous first -principles which they possess in exploring all the physical and -psychical phenomena of the universe, which sense, intuition, and -ratiocination can anyhow reveal to them as real existences, whether -actual or only possible.... The foundation of science can only be -sought in that reason which evidently to us pervades the universe, -and is that by which our intellect has been both produced and -illumined." - -A large amount of information, mainly of a practical character, has -been gathered by Mr. _William J. Clark_ in his book on _Commercial -Cuba_[39]--information, as Mr. Gould well says in the introduction he -has contributed to the work, covering almost the entire field of -inquiry regarding Cuba and its resources. The data have been partly -gained from the author's personal observation and during his travels -on the island, and partly through laborious and painstaking -classification of existing material, collected from many and diverse -sources. The subject is systematically treated. The first chapter--How -to Meet the Resident of Cuba--relates to the behavior of visitors to -the island, really a considerably more important matter than it would -be in this country, for the Spaniards are strict in their regard for -correct etiquette. It is natural that a chapter on the population and -its characteristics and occupations should follow this. Even more -important than correct behavior--to any one at least but a -Spaniard--is the subject of climate and the preservation of health; -and whatever is of moment in relation to these subjects is given in -the chapter devoted to them. Next the geographical characteristics of -Cuba are described, and the facilities and methods of transportation -and communication; also social and political matters, including -government, banking, and commercial finance, and legal and -administrative systems of the past and future. A chapter is given to -Animal and Vegetable Life, another to Sugar and Tobacco, and a third -to Some General Statistics, after which the several provinces--Pinar -del Rio, the city and province of Havana (including the Isle of -Pines), and the provinces of Matanzas, Santa Clara, Puerto Principe, -and Santiago--are described in detail, with their physical -characteristics, their agricultural or mining resources, their various -towns, and whatever else in them is of interest to the student of -economics. A Cuban Business Directory is given in the appendix. - -A Collection of Essays is the modest designation which Professors -_J.C. Arthur_ and _D.T. MacDougal_ give to the scientific papers -included in their book on _Living Plants and their Properties_.[40] -The authors deserve all praise for having taken the pains without -which no book composed of occasional pieces can be made complete and -symmetrical, to revise and rewrite the articles, omitting parts "less -relevant in the present connection," and amplifying others "to meet -the demands of continuity, clearness, and harmony with current -botanical thought." Of the twelve papers, those on the Special Senses -of Plants, Wild Lettuce, Universality of Consciousness and Pain, Two -Opposing Factors of Increase, The Right to Live, and Distinction -between Plants and Animals, are by Professor Arthur; and those on The -Development of Irritability, Mimosa--a Typical Sensitive Plant, The -Effect of Cold, Chlorophyll and Growth, Leaves in Spring, Summer, and -Autumn, and the Significance of Color, are by Professor MacDougal. -Based to a large extent on original investigations or careful studies, -they present many novel thoughts and aspects, and constitute an -acceptable addition to popular botanical literature. - -Having described the great and growing interest taken in child study, -President _A.R. Taylor_ announces as the principal aim of his book, -_The Study of the Child_,[41] to bring the subject within the average -comprehension of the teacher and parent. Besides avoiding as much as -possible technical terms and scientific formulas, the author has made -the desire to announce new principles subservient to that of assisting -his fellow-workers to a closer relationship with the child. As -teachers and parents generally think it extremely difficult to pursue -the study of the child without at least a fair understanding of the -elements of psychology, the author intimates that they often forget -that the study will give them that very knowledge, and that, properly -pursued, it is the best possible introduction to psychology in -general. Every chapter in the present book, he says, is an attempt to -organize the knowledge already possessed by those who know little or -nothing of scientific psychology, and to assist them to inquiries -which will give a clearer apprehension of the nature and possibilities -of the child. The treatise begins with the wakening of the child to -conscious life through the senses, the nature and workings of each of -which are described. The bridge over from the physical to the mental -is found in consciousness, which for the present purpose is defined as -the self knowing its own states or activities. The idea of identity -and difference arises, symbols are invented or suggested, and language -is made possible. The features of language peculiar to children are -considered. Muscular or motor control, the feelings, and the will are -treated as phases or factors in development, and their functions are -defined. The intellect and its various functions are discussed with -considerable fullness; and chapters on The Self, Habit, and Character; -Children's Instincts and Plays; Manners and Morals; Normals and -Abnormals; and Stages of Growth, Fatigue Point, etc., follow. A very -satisfactory bibliography is appended. - -_The Discharge of Electricity through Gases_[42] is an expansion of -four lectures given by the author, Prof. _J.J. Thomson_, of the -University of Cambridge, at Princeton University in October, 1896. -Some results published between the delivery and printing of the -lectures are added. The author begins by noticing the contrast between -the variety and complexity of electrical phenomena that occur when -matter is present in the field with their simplicity when the ether -alone is involved; thus the idea of a charge of electricity, which is -probably in many classes of phenomena the most prominent idea of all, -need not arise, and in fact does not arise, so long as we deal with -the ether alone. The questions that occur when we consider the -relation between matter and the electrical charge carried by it--such -as the state of the matter when carrying the charge, and the effect -produced on this state when the sign of the charge is changed--are -regarded as among the most important in the whole range of physics. -The close connection that exists between chemical and electrical -phenomena indicates that a knowledge of the relation between matter -and electricity would lead to an increase of our knowledge of -electricity, and further of that of chemical action, and, indeed, to -an extension of the domain of electricity over that of chemistry. For -the study of this relation the most promising course is to begin with -that between electricity and matter in the gaseous or simpler state; -and that is what is undertaken in this book. The subject is presented -under the three general headings with numerous subheadings of The -Discharge of Electricity through Gases, Photo Electric Effects, and -Cathode Rays. - -For a clear and concise presentation of the framework of psychology -and its basal truths, the _Story of the Mind_[43] may be commended. -Although the space afforded is only that of a bird's-eye view, no -skeleton bristling with technical terms confronts us, but an -attractive and well-furnished structure with glimpses of various -divisions that tempt us to further examination. The text is simply and -charmingly written, and may induce many to search the recesses of -psychology who, under a less