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You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: Farm Engines and How to Run Them - The Young Engineer's Guide - -Author: James H. Stephenson - -Release Date: October 2, 2013 [EBook #43867] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FARM ENGINES AND HOW TO RUN THEM *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Jennifer Linklater and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -[Illustration: TRACTION ENGINE.] - - - - - FARM ENGINES AND HOW TO RUN THEM - - _THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S GUIDE_ - - A SIMPLE, PRACTICAL HAND BOOK, FOR EXPERTS AS WELL AS - FOR AMATEURS, FULLY DESCRIBING EVERY PART OF AN ENGINE - AND BOILER, GIVING FULL DIRECTIONS FOR THE SAFE AND - ECONOMICAL MANAGEMENT OF BOTH; ALSO SEVERAL - HUNDRED QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS OFTEN GIVEN IN - EXAMINATIONS FOR AN ENGINEER'S LICENSE, AND - CHAPTERS ON FARM ENGINE ECONOMY, WITH - SPECIAL ATTENTION TO TRACTION AND GASOLINE - FARM ENGINES, AND A CHAPTER ON - - _The Science of Successful Threshing_ - - BY - JAMES H. STEPHENSON - _And Other Expert Engineers_ - - WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS SHOWING THE DIFFERENT - PARTS OF A BOILER AND ENGINE, AND NEARLY EVERY MAKE OF - TRACTION ENGINE, WITH A BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DISTINCTIVE - POINTS IN EACH MAKE. - - [Illustration] - - CHICAGO - FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO. - PUBLISHERS - - COPYRIGHT, 1903 - BY FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO. - CHICAGO, ILL., U.S.A. - - - - -PREFACE - - -This book makes no pretensions to originality. It has taken the best -from every source. The author believes the matter has been arranged in -a more simple and effective manner, and that more information has been -crowded into these pages than will be found within the pages of any -similar book. - -The professional engineer, in writing a book for young engineers, is -likely to forget that the novice is unfamiliar with many terms which -are like daily bread to him. The present writers have tried to avoid -that pitfall, and to define each term as it naturally needs definition. -Moreover, the description of parts and the definitions of terms have -preceded any suggestions on operation, the authors believing that the -young engineer should become thoroughly familiar with his engine and -its manner of working, before he is told what is best to do and not -to do. If he is forced on too fast he is likely to get mixed. The -test questions at the end of Chapter III. will show how perfectly the -preceding pages have been mastered, and the student is not ready to go -on till he can answer all these questions readily. - -The system of questions and answers has its uses and its limitations. -The authors have tried to use that system where it would do most good, -and employ the straight narrative discussion method where questions -could not help and would only interrupt the progress of thought. Little -technical matter has been introduced, and that only for practical -purposes. The authors have had traction engines in mind for the most -part, but the directions will apply equally well to any kind of steam -engine. - -The thanks of the publishers are due to the various traction engine -and threshing machine manufacturers for cuts and information, and -especially to the _Threshermen's Review_ for ideas contained in its -"Farm Engine Economy," to the J. I. Case Threshing Machine Co. for -the use of copyrighted matter in their "The Science of Successful -Threshing," and to the manager of the Columbus Machine Co. for valuable -personal information furnished the authors on gasoline engines and how -to run them. The proof has been read and corrected by Mr. T. R. Butman, -known in Chicago for 25 years as one of the leading experts on engines -and boilers, especially boilers. - - - - -THE - -YOUNG ENGINEERS' GUIDE - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -BUYING AN ENGINE. - - -There are a great many makes of good engines on the market to-day, and -the competition is so keen that no engine maker can afford to turn out -a very poor engine. This is especially true of traction engines. The -different styles and types all have their advantages, and are good in -their way. For all that, one good engine may be valueless for you, and -there are many ways in which you may make a great mistake in purchasing -an engine. The following points will help you to choose wisely: - -1. Consider what you want an engine for. If it is a stationary engine, -consider the work to be done, the space it is to occupy, and what -conveniences will save your time. Remember, TIME IS MONEY, and that -means that SPACE IS ALSO MONEY. Choose the kind of engine that will be -most convenient for the position in which you wish to place it and the -purpose or purposes for which you wish to use it. If buying a traction -engine, consider also the roads and an engine's pulling qualities. - -2. If you are buying a traction engine for threshing, the first thing -to consider is FUEL. Which will be cheapest for you, wood, coal or -straw? Is economy of fuel much of an object with you--one that will -justify you in greater care and more scientific study of your engine? -Other things being equal, the direct flue, firebox, locomotive boiler -and simple engine will be the best, since they are the easiest to -operate. They are not the most economical under favorable conditions, -but a return flue boiler and a compound engine will cost you far more -than the possible saving of fuel unless you manage them in a scientific -way. Indeed, if not rightly managed they will waste more fuel than the -direct flue locomotive boiler and the simple engine. - -3. Do not try to economize on the size of your boiler, and at the same -time never get too large an engine. If a 6-horse power boiler will just -do your work, an 8-horse power will do it better and more economically, -because you won't be overworking it all the time. Engines should seldom -be crowded. At the same time you never know when you may want a higher -capacity than you have, or how much you may lose by not having it. Of -course you don't want an engine and boiler that are too big, but you -should always allow a fair margin above your anticipated requirements. - -4. Do not try to economize on appliances. You should have a good pump, -a good injector, a good heater, an extra steam gauge, an extra fusible -plug ready to put in, a flue expander and a beader. You should also -certainly have a good force pump and hose to clean the boiler, and the -best oil and grease you can get. Never believe the man who tells you -that something not quite the best is just as good. You will find it the -most expensive thing you ever tried--if you have wit enough to find out -how expensive it is. - -5. If you want my personal advice on the proper engine to select for -various purposes, I should say by all means get a gasoline engine for -small powers about the farm, such as pumping, etc. It is the quickest -to start, by far the most economical to operate, and the simplest -to manage. The day of the small steam engine is past and will never -return, and ten gasoline engines of this kind are sold for every steam -engine put out. If you want a traction engine for threshing, etc., -stick to steam. Gasoline engines are not very good hill climbers -because the application of power is not steady enough; they are not -very good to get out of mud holes with for the same reason, and as yet -they are not perfected for such purposes. You might use a portable -gasoline engine, however, though the application of power is not -as steady as with steam and the flywheels are heavy. In choosing a -traction steam engine, the direct flue locomotive boiler and simple -engine, though theoretically not so economical as the return flue -boiler and compound engine, will in many cases prove so practically -because they are so much simpler and there is not the chance to go -wrong with them that there is with the others. If for any reason you -want a very quick steamer, buy an upright. If economy of fuel is very -important and you are prepared to make the necessary effort to secure -it, a return flue boiler will be a good investment, and a really good -compound engine may be. Where a large plant is to be operated and a -high power constant and steady energy is demanded, stick to steam, -since the gasoline engines of the larger size have not proved so -successful, and are certainly by no means so steady; and in such a -case the exhaust steam can be used for heating and for various other -purposes that will work the greatest economy. For such a plant choose a -horizontal tubular boiler, set in masonry, and a compound engine (the -latter if you have a scientific engineer). - -In general, in the traction engine, look to the convenience of -arrangement of the throttle, reverse lever, steering wheel, friction -clutch, independent pump and injector, all of which should be within -easy reach of the footboard, as such an arrangement will save annoyance -and often damage when quick action is required. - -The boiler should be well set; the firebox large, with large grate -surface if a locomotive type of boiler is used, and the number of flues -should be sufficient to allow good combustion without forced draft. -A return flue boiler should have a large main flue, material of the -required 5-16-inch thickness, a mud drum, and four to six hand-holes -suitably situated for cleaning the boiler. There should be a rather -high average boiler pressure, as high pressure is more economical than -low. For a simple engine, 80 pounds and for a compound 125 pounds -should be minimum. - -A stationary engine should have a solid foundation built by a mason who -understands the business, and should be in a light, dry room--never in -a dark cellar or a damp place. - -Every farm traction engine should have a friction clutch. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -BOILERS. - - -The first boilers were made as a single cylinder of wrought iron set in -brick work, with provision for a fire under one end. This was used for -many years, but it produced steam very slowly and with great waste of -fuel. - -The first improvement to be made in this was a fire flue running the -whole length of the interior of the boiler, with the fire in one end of -the flue. This fire flue was entirely surrounded by water. - -Then a boiler was made with two flues that came together at the -smoke-box end. First one flue was fired and then the other, -alternately, the clear heat of one burning the smoke of the other when -it came into the common passage. - -The next step was to introduce conical tubes by which the water could -circulate through the main fire flue (Galloway boiler). - -[Illustration: FIG. 1. ORR & SEMBOWER'S STANDARD HORIZONTAL BOILER, -WITH FULL-ARCH FRONT SETTING.] - -The object of all these improvements was to get larger heating surface. -To make steam rapidly and economically, the heating surface must be as -large as possible. - -[Illustration: FIG. 2. GAAR, SCOTT & CO.'S LOCOMOTIVE BOILER.] - -But there is a limit in that the boiler must not be cumbersome, it must -carry enough water, and have sufficient space for steam. - -The stationary boiler now most commonly used is cylindrical, the fire -is built in a brick furnace under the sheet and returns through fire -tubes running the length of the boiler. (Fig. 1.) - - -LOCOMOTIVE FIRE TUBE TYPE OF BOILER. - -The earliest of the modern steam boilers to come into use was the -locomotive fire tube type, with a special firebox. By reference to -the illustration (Fig. 2) you will see that the boiler cylinder is -perforated with a number of tubes from 2 to 4 inches in diameter -running from the large firebox on the left, through the boiler cylinder -filled with water, to the smoke-box on the right, above which the -smokestack rises. - -[Illustration: FIG. 3. THE HUBER FIRE BOX.] - -It will be noticed that the walls of the firebox are double, and that -the water circulates freely all about the firebox as well as all about -the fire tubes. The inner walls of the firebox are held firmly in -position by stay bolts, as will be seen in Fig. 3, which also shows the -position of the grate. - -[Illustration: FIG. 4. HUBER RETURN FLUE BOILER.] - - -RETURN FLUE TYPE OF BOILER. - -The return flue type of boiler consists of a large central fire flue -running through the boiler cylinder to the smoke box at the front end, -which is entirely closed. The smoke passes back through a number of -small tubes, and the smokestack is directly over the fire at the rear -of the boiler, though there is no communication between the fire at the -rear of the boiler and it except through the main flue to the front and -back through the small return flues. Fig. 4 illustrates this type of -boiler, though it shows but one return flue. The actual number may be -seen by the sectional view in Fig. 5. - -[Illustration: FIG. 5. SECTION VIEW OF HUBER RETURN FLUE BOILER.] - -The fire is built in one end of the main flue, and is entirely -surrounded by water, as will be seen in the illustration. The long -passage for the flame and heated gases enables the water to absorb a -maximum amount of the heat of combustion. There is also an element of -safety in this boiler in that the small flues will be exposed first -should the water become low, and less damage will be done than if the -large crown sheet of the firebox boiler is exposed, and this large -crown sheet is the first thing to be exposed in that type of boiler. - - -WATER TUBE TYPE OF BOILER. - -The special difference between the fire tube boiler and the water tube -boiler is that in the former the fire passes through the tubes, while -in the latter the water is in the tubes and the fire passes around them. - -[Illustration: FIG. 6. FREEMAN VERTICAL BOILER.] - -In this type of boiler there is an upper cylinder (or more than one) -filled with water; a series of small tubes running at an angle from the -front or fire door end of the upper cylinder to a point below and back -of the grates, where they meet in another cylinder or pipe, which is -connected with the other end of the upper cylinder. The portions of the -tubes directly over the fire will be hottest, and the water here will -become heated and rise to the front end of the upper cylinder, while to -fill the space left, colder water is drawn in from the back pipe, from -the rear end of the upper cylinder, down to the lower ends of the water -tubes, to pass along up through them to the front end again. - -This type of boiler gives great heating surface, and since the tubes -are small they will have ample strength with much thinner walls. Great -freedom of circulation is important in this type of boiler, there being -no contracted cells in the passage. This is not adapted for a portable -engine. - - -UPRIGHT OR VERTICAL TYPE OF BOILER. - -In the upright type of boiler the boiler cylinder is placed on end, -the fire is built at the lower end, which is a firebox surrounded by a -water jacket, and the smoke and gases of combustion rise straight up -through vertical fire flues. The amount of water carried is relatively -small, and the steam space is also small, while the heating surface is -relatively large if the boiler is sufficiently tall. You can get up -steam in this type of boiler quicker than in any other, and in case of -the stationary engine, the space occupied is a minimum. The majority -of small stationary engines have this type of boiler, and there is a -traction engine with upright boiler which has been widely used, but -it is open to the objection that the upper or steam ends of the tubes -easily get overheated and so become leaky. There is also often trouble -from mud and scale deposits in the water leg, the bottom area of which -is very small. - - -DEFINITION OF TERMS USED IN CONNECTION WITH BOILERS. - -_Shell_--The main cylindrical steel sheets which form the principal -part of the boiler. - -_Boiler-heads_--The ends of the boiler cylinder. - -_Tube Sheets_--The sheets in which the fire tubes are inserted at each -end of the boiler. - -_Fire-box_--A nearly square space at one end of a boiler, in which the -fire is placed. Properly it is surrounded on all sides by a double -wall, the space between the two shells of these walls being filled with -water. All flat surfaces are securely fastened by stay bolts and crown -bars, but cylindrical surfaces are self-bracing. - -_Water-leg_--The space at sides of fire-box and below it in which water -passes. - -_Crown-sheet_--The sheet of steel at the top of the firebox, just under -the water in the boiler. This crown sheet is exposed to severe heat, -but so long as it is covered with water, the water will conduct the -heat away, and the metal can never become any hotter than the water -in the boiler. If, however, it is not covered with water, but only by -steam, it quickly becomes overheated, since the steam does not conduct -the heat away as the water does. It may become so hot it will soften -and sag, but the great danger is that the thin layer of water near this -overheated crown sheet will be suddenly turned into a great volume -of steam and cause an explosion. If some of the pressure is taken -off, this overheated water may suddenly burst into steam and cause an -explosion, as the safety valve blows off, for example (since the safety -valve relieves some of the pressure). - -_Smoke-box_--The space at the end of the boiler opposite to that of the -fire, in which the smoke may accumulate before passing up the stack in -the locomotive type, or through the small flues in the return type of -boiler. - -_Steam-dome_--A drum or projection at the top of the boiler cylinder, -forming the highest point which the steam can reach. The steam is taken -from the boiler through piping leading from the top of this dome, since -at this point it is least likely to be mixed with water, either through -foaming or shaking up of the boiler. Even under normal conditions the -steam at the top of the dome is drier than anywhere else. - -_Mud-drum_--A cylindrical-shaped receptacle at the bottom of the boiler -similar to the steam-dome at the top, but not so deep. Impurities in -the water accumulate here, and it is of great value on a return flue -boiler. In a locomotive boiler the mud accumulates in the water leg, -below the firebox. - -_Man-holes_--Are large openings into the interior of a boiler, through -which a man may pass to clean out the inside. - -_Hand-holes_--Are smaller holes at various points in the boiler into -which the nozzle of a hose may be introduced for cleaning out the -interior. All these openings must be securely covered with steam-tight -plates, called man-hole and hand-hole plates. - -_A boiler jacket_--A non-conducting covering of wood, plaster, hair, -rags, felt, paper, asbestos or the like, which prevents the boiler -shell from cooling too rapidly through radiation of heat from the -steel. These materials are usually held in place against the boiler by -sheet iron. An intervening air-space between the jacket and the boiler -shell will add to the efficiency of the jacket. - -_A steam-jacket_--A space around an engine cylinder or the like which -may be filled with live steam so as to keep the interior from cooling -rapidly. - -_Ash-pit_--The space directly under the grates, where the ashes -accumulate. - -_Dead-plates_--Solid sheets of steel on which the fire lies the same as -on the grates, but with no openings through to the ash-pit. Dead-plates -are sometimes used to prevent cold air passing through the fire into -the flues, and are common on straw-burning boilers. They should seldom -if ever be used on coal or wood firing boilers. - -_Grate Surface_--The whole space occupied by the grate-bars, usually -measured in square feet. - -_Forced Draft_--A draft produced by any means other than the natural -tendency of the heated gases of combustion to rise. For example, a -draft caused by letting steam escape into the stack. - -_Heating Surface_--The entire surface of the boiler exposed to the heat -of the fire, or the area of steel or iron sheeting or tubing, on one -side of which is water and on the other heated air or gases. - -_Steam-space_--The cubical contents of the space which may be occupied -by steam above the water. - -_Water-space_--The cubical contents of the space occupied by water -below the steam. - -_Diaphragm-plate_--A perforated plate used in the domes of locomotive -boilers to prevent water dashing into the steam supply pipe. A dry-pipe -is a pipe with small perforations, used for taking steam from the -steam-space, instead of from a dome with diaphragm-plate. - - -THE ATTACHMENTS OF A BOILER.[1] - -Before proceeding to a consideration of the care and management of -a boiler, let us briefly indicate the chief working attachments of -a boiler. Unless the nature and uses of these attachments are fully -understood, it will be impossible to handle the boiler in a thoroughly -safe and scientific fashion, though some engineers do handle boilers -without knowing all about these attachments. Their ignorance in many -cases costs them their lives and the lives of others. - - Footnote 1: Unless otherwise indicated, cuts of fittings show those - manufactured by the Lunkenheimer Co., Cincinnati, Ohio. - -The first duty of the engineer is to see that the boiler is filled with -water. This he usually does by looking at the glass water-gauge. - - -THE WATER GAUGE AND COCKS. - -[Illustration: TWO-ROD WATER GAUGE.] - -There is a cock at each end of the glass tube. When these cocks are -open the water will pass through the lower into the glass tube, while -steam comes through the other. The level of the water in the gauge will -then be the same as the level of the water in the boiler, and the water -should never fall out of sight below the lower end of the glass, nor -rise above the upper end. - -Below the lower gauge cock there is another cock used for draining -the gauge and blowing it off when there is a pressure of steam on. By -occasionally opening this cock, allowing the heated water or steam to -blow through it, the engineer may always be sure that the passages -into the water gauge are not stopped up by any means. By closing the -upper cock and opening the lower, the passage into the lower may be -cleared by blowing off the drain cock; by closing the lower gauge cock -and opening the upper the passage from the steam space may be cleared -and tested in the same way when the drain cock is opened. If the glass -breaks, both upper and lower gauge cocks should be closed instantly. - -[Illustration: GAUGE OR TRY COCK.] - -In addition to the glass water gauge, there are the try-cocks for -ascertaining the level of the water in the boiler. There should be two -to four of these. They open directly out of the boiler sheet, and by -opening them in turn it is possible to tell approximately where the -water stands. There should be one cock near the level of the crown -sheet, or slightly above it, another about the level of the lower gauge -cock, another about the middle of the gauge, another about the level of -the upper gauge, and still another, perhaps, a little higher. But one -above and one below the water line will be sufficient. If water stands -above the level of the cock, it will blow off white mist when opened; -if the cock opens from steam-space, it will blow off blue steam when -opened. - -The try-cocks should be opened from time to time in order to be sure -the water stands at the proper level in the boiler, for various things -may interfere with the working of the glass gauge. Try-cocks are often -called gauge cocks. - -[Illustration: TRY COCK.] - - -THE STEAM GAUGE. - -The steam gauge is a delicate instrument arranged so as to indicate by -a pointer the pounds of pressure which the steam is exerting within the -boiler. It is extremely important, and a defect in it may cause much -damage. - -[Illustration: PRESSURE GAUGE.] - -The steam gauge was invented in 1849 by Eugene Bourdon, of France. -He discovered that a flat tube bent in a simple curve, held fast at -one end, would expand and contract if made of proper spring material, -through the pressure of the water within the tube. The free end -operates a clock-work that moves the pointer. - -It is important that the steam gauge be attached to the boiler by a -siphon, or with a knot in the tube, so that the steam may operate on -water contained in the tube, and the water cannot become displaced by -steam, since steam might interfere with the correct working of the -gauge by expanding the gauge tube through its excessive heat. - -Steam gauges frequently get out of order, and should be tested -occasionally. This may conveniently be done by attaching them to a -boiler which has a correct gauge already on it. If both register alike, -it is probable that both are accurate. - -[Illustration: STEAM GAUGE SIPHON.] - -[Illustration: FRONT CYLINDER COCK.] - -There are also self-testing steam gauges. With all pressure off, -the pointer will return to 0. Then a series of weights are arranged -which may be hung on the gauge and cause the pointer to indicate -corresponding numbers. The chief source of variation is in the -loosening of the indicator needle. This shows itself usually when the -pressure is off and the pointer does not return exactly to zero. - - -SAFETY VALVE. - -The safety valve is a valve held in place by a weighted lever[2] or -by a spiral spring (on traction engines) or some similar device, and -is adjustable by a screw or the like so that it can be set to blow -off at a given pressure of steam, usually the rated pressure of the -boiler, which on traction engines is from 110 to 130 pounds. The valve -is supplied with a handle by which it can be opened, and it should -be opened occasionally to make sure it is working all right. When it -blows off the steam gauge should be noted to see that it agrees with -the pressure for which the safety valve was set. If they do not agree, -something is wrong; either the safety valve does not work freely, or -the steam gauge does not register accurately. - - Footnote 2: This kind of safety valve is now being entirely discarded - as much more dangerous than the spring or pop valve. - -[Illustration: SECTIONAL VIEW OF KUNKLE POP VALVE.] - -[Illustration: SAFETY VALVE.] - -The cut shows the Kunkle safety valve. To set it, unscrew the jam nut -and apply the key to the pressure screw. For more pressure, screw -down; for less, unscrew. After having the desired pressure, screw the -jam nut down tight on the pressure screw. To regulate the opening -and closing of the valve, take the pointed end of a file and apply it -to the teeth of the regulator. If valve closes with too much boiler -pressure, move the regulator to the left. If with too little, move the -regulator to the right. - -This can be done when the valve is at the point of blowing off. - -[Illustration: PHANTOM VIEW OF MARSH INDEPENDENT STEAM PUMP.] - -Other types of valves are managed in a similar way, and exact -directions will always be furnished by the manufacturers. - - -FILLING THE BOILER WITH WATER. - -There are three ways in which a boiler is commonly filled with water. - -First, before starting a boiler it must be filled with water by hand, -or with a hand force-pump. There is usually a filler plug, which must -be taken out, and a funnel can be attached in its place. Open one of -the gauge cocks to let out the air as the water goes in. - -When the boiler has a sufficient amount of water, as may be seen by -the glass water gauge, replace the filler plug. After steam is up the -boiler should be supplied with water by a pump or injector. - - -THE BOILER PUMP. - -There are two kinds of pumps commonly used on traction engines, the -Independent pump, and the Cross-head pump. - -The Independent pump is virtually an independent engine with pump -attached. There are two cylinders, one receiving steam and conveying -force to the piston; the other a water cylinder, in which a plunger -works, drawing the water into itself by suction and forcing it out -through the connection pipe into the boiler by force of steam pressure -in the steam cylinder. - -[Illustration: STRAIGHT GLOBE VALVE.] - -[Illustration: ANGLE GLOBE VALVE.] - -It is to be noted that all suction pumps receive their water by reason -of the pressure of the atmosphere on the surface of the water in the -supply tank or well. This atmospheric pressure is about 15 pounds to -the square inch, and is sufficient to support a column of water 28 to -33 feet high, 33 feet being the height of a column of water which the -atmosphere will support theoretically at about sea level. At greater -altitudes the pressure of the atmosphere decreases. Pumps do not work -very well when drawing water from a depth over 20 or 22 feet. - -Water can be forced to almost any height by pressure of steam on the -plunger, and it is taken from deep wells by deep well pumps, which suck -the water 20 to 25 feet, and force it the rest of the way by pressure -on a plunger. - -The amount of water pumped is regulated by a cock or globe valve in the -suction pipe. - -A Cross-head boiler pump is a pump attached to the cross-head of an -engine. The force of the engine piston is transmitted to the plunger of -the pump. - -The pump portion works exactly the same, whether of the independent or -cross-head kind. - -The cut represents an independent pump that uses the exhaust steam to -heat the water as it is pumped (Marsh pump). - -[Illustration: VALVE WITH INTERNAL SCREW.] - -Every boiler feed-pump must have at least two check valves. - -A check valve is a small swinging gate valve (usually) contained in a -pipe, and so arranged that when water is flowing in one direction the -valve will automatically open to let the water pass, while if water -should be forced in the other direction, the valve will automatically -close tight and prevent the water from passing. - -[Illustration: SECTIONAL VIEW OF SWING CHECK VALVE.] - -There is one check valve in the supply pipe which conducts the water -from the tank or well to the pump cylinder. When the plunger is drawn -back or raised, a vacuum is created in the pump cylinder and the -outside atmospheric pressure forces water through the supply pipe -into the cylinder, and the check valve opens to let it pass. When the -plunger returns, the check valve closes, and the water is forced into -the feed-pipe to the boiler. - -[Illustration: SECTIONAL VIEW OF CASE HEATER.] - -There are usually two check valves between the pump cylinder and the -boiler, both swinging away from the pump or toward the boiler. In -order that the water may flow steadily into the boiler there is an air -chamber, which may be partly filled with water at each stroke of the -plunger. As the water comes in, the air must be compressed, and as it -expands it forces the water through the feed pipe into the boiler in -a steady stream. There is one check valve between the pump cylinder -and the air chamber, to prevent the water from coming back into the -cylinder, and another between the air chamber and the boiler, to -prevent the steam pressure forcing itself or the water from the boiler -or water heater back into the air chamber. - -[Illustration: SECTIONAL VIEW OF PENBERTHY INJECTOR.] - -[Illustration: U. S. AUTOMATIC INJECTOR. - -(American Injector Co.)] - -All three of these check valves must work easily and fit tight if the -pump is to be serviceable. They usually close with rubber facings which -in time will get worn, and dirt is liable to work into the hinge and -otherwise prevent tight and easy closing. They can always be opened for -inspection, and new ones can be put in when the old are too much worn. - -Only cold water can be pumped successfully, as steam from hot water -will expand, and so prevent a vacuum being formed. Thus no suction will -take place to draw the water from the supply source. - -There should always be a globe valve or cock in the feed pipe near the -boiler to make it possible to cut out the check valves when the boiler -is under pressure. _It is never to be closed except_ when required for -this purpose. - -Before passing into the boiler the water from the pump goes through the -_heater_. This is a small cylinder, with a coil of pipe inside. The -feed pipe from the pump is connected with one end of this inner coil of -pipe, while the other end of the coil leads into the boiler itself. The -exhaust steam from the engine cylinder is admitted into the cylinder -and passes around the coil of pipe, afterwards coming out of the smoke -stack to help increase the draft. As the feed water passes through this -heater it becomes heated nearly to boiling before it enters the boiler, -and has no tendency to cool the boiler off. Heating the feed water -results in an economy of about 10 per cent. - -[Illustration: AUTOMATIC INJECTOR.] - -_The Injector_ is another means of forcing water from a supply tank or -well into the boiler, and at the same time heating it, by use of steam -from the boiler. It is a necessity when a cross-head pump is used, -since such a pump will not work when the engine is shut down. It is -useful in any case to heat the water before it goes into the boiler -when the engine is not working and there is no exhaust steam for the -heater. - -There are various types of injectors, but they all work on practically -the same principle. The steam from the boiler is led through a tapering -nozzle to a small chamber into which there is an opening from a water -supply pipe. This steam nozzle throws out its spray with great force -and creates a partial vacuum in the chamber, causing the water to flow -in. As the pressure of the steam has been reduced when it passes into -the injector, it cannot, of course, force its way back into the boiler -at first, and finds an outlet at the overflow. When the water comes in, -however, the steam jet strikes the water and is condensed by it. At the -same time it carries the water and the condensed steam along toward the -boiler with such force that the back pressure of the boiler is overcome -and a stream of heated water is passed into it. In order that the -injector may work, its parts must be nicely adjusted, and with varying -steam pressures it takes some ingenuity to get it started. Usually -the full steam pressure is turned on and the cock admitting the water -supply is opened a varying amount according to the pressure. - -First the valve between the check valve and the boiler should be -opened, so that the feed water may enter freely; then open wide the -valve next the steam dome, and any other valve between the steam supply -pipe and the injector; lastly open the water supply valve. If water -appears at the overflow, close the supply valve and open it again, -giving it just the proper amount of turn. The injector is regulated by -the amount of water admitted. - -[Illustration: PLAIN WHISTLE.] - -In setting up an injector of any type, the following rules should be -observed: - -All connecting pipes as straight and short as possible. - -The internal diameter of all connecting pipes should be the same or -greater than the diameter of the hole in the corresponding part of the -injector. - -When there is dirt or particles of wood or other material in the source -of water supply, the end of the water supply pipe should be provided -with a strainer. Indeed, invariably a strainer should be used. The -holes in this strainer must be as small as the smallest opening in the -delivery tube, and the total area of the openings in the strainer must -be much greater than the area of the water supply (cross-section). - -The steam should be taken from the highest part of the dome, to avoid -carrying any water from the boiler over with it. Wet steam cuts and -grooves the steam nozzle. The steam should not be taken from the pipe -leading to the engine unless the pipe is quite large. - -Before using new injectors, after they are fitted to the boiler it is -advisable to disconnect them and clean them out well by letting steam -blow through them or forcing water through. This will prevent lead or -loose scale getting into the injector when in use. - -Set the injector as low as possible, as it works best with smallest -possible lift. - -_Ejectors and jet pumps_ are used for lifting and forcing water by -steam pressure, and are employed in filling tanks, etc. - - -BLAST AND BLOW-OFF DEVICES. - -In traction engines there is small pipe with a valve, leading into -the smoke stack from the boiler. When the valve is opened, the steam -allowed to blow off into the smoke stack will create a vacuum and so -increase the draft. Blast or blow pipes are used only in starting the -fire, and are of little value before the steam pressure reaches 15 -pounds or so. - -The exhaust nozzle from the engine cylinder also leads into the smoke -stack, and when the engine is running the exhaust steam is sufficient -to keep up the draft without using the blower. - -_Blow-off cocks_ are used for blowing sediment out of the bottom of a -boiler, or blowing scum off the top of the water to prevent foaming. A -boiler should never be blown out at high pressure, as there is great -danger of injuring it. Better let the boiler cool off somewhat before -blowing off. - - -SPARK ARRESTER. - -Traction engines are supplied as a usual thing with spark arresters if -they burn wood or straw. Coal sparks are heavy and have little life, -and with some engines no spark arrester is needed. But there is great -danger of setting a fire if an engine is run with wood or straw without -the spark arrester. - -[Illustration: DIAMOND SPARK ARRESTER.] - -Spark arresters are of different types. The most usual form is a large -screen dome placed over the top of the stack. This screen must be kept -well cleaned by brushing, or the draft of the engine will be impaired -by it. - -In another form of spark arrester, the smoke is made to pass through -water, which effectually kills every possible spark. - -The _Diamond Spark Arrester_ does not interfere with the draft and -is so constructed that all sparks are carried by a counter current -through a tube into a pail where water is kept. The inverted cone, as -shown in cut, is made of steel wire cloth, which permits smoke and gas -to escape, but no sparks. There is no possible chance to set fire to -anything by sparks. It is adapted to any steam engine that exhausts -into the smoke stack. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -THE SIMPLE ENGINE. - - -The engine is the part of a power plant which converts steam pressure -into power in such form that it can do work. Properly speaking, -the engine has nothing to do with generating steam. That is done -exclusively in the boiler, which has already been described. - -[Illustration: VIEW OF SIMPLE CYLINDER. - -(J. I. Case Threshing Machine Co.)] - -The steam engine was invented by James Watt, in England, between 1765 -and 1790, and he understood all the essential parts of the engine as -now built. It was improved, however, by Seguin, Ericsson, Stephenson, -Fulton, and many others. - -Let us first consider: - - -THE STEAM CYLINDER, ITS PARTS AND CONNECTIONS. - -The cylinder proper is constructed of a single piece of cast iron bored -out smooth. - -The _cylinder heads_ are the flat discs or caps bolted to the ends of -the cylinder itself. Sometimes one cylinder head is cast in the same -piece with the engine frame. - -The _piston_ is a circular disc working back and forth in the cylinder. -It is usually a hollow casting, and to make it fit the cylinder steam -tight, it is supplied on its circumference with _piston rings_. These -are made of slightly larger diameter than the piston, and serve as -springs against the sides of the cylinder. The _follower plate_ and -bolts cover the piston rings on the piston head and hold them in place. - -[Illustration: CONNECTING ROD AND CROSS-HEAD. - -(J. I. Case Threshing Machine Co.)] - -The _piston rod_ is of wrought iron or steel, and is fitted firmly and -rigidly into the piston at one end. It runs from the piston through one -head of the cylinder, passing through a steam-tight "stuffing box." One -end of the piston rod is attached to the cross-head. - -The _cross-head_ works between _guides_, and has _shoes_ above and -below. It is practically a joint, necessary in converting straight back -and forth motion into rotary. The cross-head itself works straight back -and forth, just as the piston does, which is fastened firmly to one -end. At the other end is attached the _connecting rod_, which works on -a bearing in the cross-head, called the _wrist pin_, or cross-head pin. - -The _connecting rod_ is wrought iron or steel, working at one end on -the bearing known as the wrist pin, and on the other on a bearing -called the _crank pin_. - -The _crank_ is a short lever which transmits the power from the -connecting rod to the _crank shaft_. It may also be a disc, called the -_crank disc_. - -[Illustration: CROSS-HEAD. - -(J. I. Case Threshing Machine Co.)] - -Let us now return to the steam cylinder itself. - -The steam leaves the boiler through a pipe leading from the top of the -steam dome, and is let on or cut off by the _throttle_ valve, which is -usually opened and closed by some sort of lever handle. It passes on to -the _Steam-chest_, usually a part of the same casting as the cylinder. -It has a cover called the _steam-chest cover_, which is securely bolted -in place. - -The _steam valve_, usually spoken of simply as the _valve_, serves -to admit the steam alternately to each end of the cylinder in such a -manner that it works the piston back and forth. - -There are many kinds of valves, the simplest (shown in the diagram) -being the D-valve. It slides back and forth on the bottom of the -steam-chest, which is called the _valve seat_, and alternately opens -and closes the two _steam ports_, which are long, narrow passages -through which the steam enters the cylinder, first through one port -to one end, then through the other port to the other end. The exhaust -steam also passes out at these same ports. - -The _exhaust chamber_ in the type of engine now under consideration is -an opening on the lower side of the valve, and is always open into the -_exhaust port_, which connects with the exhaust pipe, which finally -discharges itself through the _exhaust nozzle_ into the smoke stack of -a locomotive or traction engine, or in other types of engines, into the -_condenser_. - -The valve is worked by the _valve stem_, which works through the valve -stem _stuffing-box_. - -Of course the piston does not work quite the full length of the -cylinder, else it would pound against the cylinder heads. - -The _clearance_ is the distance between the cylinder head at either end -and the piston when the piston has reached the limit of its stroke in -that direction. - -In most engines the valve is so set that it opens a trifle just before -the piston reaches the limit of its movement in either direction, thus -letting some steam in before the piston is ready to move back. This -opening, which usually amounts to 1-32 to 3-16 of an inch, is called -the _lead_. The steam thus let in before the piston reaches the limit -of its stroke forms _cushion_, and helps the piston to reverse its -motion without any jar, in an easy and silent manner. Of course the -cushion must be as slight as possible and serve its purpose, else -it will tend to stop the engine, and result in loss of energy. Some -engines have no lead. - -_Setting a valve_ is adjusting it on its seat so that the lead will -be equal at both ends and sufficient for the needs of the engine. By -shortening the movement of the valve back and forth, the lead can be -increased or diminished. This is usually effected by changing the -eccentric or valve gear. - -The _lap_ of a slide valve is the distance it extends over the edges of -the ports when it is at the middle of its travel. - -Lap on the steam side is called outside lap; lap on the exhaust side -is called inside lap. The object of lap is to secure the benefit of -working steam expansively. Having lap, the valve closes one steam port -before the other is opened, and before the piston has reached the end -of its stroke; also of course before the exhaust is opened. Thus for -a short time the steam that has been let into the cylinder to drive -the piston is shut up with neither inlet nor outlet, and it drives the -piston by its own expansive force. When it passes out at the exhaust it -has a considerably reduced pressure, and less of its force is wasted. - -Let us now consider the - - -VALVE GEAR. - -The mechanism by which the valve is opened and closed is somewhat -complicated, as various things are accomplished by it besides simply -opening and closing the valve. If an engine has a _reverse lever_, it -works through the valve gear; and the _governor_ which regulates the -speed of the engine may also operate through the valve gear. It is -therefore very important. - -The simplest valve gear depends for its action on a fixed eccentric. - -An _eccentric_ consists of a central disc called the _sheave_, keyed to -the main shaft at a point to one side of its true center, and a grooved -ring or _strap_ surrounding it and sliding loosely around it. The strap -is usually made of brass or some anti-friction metal. It is in two -parts, which are bolted together so that they can be tightened up as -the strap wears. - -The _eccentric rod_ is either bolted to the strap or forms a single -piece with it, and this rod transmits its motion to the valve. - -It will be seen, therefore, that the eccentric is nothing more than a -sort of disc crank, which, however, does not need to be attached to the -end of a shaft in the manner of an ordinary crank. - -The distance between the center of the eccentric sheave and the -center of the shaft is called the _throw_ of the eccentric or the -_eccentricity_. - -The eccentric usually conveys its force through a connecting rod to the -valve stem, which moves the valve. - -The first modification of the simple eccentric valve gear is - - -THE REVERSING GEAR. - -It is very desirable to control the movement of the steam valve, so -that if desired the engine may be run in the opposite direction; or the -steam force may be brought to bear to stop the engine quickly; or the -travel of the valve regulated so that it will let into the cylinder -only as much steam as is needed to run the engine when the load is -light and the steam pressure in the boiler high. - -There is a great variety of reversing gears; but we will consider one -of the commonest and simplest first. - -[Illustration: HUBER SINGLE ECCENTRIC REVERSE.] - -If the eccentric sheave could be slipped around on the shaft to a -position opposite to that in which it was keyed to shaft in its -ordinary motion, the motion of the valve would be reversed, and it -would let steam in front of the advancing end of the piston, which -would check its movement, and start it in the opposite direction. - -The _link gear_, invented by Stephenson, accomplishes this in a natural -and easy manner. There are two eccentrics placed just opposite to each -other on the crank shaft, their connecting rods terminating in what -is called a _link_, through which motion is communicated to the valve -stem. The link is a curved slide, one eccentric being connected to -one end, the other eccentric to the other end, and the _link-block_, -through which motion is conveyed to the valve, slides freely from one -end to the other. Lower the link so that the block is opposite the end -of the first rod, and the valve will be moved by the corresponding -eccentric; raise the link, so that the block is opposite the end of the -other rod, and the valve will be moved by the other eccentric. In the -middle there would be a dead center, and if the block stopped here, the -valve would not move at all. At any intermediate point, the travel of -the valve would be correspondingly shortened. - -[Illustration: VALVE AND LINK REVERSE.] - -Such is the theoretical effect of a perfect link; but the dead center -is not absolute, and the motion of the link is varied by the point -at which the rod is attached which lifts and lowers it, and also by -the length of this rod. In full gear the block is not allowed to come -quite to the end of the link, and this surplus distance is called the -_clearance_. The _radius_ of a link is the distance from the center of -the driving shaft to the center of the link, and the curve of the link -is that of a circle with that radius. The length of the radius may vary -considerably, but the point of suspension is important. If a link is -suspended by its center, it will certainly cut off steam sooner in the -front stroke than in the back. Usually it is suspended from that point -which is most used in running the engine. - -[Illustration: THE WOOLF REVERSE VALVE GEAR.] - -The _Woolf reversing gear_ employs but one eccentric, to the strap of -which is cast an arm having a block pivoted at its end. This block -slides in a pivoted guide, the angle of which is controlled by the -reverse lever. To the eccentric arm is attached the eccentric rod, -which transmits the motion to the valve rod through a rocker arm on -simple engines and through a slide, as shown in cut, on compound -engines. - -_The Meyer valve gear_ does not actually reverse an engine, but -controls the admission of steam by means of an additional valve -riding on the back of the main valve and controlling the cut-off. -The main valve is like an ordinary D-valve, except that the steam is -not admitted around the ends, but through ports running through the -valve, these ports being partially opened or closed by the motion of -the riding valve, which is controlled by a separate eccentric. If -this riding valve is connected with a governor, it will regulate the -speed of an engine; and by the addition of a link the gear may be made -reversible. The chief objection to it is the excessive friction of the -valves on their seats. - - -GOVERNORS. - -A governor is a mechanism by which the supply of steam to the cylinder -is regulated by revolving balls, or the like, which runs faster or -slower as the speed of the engine increases or diminishes. Thus the -speed of an engine is regulated to varying loads and conditions. - -[Illustration: SECTIONAL VIEW SHOWING VALVE OF WATERS GOVERNOR.] - -The simplest type of governor, and the one commonly used on traction -engines, is that which is only a modification of the one invented by -Watt. Two balls revolve around a spindle in such a way as to rise -when the speed of the engine is high, and fall when it is low, and in -rising and falling they open and close a valve similar to the throttle -valve. The amount that the governor valve is opened or closed by the -rise and fall of the governor balls is usually regulated by a thumb -screw at the top or side, or by what is called a handle nut, which is -usually held firm by a check nut directly over it, which should be -screwed firm against the handle nut. Motion is conveyed to the governor -balls by a belt and a band wheel working on a mechanism of metred cogs. - -There is considerable friction about a governor of this type and much -energy is wasted in keeping it going. The valve stem or spindle passes -through a steam-tight stuffing box, where it is liable to stick if the -packing is too tight; and if this stuffing box leaks steam, there will -be immediate loss of power. - -[Illustration: PICKERING HORIZONTAL GOVERNOR.] - -Such a governor as has just been described is called a throttle valve -governor. On high grade engines the difficulties inherent in this type -of governor are overcome by making the governor control, not a valve in -the steam supply pipe, but the admission of steam to the steam cylinder -through the steam valve and its gear. Such engines are described as -having an "automatic cut-off." Sometimes the governor is attached to -the link, sometimes to a separate valve, as in the Meyer gear already -described. Usually the governor is attached to the fly-wheel, and -consequently governors of this type are called fly-wheel governors. -An automatic cut-off governor is from 15 per cent to 20 per cent more -effective than a throttle valve governor. - - -CRANK, SHAFT AND JOURNALS. - -We have already seen how the piston conveys its power through the -piston rod, the cross-head, and the connecting rod, to the crank pin -and crank, and hence to the shaft. - -_The key, gib, and strap_ are the effective means by which the -connecting rod is attached, first to the wrist pin in the cross-head, -and secondly to the crank pin on the crank. - -The _strap_ is usually made of two or three pieces of wrought iron or -steel bolted together so as to hold the _brasses_, which are in two -parts and loosely surround the pin. The brasses do not quite meet, and -as they wear may be tightened up. This is effected by the _gib_, back -of which is the _key_, which is commonly a wedge which may be driven -in, or a screw, which presses on the back of the gib, which in turn -forces together the brasses; and thus the length of the piston gear is -kept uniform in spite of the wear, becoming neither shorter nor longer. -When the brasses are so worn that they have been forced together, they -must be taken out and filed equally on all four of the meeting ends, -and shims, or thin pieces of sheet iron or the like placed back of them -to equalize the wear, and prevent the piston gear from being shortened -or otherwise altered. - -[Illustration: CONNECTING ROD AND BOXES. - -(A. W. Stevens Co.)] - -The _crank_ is a simple lever attached to the shaft by which the shaft -is rotated. There are two types of crank in common use, the side crank, -which works by what is virtually a bend in the shaft. There is also -what is called the disc crank, a variation of the side crank, in which -the power is applied to the circumference of a disc instead of to the -end of a lever arm. - -The _boss_ of a crank is that part which surrounds the shaft and butts -against the main bearing, and is usually about twice the diameter of -the crank shaft journal. The _web_ of the crank is the portion between -the shaft and the pin. - -To secure noiseless running, the crank pin should be turned with great -exactness, and should be set exactly parallel with the direction of the -shaft. When the pressure on the pin or any bearing is over 800 pounds -per square inch, oil is no longer able to lubricate it properly. Hence -the bearing surface should always be large enough to prevent a greater -pressure than 800 pounds to the square inch. To secure the proper -proportions the crank pin should have a diameter of one-fourth the -bore of the cylinder, and its length should be one-third that of the -cylinder. - -The _shaft_ is made of wrought iron or steel, and must not only be able -to withstand the twisting motion of the crank, but the bending force of -the engine stroke. To prevent bending, the shaft should have a bearing -as near the crank as possible. - -The _journals_ are those portions of the shaft which work in bearings. -The main bearings are also called _pedestals_, _pillow blocks_, and -_journal boxes_. They usually consist of boxes made of brass or some -other anti-friction material carried in iron pedestals. The pillow -blocks are usually adjustable. - - -THE FLY-WHEEL. - -This is a heavy wheel attached to the shaft. Its object is to regulate -the variable action of the piston, and to make the motion uniform even -when the load is variable. By its inertia it stores energy, which would -keep the engine running for some time after the piston ceased to apply -any force or power. - - -LUBRICATORS. - -All bearings must be steadily and effectively lubricated, in order -to remove friction as far as possible, or the working power of the -engine will be greatly reduced. Besides, without complete and effective -lubrication, the bearings will "cut," or wear in irregular grooves, -etc., quickly ruining the engine. - -Bearings are lubricated through automatic lubricator cups, which hold -oil or grease and discharge it uniformly upon the bearing through a -suitable hole. - -[Illustration: THE "DETROIT" ZERO DOUBLE CONNECTION LUBRICATOR. - -DESCRIPTION. - - C 1--Body or Oil Reservoir. - C 3--Filler Plug. - C 4--Water Valve. - C 5--Plug for inserting Sight-Feed Glass. - C 6--Sight-Feed Drain Stem. - C 7--Regulating Valve. - C 8--Drain Valve. - C 9--Steam Valve. - C10--Union Nut. - C11--Tail Piece. - H--Sight-Feed Glass.] - -A sight feed ordinary cup permits the drops of oil to be seen as they -pass downward through a glass tube, and also the engineer may see how -much oil there is in the cup. Such a cup is suitable for all parts -of an engine except the crank pin, cross-head, and, of course, the -cylinder. - -The crank pin oiler is an oil cup so arranged as to force oil into -the bearing only when the engine is working, and more rapidly as the -engine works more rapidly. In one form, which uses liquid oil, the oil -stands below a disc, from which is the opening through the shank to the -bearing. As the engine speeds up, the centrifugal force tends to force -the oil to the top of the cup and so on to the bearing, and the higher -the speed the greater the amount of oil thrown into the crank pin. - -Hard oil or grease has of late been coming into extensive use. It is -placed in a compression cup, at the top of which a disc is pressed down -by a spring, and also by some kind of a screw. From time to time the -screw is tightened up by hand, and the spring automatically forces down -the grease. - -[Illustration: GLASS OIL CUP.] - -[Illustration: SECTIONAL VIEW IDEAL GREASE CUP.] - -_The Cylinder Lubricator_ is constructed on a different principle, -and uses an entirely different kind of oil, called "cylinder oil." A -sight-feed automatic oiler is so arranged that the oil passes through -water drop by drop, so that each drop can be seen behind glass before -it passes into the steam pipe leading from the boiler to the cylinder. -The oil mingles with the steam and passes into the steam chest, and -thence into the cylinder, lubricating the valve and piston. - -The discharge of the oil may not only be watched, but regulated, and -some judgment is necessary to make sure that enough oil is passing into -the cylinder to prevent it from cutting. - -The oil is forced into the steam by the weight of the column of -water, since the steam pressure is the same at both ends. There is a -small cock by which this water of condensation may be drained off when -the engine is shut down in cold weather. Oilers are also injured by -straining from heating caused by the steam acting on cold oil when all -the cocks are closed. There is a relief cock to prevent this strain, -and it should be slightly opened, except when oiler is being filled. - -[Illustration: ACORN OIL PUMP.] - -There are a number of different types of oilers, with their cocks -arranged in different ways; but the manufacturer always gives diagrams -and instructions fully explaining the working of the oiler. Oil pumps -serving the same purpose are now often used. - - -DIFFERENTIAL GEAR. - -The gearing by which the traction wheels of a traction engine are made -to drive the engine is an important item. Of course, it is desirable to -apply the power of the engine to both traction wheels; yet if both hind -wheels were geared stiff, the engine could not turn from a straight -line, since in turning one wheel must move faster than the other. The -differential or compensating gear is a device to leave both wheels free -to move one ahead of the other if occasion requires. The principle is -much the same as in case of a rachet on a geared wheel, if power were -applied to the ratchet to make the wheel turn; if for any reason the -wheel had a tendency of its own to turn faster than the ratchet forced -it, it would be free to do so. When corners are turned the power is -applied to one wheel only, and the other wheel is permitted to move -faster or slower than the wheel to which the gearing applies the power. - -There are several forms of differential gears, differing largely as -to combination of spur or bevel cogs. One of the best known uses four -little beveled pinions, which are placed in the main driving wheel as -shown in the cut. Beveled cogs work into these on either side of the -main wheel. If one traction wheel moves faster than the other these -pinions move around and adjust the gears on either side. - -[Illustration: THE HUBER SPUR COMPENSATING GEAR.] - -[Illustration: AULTMAN & TAYLOR BEVEL COMPENSATING