skillful guide, would be frightened away. -A bibliography at the end of the volume supplies what other direction -may be needed for more advanced study. Admirable in construction and -treatment as the book is, there are, however, paths in which we can -not follow where Professor Baldwin would lead, and in others that we -undertake with him we do not recognize our surroundings as those he -describes. This is especially the case with the environment of the -genius. We do not find that "he and society agree in regard to the -fitness of his thoughts," nor that "for the most part his judgment is -_at once_ also the social judgment." If such were the case, how would -he "wait for recognition," or be "muzzled" for expressing his -thoughts? In almost all cases it is the story of Galileo over again. -In art, science, and social reform he sees far beyond his fellows. -Society can not accept him because it has not the vision of a genius. -He contradicts its judgment and is fortunate when he escapes with the -name of "crank." The military hero does not enter into this category: -he glorifies the past rather than the future; he justifies the -multitude in a good opinion of itself and, is therefore always -received. - -The first edition of Professor _Bolton's Catalogue of Scientific and -Technical Periodicals_[44] was issued in 1885, and was intended to -embrace the principal independent periodicals of every branch of pure -and applied science, published in all countries from the rise of this -literature to the present time, with full titles, names of editors, -sequence of series, and other bibliographical details, arranged on a -simple plan convenient for reference; omitting, with a few exceptions, -serials constituting transactions of learned societies. In cases where -the scientific character of the journal or its right to be classed as -a periodical was doubtful, and in other debatable cases, the compiler -followed Zuchold's maxim, that "in a bibliography it is much better -that a book should be found which is not sought, than that one should -be sought for and not found." The new edition contains as Part I a -reprint from the plates of the first edition, with such changes -necessary to bring the titles down to date as could be made without -overrunning the plates; and in Part II additions to the titles of Part -I that could not be inserted in the plates, together with about 3,600 -new titles, bringing the whole number of titles up to 8,477, together -with addenda, raising this number to 8,603, minus the numbers 4,955 to -5,000, which are skipped between the first and second parts. -Chronological tables give the dates of the publication of each volume -of the periodicals entered. A library check list shows in what -American libraries the periodicals may be found. Cross-references are -freely introduced. The material for the work has been gathered from -all available bibliographies, and by personal examination of the -shelves and catalogues of many libraries in the United States and -Europe, and from responses to circulars sent out by the Smithsonian -Institution. The whole work is a monument of prodigious labor -industriously and faithfully performed. - -In _Theories of the Will in the History of Philosophy_[45] a concise -account is given by _Archibald Alexander_ of the development of the -theory of the will from the early days of Greek thought down to about -the middle of the present century; including, however, only the -theories of the more important philosophers. In addition to -contributing something to the history of philosophy, it has been the -author's purpose to introduce in this way a constructive explanation -of voluntary action. The account closes with the theory of Lotze; -since the publication of which the methods of psychology have been -greatly modified, if not revolutionized, by the development of the -evolutional and physiological systems of study. The particular -subjects considered are the theories of the will in the Socratic -period, the Stoic and Epicurean theories; the theories in Christian -theology, in British philosophy from Bacon to Reid, Continental -theories from Descartes to Leibnitz, and theories in German philosophy -from Kant to Lotze. The author has tried to avoid obtruding his own -opinions, expressing an individual judgment only on matters of -doubtful interpretation; and he recognizes that speculation and the -introspective method of studying the will appear to have almost -reached their limits. - -Dr. _Frank Overton's_ text-book of _Applied Physiology_[46] makes a -new departure from the old methods of teaching physiology, in that it -begins with the cells as the units of life and shows their relations -to all the elements of the body and all the processes of human action. -The fact of their fundamental nature and importance is emphasized -throughout. The relation of oxidation--oxidation within the cells--as -the essential act of respiration--to the disappearance of food, the -production of waste matters, and the development of force, is dwelt -upon. The influence of alcohol is discussed in all its aspects, not in -a separate chapter, but whenever it comes in place in connection with -the several topics and subjects treated. Other narcotics are dealt -with. A chapter on inflammation and taking cold is believed to be an -entirely new feature in a school text book. Summaries and review -topics are arranged at the end of each chapter; subjects from original -demonstrations and the use of the microscope are listed; and many -hygienic topics, such as air, ventilation, drinking water, clothing, -bathing, bacteria, etc., are specially treated. - -The prominent characteristic of Professors _F.P. Venable_ and _J.L. -Howe's_ text-book on _Inorganic Chemistry according to the Periodic -Law_[47] is expressed in the title, and is the adoption of the -periodic law as the guiding principle of the treatment, and the -keeping of it in the foreground throughout. So far as the authors have -noticed, the complete introduction of this system has not been -attempted before in any text book. They have made the experiment of -following it closely in their classes, and their success through -several years has convinced them of its value. "In no other way have -we been able to secure such thorough results, both as to thorough, -systematic instruction and economy of time. The task is rendered -easier for both student and teacher." After the setting forth of -definitions and general principles in the introduction, the elements -are taken up and described according to their places and relations in -the periodic groups, and then their compounds are described -successively, with hydrogen, the halogens, oxygen, sulphur, and the -nitrides, phosphides, carbides, silicides, and the alloys. The -treatment is systematic, condensed, and clear. - -The purpose of Mr. _John W. Troeger's_ series of Nature-Study Readers -is declared by the editor to be to supply supplementary reading for -pupils who have been two years or more at school. They are composed, -moreover, with a view to facilitating the recognition in the printed -form of words already familiar to the ear, and to making the child at -home with them. In carrying out this purpose the author takes -advantage of the child's fondness for making observations, especially -when attended by his companions or elders. In doing this the aim has -been kept in view not to weary the child with details, and yet to give -sufficient information to lead to accurate and complete observations. -Most of the chapters in the present volume, _Harold's Rambles_, the -second of the series, contain the information gleaned during walks and -short excursions. Among the subjects concerned are birds, mammals, -insects, earthworms, snails, astronomy, minerals, plants, grasses, -vegetables, physics, and features connected with the farm. These -Nature-study readers are published as a branch of Appletons' -Home-Reading series. (New York: D. Appleton and Company. Price, 40 -cents.) - -Another of Appletons' Home-Reading Books is _News from the Birds_, -which the author, _Leander S. Keyser_, explains has been written with -two purposes in mind: first, to furnish actual instruction, to tell -some new facts about bird life that have not yet been recited; and, -second, to inspire in readers a taste for Nature study. It is by no -means a key for the identification of the birds; but, instead of -telling all that is or may be known respecting a particular bird, the -author has sought only to recite such incidents as will spur the -reader to go out into the fields and woods and study the birds in -their native haunts. For the most part the author has given a record -of his own observations, and not a reiteration of what others have -said. He has gone to the birds themselves for his facts, and has made -very little use of books. - -It has been Mr. _Ernest A. Congdon's_ aim, in preparing his _Brief -Course in Qualitative Analysis_ (New York: Henry Holt; 60 cents), to -render it as concise as possible while making the least sacrifice of a -study of reactions and solubilities of chemical importance. The manual -covers the points of preliminary reactions on bases and acids; schemes -of analysis for bases and acids; explanatory notes on the analyses; -treatment of solid substances (powders, alloys, or metals); and -tables of solubilities of salts of the bases studied. A comprehensive -list of questions, stimulative of thought, is appended. The book is -intended merely as a laboratory guide, and should be supplemented by -frequent "quiz classes" and by constant personal attention. The course -has been satisfactorily given in the Drexel Institute within the -allotted time of one laboratory period of four hours, and one hour for -a lecture or quiz per week, during the school year of thirty-two -weeks. - -_Lest we Forget_ is the title which President _David Starr Jordan_ has -given to his address before the graduating class of Leland Stanford -Junior University, May 25, 1898--"lest we forget" the dangers and -duties and responsibilities laid upon us by the war with Spain. Though -delivered before the "policy of expansion" was fully developed, the -address describes with prophetic accuracy the dream of imperialism -with which the minds even of men usually sane and honest have become -infected, and points out a few of the logical results to which they -would lead, and the dangers which will have to be incurred in -gratifying them. We cite a few of the strong points made by the -author: "Our question is not what we shall do with Cuba, Porto Rico, -and the Philippines; it is what these prizes will do to us." "Shall -the war for Cuba Libre come to an inglorious end? If we make anything -by it, it will be most inglorious." "I believe that the movement -toward broad dominion, so eloquently outlined by Mr. Olney, would be a -step downward." - - -PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED. - -Adams, Enos, 2072 Second Avenue, New York. What is Science? Pp. 14. - -Agricultural Experiment Stations. Bulletins. Delaware College: No. 41. -Pea Canning in Delaware. By G.H. Powell. Pp. 16.--New Hampshire -College: No. 55. The Feeding Habits of the Chipping Sparrow. By C.M. -Weed. Pp. 12; No. 56. Poisonous Properties of Wild Cherry Leaves. By -F.W. Morse and C.D. Howard. Pp. 12.--New Jersey: No. 130. Forage -Crops. By E.B. Voorhees and C.B. Lane. Pp. 22; No. 131. Feeds Rich in -Protein, etc. By E.B. Voorhees. Pp. 14.--New York: No. 145. Analysis -of Commercial Fertilizers. By L.L. Van Syke. Pp. 100.--United States -Department of Agriculture. Some Books on Agriculture and Sciences -related to Agriculture published in 1896-'98. Pp. 45.; List of -Publications relating to Forestry in the Department Library. Pp. 93. - -Allen, W.D., and Carlton, W.N., Editors In Lantern Land, Vol. I, No. -1, December 3, 1898. Monthly. Hartford, Conn. Pp. 16. 10 cents. - -Amryc, C. Pantheism, the Light and Hope of Modern Reason. Pp. 302. - -Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, The Journal -of. New Series, Vol. I, Nos. 1 and 2, August and November, 1898. -London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Truebner & Co. Pp. 200. - -Atkinson, Edward. I. The Cost of a National Crime. II. The Hell of War -and its Penalties. Brookline, Mass. Pp. 26. - -Babcock Printing Press Manufacturing Company. Some Facts about Modern -Presses. Pp. 8. - -Brinton, Daniel G. A Record of Study on Aboriginal American Languages. -Pp. 24. - -Bulletins, Proceedings, and Reports. American Society of Naturalists: -Records, Vol. II, Part 3. Providence, R.I.: Published by the Society. -Pp. 58.--Argentine Republic. Anales de la Oficina Meteorologica -Argentina, Vol. XII. Climate of Asuncion, Paraguay, and Rosario -de Santa Fe. Walter G. Davis, Director. Buenos Aires. Pp. -684.--Association of Economic Entomologists: Proceedings of the Tenth -Annual Meeting. Washington: United States Department of Agriculture. -Pp. 104.--Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History: Biennial -Report of the Director for 1897-'98. Urbana, Ill. Pp. 31, with -plates.--Johns Hopkins University Circulars: Notes from the Biological -Laboratory, November, 1898. Pp. 34. 10 cents.--Secretary of the -Interior: Report for the Fiscal Year ended June 30, 1898. Pp. -242.--Wagner Free Institute of Science of Philadelphia: Transactions, -Vol. III, Part IV, April, 1898. Pp. 150, with plates. - -De Morgan, Augustus. On the Study and Difficulties of Mathematics. New -edition. Chicago: The Open Court Publishing Company. Pp. 288. - -Gowdy, Jean L. Ideals and Programmes. Syracuse, N.Y.: C.W. Bardeen. -Pp. 102. 75 cents. - -Grand View Institute Journal. Monthly. Grand View, Texas. Vol. I, No. -1, October, 1898. Pp. 18. - -Hinsdale, Guy, M.D. Acromegaly. Detroit, Mich.: W.M. Warren. Pp. 88. - -Holland, W.J. The Butterfly Book. A Popular Guide to a Knowledge of -the Butterflies of North America. New York: Doubleday & McClure -Company. Pp. 382, with 48 colored plates. $3. - -James, Alice J. Catering for Two. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. Pp. -292. $1.25. - -Lagrange, Joseph Louis. Lectures on Elementary Mathematics. Translated -by T.J. McCormick. Chicago: Open Court Publishing Company. Pp. 172. -$1. - -Loomis, Ernest. Practical Occultism. Chicago: Ernest Loomis & Co., 70 -Dearborn Street. Pp. 155. $1.25. - -Merrill, G.P. The Physical, Chemical, and Economic Properties of -Building Stones. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press. Pp. 80. - -National Pure Food and Drug Congress: Memorial to Congress against -Adulterations. Pp. 15. - -Owen, Luella A. Cave Regions of the Ozark and Black Hills. Cincinnati: -The Editor Publishing Company. Pp. 228. - -Payson, E.P. Suggestions toward an Applied Science of Sociology. New -York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. Pp. 237. - -Reprints. Baldwin, J. Mark. Princeton Contributions to Psychology, -Vol. II, No. 4, May, 1898. Pp. 32.--Brinton, Daniel G. The Linguistic -Cartography of the Chaco Region. Pp. 30.--Gerhard, William Paul. -Theater Sanitation. Pp. 15.--Kuh, Sydney, M.D. The Medico-Legal -Aspects of Hypnotism. Pp. 12.--McBride, T.H. Public Parks for Iowa -Towns. Pp. 8.--Macmillan, Conway. On the Formation of Circular Muskeag -in Tamarack Swamps. Pp. 8, with 3 plates.--Smith, J.P. The Development -of Lytoceras and Phylloceras. San Francisco. Pp. 24, with -plates.--Stuver, E., M.D. What Influence do Stimulants and Narcotics -exert on the Development of the Child? Chicago. Pp. 20.--Turner, H.W. -Notes on Some Igneous, Metamorphic, and Sedimentary Rocks of the Coast -Ranges of California. Chicago. Pp. 16.