GEAR.] - -[Illustration: DIFFERENTIAL GEAR, SHOWING CUSHION SPRINGS AND BEVEL -PINION.] - - -FRICTION CLUTCH. - -The power of an engine is usually applied to the traction wheel by a -friction clutch working on the inside of the fly-wheel. (See plan of -Frick Engine.) The traction wheels are the two large, broad-rimmed hind -wheels, and are provided with projections to give them a firm footing -on the road. Traction engines are also provided with mud shoes and -wheel cleaning devices for mud and snow. - -[Illustration: THE FRICK COMPANY TRACTION ENGINE. - -Plan view of "Eclipse" Traction Engine, showing arrangement of Patent -Reverse Gear and Friction Clutch for Driving Pinion.] - - -THE FUSIBLE PLUG. - -The fusible plug is a simple screw plug, the center of which is bored -out and subsequently filled with some other metal that will melt at a -lower temperature than steel or iron. This plug is placed in the crown -sheet of a locomotive boiler as a precaution for safety. Should the -crown sheet become free of water when the fire is very hot, the soft -metal in the fusible plug would melt and run out, and the overheated -steam would escape into the firebox, putting out the fire and giving -the boiler relief so that an explosion would be avoided. In some states -a fusible plug is required by law, and one is found in nearly every -boiler which has a crown sheet. Return flue boilers and others which do -not have crown sheets (as for example the vertical) do not have fusible -plugs. To be of value a fusible plug should be renewed or changed once -a month. - - -STUFFING BOXES. - -Any arrangement to make a steam-tight joint about a moving rod, such -as a piston rod or steam valve rod, would be called a stuffing box. -Usually the stuffing box gives free play to a piston rod or valve rod, -without allowing any steam to escape. A stuffing box is also used on -a pump piston sometimes, or a compressed air piston. In all these -cases it consists of an annular space around the moving rod which -can be partly filled by some pliable elastic material such as hemp, -cotton, rubber, or the like; and this filling is held in place and made -tighter or looser by what is called a gland, which is forced into the -partly filled box by screwing up a cap on the outside of the cylinder. -Stuffing boxes must be repacked occasionally, since the packing -material will get hard and dead, and will either leak steam or cut the -rod. - - -CYLINDER COCKS. - -These cocks are for the purpose of drawing the water formed by -condensation of steam out of the cylinder. They should be opened -whenever the engine is stopped or started, and should be left open when -the engine is shut down, especially in cold weather to prevent freezing -of water and consequent damage. Attention to these cocks is very -important. - -These are small cocks arranged about the pump and at other places for -the purpose of testing the inside action. By them it is possible to see -if the pump is working properly, etc. - - -STEAM INDICATOR. - -The steam indicator is an instrument that can be attached to either -end of a steam cylinder, and will indicate the character of the steam -pressure during the entire stroke of the piston. It shows clearly -whether the lead is right, how much cushion there is, etc. It is very -important in studying the economical use and distribution of steam, -expansive force of steam, etc. - - -LIST OF ATTACHMENTS FOR TRACTION ENGINE AND BOILER. - -The following list of brasses, etc., which are packed with the Case -traction engine will be useful for reference in connection with any -similar traction engine and boiler. The young engineer should rapidly -run over every new engine and locate each of these parts, which will be -differently placed on different engines: - - 1 Steam Gauge with siphon. - 1 Safety Valve. - 1 Large Lubricator. - 1 Small Lubricator for Pump. - 1 Glass Water Gauge complete with glass and rods. - 2 Gauge Cocks. - 1 Whistle. - 1 Injector Complete. - 1 Globe Valve for Blow-off. - 1 Compression Grease Cup for Cross Head. - 1 Grease Cup for Crank Pin. - 1 Oiler for Reverse Block. - 1 Glass Oiler for Guides. - 1 Small Oiler for Eccentric Rod. - 1 Cylinder Cock (1 is left in place.) - 2 Stop Cocks to drain Heater. - 1 Stop Cock for Hose Coupling on Pump. - 1 Bibb Nose Cock for Pump. - 1 Pet Cock for Throttle. - 2 Pet Cocks for Steam Cylinder of Pump. - 1 Pet Cock for Water Cylinder of Pump. - 1 Pet Cock for Feed Pipe from Pump. - 1 Pet Cock for Feed Pipe from Injector. - 1 Governor Belt. - 1 Flue Cleaner. - 15 ft. 1 in. Suction Hose. - 5 ft. Sprinkling Hose. - 1 Strainer for Suction Hose. - 1 Strainer for Funnel. - 4 ft. 6 in. of in. Hose for Injector. - 5 ft. 6 in. of in. Hose for Pump. - 2 Nipples 3/4×2-1/2 in. for Hose. - 2 3/4 in. Hose Clamps. - 2 1/2 in. Hose Strainers. - - -TEST QUESTIONS ON BOILER AND ENGINE - -Q. How is the modern stationary fire-flue boiler arranged? - -Q. How does the locomotive type of boiler differ? - -Q. What is a return flue boiler? - -Q. What is a water-tube boiler and how does it differ from a fire-flue -tubular boiler? - -Q. What is a vertical boiler and what are its advantages? - -Q. What is the shell? - -Q. What are the boiler heads? - -Q. What are the tube sheets? - -Q. What is the firebox? - -Q. What is the water leg? - -Q. What is the crown-sheet? - -Q. Where is the smoke-box located? - -Q. What is the steam dome intended for? - -Q. What is the mud-drum for? - -Q. What are man-holes and hand-holes for? - -Q. What is a boiler jacket? - -Q. What is a steam jacket? - -Q. Where is the ash-pit? - -Q. What are dead-plates? - -Q. How is grate surface measured? - -Q. What is forced draft? - -Q. How is heating surface measured? - -Q. What is steam space? - -Q. What is water space? - -Q. What is a diaphragm plate? - -Q. What is the first duty of an engineer in taking charge of a new -boiler? - -Q. What are the water gauge and try cocks for, and how are they placed? - -Q. What is the steam gauge and how may it be tested? - -Q. What is a safety valve? Should it be touched by the engineer? How -may he test it with the steam gauge? - -Q. How is a boiler first filled with water? - -Q. How is it filled when under pressure? - -Q. What is an independent pump? What is a crosshead pump? - -Q. What is a check valve, and what is its use, and where located? - -Q. What is a heater and how does it work? - -Q. What is an injector, and what is the principle of its operation? - -Q. Where are the blow-off cocks located? How should they be used? - -Q. In what cases should spark arrester be used? - -Q. Who invented the steam engine, and when? - -Q. What are the essential parts of a steam engine? - -Q. What is the cylinder, and how is it used? - -Q. What is the piston, and how does it work? The piston-rings? - -Q. What is the piston rod and how must it be fastened? - -Q. What is the crosshead, and how does it move? What are guides or -ways? Shoes? - -Q. What is the connecting rod? Wrist pin? Crank pin? - -Q. What is the crank? Crank shaft? - -Q. Where is the throttle valve located, and what does opening and -closing it do? - -Q. What is the steam chest for, and where is it placed? - -Q. What is a steam valve? Valve seats? Ports? - -Q. What is the exhaust? Exhaust chamber? Exhaust port? Exhaust nozzle? -What is a condenser? - -Q. How is the valve worked, and what duties does it perform, and how? - -Q. What is clearance? - -Q. What is lead? - -Q. What is cushion? - -Q. How would you set a valve? What is lap? - -Q. How is a steam valve moved back and forth in its seat? - -Q. How may an engine be reversed? - -Q. What is a governor, and how does it work? - -Q. What is an eccentric? Eccentric sheave? Strap? Rod? - -Q. What is the throw of an eccentric? - -Q. How does the link reversing gear work? - -Q. How does the Woolf reverse gear work? - -Q. How does the Meyer valve gear work? Will it reverse an engine? - -Q. What are the chief difficulties in the working of a governor? - -Q. What are key, gib, and strap? Brasses? - -Q. What is the boss of a crank? Web? - -Q. How may noiseless running of a crank be secured? - -Q. What are journals? Pedestals? Pillow blocks? Journal boxes? - -Q. What is the object in having a fly wheel? - -Q. What different kinds of lubricators are there? Where may hard oil or -grease be used? Is the oil used for lubricating the cylinder the same -as that used for rest of the engine? - -Q. How does a cylinder lubricator work? - -Q. What is differential gear, and what is it for? - -Q. What is the use of a fusible plug, and how is it arranged? - -Q. What are stuffing-boxes, and how are they constructed? - -Q. What are cylinder cocks, and what are they used for? - -Q. What are pet cocks? - -Q. What is a steam indicator? - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -HOW TO MANAGE A TRACTION ENGINE BOILER. - - -We will suppose that the young engineer fully understands all parts of -the boiler and engine, as explained in the preceding chapters. It is -well to run over the questions several times, to make sure that every -point has been fully covered and is well understood. - -We will suppose that you have an engine in good running order. If you -have a new engine and it starts off nice and easy (the lone engine -without load) with twenty pounds steam pressure in the boiler, you may -make up your mind that you have a good engine to handle and one that -will give but little trouble. But if it requires fifty or sixty pounds -to start it, you want to keep your eyes open, for something is tight. -But don't begin taking the engine to pieces, for you might get more -pieces than you know what to do with. Oil every bearing fully, and -then start your engine and let it run for a while. Then notice whether -you find anything getting warm. If you do, stop and loosen up a very -little and start again. If the heating still continues, loosen again as -before. But remember, loosen but little at a time, for a box or journal -will heat from being too loose as quickly as from being too tight, -and if you have found a warm box, don't let that box take all your -attention, but keep your eye on the other bearings. - -In the case of a new engine, the cylinder rings may be a little tight, -and so more steam pressure will be required to start the engine; but -this is no fault, for in a day or two they will be working all right if -kept well oiled. - -In starting a new engine trouble sometimes comes from the presence of a -coal cinder in some of the boxes, which has worked in during shipment. -Before starting a new engine, the boxes and oil holes should therefore -be thoroughly cleaned out. For this purpose the engineer should always -have some cotton waste or an oiled rag ready for constant use. - -A new engine should be run slowly and carefully until it is found to be -in perfect running order. - -If you are beginning on an old engine in good running order, the above -instructions will not be needed; but it is well to take note of them. - -Now if your engine is all right, you may run the pressure up to the -point of blowing off, which is 100 to 130 pounds, at which most safety -valves are set at the factory. It is not uncommon for a new pop to -stick, and as the steam runs up it is well to try it by pulling the -relief lever. If on letting it go it stops the escaping steam at once, -it is all right. If, however, the steam continues to escape the valve -sticks in the chamber. Usually a slight tap with a wrench or hammer -will stop it at once; but don't get excited if the steam continues to -escape. As long as you have plenty of water in the boiler, and know -that you have it, you are all right. - - -STARTING UP A BOILER. - -Almost the only danger from explosion of a boiler is from not having -sufficient water in the boiler. The boiler is filled in the first -place, as has already been explained, by hand through a funnel at the -filler plug, or by a force pump. The water should stand an inch and -a half in the glass of the water gauge before the fire is started. -It should be heated up slowly so as not to strain the boiler or -connections. When the steam pressure as shown by the steam gauge is ten -or fifteen pounds, the blower may be used to increase the draft. - -If you let the water get above the top of the glass, you are liable -to knock out a cylinder head; and if you let the water get below the -bottom of the glass, you are likely to explode your boiler. - -The glass gauge is not to be depended upon, however, for a number -of things may happen to interfere with its working. Some one may -inadvertently turn off the gauge cocks, and though the water stands at -the proper height in the glass, the water in the boiler will be very -different. - -A properly made boiler is supplied with two to four try-cocks, one -below the proper water line, and one above it. If there are more than -two they will be distributed at suitable points between. - -When the boiler is under pressure, turn on the lower try-cock and you -should get water. You will know it because it will appear as white -mist. Then try the upper try-cock, and you will get steam, which will -appear blue. - -NEVER FAIL TO USE THE TRY-COCKS FREQUENTLY. This is necessary not only -because you never know when the glass is deceiving you; but if you fail -to use them they will get stopped up with lime or mud, and when you -need to use them they will not work. - -In order also to keep the water gauge in proper condition, it should -be frequently blown out in the following manner: Shut off the top -gauge cock and open the drain cock at the bottom of the gauge. This -allows the water and steam to blow through the lower cock of the water -gauge, and you know that it is open. Any lime or mud that has begun -to accumulate will also be carried off. After allowing the steam to -escape a few seconds, shut off the lower gauge cock, and open the upper -one, and allow it to blow off about the same time. Then shut the drain -cock and open both gauge cocks, when you will see the water seek its -level, and you can feel assured that it is reliable and in good working -condition. This little operation you should perform every day you run -your engine. If you do you will not _think_ you have sufficient water -in the boiler, but will _know_. The engineer who always _knows_ he has -water in the boiler will not be likely to have an explosion. Especially -should you never start your fire in the morning simply because you see -water in the gauge. You should _know_ that there is water in the boiler. - -Now if your pump and boiler are in good working condition, and you -leave the globe valve in the supply pipe to the pump open, with the -hose in the tank, you will probably come to your engine in the morning -and find the boiler nearly full of water, and you will think some one -has been tampering with the engine. The truth is, however, that as -the steam condensed, a vacuum was formed, and the water flowed in on -account of atmospheric pressure, just as it flows into a suction pump -when the plunger rises and creates a vacuum in the pump. Check valves -are arranged to prevent anything passing out of the boiler, but there -is nothing to prevent water passing in. - -The only other cause of an explosion, beside poor material in the -manufacture of the boiler, is too high steam pressure, due to a -defective safety valve or imperfect steam gauge. The steam gauge is -likely to get out of order in a number of ways, and so is the safety -valve. To make sure that both are all right, the one should frequently -be tested by the other. The lever of the safety valve should frequently -be tried from time to time, to make sure the valve opens and closes -easily, and whenever the safety valve blows off, the steam gauge should -be noted to see if it indicates the pressure at which the safety has -been set. - - -WHEN YOUR ENGINE IS ALL RIGHT, LET IT ALONE. - -Some engineers are always loosening a nut here, tightening up a box -there, adjusting this, altering that. When an engine is all right -they keep at it till it is all wrong. As a result they are in trouble -most of the time. When an engine is running all right, LET IT ALONE. -Don't think you are not earning your salary because you are merely -sitting still and looking on. If you must be at work, keep at it with -an oily rag, cleaning and polishing up. That is the way to find out if -anything is really the matter. As the practised hand of the skilled -engineer goes over an engine, his ears wide open for any peculiarity of -sound, anything that is not as it should be will make itself decidedly -apparent. On the other hand, an engineer who does not keep his engine -clean and bright by constantly passing his hand over it with an oily -rag, is certain to overlook something, which perhaps in the end will -cost the owner a good many dollars to put right. - -Says an old engineer[3] we know, "When I see an engineer watching -his engine closely while running, I am most certain to see another -commendable feature in a good engineer, and that is, when he stops his -engine he will pick up a greasy rag and go over his engine carefully, -wiping every working part, watching or looking carefully at every point -that he touches. If a nut is working loose, he finds it; if a bearing -is hot, he finds it; if any part of his engine has been cutting, -he finds it. He picks up a greasy rag instead of a wrench, for the -engineer that understands his business and attends to it never picks up -a wrench unless he has something to do with it." - - Footnote 3: J. H. Maggard, author of "Rough and Tumble Engineering," - to whom we are indebted for a number of valuable suggestions in - this chapter. - -This same engineer goes on with some more most excellent advice. Says -he: - -"Now, if your engine runs irregularly, that is, if it runs up to a -higher speed than you want, and then runs down, you are likely to say -at once, 'Oh, I know what the trouble is, it is the governor.' Well, -suppose it is. What are you going to do about it? Are you going to -shut down at once and go to tinkering with it? No, don't do that. Stay -close to the throttle valve and watch the governor closely. Keep your -eye on the governor stem, and when the engine starts off on one of its -speed tilts, you will see the stem go down through the stuffing box -and then stop and stick in one place until the engine slows down below -its regular speed, and it then lets loose and goes up quickly and your -engine lopes off again. You have now located the trouble. It is in the -stuffing box around the little brass rod or governor stem. The packing -has become dry and by loosening it up and applying oil you may remedy -the trouble until such time as you can repack it with fresh packing. -Candle wick is as good for this purpose as anything you can use. - -"But if the governor does not act as I have described, and the stem -seems to be perfectly free and easy in the box, and the governor still -acts queerly, starting off and running fast for a few seconds and then -suddenly concluding to take it easy and away goes the engine again, -see if the governor belt is all right, and if it is it would be well -for you to stop and see if a wheel is not loose. It might be either -the little belt wheel or one of the little cog wheels. If you find -these are all right, examine the spool on the crank shaft from which -the governor is run, and you will probably find it loose. If the -engine has been run for any length of time, you will always find the -trouble in one of these places; but if it is a new one, the governor -valve might work a little tight in the valve chamber, and you may have -to take it out and use a little emery paper to take off the rough -projections on the valve. Never use a file on this valve if you can get -emery paper, and I should advise you always to have some of it with -you. It will often come handy." - -This is good advice in regard to any trouble you may have with an -engine. Watch the affected part closely; think the matter over -carefully, and see if you cannot locate the difficulty before you even -stop your engine. If you find the trouble and know that you have found -it, you will soon be able to correct the defect, and no time will be -lost. At the same time you will not ruin your engine by trying all -sorts of remedies at random in the thought that you may ultimately -hit the right thing. The chances are that before you do hit the right -point, you will have put half a dozen other matters wrong, and it will -take half a day to get the matter right again. - -As there are many different types of governors in use, it would be -impossible to give exact directions for regulating that would apply to -them all; but the following suggestions applying to the Waters governor -(one widely used on threshing engines) will give a general idea of the -method for all: - -There are two little brass nuts on the top of the stem of the governor, -one a thumb nut and the other a loose jam nut. To increase the speed, -loosen the jam nut and then turn the thumb nut back slowly, watching -the motion of the engine all the time. When the required speed has -been obtained, then tighten up as snug as you can with your fingers -(not using a wrench). To decrease the speed, loosen the jam nut as -before, running it up a few turns, and then turn down the thumb nut -till the speed meets your requirements, when the thumb nut is made fast -as before. In any case, be very careful not to press down on the stem -when turning the thumb nut, as this will make the engine run a little -slower than will be the case when your hand has been removed. - -If your engine does not start with an open throttle, look to see if -the governor stem has not been screwed down tight. This is usually -the case with a new engine, which has been screwed down for safety in -transportation. - - -WATER FOR THE BOILER. - -There is nothing that needs such constant watching and is likely to -cause so much trouble if it is not cared for, as the supply of water. -Hard well water will coat the inside of the boiler with lime and soon -reduce its steaming power in a serious degree, to say nothing of -stopping up pipes, cocks, etc. At the same time, rain water that is -perfectly pure (theoretically) will be found to have a little acid -or alkali in it that will eat through the iron or steel and do equal -damage. - -However, an engineer must use what water he can. He cannot have it -made to order for him, but he must take it from well, from brook, or -cistern, or roadside ditch, as circumstances may require. The problem -for the engineer is not to get the best water, but to make the best use -of whatever water he can get, always, of course, choosing the best and -purest when there is such a thing as choosing. - -In the first place, all supply pipes in water that is muddy or likely -to have sticks, leaves, or the like in it, should be furnished with -strainers. If sticks or leaves get into the valve, the expense in time -and worry to get them out will be ten times the cost of a strainer. - -If the water is rain water, and the boiler is a new one, it would be -well to put in a little lime to give the iron a slight coating that -will protect it from any acid or alkali corrosion. - -If the water is hard, some compound or sal ammonia should be used. -No specific directions can be given, since water is made hard by -having different substances dissolved in it, and the right compound or -chemical is that which is adapted to the particular substance you are -to counteract. An old engineer says his advice is to use no compound -at all, but to put a hatful of potatoes in the boiler every morning. - -Occasionally using rain water for a day or two previous to cleaning is -one of the best things in the world to remove and throw down all scale. -It beats compounds at every point. It is nature's remedy for the bad -effects of hard water. - -The important thing, however, is to clean the boiler thoroughly and -often. In no case should the lime be allowed to bake on the iron. If it -gets thick, the iron or steel is sure to burn, and the lime to bake so -hard it will be almost impossible to get it off. But if the boiler is -cleaned often, such a thing will not happen. - -Mud or sediment can be blown off by opening the valve from the mud drum -or the firebox at the bottom of the boiler when the pressure is not -over 15 or 20 pounds; and at this pressure much of the lime distributed -about the boiler may be blown off. But this is not enough. The inside -of the boiler should be scraped and thoroughly washed out with a hose -and force-pump just as often as the condition of the water requires it. - -In cleaning the boiler, always be careful to scrape all the lime off -the top of the fusible plug. - - -THE PUMP. - -In order to manage the pump successfully, the young engineer must -understand thoroughly its construction as already described. It is -also necessary to understand something of the theory of atmospheric -pressure, lifting power, and forcing power. - -First see that the cocks or globe valves (whichever are used) are -open both between the boiler and the pump and between the pump and -the water supply. The globe valve next the boiler should _never_ be -closed, except when examining the boiler check valve. Then open the -little pet cock between the two upper horizontal check valves. Be sure -that the check valves are in good order, so that water can pass only -in one direction. A clear, sharp click of the check valves is certain -evidence that the pump is working well. If you cannot hear the click, -take a stick or pencil between your teeth at one end, put the other -end on the valve, stuff your fingers in your ears, and you will hear -the movement of the valve as plainly as if it were a sledge-hammer. - -The small drain cock between the horizontal check valves is used to -drain hot water out of the pump in starting, for a pump will never work -well with hot water in it; and to drain off all water in closing down -in cold weather, to prevent damage from freezing. It also assists in -testing the working of the pump. In starting up it may be left open. If -water flows from the drain cock, we know the pump is working all right, -and then close the drain cock. If you are at any time in doubt as to -whether water is going into the boiler properly, you may open this -drain cock and see if cold water flows freely. If it does, everything -is working as it should. If hot water appears, you may know something -is wrong. Also, to test the pump, place your hand on the two check -valves, and if they are cold, the pump is all right; if they are hot, -something is wrong, since the heat must come from the boiler, and no -hot water or steam should ever be allowed to pass from the boiler back -to the pump. - -A stop cock next the boiler is decidedly preferable to a globe valve, -since you can tell if it is open by simply looking at it; whereas you -must put your hand on a globe valve and turn it. Trouble often arises -through inadvertently closing the valve or cock next the boiler, in -which case, of course, no water can pass into the boiler, and the pump -is likely to be ruined, since the water must get out somewhere. Some -part of the pump would be sure to burst if worked against a closed -boiler cock or valve. - -Should the pump suddenly cease to work or stop, first see if you have -any water in the tank. If there is water, stoppage may be due to air in -the pump chamber, which can get in only through the stuffing-box. If -this is true, tighten up the pump plunger stuffing-box nut a little. If -now the pump starts off well, you have found the difficulty; but at the -first opportunity you ought to repack the stuffing-box. - -If the stuffing-box is all right, examine the supply suction hose. See -that nothing is clogging the strainer, and ascertain whether the water -is sucked in or not. If it is sucked in and then is forced out again -(which you can ascertain by holding your hand lightly over the suction -pipe), you may know something is the matter with the first check valve. -Probably a stick or stone has gotten into it and prevents it from -shutting down. - -If there is no suction, examine the second check valve. If there is -something under it that prevents its closing, the water will flow back -into the pump chamber again as soon as the plunger is drawn back. - -You can always tell whether the trouble is in the second check or in -the hot water check valve by opening the little drain cock. If hot -water flows from it, you may know that the hot water check valve is -out of order; if only cold water flows, you may be pretty sure the hot -water check is all right. If there is any reason to suspect the hot -water check valve, close the stop cock or valve next the boiler before -you touch the check in any way. To tamper with the hot water check -while the steam pressure is upon it would be highly dangerous, for you -are liable to get badly burned with escaping steam or hot water. At the -same time, be very sure the stop cock or valve next the boiler is open -again before you start the pump. - -Another reason for check valves refusing to work besides having -something under them, is that the valve may stick in the valve chamber -because of a rough place in the chamber, or a little projection on -the valve. Light tapping with a wrench may remedy the matter. If that -does not work, try the following plan suggested by an old engineer[4]: -"Take the valve out, bore a hole in a board about one-half inch deep, -and large enough to permit the valve to be turned. Drop a little emery -dust in this hole. If you haven't any emery dust, scrape some grit from -a whetstone. If you have no whetstone, put some fine sand or gritty -soil in the hole, put the valve on top of it, put your brace on the -valve and turn it vigorously for a few minutes, and you will remove all -roughness." - - Footnote 4: J. H. Maggard. - -Sometimes the burr on the valve comes from long use; but the above -treatment will make it as good as new. - - -INJECTORS. - -All injectors are greatly affected by conditions, such as the lift, the -steam pressure, the temperature of the water, etc. An injector will -not use hot water well, if at all. As the lift is greater, the steam -pressure required to start is greater, and at the same time the highest -steam pressure under which the injector will work at all is greatly -decreased. The same applies to the lifting of warm water: the higher -the temperature, the greater the steam pressure required to start, and -the less the steam pressure which can be used as a maximum. - -It is important for the sake of economy to use the right sized -injector. Before buying a new injector, find out first how much water -you need for your boiler, and then buy an injector of about the -capacity required, though of course an injector must always have a -maximum capacity in excess of what will be required. - -If the feed water is cold, a good injector ought to start with 25 -pounds steam pressure and work up to 150 pounds for a 2-foot lift. If -the lift is eight feet, it will start at 30 pounds and work up to 130. -If the water is heated to 100 degrees Fahrenheit it will start for a -2-foot lift with 26 pounds and work up to 120 pounds, or for an 8-foot -lift, it will start with 33 pounds and work up to 100. These figures -apply to the single tube injector. The double tube injector should work -from 14 pounds to 250, and from 15 to 210 under same conditions as -above. The double tube injector is not commonly used on farm engines, -however. - -Care should be taken that the injector is not so near the boiler as to -become heated, else it will not work. If it gets too hot, it must be -cooled by pouring cold water on the outside, first having covered it -with a cloth to hold the water. If the injector is cool, and the steam -pressure and lift are all right, and still the injector does not work, -you may be sure there is some obstruction somewhere. Shut off the steam -from the boiler, and run a fine wire down through the cone valve or -cylinder valve, after having removed the cap or plug nut. - -Starting an injector always requires some skill, and injectors differ. -Some start by manipulating the steam valve; some require that the steam -be turned on first, and then the water turned on in just the right -amount, usually with a quick short twist of the supply valve. Often -some patience is required to get just the right turn on it so that it -will start. - -Of course you must be sure that all joints are air-tight, else the -injector will not work under any conditions. - -Never use an injector where a pump can be used, as the injector is much -more wasteful of steam. It is for an emergency or to throw water in a -boiler when engine is not running. - -No lubricator is needed on an injector. - - -THE HEATER. - -The construction of the heater has already been explained. It has two -check valves, one on the side of the pump and one on the side of the -boiler, both opening toward the boiler. The exhaust steam is usually at -a temperature of 215 to 220 degrees when it enters the heater chamber, -and heats the water nearly or quite to boiling point as it passes -through. The injector heats the water almost as hot. - -The heater requires little attention, and the check valves seldom get -out of order. - -The pump is to be used when the engine is running, and the injector -when the engine is closed down. The pump is the more economical; but -when the engine is not working the exhaust steam is not sufficient to -heat the water in the heater; and pumping cold water into the boiler -will quickly bring down the pressure and injure the boiler. - - -ECONOMICAL FIRING. - -The management of the fire is one of the most important things in -running a steam engine. On it depend two things of the greatest -consequence--success in getting up steam quickly and keeping it at -a steady pressure under all conditions; and economy in the use of -fuel. An engineer who understands firing in the most economical way -will probably save his wages to his employer over the engineer who is -indifferent or unscientific about it. Therefore the young engineer -should give the subject great attention. - -First, let us consider firing with coal. All expert engineers advise -a "thin" fire. This means that you should have a thin bed of coals, -say about four inches thick, all over the grate. There should be no -holes or dead places in this, for if there are any, cold air will -short-circuit into the fire flues and cool off the boiler. - -The best way of firing is to spread the coal on with a small hand -shovel, a very little at a time, scattering it well over the fire. -Another way, recommended by some, is to have a small pile of fresh fuel -at the front of the grate, pushing it back over the grate when it is -well lighted. To manage this well will require some practice and skill, -and for a beginner, we recommend scattering small shovelsful all over -the fire. All lump coal should be broken to a uniform size. No piece -larger than a man's fist should be put in a firebox. - -Seldom use the poker above the fire, for nothing has such a tendency -to put out a coal fire as stirring it with a poker above. And when -there is a good glow all over the grate below, the poker is not needed -below. When the grate becomes covered with dead ashes, they should be -cautiously but fully removed, and clinkers must be lifted out with the -poker from above, care being exercised to cover up the holes with live -coals. - -Hard coal if used should be dampened before being put on the fire. - -When the fire is burning a little too briskly, close the draft but do -not tamper with the fire itself. Should it become important on a sudden -emergency to check the fire at any time quickly, never dash water upon -it, but rather throw plenty of fresh fuel upon it. Fresh fuel always -lowers the heat at first. If all drafts are closed tight, it will lower -the heat considerably for quite a time. - -In checking a fire, it must be remembered that very sudden cooling -will almost surely crack the boiler. If there is danger of an explosion -it may be necessary to draw the fire out entirely; but under no -circumstances should cold water be thrown on. After drawing the fire -close all doors and dampers. - - -FIRING WITH WOOD. - -Always keep the fire door shut as much as possible, as cold air thus -admitted will check the fire and ruin the boiler. - -Firing with wood is in many ways the exact reverse of firing with coal. -The firebox should be filled full of wood at all times. The wood should -be thrown in in every direction, in pieces of moderate size, and as it -burns away, fresh pieces should be put in at the front so that they -will get lighted and ready to burn before being pushed back near the -boiler. It often helps a wood fire, too, to stir it with a poker. Wood -makes much less ash than coal, and what little accumulates in the grate -will not do much harm. Sometimes green wood will not burn because it -gets too much cold air. In that case the sticks should be packed as -close together as possible, still leaving a place for the air to pass. -Also a wood fire, especially one with green wood, should be kept up to -a high temperature all the time; for if it is allowed to drop down the -wood will suddenly cease to burn at all. - - -FIRING WITH STRAW. - -In firing with straw it is important to keep the shute full of straw -all the time so that no cold air can get in on top of the fire. Don't -push the straw in too fast, either, but keep it moving at a uniform -rate, with small forkfulls. Now and then it is well to turn the fork -over and run it down into the fire to keep the fire level. Ashes may -be allowed to fill up in rear of ash box, but fifteen inches should be -kept clear in front to provide draft. The brick arch may be watched -from the side opening in the firebox, and should show a continuous -stream of white flame coming over it. If too much straw is forced in, -that will check the flame. The flame should never be checked. If damp -straw gets against the ends of the flues, it should be scraped off with -the poker from side door. Clean the tubes well once a day. The draft -must always be kept strong enough to produce a white heat, and if this -cannot be done otherwise, a smaller nozzle may be used on the exhaust -pipe; but this should be avoided when possible, since it causes back -pressure on the engine. Never let the front end of the boiler stand -on low ground. Engine should be level, or front end high, if it has a -firebox locomotive boiler; if a return flue boiler, be careful to keep -it always level. In burning straw take particular notice that the spark -screen in stack does not get filled up. - - -THE ASH PIT. - -In burning coal it is exceedingly important that the ashes be kept -cleaned out, as the hot cinders falling down on the heap of ashes -almost as high as the grate will overheat the grate in a very short -time and warp it all out of shape, so ruining it. - -With wood and straw, on the contrary, an accumulation of ashes will -often help and will seldom do any harm, because no very hot cinders can -drop down below the grates, and the hottest part of the fire is some -distance above the grates. - - -STARTING A FIRE. - -You must make up your mind that it will take half an hour to an hour -or so to get up steam in any boiler that is perfectly cold. The metal -expands and shrinks a great deal with the heat and cold, and a sudden -application of heat would ruin a boiler in a short time. Hence it is -necessary for reasons of engine economy to make changes of temperature, -either cooling off or heating up, gradually. - -First see that there is water in the boiler. - -Start a brisk fire with pine kindlings, gradually putting on coal or -wood, as the case may be, and spreading the fire over the grate so that -all parts will be covered with glowing coals. - -When you have 15 or 20 pounds of steam, start the blower. As has -already been described, the blower is a pipe with a nozzle leading from -the steam space of the boiler to the smoke stack, and fitted with a -globe valve. The force of the steam drives the air out of the stack, -causing a vacuum, which is immediately filled by the hot gases from -the firebox coming through the boiler tubes. Little is to be gained by -using the blower with less than 15 pounds of steam, as the blower has -so little strength below that, that it draws off about as much steam as -is made and nothing is gained. - -The blower is seldom needed when the engine is working, as the exhaust -steam should be sufficient to keep the fire going briskly. If it is -not, you should conclude that something is the matter. There are times, -however, when the blower is required even when the engine is going. -For example, if you are working with very light load and small use of -steam, the exhaust may be insufficient to keep up the fire; and this -will be especially true if the fuel is very poor. In such a case, turn -on the blower very slightly. But remember that you are wasting steam if -you can get along without the blower. - -Examine the nozzle of the blower now and then to see that it does not -become limed up, or turned so as to direct the steam to one side of the -stack, where its force would be wasted. - -Beware, also, of creating too much draft; for too much draft will use -up fuel and make little steam. - - -SMOKE. - -Coal smoke is nothing more or less than unburned carbon. The more smoke -you get, the less will be the heat from a given amount of fuel. Great -clouds of black smoke from an engine all the time are a very bad sign -in an engineer. They show that he does not know how to fire. He has not -followed the directions already given, to have a thin, hot fire, with -few ashes under his grate. Instead, he throws on great shovelsful of -coal at a time, and has the coal up to the firebox door. His fuel is -always making smoke, which soon clogs up the smoke flues and lessens -the amount of steam he is getting. If he had kept his fire very -"thin," but very hot, throwing on a small hand shovel of coal at a -time, seldom poking his fire except to lift out clinkers or clean away -dead ashes under the grate, and keeping his ashpit free from ashes, -there would be only a little puff of black smoke when the fresh coal -went on, and then the smoke would quickly disappear, while the fire -flues would burn clean and not get clogged up with soot. - -It is important, however, to keep the small fire flues especially -well cleaned out with a good flue cleaner; for all accumulation of -soot prevents the heat from passing through the steel, and so reduces -the heating capacity of the boiler. Cleaning the tubes with a steam -blower is never advisable, as it forms a paste on the tube that greatly -impairs its commodity. - - -SPARKS. - -With coal there is little danger of fires caused by sparks from the -engine. What sparks there are are heavy and dead, and will even fall -on a pile of straw without setting it on fire. On a very windy day, -however, when you are running your engine very hard, especially if it -is of the direct locomotive boiler type, you want to be careful even -with coal. - -With wood it is very different; and likewise with straw. Wood and straw -sparks are always dangerous, and an engine should never be run for -threshing with wood or straw without using a spark-arrester. - -It sometimes happens that when coal is used it will give out, and you -will be asked to finish your job with wood. In such a case, it is the -duty of an engineer to state fully and frankly the danger of firing -with wood without a spark arrester, and he should go on only when -ordered to do so by the proprietor, after he has been fully warned. In -that case all responsibility is shifted from the engineer to the owner. - - -THE FUSIBLE PLUG. - -The careful engineer will never have occasion to do anything to the -fusible plug except to clean the scale off from the top of it on the -inside of the boiler once a week, and put in a fresh plug once a month. -It is put in merely as a precaution to provide for carelessness. The -engineer who allows the fusible plug to melt out is by that very fact -marked as a careless man, and ought to find it so much the harder to -get a job. - -As has already been explained, the fusible plug is a plug filled in -the middle with some metal that will melt at a comparatively low -temperature. So long as it is covered with water, no amount of heat -will melt it, since the water conducts the heat away from the metal -and never allows it to rise above a certain temperature. When the plug -is no longer covered with water, however,--in short, when the water -has fallen below the danger line in the boiler--the metal in the plug -will fuse, or melt, and make an opening through which the steam will -blow into the firebox and put out the fire. However, if the top of the -fusible plug has been allowed to become thickly coated with scale, this -safety precaution may not work and the boiler may explode. In any case -the fusible plug is not to be depended on. - -At the same time a good engineer will take every precaution, and one of -these is to keep the top of the plug well cleaned. Also he will have -an extra plug all ready and filled with composition metal, to put in -should the plug in the boiler melt out. Then he will refill the old -plug as soon as possible. This may be done by putting a little moist -clay in one end to prevent the hot metal from running through, and then -pouring into the other end of the plug as much melted metal as it will -hold. When cold, tamp down solidly. - - -LEAKY FLUES. - -One common cause of leaky flues is leaving the fire door open so that -currents of cold air will rush in on the heated flues and cause them, -or some other parts of the boiler, to contract too suddenly. The -best boiler made may be ruined in time by allowing cold currents of -air to strike the heated interior. Once or twice will not do it; but -continually leaving the fire door open will certainly work mischief in -the end. - -Of course, if flues in a new boiler leak, it is the fault of the boiler -maker. The tubes were not large enough to fill the holes in the tube -sheets properly. But if a boiler runs for a season or so and then the -flues begin to leak, the chances are that it is due to the carelessness -of the engineer. It may be he has been making his fires too hot; it may -be leaving the firebox door open; it may be running the boiler at too -high pressure; it may be blowing out the boiler when it is too hot; or -blowing out the boiler when there is still some fire in the firebox; it -may be due to lime encrusted on the inside of the tube sheets, causing -them to overheat. Flues may also be made to leak by pumping cold water -into the boiler when the water inside is too low; or pouring cold water -into a hot boiler will do it. Some engineers blow out their boilers to -clean them, and then being in a hurry to get to work, refill them while -the metal is hot. The flues cannot stand this, since they are thinner -than the shell of the boiler and cool much more quickly; hence they -will contract much faster than the rest of the boiler and something has -to come loose. - -Once a flue starts to leaking, it is not likely to stop till it has -been repaired; and one leaky flue will make others leak. - -Now what shall you do with a leaky flue? - -To repair a leaky flue you should have a flue expander and a calking -tool, with a light hammer. If you are small enough you will creep in -at the firebox door with a candle in your hand. First, clean off the -ends of the flues and flue sheet with some cotton waste. Then force the -expander into the leaky flue, bringing the shoulder well up against -the end of the flue. Then drive in the tapering pin. Be very careful -not to drive it in too far, for if you expand the flue too much, you -will strain the flue sheet and cause other flues to leak. You must use -your judgment and proceed cautiously. It is better to make two or three -trials than to spoil your boiler by bad work. The roller expander is -preferable to the Prosser in the hands of a novice. The tube should be -expanded only enough to stop the leak. Farther expanding will only do -injury. - -When you think the flue has been expanded enough, hit the pin a side -blow to loosen it. Then turn the expander a quarter round, and drive in -the pin again. Loosen up and continue till you have turned the expander -entirely around. - -Finally remove the expander, and use the calking tool to bead the end. -It is best, however, to expand all leaky flues before doing any beading. - -The beading is done by placing the guide or gauge inside the flue, -and then pounding the ends of the flue down against the flue sheet by -light blows. Be very careful not to bruise the flue sheet or flues, and -use no heavy blows, nor even a heavy hammer. Go slowly and carefully -around the end of each flue; and if you have done your work thoroughly -and carefully the flues will be all right. But you should test your -boiler before steaming up, to make sure that all the leaks are stopped, -especially if there have been bad ones. - -There are various ways to testing a boiler. If waterworks are handy, -connect the boiler with a hydrant and after filling the boiler, let it -receive the hydrant pressure. Then examine the calked flues carefully, -and if you see any seeping of water, use your beader lightly till the -water stops. In case no waterworks with good pressure are at hand, you -can use a hydraulic pump or a good force pump. - -The amount of pressure required in testing a boiler should be that at -which the safety valve is set to blow off, say 110 to 130 lbs. This -will be sufficient. - -If you are in the field with no hydrant or force pump handy, you may -test your boiler in this way: Take off the safety valve and fill the -boiler full of water through the safety valve opening. Then screw the -safety back in its place. You should be sure that every bit of space in -the boiler is filled entirely full of water, with all openings tightly -closed. Then get back in the boiler and have a bundle of straw burned -under the firebox, or under the waist of the boiler, so that at some -point the water will be slightly heated. This will cause pressure. If -your safety valve is in perfect order, you will know as soon as water -begins to escape at the safety valve whether your flues are calked -tight enough or not. - -The water is heated only a few degrees, and the pressure is cold water -pressure. In very cold weather this method cannot be used, however, as -water has no expansive force within five degrees of freezing. - -The above methods are not intended for testing the safety of a boiler, -but only for testing for leaky flues. If you wish to have your boiler -tested, it is better to get an expert to do it. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -HOW TO MANAGE A TRACTION ENGINE. - - -A traction engine is usually the simplest kind of an engine made. If -it were not, it would require a highly expert engineer to run it, -and this would be too costly for a farmer or thresherman contractor. -Therefore the builders of traction engines make them of the fewest -possible parts, and in the most durable and simple style. Still, even -the simplest engine requires a certain amount of brains to manage it -properly, especially if you are to get the maximum of work out of it at -the lowest cost. - -If the engine is in perfect order, about all you have to do is to see -that all bearings are properly lubricated, and that the automatic oiler -is in good working condition. But as soon as an engine has been used -for a certain time, there will be wear, which will appear first in the -journals, boxes and valve, and it is the first duty of a good engineer -to adjust these. To adjust them accurately requires skill; and it is -the possession of that skill that goes to make a real engineer. - -Your first attention will probably be required for the cross-head and -crank boxes or brasses. The crank box and pin will probably wear first; -but both the cross-head and crank boxes are so nearly alike that what -is said of one will apply to the other. - -You will find the wrist box in two parts. In a new engine these parts -do not quite meet. There is perhaps an eighth of an inch waste space -between them. They are brought up to the box in most farm engines by a -wedge-shaped key. This should be driven down a little at a time as the -boxes wear, so as to keep them snug up to the pin, though not too tight. - -You continue to drive in the key and tighten up the boxes as they wear -until the two halves come tight together. Then you can no longer -accomplish anything in this way. - -When the brasses have worn so that they can be forced no closer -together, they must be taken off and the ends of them filed where they -come together. File off a sixteenth of an inch from each end. Do it -with care, and be sure you get the ends perfectly even. When you have -done this you will have another eighth of an inch to allow for wear. - -Now, by reflection you will see that as the wrist box wears, and the -wedge-shaped key is driven in, the pitman (or piston arm) is lengthened -to the amount that the half of the box farthest from the piston has -worn away. When the brasses meet, this will amount to one-sixteenth of -an inch. - -Now if you file the ends off and the boxes wear so as to come together -once more, the pitman will have been shortened one-eighth of an inch; -and pretty soon the clearance of the piston in the cylinder will -have been offset, and the engine will begin to pound. In any case, -the clearance at one end of the cylinder will be one-sixteenth or -one-eighth of an inch less, and in the other end one-sixteenth or -one-eighth of an inch more. When this is the case you will find that -the engine is not working well. - -To correct this, when you file the brasses either of the cross-head -box or the crank box you must put in some filling back of the brass -farthest from the piston, sufficient to equalize the wear that has -taken place, that is, one-sixteenth of an inch each time you have -to file off a sixteenth of an inch. This filling may be some flat -pieces of tin or sheet copper, commonly called shims, and the process -is called shimming. As to the front half of the box, no shims are -required, since the tapering key brings that box up to its proper place. - -Great care must be exercised when driving in the tapering key or wedge -to tighten up the boxes, not to drive it in too hard. Many engineers -think this is a sure remedy for "knocking" in an engine, and every time -they hear a knock they drive in the crank box key. Often the knock is -from some other source, such as from a loose fly wheel, or the like. -Your ear is likely to deceive you; for a knock from any part of an -engine is likely to sound as if it came from the crank box. If you -insist on driving in the key too hard and too often, you will ruin your -engine. - -In tightening up a key, first loosen the set screw that holds the key; -then drive down the key till you think it is tight; then drive it back -again, and this time force it down with your fist as far as you can. By -using your fist in this way after you have once driven the pin in tight -and loosened it again you may be pretty certain you are not going to -get it so tight it will cause the box to heat. - - -WHAT CAUSES AN ENGINE TO KNOCK. - -The most common sign that something is loose about an engine is -"knocking," as it is called. If any box wears a little loose, or any -wheel or the like gets a trifle loose, the engine will begin to knock. - -When an engine begins to knock or run hard, it is the duty of the -engineer to locate the knock definitely. He must not guess at it. When -he has studied the problem out carefully, and knows where the knock is, -then he may proceed to remedy it. Never adjust more than one part at a -time. - -As we have said, a knock is usually due to looseness somewhere. The -journals of the main shaft may be loose and cause knocking. They are -held in place by set bolts and jam nuts, and are tightened by simply -screwing up the nuts. But a small turn of a nut may make the box so -tight it will begin to heat at once. Great care should be taken in -tightening up such a box to be sure not to get it too tight. Once a box -begins to cut, it should be taken out and thoroughly cleaned. - -Knocking may be due to a loose eccentric yoke. There is packing between -the two halves of the yoke, and to tighten up you must take out a thin -layer of this packing. But be careful not to take out too much, or the -eccentric will stick and begin to slip. - -Another cause of knocking is the piston rod loose in the cross-head. -If the piston rod is keyed to the cross-head it is less liable to get -loose than if it were fastened by a nut; but if the key continues to -get loose, it will be best to replace it with a new one. - -Unless the piston rod is kept tight in the cross-head, there is -liability of a bad crack. A small strain will bring the piston out of -the cross-head entirely, when the chances are you will knock out one or -both cylinder-heads. If a nut is used, there will be the same danger if -it comes off. It should therefore be carefully watched. The best way is -to train the ear to catch any usual sound, when loosening of the key or -nut will be detected at once. - -Another source of knocking is looseness of the cross-head in the -guides. Provision is usually made for taking up the wear; but if there -is not, you can take off the guides and file them or have them planed -off. You should take care to see that they are kept even, so that they -will wear smooth with the crosshead shoes. - -If the fly-wheel is in the least loose it will also cause knocking, -and it will puzzle you not a little to locate it. It may appear to be -tight; but if the key is the least bit too narrow for the groove in the -shaft, it will cause an engine to bump horribly, very much as too much -"lead" will. - - -LEAD. - -We have already explained what "lead" is. It is opening of the port at -either end of the steam cylinder allowed by the valve when the engine -is on a dead centre. To find out what the lead is, the cover of the -steam chest must be taken off, and the engine placed at each dead -centre in succession. If the lead is greater at one end than it is at -the other, the valve must be adjusted to equalize it. As a rule the -engine is adjusted with a suitable amount of lead if it is equalized. -The correct amount of lead varies with the engine and with the port -opening. If the port opening is long and narrow, the lead should -obviously be less than if the port is short and wide. - -If the lead is insufficient, there will not be enough steam let into -the cylinder for cushion, and the engine will knock. If there is too -much lead the speed of the engine will be lessened, and it will not do -the work it ought. To adjust the lead _de novo_ is by no means an easy -task. - - -HOW TO SET A SIMPLE VALVE. - -In order to set a valve the engine must be brought to a dead centre. -This cannot be done accurately by the eye. An old engineer[5] gives -the following directions for finding the dead centre accurately. Says -he: "First provide yourself with a 'tram.' This is a rod of one-fourth -inch iron about eighteen inches long, with two inches at one end bent -over to a sharp angle. Sharpen both ends to a point. Fasten a block of -hard wood somewhere near the face of the fly-wheel, so that when the -straight end of your tram is placed at a definite point in the block, -the hooked end will reach the crown of the fly-wheel. The block must be -held firmly in its place, and the tram must always touch it at exactly -the same point. - - Footnote 5: J. H. Maggard. - -"You are now ready to set about finding the dead centre. In doing this, -remember to turn the fly-wheel always in the same direction. - -"Bring the engine over till it nearly reaches one of the dead centres, -but not quite. Make a distinct mark across the cross-head and guides. -Also go around to the flywheel, and placing the straight end of the -tram at the selected point on the block of wood, make a mark across the -crown or centre of face of the fly-wheel. Now turn your engine past the -centre, and on to a point at which the mark on the cross head will once -more exactly correspond with the line on the guides, making a single -straight line. Once more place the tram as before and make another mark -across the crown of the fly-wheel. By use of dividers, find the exact -centre between the two marks made on the fly-wheel, and mark this