--Washburn, F.L., Eugene, Ore. -Continuation of Experiment in Propagating Oysters on the Oregon Coast, -Summer of 1898. Pp. 5. - -Spencer, Herbert, The Principles of Biology. Revised and enlarged -edition, 1898. Vol. I. New York: D. Appleton and Company. Pp. 706. $2. - -Winthrop, Alice Worthington. Diet in Illness and Convalescence. New -York: Harper & Brothers. Pp. 287. - -United States Geological Survey. The Kaolins and Fire Clays of Europe, -and the Clay-working Industry of the United States in 1897. By -Heinrich Ries. Pp. 114; Bulletin No. 150. The Educational Series of -Rock Specimens collected and distributed by the Survey. By J.S. -Diller. Pp. 400; No. 151. The Lower Cretaceous Gryphaeas of the Texas -Region. By R.T. Hill and T.W. Vaughan. Pp. 139, with plates; No. 152. -Catalogue of the Cretaceous and Tertiary Plants of North America. By -F.H. Knowlton. Pp. 247; No. 153. A Bibliographical Index of North -American Carboniferous Invertebrates. By Stuart Weller. Pp. 653; No. -154. A Gazetteer of Kansas. By Henry Gannett. Pp. 246; No. 155. -Earthquakes in California in 1896 and 1897. By C.D. Perrine Pp. 18; -No. 156. Bibliography and Index of North American Geology, -Paleontology, Petrology, and Mineralogy for 1897. By F.B. Weeks. Pp. -130. - -United States National Museum. Bean, Barton A. Notes on the Capture of -Rare Fishes. Pp. 2.--Bean, Tarleton H. and Barton A. Notes on -Oxycoltus Acuticeps (Gilbert) from Sitka and Kadiak, Alaska. Pp -2.--Lucas, F.A. A New Snake from the Eocene of Alabama. Pp. 2, with 2 -plates. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[35] The Elements of Sociology. By Franklin Henry Giddings. New York: -The Macmillan Company, 1898. Pp. 353. Price, $1.10. - -[36] The Nature and Development of Animal Intelligence. By Wesley -Mills, F.R.S.C. New York: The Macmillan Company. Pp. 307. Price, $2. - -[37] Four-Footed Americans and their Kin. By Mabel Osgood Wright. -Edited by Frank M. Chapman. New York: The Macmillan Company. Pp. 432, -with plates. Price, $1.50. - -[38] The Groundwork of Science. A Study of Epistemology. By St. George -Mivart. Pp. 328. Price, $1.75. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. London; -Bliss, Sands & Co. - -[39] Commercial Cuba. A Book for Business Men. By William J. Clark. -Illustrated. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. Pp. 514, with maps. - -[40] Living Plants and their Properties. A Collection of Essays. By -Joseph Charles Arthur (Purdue University) and Daniel Trembly MacDougal -(University of Minnesota). New York: Baker & Taylor. Minneapolis: -Morris & Wilson. Pp. 234. - -[41] The Study of the Child. A Brief Treatise on the Psychology of the -Child, with Suggestions for Teachers, Students, and Parents. By A.R. -Taylor. New York: D. Appleton and Company. (International Education -Series.) Pp. 215. Price, $1.50. - -[42] The Discharge of Electricity through Gases. Lectures delivered on -the occasion of the Sesquicentennial Celebration of Princeton -University. By J.J. Thomson. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. Pp. -203. Price, $1. - -[43] The Story of the Mind. By James Mark Baldwin. New York: D. -Appleton and Company. Pp. 232. Price, 40 cents. - -[44] A Catalogue of Scientific and Technical Periodicals 1665-1895, -together with Chronological Tables and a Library Check List. By Henry -Carrington Bolton. Second edition. City of Washington: Published by -the Smithsonian Institution. Pp. 1247. - -[45] Theories of the Will in the History of Philosophy. By Archibald -Alexander. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. Pp. 357. Price, $1.50. - -[46] Applied Physiology for Advanced Grades. Including the Effects of -Alcohol and Narcotics. American Book Company. Pp. 432. Price, 80 -cents. - -[47] Inorganic Chemistry according to the Periodic Law. By F.P. -Venable and James Lewis Howe. Easton, Pa: The Chemical Publishing -Company. Pp. 266. Price, $1.50. - - - - -Fragments of Science. - - -=Early Submarine Telegraphy.=--The actual date of the beginning of -subaqueous telegraphy was admitted by Professor Ayrtoun, in a lecture -delivered before the Imperial Institute in 1897, to be uncertain. -Baron Schilling is said to have exploded mines under the Neva by means -of the electric current as early as 1812; and this method was used by -Colonel Pasley to blow up the wreck of the Royal George at Spithead in -1838; but our Morse has the credit of having first used a wire -insulated with India rubber under water. In 1837, Wheatstone and Cooke -were experimenting with land telegraphy, and were considering the -possibility of laying an insulated wire under water. Morse's -successful experiments date from 1842, when he personally laid a cable -between Castle Garden and Governor's Island and sent messages over it; -the next morning it was broken. With the introduction of gutta percha -as an insulator in 1847, submarine telegraphy became practicable. The -Central Oceanic Telegraph Company had been registered by Jacob Brett -in 1845, and a cable was laid under the English Channel by Brett and -his brother in 1850. Messages were sent through it, but, like Morse's -earlier effort, it immediately became silent. Better success attended -the cable of the next year, which was sheathed with iron; and the -first public submarine message was sent over it November 13, 1851. -Morse wrote of the possibility of establishing electro-magnetic -communication across the ocean as early as 1844. A syndicate was -formed for this purpose in 1855, Cyrus W. Field being the most -conspicuous figure in it. An understanding was reached with the Brett -company, and the Atlantic Telegraph Company was formed. The first -effort to lay the cable was made in 1857 by the United States frigate -Niagara and H.M.S. Agamemnon, but the wires broke in deep water when -about a third of the work was done. A cable was successfully laid the -next year, but it died out in a month. Finally, electric communication -was permanently established across the Atlantic by the Telegraph -Construction and Maintenance Company, which, capturing a cable that -had been lost, soon had two. Transatlantic cables have now become so -numerous and so regular in their working that the danger of even a -temporary failure has become very remote. - -=The White Lady Mountain.=--Iztaccihuatl (pronounced Is-tak-see-watl) -is about ten miles, measuring to its principal peak, north of -Popocatepetl. In shape it consists of a long, narrow ridge cut into -three well-defined peaks about equally distant from one another, of -which the central is the highest; and the snow-covered peak resembles -the figure of a woman lying on her back; whence the name of the -mountain, which means _white woman_. According to the Aztecs, Dr. -O.C. Farrington, of the Field Columbian Museum, tells us, this woman -was a goddess who for some crime had been struck dead and doomed to -lie forever on this spot. Popocatepetl was her lover, and had stood by -her. Tastes differ as to whether it or Popocatepetl presents a more -striking view, but either is a beautiful enough object to look upon. -The first authenticated record of an ascent to the summit of the -mountain is that of Mr. H. Reniere Whitehouse, who reached the top -November 9, 1889, and found there undoubted evidence that an ascent -had been made five days previously by Mr. James de Salis. Prof. Angelo -Heilprin and Mr. F. C. Baker attempted an ascent in the following -April, but were turned back when about seventy-five yards below the -summit, at a height of 16,730 feet, by two impassable crevasses. "The -ascent of Iztaccihuatl seems, therefore, pretty generally to have -foiled those who have attempted it. Dr. Farrington, who ascended to -the Porfirio Diaz Glacier in February, 1896, describes the route as -steeper than that which leads up to Popocatepetl." The brilliant and -varied flora, picturesque barrenness, and beautiful cascades lend -everywhere a charm to the scene which contrasts favorably with the -somber monotony which characterizes the route by which Popocatepetl is -ascended. The slopes of the mountain are cultivated to a considerable -height--10,860 feet. The lower slopes are largely covered with soil, -and the andesite rock, of gray and red colors, differs completely in -character from that of Popocatepetl. The aiguillelike character of -many of the spurs extending at right angles to the course of the -mountain is a prominent feature. Many caves in the rock furnish -shelter to cattle and persons attempting the ascent. Dr. Farrington -examined the Porfirio Diaz Glacier, and concluded that it formerly had -a much greater extent than now. - -=The Adulteration of Butter with Glucose.