point -distinctly with a centre punch. Now bring the fly-wheel to the point -where the tram, set with its straight end at the required point on the -block of wood, will touch this point with the hooked end, and you will -have one of the dead centres. - -"Turn the engine over and proceed in the same way to find the other -dead centre." - -Now, setting the engine on one of the dead centres, remove the cover of -the steam chest and proceed to set your valve. - -Assuming that the engine maker gave the valve the proper amount of lead -in the first place, you can proceed on the theory that it is merely -necessary to equalize the lead at both ends. Assume some convenient -lead, as one-sixteenth of an inch, and set the valve to that. Then -turn the engine over and see if the lead at the other end is the same. -If it is the same, you have set the valve correctly. If it is less at -the other end, you may conclude that the lead at both ends should be -less than one-sixteenth of an inch, and must proceed to equalize it. -This you can do by fitting into the open space a little wedge of wood, -changing the valve a little until the wedge goes in to just the same -distance at each end. Then you may know that the lead at one end is the -same as at the other end. You can mark the wedge for forcing it against -the metal, or mark it against the seat of the valve with a pencil. - -The valve is set by loosening the set screws that hold the eccentric on -the shaft. When these are loosened up the valve may be moved freely. -When it is correctly set the screws should be tightened, and the -relative position of the eccentric on the shaft may be permanently -marked by setting a cold chisel so that it will cut into the shaft -and the eccentric at the same time and giving it a smart blow with -the hammer, so as to make a mark on both the eccentric and the shaft. -Should your eccentric slip at any time in the future, you can set your -valve by simply bringing the mark on the eccentric so that it will -correspond with the mark on the shaft. Many engines have such a mark -made when built, to facilitate setting a valve should the eccentric -become loose. - -These directions apply only to setting the valve of a single eccentric -engine. - - -HOW TO SET A VALVE ON A DOUBLE ECCENTRIC ENGINE. - -In setting a valve on a reversible or double eccentric engine, the link -may cause confusion, and you may be trying to set the valve to run one -way when the engine is set to run the other. - -The valve on such an engine is exactly the same as on a single -eccentric engine. Set the reverse lever for the engine to go forward. -Then set the valve exactly as with a single eccentric engine. When -you have done so, tighten the eccentric screws so that they will hold -temporarily, and set the reverse lever for the engine to go backward. -Then put the engine on dead centres and see if the valve is all right -at both ends. If it is, you may assume that it is correctly set, and -tighten eccentric screws, marking both eccentrics as before. - -As we have said, most engines are marked in the factory, so that it is -not a difficult matter to set the valves, it being necessary only to -bring the eccentric around so that the mark on it will correspond with -the mark on the shaft. - -You can easily tell whether the lead is the same at both ends by -listening to the exhaust. If it is longer at one end than the other, -the valve is not properly set. - - -SLIPPING OF THE ECCENTRIC OR VALVE. - -If the eccentric slips the least bit it may cause the engine to stop, -or to act very queerly. Therefore the marks on the shaft and on the -eccentric should be watched closely, and of course all grease and dirt -should be kept wiped off, so that they can be seen easily. Then the jam -nuts should be tightened up a little from time to time. - -If the engine seems to act strangely, and yet the eccentrics are all -right, look at the valve in the steam chest. If the valve stem has -worked loose from the valve, trouble will be caused. It may be held in -place by a nut, and the nut may work off; or the valve may be held by -a clamp and pin, and the pin may work loose. Either will cause loss of -motion, and perhaps a sudden stopping of the engine. - - -USE OF THE CYLINDER STEAM COCKS. - -It is a comparatively simple matter to test a steam cylinder by use -of the cylinder cocks. To do this, open both cocks, place the engine -on the forward center, and turn on a little steam. If the steam blows -out at the forward cock, we may judge that our lead is all right. Now -turn the engine to the back center and let on the steam. It should blow -out the same at the back cock. A little training of the ear will show -whether the escape of steam is the same at both ends. Then reverse the -engine, set it on each center successfully, and notice whether the -steam blows out from one cock at a time and in the same degree of force. - -If the steam blows out of both cocks at the same time, or out of one -cock on one center, but not out of the other cock on its corresponding -center, we may know something is wrong. The valve does not work -properly. - -We will first look at the eccentrics and see that they are all right. -If they are, we must open the steam chest, first turning off all steam. -Probably we shall find that the valve is loose on the valve rod, if our -trouble was that the steam blew out of the cock but did not out of the -other when the engine was on the opposite center. - -If our trouble was that steam blew out of both cocks at the same time, -we may conclude either that the cylinder rings leak or else the valve -has cut its seat. It will be a little difficult to tell which at first -sight. In any case it is a bad thing, for it means loss of power and -waste of steam and fuel. To tell just where the trouble is you must -take off the cylinder head, after setting the engine on the forward -center. Let in a little steam from the throttle. If it blows through -around the rings, the trouble is with them; but if it blows through the -valve port, the trouble is with the valve and valve seat. - -If the rings leak you must get a new set if they are of the -self-adjusting type. But if they are of the spring or adjusting type -you can set them out yourself; but few engines now use the latter kind -of rings, so a new pair will probably be required. - -If the trouble is in the valve and valve seat, you should take the -valve out and have the seat planed down, and the valve fitted to the -seat. This should always be done by a skilled mechanic fully equipped -for such work, as a novice is almost sure to make bad work of it. The -valve seat and valve must be scraped down by the use of a flat piece -of very hard steel, an eighth of an inch thick and about 3 by 4 inches -in size. The scraping edge must be absolutely straight. It will be a -slow and tedious process, and a little too much scraping on one side or -the other will prevent a perfect fit. Both valve and valve seat must -be scraped equally. Novices sometimes try to reseat a valve by the use -of emery. This is very dangerous and is sure to ruin the valve, as it -works into the pores of the iron and causes cutting. - - -LUBRICATION. - -A knowledge of the difference between good oil and poor oil, and of how -to use oil and grease, is a prime essential for an engineer. - -First let us give a little attention to the theory of lubrication. The -oil or grease should form a lining between the journal and its pin or -shaft. It is in the nature of a slight and frictionless cushion at all -points where the two pieces of metal meet. - -Now if oil is to keep its place between the bearing and the shaft or -pin it must stick tight to both pieces of metal, and the tighter the -better. If the oil is light the forces at work on the bearings will -force the oil away and bring the metals together. As soon as they come -together they begin to wear on each other, and sometimes the wear is -very rapid. This is called "cutting." If a little sand or grit gets -into the bearing, that will help the cutting wonderfully, and more -especially if there is no grease there. - -For instance, gasoline and kerosene are oils, but they are so light -they will not stick to a journal, and so are valueless for lubricating. -Good lubricating oil will cost a little more than cheap oil which has -been mixed with worthless oils to increase its bulk without increasing -its cost. The higher priced oil will really cost less in the end, -because there is a larger percentage of it which will do service. A -good engineer will have it in his contract that he is to be furnished -with good oil. - -Now an engine requires two different kinds of oil, one for the -bearings, such as the crank, pin, the cross-head and journals, and -quite a different kind for lubricating the steam cylinder. - -It is extremely important that the steam cylinder should be well -lubricated; and this cannot be done direct. The oil must be carried -into the valve and cylinder with steam. The heat of the steam, -moreover, ranging from about 320 degrees Fahr. for 90 lbs. pressure to -350 degrees for 125 lbs. of pressure, will quickly destroy the efficacy -of a poor oil, and a good cylinder oil must be one that will stick to -the cylinder and valve seat under this high temperature. It must have -staying qualities. - -The link reverse is one of the best for its purpose; but it requires a -good quality of oil on the valve for it to work well. If the valve gets -a little dry, or the poor oil used does not serve its purpose properly, -the link will begin to jump and pound. This is a reason why makers are -substituting other kinds of reverse gear in many ways not as good, but -not open to this objection. If a link reverse begins to pound when you -are using good oil, and the oiler is working properly, you may be sure -something is the matter with the valve or the gear. - -A good engineer will train his ear so that he will detect by simply -listening at the cylinder whether everything is working exactly as it -ought. For example, the exhaust at each end of the cylinder, which you -can hear distinctly, should be the same and equal. If the exhaust at -one end is less than it is at the other, you may know that one end of -the cylinder is doing more work than the other. And also any little -looseness or lack of oil will signify itself by the peculiar sound it -will cause. - -While the cylinder requires cylinder oil, the crank, cross-head and -journals require engine oil, or hard grease. The use of hard grease is -rapidly increasing, and it is highly to be recommended. With a good -automatic spring grease cup hard grease will be far less likely to let -the bearings heat than common oil will. At the same time it will be -much easier to keep an engine clean if hard grease is used. - -An old engineer[6] gives the following directions for fitting a grease -cup on a box not previously arranged for one: "Remove the journal, -take a gouge and cut a clean groove across the box, starting at one -corner, about one-eighth of an inch from the point of the box, and -cut diagonally across, coming out at the opposite corner on the other -end of the box. Then start at the opposite corner and run through as -before, crossing the first groove in the center of the box. Groove both -halves of the box the same, being careful not to cut out at either -end, as this will allow the grease to escape from the box and cause -unnecessary waste. The shimming or packing in the box should be cut so -as to touch the journal at both ends of the box, but not in the center -or between these two points. So when the top box is brought down tight -this will form another reservoir for the grease. If the box is not -tapped directly in the center for the cup, it will be necessary to cut -another groove from where it is tapped into the grooves already made. -A box prepared in this way and carefully polished inside, will require -little attention if you use good grease." - - Footnote 6: J. H. Maggard. - - -A HOT BOX. - -When a box heats in the least degree, it is a sign that for lack of oil -or for some other reason the metals are wearing together. - -The first thing to do, of course, is to see that the box is supplied -with plenty of good oil or grease. - -If this does not cause the box to cool off, take it apart and clean it -thoroughly. Then coat the journal with white lead mixed with good oil. -Great care should be exercised to keep all dirt or grit out of your can -of lead and away from the bearing. - -Replace the oil or grease cup, and the box will soon cool down. - - -THE FRICTION CLUTCH. - -Nearly all traction engines are now provided with the friction clutch -for engaging the engine with the propelling gear. The clutch is usually -provided with wooden shoes, which are adjustable as they wear; and the -clutch is thrown on by a lever, conveniently placed. - -[Illustration: A. W. STEVENS CO. FRICTION CLUTCH.] - -Before running an engine, you must make sure that the clutch shoes are -properly adjusted. Great care must be taken to be sure that both shoes -will come in contact with the friction wheel at the same instant; for -if one shoe touches the wheel before the other the clutch will probably -slip. - -The shoes should be so set as to make it a trifle difficult to draw the -lever clear back. - -To regulate the shoes on the Rumely engine, for example, first throw -the friction in. The nut on the top of the toggle connecting the sleeve -of the friction with the shoe must then be loosened, and the nut below -the shoe tightened up, forcing the shoe toward the wheel. Both shoes -should be carefully adjusted so that they will engage the band wheel -equally and at exactly the same time. - -To use the friction clutch, first start the engine, throwing the -throttle gradually wide open. When the engine is running at its usual -speed, slowly bring up the clutch until the gearing is fully engaged, -letting the engine start slowly and smoothly, without any jar. - -Traction engines having the friction clutch are also provided with a -pin for securing a rigid connection, to be used in cases of necessity, -as when the clutch gets broken or something about it gives out, or you -have difficulty in making it hold when climbing hills. This pin is a -simple round or square pin that can be placed through a hole in one of -the spokes of the band wheel until it comes into a similar opening in -the friction wheel. When the pin is taken out, so as to disconnect the -wheels, it must be entirely removed, not left sticking in the hole, as -it is liable to catch in some other part of the machinery. - -[Illustration: AULTMAN & TAYLOR FRICTION CLUTCH.] - - -MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. - -Be careful not to open the throttle valve too quickly, or you may throw -off the driving belt. You may also stir up the water and cause it to -pass over with the steam, starting what is called "priming." - -Always open your cylinder cocks when you stop, to make sure all water -has been drained out of the cylinder; and see that they are open when -you start, of course closing them as soon as the steam is let in. - -When you pull out the ashes always have a pail of water ready, for you -may start a fire that will do no end of damage. - -If the water in your boiler gets low and you are waiting for the tank -to come up, don't think you "can keep on a little longer," but stop -your engine at once. It is better to lose a little time than run the -risk of an explosion that will ruin your reputation as an engineer and -cause your employer a heavy expense. - -Never start the pump when the water in the boiler is low. - -Be sure the exhaust nozzle does not get limed up, and be sure the pipe -where the water enters the boiler from the heater is not limed up, or -you may split a heater pipe or knock out a check valve. - -Never leave your engine in cold weather without draining off all the -water; and always cover up your engine when you leave it. - -Never disconnect the engine with a leaky throttle. - -Keep the steam pressure steady, not varying more than 10 to 15 lbs. - -If called on to run an old boiler, have it thoroughly tested before you -touch it. - -Always close your damper before pulling through a stack yard. - -Examine every bridge before you pull on to it. - -Do not stop going down a steep grade. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -HANDLING A TRACTION ENGINE ON THE ROAD. - - -It is something of a trick to handle a traction engine on the road. The -novice is almost certain to run it into a ditch the first thing, or get -stuck on a hill, or in a sand patch or a mudhole. Some attention must -therefore be paid to handling a traction engine on the road. - -In the first place, never pull the throttle open with a jerk, nor put -down the reverse lever with a snap. Handle your engine deliberately -and thoughtfully, knowing beforehand just what you wish to do and how -you will do it. A traction engine is much like an ox; try to goad it -on too fast and it will stop and turn around on you. It does its best -work when moving slowly and steadily, and seldom is anything gained by -rushing. - -The first thing for an engineer to learn is to handle his throttle. -When an engine is doing work the throttle should be wide open; but on -the road, or in turning, backing, etc., the engineer's hand must be -on the throttle all the time and he must exercise a nice judgment as -to just how much steam the engine will need to do a certain amount -of work. This the novice will find out best by opening the throttle -slowly, taking all the time he needs, and never allowing any one to -hurry him. - -As an engineer learns the throttle, he gradually comes to have -confidence in it. As it were, he feels the pulse of the animal and -never makes a mistake. Such an engineer always has power to spare, and -never wastes any power. He finds that a little is often much better -than too much. - -The next thing to learn is the steering wheel. It has tricks of its -own, which one must learn by practice. Most young engineers turn the -wheel altogether too much. If you let your engine run slowly you will -have time to turn the wheel slowly, and accomplish just what you want -to do. If you hurry you will probably have to do your work all over -again, and so lose much more time in the end than if you didn't hurry. - -Always keep your eyes on the front wheels of the engine, and do not -turn around to see how your load is coming on. Your load will take care -of itself if you manage the front wheels all right, for they determine -where you are to go. - -In making a hard turn, especially, go slow. Then you will run no chance -of losing control of your engine, and you can see that neither you nor -your load gets into a ditch. - - -GETTING INTO A HOLE. - -You are sure sooner or later to get into a hole in the road, for a -traction engine is so heavy it is sure to find any soft spot in the -road there may be. - -As to getting out of a hole, observe in the first place that you must -use your best judgment. - -First, never let the drive wheels turn round without doing any work. -The more they spin round without helping you, the worse it will be for -you. - -Your first thought must be to give the drive wheels something they can -climb on, something they can stick to. A heavy chain is perhaps the -very best thing you can put under them. But usually on the road you -have no chain handy. In that case, you must do what you can. Old hay or -straw will help you; and so will old rails or any old timber. - -Spend your time trying to give your wheels something to hold to, rather -than trying to pull out. When the wheels are all right, the engine will -go on its way without any trouble whatever. And do not half do your -work of fixing the wheels before you try to start. See that both wheels -are secure before you put on a pound of steam. Make sure of this the -first time you try, and you will save time in the end. If you fix one -wheel and don't fix the other, you will probably spoil the first wheel -by starting before the other is ready. - -Should you be where your engine will not turn, then you are stuck -indeed. You must lighten your load or dig a way out. - - -BAD BRIDGES. - -A traction engine is so heavy that the greatest care must be exercised -in crossing bridges. If a bridge floor is worn, if you see rotten -planks in it, or liability of holes, don't pull on to that bridge -without taking precautions. - -The best precaution is to carry with you a couple of planks sixteen -feet long, three inches thick in the middle, tapering to two inches at -the ends; also a couple of planks eight feet long and two inches thick, -the latter for culverts and to help out on long bridges. - -Before pulling on to a bad looking bridge, lay down your planks, one -for each pair of wheels of the engine to run on. Be exceedingly careful -not to let the engine drop off the edge of these planks on the way -over, or pass over the ends on to the floor of the bridge. If one pair -of planks is too short, use your second pair. - -Another precaution which it is wise to take is to carry fifty feet of -good, stout hemp rope, and when you come to a shaky bridge, attach your -separator to the engine by this rope at full length, so that the engine -will have crossed the bridge before the weight of the separator comes -upon it. - -Cross a bad bridge very slowly. Nothing will be gained by hurrying. -There should especially be no sudden jerks or starts. - - -SAND PATCHES. - -A sandy road is an exceedingly hard road to pull a load over. - -In the first place, don't hurry over sand. If you do you are liable to -break the footing of the wheels, and then you are gone. - -In the second place, keep your engine as steady and straight as -possible, so that both wheels will always have an equal and even -bearing. They are less liable to slip if you do. It is useless to try -to "wiggle" over a sand patch. Slow, steady, and even is the rule. - -If your wheels slip in sand, a bundle of straw or hay, especially old -hay, will be about the best thing to give them a footing. - - -HILLS. - -In climbing hills take the same advice we have given you all along: Go -slow. Nothing is gained by rushing at a hill with a steam engine. Such -an engine works best when its force is applied steadily and evenly, a -little at a time. - -If you have a friction clutch, as you probably will have, you should be -sure it is in good working order before you attempt to climb hills. It -should be adjusted to a nicety, as we have already explained. When you -come to a bad hill it would probably be well to put in the tight gear -pin; or use it altogether in a hilly country. - -When the friction clutch first came into use, salesmen and others used -to make the following recommendation (a recommendation which we will -say right here is bad). They said, when you come to an obstacle in the -road that you can't very well get your engine over, throw off your -friction clutch from the road wheels, let your engine get under good -headway running free, and then suddenly put on the friction clutch and -jerk yourself over the obstacle. - -Now this is no doubt one way to get over an obstacle; but no good -engineer would take his chances of spoiling his engine by doing any -such thing with it. Some part of it would be badly strained by such a -procedure; and if this were done regularly all through a season, an -engine would be worth very little at the end of the season. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -POINTS FOR THE YOUNG ENGINEER. - - -QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. - -THE BOILER. - -Q. How should water be fed to a boiler? - -A. In a steady stream, by use of a pump or injector working -continuously and supplying just the amount of water required. By this -means the water in the boiler is maintained at a uniform level, and -produces steam most evenly and perfectly. - -Q. Why should pure water be used in a boiler? - -A. Because impure water, or hard water, forms scales on the boiler -flues and plates, and these scales act as non-conductors of heat. Thus -the heat of the furnace is not able to pass easily through the boiler -flues and plates to the water, and your boiler becomes what is called -"a hard steamer." - -Q. What must be done to prevent the formation of scale? - -A. First, use some compound that will either prevent scale from -forming, or will precipitate the scale forming substance as a soft -powder that can easily be washed off. Sal soda dissolved in the feed -water is recommended, but great care should be exercised in the use of -sal soda not to use too much at a time, as it may cause a boiler to -foam. Besides using a compound, clean your boiler often and regularly -with a hand hose and a force pump, and soak it out as often as possible -by using rain water for a day or two, especially before cleaning. Rain -water will soften and bring down the hard scale far better than any -compound. - -Q. How often should you clean your boiler? - -A. As often as it needs it, which will depend upon the work you do and -the condition of the water. Once a week is usually often enough if the -boiler is blown down a little every day. If your water is fairly good, -once a month will be often enough. A boiler should be blown off about -one gauge at a time two or three times a day with the blow-off if the -water is muddy. - -Q. How long should the surface blow-off be left open? - -A. Only for a few seconds, and seldom longer than a minute. The surface -blow-off carries off the scum that forms on the water, and other -impurities that rise with the scum. - -Q. How do you clean a boiler by blowing off? - -A. When the pressure has been allowed to run down open the blow-off -valve at the bottom of the boiler and let the water blow out less than -a minute, till the water drops out of sight in the water gauges, or -about two and one-half inches. Blowing off more is only a waste of heat -and fuel. - -Q. What harm will be done by blowing off a boiler under a high pressure -of steam? - -A. The heat in the boiler while there is such a pressure will be so -great that it will bake the scale on the inside of the boiler, and it -will be very difficult to remove it afterward. After a boiler has been -blown off the scale should be for the most part soft, so that it can be -washed out by a hose and force pump. - -Q. Why should a hot boiler never be filled with cold water? - -A. Because the cold water will cause the boiler to contract more in -some places than in others, and so suddenly that the whole will be -badly strained. Leaky flues are made in this way, and the life of a -boiler greatly shortened. As a rule a boiler should be filled only when -the metal and the water put into it are about at the same temperature. - -Q. After a boiler has been cleaned, how should the manhole and manhole -plates be replaced? - -A. They are held in position by a bolt passing through a yoke that -straddles the hole; but to be steam and water tight they must have -packing all around the junction of the plate with the boiler. The best -packing is sheet rubber cut in the form of a ring just the right size -for the bearing surface. Hemp or cotton packing are also used, but they -should be free from all lumps and soaked in oil. Do not use any more -than is absolutely needed. Be careful, also, to see that the bearings -of the plate and boiler are clean and smooth, with all the old packing -scraped off. Candle wick saturated with red lead is next best to rubber -as packing. - -Q. What are the chief duties of an engineer in care of a boiler? - -A. First, to watch all gauges, fittings, and working parts, to see that -they are in order; try the gauge cocks to make sure the water is at -the right height; try the safety valve from time to time to be sure it -is working; see that there are no leaks, that there is no rusting or -wearing of parts, or to replace parts when they do begin to show wear; -to examine the check valve frequently to make sure no water can escape -through it from the boiler; take precautions against scale and stoppage -of pipes by scale; and keep the fire going uniformly, cleanly, and in -an economical fashion. - -Q. What should you do if the glass water gauge breaks? - -A. Turn off the gauge cocks above and below, the lower one first so -that the hot water will not burn you. You may put in a new glass and -turn on gauge cocks at once. Turn on the lower or water cock first, -then the upper or steam cock. You may go on without the glass gauge, -however, using the gauge cocks or try cocks every few minutes to make -sure the water is at the right height, neither too high nor too low. - -Q. Why is it necessary to use the gauge cocks when the glass gauge is -all right? - -A. First, because you cannot otherwise be sure that the glass gauge is -all right; and, secondly, because if you do not use them frequently -they are likely to become scaled up so that you cannot use them in case -of accident to the glass gauge. - -Q. If a gauge cock gets leaky, what should be done? - -A. Nothing until the boiler has cooled down. Then if the leak is in the -seat, take it out and grind and refit it; if the leak is where the -cock is screwed into the boiler, tighten it up another turn and see if -that remedies the difficulty. If it does not you will probably have to -get a new gauge cock. - -Q. Why not screw up a gauge cock while there is a pressure of steam on? - -A. The cock might blow out and cause serious injury to yourself or some -one else. Make it a rule never to fool with any boiler fittings while -there is a pressure of steam on the boiler. It is exceedingly dangerous. - -Sometimes a gauge cock gets broken off accidentally while the boiler is -in use. If such an accident happens, bank the fire by closing the draft -and covering the fire with fresh fuel or ashes. Stop the engine and let -the water blow out of the hole till only steam appears; then try to -plug the opening with a long whitewood or poplar, or even a pine stick -(six or eight feet long), one end of which you have whittled down to -about the size of the hole. When the steam has been stopped the stick -may be cut off close to the boiler and the plug driven in tight. If -necessary you may continue to use the boiler in this condition until a -new cock can be put in. - -Q. What should you do when a gauge cock is stopped up? - -A. Let the steam pressure go down, and then take off the front part -and run a small wire into the passage, working the wire back and forth -until all scale and sediment has been removed. - -Q. What should you do when the steam gauge gets out of order. - -A. If the steam gauge does not work correctly, or you suspect it does -not, you may test it by running the steam up until it blows off at -the safety valve. If the steam gauge does not indicate the pressure -at which the safety valve is set to pop off, and you have reason to -suppose the safety valve is all right, you may conclude that there is -something the matter with the steam gauge. In that case either put in -a new one, or, if you have no extra steam gauge on hand, shut down -your boiler and engine till you can get your steam gauge repaired. -Sometimes this can be done simply by adjusting the pointer, which may -have got loose, and you can test it by attaching it to another boiler -which has a steam gauge that is all right and by which you can check up -yours. It is VERY DANGEROUS to run your boiler without a steam gauge, -depending on the safety valve. Never allow the slightest variation in -correctness of the steam gauge without repairing it at once. It will -nearly always be cheaper in these days to put in a new gauge rather -than try to repair the old one. - -Q. What should you do if the pump fails to work? - -A. Use the injector. - -Q. What should you do if there is no injector? - -A. Stop the engine at once and bank the fire with damp ashes, -especially noting that the water does not fall below the bottom of the -glass gauge. Then examine the pump. First see if the plunger leaks air; -if it is all right, examine the check valves, using the little drain -cock as previously explained to test the upper ones, for the valves -may have become worn and will leak; third, if the check valves are all -right, examine the supply pipe, looking at the strainer, observing -whether suction takes place when the pump is worked, etc. There may -be a leak in the suction hose somewhere during its course where air -can get in, or it may become weak and collapse under the force of the -atmosphere, or the lining of the suction pipe may have become torn or -loose. The slightest leak in the suction pipe will spoil the working -of the pump. Old tubing should never be used, as it is sure to give -trouble. Finally, examine the delivery pipe. Close the cock or valve -next the boiler, and examine the boiler check valve; notice whether -the pipe is getting limed up. If necessary, disconnect the pipe and -clean it out with a stiff wire. If everything is all right up to this -point, you must let the boiler cool off, blow out the water, disconnect -the pipe between the check and the boiler, and thoroughly clean the -delivery pipe into the boiler. Stoppage of the delivery pipe is due to -deposits of lime from the heating of the water in the heater. Stoppage -from this source will be gradual, and you will find less and less -water going into your boiler from your pump until none flows at all. -From this you may guess the trouble. - -Q. How may the communication with the water gauge always be kept free -from lime? - -A. By blowing it off through the drain cock at the bottom. First close -the upper cock and blow off for a few seconds, the water passing -through the lower cock; then close the lower cock and open the upper -one, allowing the steam to blow through this and the drain cock for -a few seconds. If you do this every day or oftener you will have no -trouble. - -Q. Should the water get low for any reason, what should be done? - -A. Close all dampers tight so as to prevent all draft, and bank the -fire with fresh fuel or with ashes (damp ashes are the best if danger -is great). Then let the boiler cool down before putting in fresh water. -Banking the fire is better than drawing or dumping it, as either of -these make the heat greater for a moment or two, and that additional -heat might cause an explosion. Dashing cold water upon the fire is -also very dangerous and in every way unwise. Again, do not open the -safety valve, for that also, by relieving some of the pressure on the -superheated water, might cause it to burst suddenly into steam and so -cause an explosion. - -Q. Under such circumstances, would you stop the engine? - -A. No; for a sudden checking of the outflow of steam might bring about -an explosion. Do nothing but check the heat as quickly and effectively -as you can by banking or covering the fires. - -Q. Why not turn on the feed water? - -A. Because the crown sheet of the boiler has become overheated, and -any cold water coming upon it would cause an explosion. If the pump or -injector are running, of course you may let them run, and the boiler -will gradually refill as the heat decreases. Under such circumstances -low water is due to overheating the boiler. - -Q. Would not the fusible plug avert any disaster from low water? - -A. It might, and it might not. The top of it is liable to get coated -with lime so that the device is worthless. You should act at all times -precisely as if there were no fusible plug. If it ever does avert -an explosion you may be thankful, but averting explosions by taking -such means as we have suggested will be far better for an engineer's -reputation. - -Q. Would not the safety valve be a safeguard against explosion? - -A. No; only under certain conditions. It prevents too high a pressure -for accumulating in the boiler when there is plenty of water; but when -the water gets low the safety valve may only hasten the explosion by -relieving some of the pressure and allowing superheated water to burst -suddenly into steam, thus vastly expanding instantly. - -Q. Should water be allowed to stand in the boiler when it is not in use? - -A. It is better to draw it off and clean the boiler, to prevent -rusting, formation of scale, hardening of sediment, etc., if boiler is -to be left for any great length of time. - -Q. What should you do if a grate bar breaks or falls out? - -A. You should always have a spare grate bar on hand to put in its -place; but if you have none you may fill the space by wedging in a -stick of hard wood cut the right shape to fill the opening. Cover -this wood with ashes before poking the fire over it, and it will last -for several hours before it burns out. You will find it exceedingly -difficult to keep up the fire with a big hole in the grate that will -let cold air into the furnace and allow coal to drop down. - -In case the grate is of the rocker type the opening may be filled by -shaping a piece of flat iron, which can be set in without interfering -with the rocking of the grate; or the opening may be filled with wood -as before if the wood is covered well with ashes. Of course the use of -wood will prevent the grate from rocking and the poker must be used to -clean. - -Q. Why should an engineer never start a boiler with a hot fire, and -never let his fire get hotter than is needed to keep up steam? - -A. Both will cause the sheets to warp and the flues to become leaky, -because under high heat some parts of the boiler will expand more -rapidly than others. For a similar reason, any sudden application of -cold to a boiler, either cold water or cold air through the firebox -door, will cause quicker contraction of certain parts than other parts, -and this will ruin a boiler. - -Q. How should you supply a boiler with water? - -A. In a regular stream continually. Only by making the water pass -regularly and gradually through the heater will you get the full effect -of the heat from the exhaust steam. If a great deal of water is pumped -into the boiler at one time, the exhaust steam will not be sufficient -to heat it as it ought. Then if you have a full boiler and shut off the -water supply, the exhaust steam in the heater is wasted, for it can do -no work at all. Besides, it hurts the boiler to allow the temperature -to change, as it will inevitably do if water is supplied irregularly. - -WHATEVER YOU DO, NEVER ATTEMPT TO TIGHTEN A SCREW OR CALK A BOILER -UNDER STEAM PRESSURE. IF ANYTHING IS LOOSE IT IS LIABLE TO BLOW OUT IN -YOUR FACE WITH DISASTROUS CONSEQUENCES. - -Q. If boiler flues become leaky, can an ordinary person tighten them? - -A. Yes, if the work is done carefully. See full explanation previously -given, p. 17. Great care should be taken not to expand the flues too -much, for by so doing you are likely to loosen other flues and cause -more leaks than you had in the first place. Small leaks inside a boiler -are not particularly dangerous, but they should be remedied at the -earliest possible moment, since they reduce the power of the boiler -and put out the fire. Besides, they look bad for the engineer. - -Q. How should flues be cleaned? - -A. Some use a steam blower; but a better way is to scrape off the metal -with one of the many patent scrapers, which just fill the flue, and -when attached to a rod and worked back and forth a few times the whole -length of the flue do admirable service. - -Q. What harm will dirty flues do? - -A. Two difficulties arise from dirty flues. If they become reduced in -size the fire will not burn well. Then, the same amount of heat will do -far less work because it is so much harder for it to get through the -layer of soot and ashes, which are non-conductors. - -Q. What would you do if the throttle broke? - -A. Use reverse lever. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -POINTS FOR THE YOUNG ENGINEER.--(CONT.) - - -QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. - -THE ENGINE. - -Q. What is the first thing to do with a new engine? - -A. With some cotton waste or a soft rag saturated with benzine or -turpentine clean off all the bright work; then clean every bearing, box -and oil hole, using a force pump with air current first, if you have -a pump, and then wiping the inside out clean with an oily rag, using -a wire if necessary to make the work thorough. If you do not clean -the working parts of the engine thus before setting it up, grit will -get into the bearings and cause them to cut. Parts that have been put -together need not be taken apart; but you should clean everything you -can get at, especially the oil holes and other places that may receive -dirt during transportation. - -After the oil holes have been well cleaned, the oil cups may be wiped -off and put in place, screwing them in with a wrench. - -Q. What kind of oil should you use? - -A. Cylinder oil only for the cylinder; lard oil for the bearings, and -hard grease if your engine is provided with hard grease cup for the -cross-head and crank. The only good substitute for cylinder oil is pure -beef suet tried out. Merchantable tallow should never be used, as it -contains acid. - -Q. Can fittings be screwed on by hand only? - -A. No; all fittings should be screwed up tight with a wrench. - -Q. When all fittings are in place, what must be done before the engine -can be started? - -A. See that the grates in the firebox are in place and all right; then -fill the boiler with clean water until it shows an inch to an inch -and a half in the water gauge. Start your fire, and let it burn slowly -until there is a pressure in the boiler of 10 or 15 lbs. Then you can -turn on the blower to get up draft. In the meantime fill all the oil -cups with oil; put grease on the gears; open and close all cocks to -see that they work all right; turn your engine over a few times to see -that it works all right; let a little steam into the cylinder with both -cylinder cocks open--just enough to show at the cocks without moving -the engine--and slowly turn the engine over, stopping it on the dead -centers to see if the steam comes from only one of the cylinder cocks -at a time, and that the proper one; reverse the engine and make the -same test. Also see that the cylinder oiler is in place and ready for -operation. See that the pump is all right and in place, with the valve -in the feedpipe open and also the valve in the supply pipe. - -By going over the engine in this way you will notice whether everything -is tight and in working order, and whether you have failed to notice -any part which you do not understand. If there is any part or fitting -you do not understand, know all about it before you go ahead. - -Having started your fire with dry wood, add fuel gradually, a little -at a time, until you have a fire covering every part of the grate. -Regulate the fire by the damper alone, never opening the firebox door -even if the fire gets too hot. - -Q. In what way should the engine be started? - -A. When you have from 25 to 40 lbs. of pressure open the throttle valve -a little, allowing the cylinder cocks to be open also. Some steam will -condense at first in the cold cylinder, and this water must be allowed -to drain off. See that the crank is not on a dead center, and put on -just enough steam to start the engine. As soon as it gets warmed up, -and only dry steam appears at the cocks, close the cylinder cocks, open -the throttle gradually till it is wide open, and wait for the engine to -work up to its full speed. - -Q. How is the speed of the engine regulated? - -A. By the governor, which is operated by a belt running to the main -shaft. The governor is a delicate apparatus, and should be watched -closely. It should move up and down freely on the stem, which should -not leak steam. If it doesn't work steadily, you should stop the engine -and adjust it, after watching it for a minute or two to see just where -the difficulty lies. - -Q. Are you likely to have any hot boxes? - -A. There should be none if the bearings are all clean and well supplied -with oil. However, in starting a new engine you should stop now and -then and examine every bearing by laying your hand upon it. Remember -the eccentric, the link pin, the cross-head, the crank pin. If there -is any heat, loosen the boxes up a trifle, but only a very little at -a time. If you notice any knocking or pounding, you have loosened too -much, and should tighten again. - -Q. What must you do in regard to water supply? - -A. After the engine is started and you know it is all right, fill the -tank on the engine and start the injector. It may take some patience -to get the injector started, and you should carefully follow the -directions previously given and those which apply especially to the -type of injector used. Especially be sure that the cocks admitting the -water through the feed pipe and into the boiler are open. - -Q. Why are both a pump and an injector required on an engine? - -A. The pump is most economical, because it permits the heat in the -exhaust steam to be used to heat the feed water, while the injector -heats the water by live steam. There should also be an injector, -however, for use when the engine is not working, in order that the -water in the boiler may be kept up with heated water. If a cross-head -pump is used, of course, it will not operate when the engine is not -running; and in case of an independent pump the heater will not heat -the water when the engine is not running because there is little or no -exhaust steam available. There is an independent pump (the Marsh pump) -which heats the water before it goes into the boiler, and this may be -used when the engine is shut down instead of the injector. - -Q. What is the next thing to test? - -A. The reversing mechanism. Throw the reverse lever back, and see if -the engine will run equally well in the opposite direction. Repeat this -a few times to make sure that the reverse is in good order. - -Q. How is a traction engine set going upon the road? - -A. Most traction engines now have the friction clutch. When the engine -is going at full speed, take hold of the clutch lever and slowly bring -the clutch against the band wheel. It will slip a little at first, -gradually engaging the gears and moving the outfit. Hold the clutch -lever in one hand, while with the other you operate the steering wheel. -By keeping your hand on the clutch lever you may stop forward motion -instantly if anything goes wrong. When the engine is once upon the -road, the clutch lever may set in the notch provided for it, and the -engine will go at full speed. You can then give your entire attention -to steering. - -Q. What should you do if the engine has no friction clutch? - -A. Stop the engine, placing the reversing lever in the center notch. -Then slide the spur pinion into the gear and open the throttle valve -wide. You are now ready to control the engine by the reversing lever. -Throw the lever forward a little, bringing it back, and so continue -until you have got the engine started gradually. When well under way -throw the reverse lever into the last notch, and give your attention to -steering. - -Q. How should you steer a traction engine? - -A. In all cases the same man should handle the throttle and steer the -engine. Skill in steering comes by practice, and about the only rule -that can be given is to go slow, and under no circumstances jerk your -engine about. Good steering depends a great deal on natural ability to -judge distances by the eye and power by the feel. A good engineer must -have a good eye, a good ear, and a good touch (if we may so speak). If -either is wanting, success will be uncertain. - -Q. How should an engine be handled on the road? - -A. There will be no special difficulty in handling an engine on a -straight, level piece of road, especially if the road is hard and -without holes. But when you come to your first hill your troubles will -begin. - -Before ascending a hill, see that the water in the boiler does not -stand more than two inches in the glass gauge. If there is too much -water, as it is thrown to one end of the engine by the grade it is -liable to get into the steam cylinder. If you have too much water, blow -off a little from the bottom blow-off cock. - -In descending a hill never stop your engine for a moment, since your -crown sheet will be uncovered by reason of the water being thrown -forward, and any cessation in the jolting of the engine which keeps the -water flowing over the crown sheet will cause the fusible plug to blow -out, making delay and expense. - -Make it a point never to stop your engine except on the level. - -Before descending a hill, shut off the steam at the throttle, and -control the engine by the friction brake; or if there is no brake, do -not quite close the throttle, but set the reverse lever in the center -notch, or back far enough to control the speed. It is seldom necessary -to use steam in going down hill, however, and if the throttle is closed -even with no friction brake, the reverse may be used in such a way as -to form an air brake in the cylinder. - -Get down to the bottom of a hill as quickly as you can. - -Before descending a hill it would be well to close your dampers and -keep the firebox door closed tight all the time. Cover the fire with -fresh fuel so as to keep the heat down. - -The pump or injector must be kept at work, however, since as you have -let the water down low, you must not let it fall any lower or you are -likely to have trouble. - -In ascending a hill, do just the reverse, namely: Keep your fire brisk -and hot, with steam pressure ascending; and throw the reverse lever in -the last notch, giving the engine all the steam you can, else you may -get stuck. If you stop you are likely to overheat forward end of fire -tubes. You are less liable to get stuck if you go slowly than if you go -fast. Regulate speed by friction clutch. - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -POINTS FOR THE YOUNG ENGINEER.--(CONT.) - - -MISCELLANEOUS. - -Q. What is Foaming? - -A. The word is used to describe the rising of water in large bubbles or -foam. You will detect it by noticing that the water in the glass gauge -rises and falls, or is foamy. It is due to sediment in the boiler, or -grease and other impurities in the feed supply. Shaking up the boiler -will start foaming sometimes; at other times it will start without -apparent cause. In such cases it is due to the steam trying to get -through a thick crust on the surface of the water. - -Q. How may you prevent foaming? - -A. It may be checked for a moment by turning off the throttle, so -giving the water a chance to settle. It is generally prevented by -frequently using the surface blow-off to clear away the scum. Of course -the water must be kept as pure as possible, and especially should -alkali water be avoided. - -Q. What is priming? - -A. Priming is not the same as foaming, though it is often caused by -foaming. Priming is the carrying of water into the steam cylinder with -the steam. It is caused by various things beside foaming, for it may -be found when the boiler is quite clean. A sudden and very hot fire -may start priming. Priming sometimes follows lowering of the steam -pressure. Often it is due to lack of capacity in the boiler, especially -lack of steam space, or lack of good circulation. - -Q. How can you detect priming? - -A. By the clicking sound it makes in the steam cylinder. The water in -the gauge will also go up and down violently. There will also be a -shower of water from the exhaust. - -Q. What is the proper remedy for priming? - -A. If it is due to lack of capacity in the boiler nothing can be done -but get a new boiler. In other cases it may be remedied by carrying -less water in the boiler when that can be done safely, by taking steam -from a different point in the steam dome, or if there is no dome by -using a long dry pipe with perforation at the end. - -A larger steam pipe may help it; or it may be remedied by taking out -the top row of flues. - -Leaky cylinder rings or a leaky valve may also have something to do -with it. In all cases these should be made steam tight. If the exhaust -nozzle is choked up with grease or sediment, clean it out. - -A traction engine with small steam ports would prime quickly under -forced speed. - -Q. How would you bank your fires? - -A. Push the fire as far to the back of the firebox as possible and -cover it over with very fine coal or with dry ashes. As large a portion -as possible of the grate should be left open, so that the air may pass -over the fire. Close the damper tight. By banking your fires at night -you keep the boiler warm and can get up steam more quickly in the -morning. - -Q. When water is left in the boiler with banked fire in cold weather, -what precautions ought to be taken? - -A. The cocks in the glass water gauge should be closed and the drain -cock at the bottom opened, for fear the water in the exposed gauge -should freeze. Likewise all drain cocks in steam cylinder and pump -should be opened. - -Q. How should a traction engine be prepared for laying up during the -winter? - -A. First, the outside of the boiler and engine should be thoroughly -cleaned, seeing that all gummy oil or grease is removed. Then give the -outside of the boiler and smokestack a coat of asphalt paint, or a coat -of lampblack and linseed oil, or at any rate a doping of grease. - -The outside of the boiler should be cleaned while it is hot, so that -grease, etc., may be easily removed while soft. - -After the outside has been attended to, blow out the water at low -pressure and thoroughly clean the inside in the usual way, taking -out the handhole and manhole plates, and scraping off all scale and -sediment. - -After the boiler has been cleaned on the inside, fill it nearly full of -water, and pour upon the top a bucket of black oil. Then let the water -out through the blow-off at the bottom. As the water goes down it will -have a coating of oil down the sides of the boiler. - -All the brass fittings should be removed, including gauge cocks, check -valves, safety valve, etc. Disconnect all pipes that may contain water, -to be sure none remains in any of them. Open all stuffing boxes and -take out packing, for the packing will cause the parts they surround to -rust. - -Finally, clean out the inside of the firebox and the fire flues, and -give the ash-pan a good coat of paint all over, inside as well as out. - -The inside of the cylinder should be well greased, which can be done by -removing the cylinder head. - -See that the top of the smoke stack is covered to keep out the weather. - -All brass fittings should be carefully packed and put away in a dry -place. - -A little attention to the engine when you put it up will save twice -as much time when you take it out next season, and besides save many -dollars of value in the life of the engine. - -Q. How should belting be cared for? - -A. First, keep belts free from dust and dirt. - -Never overload belts. - -Do not let oil or grease drip upon them. - -Never put any sticky or pasty grease on a belt. - -Never allow any animal oil or grease to touch a rubber belt, since it -will destroy the life of the rubber. - -The grain or hair side should run next the pulley, as it holds better -and is not so likely to slip. - -Rubber belts will be greatly improved if they are covered with a -mixture of black lead and litharge, equal parts, mixed with boiled oil, -and just enough japan to dry them quickly. This mixture will do to put -on places that peel. - -Q. What is the proper way to lace a belt? - -A. First, square the ends with a proper square, cutting them off to -a nicety. Begin to lace in the middle, and do not cross the laces on -the pulley side. On that side the lacings should run straight with the -length of the belt. - -The holes in the belt should be punched if possible with an oval punch, -the long diameter coinciding with the length of the belt. Make two rows -of holes in each end of the belt, so that the holes in each row will -alternate with those in preceding row, making a zigzag. Four holes will -be required for a three-inch belt in each end, two holes in each row; -in a six-inch belt, place seven holes in each end, four in the row -nearest the end. - -To find the length of a belt when the exact length cannot be measured -conveniently, measure a straight line from the center of one pulley to -the center of the other. Add together half the diameter of each pulley, -and multiply that by 3-1/4 (3.1416). The result added to twice the -distance between the centers will give the total length of the belt. - -A belt will work best if it is allowed to sag just a trifle. - -The seam side of a rubber belt should be placed outward, or away from -the pulley. - -If such a belt slips, coat the inside with boiled linseed oil or soap. - -Cotton belting may be preserved by painting the pulley side while -running with common paint, afterward applying soft oil or grease. - -If a belt slips apply a little oil or soap to the pulley side. - -Q. How does the capacity of belts vary? - -A. In proportion to width and also to the speed. Double the width and -you double the capacity; also, within a certain limit, double the -speed and you double the capacity. A belt should not be run over 5,000 -feet per minute. One four-inch belt will have the same capacity as two -two-inch belts. - -Q. How are piston rods and valve rods packed so that the steam cannot -escape around them? - -A. By packing placed in stuffing-boxes. The stuffing is of some -material that has a certain amount of elasticity, such as lamp wick, -hemp, soap stone, etc., and certain patent preparations. The packing is -held in place by a gland, as it is called, which acts to tighten the -packing as the cap of the stuffing-box is screwed up. - -Q. How would you repack a stuffing-box? - -A. First remove the cap and the gland, and with a proper tool take out -all the old packing. Do not use any rough instrument like a file, which -is liable to scratch the rod, for any injury to the smooth surface of -the rod will make it leak steam or work hard. - -If patent packing is used, cut off a sufficient number of lengths to -make the required rings. They should be exactly the right length to go -around inside the stuffing-box. If too long, they cannot be screwed up -tight, as the ends will press together and cause irregularities. If -too short, the ends will not meet and will leak steam. Cut the ends -diagonally so that they will make a lap joint instead of a square one. -When the stuffing-box has been filled, place the gland in position and -screw up tight. Afterwards loosen the nuts a trifle, as the steam will -cause the packing to expand, usually. The stuffing-box should be just -as loose as it can be and not allow leakage of steam. If steam leaks, -screw up the box a little tighter. If it still leaks, do not screw up -as tight as you possibly can, but repack the box. If the stuffing-box -is too tight, either for the piston rod or valve steam, it will cause -the engine to work hard, and may groove the rods and spoil them. - -If hemp packing is used, pull the fibres out straight and free, getting -rid of all knots and lumps. Twist together a few of the fibres, making -three cords, and braid these three cords together and soak them with -oil or grease, wind around the rod till stuffing-box is sufficiently -full, replace the gland, and screw up as before. - -Stuffing-box for water piston of pump may be packed as described above, -but little oil or grease will be needed. - -Never pack the stuffing-box too tight, or you may flute the rod and -spoil it. - -Always keep the packing in a clean place, well covered up, never -allowing any dust to get into it, for the dust or grit is liable to cut -the rod. - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -ECONOMY IN RUNNING A FARM ENGINE. - - -It is something to be able to run a farm engine and keep out of -trouble. It is even a great deal if everything runs smoothly day in -and day out, if the engine looks clean, and you can always develop the -amount of power you need. You must be able to do this before you can -give the fine points of engineering much consideration. - -When you come to the point where you are always able to keep out of -trouble, you are probably ready to learn how you can make your engine -do more work on less fuel than it does at present. In that direction -the best of us have an infinite amount to learn. It is a fact that -in an ordinary farm engine only about 4 per cent of the coal energy -is actually saved and used for work; the rest is lost, partly in the -boiler, more largely in the engine. So we see what a splendid chance -there is to save. - -If we are asked where all the lost energy goes to, we might reply in -a general sort of way, a good deal goes up the smokestack in smoke or -unused fuel; some is radiated from the boiler in the form of heat and -is lost without producing any effect on the steam within the boiler; -some is lost in the cooling of the steam as it passes to the steam -cylinder; some is lost in the cooling of the cylinder itself after -each stroke; some is lost through the pressure on the back of the -steam valve, causing a friction that requires a good deal of energy -in the engine to overcome; some is lost in friction in the bearings, -stuffing-boxes, etc. At each of these points economy may be practiced -if the engineer knows how to do it. We offer a few suggestions. - - -THEORY OF STEAM POWER. - -As economy is a scientific question, we cannot study it intelligently -without knowing something of the theory of heat, steam and the -transmission of power. There will be nothing technical in the following -pages; and as soon as the theory is explained in simple language, any -intelligent person will know for himself just what he ought to do in -any given case. - -First, let us define or describe heat according to the scientific -theory. Scientists suppose that all matter is made up of small -particles called molecules, so small that they have never been seen. -Each molecule is made up of still smaller particles called atoms. There -is nothing smaller than an atom, and there are only about sixty-five -different kinds of atoms, which are called elements; or rather, any -substance made up of only one kind of atom is called an element. -Thus iron is an element, and so is zinc, hydrogen, oxygen, etc. But -a substance like water is not an element, but a compound, since its -molecules are made up of an atom of oxygen united with two atoms of -hydrogen. Wood is made up of many different kinds of atoms united in -various ways. Air is not a compound, but a mixture of oxygen, nitrogen -and a few other substances in small quantities. - -The reason why air is a mixture and not a compound is an interesting -one, and brings us to our next point. In order to form a compound, -two different kinds of atoms must have an attraction for each other. -There is no attraction between oxygen and nitrogen; but there is great -attraction between oxygen and carbon, and when they get a chance they -rush together like long separated lovers. Anthracite coal is almost -pure carbon. So is charcoal. Soft coal consists of carbon with which -various other things are united, one of them being hydrogen. This is -interesting and important, because it accounts for a curious thing in -firing up boilers with soft coal. We have already said that water is -oxygen united with hydrogen. When soft coal burns, not only does the -carbon unite with oxygen, but the hydrogen unites with oxygen and forms -water, or steam. While the boilers are cold they will condense the -water or steam in the smoke, just as a cold plate in a steamy room will -condense water from the steamy air, so sweating. - -Now the scientists suppose that two or three atoms stick together by -reason of their attraction for each other and form molecules. These -molecules in turn stick together and form liquids and solids. The -tighter they stick, the harder the substance. At the same time, these -molecules are more or less loose, and are constantly moving back and -forth. In a solid like iron they move very little; but a current of -electricity through iron makes the molecules move in a peculiar way. In -a liquid like water, the molecules cling together very loosely, and may -easily be pulled apart. In any gas, like air or steam, the molecules -are entirely disconnected, and are constantly trying to get farther -apart. - -Heat, says the scientist, is nothing more or less than the movement -of the molecules back and forth. Heat up a piece of iron in a hot -furnace, and the molecules keep getting further and further apart, -and the iron gets softer and softer, till it becomes a liquid. If we -take some liquid like water and heat it, the molecules get farther and -farther apart, till the water boils, as we say, or turns into steam. -As steam the molecules have broken apart entirely, and are beating -back and forth so rapidly that they have a tendency to push each other -farther and farther apart. This pushing tendency is the cause of steam -pressure. It also explains why steam has an expansive power. - -Heat, then, is the movement of the molecules back and forth. There are -three fixed ranges in which they move; the small range makes a solid; -the next range makes a liquid; the third range makes a gas, such as -steam. These three states of matter as affected by heat are very sharp -and definite. The point at which a solid turns to a liquid is called -the melting point. The melting point of ice is 32° Fahr. The point at -which it turns to a gas is called the boiling point. With water that is -212° Fahr. The general tendency of heat is to push apart, or expand; -and when the heat is taken away the substances contract. - -Let us consider our steam boiler. We saw that some different kinds of -atoms have a strong tendency to rush together; for example, oxygen -and carbon. The air is full of oxygen, and coal and wood are full -of carbon. When they are raised to a certain temperature, and the -molecules get loose enough so that they can tear themselves away from -whatever they are attached to, they rush together with terrible force, -which sets all surrounding molecules to vibrating faster than ever. -This means that heat is given out. - -Another important thing is that when a solid changes to a liquid, or a -liquid to a gas, it must take up a certain amount of heat to keep the -molecules always just so far apart. That heat is said to become latent, -for it will not show in a thermometer, it will not cause anything to -expand, nor will it do any work. It merely serves to hold the molecules -just so far apart. - - -HOW ENERGY IS LOST. - -We may now see some of the ways in which energy is lost. First, the air -which goes into the firebox consists of nitrogen as well as oxygen. -That nitrogen is only in the way, and takes heat from the fire, which -it carries out at the smokestack. - -Again, if the air cannot get through the bed of coals easily enough, -or there is not enough of it so that every atom of carbon, etc., will -find the right number of atoms of oxygen, some of the atoms of carbon -will be torn off and united with oxygen, and the other atoms of carbon, -left without any oxygen to unite with, will go floating out at the -smokestack as black smoke. Also, the carbon and the oxygen cannot unite -except at a certain temperature, and when fresh fuel is thrown on the -fire it is cold, and a good many atoms of carbon after being loosened -up, get cooled off again before they have a chance to find an atom of -oxygen, and so they, too, go floating off and are lost. - -If the smoke could be heated up, and there were enough oxygen mixed -with it, the loose carbon would still burn and produce heat, and there -would be an economy of fuel. This has given rise to smoke consumers, -and arranging two boilers, so that when one is being fired the heat -from the other will catch the loose carbon before it gets away and burn -it up. - -So we have these points: - -1. Enough oxygen or air must get into a furnace so that every atom of -carbon will have its atom of oxygen. This means that you must have a -good draft and that the air must have a chance to get through the coal -or other fuel. - -2. The fuel must be kept hot enough all the time so that the carbon and -oxygen can unite. Throwing on too much cold fuel at one time will lower -the heat beyond the economical point and cause loss in thick smoke. - -3. If the smoke can pass over a hot bed of coals, or through a hot -chamber, the carbon in it may still be burned. This suggests putting -fuel at the front of the firebox, a little at a time, so that its smoke -will have to pass over a hot bed of coals and the waste carbon will be -burned. When the fresh fuel gets heated up, it may be pushed farther -back. - -From a practical point of view these points mean, No dead plates in a -furnace to keep the air from going through coal or wood; a thin fire so -the air can get through easily; place the fresh fuel where its smoke -will have a chance to be burned; and do not cool off the furnace by -putting on much fresh fuel at a time. - -(Later we will give more hints on firing.) - - -HOW HEAT IS DISTRIBUTED. - -We have described heat as the movement of molecules back and forth at a -high rate of speed. If these heated molecules beat against a solid like -iron, its molecules are set in motion, one knocks the next, and so on, -just as you push one man in a crowd, he pushes the next, and so on till -the push comes out on the other side. So heat passes through iron and -appears on the other side. This is called "conduction." - -All space is supposed to be filled with a substance in which heat, -light, etc., may be transmitted, called the ether. When the molecules -of a sheet of iron are heated, or set vibrating, they transmit the -vibration through the air, or ether. This is called "radiation." Heat -is "conducted" through solid and liquid substances, and "radiated" -through gases. - -Now some substances conduct heat readily, and some do so with the -greatest difficulty. Iron is a good conductor; carbon, or soot on the -flues of a boiler, and lime or scale on the inside of a boiler, are -very poor conductors. So the heat will go through the iron and steel to -the water in a boiler quickly and easily, and a large per cent of the -heat of the furnace will get to the water in a boiler. When a boiler is -old and is clogged with soot and coated with lime, the heat cannot get -through easily, and goes off in the smokestack. The air coming out of -the smokestack will be much hotter; and that extra heat is lost. - -Iron is a good radiator, too. So if the outer shell of a boiler is -exposed to the air, a great deal of heat will run off into space and be -lost. Here, then, is where you need a non-conductor, as it is called, -such as lime, wood, or the like. - -Economy says, cover the outside of a boiler shell with a non-conductor. -This may be brickwork in a set boiler; in a traction boiler it means -a jacket of wood, plaster, hair, or the like. The steam pipe, if it -passes through outer air, should be covered with felt; and the steam -cylinder ought to have its jacket, too. - -At the same time all soot and all scale should be scrupulously cleaned -away. - - -PROPERTIES OF STEAM. - -As we have already seen, steam is a gas. It is slightly blue in color, -just as the water in the ocean is blue, or the air in the sky. - -We must distinguish between steam and vapor. Vapor is small particles -of water hanging in the air. They seem to stick to the molecules -composing the air, or hang there in minute drops. Water hanging in the -air is, of course, water still. Its molecules do not have the movement -that the molecules of a true gas do, such as steam is. Steam, moreover, -has absorbed latent heat, and has expansive force; but vapor has no -latent heat, and no expansive force. So vapor is dead and lifeless, -while steam is live and full of energy to do work. - -When vapor gets mixed with steam it is only in the way; it is a sort of -dead weight that must be carried; and the steam power is diminished by -having vapor mixed with it. - -Now all steam as it bubbles up through water in boiling takes up with -it a certain amount of vapor. Such steam is called "wet" steam. When -the vapor is no longer in it, the steam is called "dry" steam. It is -dry steam that does the best work, and that every engineer wants to get. - -While water will be taken up to great heights in the air and form -clouds, in steam it will not rise very much, and at a certain height -above the level of the water in a boiler the steam will be much drier -than near the surface. For this reason steam domes have been devised, -so that the steam may be taken out at a point as high as possible above -the water in the boiler, and so be as dry as possible. Also "dry tubes" -have been devised, which let the steam pass through many small holes -that serve to keep back the water to a certain extent. - -However, there will be more or less moisture in all steam until it -has been superheated, as it is called. This may be done by passing it -through the hot part of the furnace, where the added heat will turn all -the moisture in the steam into steam, and we shall have perfectly dry -steam. - -The moment, however, that steam goes through a cold pipe, or one cooled -by radiation, or goes into a cold cylinder, or a cylinder cooled by -radiation, some of the steam will turn to water, or condense, as it is -called. So we have the same trouble again. - -Much moisture passing into the cylinder with the steam is called -"priming." In that case the dead weight of water has become so great as -to kill a great part of the steam power. - - -HOW TO USE THE EXPANSIVE POWER OF STEAM. - -We have said that the molecules in steam are always trying to get -farther and farther apart. If they are free in the air, they will soon -scatter; but if they are confined in a boiler or cylinder they merely -push out in every direction, forming "pressure." - -When steam is let into the cylinder it has the whole accumulated -pressure in the boiler behind it, and of course that exerts a strong -push on the piston. Shut off the boiler pressure and the steam in the -cylinder will still have its own natural tendency to expand. As the -space in the cylinder grows larger with the movement of the piston from -end to end, the expansive power of the steam becomes less and less, -of course. However, every little helps, and the push this lessened -expansive force exerts on the piston is so much energy saved. If the -full boiler pressure is kept on the piston the whole length of the -stroke, and then the exhaust port is immediately opened, all this -expansive energy of the steam is lost. It escapes through the exhaust -nozzle into the smokestack and is gone. Possibly it cannot get out -quickly enough, and causes back pressure on the cylinder when the -piston begins its return stroke, so reducing the power of the engine. - -To save this the skilled engineer "notches up" his reverse lever, as -they say. The reverse lever controls the valve travel. When the lever -is in the last notch the valve has its full travel. When the lever is -in the center notch the valve has no travel at all, and no steam can -get into the cylinder; on the other side the lever allows the valve to -travel gradually more and more in the opposite direction, so reversing -the engine. - -As the change from one direction to the other direction is, of course, -gradual, the valve movement is shortened by degrees, and lets steam -into the cylinder for a correspondingly less time. At its full travel -it perhaps lets steam into the cylinder for three-quarters of its -stroke. For the last quarter the work is done by the expansive power of -the steam. - -Set the lever in the half notch, and the travel of the valve is so -altered that steam can get into the cylinder only during half the -stroke of the piston, the work during the rest of the stroke being done -by the expansive force of the steam. - -Set the lever in the notch next to the middle notch, or the quarter -notch, and steam will get into the cylinder only during a quarter of -the stroke of the piston, the work being done during three-quarters of -the stroke by the expansive force of the steam. - -Obviously the more the steam is expanded the less work it can do. But -when it escapes at the exhaust there will be very little pressure to be -carried away and lost. - -Therefore when the load on his engine is light the economical engineer -will "notch up" his engine with the reverse lever, and will use up -correspondingly less steam and save correspondingly more fuel. When the -load is unusually heavy, however, he will have to use the full power of -the pressure in the boiler, and the waste cannot be helped. - - -THE COMPOUND ENGINE. - -The compound engine is an arrangement of steam cylinders to save the -expansive power of steam at all times by letting the steam from one -cylinder where it is at high pressure into another after it exhausts -from the first, in this second cylinder doing more work purely by the -expansive power of the steam. - -The illustration shows a sectional view of a compound engine having two -cylinders, one high pressure and one low. The low pressure cylinder is -much larger than the high pressure. There is a single plate between -them called the center head, and the same piston rod is fitted with two -pistons, one for each cylinder. The steam chest does not receive steam -from the boiler, but from the exhaust of the high pressure cylinder. -The steam from the boiler goes into a chamber in the double valve, from -which it passes to the ports of the high pressure cylinder. At the -return stroke the exhaust steam escapes into the steam chest, and from -there it passes into the low pressure cylinder. There may be one valve -riding on the back of another; but the simplest form of compound engine -is built with a single double valve, which opens and closes the ports -for both cylinders at one movement. - -[Illustration: WOOLF TANDEM CYLINDER.] - -Theoretically the compound engine should effect a genuine economy. In -practice there are many things to operate against this. Of course if -the steam pressure is low to start with, the amount of pressure lost in -the exhaust will be small. But if it is very high, the saving in the -low pressure cylinder will be relatively large. If the work can be done -just as well with a low pressure, it would be a practical waste to keep -the pressure abnormally high in order to make the most of the compound -engine. - -An engine must be a certain size before the saving of a compound -cylinder will be appreciable. In these days nearly all very large -engines are compound, while small engines are simple. - -Another consideration to be taken into account is that a compound is -more complicated and so harder to manage; and when any unfavorable -condition causes loss it causes proportionately more loss on a compound -than on a simple engine. For these and other reasons compound engines -have been used less for traction purposes than simple engines have. -It is probable that a skilled and thoroughly competent engineer, who -would manage his engine in a scientific manner, would get more out of -a compound than out of a simple; and this would be especially true -in regions where fuel is high. If fuel is cheap and the engineer -unskilled, a compound engine would be a poor economizer. - - -FRICTION. - -We have seen that the molecules of water have a tendency to stick in -the steam as vapor or moisture. All molecules that are brought into -close contact have more or less tendency to stick together, and this is -called friction. The steam as it passes along the steam pipe is checked -to a certain extent by the friction on the sides of the pipe. Friction -causes heat, and it means that the heat caused has been taken from some -source of energy. The friction of the steam diminishes the energy of -the steam. - -So, too, the fly wheel moving against the air suffers friction with -the air, besides having to drive particles of air out of its path. All -the moving parts of an engine where one metal moves on another suffer -friction, since where the metals are pressed very tightly together they -have more tendency to stick than when not pressed so tightly. When -iron is pressed too tightly, as under the blows of a hammer in a soft -state, it actually welds together solidly. - -There is a great deal of friction in the steam cylinder, since the -packing rings must press hard against the walls of the cylinder to -prevent the steam from getting through. There is a great deal of -friction between the D valve and its seat, because of the high steam -pressure on the back of the valve. There is friction in the stuffing -boxes both of the valve and the piston. There is friction at all the -bearings. - -There are various ways in which friction may be reduced. The most -obvious is to adjust all parts so nicely that they will bind as little -as possible. The stuffing-boxes will be no tighter than is necessary to -prevent leaking of steam; and so with the piston rings. Journal boxes -will be tight enough to prevent pounding, but no tighter. To obtain -just the right adjustment requires great patience and the keen powers -of observation and judgment. - -The makers of engines try to reduce friction as much as possible by -using anti-friction metals in the boxes. Iron and steel have to be used -in shafts, gears, etc., because of the strength that they possess; but -there are some metals that stick to each other and to iron and steel -much less than iron or steel stick to each other when pressed close -together. These metals are more or less soft; but they may be used in -boxes and journal bearings. They are called anti-friction metals. The -hardest for practical purposes is brass, and brass is used where there -is much wear. Where there is less wear various alloys of copper, tin, -zinc, etc., may be used in the boxes. One of these is babbit metal, -which is often used in the main journal box. - -All these anti-friction metals wear out rapidly, and they must be put -in so that they can be adjusted or renewed easily. - -But the great anti-friction agent is oil. - -Oil is peculiar in that while the molecules seem to stick tightly -together and to a metal like iron or steel, they roll around upon each -other with the utmost ease. An ideal lubricator is one that sticks so -tight to the journal that it forms a sort of cushion all around it, and -prevents any of its molecules coming into contact with the molecules of -the metal box. All the friction then takes place between the different -molecules of oil, and this friction is a minimum. - -The same principle has been applied to mechanics in the ball bearing. -A number of little balls roll around between the journal and its box, -preventing the two metals from coming into contact with each other; -while the balls, being spheres, touch each other only at a single -point, and the total space at which sticking can occur is reduced to a -minimum. - -As is well known, there is great difference in oils. Some evaporate, -like gasoline and kerosene, and so disappear quickly. Others do not -stick tightly to the journal, so are easily forced out of place, and -the metals are allowed to come together. What is wanted, then, is a -heavy, sticky oil that will not get hard, but will always form a good -cushion between bearings. - -Steam cylinders cannot be oiled directly, but the oil must be carried -to the steam chest and cylinder in the steam. A good cylinder oil must -be able to stand a high temperature. While it is diffused easily in the -steam, it must stick tightly to the walls of the steam cylinder and -to the valve seat, and keep them lubricated. Once it is stuck to the -metal, the heat of the steam should not evaporate it and carry it away. - -Again, a cylinder oil should not have any acid in it which would have -a tendency to corrode the metal. Nearly all animal fats do have some -such acid. So tallow and the like should not be placed where they can -corrode iron or steel. Lard and suet alone are suitable for use on an -engine. - -When it comes to lubricating traction gears, other problems appear. A -heavy grease will stick to the gears and prevent them from cutting; but -it will stick equally to all sand and grit that may come along, and -that, working between the cogs, may cut them badly. So some engineers -recommend the use on gears of an oil that does not gather so much dirt. - -The friction of the valve on its seat due to the pressure of the steam -on its back has given rise to many inventions for counteracting it. -The most obvious of these is what is called "the balanced valve." In -the compound engine, where the steam pressure is obtained upon both -sides of the valve, it rides much more lightly on its seat--so lightly, -indeed, that when steam pressure is low, as in going down hill or -operating under a light load, plunger pistons must be used to keep the -valve down tight on its seat. - -The poppet valves were devised to obviate the undue friction of the D -valve; but the same loss of energy is to a certain extent transferred, -and the practical saving is not always equal to the theoretical. On -large stationary engines rotary valves and other forms, such as are -used on the Corliss engine, have come into common use; but they are too -complicated for a farm engine, which must be as simple as possible, -with least possible liability of getting out of order. - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -ECONOMY IN RUNNING A FARM ENGINE.--(CONT.) - - -PRACTICAL POINTS. - -The first practical point in the direction of farm engine economy is -to note that the best work can be done only when every part of the -engine and boiler are in due proportion. If the power is in excess of -the work to be done there is loss; if the grate surface is too large -cold air gets through the fuel and prevents complete combustion, and -if the grate surface is too small, not enough air gets in; if the -steaming power of the boiler is too large, heat is radiated away that -otherwise could be saved, for every foot of exposed area in the boiler -is a source of loss; if the steaming power of the boiler is too low -for the work to be done, it requires extra fuel to force the boiler to -do its work, and any forcing means comparatively large loss or waste. -It will be seen that not only must the engine and boiler be built with -the proper proportions, but they must be bought with a nice sense -of proportion to the work expected of them. This requires excellent -judgment and some experience in measuring work in horsepowers. - - -GRATE SURFACE AND FUEL. - -The grate surface in a firebox should be not less than two-thirds -of a square foot per horsepower, for average size traction engines. -If the horsepower of an engine is small, proportionately more grate -surface will be needed; if it is large, the grate surface may be -proportionately much smaller. An engine boiler 7×8×200 rev., with 100 -lbs. pressure, should have a grate surface not less than six square -feet, and seven would be better. In a traction engine there is always -a tendency to make the grate surface as small as possible, so that the -engine will not be cumbersome. - -Another reason why the grate surface should be sufficiently large is -that forced draft is a bad thing, since it has a tendency to carry the -products of combustion and hot gases through the smokestack and out -into space before they have time to complete combustion and especially -before the heat of the gases has time to be absorbed by the boiler -surface. A large grate surface, then, with a moderate draft, is the -most economical. - -The draft depends on other things, however. If a great deal of fine -fuel is thrown on a fire, the air must be forced through, because it -cannot get through in the natural way. This results in waste. So a fire -should be as open as possible. Coal should be "thin" on the grates; -wood should be thrown in so that there will be plenty of air spaces; -straw should be fed in just so that it will burn up completely as it -goes in. Moderate size coal is better than small or fine. Dust in coal -checks the draft. A good engineer will choose his fuel and handle his -fire so that he can get along with as little forced draft as possible. - -In a straw burning engine a good circulation of air can be obtained, if -the draft door is just below the straw funnel, by extending the funnel -into the furnace six inches or so. This keeps the straw from clogging -up the place where the air enters and enables it to get at the fuel so -much more freely that the combustion is much more complete. - -We have already suggested that in firing with coal, the fresh fuel be -deposited in front, so that the smoke will have to pass over live coals -and so the combustion will be more complete. Then when the coal is well -lighted it can be poked back over the other portions of the grate. This -method has another advantage, in that the first heating is usually -sufficient to separate the pure coal from the mineral substances which -form clinkers, and most of the clinkers will be deposited at that one -point in the grate. Here they can easily be lifted out, and will not -seriously interfere with the burning of the coal as they would if -scattered all over the grate. Clinkers in front can easily be taken -out by hooking the poker over them toward the back of the firebox and -pulling them up and to the front. They often come out as one big mass -which can be easily lifted out. - -The best time to clean the grate is when there is a good brisk fire. -Then it will not cause steam to go down. Stirring a fire does little -good. For one thing, it breaks up the clinkers and allows them to run -down on the grate bars when they stick and finally warp the bars. -If the fire is not stirred the clinkers can be lifted out in large -masses. Stirring a fire also creates a tendency to choke up or coke, -and interferes with the even and regular combustion of the coal at all -points. - -The highest heat that can be produced is a yellow heat. When there is a -good yellow heat, forced draft will only carry off the heat and cause -waste. It will not cause still more rapid combustion. When the heat is -merely red, increased draft will raise the temperature. Combustion is -not complete until the flame shows yellow. However, if the draft is -slight and time is given, red heat will be nearly as effective, but it -will not carry the heated gases over so large a part of the heating -surface of the boiler. With a very large grate surface, red heat will -do very well. Certainly it will be better than a forced draft, or an -effort at heating beyond the yellow point. - - -BOILER HEATING SURFACE. - -The heat of the furnace does its work only as the heated gases touch -the boiler surface. The iron conducts the heat through to the water, -which is raised to the boiling point and turned into steam. - -Now the amount of heat that the boiler will take up is directly -in proportion to the amount of exposed surface and to the time of -exposure. If the boiler heating surface is small, and the draft is -forced so that the gases pass through rapidly, they do not have a -chance to communicate much heat. - -Also if the heating surface is too large, so that it cannot all be -utilized, the part not used becomes a radiating surface, and the -efficiency of the boiler is impaired. - -Practice has shown that the amount of heating surface practically -required by a boiler is 12 to 15 square feet per horsepower. In -reckoning heating surface, all area which the heated gases touch is -calculated. - -Another point in regard to heating surface in the production of steam -is this, that only such surface as is exposed to a heat equal to -turning the water into steam is effective. If there is a pressure -of 150 lbs. the temperature at which the water would turn to steam -would be 357 degrees, and any gases whose temperature was below 357 -degrees would have no effect on the heating surface except to prevent -radiation. Thus in a return flue boiler the heated gases become cooled -often to such an extent before they pass out at the smokestack that -they do not help the generation of steam. Yet a heat just below 357 -degrees would turn water into steam under 149 lbs. pressure. Though it -has work in it, the heat is lost. - -Another practical point as to economy in large heating surface is that -it costs money to make, and is cumbersome to move about. It may cost -more to move a traction engine with large boiler from place to place -than the saving in fuel would amount to. So the kind of roads and the -cost of fuel must be taken into account and nicely balanced. - -However, it may be said that a boiler with certain outside dimensions -that will generate 20 horsepower will be more economical than one of -the same size that will generate only 10 horsepower. In selecting an -engine, the higher the horsepower for the given dimensions, the more -economical of both fuel and water. - -The value of heating surface also depends on the material through which -the heat must penetrate, and the rapidity with which the heat will -pass. We have already pointed out that soot and lime scale permit heat -to pass but slowly and if they are allowed to accumulate will greatly -reduce the steaming power of a boiler for a given consumption of -fuel. Another point is that the thinner the iron or steel, the better -will the heat get through even that. So it follows that flues, being -thinner, are better conductors than the sides of the firebox. Long -flues are better than short ones in that the long ones allow less soot, -etc., to accumulate than the short ones do, and afford more time for -the boiler to absorb the heat of the gases. - -Again, we have stated that heating surface is valuable only as it is -exposed to the gases at a sufficiently high temperature. Some boilers -have a tendency to draw the hot gases most rapidly through the upper -flues, while the lower flues do not get their proportion of the heat. -This results in a loss, for the heat to give its full benefit should be -equally distributed. - -To prevent the heat being drawn too rapidly through upper flues, a -baffle plate may be placed in the smoke box just above the upper flues, -thus preventing them from getting so much of the draft. - -Again, if the exhaust nozzle is too low down, the draft through the -lower flues may be greater than through the upper. This is remedied -by putting a piece of pipe on the exhaust to raise it higher in the -smokestack. - - -EXPANSION AND CONDENSATION. - -We have already pointed out that economy results if we hook up -the reverse lever so that the expansive force of the steam has an -opportunity to work during half or three-quarters of the stroke. - -One difficulty arising from this method is that the walls of the -cylinder cool more rapidly when not under the full boiler pressure. -Condensation in the cylinder is a practical difficulty which should be -met and overcome as far as possible. - -High speed gives some advantage. A judicious use of cushion helps -condensation somewhat also, because when any gas like steam or air is -compressed, it gives off heat, and this heat in the cushion will keep -up the temperature of the cylinder. This cannot be carried very far, -however, for the back pressure of cushion will reduce the energy of the -engine movement. - - -LEAD AND CLEARANCE. - -Too much clearance will detract from the power of an engine, as there -is just so much more waste space to be filled with hot steam. Too -little clearance will cause pounding. - -Likewise there will be loss of power in an engine if the lead is too -great or too little. The proper amount of lead differs with conditions. -A high speed engine requires more than a low speed, and if an engine -is adjusted for a certain speed, it should be kept uniformly at that -speed, as variation causes loss. The more clearance an engine has the -more lead it needs. Also the quicker the valve motion, the less lead -required. Sometimes when a large engine is pulling only a light load -and there is no chance to shorten the cut-off, a turn of the eccentric -disk for a trifle more lead will effect some economy. - -Cut-off should be as sharp as possible. A slow cut-off in reducing -pressure before cut-off is complete, causes a loss of power in the -engine. - - -THE EXHAUST. - -If the exhaust from the cylinder does not begin before the piston -begins its return stroke, there will be back pressure due to the -slowness with which the valve opens. The exhaust should be earlier in -proportion to the slowness of the valve motion, and also, in proportion -to the speed of the engine, since the higher the speed the less time -there is for the steam to get out. It follows that an engine whose -exhaust is arranged for a low speed cannot be run at a high speed -without causing loss from back pressure. - -In using steam expansively the relative proportion between the back -pressure and the force of the steam is of course greater. So in using -steam expansively the back pressure must be at a minimum, and this is -especially true in the compound engine. So many things affect this, -that it becomes one of the reasons why it is hard to use a compound -engine with as great economy as theory would indicate. - -Another thing, the smallness of the exhaust nozzle in the smokestack -affects the back pressure. The smaller the nozzle, the greater the -draft a given amount of steam will create; but the more back pressure -there will be, due to the inability of the exhaust steam to get out -easily. So the exhaust nozzle should be as large as circumstances -will permit. It is a favorite trick with engineers testing the pulling -power of their engines to remove the exhaust nozzle entirely for a few -minutes when the fire is up. The back pressure saved will at once show -in the pulling power of the engine, and every one will be surprised. Of -course the fire couldn't be kept going long without the nozzle on. We -have already pointed out that a natural draft is better than a forced -one. Here is another reason for it. - - -LEAKS. - -Leaks always cause a waste of power. They may usually be seen when -about the boiler; but leaks in the piston and valve will often go -unnoticed. - -It is to be observed that if a valve does not travel a short distance -beyond the end of its seat, it will wear the part it does travel on, -while the remaining part will not wear and will become a shoulder. Such -a shoulder will nearly always cause a leak in the valve, and besides -will add the friction, and otherwise destroy the economy of the engine. - -Likewise the piston will wear part of the cylinder and leave a shoulder -at either end if it does not pass entirely beyond the steam-tight -portion of the inside of the cylinder. That it may always do this and -yet leave sufficient clearance, the counterbore has been devised. All -good engines are bored larger at each end so that the piston will pass -beyond the steam-tight portion a trifle at the end of each stroke. Of -course it must not pass far enough to allow any steam to get through. - -Self-setting piston rings are now generally used. They are kept in -place by their own tension. There will always be a little leakage at -the lap. The best lap is probably a broken joint rather than a diagonal -one. Moreover, as the rings wear they will have a tendency to get loose -unless they are thickest at a point just opposite to the lap, since -this is the point at which it is necessary to make up for the tension -lost by the lapping. - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -DIFFERENT TYPES OF ENGINES. - - -STATIONARY. - -So far we have described and referred exclusively to the usual form of -the farm traction engine, which is nearly always the simplest kind of -an engine, except in one particular, namely, the reverse which gives a -variable cut-off. Stationary engines, however, are worked under such -conditions that various changes in the arrangement may be made which -gives economy in operating, or other desirable qualities. We will now -briefly describe some of the different kinds of stationary engines. - -[Illustration: D. JUNE & CO.'S STATIONARY FOUR-VALVE ENGINE.] - - -THROTTLING AND AUTOMATIC CUT-OFF TYPES. - -Engines may be divided into two classes, namely, throttling and -automatic cut-off engines. The throttling engine regulates the speed of -the engine by cutting off the supply of steam from the boiler, either -by the hand of the engineer on the throttle or by a governor working a -special throttling governor valve. Railroad locomotives are throttling -engines, and moreover they have no governor, the speed being regulated -by the engineer at the throttle valve. Traction engines are usually -throttling engines provided with a governor. - -An automatic cut-off engine regulates its speed by a governor -connected with the valve, and does it by shortening the time during -which steam can enter the cylinder. This is a great advantage, in -that the expansive power of steam is given a chance to work, while in -the throttling engine steam is merely cut off. The subject has been -fully discussed under "Economy in Running a Farm Engine." An automatic -cut-off engine is much the most economical. - -While on traction engines the governor is usually of the ball variety, -on stationary engines improved forms of governors are also placed in -the fly wheel, and work in various ways, according to the requirements -of the valve gear. - - -THE CORLISS ENGINE. - -The Corliss engine is a type now well known and made by many different -manufacturers. It is considered one of the most economical stationary -engines made, but cannot be used for traction purposes. It may be -compound, and may be used with a condenser. It cannot be used as a high -speed engine, since the valves will not work rapidly enough. - -The peculiarity of a Corliss engine is the arrangement of the valves. -It has four valves instead of one, and they are of the semi-rotary -type. They consist of a small, long cylinder which rocks back and -forth, so as to close and open the port, which is rather wide and short -compared to other types. There is a valve at each end of the cylinder -opening usually into the clearance space, to admit steam; and two more -valves below the cylinder for the exhaust. These exhaust valves allow -any water of condensation to run out of the cylinder. Moreover, as the -steam when it leaves the cylinder is much colder than when it enters, -the exhaust always cools the steam ports, and when the same ports are -used for exhaust and admission the fresh steam has to pass through -ports that have been cooled and cause condensation. In the Corliss -engine the exhaust does not have an opportunity to cool the live steam -ports and the condensation is reduced. This works considerable economy. - -Also the Corliss valves have little friction from steam pressure on -their own backs, since the moment they are lifted from their seats they -work freely. The valves are controlled by a governor so as to make the -automatic cut-off engine. - -The Corliss type of frame for engine is often used on traction engines -and means the use of convex shoes on cross-head and concave ways or -guides. In locomotive type, cross-head slides in four square angle -guides. - - -THE HIGH SPEED ENGINE. - -A high speed engine means one in which the speed of the piston back and -forth is high, rather than the speed of rotation, there being sometimes -a difference. High speed engines came into use because of the need of -such to run dynamos for electric lighting. Without a high speed engine -an intermediate gear would have to be used, so as to increase the speed -of the operating shaft. In the high speed engine this is done away with. - -As an engine's power varies directly as its speed as well as its -cylinder capacity or size, an engine commonly used for ten horsepower -would become a twenty horsepower engine if the speed could be doubled. -So high speed engines are very small and compact, and require less -metal to build them. Therefore they should be much cheaper per -horsepower. - -A high speed engine differs from a low speed in no essential -particular, except the adjustment of parts. A high steam pressure must -be used; a long, narrow valve port is used, so that the full steam -pressure may be let on quickly at the beginning of the stroke when the -piston is reversing its motion and needs power to get started quickly -on its return; the slide valve must be used, since the semi-rotary -Corliss would be too wide and short for a quick opening. Some high -speed engines are built which use four valves, as does the Corliss. The -friction of the slide valve is usually "balanced" in some way, either -by "pressure plates" above the valve, which prevent the steam from -getting at the top and pressing the valve down, or by letting the steam -under the valve, making it slide on narrow strips, since the pressure -above would then be reduced in proportion with the smallness of the -bearing surface below, and if the bearing surface were very small the -pressure above would be correspondingly small, perhaps only enough to -keep the valve in place. Some automatic cut-off gear is almost always -used. A high speed engine may attain 900 revolutions per minute, 600 -being common. In many ways it is economical. - - -CONDENSING AND NON-CONDENSING. - -In the traction engine the exhaust is used in the smokestack to help -the draft, since the smokestack must necessarily be short. A stationary -engine is usually provided with a boiler set in brickwork, and a -furnace with a high chimney, which creates all the draft needed. In -other words, the heated gases wasted in a traction engine are utilized -to make the draft. - -It then becomes desirable to save the power in the exhaust steam in -some way. Some of this can be used to heat the feed water, but only a -fraction of it. - -Now when the exhaust steam issues into the air it must overcome the -pressure of the atmosphere, nearly 15 lbs. to the square inch, which -is a large item to begin with. This can be saved by letting the steam -exhaust into a condenser, where a spray of cold water or the like -suddenly condenses the steam so that a vacuum is created. There is -then no back pressure on the exhaust steam, theoretically. Practically -a perfect vacuum cannot be created, and there is a back pressure of 2 -or 3 lbs. per square inch. By the use of a condenser a back pressure -of about 12 lbs. is taken off the head of the piston on its return -stroke, a matter of considerable economy. But an immense amount of -water is required to run a condenser, namely, 20 times as much for a -given saving of power as is required in a boiler to make that power. So -condensers are used only where water is cheap. - - -COMPOUND AND CROSS-COMPOUND. - -We have already explained the economy effected by the compound engine, -in which a large low pressure cylinder is operated by the exhaust -from a small high pressure cylinder. In the cut used for illustration -the low pressure cylinder is in direct line with the high pressure -cylinder, and one piston rod connects both pistons. This arrangement is -called the "tandem." Sometimes the low pressure cylinder is placed by -the side of the high pressure, or at a distance from it, and operates -another piston and connecting rod. By using a steam chest to store the -exhaust steam and varying the cut-off of the two cylinders, the crank -of the low pressure may be at an angle of 90 degrees with the crank of -the high pressure, and there can be no dead center. - -[Illustration: THE WOOLF COMPOUND.] - -When a very high pressure of steam is used the exhaust from the low -pressure cylinder may be used to operate a third cylinder; and the -exhaust from that to operate a fourth. Engines so arranged are termed -triple and quadruple expansion engines, or multiple expansion. - -The practical saving of a compound engine when its value can be -utilized to the full is 10 per cent to 20 per cent. Small engines are -seldom compounded, large engines nearly always. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -GAS AND GASOLINE ENGINES. - - -The gas and gasoline engines (they are exactly the same except that one -generates the gas it needs from gasoline, while the other takes common -illuminating gas, the use of gas or gasoline being interchangeable on -the same engine by readjustment of some of the parts) are operated on -a principle entirely different from steam. While they are arranged -very much as a steam engine, the power is given by an explosion of gas -mixed with air in the cylinder. Instead of being a steady pressure -like that furnished by steam, it is a sudden pressure given to one end -of the piston usually once in four strokes or two revolutions, one -stroke being required to draw the gasoline in, the second to compress -it, the third to receive the effect of the explosion (this is the only -power stroke), the fourth to push out the burned gases preparatory to -admitting a new charge. The fact that force is given the cylinder at -such wide intervals makes it necessary to have an extra heavy flywheel -to keep the engine steady, and the double cylinder engine which -can give a stroke at least every revolution is still better and is -indispensable when the flywheel cannot be above a certain weight. - -For small horsepowers, such as are required for pumping, feed grinding, -churning, etc., the gas engine is so much more convenient and so -very much cheaper in operation than the small steam engine that it -is safe to say that within a very few years the gas engine will have -completely displaced the small steam engine. In fact, the discovery of -the gas engine permits the same economies for the small engine that the -progress in steam engineering has made possible for the large steam -engine. As yet the gas engine has made little or no progress against -the large steam plant, with its Corliss engine, its triple expansion, -its condenser, and all the other appliances which are not practicable -with the small engine. - - -COMPARISON OF STEAM AND GAS ENGINES. - -The following points prepared by an experienced farm engine -manufacturer will show clearly the advantages of the gas engine over -the steam engine for general use about a farm: - -In the first place, the farmer uses power, as a rule, at short -intervals, and also uses small power. Should he install a steam engine -and wish power for an hour or two, it would be necessary for him to -start a fire under the boiler and get up steam before he could start -the engine. This would take at least an hour. At the end of the run -he would have a good fire and good steam pressure, but no use for it, -and would have to let the fire die out and the pressure run down. This -involves a great waste of water, time and fuel. With a gasoline engine -he is always ready and can start to work within a few minutes after -he makes up his mind to do so, and he does not have to anticipate -his wants in the power line for half a day. Aside from this, in some -states, notably Ohio, the law compels any person operating an engine -above ten horsepower to carry a steam engineer's license. This does not -apply to a gasoline engine. - -Again, the gasoline engine is as portable as a traction engine, and can -be applied to all the uses of a traction engine and to general farm -use all the rest of the year. At little expense it can be fitted up to -hoist hay, to pump water, to husk and shell corn, to saw wood, and even -by recent inventions to plowing. It is as good about a farm as an extra -man and a team of horses. - -A gasoline engine can be run on a pint of gasoline per hour for -each horsepower, and as soon as the work is done there is no more -consumption of fuel and the engine can be left without fear, except for -draining off the water in the water jacket in cold weather. A steam -engine for farm use would require at least four pounds of coal per -horsepower per hour, and in the majority of cases it would be twice -that, taking into consideration the amount of fuel necessary to start -the fire and that left unburned after the farmer is through with his -power. If you know the cost of crude gasoline at your point and the -cost of coal, you can easily figure the exact economy of a gasoline -engine for your use. To the economy of fuel question may be added the -labor or cost of pumping or hauling water. - -The only point wherein a farmer might find it advantageous to have a -steam plant would be where he is running a dairy and wished steam and -hot water for cleansing his creamery machinery. This can be largely -overcome by using the water from the jackets which can be kept at -a temperature of about 175 degrees, and if a higher temperature is -needed he can heat it with the exhaust from the engine. The time will -certainly come soon when no farmer will consider himself up to date -until he has a gasoline engine. - -Some persons unaccustomed to gasoline may wonder if a gasoline engine -is as safe as a steam engine. The fact is, they are very much safer, -and do not require a skilled engineer to run them. The gasoline tank is -usually placed outside the building, where the danger from an explosion -is reduced to a minimum. The only danger that may be encountered is in -starting the engine, filling the supply tank when a burner near at hand -is in flame, etc. Once a gasoline engine is started and is supplied -with gasoline, it may be left entirely alone without care for hours at -a time without danger and without adjustment. - -With a steam engine there is always danger, unless a highly skilled man -is watching the engine every moment. If the water gets a little low he -is liable to have an explosion; if it gets a little too high he may -knock out a cylinder head in his engine; the fire must be fed every few -minutes; the grates cleaned. There is always something to be done about -a steam engine. - -So here is another point of great saving in a gasoline engine, namely, -the saving of one man's time. The man who runs the gasoline engine may -give nearly all his time to other work, such as feeding a corn-sheller, -a fodder chopper, or the like. - -Kerosene may also be used in the same way with a special type of gas -engine. - -The amounts of fuel required of the different kinds possible in a gas -engine are compared as follows by Roper: - -Illuminating gas, 17 to 20 cubic feet per horsepower per hour. - -Pittsburg natural gas, as low as 11 cubic feet. - -74° gasoline, known as stove gasoline, one-tenth of a gallon. - -Refined petroleum, one-tenth of a gallon. - -If a gas producing plant using coal supplies the gas, one pound of coal -per horsepower per hour is sufficient on a large engine. - - -DESCRIPTION OF THE GAS OR GASOLINE ENGINE. - -The gas engine consists of a cylinder and piston, piston rod, -cross-head, connecting rod, crank and flywheel, very similar to those -used in the steam engine. - -There is a gas valve, an exhaust valve, and in connection with the gas -valve a self-acting air valve. The gas valve and the exhaust valve -are operated by lever arm or cam worked from the main shaft, arranged -by spiral gear or the like so that it gets one movement for each two -revolutions of the main shaft. Such an engine is called "four cycle" -(meaning one power stroke to each four strokes of the piston), and -works as follows: - -As the piston moves forward the air and fuel valves are simultaneously -opened and closed, starting to open just as the piston starts forward -and closing just as the piston completes its forward stroke. Gas and -air are simultaneously sucked into the cylinder, by this movement. -As the cylinder returns it compresses the charge taken in during the -forward stroke until it again reaches back center. The mixture in the -Otto engine is compressed to about 70 pounds per square inch. Ignition -then takes place, causing the mixture to explode and giving the force -from which the power is derived. As the crank again reaches its forward -center the piston uncovers a port which allows the greater part of -the burnt gases to escape. As the piston comes back, the exhaust -valve is opened, enabling the piston to sweep out the remainder of the -burnt gases. By the time the crank is on the back center the exhaust -valve is closed and the engine is ready to take another charge, having -completed two revolutions or four strokes. The side shaft which -performs the functions of opening and closing the valves, getting its -motion in the Columbus engine by a pair of spiral gears, makes but one -revolution to two of the crank shaft. - -[Illustration: FAIRBANKS, MORSE & CO.'S GASOLINE ENGINE. - -A is engine cylinder. H is gasoline supply tank located outside of -building and under ground. I is air-suction pipe. E is gasoline pump. -O is suction pipe from gasoline tank. N is pipe from pump E leading to -reservoir P. Q is igniter tube. R is chimney surrounding tube. T is -tank supplying Bunsen burner for heating tube.] - -Gas engines are governed in various ways. One method is to attach a -ball governor similar to the Waters on the steam engine. When the speed -is too high, the balls go out, and a valve is closed or partly closed, -cutting off the fuel supply. Since the engine takes in fuel only once -in four strokes, the governing cannot be so close as on the steam -engine, since longer time must elapse before the governor can act. - -Another type of governor operates by opening the exhaust port and -holding it open. The piston then merely draws in air through the -exhaust port, but no gas. This is called the "hit or miss" governing -type. One power stroke is missed completely. - -The heat caused by the explosion within the cylinder is very great, -some say as high as 3,000 degrees. Such a heat would soon destroy the -oil used to lubricate the cylinder and make the piston cut, as well -as destroying the piston packing. To keep this heat down the cylinder -is provided with a water jacket, and a current of water is kept -circulating around it to cool it off. - -When gas is used, the gas is passed through a rubber bag, which helps -to make the supply even. It is admitted to the engine by a valve -similar to the throttle valve on an engine. - -Gasoline is turned on by a similar valve, or throttle. It does not -have to be gasefied, but is sucked into the cylinder in the form -of a spray. As soon as the engine is started, the high heat of the -cylinder caused by the constant explosions readily turns the gasoline -to gas as it enters. The supply tank of gasoline is placed outside -the building, or at a distance, and stands at a point below the feed. -A small pump pumps it up to a small box or feed tank, which has an -overflow pipe to conduct any superfluous gasoline back to the supply -tank. In the gasoline box or feed tank a conical-shaped basin is filled -with gasoline to a certain height, which can be regulated. Whatever -this conical basin contains is sucked into the cylinder with the air. -By regulating the amount in the basin the supply of gasoline in the -cylinder can be regulated to the amount required for any given amount -of work. In the Columbus engine this regulation is accomplished by -screwing the overflow regulator up or down. - -There are two methods of igniting the charge in the cylinder in order -to explode it. One is by what is called a gasoline or gas torch. A -hollow pin or pipe is fixed in the top of the cylinder. The upper part -of this pin or pipe runs up into a gasoline or gas lamp of the Bunsen -type where it is heated red hot. When the gas and air in the cylinder -are compressed by the back stroke of the piston, some of the mixture -is forced up into this pipe or tube until it comes in contact with the -heated portion and is exploded, together with the rest of the charge in -the cylinder. Of course this tube becomes filled with burnt gases which -must be compressed before the explosive mixture can reach the heated -portion, and no explosion is theoretically possible until the piston -causes compression to the full capacity of the cylinder. The length of -the tube must therefore be nicely regulated to the requirements of the -particular engine used. - -The other method is by an electric spark from a battery. Two electrodes -of platinum or some similar substance are placed in the compression end -of the cylinder. The spark might be caused by bringing the electrodes -sufficiently near together at just the right moment, but the more -practical and usual way is to break the current, closing it sharply by -means of a lever worked by the gearing at just the moment the piston is -ready to return after compressing the charge. The electric spark is by -long odds the most desirable method of ignition, being safer and easier -to take care of, but it requires some knowledge of electricity and -electric connection to keep it always in working order. - - -OPERATION OF GAS AND GASOLINE ENGINES. - -To all intents and purposes the operation of a gas or gasoline engine -is the same as that of a steam engine with the care of the boiler -eliminated. The care of the engine itself is practically the same, -though the bearings are relatively larger in a gasoline