=--The following is from an -article by C.A. Crampton in the Journal of the American Chemical -Society: In domestic practice the addition of sugar to butter for -purposes of preservation is doubtless almost as old as the art of -butter-making itself; salt, however, is the usually preferred -preservative. Sugar appears in several of the various United States -patents for so-called "improving" or renovating processes for butter, -being added to it along with salt, saltpeter, and in some cases sodium -carbonate. Within the past few years glucose has been used in butter -specially prepared for export to tropical countries, as the West -Indies or South America. It is usually put up in tins, and various -means are resorted to for preventing the decomposition of their goods -before they reach the consumer. Very large quantities of salt are used -by the French exporters, as the following two analyses show: - - Butter for Export. - - To Brazil. To Antilles. - - Water 10.29 10.19 - Curd 1.24 1.31 - Ash 10.29 10.06 - Fat 78.18 78.44 - ------ ------ - 100.00 100.00 - -Chemical antiseptics, borax, salicylic acid, etc., are sometimes used, -but the method found most efficacious by exporters in this country -seems to be the use of glucose in conjunction with moderately heavy -salting. The glucose used is a heavy, low-converted sirup, known as -confectioners' glucose. The detection of glucose in butter presents no -difficulty. The butter is thoroughly washed with hot water, which will -readily take up whatever glucose is present. This solution is then -tested by means of Fehling's solution. The following is an analysis of -the so-called _beurre rouge_, or red butter, which is exported to -Guadeloupe. It is a peculiar highly colored compound, containing large -quantities of salt and glucose: - - Water 21.60 - Curd 0.81 - Ash 16.42 - Fat 51.15 - Glucose 10.02 - ------ - 100.00 - -=Decorated Skulls and the Power ascribed to them.=--A collection of -sixteen skulls--eight of men, seven of women, and one of a child--from -New Guinea, is described by George A. Dorsey in the publications of -the Field Columbian Museum, Chicago. They were received from a native -chief, who used them for the adornment of his house, and is said to -have prized them as trophies of war. They are decorated in the frontal -region by engraved designs, and the parts are attached to one another -by very skillfully adjusted cords. The ornamentation and the bindings -are the subject of a special comment by William H. Holmes. Importance -is attached by natives of New Guinea to the preservation of the skulls -of friends as mementoes and of foes as trophies, and of both -categories on account of the virtue--the best qualities of the -individuals whose skulls they are--which they are supposed to impart -in some mysterious way to their possessor. Hence special care is taken -to have them preserved in detail, and that no part be lost. In the -present specimens the jaws were secured by fastenings at right and -left and in front. The teeth were carefully tied in, and when lost -were replaced by artificial teeth. A cord was fastened around the back -molar on one side, and carried along, inclosing each tooth in turn, in -a loop, so as to make a very effective fastening when the cord was -tightly drawn and attached to the back molar on the other side. The -lower jaw was very firmly fastened to the skull by closely wrapped -cords tightened by binding the strands around the middle portion. In -some cases these fastenings are very elaborate and neat; in others, -imperfect and slovenly. All the skulls in the collection are decorated -with designs engraved on the frontal bone, and in some cases the -figures run back. The execution of the work is not of a very high -order, but is rather irregular and scratchy. Nearly all embody easily -distinguished animal forms, and the more formal or nearly geometric -ones are probably animal derivatives or representations of land, -water, or natural phenomena. They are possibly totemic or -mythological. - -=Galax and its Affinities.=--One of the most interesting plants of the -Southern mountain region is the galax (_Galax aphylla_), which grows -in the highlands more or less abundantly from Virginia southward. The -slopes of Grandfather Mountain, North Carolina, are carpeted with it -for many square miles of almost uninterrupted extent. Besides being an -attractive plant at home, its thick, leathery, rounded cordate leaves, -deep green or crimson or mixed, according to the season, make it much -in demand for decoration, and tons of it in the aggregate are shipped, -from places where it grows abundantly, for that purpose. Its -affiliations with certain other Alpine and arctic plants are described -in a carefully studied paper on the Order Diapensisceae, published by -Margaret Farsman Boynton in the Journal of the National Science Club, -Washington. Linnaeus found in Lapland a creeping evergreen herb, -matting the surface with its stiff, spatulate leaves, and described it -in 1737 as _Diapensia lapponica_. Then galax was discovered by -Gronovius and given a place by Linnaeus--because of its stamens rather -than of its natural affinities--along with Diapensia. Michaux, in the -last decade of the eighteenth century, found _Pyxidanthera barbulata_, -resembling diapensia, in the pine barrens of New Jersey and North -Carolina. More recently other species of diapensia and _Berneuxia_ -have been found among the Himalayas, and _Schizocodon_ of several -species in Japan. One of the most remarkable discoveries in the list -was that by Michaux in the mountains of North Carolina of a plant -which was afterward called _Shortia galacifolia_, from the resemblance -of its leaves to those of galax. This plant in a living state was then -lost, and when Gray and Torrey looked for it in 1831 in vain, only one -preserved specimen of it was known to be extant and that in fruit; and -it was not till 1877 that it was collected, rediscovered, in fact, in -flower, as Gray has said, "by an herbalist almost absolutely ignorant -of botany, who was only informed of his good fortune on sending to a -botanist one of the two specimens collected by him." The Shortia, so -far as is known, grows only in a very narrow district, and those who -know the place are careful not to direct the public to it. Specimens -have been collected by a few nurserymen, who cultivate it and have it -for sale. The plants of this list are variously classified as among -one another by botanists, but are regarded as belonging to a common -group. "The real story of their development," says the author of the -paper, "can be gathered only in hints from their present distribution, -for unfortunately they have neither gallery of ancestral portraits nor -recorded geological tree." But their ancestors are supposed to have -been pushed down by the glaciers and left where the modern forms are -found. Almost anywhere in the boreal flora _Diapensia lapponica_ may -be found, whether in northern Asia, or Europe, or America, or even on -the mountains of Labrador and in the Pyrenees, the Scotch mountains, -and our own White Mountains. - -=The Academy della Crusca.=--"For three hundred years," says a -correspondent of the London Athenaeum, "the learned body, the Academy -of la Crusca (the bran), Florence, has been scrupulously sifting the -Italian tongue and producing successive editions of its monumental -dictionary. Its present seat is in the monastery of St. -Mark--Savonarola's cloister--where it occupies the hall behind the -great library. When an associate is promoted to full membership, his -official reception is still accompanied by the traditional rite. -First, he is solemnly conducted to the Cruscan museum, and left to -solitary meditation among shovel-backed chairs surmounted by the -symbolical sieve and bookcases ingeniously fashioned in the likeness -of corn sacks. The walls are covered with the names, crests, and -mottoes of former members, who in past times usually assumed fantastic -titles descriptive of the academy's labors." Some of these printed -inscriptions and comical devices are more or less quaint. Thus, Dr. -Giulio Maxi in 1590 took the name of _Il Fiorito_, or the flowery one, -with the device of a basket of wheat in bloom and the motto from -Petrarch (translation): - - "I enjoy the present and hope for better." - -In 1641 the Senator Vieri appeared as _Le Svanito_, the evaporated, -with an uncorked wine flask, the stopper beside it, and the motto: - - "Oh, how I long for the medicine!" - -In 1660 the Marquis Malaskini adopted the title of _Il Preservato_, -the preserved, the device of olives packed in straw, and the motto -from Petrarch: - - "Keep the prize green." - -In 1764, the Abbot Giuseppe Pelli, surnamed _Il Megliorato_, the -improved, took the device of a newly invented sieve for the better -sifting of grain, with the Petrarchian motto: - - "Follow the few, and not the throng." - -In 1770, Signor Domenico Manni assumed the title of _Il Sofferente_, -the sufferer, with a straw chair as his device, and a motto from -Dante: - - "The master said that lying in a feather bed - One would not come to fame--nor under the plowshare." - -In due time the new member is escorted to the hall where the academy -is assembled, and the chief consul, head of the academy, greets him -with a speech, to which he has to make a fitting reply. Historical -Italian families are numerously represented on the academy's rolls, -and among the foreign members are the names of William Roscoe and Mr. -Gladstone. - -=Aboriginal Superstitions about Bones.=--A very interesting -archaeological site in Mexico, visited by Carl Lumholtz and Ale[vs] -Hedli[vc]ka in the fall of 1896, is near Zacapu, in the State of -Michoacan. The region is marked by many stone mounds on or near the -edge of the old flow of lava, extending for several miles; and -directly above the village stands a large stone fortress, called El -Palacio. Excavating near this fortress, Mr. Lumholtz unearthed several -skeletons, which had been buried without any order, and accompanied by -"remarkably few objects," but some of these were well worthy of study. -The most curious things found were some bones, strangely marked with -grooves across them, exhibiting a little variety in arrangement, but -all similarly executed, and evidently after a carefully devised -system. This feature is so far unique in archaeology, and its purpose -can as yet be only a matter of conjecture. Two ways are proposed by -the author of explaining it. The marking may have been an operation -undertaken for the purpose of dispatching the dead. Mr. Lumholtz is -knowing to a belief among the tribes of Mexico that the dead are -troublesome to the survivors for at least one year, and certain -ceremonies and feasts in regard to them have to be observed in order -to prevent them from doing harm, and to drive them away. The -Tarahumares guard their beer against them, and others provide a -special altar with food for the dead on it at their rain-making -feasts, else the spirits would work some mischief. Among many tribes -an offering is made to the dead, before drinking brandy, of a few -drops of the liquor. A relation is also supposed to exist between -disease and pain and the bones of the deceased person. A whole class -of diseases are supposed to have their seat in the bones or the marrow -of them. If the disease does not yield to the shaman's efforts, and -causes death, the Indians think that the pain will continue after -death and vex the ghost, making him malignant and troublesome. -Therefore the pain must be conquered, and driven away from the bones -and the marrow. Hence the markings may have been made in order to -sever all connection between the spirit and his former life, and from -the disease that caused his death. The other explanation is that the -bones were taken from slain enemies for other purposes than as mere -trophies. Personal or bodily relics are supposed to possess some of -the qualities of the deceased, and to give power. This view is -supported by some observations of Mr. Cushing relative to Zuni -customs; and the author is inclined to favor it rather than the other. - -=Estrays from Civilization.=--A curious study of a community of -estrays from civilization who are leading the life of savages is -published by M. Zaborowski in the _Revue de l'Ecole d'Anthropologie_ -and _La Nature_. The settlement is about a mile from Ezy, on the -eastern edge of the plateau of Normandy, in a group of caves that were -excavated and used as wine cellars when, several hundred years ago, -wine culture flourished in the now uncongenial region. Later the spot -was a resort for picnics till the old buildings fell into decay, and -about fifty years ago it was given up to wanderers. About eighty men, -women, and children live there, the adults, though not perhaps really -criminals, having been lost to society on account of some offense -committed against it. They have no regular means of subsistence, are -beneath the tramps in grade, and possess, with one or two exceptions, -no articles of property other than what they pick up. Their beds are -wooden bunks set upon stones, filled with leaves, and the coverings -are wrapping canvas. A "family" of seven persons lived in one of the -cellars with only a single bed of this kind. Their kitchen utensils -are old tin cans picked out of rubbish heaps, and their stoves are -obtained in the same way, or often consist of plates and pieces of -iron adjusted so as to make a sort of fireplace. They have a well from -which they draw water with some old kettle suspended on a hooked -stick, each "family" having its own hook. Their clothes are rags, -partly covering portions of the body, and it is not considered -necessary that the younger ones should have even these. Their -housekeeping and their ideas of neatness are such as might correspond -with these conditions. One woman, mother of four children, and the -only one that was adequately dressed, was a native of a neighboring -village, and had been brought to the cave by her mother when she was -eight years old. An old man had been a charge upon the town and was -sent to the cave by the _maire_ to get rid of him. He had found a -woman there and had several children. A woman, still active, who had -lived in the caves three years, had children living in Ezy. The -complaint, so common in other parts of France, that the natural -increase of population has failed, does not apply to the caves. Five -or six of the "families" have four or five children. On these -children, of whom only the most vigorous survive, "the influence of -their debasing misery and of the vices of their parents impresses a -common aspect. Their mental condition has fallen shockingly low, and, -their physical needs satisfied, they seem to want nothing further. No -attraction will induce them to attend school, which is like -imprisonment to them. Their mode of life and the marks of degradation -in their faces separate them from others. Earnest attempts to develop -their intelligence and moral consciousness have been without result." - -=German School Journeys.