or gas engine -and do not require adjustment so often. Some manufacturers will tell -you that a gas engine requires no attention at all. Any one who went on -that theory would soon ruin his engine. To keep a gasoline engine in -working order so as to get the best service from it and make it last as -long as possible, you should give it the best of care. - -An engine of this kind needs just as much oiling and cleaning as a -steam engine. All bearings must be lubricated and kept free from -dirt, great care must be taken that the piston and cylinder are well -lubricated. In addition, the engineer must see that the valves all -work perfectly tight, and when they leak in any way they must be taken -out and cleaned. Usually the valve seats are cast separate from the -cylinder, so that they can be removed and ground when they have worn. - -Also the water jacket must be kept in order so that the cylinder cannot -become too hot. - - -STARTING A GASOLINE ENGINE. - -It is something of a trick to get a gasoline or gas engine -started--especially a gasoline engine--and some skill must be developed -in this or there will be trouble. This arises from the fact that -when an engine has not been running the cylinder is cold and does -not readily gasefy the gasoline. At best only a part of a charge of -gasoline can be gasefied, and if the cylinder is very cold indeed the -charge will not explode at all till the cylinder is warmed up. - -When preparing to start an engine, first see that the nuts or studs -holding cylinder head to cylinder are tight, as the heating and cooling -of the cylinder are liable to loosen them. Then oil all bearings with a -hand oil can, and carefully wipe off all outside grease. - -When all is ready, work the gasoline pump to get the air out of the -feed pipes and fill the reservoir. - -First, the engine must be turned so that the piston is as far back as -it will go, and to prevent air being pressed back the exhaust must be -held open, or a cock in priming cup on top of cylinder opened. - -If gasoline priming is needed, the gasoline must be poured into the -priming cup after closing the cock into the cylinder, for it would do -no good to merely let the gasoline run down into the cylinder in a cold -stream: it must be sprayed in. If the exhaust has been held open, and -the priming charge of gasoline is to be drawn in through the regular -supply pipe and valve, the exhaust should be closed and the throttle -turned on to a point indicated by the manufacturer of the engine. - -We suppose that the igniter is ready to work. If the hot tube is used, -the tube should be hot; if the electric igniter is used, the igniter -bar should be in position to be snapped so as to close the circuit and -cause a spark when the charge has been compressed. - -If all is ready, open the cock from which the supply of gasoline is to -be obtained, and at the same time turn the engine over so as to draw -the charge into the cylinder. If a priming cock has been opened, that -must be closed by hand as soon as the cylinder is filled and the piston -ready to return for compression. If the regular feed is used, the -automatic valve will close of itself. - -Bring the flywheel over to back center so that piston will compress the -charge. With the flywheel in the hand, bring the piston back sharply -two or three times, compressing the charge. This repeated compression -causes a little heat to be liberated, which warms up the cylinder -inside. If the cylinder is very cold this compression may be repeated -until the cylinder is sufficiently warm to ignite. When performing this -preparatory compression the piston may be brought nearly up to the dead -center but not quite. At last bring it over the dead center, and just -as it passes over, snap the electric ignition bar. If an explosion -follows the engine will be started. - -If the hot tube is used, the flywheel may be brought around sharply -each time so that the piston will pass the dead center, as an explosion -will follow complete compression. If the explosion does not follow, -the flywheel may be turned back again and brought up sharply past the -dead center. Each successive compression will warm up the cylinder a -little till at last an explosion will take place and the engine will be -started. - -More gasoline will be needed to start in cold weather than in warm, and -the starting supply should be regulated accordingly. Moreover, when the -engine gets to going, the cylinder will warm up, more of the gasoline -will vaporize, and a smaller supply will be needed. Then the throttle -can be turned so as to reduce the supply. - -After the engine is started, the water jacket should be set in -operation, and you should see that the cylinder lubrication is taking -place as it ought. - -As the above method of starting the engine will not always work well, -especially in cold weather, what are called "self-starters" are used. -They are variously arranged on different engines, but are constructed -on the same general principle. This is, first, to pump air and gasoline -into the cylinder instead of drawing it in by suction. Sometimes the -gasoline is forced in by an air compression tank. The engine is turned -just past the back center, care having been taken to make sure that the -stroke is the regular explosion stroke. This may be told by looking at -the valve cam or shaft. If an electric igniter is used, it is set ready -to snap by hand. If the tube igniter is used, a detonator is arranged -in the cylinder, to be charged by the head of a snapping parlor match -which can be exploded by hand. Holding the flywheel with one hand with -piston just past back center, fill the compressed end of the cylinder -by working the pump or turning on the air in compression tank till you -feel a strong pressure on the piston through the flywheel. Then snap -igniter or detonator and the engine is off. If throttle valve has not -been opened, it may now be immediately opened. - -The skill comes in managing the flywheel with one hand, or one hand -and a foot, and the igniter, etc., with the other hand. Care must be -exercised not to get caught when the flywheel starts off. The foot must -never be put through the arm of the wheel, the wheel merely being held -when necessary by the ball of the big toe, so that if the flywheel -should start suddenly it would merely slip off the toe without -carrying the foot around or unbalancing the engineer. Until one gets -used to it, it is better to have some one else manage the flywheel, -while you look after the gasoline supply, igniter, etc. When used to -it, one man can easily start any gasoline engine up to 15 horsepower. - - -WHAT TO DO WITH A GASOLINE ENGINE WHEN IT DOESN'T WORK. - -Questions and Answers. - -Q. If the engine suddenly stops, what would you do? - -A. First, see that the gasoline feed is all right, plenty of gasoline -in the tank, feed pipe filled, gasoline pump working, and then if -valves are all in working order. Perhaps there may be dirt in the feed -reservoir, or the pipe leading from it may be stopped up. If everything -is right so far, examine the valves to see that they work freely and -do not get stuck from lack of good oil, or from use of poor oil. Raise -them a few times to see if they work freely. Carefully observe if the -air valve is not tight in sleeve of gas valve. - -Q. What would be the cause of the piston's sticking in the cylinder? - -A. Either it was not properly lubricated, or it got too hot, the heat -causing it to expand. - -Q. Are boxes on a gasoline engine likely to get hot? - -A. Yes, though not so likely as on a steam engine. They must be watched -with the same care as they would be on a steam engine. If the engine -stops, turn it by hand a few times to see that it works freely without -sticking anywhere. - -Q. Is the electric sparking device likely to get out of order? - -A. Yes. You can always test it by loosening one wire at the cylinder -and touching it to the other to see that a spark passes between them. -If there is no spark, there is trouble with the battery. - -Q. How should the batteries be connected up? - -A. A wire should pass from carbon of No. 1 to copper of No. 2; from -carbon of No. 2 to copper of No. 3, etc., always from copper to carbon, -never from carbon to carbon or copper to copper. Wire from last carbon -to spark coil and from coil to switch, and from switch to one of the -connections on the engine. Wire from copper of No. 1 to the other -connection on the engine. In wiring, always scrape the ends of the wire -clean and bright where the connection is to be made with any other -metal. - -Q. What precautions can be taken to keep batteries in order? - -A. The connections between the cells can be changed every few days, -No. 1 being connected with No. 3, No. 3 with No. 5, etc., alternating -them, but always making a single line of connection from one connection -on cylinder to first copper, from the carbon of that cell to copper of -next cell, and so on till the circuit to the cylinder is completed. -When the engine is not in operation, always throw out the switch, to -prevent possible short circuiting. If battery is feeble at first, -fasten wires together for half an hour at engine till current gets well -started. - -Q. Is there likely to be trouble with the igniter inside cylinder? - -A. There may be. You will probably find a plug that can be taken out -so as to provide a peep hole. Never put your eye near this hole, for -some gasoline may escape and when spark is made it will explode and put -out your eye. Always keep the eye a foot away from the hole. Practice -looking at the spark when you know it is all right and no gasoline is -near, in order that you may get the right position at which to see the -spark in case of trouble. In any case, always take pains to force out -any possible gas before snapping igniter to see if the spark works all -right. - -Q. If there is no spark, what should be done? - -A. Clean the platinum points. This may be done by throwing out switch -and cutting a piece of pine one-eighth of an inch thick and one-half -inch wide, and rubbing it between the points. It may be necessary to -push cam out a trifle to compensate for wear. - -Q. How can you look into peep hole without endangering eyesight? - -A. By use of a mirror. - -Q. If the hot tube fails to work, what may be done? - -A. Conditions of atmosphere, pressure, etc., vary so much that the -length of the tube cannot always be determined. If a tube of the usual -length fails to work, try one a little longer or shorter, but not -varying over 1-1/2 inches. - -Q. When gas is used, what may interfere with gas supply? - -A. Water in the gas pipes. This is always true of gas pipes not -properly drained, especially in cold weather when condensation may take -place. If water accumulates, tubes must be taken apart and blown out, -and if necessary a drain cock can be put in at the lowest point. - -Q. What trouble is likely to be had with the valves? - -A. In time the seats will wear, and must be taken out and ground with -flour or emery. - -Q. Should the cylinder of a gasoline engine be kept as cool as it can -be kept with running water? - -A. No. It should be as hot as the hand can be borne upon it, or about -100 degrees. If it is kept cooler than this the gasoline will not -gasefy well. If a tank is used, the circulation in the tank will -justify the temperature properly. The water may be kept at 175 degrees -of temperature, and used for hot water heating. The exhaust gases are -also hot and may be used for heating by carrying in pipes coiled in a -hot water heater. - -Q. Are water joints likely to leak? - -A. Yes. The great heating given the cylinder is liable to loosen the -water joints. They are best packed with asbestos soaked in oil, sheets -1-16 inch thick. Old packing should always be thoroughly cleaned off -when new packing is put in. - -Q. How may the bearings be readjusted when worn? - -A. Usually there are liners to adjust bearing. In crank box adjust as -in steam engine by tightening the key. - -Q. If you hear a loud explosion in the exhaust pipe after the regular -explosion, should you be alarmed? - -A. No. All gas or gasoline engines give them at times and they are -harmless. If the gas or gasoline fed to the engine is not sufficient to -make an explosive mixture, the engine will perhaps miss the explosion, -and live gas will go into the exhaust pipe. After two or three of -these have accumulated an explosion may take place and the burned -gases coming out of the port as hot flames will explode the live gas -previously exhausted. Any missing of the regular explosion by the -engine, through trouble with battery, or the like, will cause the same -condition. - -Q. When you get exhaust pipe explosions, what should you do? - -A. Turn on the fuel till the exhaust is smoky. Then you know you have -fuel enough and more than enough. If the explosions still continue, -conclude that the igniter spark is too weak, or does not take place. - -Q. What precaution must be taken in cold weather? - -A. The water must be carefully drained out of jacket. - -Q. Will common steam engine cylinder oil do for a gasoline engine? - -A. No. The heat is so great that only a special high grade mineral oil -will do. Any oil containing animal fat will be worse than useless. - -Q. How can you tell if right amount of gas or gasoline is being fed to -engine to give highest power? - -A. Turn on as much as possible without producing smoke. A smokeless -mixture is better than one which causes smoke. - -Q. If you have reason to suppose gas may be in the cylinder, should you -try to start cylinder? - -A. No. Empty the gas all out by turning the engine over a few times by -hand, holding exhaust open if necessary. - -Q. How long will a battery run without recharging? - -A. The time varies. Usually not over three or four months. - -Q. Is it objectionable to connect an electric bell with an engine -battery? - -A. Certainly. Never do it. - -Q. If your engine doesn't run, how many things are likely to be the -trouble? - -A. Not more than four--compression, spark, gas supply, valves. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV. - -HOW TO RUN A THRESHING MACHINE. - - -A threshing machine, though large, is a comparatively simple machine, -consisting of a cylinder with teeth working into other teeth which are -usually concaved (this primary part really separates the grain from -the husk), and rotary fan and sieves to separate grain from chaff, and -some sort of stacker to carry off the straw. The common stacker merely -carries off the straw by some endless arrangement of slats working in -a long box; while the so-called "wind stacker" is a pneumatic device -for blowing the straw through a large pipe. It has the advantage of -keeping the straw under more perfect control than the common stacker. -The separation of the grain from the straw is variously effected by -different manufacturers, there being three general types, called apron, -vibrating, and agitating. - -The following list of parts packed inside the J. I. Case separator (of -the agitative type) when it is shipped will be useful for reference in -connection with any type of separator: - - 2 Hopper arms, Right and Left, - 1 Hopper bottom, - 1 Hopper rod with thumb nut, - 2 Feed tables, - 2 Feed table legs, - 2 Band cutter stands and bolts, - 1 Large crank shaft, - 1 Grain auger with 1223 T. pulley and 1154 T., Box, - 1 Tailings auger, - 1 Elevator spout, - 1 Elevator shake arm, complete, - 1 Set fish-backs, for straw-rack, - 1 Elevator pulley, 529 T., - 1 Beater pulley, 6-inch 1254 T., or 4-inch 1255 T., - 1 Elevator drive pulley 1673 T., - 1 Crank pulley to drive grain auger 1605 T., - 1 Cylinder pulley to drive crank 4-inch 973 T., or 6-inch 1085 T., - 1 Cylinder pulley to drive fan 1347 T., 1348 T., or 1633 T., - 1 Fan pulley, 1244 T., or 1231 T., - 1 Belt tightener, complete, with pulley, - 1 Belt reel, 5016 T., or 1642 T., with crank and bolt, - 4 Shoe sieves, - 4 Shoe rods, with nuts and washers, - 1 Conveyor extension, - 1 Sheet iron tail board, - 2 Tail board castings 1654 T., and 1655 T. - -In addition to these are the parts of the stacker. - -As each manufacturer furnishes all needed directions for putting the -parts together, we will suppose the separator is in working condition. - -A new machine should be set up and run for a couple of hours before -attempting to thresh any grain. The oil boxes should be carefully -cleaned, and all dirt, cinders, and paint removed from the oil holes. -The grease cups on cylinder, beater and crank boxes should be screwed -down after being filled with hard oil, moderately thin oil being used -for other parts of the machine. Before putting on the belts, turn the -machine by hand a few times to see that no parts are loose. Look into -the machine on straw rack and conveyor. - -First connect up belt with engine and run the cylinder only for a -time. Screw down the grease cup lugs when necessary, and see that no -boxes heat. Take off the tightener pulley, clean out oil chambers and -thoroughly oil the spindle. Then oil each separate bearing in turn, -seeing that oil hole is clean, and that pulley or journal works freely. -The successive belts may then be put on one at a time, until the -stacker belt is put on after its pulleys have been oiled. Especially -note which belts are to run crossed--usually the main belt and the -stacker belt. You can tell by noting which way the machinery must run -to keep the straw moving in the proper direction. - -Oiling on the first run of a machine is especially important, as the -bearings are a trifle rough and more liable to heat than after machine -has been used for some time. It is well to oil a shaft while it runs, -since the motion helps the oil to work in over the whole surface. - -The sieves, concaves, check board and blinds must be adjusted to the -kind of grain to be threshed. When they have been so adjusted the -machine is ready to thresh. - - -SETTING SEPARATOR. - -It is important that the machine be kept perfectly steady, and that it -be level from side to side, though its being a little higher or lower -at one end or the other may not matter much. If the level sidewise is -not perfect the grain will have a tendency to work over to one side. A -spirit level should be used. - -[Illustration: SECTIONAL VIEW OF THE AGITATOR SEPARATOR.] - -One or more of the wheels should be set in holes, according to the -unevenness of the ground, and the rear wheels should be well blocked. -Get the holes ready, judging as well as possible what will give a true -level and a convenient position. Haul the machine into position and -see that it is all right before uncoupling the engine. If holes need -redigging to secure proper level, machine may be pulled out and backed -in again by the engine. When machine is high in front it can easily be -leveled when engine or team have been removed, by cramping the front -wheels and digging in front of one and behind the other, then pulling -the tongue around square. - -Block the right hind wheel to prevent the belt drawing machine forward. -Always carry a suitable block to have one handy. - -In starting out of holes or on soft ground, cramp the front axle -around, and it will require only half the power to start that would be -required by a straight pull. - -In setting the machine, if the position can be chosen, choose one in -which the straw will move in the general direction of the wind, but a -little quartering, so that dust and smoke from engine will be carried -away from the men and the straw stack. In this position there is less -danger from fire when wood is used. - - -THE CYLINDER. - -The cylinder is arranged with several rows of teeth working into -stationary teeth in what is called the concave. It is important that -all these teeth be kept tight, and that the cylinder should not work -from side to side. The teeth are liable to get loose in a new machine, -and should be tightened up frequently. A little brine on each nut will -cause it to rust slightly and help to hold it in place. If the cylinder -slips endwise even a sixteenth of an inch, the teeth will be so much -nearer the concaves on one side and so much farther away from them -on the other side. Where they are close, they will crack the grain; -where they are wide apart they will let the straw go through without -threshing or taking out the grain. So it is important that the cylinder -and its teeth run true and steady. If the teeth get bent in any way, -they must be straightened. - -The speed of the cylinder is important, since its pulley gives motion -to the other parts of the machine, and this movement must be up to -a certain point to do the work well. A usual speed for the cylinder -pulley is 1,075 revolutions per minute, up to 1,150. - -There is always an arrangement for adjusting the cylinder endwise, so -that teeth will come in the middle. This should be adjusted carefully -when necessary. The end play to avoid heating may be about 1-64 of an -inch. It may be remembered that the cylinder teeth carry the straw to -the concaves, and the concaves do the threshing. - - -THE CONCAVES. - -The concaves are to be adjusted to suit the kind of grain threshed. -When desiring to adjust concaves, lift them up a few times and drop so -as to jar out dust. Wedging a block of wood between cylinder teeth and -concaves will in some types of separator serve to bring up concaves -when cylinder is slowly turned by hand. - -There are from two to six rows of teeth in the concave, and usually the -number of rows is adjustable or variable. Two rows will thresh oats, -where six are required for flax and timothy. Four rows are commonly -used for wheat and barley. The arrangement of rows of teeth and blanks -is important. When four rows are used, one is commonly placed well -back, one front, blank in the middle. When straw is dry and brittle, -cylinder can be given "draw" by placing blank in front. Always use as -few teeth and leave them as low as possible to thresh clean, since with -more teeth than necessary set higher than required the straw will be -cut up and a great deal of chopped straw will get into the sieves, all -of which also requires additional power. Sometimes the teeth can be -taken out of one row, so that one, three, or five rows may be used. For -especially difficult grain like Turkey wheat, a concave with corrugated -teeth may be used, in sets of three rows each up to nine rows. The -corrugated teeth are used for alfalfa in localities where much is -raised. - - -THE BEATER AND CHECK BOARD. - -After the cylinder has loosened the grain from the husk and straw, it -must still be separated. Some threshers have a grate under the cylinder -and behind it. In any case the beater causes the heavy grain to work -toward the bottom, and the check board keeps the grain from being -carried to rear on top of the straw, where it would not have a chance -to become separated. If the grain is very heavy or damp, there may be a -tendency for the straw to stick to the cylinder and be carried around -too far. In such a case the beater should be adjusted to give more -space, and the check board raised to allow the straw to pass to the -rear freely. - - -STRAW RACK. - -The straw rack and conveyor carry the straw and grain to the rear with -a vibratory movement, causing the grain to be shaken out. To do good -work the straw rack must move with a sufficient number of vibrations -per minute, say 230. A speed indicator on the crank shaft will show the -number of vibrations best. Great care must be taken with this part of -the thresher, or a great deal of grain will be carried into the straw. -The less the straw is cut up, the better this portion of the machine -works; so the smallest practicable number of teeth in the concave -should be used. - -The crank boxes and pitmans should be adjusted so that there is no -pounding. If the rear vibrating arms drop too low they get below -the dead center and are liable to break, at any rate causing severe -pounding and hard running. To prevent this, the crank boxes can be -moved forward by putting leather between them and the posts, or should -be otherwise adjusted. The trouble being due to the pitmans having worn -short, the pitmans may be lengthened in some way by putting pieces of -leather over the end or the like, or new pitmans may be introduced. - - -THE FAN. - -The chief difficulty likely to arise with the fan is blowing over -grain. To prevent this blinds are usually arranged, which may be -adjusted while the machine is running so as to prevent the grain from -being blown over. At the same time it is important to clean the grain, -so the adjustment should not go to one extreme or the other. - -In windy weather the blinds should be closed more on one side than on -the other. The speed of the fan must be adjusted to the requirements of -the locality. - -As much blast should be used as the grain will stand, and heavy feeding -requires more wind than light feeding, since the chaff checks the blast -to a certain extent. - -Care should be taken that the wind board over the grain auger does not -get bent, and it should be adjusted so that the strongest part of the -blast will come about the middle of the sieve. - - -SIEVES. - -There is usually one conveyor sieve, which causes the grain to -move along, and shoe sieves, which are required to clean the grain -thoroughly. Different kinds of sieves are provided for different kinds -of grain, and the proper selection and adjustment of these sieves as to -mesh, etc., is of the utmost importance. - -Much depends on the way the sieves are set, and on the rate at which -the thresher is fed, or the amount of work it is really doing. The best -guide is close observation and experience, both your own and that of -other threshermen. - - -CONVEYOR EXTENSION. - -This carries the coarse chaff from the conveyor sieve to the stacker. -The conveyor sieve should be coarse enough to let all the good grain -through, as whatever is carried on to the extension must be returned -with the tailings to the cylinder. This means so much waste work. The -conveyor extension is removable, and should always be tight before -machine is started. See that it is. - -When necessary, the grain may be run over a screen, which differs -from a sieve in that the mesh is small and intended to let dust and -small chaff through while the grain does not pass. The refuse from the -screen is dropped onto the ground. All screens have a tendency to -become clogged, and in this condition obstruct the grain and wind. It -is desirable not to use them except when necessary, and if used they -should be frequently cleaned. - - -TAILINGS ELEVATOR. - -The tailings are carried back to the cylinder by an elevator usually -worked with a chain. This chain should be kept tight enough not to -unhook, yet not so tight as to bind. - -To put the chain into the elevator, tie a weight on a rope and drop it -down the lower part of the elevator. The chain may be fastened to the -rope and a man at the top can then pull the chain up, while another -feeds it in at the bottom. When chain has been drawn up to the top, -the rope should be dropped down upper portion of elevator and used at -bottom to pull chain down after it has been adjusted over the sprocket. -Some one at the bottom should continue to feed the chain in as it is -pulled down, so that it will go into the elevator straight. When the -chain has been pulled through it may be hooked and adjusted to lower -sprocket, and tightened up by screws at top. Turn the chain around once -by hand to make sure there are no kinks in it. - -The tailings should be small, containing no light chaff and little -full-size grain. They are a good indication of how the sieves are -working. If much good grain is coming through, see if it gets over the -conveyor sieve by way of the extension to the tailings auger, or over -the shoe sieve. If the sieves are not right, they may be adjusted in -various ways, according to the directions of the manufacturer. - -Grain returned in the tailings is liable to get cracked in the -cylinder, and much chaff in the tailings chokes the cylinder. For every -reason, the tailings should be kept as low as possible. - - -SELF-FEEDER. - -The self-feeder is arranged to cut the bands of the sheaves and feed -the grain to the cylinder automatically. It has a governor to prevent -crowding in too much grain, and usually a change of pulleys for slow -or fast feeding, as circumstances may require. In starting a new -governor the friction pulley and inside of the band should have paint -scraped off, and a little oil should be put on face of friction wheel. -The carrier should not start till the machine attains full threshing -motion, and to prevent this a few sheaves should be laid upon it. The -knife arms should be raised or lowered to adjust them to the size of -the sheaves and condition of the grain for cutting bands. - -The cranks and carrier shaft boxes should be oiled regularly, but the -friction bands should not be oiled after it once becomes smooth. - - -THE WIND STACKER. - -The wind stacker is arranged to swing by a hand-wheel or the like, and -also automatically. - -Great care should be taken not to use the hand moving apparatus when -the stacker is set for automatic moving, as a break is liable to -follow. There is a clutch to stop the stacker, however. At times it -will be more convenient to leave off the belt that causes the automatic -movement. - -By the use of various pulleys the speed of the stacker may be altered, -and it should be run no faster than is necessary to do the work -required, which will depend on the character of the straw. Any extra -speed used will add to the cost of running the engine and is a loss in -economy. - -In moving machine with wind stacker in place, care should be taken to -see that it rests in its support before machine moves. - -The canvas curtain under the decking, used to turn the straw into the -hopper, may need a piece of wood fastened to its lower edge to keep it -more stiff when stiff rye straw is passing. The bearings of the fan -and jack shafts should be kept well lubricated with hard oil, and the -bevel gears should be kept well greased with axle grease applied with a -stick. Other bearings and worm gear of automatic device should be oiled -with soft oil. - -The attached stacker is simple in operation, and if it is desired not -to use the automatic swinging device but swing by hand, the automatic -gear may be thrown out. An independent stacker is managed in much the -same way. - - -ATTACHMENTS. - -A weigher, bagger, and a high loader are usually used with a separator. -Their operation is simple, and depends upon the particular type or make. - - -BELTING. - -The care of the belting is one of the most important things about -the management of a threshing machine, and success or failure will -depend largely on the condition in which the belts are kept. Of -course the hair side should be run next the band wheel. Once there -was disagreement among engineers on this point, but it has been -conclusively proven that belts wear longer this way and get better -friction, for the simple reason that the flesh side is more flexible -than the hair side, and when on the outside better accommodates itself -to the shape of the pulley. If the hair side is outermost, it will be -stretched more or less in going around the pulley and in time will -crack. Rubber belts must be run with the seam on the outside. - -When leather belts become hard they should be softened with neatsfoot -oil. A flexible belt is said to transmit considerably more power than a -hard one. - -Pulleys must be kept in line or the belt will slip off. When pulleys -are in line the belt has a tendency to work to the tightest point. -Hence pulleys are usually made larger in the middle, which is called -"crowning." - -Belts on a separator should be looked over every day, and when any -lacing is worn, it should be renewed at once. This will prevent breaks -during working, with loss of time. Some threshermen carry an extra set -of belts to be ready in case anything does break, and they assert that -they save money by so doing. - -Lacing is not stronger in proportion as it is heavy. If it is heavy -and clumsy it gets strained in going round the pulley, and soon gives -out. The ideal way to lace a belt is to make it as nearly like the rest -of the belt as possible, so that it will go over the pulleys without a -jar. The ends of the belt should be cut off square with a try square, -and a small punch used for making holes. Holes should be equally -spaced, and outside ones not so near the edge as to tear out. The rule -is a hole to every inch of the belt, and in a leather belt they may -be as close as a quarter of an inch to the ends without tearing out. -Other things being equal, the nearer the ends the holes are the better, -as belt will then pass over pulley more easily. The chief danger of -tearing is between the holes. - -A stacker web belt may be laced by turning the ends up and lacing them -together flat at right angles to rest of belt. Rubber or cotton belting -that does not run over idler or tightener pulleys so that both sides -must be smooth may be laced in this way. This lacing lasts two or three -times as long with such belts as any other, for the reason that the -string is not exposed to wear and there is no straining in passing -round pulleys. - -The ordinary method of lacing a leather belt is to make the laces -straight on the pulley side, all running in the same direction as the -movement of the belt, and crossing them on the outside diagonally in -both directions. When belts run on pulleys on both sides, as they do on -the belt driving beater and crank, and also on wind stacker, a hinge -lacing may be made by crossing the lacing around the end of the belt to -the next adjacent hole opposite, the lacing showing the same on both -sides. This allows the belt to bend equally well either way. - -The best way to fasten a lacing is to punch a hole where the next row -of lace holes would come when the belt is cut off, and after passing -the lace through this hole, bring the end around and force it through -again, cutting the end off short after it has passed through. This hole -must be small enough to hold the lace securely, and care should be -taken that it is in position to be used as a lace-hole the next time a -series of holes is required. - -New belts stretch a good deal, and the ends of the lacing should not -be cut off short till the stretch is taken out of the belts. - -Belting that has got wet will shrink and lacing must be let out before -belt is put on again. Tight belts have been known to break the end of a -shaft off, and always cause unnecessary friction. - -Cotton or Gandy belting should not be punched for lacing, but holes -made with a pointed awl, since punching cuts some of the threads and -weakens belt. - - -HOW TO BECOME A GOOD FEEDER. - -The art of becoming a good feeder will not be learned in a day. The -bundles should be tipped well up against the cylinder cap, and flat -bundles turned on edge, so that cylinder will take them from the top. -It is not hard to spread a bundle, and in fast threshing a bundle may -be fed on each side, each bundle being kept pretty well to its own -side, while the cylinder is kept full the entire width. A good feeder -will keep the straw carrier evenly covered with straw, and will watch -the stacker, tailings and grain elevator and know the moment anything -goes wrong. - - -WASTE. - -No threshing machine will save every kernel of the grain, but the best -results can be attained only by care and judgment in operating. - -It is easy to exaggerate the loss of grain, for if a very small stream -of grain is seen going into the straw it will seem enormous, though -it will not amount to a bushel a day. There are practically a million -kernels of wheat in a bushel, or 600 handfuls, and even if a handful -is wasted every minute, it would not be enough to counterbalance the -saving in finishing a job quickly. - -Of course, waste must be watched, however, and checked if too great. -First determine whether the grain is carried over in the straw or the -waste is at the shoe sieve. - -If the waste is in the conveyor sieve, catch a handful of the chaff, -and if grain is found, see whether the sieve is the proper mesh. Too -high a speed will cause the grain to be carried over. If too many -teeth are used in the concave, the conveyor sieve will be forced to -carry more chaff than it can handle. The blast may be too strong and -carry over grain, so adjust the blinds that the blast will be no -stronger than is necessary to clean the wheat well and keep sieves -free. If grain is still carried over, the conveyor sieve may be -adjusted for more open work, but care should be taken not to overwork -the shoe sieve. Be careful that the wind board is not bent so that some -grain will go into the fan and be thrown out of the machine altogether. - -If the grain is not separated from the straw thoroughly, it may be due -to "slugging" the cylinder (result of poor feeding), causing a variable -motion. It may also be because speed of crank is not high enough. -Check board should be adjusted as low as possible to prevent grain -being carried on top of straw. See that cylinder and concave teeth -are properly adjusted so as not to cut up straw, while at the same -time threshing out all the grain. Sometimes heads not threshed out by -the cylinder will be threshed out by the fan of the wind stacker, and -the fault will be placed on the separating portions instead of on the -imperfect cylinder. - -Grain passes through the cylinder at the rate of about a mile a minute. -The beater reduces this to 1,500 feet per minute. After passing the -check board the straw moves about 36 feet per minute. At these three -different speeds the straw passes the 17 feet length of the machine -in about 25 seconds. The problem is to stop the grain while the straw -is allowed to pass out. Evidently there must be a small percentage of -loss, and there is always a limit as to what it will pay to try to -save. Each man must judge for himself. - - -BALANCING A CYLINDER. - -A cylinder should be so balanced that it will come to rest at any -point. In a rough way a cylinder may be balanced by placing the -journals on two carpenter's squares laid on saw-horses. Gently roll the -cylinder back and forth and every time it stops, make a chalk mark on -the uppermost bar. If the same bar comes up three times in succession -it probably is light, and a wedge should be driven under center band at -chalk mark. Continue experimenting until cylinder will come to rest at -any point. - - -COVERING PULLEYS. - -This is easily done, but care must be taken that the leathers are tight -or they will soon come off. - -To cover a cylinder pulley, take off what remains of the old cover, -pull out the nails, and renew the wedges if necessary. Select a good -piece of leather a little wider than face of pulley and about four -inches longer than enough to go around. Soak it in water for about an -hour. Cut one end square and nail it to the wedges, using nails just -long enough to clinch. Put a clamp made of two pieces of wood and two -bolts on the leather, block the cylinder to keep it from turning, and -by means of two short levers pry over the clamp to stretch the leather. -Nail to the next wedges, move the clamp and nail to each in turn, -finally nailing to the first one again before cutting off. Trim the -edges even with the rim of the pulley. - -The same method may be used with riveted covers. - - -CARE OF A SEPARATOR. - -A good separator ought to last ten years, and many have been in use -twice that time. After the season is over the machine ought to be -thoroughly cleaned and stored in a dry place. Dirt on a machine holds -moisture and will ruin a separator during a winter if it is left on. It -also causes the wood to rot and sieves and iron work to rust. - -Once in two years at least a separator ought to have a good coat of -first-class coach varnish. Before varnishing, clean off all grease and -oil with benzine and see that paint is bright. - -At the beginning of the season give the machine a thorough overhauling, -putting new teeth in cylinder if any are imperfect, and new slats in -stacker web or straw rack if they are needed. Worn boxes should be -taken up or rebabbitted, and conveyor and shoe eccentrics replaced -if worn out. Tighten nuts, replace lost bolts, leaving the nut always -turned square with the piece it rests on. Every separator ought to be -covered with a canvas during the season. It will pay. - -The right and left sides of a threshing machine are reckoned from the -position of the feeder as he stands facing the machine. - -In case of fire, the quickest way is to let the engine pull the machine -out by the belt. Take blocks away from wheels, place a man at end of -tongue to steer, and back engine slowly. If necessary, men should help -the wheels to start out of holes or soft places. - -Watch the forks of the pitchers to see that none are loose on the -handles, especially if a self-feeder is used. A pitchfork in a -separator is a bad thing. - - - - -CHAPTER XV. - -QUESTIONS ASKED ENGINEERS WHEN APPLYING FOR A LICENSE.[7] - - Footnote 7: Furnished by courtesy of a friend of Aultman & Taylor Co. - - -Q. If you were called on to take charge of a plant, what would be your -first duty? - -A. To ascertain the exact condition of the boiler and all its -attachments (safety valve, steam gauge, pump, injector), and engine. - -Q. How often would you blow off and clean your boilers if you had -ordinary water to use? - -A. Once a month. - -Q. What steam pressure will be allowed on a boiler 50 inches diameter -3/8 inch thick, 60,000 T. S. 1-6 of tensile strength factor of safety? - -A. One-sixth of tensile strength of plate multiplied by thickness -of plate, divided by one-half of the diameter of boiler, gives safe -working pressure. - -Q. How much heating surface is allowed per horse power by builders of -boilers? - -A. Twelve to fifteen feet for tubular and flue boilers. - -Q. How do you estimate the strength of a boiler? - -A. By its diameter and thickness of metal. - -Q. Which is the better, single or double riveting? - -A. Double riveting is from sixteen to twenty per cent stronger than -single. - -Q. How much grate surface do boiler makers allow per horse power? - -A. About two-thirds of a square foot. - -Q. Of what use is a mud drum on a boiler, if any? - -A. For collecting all the sediment of the boiler. - -Q. How often should it be blown out? - -A. Three or four times a day. - -Q. Of what use is a steam dome on a boiler? - -A. For storage of dry steam. - -Q. What is the object of a safety valve on a boiler? - -A. To relieve pressure. - -Q. What is your duty with reference to it? - -A. To raise it twice a day and see that it is in good order. - -Q. What is the use of check valve on a boiler? - -A. To prevent water from returning back into pump or injector which -feeds the boiler. - -Q. Do you think a man-hole in the shell on top of a boiler weakens it -any? - -A. Yes, to a certain extent. - -Q. What effect has cold water on hot boiler plates? - -A. It will fracture them. - -Q. Where should the gauge cock be located? - -A. The lowest gauge cock ought to be placed about an inch and a half -above the top row of flues. - -Q. How would you have your blow-off located? - -A. In the bottom of mud-drum or boiler. - -Q. How would you have your check valve arranged? - -A. With a stop cock between check and boiler. - -Q. How many valves are there in a common plunger force pump? - -A. Two or more--a receiving and a discharge valve. - -Q. How are they located? - -A. One on the suction side, the other on the discharge. - -Q. How do you find the proper size of safety valves for boilers? - -A. Three square feet of grate surface is allowed for one inch area of -spring loaded valves; or two square feet of grate surface to one inch -area of common lever valves. - -Q. Give the reasons why pumps do not work sometimes? - -A. Leak in suction, leak around the plunger, leaky check valve, or -valves out of order, or lift too long. - -Q. How often ought boilers to be thoroughly examined and tested? - -A. Twice a year. - -Q. How would you test them? - -A. With hammer and with hydrostatic test, using warm water. - -Q. Describe the single acting plunger pump; how it gets and discharges -its water? - -A. The plunger displaces the air in the water pipe, causing a vacuum -which is filled by the atmosphere forcing the water therein; the -receiving valve closes and the plunger forces the water out through the -discharge valve. - -Q. What is the most economical boiler-feeder? - -A. The (Trix) Exhaust Injector.[8] - - Footnote 8: So says one expert. Others may think otherwise. - -Q. What economy is there in the Exhaust Injector? - -A. From 15 to 25 per cent saving in fuel. - -Q. Where is the best place to enter the boiler with the feed water? - -A. Below the water level, but so that the cold water can not strike hot -plates. If injector is used this is not so material as feed water is -always hot. - -Q. What are the principal causes of priming in boilers? - -A. To high water, not steam room enough, misconstruction, engine too -large for boiler. - -Q. How do you keep boilers clean or remove scale therefrom? - -A. The best "scale solvent" and "feed water purifier" is an honest, -intelligent engineer who will regularly open up his boilers and clean -them thoroughly, soaking boilers in rain water now and then. - -Q. If you found a thin plate, what would you do? - -A. Put a patch on it. - -Q. Would you put it on the inside or outside? - -A. Inside. - -Q. Why so? - -A. Because the action that has weakened the plate will then set on the -patch, and when this is worn it can be repeated. - -Q. If you found several thin places, what would you do? - -A. Patch each and reduce the pressure. - -Q. If you found a blistered plate? - -A. Put a patch on the fire side. - -Q. If you found a plate on the bottom buckled? - -A. Put a stay through the center of buckle. - -Q. If you found several of the plates buckled? - -A. Stay each and reduce the pressure. - -Q. What is to be done with a cracked plate? - -A. Drill a hole at each end of crack, caulk the crack and put a patch -over it. - -Q. How do you change the water in the boiler when the steam is up? - -A. By putting on more feed and opening the surface blow cock. - -Q. If the safety valve was stuck how would you relieve the pressure on -the boiler if the steam was up and could not make its escape? - -A. Work the steam off with engine after covering fires heavy with coal -or ashes, and when the boiler is sufficiently cool put safety valve in -working order. - -Q. If water in boiler is suffered to get too low, what may be the -result? - -A. Burn top of combustion chamber and tubes, perhaps cause an explosion. - -Q. If water is allowed to get too high, what result? - -A. Cause priming, perhaps cause breaking of cylinder covers or heads. - -Q. What are the principal causes of foaming in boilers? - -A. Dirty and impure water. - -Q. How can foaming be stopped? - -A. Close throttle and keep closed long enough to show true level of -water. If that level is sufficiently high, feeding and blowing off will -usually suffice to correct the evil. - -Q. What would you do if you should find your water gone from sight very -suddenly? - -A. Draw the fires and cool off as quickly as possible. Never open or -close any outlets of steam when your water is out of sight. - -Q. What precautions should you take to blow down a part of the water in -your boiler while running with a good fire? - -A. Never leave the blow-off valve, and watch the water level. - -Q. How much water would you blow off at once while running? - -A. Never blow off more than one gauge of water at a time while running. - -Q. What general views have you in regard to boiler explosions--what is -the greatest cause? - -A. Ignorance and neglect are the greatest causes of boiler explosions. - -Q. What precaution should the engineer take when necessary to stop with -heavy fires? - -A. Close dampers, put on injector or pump and if a bleeder is attached, -use it. - -Q. Where is the proper water level in boilers? - -A. A safe water level is about two and a half inches over top row of -flues. - -Q. What is an engineer's first duty on entering the boiler room? - -A. To ascertain the true water level. - -Q. When should a boiler be blown out? - -A. After it is cooled off, never while hot. - -Q. When laying up a boiler what should be done? - -A. Clean thoroughly inside and out; remove all oxidation and paint -places with red lead; examine all stays and braces to see if any are -loose or badly worn. - -Q. What is the last thing to do at night before leaving plant? - -A. Look around for greasy waste, hot coals, matches, or anything which -could fire the building. - -Q. What would you do if you had a plant in good working order? - -A. Keep it so, and let well enough alone. - -Q. Of what use is the indicator? - -A. The indicator is used to determine the indicated power developed by -an engine, to serve as a guide in setting valves and showing the action -of the steam in the cylinder. - -Q. How would you increase the power of an engine? - -A. To increase the power of an engine, increase the speed; or get -higher pressure of steam, use less expansion. - -Q. How do you find the horsepower of an engine? - -A. Multiply the speed of piston in feet per minute by the total -effective pressure upon the piston in pounds and divide the product by -33,000. - -Q. Which has the most friction, a perfectly fitted, or an imperfectly -fitted valve or bearing? - -A. An imperfect one. - -Q. How hot can you get water under atmospheric pressure with exhaust -steam? - -A. 212 degrees. - -Q. Does pressure have any influence on the boiling point? - -A. Yes. - -Q. Which do you think is the best economy, to run with your throttle -wide open or partly shut? - -A. Always have the throttle wide open on a governor engine. - -Q. At what temperature has iron the greatest tensile strength? - -A. About 600 degrees. - -Q. In what position on the shaft does the eccentric stand in relation -to the crank? - -A. The throw of the eccentric should always be in advance of the crank -pin. - -Q. About how many pounds of water are required to yield one horsepower -with our best engines? - -A. From 25 to 30. - -Q. What is meant by atmospheric pressure? - -A. The weight of the atmosphere. - -Q. What is the weight of atmosphere at sea level? - -A. 14.7 pounds. - -Q. What is the coal consumption per hour per indicated horsepower? - -A. Varies from one and a half to seven pounds. - -Q. What is the consumption of coal per hour on a square foot of grate -surface? - -A. From 10 to 12 pounds. - -Q. What is the water consumption in pounds per hour per indicated -horsepower? - -A. From 25 to 60 pounds. - -Q. How many pounds of water can be evaporated with one pound of best -soft coal? - -A. From 7 to 10 pounds. - -Q. How much steam will one cubic inch of water evaporate under -atmospheric pressure? - -A. One cubic foot of steam (approximately). - -Q. What is the weight of a cubic foot of fresh water? - -A. Sixty-two and a half pounds. - -Q. What is the weight of a cubic foot of iron? - -A. 486.6 pounds. - -Q. What is the weight of a square foot of one-half inch boiler plate? - -A. 20 pounds. - -Q. How much wood equals one ton of soft coal for steam purposes? - -A. About 4,000 pounds of wood. - -Q. How long have you run engines? - -Q. Have you ever done your own firing? - -Q. What is the source of all power in the steam engine? - -A. The heat stored up in the coal. - -Q. How is the heat liberated from the coal? - -A. By burning it; that is, by combustion. - -Q. Of what does coal consist? - -A. Carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur, oxygen and ash. - -Q. What are the relative proportions of these that enter into coal? - -A. There are different proportions in different specimens of coal, but -the following shows the average per cent: Carbon, 80; hydrogen, 5; -nitrogen, 1; sulphur, 2; oxygen, 7; ash, 5. - -Q. What must be mixed with coal before it will burn? - -A. Atmospheric air. - -Q. What is air composed of? - -A. It is composed of nitrogen and oxygen in the proportion of 77 of -nitrogen to 23 of oxygen. - -Q. What parts of the air mix with what parts of the coal? - -A. The oxygen of the air mixes with the carbon and hydrogen of the coal. - -Q. How much air must mix with the coal? - -A. 150 cubic feet of air for every pound of coal. - -Q. How many pounds of air are required to burn one pound of carbon? - -A. Twelve. - -Q. How many pounds of air are required to burn one pound of hydrogen? - -A. Thirty-six. - -Q. Is hydrogen hotter than carbon? - -A. Yes, four and one-half times hotter. - -Q. What part of the coal gives out the most heat? - -A. The hydrogen does part for part, but as there is so much more of -carbon than hydrogen in the coal we get the greatest amount of heat -from carbon. - -Q. In how many different ways is heat transmitted? - -A. Three; by radiation, by conduction and by convection. - -Q. If the fire consisted of glowing fuel, show how the heat enters the -water and forms steam? - -A. The heat from the glowing fuel passes by radiation through the air -space above the fuel to the furnace crown. There it passes through the -iron of the crown by conduction. There it warms the water resting on -the crown, which then rises and parts with its heat to the colder water -by conduction till the whole mass of water is heated. Then the heated -water rises to the surface and parts with its steam, so a constant -circulation of water is maintained by convection. - -Q. What does water consist of? - -A. Oxygen and hydrogen. - -Q. In what proportion? - -A. Eight of oxygen to one of hydrogen by weight. - -Q. What are the different kinds of heat? - -A. Latent heat, sensible heat and sometimes total heat. - -Q. What is meant by latent heat? - -A. Heat that does not affect the thermometer and which expands itself -in changing the nature of a body, such as turning ice into water or -water into steam. - -Q. Under what circumstances do bodies get latent heat? - -A. When they are passing from a solid state to a liquid or from a -liquid to a gaseous state. - -Q. How can latent heat be recovered? - -A. By bringing the body back from a state of gas to a liquid or from -that of a liquid to that of a solid. - -Q. What is meant by a thermal unit? - -A. The heat necessary to raise one pound of water at 39 degrees Fn. 1 -degree Fahrenheit. - -Q. If the power is in coal, why should we use steam? - -A. Because steam has some properties which make it an invaluable agent -for applying the energy of the heat to the engine. - -Q. What is steam? - -A. It is an invisible elastic gas generated from water by the -application of heat. - -Q. What are its properties which make it so valuable to us? - -A. 1.--The ease with which we can condense it. 2.--Its great expansive -power. 3.