=--It is very common in Germany, says Miss -Dodd, of Owens College, in one of the English educational reports, to -find definite teaching taking place outside the school walls--in the -gardens attached to the schools, and in the neighboring forests, where -the children are instructed in observation of the local forms of plant -and animal life. Further, they are often taken on longer expeditions -to spend the whole day in the forest or on the mountain with their -teachers, who direct them "what to see, and how to see it." More -definite and more ambitious than these minor excursions is the school -journey, which may last from three days to three weeks. It is usually -taken on foot, and is as inexpensive as possible, with plain food and -simple accommodation. Each boy carries his own knapsack charged with a -change of underclothing, towels, soap, etc., and overcoat or umbrella; -while for the common use of the party are distributed clothes brushes -and shoe brushes, needles, thread, string, and pins, ointment for -rubbing on the feet, a small medicine chest, a compass, a field glass, -a pocket microscope, a barometer, and a tape measure. The district -visited is chosen on account of its historical associations or the -geographical illustrations it furnishes, or the richness and variety -of plant life to be studied. Constant pauses are made to afford -opportunities for the examination of features inviting study; and the -scenes visited are often closely connected with the subjects included -in the year's work of the school. In a journey, of which Miss Dodd was -a member, preparations were begun three months beforehand, with the -collection of subscriptions, drawing of road maps, and special -lessons. The fifty boys from ten to fifteen years old, marched off in -groups of four, assorting themselves according to their affinities for -companionship, with advance and rear guards; the regions passed -through were explored for what might be found in them; the roads were -marked and identified, mountains and rivers were named, and the -courses of streams determined; and at each place of considerable -interest its characteristic features and associations of Nature, art, -and history were discussed and studied. - -=The Huichol Indians of Jalisco.=--The Huichol Indians of Mexico, the -subject of a study by Carl Lumholtz, four thousand people living in -the mountains of northern Jalisco, have a tradition that they -originated in the south, got lost underneath the earth, and came -forward again in the east, in the country of the _Kikuli_, near San -Luis Potosi. Franciscan missionaries converted them nominally to -Christianity, but there are now no priests in their country, and there -is probably no tribe in Mexico where the ancient beliefs have been so -well maintained as with them. Their exterior conditions have been -somewhat altered by the introduction of cattle and sheep, and cattle -are now the favorite animals for sacrifice at the feasts for making -rain during the dry season. The people are healthy, very emotional, -easily moved to laughter or tears, imaginative and excitable. Young -people show affection in public, kissing or caressing one another. -They are kind-hearted and not inhospitable to those who can gain their -confidence, but have the reputation of being wanting in regard for -truth. They live mostly in circular houses made from loose stones, or -stones and mud, and covered with thatched roofs. Their temples, -devoted to various gods, are of similar shape, but much larger, with -the entrances toward sunrise. Outside of the door is an open space -surrounded by small rectangular god-houses, with gabled and thatched -roofs. The god-houses are also frequently found in the forests, and -are sometimes circular. There are nineteen temples in the country -which are frequented at the times of the feasts, when the officials -and their families camp in the small god-houses. Idols are not kept in -the temples, but are hidden in caves or in special buildings. There -are a great many sacred caves devoted to various gods, and generally -containing some pool or spring that gives them sanctity, and the water -of which is supposed to have salutary virtues. Much religious -importance is attached to the _Kikuli_ cactus, which produces an -exhilarating effect on the system. Ceremonial arrows are inseparably -connected with their life, the arrow representing the Indian himself -in his prayers to the gods. They have other interesting ceremonies and -ceremonial objects, and a curious system of distilling, which Mr. -Lumholtz describes at length. - -=Herrings at Dinner.=--The food of the herring consists of small -organisms, often of microscopic dimensions. It is entirely animal, and -in Europe, according to those who have investigated the matter, it -consists of copepods, schizopods (shrimplike forms), amphipods (sand -fleas and their allies), the embryos of gasteropods and -lamellibranchia, and young fishes, often of its own kind. In the -examination of about fifteen hundred specimens of herring at Eastport, -Maine, and vicinity, in the summer and fall of 1893, Mr. H.F. Moore, -of the Fish Commission, found only two kinds of food--copepods or "red -seed," which appeared to constitute the sole food of the small -herrings, and shrimps the principal food of the larger ones. In many -cases the stomachs of the fish were densely gorged with these shrimps, -which are extremely abundant in the waters of the vicinity. Excepting -the eyes and phosphorescent spots beneath, which are bright red, the -bodies of the crustaceans are almost transparent, yet such is the -density of the schools in which they congregate that a distinctly -reddish tinge is often imparted to the water. They are very active, -and frequently avoid the rush of the fish by vigorous strokes of their -powerful caudal paddles, which throw them several inches above the -surface. To capture them requires some address on the part of the -herring, and the fish likewise frequently throw themselves almost -clear of the surface. When feeding upon copepods the movements of the -herrings are less impetuous. They swim open-mouthed, often with their -snouts at the surface, crossing and recrossing on their tracks, and -evidently straining out the minute crustaceans by means of their -branchial sieves. After they have passed the stage known as "brit," -the herrings appear to feed principally at night, or if they do so to -any considerable extent during bright daylight it is at such a depth -that they escape observation. At night it is often possible to note -the movements of the fish at a depth of several fathoms, and at such -times Mr. Moore has seen them swimming back and forth, "apparently -screening the water, their every movement traced by a phosphorescent -gleam, evoked perhaps from the very organisms which they were -consuming." The herrings evidently follow their prey by night, and the -fact that the shrimps possess phosphorescent spots may explain the -apparent ability of the fish to catch them then. - - -MINOR PARAGRAPHS. - -The phosphorescence, which is so beautiful a characteristic of certain -forms of animal life in the sea, has been the cause of much -speculation among the fishermen and scientists; none of the proposed -theories have been entirely satisfactory. It is now stated, however, -that an adequate and provable cause has been discovered in a so-called -species of photo-bacteria; by means of this germ it is stated that sea -water, containing nutrient media, can be inoculated and rendered -phosphorescent; that newly caught herrings with the sea water still -fresh can be rendered phosphorescent by a treatment which favors the -growth of the photo-bacteria. Oxygen is an essential to their growth. - -Personal equation was defined by Prof. T.H. Safford, in a paper read -at the American Association, as in reality the time it takes to think; -and as that time is different in different persons, observations are -liable to be affected by it unless correct allowance is made for it in -the case of each one. It has been a subject of discussion since the -end of the last century. The Astronomer Royal of England discharged