--The small space it occupies when condensed. - -Q. Why do you condense the steam? - -A. To form a vacuum and so destroy the back pressure that would -otherwise be on the piston and thus get more useful work out of the -steam. - -Q. What is vacuum? - -A. A space void of all pressure. - -Q. How do you maintain a vacuum? - -A. By the steam used being constantly condensed by the cold water or -cold tubes, and the air pump as constantly clearing the condenser out. - -Q. Why does condensing the used steam form a vacuum? - -A. Because a cubic foot of steam, at atmospheric pressure, shrinks into -about a cubic inch of water. - -Q. What do you understand by the term horse power? - -A. A horse power is equivalent to raising 33,000 pounds one foot per -minute, or 550 pounds raised one foot per second. - -Q. How do you calculate the horse power of tubular or flue boilers? - -A. For tubular boilers, multiply the square of the diameter by length, -and divide by four. For flue boilers, multiply the diameter by the -length and divide by four; or, multiply area of grate surface in square -feet by 1-1/2. - -Q. What do you understand by lead on an engine's valve? - -A. Lead on a valve is the admission of steam into the cylinder before -the piston completes its stroke. - -Q. What is the clearance of an engine as the term is applied at the -present time? - -A. Clearance is the space between the cylinder head and the piston head -with the ports included. - -Q. What are considered the greatest improvements on the stationary -engine in the last forty years? - -A. The governor, the Corliss valve gear and the triple compound -expansion. - -Q. What is meant by triple expansion engine? - -A. A triple expansion engine has three cylinders using the steam -expansively in each one. - -Q. What is a condenser as applied to an engine? - -A. The condenser is a part of the low pressure engine and is a -receptacle into which the exhaust enters and is there condensed. - -Q. What are the principles which distinguish a high pressure from a low -pressure engine? - -A. Where no condenser is used and the exhaust steam is open to the -atmosphere. - -Q. About how much gain is there by using the condenser? - -A. 17 to 25 per cent where cost of water is not figured. - -Q. What do you understand by the use of steam expansively? - -A. Where steam admitted at a certain pressure is cut off and allowed to -expand to a lower pressure. - -Q. How many inches of vacuum give the best results in a condensing -engine? - -A. Usually considered 25. - -Q. What is meant by a horizontal tandem engine? - -A. One cylinder being behind the other with two pistons on same rod. - -Q. What is a Corliss valve gear? - -A. (_Describe the half moon or crab claw gear, or oval arm gear with -dash pots._) - -Q. From what cause do belts have the power to drive shafting? - -A. By friction or cohesion. - -Q. What do you understand by lap? - -A. Outside lap is that portion of valve which extends beyond the ports -when valve is placed on the center of travel, and inside lap is that -portion of valve which projects over the ports on the inside or towards -the middle of valve. - -Q. What is the use of lap? - -A. To give the engine compression. - -Q. Where is the dead center of an engine? - -A. The point where the crank and the piston rod are in the same right -line. - -Q. What is the tensile strength of American boiler iron? - -A. 40,000 to 60,000 pounds per square inch. - -Q. What is very high tensile strength in boiler iron apt to go with? - -A. Lack of homogeneousness and lack of toughness. - -Q. What is the advantage of toughness in boiler plate? - -A. It stands irregular strains and sudden shocks better. - -Q. What are the principal defects found in boiler iron? - -A. Imperfect welding, brittleness, low ductility. - -Q. What are the advantages of steel as a material for boiler plates? - -A. Homogeneity, tensile strength, malleability, ductility and freedom -from laminations and blisters. - -Q. What are the disadvantages of steel as a material for boiler plates? - -A. It requires greater skill in working than iron, and has, as bad -qualities, brittleness, low ductility and flaws induced by the pressure -of gas bubbles in the ingot. - -Q. When would you oil an engine? - -A. Before starting it and as often while running as necessary. - -Q. How do you find proper size of any stay bolts for a well made boiler? - -A. First, multiply the given steam pressure per square inch by the -square of the distance between centers of stay bolts, and divide the -product by 6,000, and call the answer "the quotient." Second, divide -"the quotient" by .7854, and extract the square root of the last -quotient; the answer will give the required diameter of stay bolts at -the bottom of thread. - -Q. In what position would you place an engine, to take up any slack -motion of the reciprocating parts? - -A. Place engine in the position where the least wear takes place on -the journals. That is, in taking up the wear of the crank-pin brasses, -place the engine on either dead center, as, when running, there is -but little wear upon the crank-pin at these points. If taking up -the cross-head pin brasses--without disconnecting and swinging the -rod--place the engine at half stroke, which is the extreme point -of swing of the rod, there being the least wear on the brasses and -cross-head pin in this position. - -Q. What benefits are derived by using flywheels on steam engines? - -A. The energy developed in the cylinder while the steam is doing its -work is stored up in the flywheel, and given out by it while there is -no work being done in the cylinder--that is, when the engine is passing -the dead centers. This tends to keep the speed of the engine shaft -steady. - -Q. Name several kinds of reducing motions, as used in indicator -practice? - -A. The pantograph, the pendulum, the brumbo pulley, the reducing wheel. - -Q. How can an engineer tell from an indicator diagram whether the -piston or valves are leaking? - -A. Leaky steam valves will cause the expansion curve to become convex; -that is, it will not follow hyperbolic expansion, and will also show -increased back pressure. But if the exhaust valves leak also, one may -offset the other, and the indicator diagram would show no leak. - -A leaky piston can be detected by a rapid falling in the pressure on -the expansion curve immediately after the point of cut-off. It will -also show increased back pressure. - -A falling in pressure in the upper portion of the compression curve -shows a leak in the exhaust valve. - -Q. What would be the best method of treating a badly scaled boiler, -that was to be cleaned by a liberal use of compound? - -A. First open the boiler up and note where the loose scale, if any, -has lodged. Wash out thoroughly and put in the required amount of -compound. While the boiler is in service, open the blow-off valve for a -few seconds, two or three times a day, to be assured that it does not -become stopped up with scale. - -After running the boiler for a week, shut it down, and, when the -pressure is down and the boiler cooled off, run the water out and take -off the hand-hole plates. Note what effect the compound has had on the -scale, and where the disengaged scale has lodged. Wash out thoroughly -and use judgment as to whether it is advisable to use a less or greater -quantity of compound, or to add a small quantity daily. - -Continue the washing out at short intervals, as many boilers have been -burned by large quantities of scale dropping on the crown sheets and -not being removed. - -Q. If a condenser was attached to a side-valve engine, that had been -set to run non-condensing, what changes, if any, would be necessary? - -A. More lap would have to be added to the valve to cut off the steam -at an earlier point of the stroke; if not, the initial pressure into -the cylinder would be throttled down and the economy, to be gained from -running condensing, lessened. - -Q. If you are carrying a vacuum equal to 27-1/2 inches of mercury, what -should the temperature of the water in the hot well be? - -A. 108 degrees Fahrenheit. - -Q. Define specific gravity. - -A. The specific gravity of a substance is the number which expresses -the relation between the weights of equal volume of that substance, and -distilled water of 60 degrees Fahrenheit. - -Q. Find the specific gravity of a body whose volume is 12 cubic inches, -and which floats in water with 7 cubic inches immersed. - -A. When a body floats in water, it displaces a quantity of water equal -to the weight of the floating body. Thus, if a body of 12 cubic inches -in volume floats with 7 cubic inches immersed, 7 cubic inches of water -must be equal in weight to 12 cubic inches of the substance and one -cubic inch of water to twelve-sevenths cubic inches of the substance. - -As specific gravity equals weight of one volume of substance divided by -weight of equal volume of water, then specific gravity of the substance -in this case equals 1 divided by twelve-sevenths. - - -USEFUL INFORMATION. - -To find circumference of a circle, multiply diameter by 3.1416. - -To find diameter of a circle, multiply circumference by .31831. - -To find area of a circle multiply square of diameter by .7854. - -To find area of a triangle, multiply base by one-half the perpendicular -height. - -To find surface of a ball, multiply square of diameter by 3.1416. - -To find solidity of a sphere, multiply cube of diameter by .5236. - -To find side of an equal square, multiply diameter by .8862. - -To find cubic inches in a ball multiply cube of diameter by .5236. - -Doubling the diameter of a pipe increases its capacity four times. - -A gallon of water (U. S. standard) weighs 8 1-3 pounds and contains 231 -cubic inches. - -A cubic foot of water contains 7-1/2 gallons, 1728 cubic inches, and -weighs 62-1/2 pounds. - -To find the pressure in pounds per square inch of a column of water -multiply the height of the column in feet by .434. - -Steam rising from water at its boiling point (212 degrees) has a -pressure equal to the atmosphere (14.7 pounds to the square inch). - -A standard horse power: The evaporation of 30 lbs. of water per hour -from a feed water temperature of 100 degrees F. into steam at 70 lbs. -gauge pressure. - -To find capacity of tanks any size; given dimensions of a cylinder in -inches, to find its capacity in U. S. gallons: Square the diameter, -multiply by the length and by .0034. - -To ascertain heating surface in tubular boilers, multiply two-thirds of -the circumference of boiler by length of boiler in inches and add to it -the area of all the tubes. - -One-sixth of tensile strength of plate multiplied by thickness of plate -and divided by one-half the diameter of boiler gives safe working -pressure for tubular boilers. For marine boilers add 20 per cent for -drilled holes. - -To find the horsepower of an engine, the following four factors must -be considered: Mean effective or average pressure on the cylinder, -length of stroke, diameter of cylinder, and number of revolutions per -minute. Find the area of the piston in square inches by multiplying -the diameter by 3.1416 and multiply the result by the steam pressure -in pounds per square inch; multiply this product by twice the product -of the length of the stroke in feet and the number of revolutions -per minute; divide the result by 33,000, and the result will be the -horsepower of the engine. - -(Theoretically a horsepower is a power that will raise 33,000 pounds -one foot in one minute.) - -The power of fuel is measured theoretically from the following basis: -If a pound weight fall 780 feet in a vacuum, it will generate heat -enough to raise the temperature of one pound of water one degree. -Conversely, power that will raise one pound of water one degree in -temperature will raise a one pound weight 780 feet. The heat force -required to turn a pound of water at 32 degrees into steam would lift -a ton weight 400 feet high, or develop two-fifths of one horsepower -for an hour. The best farm engine practically uses 35 pounds of water -per horsepower per hour, showing that one pound of water would develop -only one-thirty-fifth of a horsepower in an hour, or 7 1-7 per cent of -the heat force liberated. The rest of the heat force is lost in various -ways, as explained in the body of this book. - -The following[9] will assist in determining the amount of power -supplied to an engine: - - Footnote 9: J. H. Maggard in "Rough and Tumble Engineering." - -"For instance, a 1-inch belt of the standard grade with the proper -tension, neither too tight or too loose, running at a maximum speed of -800 feet a minute will transmit one horsepower, running 1,600 feet two -horsepower and 2,400 feet three horsepower. A 2-inch belt at the same -speed, twice the power. - -"Now if you know the circumference of your flywheel, the number of -revolutions your engine is making and the width of belt, you can figure -very nearly the amount of power you can supply without slipping your -belt. For instance, we will say your flywheel is 40 inches in diameter -or 10.5 feet nearly in circumference and your engine was running 225 -revolutions a minute, your belt would be traveling 225×10.5 feet = -2362.5 feet, or very nearly 2,400 feet, and if one inch of belt would -transmit three horsepower running this speed, a 6-inch belt would -transmit eighteen horsepower, a 7-inch belt twenty-one horsepower, an -8-inch belt twenty-four horsepower, and so on. With the above as a -basis for figuring you can satisfy yourself as to the power you are -furnishing. To get the best results a belt wants to sag slightly, as it -hugs the pulley closer, and will last much longer." - - -KEYING PULLEYS.[10] - -A key must be of equal width its whole length and accurately fit the -seats on shaft and in pulley. The thickness should vary enough to make -the taper correspond with that of the seat in the pulley. The keys -should be driven in tight enough to be safe against working loose. The -hubs of most of the pulleys on the machine run against the boxes, and -in keying these on, about 1-32 of an inch end play to the shaft should -be allowed, because there is danger of the pulley rubbing so hard -against the end of the box as to cause it to heat. - -A key that is too thin but otherwise fits all right can be made tight -by putting a strip of tin between the key and the bottom of the seat in -the pulley. - -_Drawing Keys._ If a part of the key stands outside of the hub, catch -it with a pair of horseshoe pinchers and pry with them against the hub, -at the same time hitting the hub with a hammer so as to drive pulley -on. A key can sometimes be drawn by catching the end of it with a claw -hammer and driving on the hub of pulley. If pulley is against box and -key cut off flush with hub, take the shaft out and use a drift from the -inside, or if seat is not long enough to make this possible, drive the -pulley on until the key loosens. - - -BABBITTING BOXES.[10] - -To babbitt any kind of a box, first chip out all of the old babbitt -and clean the shaft and box thoroughly with benzine. This is necessary -or gas will be formed from the grease when the hot metal is poured in -and leave "blow holes." In babbitting a _solid box_ cover the shaft -with paper, draw it smooth and tight, and fasten the lapped ends with -mucilage. If this is not done the shrinkage of the metal in cooling -will make it fast on the shaft, so that it can't be moved. If this -happened it would be necessary to put the shaft and box together in -the fire and melt the babbitt out or else break the box to get it off. -Paper around the shaft will prevent this and if taken out when the -babbitt has cooled the shaft will be found to be just tight enough to -run well. - - Footnote 10: Courtesy J. I. Case Threshing Machine Co., from "Science - of Successful Threshing." - -Before pouring the box, block up the shaft until it is in line and in -center of the box and put stiff putty around the shaft and against -the ends of the box to keep the babbitt from running out. Be sure to -leave air-holes at each end at the top, making a little funnel of putty -around each. Also make a larger funnel around the pouring hole, or, -if there is none, enlarge one of the air-holes at the end and pour in -that. The metal should be heated until it is just hot enough to run -freely and the fire should not be too far away. When ready to pour the -box, don't hesitate or stop, but pour continuously and rapidly until -the metal appears at the air holes. The oil hole may be stopped with a -wooden plug and if this plug extends through far enough to touch the -shaft, it will leave a hole through the babbitt so that it will not be -necessary to drill one. - -_A split box_ is babbitted in the same manner except that strips of -cardboard or sheet-iron are placed between the two halves of the box -and against the shaft to divide the babbitt. To let the babbitt run -from the upper half to the lower, cut four or six V-shaped notches, a -quarter of an inch deep, in the edges of the sheet-iron or cardboard -that come against the shaft. Cover the shaft with paper and put -cardboard liners between the box to allow for adjustment as it wears. -Bolt the cap on securely before pouring. When the babbitt has cooled, -break the box apart by driving a cold chisel between the two halves. -Trim off the sharp edges of the babbitt and with a round-nose chisel -cut oil grooves from the oil hole towards the ends of the box and on -the slack side of the box or the one opposite to the direction in which -the belt pulls. - -The ladle should hold six or eight pounds of metal. If much larger it -is awkward to handle and if too small it will not keep the metal hot -long enough to pour a good box. The cylinder boxes on the separator -take from two to three pounds of metal each. If no putty is at hand, -clay mixed to the proper consistency may be used. Use the best babbitt -you can get for the cylinder boxes. If not sure of the quality, use -ordinary zinc. It is not expensive and is generally satisfactory. - - -MISCELLANEOUS. - -Lime may be taken out of an injector by soaking it over night in a -mixture of one part of muriatic acid and ten parts soft water. If a -larger proportion of acid is used it is likely to spoil the injector. - -A good blacking for boilers and smokestacks is asphaltum dissolved in -turpentine. - -To polish brass, dissolve 5 cents' worth of oxalic acid in a pint of -water and use to clean the brass. When tarnish has been removed, dry -and polish with chalk or whiting. - -It is said that iron or steel will not rust if it is placed for a few -minutes in a warm solution of washing soda. - -Grease on the bottom of a boiler will stick there and prevent the water -from conducting away the heat. When steel is thus covered with grease -it will soon melt in a hot fire, causing a boiler to burst if the steel -is poor, or warping it out of shape if the steel is good. - -Sulphate of lime in water, causing scale, may be counteracted and scale -removed by using coal oil and sal soda. When water contains carbonate -of lime, molasses will remove the scale. - - -CODE OF WHISTLE SIGNALS. - -One short sound means to stop. - -Two short sounds means the engine is about to begin work. - -Three medium short sounds mean that the machine will soon need grain -and grain haulers should hurry. - -One rather long sound followed by three short ones means the water is -low and water hauler should hurry. - -A succession of short, quick whistles means distress or fire. - - -WEIGHT PER BUSHEL OF GRAIN. - -The following table gives the number of pounds per bushel required by -law or custom in the sale of grain in the several states: - - ====================+==+==+==+==+==+==+==+==+==+==+== - | | | | | | | | | S| | - | | | | | | | | | h| | - | | | | | | | | | e| | - | | | B| | | | | | l| | - | | | u| | | | | | l| | - | | | c| | | | | | e| T| - | B| | k| C| | M| | | d| i| - | a| B| w| l| | i| | | | m| W - | r| e| h| o| F| l| O| | C| o| h - | l| a| e| v| l| l| a| R| o| t| e - | e| n| a| e| a| e| t| y| r| h| a - | y| s| t| r| x| t| s| e| n| y| t - | .| .| .| .| .| .| .| .| .| .| . - --------------------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+-- - Arkansas |48|60|52|60|..|..|..|56|56|45|60 - California |50|..|40|..|..|..|32|54|52|..|60 - Connecticut |..|..|45|..|..|..|32|56|56|..|56 - District of Columbia|47|62|48|60|..|..|32|56|56|45|60 - Georgia |40|..|..|60|..|..|35|56|56|45|60 - Illinois |48|60|52|60|56|45|32|56|56|..|60 - Indiana |48|60|50|60|..|..|32|56|56|45|60 - Iowa |48|60|52|60|56|48|32|56|56|45|60 - Kansas |50|60|50|..|..|..|32|56|56|45|60 - Kentucky |48|60|52|60|56|..|32|56|56|45|60 - Louisiana |32|..|..|..|..|..|32|..|56|..|60 - Maine |48|64|48|..|..|..|30|..|56|..|60 - Manitoba |48|..|48|60|56|34|..|56|56|..|60 - Maryland |48|64|48|..|..|..|32|56|56|45|60 - Massachusetts |48|48|..|..|..|..|32|56|56|..|60 - Michigan |48|..|48|60|56|..|32|56|56|45|60 - Minnesota |48|60|42|60|..|48|32|56|56|..|60 - Missouri |48|60|52|60|56|50|32|56|56|45|60 - Nebraska |48|60|52|60|..|..|34|56|56|45|60 - New York |48|62|48|60|..|..|32|56|58|44|60 - New Jersey |48|..|50|64|..|..|30|56|56|..|60 - New Hampshire |..|60|..|..|..|..|30|56|56|..|60 - North Carolina |48|..|50|64|..|..|30|56|54|..|60 - North Dakota |48|..|42|60|56|..|32|56|56|..|60 - Ohio |48|60|50|60|..|..|32|50|56|45|60 - Oklahoma |48|..|42|60|56|..|32|56|56|..|60 - Oregon |46|..|42|60|..|..|36|56|56|..|60 - Pennsylvania |47|..|48|62|..|..|30|56|56|..|60 - South Dakota |48|..|52|60|56|50|32|56|56|..|60 - South Carolina |48|60|56|60|..|..|33|56|56|..|60 - Vermont |48|64|48|..|60|..|32|56|56|42|60 - Virginia |48|60|48|64|..|..|32|56|56|45|60 - West Virginia |48|60|52|60|..|..|32|56|56|45|60 - Wisconsin |48|..|48|60|..|..|32|56|56|..|60 - --------------------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+-- - - - - -CHAPTER XVI. - -DIFFERENT MAKES OF TRACTION ENGINES. - - -J. I. CASE TRACTION ENGINES. - -These engines are among the simplest and at the same time most -substantial and durable traction engines on the market. They are built -of the best materials throughout, and are one of the easiest engines -for a novice to run. - -They are of the side crank type, with spring mounting. The engine is -supported by a bracket bolted to the side of the boiler, and a pillow -block bearing at the firebox end bolted to the side plate of the boiler. - -The valve is the improved Woolf, a single simple valve being used, -worked by a single eccentric. The eccentric strap has an extended arm -pivoted in a wooden block sliding in a guide. The direction of this -guide can be so changed by the reverse lever as to vary the cut-off and -easily reverse the engine when desired. - -The engine is built either with a simple cylinder or with a tandem -compound cylinder. - -In the operation of the differential gear, the power is first -transmitted to spur gear, containing cushion springs, from thence by -the springs to a center ring and four bevel pinions which bear equally -upon both bevel gears. The whole differential consequently will move -together as but one wheel when engine is moving straight forward or -backward; but when turning a corner the four pinions revolve in the -bevel gears just in proportion to the sharpness of the curve. - -There is a friction clutch working on the inside of the flywheel by -means of two friction shoes that can be adjusted as they wear. - -There is a feed water heater with three tubes in a watertight cylinder -into which the exhaust steam is admitted. The three tubes have smaller -pipes inside so that the feed water in passing through forms a thin -cylindrical ring. - -[Illustration: J. I. CASE TRACTION ENGINE.] - -The traction wheels are driven from the rims. The front wheels have a -square band on the center of the rim, to prevent slipping sidewise. The -smokestack is cast iron in one piece. - -The firebox will burn wood, coal or straw, a fire brick arch being used -for straw, making this fuel give a uniform heat. - -The boiler is of the simple locomotive type, with water leg around -the firebox and numerous fire flues connecting the firebox with the -smokestack in front. There is safety plug in crown sheet and the usual -fittings. The water tank is under the platform. The steering wheel and -band wheel are on right side of engine. An independent Marsh pump and -injector are used. The Marsh pump is arranged to heat the feed water -when exhaust heater cannot be used. The governor is the Waters, the -safety valve the Kunkle. - - -THE FRICK CO.'S TRACTION ENGINE. - -The most noticeable feature of this engine is that it has a frame -mounted on the traction wheels entirely independent of the boiler, thus -relieving the boiler of all strain. This is an undeniable advantage, -since usually the strain on the boiler is great enough without forcing -the boiler to carry the engine and gears. - -[Illustration: THE FRICK CO.'S TRACTION ENGINE.] - -The gearing to the traction wheels is simple and direct, and a patent -elastic spring or cushion connection is used which avoids sudden strain -and possible breakage of gears. Steel traction wheels and riveted -spokes. Differential gear in main axle, with locking device when both -traction wheels are required to pull out of a hole. The reverse gear -is single eccentric, the eccentric turning on the shaft. It is well -adapted to using steam expansively. The crown sheet is so arranged as -not to be left bare of water in going up or down hills. Working parts -are covered dust proof. Engine has self-oiling features and sight -feed lubricator. Friction clutch in flywheel. Safety brake on main -axle. Engineer's platform mounted on springs and every part of engine -requiring attention can be reached conveniently from platform. - -Crank is center type. Cross-head pump is used. Usual fittings. - -[Illustration: GAAR, SCOTT & CO.'S TRACTION ENGINE.] - -These engines are built with boiler of locomotive type for burning wood -and coal, and of return flue type for burning straw. They are also -built of three general types, "Corliss-pattern" frame, "Standard" and -"Compound." - -The engine is side crank, mounted on brackets attached to the sides -of the boiler. The bedplate, cylinder and guides are bored at one -operation and cannot get out of alignment. Cylinder has wide ports -and free exhaust, and piston has self-setting rings. The genuine link -reverse gear is used, as on locomotives, and it undoubtedly has many -advantages over any other, including an easily adjustable variable -cut-off by correct setting of reverse lever. - -The differential gear is heavy and effective. A patent steering -attachment, with spiral roll, holds chains taut and gives positive -motion. Friction clutch is mounted on engine shaft and connects with -the hub of the pinion on this shaft. Rigid pinion is also provided. -Cross-head pump and injector are used, and Pickering governor with -improved spring speeder, permitting quick and easy change of speed; -also Sawyer's lever for testing safety. Steam passes direct from dome -to cylinder, without loss from cooling or condensing. The steel water -tank can be filled by a jet pump operated by steam. - - -D. JUNE & CO.'S TRACTION ENGINE. - -This is one of the very few traction engines built with upright boiler, -but it has been on the market many years and has been widely used with -great success as a general road locomotive. - -The engine is mounted on the water tank. The weight of the boiler -comes on the hind wheels, and makes this type of engine superior for -pulling. It is claimed that it has no equal on the market as a puller. -The upright type of boiler has the advantage that the crown sheet -is never exposed and it is claimed flues will last longer than in -horizontal type. It works equally well whether it stands level or not, -an advantage that no other type has. - -This type gets up steam more quickly than any other--it is said, -from cold water, in twenty minutes. The steam is superheated in a -way to economize fuel and water. By being mounted on the tank, the -engine does not get hot as it would if mounted on the boiler, and the -corresponding straining of parts is avoided. A patent water spark -arrester is used which is an absolute protection. - -[Illustration: D. JUNE & CO.'S TRACTION ENGINE.] - -The engine is geared to the traction by a chain, which can easily be -repaired as the links wear. The friction clutch works inside flywheel. -Engine has a new reversible eccentric, and differential gear, with -usual fittings. - - -NICHOLS & SHEPARD TRACTION ENGINE. - -The builders of this engine lay special stress upon the care with which -the boiler and similar parts are constructed. The important seams are -double riveted, and the flue sheet is half inch steel, drilled instead -of punched for the flues, and fitted with seamless steel flues, all of -the best steel. - -[Illustration: NICHOLS & SHEPARD TRACTION ENGINE.] - -The boiler is the direct flue locomotive type. The crown sheet slopes -backward to allow it to be covered with water in descending hills. -Boiler has round-bottom firebox. Axle passes around below the boiler, -and springs are provided. - -The engine is mounted on a long heater, which is attached to the side -of the boiler. The locomotive link reverse is used, with a plain slide -valve. - -Cross-head pump and injector are used, and improved pop safety valve. -Cylinder is jacketed, and cross-head guides are rigid with cylinder, so -that perfect alignment is always secured. - -Engines are built to burn coal or wood. A straw burner is provided with -firebrick arch. Compound engines are also built. - - -THE HUBER TRACTION ENGINE. - -The Huber boiler is of the return flue type, and the gates are in the -large central tube. This does away with the low-hanging firebox, and -enables the engine to cross streams and straddle stumps as the low -firebox type cannot do. The cylindrical shape of the boiler also adds -considerably to its strength. The water tank is carried in front, and -swings around so as to open the smoke box, so that repairs may be made -on the fire tubes at this end easily in the open air. With water front -return flue boilers the workman has to crawl through entire length of -central flue. As there is no firebox, the boiler is mounted above the -axle, not by bolting a plate to the side of the firebox. The boiler -is made fast to the axle, which is mounted on wheels with spring -cushion gear, the springs being placed in the wheel itself, between -the two bearings of the wheel or the hub on trunnions, which form the -spindle for the hub. The wheel revolves on the trunnion instead of on -the axle, and there is no wear on the axle. The traction gear has a -spring connection so that in starting a load there is little danger of -breakage. The compensating gear is all spur. The intermediate gear has -a ten-inch bearing, with an eccentric in the center for adjusting the -gear above and below. There is a spring draw bar and elastic steering -device. An improved friction clutch works on inside of flywheel. Engine -has a special governor adapted to varying work over rough roads, etc. - -[Illustration: THE HUBER TRACTION ENGINE.] - -A single eccentric reverse gear is used, with arm and wood slide block -(Woolf); and there is a variable exhaust, by which a strong draft may -be quickly created by shutting off one of two exhaust nozzles. When -both exhausts are open, back pressure is almost entirely relieved. - -The steam is carried in a pipe down through the middle of the central -flue, so that superheating is secured, which it is claimed makes a -saving of over 8 per cent in fuel and water. The stack is double walled -with air space between the walls. - -A special straw-burning engine is constructed with a firebox extension -in front, and straw passes over the end of a grate in such a way as to -get perfect combustion. This make of engine is peculiarly adapted to -burning straw successfully. - - -A. W. STEVENS' TRACTION ENGINE. - -This engine has locomotive pattern boiler, with sloping crown sheet, -and especially high offset over firebox, doubling steam space that -will give dry steam at all times. A large size steam pipe passes from -dome in rear through boiler to engine in front, superheating steam and -avoiding condensation from exposure. Grate is a rocking one, easily -cleaned and requiring little attention, and firedoor is of a pattern -that remains air-tight and need seldom be opened. - -The engine is mounted upon the boiler, arranged for rear gear traction -attachment. Engine frame, cylinder, guides, etc., are cast in one solid -piece. - -[Illustration: A. W. STEVENS' TRACTION ENGINE.] - -It has a special patented single eccentric reverse, and Pickering -horizontal governor. There is a friction clutch, Marsh steam pump, -and injector. Other fittings are complete, and engine is well made -throughout. - - -AULTMAN-TAYLOR TRACTION ENGINE. - -The Aultman-Taylor Traction Engine is an exceptionally well made -engine of the simplest type, and has been on the market over 25 years. -There are two general types, the wood and coal burners with locomotive -boilers, and return flue boiler style for burning straw. A compound -engine is also made with the Woolf single valve gear. - -[Illustration: AULTMAN-TAYLOR TRACTION ENGINE.] - -A special feature of this engine is that the rear axle comes behind -the firebox instead of between the firebox and the front wheels. This -distributes the weight of the engine more evenly. The makers do not -believe in springs for the rear axle, since they have a tendency to -wear the gear convex or round, and really accomplish much less than -they are supposed to. - -Another special point is the bevel traction gear. The engine is mounted -on the boiler well toward the front, and the flywheel is near the stack -(in the locomotive type). By bevel gears and a long shaft the power is -conducted to the differential gear in connection with the rear wheels. -The makers claim that lost motion can be taken up in a bevel gear much -better than in a spur gear. Besides, the spur gear is noisy and not -nearly so durable. Much less friction is claimed for this type of gear. - -The governor is the Pickering; cross-head pump is used, with U. S. -injector; heater, and other fittings complete. A band friction clutch -is used, said to be very durable. Diamond special spark arrester is -used except in straw burners. The platform and front bolster are -provided with springs. The makers especially recommend their compound -engine, claiming a gain of about 25 per cent. The use of automatic band -cutters and feeders, automatic weighers and baggers, and pneumatic -stackers with threshing machine outfits make additional demands on -an engine that is best met by the compound type. With large outfits, -making large demands, the compound engine gives the required power -without undue weight. - - -AVERY TRACTION ENGINE. - -The Avery is an engine with a return flue boiler and full water front, -and also is arranged with a firebox besides. There is no doubt that it -effects the greatest economy of fuel possible, and is adaptable equally -for wood, coal, or straw. The boiler is so built that a man may readily -crawl through the large central flue and get at the front ends of the -return tubes to repair them. - -[Illustration: AVERY TRACTION ENGINE.] - -The side gear is used with a crank disc instead of arm. The reverse is -the Grime, a single eccentric with device for shifting for reverse. The -friction clutch has unusually long shoes, working inside the flywheel, -with ample clearance when lever is off. A specialty is made of extra -wide traction wheels for soft country. The traction gear is of the spur -variety. There is also a double speed device offered as an extra. - -The water tank is carried in front, and lubricator, steering wheel (on -same side as band wheel for convenience in lining up with separator), -reverse lever, friction clutch, etc., are all right at the hand of the -engineer. - -The traction gear is of the spur variety, adjusted to be evenly -distributed to both traction wheels through the compensating gear, and -to get the best possible pull in case of need. - -For pulling qualities and economy of fuel, this engine is especially -recommended. - - -BUFFALO PITTS TRACTION ENGINE. - -The Buffalo Pitts Engine is built either single cylinder or double -cylinder. The boiler is of the direct flue locomotive type, with full -water bottom firebox. The straw burners are provided with a firebrick -arch in the firebox. Boilers are fully jacketed. - -[Illustration: BUFFALO PITTS TRACTION ENGINE.] - -The single and double cylinder engines differ only in this one -particular, the double cylinder having the advantage of never being on -a dead center and starting with perfect smoothness and gently, seldom -throwing off belt. The frame has bored guides, in same piece with -cylinder, effecting perfect alignment. - -The compensating gear is of the bevel type, half shrouded and so close -together that sand and grit are kept out. Three pinions are used, which -it is claimed prevent rocking caused by two or four pinions. - -Cross-head has shoes unusually long and wide. The engine frame is of -the box pattern, and is also used as a heater, feed water for either -injector or steam pump passing through it. Valve is of the plain -locomotive slide type. - -The friction clutch has hinged arms working into flywheel with but -slight beveling on flywheel inner surface, and being susceptible of -easy release. It is a specially patented device. The Woolf single -eccentric reverse gear is used. Engine is fully provided with all -modern fittings and appliances in addition to those mentioned. It was -the only traction engine exhibited at Pan-American Exposition which won -gold medal or highest award. It claims extra high grade of workmanship -and durability. - - -THE REEVES TRACTION ENGINES. - -These engines are made in two styles, simple double cylinder and cross -compound. The double cylinder and cross compound style have been -very successfully adapted to traction engine purposes with certain -advantages that no other style of traction engine has. With two -cylinders and two pistons placed side by side, with crank pins at right -angles on the shaft, there can be no dead centers, at which an engine -will be completely stuck. Then sudden starting is liable to throw off -the main belt. With a double cylinder engine the starting is always -gradual and easy, and never fails. - -The same is equally true of the cross compound, which has the advantage -of using the steam expansively in the low pressure cylinder. In case of -need the live steam may be introduced into the low pressure cylinder, -enormously increasing the pulling power of the engine for an emergency, -though the capacity of the boiler does not permit long use of both -cylinders in this way. - -[Illustration: THE REEVES TRACTION ENGINE.] - -The engine is placed on top of the firebox portion of the boiler, and -the weight is nicely balanced so that it comes on both sides alike. - -The gearing is attached to the axle and countershaft which extend -across the engine. The compensating gear is strong and well covered -from dirt. The gearing is the gear type, axle turning with the drivers. -There is an independent pump; also injector, and all attachments. The -band wheel being on the steering wheel or right side of the engine, -makes it easy to line up to a threshing machine. Engine frame is of the -Corliss pattern; boiler of locomotive type, and extra strongly built. - - -THE RUMELY TRACTION ENGINE. - -The most striking peculiarity is that the engine is mounted on the -boiler differently from most side crank traction engines, the cylinder -being forward and the shaft at the rear. This brings the gearing nearer -the traction wheels and reduces its weight and complication. - -[Illustration: THE RUMELY TRACTION ENGINE.] - -The boiler is of the round bottom firebox type, with dome in front and -an ash pan in lower part of firebox, and is unusually well built and -firmly riveted. - -The traction wheels are usually high, and the flywheel is between one -wheel and the boiler. - -The engine frame is of the girder pattern, with overhanging cylinder -attached to one end. - -The boiler is of the direct flue locomotive type, fitted for straw, -wood, or coal. Beam axle of the engine is behind the firebox, and is -a single solid steel shaft. Front axle is elliptical, and so stronger -than any other type. - -A double cylinder engine is now being built as well as the single -cylinder. The governor regulates the double cylinder engine more -closely than single cylinder types, and in the Rumely is very close -to the cut-off where a special simple reverse is used with the double -cylinder engine. - -Engine is supplied with cross-head pump and injector, Arnold shifting -eccentric reverse gear, friction clutch, and large cylindrical water -tank on the side. It also has the usual engine and boiler fittings. - - -PORT HURON TRACTION ENGINE. - -The Port Huron traction engine is of the direct flue locomotive type, -built either simple or compound, and of medium weight and excellent -proportions for general purpose use. The compound engine (tandem Woolf -cylinders) is especially recommended and pushed as more economical -than the simple cylinder engine. As live steam can be admitted to the -low pressure cylinder, so turning the compound into a simple cylinder -engine with two cylinders, enormous power can be obtained at a moment's -notice to help out at a difficult point. - -[Illustration: PORT HURON TRACTION ENGINE.] - -Two injectors are furnished with this engine, and the use of the -injector is recommended, contrary to the general belief that a pump is -more economical. The company contends that the long exhaust pipe causes -more back pressure on the cylinder than would be represented by the -saving of heat in the heater. However, a cross-head pump and special -condensing heater will be furnished if desired. - -On the simple engine a piston valve is used, the seat of the valve -completely surrounding it and the ports being circular openings, the -result, it is claimed, being a balanced valve. - -The valve reverse gear is of the Woolf pattern, the engine frame of -the girder type, Waters governor, with special patent speed changer, -specially balanced crank disc, patent straw burner arrangement for -straw burning engines, special patent spark extinguisher, special -patent gear lock, and special patents on front axle, drive wheel and -loco cab. - -The usual fittings are supplied. - - -MINNEAPOLIS TRACTION ENGINE. - -The Minneapolis traction engine is built both simple and compound. -All sizes and styles have the return flue boiler, for wood, coal or -straw. Both axles extend entirely and straight under the boiler, -giving complete support without strain. The cylinder, steam chest and -guides form one piece, and are mounted above a heater, secured firmly -to the boiler; valve single simple D pattern. Special throttle of the -butterfly pattern, large crank pin turned by special device after it -is driven in, so insuring perfect adjustment; special patent exhaust -nozzle made adjustable and so as always to throw steam in center of -stack; friction clutch with three adjustable shoes. Boiler is supplied -with a superheater pipe. Woolf valve and reverse gear. Special heavy -brass boxes and stuffing-boxes. Sight feed lubricator and needle feed -oiler; Gardner spring governor. Complete with usual fittings. This is a -simply constructed but very well made engine. - -[Illustration: MINNEAPOLIS TRACTION ENGINE.] - - - - -INDEX. - - - PAGE - A - - Ash pit, 70 - - Attachments for traction engine, 52 - - Automatic cut-off engines, 137 - - - B - - Babbitt boxes, how to, 189 - - Blast devices, 30 - - Blow-off devices, 30 - - Boiler and engine, test questions, 52 - - Boiler, attachments, 20 - - Boiler, heating surface of, 132 - - Boiler, how to manage, 56 - - Boiler, locomotive, 13 - - Boiler, questions, and answers, 95 - - Boiler, return flue, 15 - - Boiler, starting a, 57 - - Boiler, vertical, 17 - - Boiler, water for, 62 - - Boilers, 11 - - Boilers, how to fill with water, 24 - - Boilers, terms connected with, 17 - - Boss, 43 - - Box, a hot, 87 - - Boxes, how to babbitt, 189 - - Bridges, how to cross safely, 93 - - Buying an engine, 7 - - - C - - Clearance, 35 - - Clearance and lead, 134 - - Compound and cross-compound engines, 141 - - Compound engines, 124 - - Condensation and expansion, 134 - - Condenser, 35 - - Condensing engines, 140 - - Connecting rod, 34 - - Corliss engines, 138 - - Crank, 34, 41, 42 - - Cross-head, 33 - - Cushion, 35 - - Cylinder cocks, 50 - - Cylinder cocks, how to use, 83 - - Cylinder head, 33 - - Cylinder lubricators, 45 - - - D - - Differential gear, 46 - - Double eccentric, how to set valve, 82 - - - E - - Eccentric, 36 - - Eccentric rod, 36 - - Eccentric, slipping of, 83 - - Economy in running farm engine, 116, 130 - - Engine and boiler, test questions, 52 - - Engine, compound, 124 - - Engines, different types of, 137 - - Engine, how to manage, 77 - - Engine, simple, 32 - - Exhaust chamber, 35 - - Exhaust, the, 135 - - Exhaust nozzle, 35 - - Expansion and condensation, 134 - - Expansive power of steam, how to use, 122 - - - F - - Farm, engine, economy in running, 116, 130 - - Fire, starting, 70 - - Firing, economical, 67 - - Firing with coal, 68 - - Firing with straw, 69 - - Firing with wood, 69 - - Fly-wheel, 44 - - Friction, 126 - - Friction clutch, 47, 88 - - Fuel and grate surface, 130 - - Fusible plug, 48, 72 - - - G - - Gas and gasoline engines, 143 - - Gas engines compared with steam, 144 - - Gasoline engines, description of, 146 - - Gasoline engines, how to operate, 150 - - Gasoline engines, what to do when they don't work, 153 - - Gauge, water, 20 - - Gauge, steam, 22 - - Governors, 40 - - Grain, weight per bushel, 192 - - Grate surface, 130 - - - H - - Heater, 67 - - Heating surface of a boiler, 132 - - High speed engines, 139 - - Hills, how to pass with engine, 94 - - Hole, how to get out of, 92 - - Hot box, a, 87 - - How energy is lost, 119 - - How heat is distributed, 120 - - - I - - Indicator, steam, 50 - - Injectors, 28-66 - - - J - - Journals, 41, 44 - - - K - - Key, gib, and strap, 42 - - Knock, what makes an engine, 79 - - - L - - Lap of a valve, 35 - - Lead, 35, 80 - - Lead and clearance, 134 - - Leaks, 136 - - Leaky flues, 73 - - License, questions asked applicants for, 173 - - Link gear, 37 - - Lubrication, 85 - - Lubricators, 44 - - - M - - Meyer valve gear, 40 - - - N - - Non-condensing engines, 140 - - - P - - Pillow blocks, 44 - - Piston, 33 - - Ports, 34 - - Practical points of economy, 130 - - Pulleys, how to key, 189 - - Pumps, boiler, 25, 63 - - - Q - - Questions and answers, 95, 173, 104 - - Questions and answers, the boiler, 95 - - Questions and answers, the engine, 104 - - Questions, test, on engine and boiler, 52 - - - R - - Reversing gear, 37 - - Road, how to handle traction engine on the, 91 - - - S - - Safety valves, 23 - - Sand patches, how to get over with engine, 93 - - Setting a valve, 35, 81 - - Shaft, 41 - - Smoke, 71 - - Spark arresters, 31 - - Sparks, 72 - - Stationary engines, 137 - - Steam-chest, 34 - - Steam cylinder, 33 - - Steam, how to use expansive power of, 122 - - Steam, properties of, 121 - - Steam valve, 34 - - Stuffing box, 35, 50 - - - T - - Threshing machines, how to run, 158 - Attachments, 167 - Balancing a cylinder, 170 - Belting, 167 - Concaves, 162 - Conveyor extension, 164 - Covering pulleys, 171 - Cylinder, 161 - Fan, 163 - How to feed, 169 - Self-feeder, 165 - Separator, how to set, 160 - Separator, care of, 171 - Sieves, 164 - Straw rack, 163 - Tailings elevator, 165 - Waste, 169 - Wind stacker, 166 - - Theory of steam power, 116 - - Throttling engines, 137 - - Throttle, 34 - - Throw of an eccentric, 36 - - Traction engines, different makes, 193 - - Traction, engine, how, to handle on the road, 91 - - Traction, engine, how, to manage, 77 - - - V - - Valve gear, 36 - - Valve, how to set simple, 81 - - Valve seat, 34 - - Valve, setting, 35 - - Valve stem, 35 - - Valve, steam, 34 - - - W - - Whistle signals, code of, 191 - - Woolf reversing gear, 39 - - - Y - - Young engineers, points for, 95, 104, 110 - - - - -"ANNOUNCEMENT" - -=A NEW WORK= =UP-TO-DATE=, WILL BE PUBLISHED March 15th, 1903. A book -every carpenter and builder, machinist, mechanic and apprentice will -want. The life work of that well-known writer, Mr. Fred T. Hodgson. - -[Illustration] - -"PRACTICAL USES OF THE STEEL SQUARE" - -A Modern Treatise by Fred T. Hodgson. An exhaustive work including a -brief history of the Square; a description of many of the Squares that -are now, and have been in the market, including some very ingenious -devices for laying out Bevels for Rafters, Braces and other inclined -work; also chapters on the Square as a calculating machine, showing how -to measure Solids, Surfaces and Distances--very useful to builders and -estimators. Chapters on roofing and how to form them by the aid of the -Square; Octagon, Hexagon, Hip and other Roofs are shown and explained, -and the manner of getting the rafters and jacks given; Chapters on -heavy timber framing, showing how the Square is used for laying out -Mortises, Tenons, Shoulders, Inclined Work, Angle Corners and similar -work. - -The work abounds with hundreds of fine illustrations and explanatory -diagrams, which will prove a perfect mine of instruction for the -mechanic, young or old. - -Two large volumes, bound in fine cloth, printed on a superior quality -of paper from new large type. Each copy bears the Union Label, being -made entirely by Union labor. - - PRICE, 2 Vols, in a Box, Cloth Binding $2.00 - PRICE, 2 Vols, in a Box, Half-morocco Leather Binding 3.00 - -=PUBLISHERS' NOTE=--We wish to state this work is entirely new and must -not be mistaken for Mr. Hodgson's former works on the "Steel Square," -which were published some twenty years ago. Be sure and ask for -"Practical Uses of the Steel Square," by Fred T. Hodgson, which bears -the imprint of - - Send for descriptive circulars. - - =FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO., Publishers= of - Hodgson's "Modern Carpentry," "Common-Sense Handrailing," etc. - - - - -_Common-Sense Handrailings and How to Build Them_ - -By FRED T. HODGSON - -_ILLUSTRATED_ - -[Illustration] - -This new volume contains three distinct treatises on the subject, -each of which is complete in itself. The system of forming the lines -for obtaining the various curves, wreaths, ramps and face moulds for -handrails are the simplest in use and those employed by the most -successful handrailers. Mr. Hodgson has placed this unusually intricate -subject before his readers in a very plain and easily understood -manner, and any workman having a fair knowledge of "lines" and who can -construct an ordinary straight stairway can readily grasp the whole -system of "handrailing" after a small study of this work. - -The building of stairs and properly making and placing over them a -graceful handrail and suitable balusters and newel posts is one of the -greatest achievements of the joiner's art and skill, yet it is an art -that is the least understood of any of the constructive processes the -carpenter or joiner is called upon to accomplish. In but very few of -the plans made by an architect are the stairs properly laid down or -divided off; indeed, most of the stairs as laid out and planned by the -architect, are impossible ones owing to the fact that the circumstances -that govern the formation of the rail, are either not understood, or -not noticed by the designer, and the expert handrailer often finds -it difficult to conform the stairs and rail to the plan. Generally, -however, he gets so close to it that the character or the design is -seldom changed. - -The stairs are the great feature of a building as they are the first -object that meets the visitor and claims his attention, and it is -essential, therefore, that the stair and its adjuncts should have a -neat and graceful appearance, and this can only be accomplished by -having the rail properly made and set up. - -This little book gives such instructions in the art of handrailing as -will enable the young workman to build a rail so that it will assume a -handsome appearance when set in place. There are eleven distinct styles -of stairs shown, but the same principle that governs the making of the -simplest rail, governs the construction of the most difficult, so, once -having mastered the simple problems in this system, progress in the -art will become easy, and a little study and practice will enable the -workman to construct a rail for the most tortuous stairway. - -The book is copiously illustrated with nearly one hundred working -diagrams together with full descriptive text. - - _12mo CLOTH, PRICE, $1.00_ - - FREDERICK J. DRAKE 6 CO., Publishers - 211-213 East Madison St., CHICAGO - - - - -Modern Carpentry - -A PRACTICAL MANUAL - -FOR CARPENTERS AND WOOD WORKERS GENERALLY - -By Fred T. Hodgson, Architect, Editor of the National Builder, -Practical Carpentry, Steel Square and Its Uses, etc., etc. - -[Illustration] - -A new, complete guide, containing =hundreds of quick methods= for -performing work in =carpentry, joining and general wood-work=. Like all -of Mr. Hodgson's works, it is written in a simple, every-day style, -and does not bewilder the working-man with long mathematical formulas -or abstract theories. The illustrations, of which there are many, -are explanatory, so that any one who can read plain English will be -able to understand them easily and to follow the work in hand without -difficulty. - -The book contains methods of =laying roofs=, =rafters=, =stairs=, -=floors=, =hoppers=, =bevels=, =joining mouldings=, =mitering=, -=coping=, =plain hand-railing=, =circular work=, =splayed work=, and -many other things the carpenter wants to know to help him in his -every day vocation. It is the =most complete= and =very latest= work -published, being =thorough=, =practical= and =reliable=. One which no -carpenter can afford to be without. - -The work is printed from new, large type plates on a superior quality -of cream wove paper, durably bound in English cloth. - -Price $1.00 - - FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO. - 211-213 E. Madison St., Chicago. - - - - -Scientific Horse, Mule _and_ Ox Shoeing - -By J. G. Holmstrom, - -Author of Modern Blacksmithing - -[Illustration] - -=A standard treatise=, adapted to the demand of =Veterinarians=, -=Farriers= and the =Amateur Horseshoer=. Illustrated. The book is -concisely written; no long articles over the experiments of others, but -gives the best methods known up to date. - -Although there are principles laid down in the book that will stand -so long as the horse is a horse, the author does not lay any claim to -infalibility or perfection; he has simply laid a foundation upon which -the ironer of horses' feet may build and develop a perfect structure. - -Among some of the valuable contents are:-- - - Anatomy of the Foot. - The Shoe and How to Make it. - Right and Wrong Filling. - How to Nail the Shoe. - How to Fit and Recalk Old Shoes. - Interfering. - Preparing the Foot for Shoeing. - Shoeing a Trotter. - Mule Shoeing. - Ox Shoeing. - Diseases of the Horse. - Hot and Cold Fitting. - How to Shoe Vicious Horses. - Kneesprung. - Stringhalt. - Contraction. - Sand Cracks, etc., etc. - -Many of the fine illustrations used are reproduced by permission from -books issued by the U. S. Department of Agriculture. - -Large 12mo, Cloth, with Special Cover Design, =$1.00= - -Sold by Booksellers generally, or sent postpaid upon receipt of price. - - FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO., Publisher. - 211-213 East Madison St., CHICAGO - - - - -ALL TECHNICAL TERMS AVOIDED - -Practical Telephone Hand Book and Guide to Telephonic Exchange - -HOW TO CONSTRUCT AND MAINTAIN TELEPHONE LINES - -By T. S. BALDWIN, M. A. Illustrated. - -[Illustration] - -Containing chapters on "The Use of the Telephone, Series and Bridging -phones, Line Construction, Materials to be used, Locating and -Correction of Faults in Instruments and Lines." - -This is the best book ever published on Farm Telephones and has -been the sensation of the past year in telephone circles. It is the -only book ever issued which treats the subject exhaustively and -comprehensively. It is of inestimable value to promoters of rural party -lines because it contains all of the arguments that are necessary to -show the advantages of rural party lines. It also tells how such lines -should be constructed and cared for. - -The great growth of the telephone industry during the past few years, -and in response to the demand for a comprehensive book, giving a clear, -terse idea of the different principles governing the construction, -installation, care and management of the various telephones and their -appliances, the Practical Telephone Hand Book has been compiled. It is -written in a most clear and careful style and aims to give a complete -review of the subject of telephony. - -No expense has been spared in gathering valuable information, and it -has been the aim of the author to make this treatise the most complete -elementary book ever written on this subject for all persons interested -in this great achievement of modern science. - -The text is profusely illustrated by cuts of commercial apparatus and -carefully prepared diagrams of circuits. No diagram is given without -a full explanation. The apparatus and methods used in making all the -tests required in commercial telephone work, including the exchange, -are fully treated. - -12 Mo. Cloth, fully illustrated, price =$1.25= - - - - -BOOKKEEPING SELF-TAUGHT - -_By PHILLIP C. GOODWIN_ - -[Illustration] - -Few, if any of the technical works, which purport to be -self-instructing have justified the claims made for them, and -invariably the student either becomes discouraged and abandons his -purpose and aim, or he is compelled to enlist the offices of a -professional teacher, which in the great majority of instances is -impracticable when considered in relation to the demands upon time and -the condition of life to which the great busy public is subjected. - -Mr. Goodwin's treatise on Bookkeeping is an entirely new departure from -all former methods of self-instruction and one which can be studied -systematically and alone by the student with quick and permanent -results, or taken up in leisure moments with an absolute certainty of -acquiring the science in a very short time and with little effort. The -book is both a marvel of skill and simplicity. Every feature and every -detail leading to the climax of scientific perfection are so thoroughly -complete in this logical procedure and the analysis so thorough -and deftly made that the self-teaching student is led by almost -imperceptible, but sure and certain steps to the basic principles of -the science, which the author in a most comprehensive and lucid style -lays bare to intelligence of, even the most mediocre order. - -The work is the most masterly exposition of the scientific principles -of Bookkeeping and their practical application which has ever appeared -in the English language, and it should be in the hands of every school -boy or girl, every clerk, farmer, teacher and business or professional -man; for a knowledge of Bookkeeping, even though it may not be followed -as a profession, is a necessity felt by every person in business life -and a recognized prime factor of business success. - -In addition to a very simple yet elaborate explanation in detail of the -systems of both single and double entry Bookkeeping, beginning with the -initial transactions and leading the student along to the culminating -exhibit of the balance sheet, the work contains a glossary of all the -commercial terms employed in the business world, together with accounts -in illustration, exercises for practice and one set of books completely -written up. - -12mo Cloth. Price $1.00. - -Sent postpaid to any address upon receipt of price. - - Frederick J. Drake & Co., Publishers - 211-213 EAST MADISON ST., CHICAGO - - - - - * * * * * - - - - -Transcriber's Notes. - -Italic text is denoted by _underscores_ and bold text by =equals -signs=. Variant spelling, punctuation, and inconsistent hyphenation -have been preserved as printed; simple typographical errors have been -corrected. The following list notes the changes made or shows the -changed text below the original text. - - Page 21: - They open directly ut - They open directly out - - Page 52: - (1 is left in place.) - [added closing parenthesis] - - Page 52: - 15 ft. lin. Suction Hose - 15 ft. 1 in. Suction Hose - - Page 55: - used for rest of engine? - used for rest of the engine? - - Page 59: - imperfect team gauge - imperfect steam gauge - - Page 59: - tightning up a box there - tightening up a box there - - Page 96: - Blown off more is only a waste of heat - Blowing off more is only a waste of heat - - Page 117: - long separated overs - long separated lovers - - Page 130: - should have a great surface - should have a grate surface - - Advertisements: - Special Cover Design, $1.00 - [added decimal point] - - Advertisements: - Few, if any of of the technical works - Few, if any of the technical works - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Farm Engines and How to Run Them, by -James H. 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Stephenson — A Project Gutenberg eBook. @@ -331,46 +331,7 @@ a[title].pagenum { position: static;} <![endif]--> </head> <body> - - -<pre> - -Project Gutenberg's Farm Engines and How to Run Them, by James H. Stephenson - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: Farm Engines and How to Run Them - The Young Engineer's Guide - -Author: James H. Stephenson - -Release Date: October 2, 2013 [EBook #43867] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FARM ENGINES AND HOW TO RUN THEM *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Jennifer Linklater and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 43867 ***</div> <div class="figcenter" id="frontispiece"> <img src="images/frontispiece.jpg" width="550" height="362" alt="" /> @@ -10857,388 +10818,6 @@ All changes are also noted in the source code: search <code><!--TN:</code></p </div> - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Farm Engines and How to Run Them, by -James H. 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Thus, we do not necessarily -keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. - - -Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: - - http://www.gutenberg.org - -This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. - - -</pre> - +<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 43867 ***</div> </body> </html> diff --git a/43867.txt b/43867.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 1e57e72..0000000 --- a/43867.