a -good assistant in 1795, because he was liable to observe stars more -than half a second too late. Bond, several years afterward, took the -subject up and found that astronomers were liable to vary a little in -their observations; some to anticipate the time by a trifle, and -others falling a little behind. The subject has since been studied by -Professor Wundt. In the days when the eye-and-ear method of -observation prevailed, the astronomer had both to watch his object and -to keep note of the time; with the introduction of the chronograph, -the errors resulting from this necessity are in part obviated. But -error enough still exists to be troublesome. - -The Educational Extension Work in Agriculture of Cornell University -Experiment Station is carried on by the publication and distribution -of leaflets, visitation of teachers' institutes, and other means that -may bring the station in contact with the people. The results of the -work have been generally satisfactory. Eight leaflets, on such -subjects as How a Squash Plant gets out of the Seed, A Children's -Garden, etc., were published last year in from two to six editions, -and still meet a lively demand. Thirty thousand teachers were enrolled -on the lists as receiving leaflets, or as students of methods of -presenting Nature study to their pupils, sixteen thousand school -children were receiving leaflets suitable to them, and twenty-five -hundred young farmers were enrolled in the Agricultural Reading -Course. Much interest seems to have been shown by farmers in -sugar-beet culture, in investigations of which more than three hundred -of them are cooperating with the station, and two hundred in -experiments with fertilizers. - - -NOTES. - -An important feature in the evolution of trade journalism is pointed -out in the presidential address of E.C. Brown, of the American Trade -Press Association, in the establishment of small trade journals, -covering limited fields. Such industries as brickmaking, stenography, -advertising, acetylene, hospital practice, etc., are ably represented -by their respective trade journals; and this tendency is promoted by -the complementary one of the trades, in their centralization and -concentration, compelling even journals in the same business to make -their field distinct and restricted. The public demands specific -information, not for the purpose of catering to a passing interest, -but for its application directly in the conduct of business or the -formation of a policy; and those trade journals succeed best which -supply accurate information of value to their readers. - -The ascent of Mont Blanc was accomplished between June 21st and -September 16th by one hundred and nineteen persons, eleven of whom -were women. By nationality the climbers included forty-four Frenchmen -and eleven Frenchwomen, fifteen Englishmen and one Englishwoman, and -fifteen Swiss, with Germans, Americans, Belgians, Hollanders, Irish, -and Russians. A Belgian lady and a Dutch lady were of this company. A -Frenchwoman, seventy-five years old, was one of the party that reached -the summit on one of the last days in September. - -Mr. Horace Brown, whose interesting researches on the enzymes have -attracted much attention during the past few years, has recently -announced the results of some important experiments on the vitality of -seeds. He found that certain seeds subjected to the very low -temperature of evaporating liquid air, about -192 deg. C., for one hundred -and ten consecutive hours, retained perfectly their power of -germinating. - -The report made by Prof. W.A. Herdman to the British Association -concerning the liability to disease through oysters recognizes the -possibility of contamination through the proximity of the beds to -sewage water, and recommends steps to be taken, through either -legislative control or association, to induce the oyster trade to -remove any possible suspicion of contamination of the beds; provision -for the inspection of foreign oysters or their subjection to a -quarantine by deposition for a stated period in British waters, as -already takes place in many instances; and the periodical inspection -of the grounds from which mussels, cockles, and periwinkles are -gathered. - -As the result of long-continued observations of annual temperatures -the appearance of the earliest leaves, and the return of birds of -passage, M. Camille Flammarion has published the conclusions that the -maximum temperatures correspond with abundant sun spots and the least -humidity, and the minimum temperatures with scarcity of sun spots and -great humidity; and that sparrows begin to sit when horse-chestnuts, -lilacs, and peonies begin to bloom, and the young are hatched about -two days after these plants are in full inflorescence. M. Flammarion -also believes that the temperatures of March and April indicate those -of the entire year. - -Little steel capsules containing a small quantity of liquefied -carbonic acid are made, _La Nature_ says, at Zurich, Switzerland. One -of them is placed in the neck of a bottle of water which is provided -with a faucet and the capsule is pricked. The carbonic acid escapes -and charges the water, and a bottle of soda water is the result. The -capsules are cheap and convenient, and are very popular in Switzerland -and Germany. - -It is proposed to erect a memorial to James Clerk Maxwell in the -parish church of Corsock, of which he was a trustee and elder. -Subscriptions may be sent to the Rev. George Stimock, The Manse, -Corsock by Dalbeattie, N.B. - -Our obituary list includes among men well known in science the names -of Edward Dunkin, an English practical astronomer, for fifty years an -assistant and part of the time chief assistant at the Royal -Observatory, Greenwich, a contributor of many paper on practical -astronomy, aged seventy-seven years; H. Vogel, professor of -photography, photo-chemistry, and spectroscopy in the Technical High -School, Berlin, author of The Chemistry of Light and Photography, in -the International Scientific Series, in his sixty-fifth year; -Alexandre Pillet, curator of the Musee Dupuytre, Paris, and well known -for his contributions on morbid anatomy, at Paris, November 2d, aged -eighty-eight years; George T. Allmann, formerly professor of botany in -Dublin and of natural history in Edinburgh, who described the hydroids -collected by the Challenger Expedition, and was author of a number of -monographs on the invertebrates, aged eighty-six; Thomas Sanderson -Bulmer, investigator in American archaeology and ethnography, and -contributor to Filling's Bibliographies of American Languages, at -Sierra Blanca, Texas, October 5th; and Dr. Ewald Geissler, professor -of chemistry at the veterinary school of Dresden, aged fifty years. - - - - -Transcriber's Notes: - - -Words surrounded by _ are italicized. - -Words surrounded by = are bold. - -Diacritical mark caron (v-shaped symbol) is represented as [vx] in -this e-text (x being the letter with the symbol caron above it). - -Obvious printer's errors have been repaired, other inconsistent -spellings have been kept, including inconsistent use of hyphen -(e.g. "text book" and "text-book"). - -Illustrations were relocated to correspond to their references in the -text. - -Pg 568, year assumed in sentence "...Report for the Fiscal Year ended -June 30, 1898..." as the original is unclear. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Appletons' Popular Science Monthly, -February 1899, by Various - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK APPLETONS' POPULAR SCIENCE, FEB 1899 *** - -***** This file should be named 43695.txt or 43695.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/3/6/9/43695/ - -Produced by Judith Wirawan, Greg Bergquist, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by Biodiversity Heritage Library.) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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