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8403 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's Farm Engines and How to Run Them, by James H. Stephenson - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: Farm Engines and How to Run Them - The Young Engineer's Guide - -Author: James H. Stephenson - -Release Date: October 2, 2013 [EBook #43867] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FARM ENGINES AND HOW TO RUN THEM *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Jennifer Linklater and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -[Illustration: TRACTION ENGINE.] - - - - - FARM ENGINES AND HOW TO RUN THEM - - _THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S GUIDE_ - - A SIMPLE, PRACTICAL HAND BOOK, FOR EXPERTS AS WELL AS - FOR AMATEURS, FULLY DESCRIBING EVERY PART OF AN ENGINE - AND BOILER, GIVING FULL DIRECTIONS FOR THE SAFE AND - ECONOMICAL MANAGEMENT OF BOTH; ALSO SEVERAL - HUNDRED QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS OFTEN GIVEN IN - EXAMINATIONS FOR AN ENGINEER'S LICENSE, AND - CHAPTERS ON FARM ENGINE ECONOMY, WITH - SPECIAL ATTENTION TO TRACTION AND GASOLINE - FARM ENGINES, AND A CHAPTER ON - - _The Science of Successful Threshing_ - - BY - JAMES H. STEPHENSON - _And Other Expert Engineers_ - - WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS SHOWING THE DIFFERENT - PARTS OF A BOILER AND ENGINE, AND NEARLY EVERY MAKE OF - TRACTION ENGINE, WITH A BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DISTINCTIVE - POINTS IN EACH MAKE. - - [Illustration] - - CHICAGO - FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO. - PUBLISHERS - - COPYRIGHT, 1903 - BY FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO. - CHICAGO, ILL., U.S.A. - - - - -PREFACE - - -This book makes no pretensions to originality. It has taken the best -from every source. The author believes the matter has been arranged in -a more simple and effective manner, and that more information has been -crowded into these pages than will be found within the pages of any -similar book. - -The professional engineer, in writing a book for young engineers, is -likely to forget that the novice is unfamiliar with many terms which -are like daily bread to him. The present writers have tried to avoid -that pitfall, and to define each term as it naturally needs definition. -Moreover, the description of parts and the definitions of terms have -preceded any suggestions on operation, the authors believing that the -young engineer should become thoroughly familiar with his engine and -its manner of working, before he is told what is best to do and not -to do. If he is forced on too fast he is likely to get mixed. The -test questions at the end of Chapter III. will show how perfectly the -preceding pages have been mastered, and the student is not ready to go -on till he can answer all these questions readily. - -The system of questions and answers has its uses and its limitations. -The authors have tried to use that system where it would do most good, -and employ the straight narrative discussion method where questions -could not help and would only interrupt the progress of thought. Little -technical matter has been introduced, and that only for practical -purposes. The authors have had traction engines in mind for the most -part, but the directions will apply equally well to any kind of steam -engine. - -The thanks of the publishers are due to the various traction engine -and threshing machine manufacturers for cuts and information, and -especially to the _Threshermen's Review_ for ideas contained in its -"Farm Engine Economy," to the J. I. Case Threshing Machine Co. for -the use of copyrighted matter in their "The Science of Successful -Threshing," and to the manager of the Columbus Machine Co. for valuable -personal information furnished the authors on gasoline engines and how -to run them. The proof has been read and corrected by Mr. T. R. Butman, -known in Chicago for 25 years as one of the leading experts on engines -and boilers, especially boilers. - - - - -THE - -YOUNG ENGINEERS' GUIDE - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -BUYING AN ENGINE. - - -There are a great many makes of good engines on the market to-day, and -the competition is so keen that no engine maker can afford to turn out -a very poor engine. This is especially true of traction engines. The -different styles and types all have their advantages, and are good in -their way. For all that, one good engine may be valueless for you, and -there are many ways in which you may make a great mistake in purchasing -an engine. The following points will help you to choose wisely: - -1. Consider what you want an engine for. If it is a stationary engine, -consider the work to be done, the space it is to occupy, and what -conveniences will save your time. Remember, TIME IS MONEY, and that -means that SPACE IS ALSO MONEY. Choose the kind of engine that will be -most convenient for the position in which you wish to place it and the -purpose or purposes for which you wish to use it. If buying a traction -engine, consider also the roads and an engine's pulling qualities. - -2. If you are buying a traction engine for threshing, the first thing -to consider is FUEL. Which will be cheapest for you, wood, coal or -straw? Is economy of fuel much of an object with you--one that will -justify you in greater care and more scientific study of your engine? -Other things being equal, the direct flue, firebox, locomotive boiler -and simple engine will be the best, since they are the easiest to -operate. They are not the most economical under favorable conditions, -but a return flue boiler and a compound engine will cost you far more -than the possible saving of fuel unless you manage them in a scientific -way. Indeed, if not rightly managed they will waste more fuel than the -direct flue locomotive boiler and the simple engine. - -3. Do not try to economize on the size of your boiler, and at the same -time never get too large an engine. If a 6-horse power boiler will just -do your work, an 8-horse power will do it better and more economically, -because you won't be overworking it all the time. Engines should seldom -be crowded. At the same time you never know when you may want a higher -capacity than you have, or how much you may lose by not having it. Of -course you don't want an engine and boiler that are too big, but you -should always allow a fair margin above your anticipated requirements. - -4. Do not try to economize on appliances. You should have a good pump, -a good injector, a good heater, an extra steam gauge, an extra fusible -plug ready to put in, a flue expander and a beader. You should also -certainly have a good force pump and hose to clean the boiler, and the -best oil and grease you can get. Never believe the man who tells you -that something not quite the best is just as good. You will find it the -most expensive thing you ever tried--if you have wit enough to find out -how expensive it is. - -5. If you want my personal advice on the proper engine to select for -various purposes, I should say by all means get a gasoline engine for -small powers about the farm, such as pumping, etc. It is the quickest -to start, by far the most economical to operate, and the simplest -to manage. The day of the small steam engine is past and will never -return, and ten gasoline engines of this kind are sold for every steam -engine put out. If you want a traction engine for threshing, etc., -stick to steam. Gasoline engines are not very good hill climbers -because the application of power is not steady enough; they are not -very good to get out of mud holes with for the same reason, and as yet -they are not perfected for such purposes. You might use a portable -gasoline engine, however, though the application of power is not -as steady as with steam and the flywheels are heavy. In choosing a -traction steam engine, the direct flue locomotive boiler and simple -engine, though theoretically not so economical as the return flue -boiler and compound engine, will in many cases prove so practically -because they are so much simpler and there is not the chance to go -wrong with them that there is with the others. If for any reason you -want a very quick steamer, buy an upright. If economy of fuel is very -important and you are prepared to make the necessary effort to secure -it, a return flue boiler will be a good investment, and a really good -compound engine may be. Where a large plant is to be operated and a -high power constant and steady energy is demanded, stick to steam, -since the gasoline engines of the larger size have not proved so -successful, and are certainly by no means so steady; and in such a -case the exhaust steam can be used for heating and for various other -purposes that will work the greatest economy. For such a plant choose a -horizontal tubular boiler, set in masonry, and a compound engine (the -latter if you have a scientific engineer). - -In general, in the traction engine, look to the convenience of -arrangement of the throttle, reverse lever, steering wheel, friction -clutch, independent pump and injector, all of which should be within -easy reach of the footboard, as such an arrangement will save annoyance -and often damage when quick action is required. - -The boiler should be well set; the firebox large, with large grate -surface if a locomotive type of boiler is used, and the number of flues -should be sufficient to allow good combustion without forced draft. -A return flue boiler should have a large main flue, material of the -required 5-16-inch thickness, a mud drum, and four to six hand-holes -suitably situated for cleaning the boiler. There should be a rather -high average boiler pressure, as high pressure is more economical than -low. For a simple engine, 80 pounds and for a compound 125 pounds -should be minimum. - -A stationary engine should have a solid foundation built by a mason who -understands the business, and should be in a light, dry room--never in -a dark cellar or a damp place. - -Every farm traction engine should have a friction clutch. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -BOILERS. - - -The first boilers were made as a single cylinder of wrought iron set in -brick work, with provision for a fire under one end. This was used for -many years, but it produced steam very slowly and with great waste of -fuel. - -The first improvement to be made in this was a fire flue running the -whole length of the interior of the boiler, with the fire in one end of -the flue. This fire flue was entirely surrounded by water. - -Then a boiler was made with two flues that came together at the -smoke-box end. First one flue was fired and then the other, -alternately, the clear heat of one burning the smoke of the other when -it came into the common passage. - -The next step was to introduce conical tubes by which the water could -circulate through the main fire flue (Galloway boiler). - -[Illustration: FIG. 1. ORR & SEMBOWER'S STANDARD HORIZONTAL BOILER, -WITH FULL-ARCH FRONT SETTING.] - -The object of all these improvements was to get larger heating surface. -To make steam rapidly and economically, the heating surface must be as -large as possible. - -[Illustration: FIG. 2. GAAR, SCOTT & CO.'S LOCOMOTIVE BOILER.] - -But there is a limit in that the boiler must not be cumbersome, it must -carry enough water, and have sufficient space for steam. - -The stationary boiler now most commonly used is cylindrical, the fire -is built in a brick furnace under the sheet and returns through fire -tubes running the length of the boiler. (Fig. 1.) - - -LOCOMOTIVE FIRE TUBE TYPE OF BOILER. - -The earliest of the modern steam boilers to come into use was the -locomotive fire tube type, with a special firebox. By reference to -the illustration (Fig. 2) you will see that the boiler cylinder is -perforated with a number of tubes from 2 to 4 inches in diameter -running from the large firebox on the left, through the boiler cylinder -filled with water, to the smoke-box on the right, above which the -smokestack rises. - -[Illustration: FIG. 3. THE HUBER FIRE BOX.] - -It will be noticed that the walls of the firebox are double, and that -the water circulates freely all about the firebox as well as all about -the fire tubes. The inner walls of the firebox are held firmly in -position by stay bolts, as will be seen in Fig. 3, which also shows the -position of the grate. - -[Illustration: FIG. 4. HUBER RETURN FLUE BOILER.] - - -RETURN FLUE TYPE OF BOILER. - -The return flue type of boiler consists of a large central fire flue -running through the boiler cylinder to the smoke box at the front end, -which is entirely closed. The smoke passes back through a number of -small tubes, and the smokestack is directly over the fire at the rear -of the boiler, though there is no communication between the fire at the -rear of the boiler and it except through the main flue to the front and -back through the small return flues. Fig. 4 illustrates this type of -boiler, though it shows but one return flue. The actual number may be -seen by the sectional view in Fig. 5. - -[Illustration: FIG. 5. SECTION VIEW OF HUBER RETURN FLUE BOILER.] - -The fire is built in one end of the main flue, and is entirely -surrounded by water, as will be seen in the illustration. The long -passage for the flame and heated gases enables the water to absorb a -maximum amount of the heat of combustion. There is also an element of -safety in this boiler in that the small flues will be exposed first -should the water become low, and less damage will be done than if the -large crown sheet of the firebox boiler is exposed, and this large -crown sheet is the first thing to be exposed in that type of boiler. - - -WATER TUBE TYPE OF BOILER. - -The special difference between the fire tube boiler and the water tube -boiler is that in the former the fire passes through the tubes, while -in the latter the water is in the tubes and the fire passes around them. - -[Illustration: FIG. 6. FREEMAN VERTICAL BOILER.] - -In this type of boiler there is an upper cylinder (or more than one) -filled with water; a series of small tubes running at an angle from the -front or fire door end of the upper cylinder to a point below and back -of the grates, where they meet in another cylinder or pipe, which is -connected with the other end of the upper cylinder. The portions of the -tubes directly over the fire will be hottest, and the water here will -become heated and rise to the front end of the upper cylinder, while to -fill the space left, colder water is drawn in from the back pipe, from -the rear end of the upper cylinder, down to the lower ends of the water -tubes, to pass along up through them to the front end again. - -This type of boiler gives great heating surface, and since the tubes -are small they will have ample strength with much thinner walls. Great -freedom of circulation is important in this type of boiler, there being -no contracted cells in the passage. This is not adapted for a portable -engine. - - -UPRIGHT OR VERTICAL TYPE OF BOILER. - -In the upright type of boiler the boiler cylinder is placed on end, -the fire is built at the lower end, which is a firebox surrounded by a -water jacket, and the smoke and gases of combustion rise straight up -through vertical fire flues. The amount of water carried is relatively -small, and the steam space is also small, while the heating surface is -relatively large if the boiler is sufficiently tall. You can get up -steam in this type of boiler quicker than in any other, and in case of -the stationary engine, the space occupied is a minimum. The majority -of small stationary engines have this type of boiler, and there is a -traction engine with upright boiler which has been widely used, but -it is open to the objection that the upper or steam ends of the tubes -easily get overheated and so become leaky. There is also often trouble -from mud and scale deposits in the water leg, the bottom area of which -is very small. - - -DEFINITION OF TERMS USED IN CONNECTION WITH BOILERS. - -_Shell_--The main cylindrical steel sheets which form the principal -part of the boiler. - -_Boiler-heads_--The ends of the boiler cylinder. - -_Tube Sheets_--The sheets in which the fire tubes are inserted at each -end of the boiler. - -_Fire-box_--A nearly square space at one end of a boiler, in which the -fire is placed. Properly it is surrounded on all sides by a double -wall, the space between the two shells of these walls being filled with -water. All flat surfaces are securely fastened by stay bolts and crown -bars, but cylindrical surfaces are self-bracing. - -_Water-leg_--The space at sides of fire-box and below it in which water -passes. - -_Crown-sheet_--The sheet of steel at the top of the firebox, just under -the water in the boiler. This crown sheet is exposed to severe heat, -but so long as it is covered with water, the water will conduct the -heat away, and the metal can never become any hotter than the water -in the boiler. If, however, it is not covered with water, but only by -steam, it quickly becomes overheated, since the steam does not conduct -the heat away as the water does. It may become so hot it will soften -and sag, but the great danger is that the thin layer of water near this -overheated crown sheet will be suddenly turned into a great volume -of steam and cause an explosion. If some of the pressure is taken -off, this overheated water may suddenly burst into steam and cause an -explosion, as the safety valve blows off, for example (since the safety -valve relieves some of the pressure). - -_Smoke-box_--The space at the end of the boiler opposite to that of the -fire, in which the smoke may accumulate before passing up the stack in -the locomotive type, or through the small flues in the return type of -boiler. - -_Steam-dome_--A drum or projection at the top of the boiler cylinder, -forming the highest point which the steam can reach. The steam is taken -from the boiler through piping leading from the top of this dome, since -at this point it is least likely to be mixed with water, either through -foaming or shaking up of the boiler. Even under normal conditions the -steam at the top of the dome is drier than anywhere else. - -_Mud-drum_--A cylindrical-shaped receptacle at the bottom of the boiler -similar to the steam-dome at the top, but not so deep. Impurities in -the water accumulate here, and it is of great value on a return flue -boiler. In a locomotive boiler the mud accumulates in the water leg, -below the firebox. - -_Man-holes_--Are large openings into the interior of a boiler, through -which a man may pass to clean out the inside. - -_Hand-holes_--Are smaller holes at various points in the boiler into -which the nozzle of a hose may be introduced for cleaning out the -interior. All these openings must be securely covered with steam-tight -plates, called man-hole and hand-hole plates. - -_A boiler jacket_--A non-conducting covering of wood, plaster, hair, -rags, felt, paper, asbestos or the like, which prevents the boiler -shell from cooling too rapidly through radiation of heat from the -steel. These materials are usually held in place against the boiler by -sheet iron. An intervening air-space between the jacket and the boiler -shell will add to the efficiency of the jacket. - -_A steam-jacket_--A space around an engine cylinder or the like which -may be filled with live steam so as to keep the interior from cooling -rapidly. - -_Ash-pit_--The space directly under the grates, where the ashes -accumulate. - -_Dead-plates_--Solid sheets of steel on which the fire lies the same as -on the grates, but with no openings through to the ash-pit. Dead-plates -are sometimes used to prevent cold air passing through the fire into -the flues, and are common on straw-burning boilers. They should seldom -if ever be used on coal or wood firing boilers. - -_Grate Surface_--The whole space occupied by the grate-bars, usually -measured in square feet. - -_Forced Draft_--A draft produced by any means other than the natural -tendency of the heated gases of combustion to rise. For example, a -draft caused by letting steam escape into the stack. - -_Heating Surface_--The entire surface of the boiler exposed to the heat -of the fire, or the area of steel or iron sheeting or tubing, on one -side of which is water and on the other heated air or gases. - -_Steam-space_--The cubical contents of the space which may be occupied -by steam above the water. - -_Water-space_--The cubical contents of the space occupied by water -below the steam. - -_Diaphragm-plate_--A perforated plate used in the domes of locomotive -boilers to prevent water dashing into the steam supply pipe. A dry-pipe -is a pipe with small perforations, used for taking steam from the -steam-space, instead of from a dome with diaphragm-plate. - - -THE ATTACHMENTS OF A BOILER.[1] - -Before proceeding to a consideration of the care and management of -a boiler, let us briefly indicate the chief working attachments of -a boiler. Unless the nature and uses of these attachments are fully -understood, it will be impossible to handle the boiler in a thoroughly -safe and scientific fashion, though some engineers do handle boilers -without knowing all about these attachments. Their ignorance in many -cases costs them their lives and the lives of others. - - Footnote 1: Unless otherwise indicated, cuts of fittings show those - manufactured by the Lunkenheimer Co., Cincinnati, Ohio. - -The first duty of the engineer is to see that the boiler is filled with -water. This he usually does by looking at the glass water-gauge. - - -THE WATER GAUGE AND COCKS. - -[Illustration: TWO-ROD WATER GAUGE.] - -There is a cock at each end of the glass tube. When these cocks are -open the water will pass through the lower into the glass tube, while -steam comes through the other. The level of the water in the gauge will -then be the same as the level of the water in the boiler, and the water -should never fall out of sight below the lower end of the glass, nor -rise above the upper end. - -Below the lower gauge cock there is another cock used for draining -the gauge and blowing it off when there is a pressure of steam on. By -occasionally opening this cock, allowing the heated water or steam to -blow through it, the engineer may always be sure that the passages -into the water gauge are not stopped up by any means. By closing the -upper cock and opening the lower, the passage into the lower may be -cleared by blowing off the drain cock; by closing the lower gauge cock -and opening the upper the passage from the steam space may be cleared -and tested in the same way when the drain cock is opened. If the glass -breaks, both upper and lower gauge cocks should be closed instantly. - -[Illustration: GAUGE OR TRY COCK.] - -In addition to the glass water gauge, there are the try-cocks for -ascertaining the level of the water in the boiler. There should be two -to four of these. They open directly out of the boiler sheet, and by -opening them in turn it is possible to tell approximately where the -water stands. There should be one cock near the level of the crown -sheet, or slightly above it, another about the level of the lower gauge -cock, another about the middle of the gauge, another about the level of -the upper gauge, and still another, perhaps, a little higher. But one -above and one below the water line will be sufficient. If water stands -above the level of the cock, it will blow off white mist when opened; -if the cock opens from steam-space, it will blow off blue steam when -opened. - -The try-cocks should be opened from time to time in order to be sure -the water stands at the proper level in the boiler, for various things -may interfere with the working of the glass gauge. Try-cocks are often -called gauge cocks. - -[Illustration: TRY COCK.] - - -THE STEAM GAUGE. - -The steam gauge is a delicate instrument arranged so as to indicate by -a pointer the pounds of pressure which the steam is exerting within the -boiler. It is extremely important, and a defect in it may cause much -damage. - -[Illustration: PRESSURE GAUGE.] - -The steam gauge was invented in 1849 by Eugene Bourdon, of France. -He discovered that a flat tube bent in a simple curve, held fast at -one end, would expand and contract if made of proper spring material, -through the pressure of the water within the tube. The free end -operates a clock-work that moves the pointer. - -It is important that the steam gauge be attached to the boiler by a -siphon, or with a knot in the tube, so that the steam may operate on -water contained in the tube, and the water cannot become displaced by -steam, since steam might interfere with the correct working of the -gauge by expanding the gauge tube through its excessive heat. - -Steam gauges frequently get out of order, and should be tested -occasionally. This may conveniently be done by attaching them to a -boiler which has a correct gauge already on it. If both register alike, -it is probable that both are accurate. - -[Illustration: STEAM GAUGE SIPHON.] - -[Illustration: FRONT CYLINDER COCK.] - -There are also self-testing steam gauges. With all pressure off, -the pointer will return to 0. Then a series of weights are arranged -which may be hung on the gauge and cause the pointer to indicate -corresponding numbers. The chief source of variation is in the -loosening of the indicator needle. This shows itself usually when the -pressure is off and the pointer does not return exactly to zero. - - -SAFETY VALVE. - -The safety valve is a valve held in place by a weighted lever[2] or -by a spiral spring (on traction engines) or some similar device, and -is adjustable by a screw or the like so that it can be set to blow -off at a given pressure of steam, usually the rated pressure of the -boiler, which on traction engines is from 110 to 130 pounds. The valve -is supplied with a handle by which it can be opened, and it should -be opened occasionally to make sure it is working all right. When it -blows off the steam gauge should be noted to see that it agrees with -the pressure for which the safety valve was set. If they do not agree, -something is wrong; either the safety valve does not work freely, or -the steam gauge does not register accurately. - - Footnote 2: This kind of safety valve is now being entirely discarded - as much more dangerous than the spring or pop valve. - -[Illustration: SECTIONAL VIEW OF KUNKLE POP VALVE.] - -[Illustration: SAFETY VALVE.] - -The cut shows the Kunkle safety valve. To set it, unscrew the jam nut -and apply the key to the pressure screw. For more pressure, screw -down; for less, unscrew. After having the desired pressure, screw the -jam nut down tight on the pressure screw. To regulate the opening -and closing of the valve, take the pointed end of a file and apply it -to the teeth of the regulator. If valve closes with too much boiler -pressure, move the regulator to the left. If with too little, move the -regulator to the right. - -This can be done when the valve is at the point of blowing off. - -[Illustration: PHANTOM VIEW OF MARSH INDEPENDENT STEAM PUMP.] - -Other types of valves are managed in a similar way, and exact -directions will always be furnished by the manufacturers. - - -FILLING THE BOILER WITH WATER. - -There are three ways in which a boiler is commonly filled with water. - -First, before starting a boiler it must be filled with water by hand, -or with a hand force-pump. There is usually a filler plug, which must -be taken out, and a funnel can be attached in its place. Open one of -the gauge cocks to let out the air as the water goes in. - -When the boiler has a sufficient amount of water, as may be seen by -the glass water gauge, replace the filler plug. After steam is up the -boiler should be supplied with water by a pump or injector. - - -THE BOILER PUMP. - -There are two kinds of pumps commonly used on traction engines, the -Independent pump, and the Cross-head pump. - -The Independent pump is virtually an independent engine with pump -attached. There are two cylinders, one receiving steam and conveying -force to the piston; the other a water cylinder, in which a plunger -works, drawing the water into itself by suction and forcing it out -through the connection pipe into the boiler by force of steam pressure -in the steam cylinder. - -[Illustration: STRAIGHT GLOBE VALVE.] - -[Illustration: ANGLE GLOBE VALVE.] - -It is to be noted that all suction pumps receive their water by reason -of the pressure of the atmosphere on the surface of the water in the -supply tank or well. This atmospheric pressure is about 15 pounds to -the square inch, and is sufficient to support a column of water 28 to -33 feet high, 33 feet being the height of a column of water which the -atmosphere will support theoretically at about sea level. At greater -altitudes the pressure of the atmosphere decreases. Pumps do not work -very well when drawing water from a depth over 20 or 22 feet. - -Water can be forced to almost any height by pressure of steam on the -plunger, and it is taken from deep wells by deep well pumps, which suck -the water 20 to 25 feet, and force it the rest of the way by pressure -on a plunger. - -The amount of water pumped is regulated by a cock or globe valve in the -suction pipe. - -A Cross-head boiler pump is a pump attached to the cross-head of an -engine. The force of the engine piston is transmitted to the plunger of -the pump. - -The pump portion works exactly the same, whether of the independent or -cross-head kind. - -The cut represents an independent pump that uses the exhaust steam to -heat the water as it is pumped (Marsh pump). - -[Illustration: VALVE WITH INTERNAL SCREW.] - -Every boiler feed-pump must have at least two check valves. - -A check valve is a small swinging gate valve (usually) contained in a -pipe, and so arranged that when water is flowing in one direction the -valve will automatically open to let the water pass, while if water -should be forced in the other direction, the valve will automatically -close tight and prevent the water from passing. - -[Illustration: SECTIONAL VIEW OF SWING CHECK VALVE.] - -There is one check valve in the supply pipe which conducts the water -from the tank or well to the pump cylinder. When the plunger is drawn -back or raised, a vacuum is created in the pump cylinder and the -outside atmospheric pressure forces water through the supply pipe -into the cylinder, and the check valve opens to let it pass. When the -plunger returns, the check valve closes, and the water is forced into -the feed-pipe to the boiler. - -[Illustration: SECTIONAL VIEW OF CASE HEATER.] - -There are usually two check valves between the pump cylinder and the -boiler, both swinging away from the pump or toward the boiler. In -order that the water may flow steadily into the boiler there is an air -chamber, which may be partly filled with water at each stroke of the -plunger. As the water comes in, the air must be compressed, and as it -expands it forces the water through the feed pipe into the boiler in -a steady stream. There is one check valve between the pump cylinder -and the air chamber, to prevent the water from coming back into the -cylinder, and another between the air chamber and the boiler, to -prevent the steam pressure forcing itself or the water from the boiler -or water heater back into the air chamber. - -[Illustration: SECTIONAL VIEW OF PENBERTHY INJECTOR.] - -[Illustration: U. S. AUTOMATIC INJECTOR. - -(American Injector Co.)] - -All three of these check valves must work easily and fit tight if the -pump is to be serviceable. They usually close with rubber facings which -in time will get worn, and dirt is liable to work into the hinge and -otherwise prevent tight and easy closing. They can always be opened for -inspection, and new ones can be put in when the old are too much worn. - -Only cold water can be pumped successfully, as steam from hot water -will expand, and so prevent a vacuum being formed. Thus no suction will -take place to draw the water from the supply source. - -There should always be a globe valve or cock in the feed pipe near the -boiler to make it possible to cut out the check valves when the boiler -is under pressure. _It is never to be closed except_ when required for -this purpose. - -Before passing into the boiler the water from the pump goes through the -_heater_. This is a small cylinder, with a coil of pipe inside. The -feed pipe from the pump is connected with one end of this inner coil of -pipe, while the other end of the coil leads into the boiler itself. The -exhaust steam from the engine cylinder is admitted into the cylinder -and passes around the coil of pipe, afterwards coming out of the smoke -stack to help increase the draft. As the feed water passes through this -heater it becomes heated nearly to boiling before it enters the boiler, -and has no tendency to cool the boiler off. Heating the feed water -results in an economy of about 10 per cent. - -[Illustration: AUTOMATIC INJECTOR.] - -_The Injector_ is another means of forcing water from a supply tank or -well into the boiler, and at the same time heating it, by use of steam -from the boiler. It is a necessity when a cross-head pump is used, -since such a pump will not work when the engine is shut down. It is -useful in any case to heat the water before it goes into the boiler -when the engine is not working and there is no exhaust steam for the -heater. - -There are various types of injectors, but they all work on practically -the same principle. The steam from the boiler is led through a tapering -nozzle to a small chamber into which there is an opening from a water -supply pipe. This steam nozzle throws out its spray with great force -and creates a partial vacuum in the chamber, causing the water to flow -in. As the pressure of the steam has been reduced when it passes into -the injector, it cannot, of course, force its way back into the boiler -at first, and finds an outlet at the overflow. When the water comes in, -however, the steam jet strikes the water and is condensed by it. At the -same time it carries the water and the condensed steam along toward the -boiler with such force that the back pressure of the boiler is overcome -and a stream of heated water is passed into it. In order that the -injector may work, its parts must be nicely adjusted, and with varying -steam pressures it takes some ingenuity to get it started. Usually -the full steam pressure is turned on and the cock admitting the water -supply is opened a varying amount according to the pressure. - -First the valve between the check valve and the boiler should be -opened, so that the feed water may enter freely; then open wide the -valve next the steam dome, and any other valve between the steam supply -pipe and the injector; lastly open the water supply valve. If water -appears at the overflow, close the supply valve and open it again, -giving it just the proper amount of turn. The injector is regulated by -the amount of water admitted. - -[Illustration: PLAIN WHISTLE.] - -In setting up an injector of any type, the following rules should be -observed: - -All connecting pipes as straight and short as possible. - -The internal diameter of all connecting pipes should be the same or -greater than the diameter of the hole in the corresponding part of the -injector. - -When there is dirt or particles of wood or other material in the source -of water supply, the end of the water supply pipe should be provided -with a strainer. Indeed, invariably a strainer should be used. The -holes in this strainer must be as small as the smallest opening in the -delivery tube, and the total area of the openings in the strainer must -be much greater than the area of the water supply (cross-section). - -The steam should be taken from the highest part of the dome, to avoid -carrying any water from the boiler over with it. Wet steam cuts and -grooves the steam nozzle. The steam should not be taken from the pipe -leading to the engine unless the pipe is quite large. - -Before using new injectors, after they are fitted to the boiler it is -advisable to disconnect them and clean them out well by letting steam -blow through them or forcing water through. This will prevent lead or -loose scale getting into the injector when in use. - -Set the injector as low as possible, as it works best with smallest -possible lift. - -_Ejectors and jet pumps_ are used for lifting and forcing water by -steam pressure, and are employed in filling tanks, etc. - - -BLAST AND BLOW-OFF DEVICES. - -In traction engines there is small pipe with a valve, leading into -the smoke stack from the boiler. When the valve is opened, the steam -allowed to blow off into the smoke stack will create a vacuum and so -increase the draft. Blast or blow pipes are used only in starting the -fire, and are of little value before the steam pressure reaches 15 -pounds or so. - -The exhaust nozzle from the engine cylinder also leads into the smoke -stack, and when the engine is running the exhaust steam is sufficient -to keep up the draft without using the blower. - -_Blow-off cocks_ are used for blowing sediment out of the bottom of a -boiler, or blowing scum off the top of the water to prevent foaming. A -boiler should never be blown out at high pressure, as there is great -danger of injuring it. Better let the boiler cool off somewhat before -blowing off. - - -SPARK ARRESTER. - -Traction engines are supplied as a usual thing with spark arresters if -they burn wood or straw. Coal sparks are heavy and have little life, -and with some engines no spark arrester is needed. But there is great -danger of setting a fire if an engine is run with wood or straw without -the spark arrester. - -[Illustration: DIAMOND SPARK ARRESTER.] - -Spark arresters are of different types. The most usual form is a large -screen dome placed over the top of the stack. This screen must be kept -well cleaned by brushing, or the draft of the engine will be impaired -by it. - -In another form of spark arrester, the smoke is made to pass through -water, which effectually kills every possible spark. - -The _Diamond Spark Arrester_ does not interfere with the draft and -is so constructed that all sparks are carried by a counter current -through a tube into a pail where water is kept. The inverted cone, as -shown in cut, is made of steel wire cloth, which permits smoke and gas -to escape, but no sparks. There is no possible chance to set fire to -anything by sparks. It is adapted to any steam engine that exhausts -into the smoke stack. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -THE SIMPLE ENGINE. - - -The engine is the part of a power plant which converts steam pressure -into power in such form that it can do work. Properly speaking, -the engine has nothing to do with generating steam. That is done -exclusively in the boiler, which has already been described. - -[Illustration: VIEW OF SIMPLE CYLINDER. - -(J. I. Case Threshing Machine Co.)] - -The steam engine was invented by James Watt, in England, between 1765 -and 1790, and he understood all the essential parts of the engine as -now built. It was improved, however, by Seguin, Ericsson, Stephenson, -Fulton, and many others. - -Let us first consider: - - -THE STEAM CYLINDER, ITS PARTS AND CONNECTIONS. - -The cylinder proper is constructed of a single piece of cast iron bored -out smooth. - -The _cylinder heads_ are the flat discs or caps bolted to the ends of -the cylinder itself. Sometimes one cylinder head is cast in the same -piece with the engine frame. - -The _piston_ is a circular disc working back and forth in the cylinder. -It is usually a hollow casting, and to make it fit the cylinder steam -tight, it is supplied on its circumference with _piston rings_. These -are made of slightly larger diameter than the piston, and serve as -springs against the sides of the cylinder. The _follower plate_ and -bolts cover the piston rings on the piston head and hold them in place. - -[Illustration: CONNECTING ROD AND CROSS-HEAD. - -(J. I. Case Threshing Machine Co.)] - -The _piston rod_ is of wrought iron or steel, and is fitted firmly and -rigidly into the piston at one end. It runs from the piston through one -head of the cylinder, passing through a steam-tight "stuffing box." One -end of the piston rod is attached to the cross-head. - -The _cross-head_ works between _guides_, and has _shoes_ above and -below. It is practically a joint, necessary in converting straight back -and forth motion into rotary. The cross-head itself works straight back -and forth, just as the piston does, which is fastened firmly to one -end. At the other end is attached the _connecting rod_, which works on -a bearing in the cross-head, called the _wrist pin_, or cross-head pin. - -The _connecting rod_ is wrought iron or steel, working at one end on -the bearing known as the wrist pin, and on the other on a bearing -called the _crank pin_. - -The _crank_ is a short lever which transmits the power from the -connecting rod to the _crank shaft_. It may also be a disc, called the -_crank disc_. - -[Illustration: CROSS-HEAD. - -(J. I. Case Threshing Machine Co.)] - -Let us now return to the steam cylinder itself. - -The steam leaves the boiler through a pipe leading from the top of the -steam dome, and is let on or cut off by the _throttle_ valve, which is -usually opened and closed by some sort of lever handle. It passes on to -the _Steam-chest_, usually a part of the same casting as the cylinder. -It has a cover called the _steam-chest cover_, which is securely bolted -in place. - -The _steam valve_, usually spoken of simply as the _valve_, serves -to admit the steam alternately to each end of the cylinder in such a -manner that it works the piston back and forth. - -There are many kinds of valves, the simplest (shown in the diagram) -being the D-valve. It slides back and forth on the bottom of the -steam-chest, which is called the _valve seat_, and alternately opens -and closes the two _steam ports_, which are long, narrow passages -through which the steam enters the cylinder, first through one port -to one end, then through the other port to the other end. The exhaust -steam also passes out at these same ports. - -The _exhaust chamber_ in the type of engine now under consideration is -an opening on the lower side of the valve, and is always open into the -_exhaust port_, which connects with the exhaust pipe, which finally -discharges itself through the _exhaust nozzle_ into the smoke stack of -a locomotive or traction engine, or in other types of engines, into the -_condenser_. - -The valve is worked by the _valve stem_, which works through the valve -stem _stuffing-box_. - -Of course the piston does not work quite the full length of the -cylinder, else it would pound against the cylinder heads. - -The _clearance_ is the distance between the cylinder head at either end -and the piston when the piston has reached the limit of its stroke in -that direction. - -In most engines the valve is so set that it opens a trifle just before -the piston reaches the limit of its movement in either direction, thus -letting some steam in before the piston is ready to move back. This -opening, which usually amounts to 1-32 to 3-16 of an inch, is called -the _lead_. The steam thus let in before the piston reaches the limit -of its stroke forms _cushion_, and helps the piston to reverse its -motion without any jar, in an easy and silent manner. Of course the -cushion must be as slight as possible and serve its purpose, else -it will tend to stop the engine, and result in loss of energy. Some -engines have no lead. - -_Setting a valve_ is adjusting it on its seat so that the lead will -be equal at both ends and sufficient for the needs of the engine. By -shortening the movement of the valve back and forth, the lead can be -increased or diminished. This is usually effected by changing the -eccentric or valve gear. - -The _lap_ of a slide valve is the distance it extends over the edges of -the ports when it is at the middle of its travel. - -Lap on the steam side is called outside lap; lap on the exhaust side -is called inside lap. The object of lap is to secure the benefit of -working steam expansively. Having lap, the valve closes one steam port -before the other is opened, and before the piston has reached the end -of its stroke; also of course before the exhaust is opened. Thus for -a short time the steam that has been let into the cylinder to drive -the piston is shut up with neither inlet nor outlet, and it drives the -piston by its own expansive force. When it passes out at the exhaust it -has a considerably reduced pressure, and less of its force is wasted. - -Let us now consider the - - -VALVE GEAR. - -The mechanism by which the valve is opened and closed is somewhat -complicated, as various things are accomplished by it besides simply -opening and closing the valve. If an engine has a _reverse lever_, it -works through the valve gear; and the _governor_ which regulates the -speed of the engine may also operate through the valve gear. It is -therefore very important. - -The simplest valve gear depends for its action on a fixed eccentric. - -An _eccentric_ consists of a central disc called the _sheave_, keyed to -the main shaft at a point to one side of its true center, and a grooved -ring or _strap_ surrounding it and sliding loosely around it. The strap -is usually made of brass or some anti-friction metal. It is in two -parts, which are bolted together so that they can be tightened up as -the strap wears. - -The _eccentric rod_ is either bolted to the strap or forms a single -piece with it, and this rod transmits its motion to the valve. - -It will be seen, therefore, that the eccentric is nothing more than a -sort of disc crank, which, however, does not need to be attached to the -end of a shaft in the manner of an ordinary crank. - -The distance between the center of the eccentric sheave and the -center of the shaft is called the _throw_ of the eccentric or the -_eccentricity_. - -The eccentric usually conveys its force through a connecting rod to the -valve stem, which moves the valve. - -The first modification of the simple eccentric valve gear is - - -THE REVERSING GEAR. - -It is very desirable to control the movement of the steam valve, so -that if desired the engine may be run in the opposite direction; or the -steam force may be brought to bear to stop the engine quickly; or the -travel of the valve regulated so that it will let into the cylinder -only as much steam as is needed to run the engine when the load is -light and the steam pressure in the boiler high. - -There is a great variety of reversing gears; but we will consider one -of the commonest and simplest first. - -[Illustration: HUBER SINGLE ECCENTRIC REVERSE.] - -If the eccentric sheave could be slipped around on the shaft to a -position opposite to that in which it was keyed to shaft in its -ordinary motion, the motion of the valve would be reversed, and it -would let steam in front of the advancing end of the piston, which -would check its movement, and start it in the opposite direction. - -The _link gear_, invented by Stephenson, accomplishes this in a natural -and easy manner. There are two eccentrics placed just opposite to each -other on the crank shaft, their connecting rods terminating in what -is called a _link_, through which motion is communicated to the valve -stem. The link is a curved slide, one eccentric being connected to -one end, the other eccentric to the other end, and the _link-block_, -through which motion is conveyed to the valve, slides freely from one -end to the other. Lower the link so that the block is opposite the end -of the first rod, and the valve will be moved by the corresponding -eccentric; raise the link, so that the block is opposite the end of the -other rod, and the valve will be moved by the other eccentric. In the -middle there would be a dead center, and if the block stopped here, the -valve would not move at all. At any intermediate point, the travel of -the valve would be correspondingly shortened. - -[Illustration: VALVE AND LINK REVERSE.] - -Such is the theoretical effect of a perfect link; but the dead center -is not absolute, and the motion of the link is varied by the point -at which the rod is attached which lifts and lowers it, and also by -the length of this rod. In full gear the block is not allowed to come -quite to the end of the link, and this surplus distance is called the -_clearance_. The _radius_ of a link is the distance from the center of -the driving shaft to the center of the link, and the curve of the link -is that of a circle with that radius. The length of the radius may vary -considerably, but the point of suspension is important. If a link is -suspended by its center, it will certainly cut off steam sooner in the -front stroke than in the back. Usually it is suspended from that point -which is most used in running the engine. - -[Illustration: THE WOOLF REVERSE VALVE GEAR.] - -The _Woolf reversing gear_ employs but one eccentric, to the strap of -which is cast an arm having a block pivoted at its end. This block -slides in a pivoted guide, the angle of which is controlled by the -reverse lever. To the eccentric arm is attached the eccentric rod, -which transmits the motion to the valve rod through a rocker arm on -simple engines and through a slide, as shown in cut, on compound -engines. - -_The Meyer valve gear_ does not actually reverse an engine, but -controls the admission of steam by means of an additional valve -riding on the back of the main valve and controlling the cut-off. -The main valve is like an ordinary D-valve, except that the steam is -not admitted around the ends, but through ports running through the -valve, these ports being partially opened or closed by the motion of -the riding valve, which is controlled by a separate eccentric. If -this riding valve is connected with a governor, it will regulate the -speed of an engine; and by the addition of a link the gear may be made -reversible. The chief objection to it is the excessive friction of the -valves on their seats. - - -GOVERNORS. - -A governor is a mechanism by which the supply of steam to the cylinder -is regulated by revolving balls, or the like, which runs faster or -slower as the speed of the engine increases or diminishes. Thus the -speed of an engine is regulated to varying loads and conditions. - -[Illustration: SECTIONAL VIEW SHOWING VALVE OF WATERS GOVERNOR.] - -The simplest type of governor, and the one commonly used on traction -engines, is that which is only a modification of the one invented by -Watt. Two balls revolve around a spindle in such a way as to rise -when the speed of the engine is high, and fall when it is low, and in -rising and falling they open and close a valve similar to the throttle -valve. The amount that the governor valve is opened or closed by the -rise and fall of the governor balls is usually regulated by a thumb -screw at the top or side, or by what is called a handle nut, which is -usually held firm by a check nut directly over it, which should be -screwed firm against the handle nut. Motion is conveyed to the governor -balls by a belt and a band wheel working on a mechanism of metred cogs. - -There is considerable friction about a governor of this type and much -energy is wasted in keeping it going. The valve stem or spindle passes -through a steam-tight stuffing box, where it is liable to stick if the -packing is too tight; and if this stuffing box leaks steam, there will -be immediate loss of power. - -[Illustration: PICKERING HORIZONTAL GOVERNOR.] - -Such a governor as has just been described is called a throttle valve -governor. On high grade engines the difficulties inherent in this type -of governor are overcome by making the governor control, not a valve in -the steam supply pipe, but the admission of steam to the steam cylinder -through the steam valve and its gear. Such engines are described as -having an "automatic cut-off." Sometimes the governor is attached to -the link, sometimes to a separate valve, as in the Meyer gear already -described. Usually the governor is attached to the fly-wheel, and -consequently governors of this type are called fly-wheel governors. -An automatic cut-off governor is from 15 per cent to 20 per cent more -effective than a throttle valve governor. - - -CRANK, SHAFT AND JOURNALS. - -We have already seen how the piston conveys its power through the -piston rod, the cross-head, and the connecting rod, to the crank pin -and crank, and hence to the shaft. - -_The key, gib, and strap_ are the effective means by which the -connecting rod is attached, first to the wrist pin in the cross-head, -and secondly to the crank pin on the crank. - -The _strap_ is usually made of two or three pieces of wrought iron or -steel bolted together so as to hold the _brasses_, which are in two -parts and loosely surround the pin. The brasses do not quite meet, and -as they wear may be tightened up. This is effected by the _gib_, back -of which is the _key_, which is commonly a wedge which may be driven -in, or a screw, which presses on the back of the gib, which in turn -forces together the brasses; and thus the length of the piston gear is -kept uniform in spite of the wear, becoming neither shorter nor longer. -When the brasses are so worn that they have been forced together, they -must be taken out and filed equally on all four of the meeting ends, -and shims, or thin pieces of sheet iron or the like placed back of them -to equalize the wear, and prevent the piston gear from being shortened -or otherwise altered. - -[Illustration: CONNECTING ROD AND BOXES. - -(A. W. Stevens Co.)] - -The _crank_ is a simple lever attached to the shaft by which the shaft -is rotated. There are two types of crank in common use, the side crank, -which works by what is virtually a bend in the shaft. There is also -what is called the disc crank, a variation of the side crank, in which -the power is applied to the circumference of a disc instead of to the -end of a lever arm. - -The _boss_ of a crank is that part which surrounds the shaft and butts -against the main bearing, and is usually about twice the diameter of -the crank shaft journal. The _web_ of the crank is the portion between -the shaft and the pin. - -To secure noiseless running, the crank pin should be turned with great -exactness, and should be set exactly parallel with the direction of the -shaft. When the pressure on the pin or any bearing is over 800 pounds -per square inch, oil is no longer able to lubricate it properly. Hence -the bearing surface should always be large enough to prevent a greater -pressure than 800 pounds to the square inch. To secure the proper -proportions the crank pin should have a diameter of one-fourth the -bore of the cylinder, and its length should be one-third that of the -cylinder. - -The _shaft_ is made of wrought iron or steel, and must not only be able -to withstand the twisting motion of the crank, but the bending force of -the engine stroke. To prevent bending, the shaft should have a bearing -as near the crank as possible. - -The _journals_ are those portions of the shaft which work in bearings. -The main bearings are also called _pedestals_, _pillow blocks_, and -_journal boxes_. They usually consist of boxes made of brass or some -other anti-friction material carried in iron pedestals. The pillow -blocks are usually adjustable. - - -THE FLY-WHEEL. - -This is a heavy wheel attached to the shaft. Its object is to regulate -the variable action of the piston, and to make the motion uniform even -when the load is variable. By its inertia it stores energy, which would -keep the engine running for some time after the piston ceased to apply -any force or power. - - -LUBRICATORS. - -All bearings must be steadily and effectively lubricated, in order -to remove friction as far as possible, or the working power of the -engine will be greatly reduced. Besides, without complete and effective -lubrication, the bearings will "cut," or wear in irregular grooves, -etc., quickly ruining the engine. - -Bearings are lubricated through automatic lubricator cups, which hold -oil or grease and discharge it uniformly upon the bearing through a -suitable hole. - -[Illustration: THE "DETROIT" ZERO DOUBLE CONNECTION LUBRICATOR. - -DESCRIPTION. - - C 1--Body or Oil Reservoir. - C 3--Filler Plug. - C 4--Water Valve. - C 5--Plug for inserting Sight-Feed Glass. - C 6--Sight-Feed Drain Stem. - C 7--Regulating Valve. - C 8--Drain Valve. - C 9--Steam Valve. - C10--Union Nut. - C11--Tail Piece. - H--Sight-Feed Glass.] - -A sight feed ordinary cup permits the drops of oil to be seen as they -pass downward through a glass tube, and also the engineer may see how -much oil there is in the cup. Such a cup is suitable for all parts -of an engine except the crank pin, cross-head, and, of course, the -cylinder. - -The crank pin oiler is an oil cup so arranged as to force oil into -the bearing only when the engine is working, and more rapidly as the -engine works more rapidly. In one form, which uses liquid oil, the oil -stands below a disc, from which is the opening through the shank to the -bearing. As the engine speeds up, the centrifugal force tends to force -the oil to the top of the cup and so on to the bearing, and the higher -the speed the greater the amount of oil thrown into the crank pin. - -Hard oil or grease has of late been coming into extensive use. It is -placed in a compression cup, at the top of which a disc is pressed down -by a spring, and also by some kind of a screw. From time to time the -screw is tightened up by hand, and the spring automatically forces down -the grease. - -[Illustration: GLASS OIL CUP.] - -[Illustration: SECTIONAL VIEW IDEAL GREASE CUP.] - -_The Cylinder Lubricator_ is constructed on a different principle, -and uses an entirely different kind of oil, called "cylinder oil." A -sight-feed automatic oiler is so arranged that the oil passes through -water drop by drop, so that each drop can be seen behind glass before -it passes into the steam pipe leading from the boiler to the cylinder. -The oil mingles with the steam and passes into the steam chest, and -thence into the cylinder, lubricating the valve and piston. - -The discharge of the oil may not only be watched, but regulated, and -some judgment is necessary to make sure that enough oil is passing into -the cylinder to prevent it from cutting. - -The oil is forced into the steam by the weight of the column of -water, since the steam pressure is the same at both ends. There is a -small cock by which this water of condensation may be drained off when -the engine is shut down in cold weather. Oilers are also injured by -straining from heating caused by the steam acting on cold oil when all -the cocks are closed. There is a relief cock to prevent this strain, -and it should be slightly opened, except when oiler is being filled. - -[Illustration: ACORN OIL PUMP.] - -There are a number of different types of oilers, with their cocks -arranged in different ways; but the manufacturer always gives diagrams -and instructions fully explaining the working of the oiler. Oil pumps -serving the same purpose are now often used. - - -DIFFERENTIAL GEAR. - -The gearing by which the traction wheels of a traction engine are made -to drive the engine is an important item. Of course, it is desirable to -apply the power of the engine to both traction wheels; yet if both hind -wheels were geared stiff, the engine could not turn from a straight -line, since in turning one wheel must move faster than the other. The -differential or compensating gear is a device to leave both wheels free -to move one ahead of the other if occasion requires. The principle is -much the same as in case of a rachet on a geared wheel, if power were -applied to the ratchet to make the wheel turn; if for any reason the -wheel had a tendency of its own to turn faster than the ratchet forced -it, it would be free to do so. When corners are turned the power is -applied to one wheel only, and the other wheel is permitted to move -faster or slower than the wheel to which the gearing applies the power. - -There are several forms of differential gears, differing largely as -to combination of spur or bevel cogs. One of the best known uses four -little beveled pinions, which are placed in the main driving wheel as -shown in the cut. Beveled cogs work into these on either side of the -main wheel. If one traction wheel moves faster than the other these -pinions move around and adjust the gears on either side. - -[Illustration: THE HUBER SPUR COMPENSATING GEAR.] - -[Illustration: AULTMAN & TAYLOR BEVEL COMPENSATING GEAR.] - -[Illustration: DIFFERENTIAL GEAR, SHOWING CUSHION SPRINGS AND BEVEL -PINION.] - - -FRICTION CLUTCH. - -The power of an engine is usually applied to the traction wheel by a -friction clutch working on the inside of the fly-wheel. (See plan of -Frick Engine.) The traction wheels are the two large, broad-rimmed hind -wheels, and are provided with projections to give them a firm footing -on the road. Traction engines are also provided with mud shoes and -wheel cleaning devices for mud and snow. - -[Illustration: THE FRICK COMPANY TRACTION ENGINE. - -Plan view of "Eclipse" Traction Engine, showing arrangement of Patent -Reverse Gear and Friction Clutch for Driving Pinion.] - - -THE FUSIBLE PLUG. - -The fusible plug is a simple screw plug, the center of which is bored -out and subsequently filled with some other metal that will melt at a -lower temperature than steel or iron. This plug is placed in the crown -sheet of a locomotive boiler as a precaution for safety. Should the -crown sheet become free of water when the fire is very hot, the soft -metal in the fusible plug would melt and run out, and the overheated -steam would escape into the firebox, putting out the fire and giving -the boiler relief so that an explosion would be avoided. In some states -a fusible plug is required by law, and one is found in nearly every -boiler which has a crown sheet. Return flue boilers and others which do -not have crown sheets (as for example the vertical) do not have fusible -plugs. To be of value a fusible plug should be renewed or changed once -a month. - - -STUFFING BOXES. - -Any arrangement to make a steam-tight joint about a moving rod, such -as a piston rod or steam valve rod, would be called a stuffing box. -Usually the stuffing box gives free play to a piston rod or valve rod, -without allowing any steam to escape. A stuffing box is also used on -a pump piston sometimes, or a compressed air piston. In all these -cases it consists of an annular space around the moving rod which -can be partly filled by some pliable elastic material such as hemp, -cotton, rubber, or the like; and this filling is held in place and made -tighter or looser by what is called a gland, which is forced into the -partly filled box by screwing up a cap on the outside of the cylinder. -Stuffing boxes must be repacked occasionally, since the packing -material will get hard and dead, and will either leak steam or cut the -rod. - - -CYLINDER COCKS. - -These cocks are for the purpose of drawing the water formed by -condensation of steam out of the cylinder. They should be opened -whenever the engine is stopped or started, and should be left open when -the engine is shut down, especially in cold weather to prevent freezing -of water and consequent damage. Attention to these cocks is very -important. - -These are small cocks arranged about the pump and at other places for -the purpose of testing the inside action. By them it is possible to see -if the pump is working properly, etc. - - -STEAM INDICATOR. - -The steam indicator is an instrument that can be attached to either -end of a steam cylinder, and will indicate the character of the steam -pressure during the entire stroke of the piston. It shows clearly -whether the lead is right, how much cushion there is, etc. It is very -important in studying the economical use and distribution of steam, -expansive force of steam, etc. - - -LIST OF ATTACHMENTS FOR TRACTION ENGINE AND BOILER. - -The following list of brasses, etc., which are packed with the Case -traction engine will be useful for reference in connection with any -similar traction engine and boiler. The young engineer should rapidly -run over every new engine and locate each of these parts, which will be -differently placed on different engines: - - 1 Steam Gauge with siphon. - 1 Safety Valve. - 1 Large Lubricator. - 1 Small Lubricator for Pump. - 1 Glass Water Gauge complete with glass and rods. - 2 Gauge Cocks. - 1 Whistle. - 1 Injector Complete. - 1 Globe Valve for Blow-off. - 1 Compression Grease Cup for Cross Head. - 1 Grease Cup for Crank Pin. - 1 Oiler for Reverse Block. - 1 Glass Oiler for Guides. - 1 Small Oiler for Eccentric Rod. - 1 Cylinder Cock (1 is left in place.) - 2 Stop Cocks to drain Heater. - 1 Stop Cock for Hose Coupling on Pump. - 1 Bibb Nose Cock for Pump. - 1 Pet Cock for Throttle. - 2 Pet Cocks for Steam Cylinder of Pump. - 1 Pet Cock for Water Cylinder of Pump. - 1 Pet Cock for Feed Pipe from Pump. - 1 Pet Cock for Feed Pipe from Injector. - 1 Governor Belt. - 1 Flue Cleaner. - 15 ft. 1 in. Suction Hose. - 5 ft. Sprinkling Hose. - 1 Strainer for Suction Hose. - 1 Strainer for Funnel. - 4 ft. 6 in. of in. Hose for Injector. - 5 ft. 6 in. of in. Hose for Pump. - 2 Nipples 3/4x2-1/2 in. for Hose. - 2 3/4 in. Hose Clamps. - 2 1/2 in. Hose Strainers. - - -TEST QUESTIONS ON BOILER AND ENGINE - -Q. How is the modern stationary fire-flue boiler arranged? - -Q. How does the locomotive type of boiler differ? - -Q. What is a return flue boiler? - -Q. What is a water-tube boiler and how does it differ from a fire-flue -tubular boiler? - -Q. What is a vertical boiler and what are its advantages? - -Q. What is the shell? - -Q. What are the boiler heads? - -Q. What are the tube sheets? - -Q. What is the firebox? - -Q. What is the water leg? - -Q. What is the crown-sheet? - -Q. Where is the smoke-box located? - -Q. What is the steam dome intended for? - -Q. What is the mud-drum for? - -Q. What are man-holes and hand-holes for? - -Q. What is a boiler jacket? - -Q. What is a steam jacket? - -Q. Where is the ash-pit? - -Q. What are dead-plates? - -Q. How is grate surface measured? - -Q. What is forced draft? - -Q. How is heating surface measured? - -Q. What is steam space? - -Q. What is water space? - -Q. What is a diaphragm plate? - -Q. What is the first duty of an engineer in taking charge of a new -boiler? - -Q. What are the water gauge and try cocks for, and how are they placed? - -Q. What is the steam gauge and how may it be tested? - -Q. What is a safety valve? Should it be touched by the engineer? How -may he test it with the steam gauge? - -Q. How is a boiler first filled with water? - -Q. How is it filled when under pressure? - -Q. What is an independent pump? What is a crosshead pump? - -Q. What is a check valve, and what is its use, and where located? - -Q. What is a heater and how does it work? - -Q. What is an injector, and what is the principle of its operation? - -Q. Where are the blow-off cocks located? How should they be used? - -Q. In what cases should spark arrester be used? - -Q. Who invented the steam engine, and when? - -Q. What are the essential parts of a steam engine? - -Q. What is the cylinder, and how is it used? - -Q. What is the piston, and how does it work? The piston-rings? - -Q. What is the piston rod and how must it be fastened? - -Q. What is the crosshead, and how does it move? What are guides or -ways? Shoes? - -Q. What is the connecting rod? Wrist pin? Crank pin? - -Q. What is the crank? Crank shaft? - -Q. Where is the throttle valve located, and what does opening and -closing it do? - -Q. What is the steam chest for, and where is it placed? - -Q. What is a steam valve? Valve seats? Ports? - -Q. What is the exhaust? Exhaust chamber? Exhaust port? Exhaust nozzle? -What is a condenser? - -Q. How is the valve worked, and what duties does it perform, and how? - -Q. What is clearance? - -Q. What is lead? - -Q. What is cushion? - -Q. How would you set a valve? What is lap? - -Q. How is a steam valve moved back and forth in its seat? - -Q. How may an engine be reversed? - -Q. What is a governor, and how does it work? - -Q. What is an eccentric? Eccentric sheave? Strap? Rod? - -Q. What is the throw of an eccentric? - -Q. How does the link reversing gear work? - -Q. How does the Woolf reverse gear work? - -Q. How does the Meyer valve gear work? Will it reverse an engine? - -Q. What are the chief difficulties in the working of a governor? - -Q. What are key, gib, and strap? Brasses? - -Q. What is the boss of a crank? Web? - -Q. How may noiseless running of a crank be secured? - -Q. What are journals? Pedestals? Pillow blocks? Journal boxes? - -Q. What is the object in having a fly wheel? - -Q. What different kinds of lubricators are there? Where may hard oil or -grease be used? Is the oil used for lubricating the cylinder the same -as that used for rest of the engine? - -Q. How does a cylinder lubricator work? - -Q. What is differential gear, and what is it for? - -Q. What is the use of a fusible plug, and how is it arranged? - -Q. What are stuffing-boxes, and how are they constructed? - -Q. What are cylinder cocks, and what are they used for? - -Q. What are pet cocks? - -Q. What is a steam indicator? - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -HOW TO MANAGE A TRACTION ENGINE BOILER. - - -We will suppose that the young engineer fully understands all parts of -the boiler and engine, as explained in the preceding chapters. It is -well to run over the questions several times, to make sure that every -point has been fully covered and is well understood. - -We will suppose that you have an engine in good running order. If you -have a new engine and it starts off nice and easy (the lone engine -without load) with twenty pounds steam pressure in the boiler, you may -make up your mind that you have a good engine to handle and one that -will give but little trouble. But if it requires fifty or sixty pounds -to start it, you want to keep your eyes open, for something is tight. -But don't begin taking the engine to pieces, for you might get more -pieces than you know what to do with. Oil every bearing fully, and -then start your engine and let it run for a while. Then notice whether -you find anything getting warm. If you do, stop and loosen up a very -little and start again. If the heating still continues, loosen again as -before. But remember, loosen but little at a time, for a box or journal -will heat from being too loose as quickly as from being too tight, -and if you have found a warm box, don't let that box take all your -attention, but keep your eye on the other bearings. - -In the case of a new engine, the cylinder rings may be a little tight, -and so more steam pressure will be required to start the engine; but -this is no fault, for in a day or two they will be working all right if -kept well oiled. - -In starting a new engine trouble sometimes comes from the presence of a -coal cinder in some of the boxes, which has worked in during shipment. -Before starting a new engine, the boxes and oil holes should therefore -be thoroughly cleaned out. For this purpose the engineer should always -have some cotton waste or an oiled rag ready for constant use. - -A new engine should be run slowly and carefully until it is found to be -in perfect running order. - -If you are beginning on an old engine in good running order, the above -instructions will not be needed; but it is well to take note of them. - -Now if your engine is all right, you may run the pressure up to the -point of blowing off, which is 100 to 130 pounds, at which most safety -valves are set at the factory. It is not uncommon for a new pop to -stick, and as the steam runs up it is well to try it by pulling the -relief lever. If on letting it go it stops the escaping steam at once, -it is all right. If, however, the steam continues to escape the valve -sticks in the chamber. Usually a slight tap with a wrench or hammer -will stop it at once; but don't get excited if the steam continues to -escape. As long as you have plenty of water in the boiler, and know -that you have it, you are all right. - - -STARTING UP A BOILER. - -Almost the only danger from explosion of a boiler is from not having -sufficient water in the boiler. The boiler is filled in the first -place, as has already been explained, by hand through a funnel at the -filler plug, or by a force pump. The water should stand an inch and -a half in the glass of the water gauge before the fire is started. -It should be heated up slowly so as not to strain the boiler or -connections. When the steam pressure as shown by the steam gauge is ten -or fifteen pounds, the blower may be used to increase the draft. - -If you let the water get above the top of the glass, you are liable -to knock out a cylinder head; and if you let the water get below the -bottom of the glass, you are likely to explode your boiler. - -The glass gauge is not to be depended upon, however, for a number -of things may happen to interfere with its working. Some one may -inadvertently turn off the gauge cocks, and though the water stands at -the proper height in the glass, the water in the boiler will be very -different. - -A properly made boiler is supplied with two to four try-cocks, one -below the proper water line, and one above it. If there are more than -two they will be distributed at suitable points between. - -When the boiler is under pressure, turn on the lower try-cock and you -should get water. You will know it because it will appear as white -mist. Then try the upper try-cock, and you will get steam, which will -appear blue. - -NEVER FAIL TO USE THE TRY-COCKS FREQUENTLY. This is necessary not only -because you never know when the glass is deceiving you; but if you fail -to use them they will get stopped up with lime or mud, and when you -need to use them they will not work. - -In order also to keep the water gauge in proper condition, it should -be frequently blown out in the following manner: Shut off the top -gauge cock and open the drain cock at the bottom of the gauge. This -allows the water and steam to blow through the lower cock of the water -gauge, and you know that it is open. Any lime or mud that has begun -to accumulate will also be carried off. After allowing the steam to -escape a few seconds, shut off the lower gauge cock, and open the upper -one, and allow it to blow off about the same time. Then shut the drain -cock and open both gauge cocks, when you will see the water seek its -level, and you can feel assured that it is reliable and in good working -condition. This little operation you should perform every day you run -your engine. If you do you will not _think_ you have sufficient water -in the boiler, but will _know_. The engineer who always _knows_ he has -water in the boiler will not be likely to have an explosion. Especially -should you never start your fire in the morning simply because you see -water in the gauge. You should _know_ that there is water in the boiler. - -Now if your pump and boiler are in good working condition, and you -leave the globe valve in the supply pipe to the pump open, with the -hose in the tank, you will probably come to your engine in the morning -and find the boiler nearly full of water, and you will think some one -has been tampering with the engine. The truth is, however, that as -the steam condensed, a vacuum was formed, and the water flowed in on -account of atmospheric pressure, just as it flows into a suction pump -when the plunger rises and creates a vacuum in the pump. Check valves -are arranged to prevent anything passing out of the boiler, but there -is nothing to prevent water passing in. - -The only other cause of an explosion, beside poor material in the -manufacture of the boiler, is too high steam pressure, due to a -defective safety valve or imperfect steam gauge. The steam gauge is -likely to get out of order in a number of ways, and so is the safety -valve. To make sure that both are all right, the one should frequently -be tested by the other. The lever of the safety valve should frequently -be tried from time to time, to make sure the valve opens and closes -easily, and whenever the safety valve blows off, the steam gauge should -be noted to see if it indicates the pressure at which the safety has -been set. - - -WHEN YOUR ENGINE IS ALL RIGHT, LET IT ALONE. - -Some engineers are always loosening a nut here, tightening up a box -there, adjusting this, altering that. When an engine is all right -they keep at it till it is all wrong. As a result they are in trouble -most of the time. When an engine is running all right, LET IT ALONE. -Don't think you are not earning your salary because you are merely -sitting still and looking on. If you must be at work, keep at it with -an oily rag, cleaning and polishing up. That is the way to find out if -anything is really the matter. As the practised hand of the skilled -engineer goes over an engine, his ears wide open for any peculiarity of -sound, anything that is not as it should be will make itself decidedly -apparent. On the other hand, an engineer who does not keep his engine -clean and bright by constantly passing his hand over it with an oily -rag, is certain to overlook something, which perhaps in the end will -cost the owner a good many dollars to put right. - -Says an old engineer[3] we know, "When I see an engineer watching -his engine closely while running, I am most certain to see another -commendable feature in a good engineer, and that is, when he stops his -engine he will pick up a greasy rag and go over his engine carefully, -wiping every working part, watching or looking carefully at every point -that he touches. If a nut is working loose, he finds it; if a bearing -is hot, he finds it; if any part of his engine has been cutting, -he finds it. He picks up a greasy rag instead of a wrench, for the -engineer that understands his business and attends to it never picks up -a wrench unless he has something to do with it." - - Footnote 3: J. H. Maggard, author of "Rough and Tumble Engineering," - to whom we are indebted for a number of valuable suggestions in - this chapter. - -This same engineer goes on with some more most excellent advice. Says -he: - -"Now, if your engine runs irregularly, that is, if it runs up to a -higher speed than you want, and then runs down, you are likely to say -at once, 'Oh, I know what the trouble is, it is the governor.' Well, -suppose it is. What are you going to do about it? Are you going to -shut down at once and go to tinkering with it? No, don't do that. Stay -close to the throttle valve and watch the governor closely. Keep your -eye on the governor stem, and when the engine starts off on one of its -speed tilts, you will see the stem go down through the stuffing box -and then stop and stick in one place until the engine slows down below -its regular speed, and it then lets loose and goes up quickly and your -engine lopes off again. You have now located the trouble. It is in the -stuffing box around the little brass rod or governor stem. The packing -has become dry and by loosening it up and applying oil you may remedy -the trouble until such time as you can repack it with fresh packing. -Candle wick is as good for this purpose as anything you can use. - -"But if the governor does not act as I have described, and the stem -seems to be perfectly free and easy in the box, and the governor still -acts queerly, starting off and running fast for a few seconds and then -suddenly concluding to take it easy and away goes the engine again, -see if the governor belt is all right, and if it is it would be well -for you to stop and see if a wheel is not loose. It might be either -the little belt wheel or one of the little cog wheels. If you find -these are all right, examine the spool on the crank shaft from which -the governor is run, and you will probably find it loose. If the -engine has been run for any length of time, you will always find the -trouble in one of these places; but if it is a new one, the governor -valve might work a little tight in the valve chamber, and you may have -to take it out and use a little emery paper to take off the rough -projections on the valve. Never use a file on this valve if you can get -emery paper, and I should advise you always to have some of it with -you. It will often come handy." - -This is good advice in regard to any trouble you may have with an -engine. Watch the affected part closely; think the matter over -carefully, and see if you cannot locate the difficulty before you even -stop your engine. If you find the trouble and know that you have found -it, you will soon be able to correct the defect, and no time will be -lost. At the same time you will not ruin your engine by trying all -sorts of remedies at random in the thought that you may ultimately -hit the right thing. The chances are that before you do hit the right -point, you will have put half a dozen other matters wrong, and it will -take half a day to get the matter right again. - -As there are many different types of governors in use, it would be -impossible to give exact directions for regulating that would apply to -them all; but the following suggestions applying to the Waters governor -(one widely used on threshing engines) will give a general idea of the -method for all: - -There are two little brass nuts on the top of the stem of the governor, -one a thumb nut and the other a loose jam nut. To increase the speed, -loosen the jam nut and then turn the thumb nut back slowly, watching -the motion of the engine all the time. When the required speed has -been obtained, then tighten up as snug as you can with your fingers -(not using a wrench). To decrease the speed, loosen the jam nut as -before, running it up a few turns, and then turn down the thumb nut -till the speed meets your requirements, when the thumb nut is made fast -as before. In any case, be very careful not to press down on the stem -when turning the thumb nut, as this will make the engine run a little -slower than will be the case when your hand has been removed. - -If your engine does not start with an open throttle, look to see if -the governor stem has not been screwed down tight. This is usually -the case with a new engine, which has been screwed down for safety in -transportation. - - -WATER FOR THE BOILER. - -There is nothing that needs such constant watching and is likely to -cause so much trouble if it is not cared for, as the supply of water. -Hard well water will coat the inside of the boiler with lime and soon -reduce its steaming power in a serious degree, to say nothing of -stopping up pipes, cocks, etc. At the same time, rain water that is -perfectly pure (theoretically) will be found to have a little acid -or alkali in it that will eat through the iron or steel and do equal -damage. - -However, an engineer must use what water he can. He cannot have it -made to order for him, but he must take it from well, from brook, or -cistern, or roadside ditch, as circumstances may require. The problem -for the engineer is not to get the best water, but to make the best use -of whatever water he can get, always, of course, choosing the best and -purest when there is such a thing as choosing. - -In the first place, all supply pipes in water that is muddy or likely -to have sticks, leaves, or the like in it, should be furnished with -strainers. If sticks or leaves get into the valve, the expense in time -and worry to get them out will be ten times the cost of a strainer. - -If the water is rain water, and the boiler is a new one, it would be -well to put in a little lime to give the iron a slight coating that -will protect it from any acid or alkali corrosion. - -If the water is hard, some compound or sal ammonia should be used. -No specific directions can be given, since water is made hard by -having different substances dissolved in it, and the right compound or -chemical is that which is adapted to the particular substance you are -to counteract. An old engineer says his advice is to use no compound -at all, but to put a hatful of potatoes in the boiler every morning. - -Occasionally using rain water for a day or two previous to cleaning is -one of the best things in the world to remove and throw down all scale. -It beats compounds at every point. It is nature's remedy for the bad -effects of hard water. - -The important thing, however, is to clean the boiler thoroughly and -often. In no case should the lime be allowed to bake on the iron. If it -gets thick, the iron or steel is sure to burn, and the lime to bake so -hard it will be almost impossible to get it off. But if the boiler is -cleaned often, such a thing will not happen. - -Mud or sediment can be blown off by opening the valve from the mud drum -or the firebox at the bottom of the boiler when the pressure is not -over 15 or 20 pounds; and at this pressure much of the lime distributed -about the boiler may be blown off. But this is not enough. The inside -of the boiler should be scraped and thoroughly washed out with a hose -and force-pump just as often as the condition of the water requires it. - -In cleaning the boiler, always be careful to scrape all the lime off -the top of the fusible plug. - - -THE PUMP. - -In order to manage the pump successfully, the young engineer must -understand thoroughly its construction as already described. It is -also necessary to understand something of the theory of atmospheric -pressure, lifting power, and forcing power. - -First see that the cocks or globe valves (whichever are used) are -open both between the boiler and the pump and between the pump and -the water supply. The globe valve next the boiler should _never_ be -closed, except when examining the boiler check valve. Then open the -little pet cock between the two upper horizontal check valves. Be sure -that the check valves are in good order, so that water can pass only -in one direction. A clear, sharp click of the check valves is certain -evidence that the pump is working well. If you cannot hear the click, -take a stick or pencil between your teeth at one end, put the other -end on the valve, stuff your fingers in your ears, and you will hear -the movement of the valve as plainly as if it were a sledge-hammer. - -The small drain cock between the horizontal check valves is used to -drain hot water out of the pump in starting, for a pump will never work -well with hot water in it; and to drain off all water in closing down -in cold weather, to prevent damage from freezing. It also assists in -testing the working of the pump. In starting up it may be left open. If -water flows from the drain cock, we know the pump is working all right, -and then close the drain cock. If you are at any time in doubt as to -whether water is going into the boiler properly, you may open this -drain cock and see if cold water flows freely. If it does, everything -is working as it should. If hot water appears, you may know something -is wrong. Also, to test the pump, place your hand on the two check -valves, and if they are cold, the pump is all right; if they are hot, -something is wrong, since the heat must come from the boiler, and no -hot water or steam should ever be allowed to pass from the boiler back -to the pump. - -A stop cock next the boiler is decidedly preferable to a globe valve, -since you can tell if it is open by simply looking at it; whereas you -must put your hand on a globe valve and turn it. Trouble often arises -through inadvertently closing the valve or cock next the boiler, in -which case, of course, no water can pass into the boiler, and the pump -is likely to be ruined, since the water must get out somewhere. Some -part of the pump would be sure to burst if worked against a closed -boiler cock or valve. - -Should the pump suddenly cease to work or stop, first see if you have -any water in the tank. If there is water, stoppage may be due to air in -the pump chamber, which can get in only through the stuffing-box. If -this is true, tighten up the pump plunger stuffing-box nut a little. If -now the pump starts off well, you have found the difficulty; but at the -first opportunity you ought to repack the stuffing-box. - -If the stuffing-box is all right, examine the supply suction hose. See -that nothing is clogging the strainer, and ascertain whether the water -is sucked in or not. If it is sucked in and then is forced out again -(which you can ascertain by holding your hand lightly over the suction -pipe), you may know something is the matter with the first check valve. -Probably a stick or stone has gotten into it and prevents it from -shutting down. - -If there is no suction, examine the second check valve. If there is -something under it that prevents its closing, the water will flow back -into the pump chamber again as soon as the plunger is drawn back. - -You can always tell whether the trouble is in the second check or in -the hot water check valve by opening the little drain cock. If hot -water flows from it, you may know that the hot water check valve is -out of order; if only cold water flows, you may be pretty sure the hot -water check is all right. If there is any reason to suspect the hot -water check valve, close the stop cock or valve next the boiler before -you touch the check in any way. To tamper with the hot water check -while the steam pressure is upon it would be highly dangerous, for you -are liable to get badly burned with escaping steam or hot water. At the -same time, be very sure the stop cock or valve next the boiler is open -again before you start the pump. - -Another reason for check valves refusing to work besides having -something under them, is that the valve may stick in the valve chamber -because of a rough place in the chamber, or a little projection on -the valve. Light tapping with a wrench may remedy the matter. If that -does not work, try the following plan suggested by an old engineer[4]: -"Take the valve out, bore a hole in a board about one-half inch deep, -and large enough to permit the valve to be turned. Drop a little emery -dust in this hole. If you haven't any emery dust, scrape some grit from -a whetstone. If you have no whetstone, put some fine sand or gritty -soil in the hole, put the valve on top of it, put your brace on the -valve and turn it vigorously for a few minutes, and you will remove all -roughness." - - Footnote 4: J. H. Maggard. - -Sometimes the burr on the valve comes from long use; but the above -treatment will make it as good as new. - - -INJECTORS. - -All injectors are greatly affected by conditions, such as the lift, the -steam pressure, the temperature of the water, etc. An injector will -not use hot water well, if at all. As the lift is greater, the steam -pressure required to start is greater, and at the same time the highest -steam pressure under which the injector will work at all is greatly -decreased. The same applies to the lifting of warm water: the higher -the temperature, the greater the steam pressure required to start, and -the less the steam pressure which can be used as a maximum. - -It is important for the sake of economy to use the right sized -injector. Before buying a new injector, find out first how much water -you need for your boiler, and then buy an injector of about the -capacity required, though of course an injector must always have a -maximum capacity in excess of what will be required. - -If the feed water is cold, a good injector ought to start with 25 -pounds steam pressure and work up to 150 pounds for a 2-foot lift. If -the lift is eight feet, it will start at 30 pounds and work up to 130. -If the water is heated to 100 degrees Fahrenheit it will start for a -2-foot lift with 26 pounds and work up to 120 pounds, or for an 8-foot -lift, it will start with 33 pounds and work up to 100. These figures -apply to the single tube injector. The double tube injector should work -from 14 pounds to 250, and from 15 to 210 under same conditions as -above. The double tube injector is not commonly used on farm engines, -however. - -Care should be taken that the injector is not so near the boiler as to -become heated, else it will not work. If it gets too hot, it must be -cooled by pouring cold water on the outside, first having covered it -with a cloth to hold the water. If the injector is cool, and the steam -pressure and lift are all right, and still the injector does not work, -you may be sure there is some obstruction somewhere. Shut off the steam -from the boiler, and run a fine wire down through the cone valve or -cylinder valve, after having removed the cap or plug nut. - -Starting an injector always requires some skill, and injectors differ. -Some start by manipulating the steam valve; some require that the steam -be turned on first, and then the water turned on in just the right -amount, usually with a quick short twist of the supply valve. Often -some patience is required to get just the right turn on it so that it -will start. - -Of course you must be sure that all joints are air-tight, else the -injector will not work under any conditions. - -Never use an injector where a pump can be used, as the injector is much -more wasteful of steam. It is for an emergency or to throw water in a -boiler when engine is not running. - -No lubricator is needed on an injector. - - -THE HEATER. - -The construction of the heater has already been explained. It has two -check valves, one on the side of the pump and one on the side of the -boiler, both opening toward the boiler. The exhaust steam is usually at -a temperature of 215 to 220 degrees when it enters the heater chamber, -and heats the water nearly or quite to boiling point as it passes -through. The injector heats the water almost as hot. - -The heater requires little attention, and the check valves seldom get -out of order. - -The pump is to be used when the engine is running, and the injector -when the engine is closed down. The pump is the more economical; but -when the engine is not working the exhaust steam is not sufficient to -heat the water in the heater; and pumping cold water into the boiler -will quickly bring down the pressure and injure the boiler. - - -ECONOMICAL FIRING. - -The management of the fire is one of the most important things in -running a steam engine. On it depend two things of the greatest -consequence--success in getting up steam quickly and keeping it at -a steady pressure under all conditions; and economy in the use of -fuel. An engineer who understands firing in the most economical way -will probably save his wages to his employer over the engineer who is -indifferent or unscientific about it. Therefore the young engineer -should give the subject great attention. - -First, let us consider firing with coal. All expert engineers advise -a "thin" fire. This means that you should have a thin bed of coals, -say about four inches thick, all over the grate. There should be no -holes or dead places in this, for if there are any, cold air will -short-circuit into the fire flues and cool off the boiler. - -The best way of firing is to spread the coal on with a small hand -shovel, a very little at a time, scattering it well over the fire. -Another way, recommended by some, is to have a small pile of fresh fuel -at the front of the grate, pushing it back over the grate when it is -well lighted. To manage this well will require some practice and skill, -and for a beginner, we recommend scattering small shovelsful all over -the fire. All lump coal should be broken to a uniform size. No piece -larger than a man's fist should be put in a firebox. - -Seldom use the poker above the fire, for nothing has such a tendency -to put out a coal fire as stirring it with a poker above. And when -there is a good glow all over the grate below, the poker is not needed -below. When the grate becomes covered with dead ashes, they should be -cautiously but fully removed, and clinkers must be lifted out with the -poker from above, care being exercised to cover up the holes with live -coals. - -Hard coal if used should be dampened before being put on the fire. - -When the fire is burning a little too briskly, close the draft but do -not tamper with the fire itself. Should it become important on a sudden -emergency to check the fire at any time quickly, never dash water upon -it, but rather throw plenty of fresh fuel upon it. Fresh fuel always -lowers the heat at first. If all drafts are closed tight, it will lower -the heat considerably for quite a time. - -In checking a fire, it must be remembered that very sudden cooling -will almost surely crack the boiler. If there is danger of an explosion -it may be necessary to draw the fire out entirely; but under no -circumstances should cold water be thrown on. After drawing the fire -close all doors and dampers. - - -FIRING WITH WOOD. - -Always keep the fire door shut as much as possible, as cold air thus -admitted will check the fire and ruin the boiler. - -Firing with wood is in many ways the exact reverse of firing with coal. -The firebox should be filled full of wood at all times. The wood should -be thrown in in every direction, in pieces of moderate size, and as it -burns away, fresh pieces should be put in at the front so that they -will get lighted and ready to burn before being pushed back near the -boiler. It often helps a wood fire, too, to stir it with a poker. Wood -makes much less ash than coal, and what little accumulates in the grate -will not do much harm. Sometimes green wood will not burn because it -gets too much cold air. In that case the sticks should be packed as -close together as possible, still leaving a place for the air to pass. -Also a wood fire, especially one with green wood, should be kept up to -a high temperature all the time; for if it is allowed to drop down the -wood will suddenly cease to burn at all. - - -FIRING WITH STRAW. - -In firing with straw it is important to keep the shute full of straw -all the time so that no cold air can get in on top of the fire. Don't -push the straw in too fast, either, but keep it moving at a uniform -rate, with small forkfulls. Now and then it is well to turn the fork -over and run it down into the fire to keep the fire level. Ashes may -be allowed to fill up in rear of ash box, but fifteen inches should be -kept clear in front to provide draft. The brick arch may be watched -from the side opening in the firebox, and should show a continuous -stream of white flame coming over it. If too much straw is forced in, -that will check the flame. The flame should never be checked. If damp -straw gets against the ends of the flues, it should be scraped off with -the poker from side door. Clean the tubes well once a day. The draft -must always be kept strong enough to produce a white heat, and if this -cannot be done otherwise, a smaller nozzle may be used on the exhaust -pipe; but this should be avoided when possible, since it causes back -pressure on the engine. Never let the front end of the boiler stand -on low ground. Engine should be level, or front end high, if it has a -firebox locomotive boiler; if a return flue boiler, be careful to keep -it always level. In burning straw take particular notice that the spark -screen in stack does not get filled up. - - -THE ASH PIT. - -In burning coal it is exceedingly important that the ashes be kept -cleaned out, as the hot cinders falling down on the heap of ashes -almost as high as the grate will overheat the grate in a very short -time and warp it all out of shape, so ruining it. - -With wood and straw, on the contrary, an accumulation of ashes will -often help and will seldom do any harm, because no very hot cinders can -drop down below the grates, and the hottest part of the fire is some -distance above the grates. - - -STARTING A FIRE. - -You must make up your mind that it will take half an hour to an hour -or so to get up steam in any boiler that is perfectly cold. The metal -expands and shrinks a great deal with the heat and cold, and a sudden -application of heat would ruin a boiler in a short time. Hence it is -necessary for reasons of engine economy to make changes of temperature, -either cooling off or heating up, gradually. - -First see that there is water in the boiler. - -Start a brisk fire with pine kindlings, gradually putting on coal or -wood, as the case may be, and spreading the fire over the grate so that -all parts will be covered with glowing coals. - -When you have 15 or 20 pounds of steam, start the blower. As has -already been described, the blower is a pipe with a nozzle leading from -the steam space of the boiler to the smoke stack, and fitted with a -globe valve. The force of the steam drives the air out of the stack, -causing a vacuum, which is immediately filled by the hot gases from -the firebox coming through the boiler tubes. Little is to be gained by -using the blower with less than 15 pounds of steam, as the blower has -so little strength below that, that it draws off about as much steam as -is made and nothing is gained. - -The blower is seldom needed when the engine is working, as the exhaust -steam should be sufficient to keep the fire going briskly. If it is -not, you should conclude that something is the matter. There are times, -however, when the blower is required even when the engine is going. -For example, if you are working with very light load and small use of -steam, the exhaust may be insufficient to keep up the fire; and this -will be especially true if the fuel is very poor. In such a case, turn -on the blower very slightly. But remember that you are wasting steam if -you can get along without the blower. - -Examine the nozzle of the blower now and then to see that it does not -become limed up, or turned so as to direct the steam to one side of the -stack, where its force would be wasted. - -Beware, also, of creating too much draft; for too much draft will use -up fuel and make little steam. - - -SMOKE. - -Coal smoke is nothing more or less than unburned carbon. The more smoke -you get, the less will be the heat from a given amount of fuel. Great -clouds of black smoke from an engine all the time are a very bad sign -in an engineer. They show that he does not know how to fire. He has not -followed the directions already given, to have a thin, hot fire, with -few ashes under his grate. Instead, he throws on great shovelsful of -coal at a time, and has the coal up to the firebox door. His fuel is -always making smoke, which soon clogs up the smoke flues and lessens -the amount of steam he is getting. If he had kept his fire very -"thin," but very hot, throwing on a small hand shovel of coal at a -time, seldom poking his fire except to lift out clinkers or clean away -dead ashes under the grate, and keeping his ashpit free from ashes, -there would be only a little puff of black smoke when the fresh coal -went on, and then the smoke would quickly disappear, while the fire -flues would burn clean and not get clogged up with soot. - -It is important, however, to keep the small fire flues especially -well cleaned out with a good flue cleaner; for all accumulation of -soot prevents the heat from passing through the steel, and so reduces -the heating capacity of the boiler. Cleaning the tubes with a steam -blower is never advisable, as it forms a paste on the tube that greatly -impairs its commodity. - - -SPARKS. - -With coal there is little danger of fires caused by sparks from the -engine. What sparks there are are heavy and dead, and will even fall -on a pile of straw without setting it on fire. On a very windy day, -however, when you are running your engine very hard, especially if it -is of the direct locomotive boiler type, you want to be careful even -with coal. - -With wood it is very different; and likewise with straw. Wood and straw -sparks are always dangerous, and an engine should never be run for -threshing with wood or straw without using a spark-arrester. - -It sometimes happens that when coal is used it will give out, and you -will be asked to finish your job with wood. In such a case, it is the -duty of an engineer to state fully and frankly the danger of firing -with wood without a spark arrester, and he should go on only when -ordered to do so by the proprietor, after he has been fully warned. In -that case all responsibility is shifted from the engineer to the owner. - - -THE FUSIBLE PLUG. - -The careful engineer will never have occasion to do anything to the -fusible plug except to clean the scale off from the top of it on the -inside of the boiler once a week, and put in a fresh plug once a month. -It is put in merely as a precaution to provide for carelessness. The -engineer who allows the fusible plug to melt out is by that very fact -marked as a careless man, and ought to find it so much the harder to -get a job. - -As has already been explained, the fusible plug is a plug filled in -the middle with some metal that will melt at a comparatively low -temperature. So long as it is covered with water, no amount of heat -will melt it, since the water conducts the heat away from the metal -and never allows it to rise above a certain temperature. When the plug -is no longer covered with water, however,--in short, when the water -has fallen below the danger line in the boiler--the metal in the plug -will fuse, or melt, and make an opening through which the steam will -blow into the firebox and put out the fire. However, if the top of the -fusible plug has been allowed to become thickly coated with scale, this -safety precaution may not work and the boiler may explode. In any case -the fusible plug is not to be depended on. - -At the same time a good engineer will take every precaution, and one of -these is to keep the top of the plug well cleaned. Also he will have -an extra plug all ready and filled with composition metal, to put in -should the plug in the boiler melt out. Then he will refill the old -plug as soon as possible. This may be done by putting a little moist -clay in one end to prevent the hot metal from running through, and then -pouring into the other end of the plug as much melted metal as it will -hold. When cold, tamp down solidly. - - -LEAKY FLUES. - -One common cause of leaky flues is leaving the fire door open so that -currents of cold air will rush in on the heated flues and cause them, -or some other parts of the boiler, to contract too suddenly. The -best boiler made may be ruined in time by allowing cold currents of -air to strike the heated interior. Once or twice will not do it; but -continually leaving the fire door open will certainly work mischief in -the end. - -Of course, if flues in a new boiler leak, it is the fault of the boiler -maker. The tubes were not large enough to fill the holes in the tube -sheets properly. But if a boiler runs for a season or so and then the -flues begin to leak, the chances are that it is due to the carelessness -of the engineer. It may be he has been making his fires too hot; it may -be leaving the firebox door open; it may be running the boiler at too -high pressure; it may be blowing out the boiler when it is too hot; or -blowing out the boiler when there is still some fire in the firebox; it -may be due to lime encrusted on the inside of the tube sheets, causing -them to overheat. Flues may also be made to leak by pumping cold water -into the boiler when the water inside is too low; or pouring cold water -into a hot boiler will do it. Some engineers blow out their boilers to -clean them, and then being in a hurry to get to work, refill them while -the metal is hot. The flues cannot stand this, since they are thinner -than the shell of the boiler and cool much more quickly; hence they -will contract much faster than the rest of the boiler and something has -to come loose. - -Once a flue starts to leaking, it is not likely to stop till it has -been repaired; and one leaky flue will make others leak. - -Now what shall you do with a leaky flue? - -To repair a leaky flue you should have a flue expander and a calking -tool, with a light hammer. If you are small enough you will creep in -at the firebox door with a candle in your hand. First, clean off the -ends of the flues and flue sheet with some cotton waste. Then force the -expander into the leaky flue, bringing the shoulder well up against -the end of the flue. Then drive in the tapering pin. Be very careful -not to drive it in too far, for if you expand the flue too much, you -will strain the flue sheet and cause other flues to leak. You must use -your judgment and proceed cautiously. It is better to make two or three -trials than to spoil your boiler by bad work. The roller expander is -preferable to the Prosser in the hands of a novice. The tube should be -expanded only enough to stop the leak. Farther expanding will only do -injury. - -When you think the flue has been expanded enough, hit the pin a side -blow to loosen it. Then turn the expander a quarter round, and drive in -the pin again. Loosen up and continue till you have turned the expander -entirely around. - -Finally remove the expander, and use the calking tool to bead the end. -It is best, however, to expand all leaky flues before doing any beading. - -The beading is done by placing the guide or gauge inside the flue, -and then pounding the ends of the flue down against the flue sheet by -light blows. Be very careful not to bruise the flue sheet or flues, and -use no heavy blows, nor even a heavy hammer. Go slowly and carefully -around the end of each flue; and if you have done your work thoroughly -and carefully the flues will be all right. But you should test your -boiler before steaming up, to make sure that all the leaks are stopped, -especially if there have been bad ones. - -There are various ways to testing a boiler. If waterworks are handy, -connect the boiler with a hydrant and after filling the boiler, let it -receive the hydrant pressure. Then examine the calked flues carefully, -and if you see any seeping of water, use your beader lightly till the -water stops. In case no waterworks with good pressure are at hand, you -can use a hydraulic pump or a good force pump. - -The amount of pressure required in testing a boiler should be that at -which the safety valve is set to blow off, say 110 to 130 lbs. This -will be sufficient. - -If you are in the field with no hydrant or force pump handy, you may -test your boiler in this way: Take off the safety valve and fill the -boiler full of water through the safety valve opening. Then screw the -safety back in its place. You should be sure that every bit of space in -the boiler is filled entirely full of water, with all openings tightly -closed. Then get back in the boiler and have a bundle of straw burned -under the firebox, or under the waist of the boiler, so that at some -point the water will be slightly heated. This will cause pressure. If -your safety valve is in perfect order, you will know as soon as water -begins to escape at the safety valve whether your flues are calked -tight enough or not. - -The water is heated only a few degrees, and the pressure is cold water -pressure. In very cold weather this method cannot be used, however, as -water has no expansive force within five degrees of freezing. - -The above methods are not intended for testing the safety of a boiler, -but only for testing for leaky flues. If you wish to have your boiler -tested, it is better to get an expert to do it. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -HOW TO MANAGE A TRACTION ENGINE. - - -A traction engine is usually the simplest kind of an engine made. If -it were not, it would require a highly expert engineer to run it, -and this would be too costly for a farmer or thresherman contractor. -Therefore the builders of traction engines make them of the fewest -possible parts, and in the most durable and simple style. Still, even -the simplest engine requires a certain amount of brains to manage it -properly, especially if you are to get the maximum of work out of it at -the lowest cost. - -If the engine is in perfect order, about all you have to do is to see -that all bearings are properly lubricated, and that the automatic oiler -is in good working condition. But as soon as an engine has been used -for a certain time, there will be wear, which will appear first in the -journals, boxes and valve, and it is the first duty of a good engineer -to adjust these. To adjust them accurately requires skill; and it is -the possession of that skill that goes to make a real engineer. - -Your first attention will probably be required for the cross-head and -crank boxes or brasses. The crank box and pin will probably wear first; -but both the cross-head and crank boxes are so nearly alike that what -is said of one will apply to the other. - -You will find the wrist box in two parts. In a new engine these parts -do not quite meet. There is perhaps an eighth of an inch waste space -between them. They are brought up to the box in most farm engines by a -wedge-shaped key. This should be driven down a little at a time as the -boxes wear, so as to keep them snug up to the pin, though not too tight. - -You continue to drive in the key and tighten up the boxes as they wear -until the two halves come tight together. Then you can no longer -accomplish anything in this way. - -When the brasses have worn so that they can be forced no closer -together, they must be taken off and the ends of them filed where they -come together. File off a sixteenth of an inch from each end. Do it -with care, and be sure you get the ends perfectly even. When you have -done this you will have another eighth of an inch to allow for wear. - -Now, by reflection you will see that as the wrist box wears, and the -wedge-shaped key is driven in, the pitman (or piston arm) is lengthened -to the amount that the half of the box farthest from the piston has -worn away. When the brasses meet, this will amount to one-sixteenth of -an inch. - -Now if you file the ends off and the boxes wear so as to come together -once more, the pitman will have been shortened one-eighth of an inch; -and pretty soon the clearance of the piston in the cylinder will -have been offset, and the engine will begin to pound. In any case, -the clearance at one end of the cylinder will be one-sixteenth or -one-eighth of an inch less, and in the other end one-sixteenth or -one-eighth of an inch more. When this is the case you will find that -the engine is not working well. - -To correct this, when you file the brasses either of the cross-head -box or the crank box you must put in some filling back of the brass -farthest from the piston, sufficient to equalize the wear that has -taken place, that is, one-sixteenth of an inch each time you have -to file off a sixteenth of an inch. This filling may be some flat -pieces of tin or sheet copper, commonly called shims, and the process -is called shimming. As to the front half of the box, no shims are -required, since the tapering key brings that box up to its proper place. - -Great care must be exercised when driving in the tapering key or wedge -to tighten up the boxes, not to drive it in too hard. Many engineers -think this is a sure remedy for "knocking" in an engine, and every time -they hear a knock they drive in the crank box key. Often the knock is -from some other source, such as from a loose fly wheel, or the like. -Your ear is likely to deceive you; for a knock from any part of an -engine is likely to sound as if it came from the crank box. If you -insist on driving in the key too hard and too often, you will ruin your -engine. - -In tightening up a key, first loosen the set screw that holds the key; -then drive down the key till you think it is tight; then drive it back -again, and this time force it down with your fist as far as you can. By -using your fist in this way after you have once driven the pin in tight -and loosened it again you may be pretty certain you are not going to -get it so tight it will cause the box to heat. - - -WHAT CAUSES AN ENGINE TO KNOCK. - -The most common sign that something is loose about an engine is -"knocking," as it is called. If any box wears a little loose, or any -wheel or the like gets a trifle loose, the engine will begin to knock. - -When an engine begins to knock or run hard, it is the duty of the -engineer to locate the knock definitely. He must not guess at it. When -he has studied the problem out carefully, and knows where the knock is, -then he may proceed to remedy it. Never adjust more than one part at a -time. - -As we have said, a knock is usually due to looseness somewhere. The -journals of the main shaft may be loose and cause knocking. They are -held in place by set bolts and jam nuts, and are tightened by simply -screwing up the nuts. But a small turn of a nut may make the box so -tight it will begin to heat at once. Great care should be taken in -tightening up such a box to be sure not to get it too tight. Once a box -begins to cut, it should be taken out and thoroughly cleaned. - -Knocking may be due to a loose eccentric yoke. There is packing between -the two halves of the yoke, and to tighten up you must take out a thin -layer of this packing. But be careful not to take out too much, or the -eccentric will stick and begin to slip. - -Another cause of knocking is the piston rod loose in the cross-head. -If the piston rod is keyed to the cross-head it is less liable to get -loose than if it were fastened by a nut; but if the key continues to -get loose, it will be best to replace it with a new one. - -Unless the piston rod is kept tight in the cross-head, there is -liability of a bad crack. A small strain will bring the piston out of -the cross-head entirely, when the chances are you will knock out one or -both cylinder-heads. If a nut is used, there will be the same danger if -it comes off. It should therefore be carefully watched. The best way is -to train the ear to catch any usual sound, when loosening of the key or -nut will be detected at once. - -Another source of knocking is looseness of the cross-head in the -guides. Provision is usually made for taking up the wear; but if there -is not, you can take off the guides and file them or have them planed -off. You should take care to see that they are kept even, so that they -will wear smooth with the crosshead shoes. - -If the fly-wheel is in the least loose it will also cause knocking, -and it will puzzle you not a little to locate it. It may appear to be -tight; but if the key is the least bit too narrow for the groove in the -shaft, it will cause an engine to bump horribly, very much as too much -"lead" will. - - -LEAD. - -We have already explained what "lead" is. It is opening of the port at -either end of the steam cylinder allowed by the valve when the engine -is on a dead centre. To find out what the lead is, the cover of the -steam chest must be taken off, and the engine placed at each dead -centre in succession. If the lead is greater at one end than it is at -the other, the valve must be adjusted to equalize it. As a rule the -engine is adjusted with a suitable amount of lead if it is equalized. -The correct amount of lead varies with the engine and with the port -opening. If the port opening is long and narrow, the lead should -obviously be less than if the port is short and wide. - -If the lead is insufficient, there will not be enough steam let into -the cylinder for cushion, and the engine will knock. If there is too -much lead the speed of the engine will be lessened, and it will not do -the work it ought. To adjust the lead _de novo_ is by no means an easy -task. - - -HOW TO SET A SIMPLE VALVE. - -In order to set a valve the engine must be brought to a dead centre. -This cannot be done accurately by the eye. An old engineer[5] gives -the following directions for finding the dead centre accurately. Says -he: "First provide yourself with a 'tram.' This is a rod of one-fourth -inch iron about eighteen inches long, with two inches at one end bent -over to a sharp angle. Sharpen both ends to a point. Fasten a block of -hard wood somewhere near the face of the fly-wheel, so that when the -straight end of your tram is placed at a definite point in the block, -the hooked end will reach the crown of the fly-wheel. The block must be -held firmly in its place, and the tram must always touch it at exactly -the same point. - - Footnote 5: J. H. Maggard. - -"You are now ready to set about finding the dead centre. In doing this, -remember to turn the fly-wheel always in the same direction. - -"Bring the engine over till it nearly reaches one of the dead centres, -but not quite. Make a distinct mark across the cross-head and guides. -Also go around to the flywheel, and placing the straight end of the -tram at the selected point on the block of wood, make a mark across the -crown or centre of face of the fly-wheel. Now turn your engine past the -centre, and on to a point at which the mark on the cross head will once -more exactly correspond with the line on the guides, making a single -straight line. Once more place the tram as before and make another mark -across the crown of the fly-wheel. By use of dividers, find the exact -centre between the two marks made on the fly-wheel, and mark this point -distinctly with a centre punch. Now bring the fly-wheel to the point -where the tram, set with its straight end at the required point on the -block of wood, will touch this point with the hooked end, and you will -have one of the dead centres. - -"Turn the engine over and proceed in the same way to find the other -dead centre." - -Now, setting the engine on one of the dead centres, remove the cover of -the steam chest and proceed to set your valve. - -Assuming that the engine maker gave the valve the proper amount of lead -in the first place, you can proceed on the theory that it is merely -necessary to equalize the lead at both ends. Assume some convenient -lead, as one-sixteenth of an inch, and set the valve to that. Then -turn the engine over and see if the lead at the other end is the same. -If it is the same, you have set the valve correctly. If it is less at -the other end, you may conclude that the lead at both ends should be -less than one-sixteenth of an inch, and must proceed to equalize it. -This you can do by fitting into the open space a little wedge of wood, -changing the valve a little until the wedge goes in to just the same -distance at each end. Then you may know that the lead at one end is the -same as at the other end. You can mark the wedge for forcing it against -the metal, or mark it against the seat of the valve with a pencil. - -The valve is set by loosening the set screws that hold the eccentric on -the shaft. When these are loosened up the valve may be moved freely. -When it is correctly set the screws should be tightened, and the -relative position of the eccentric on the shaft may be permanently -marked by setting a cold chisel so that it will cut into the shaft -and the eccentric at the same time and giving it a smart blow with -the hammer, so as to make a mark on both the eccentric and the shaft. -Should your eccentric slip at any time in the future, you can set your -valve by simply bringing the mark on the eccentric so that it will -correspond with the mark on the shaft. Many engines have such a mark -made when built, to facilitate setting a valve should the eccentric -become loose. - -These directions apply only to setting the valve of a single eccentric -engine. - - -HOW TO SET A VALVE ON A DOUBLE ECCENTRIC ENGINE. - -In setting a valve on a reversible or double eccentric engine, the link -may cause confusion, and you may be trying to set the valve to run one -way when the engine is set to run the other. - -The valve on such an engine is exactly the same as on a single -eccentric engine. Set the reverse lever for the engine to go forward. -Then set the valve exactly as with a single eccentric engine. When -you have done so, tighten the eccentric screws so that they will hold -temporarily, and set the reverse lever for the engine to go backward. -Then put the engine on dead centres and see if the valve is all right -at both ends. If it is, you may assume that it is correctly set, and -tighten eccentric screws, marking both eccentrics as before. - -As we have said, most engines are marked in the factory, so that it is -not a difficult matter to set the valves, it being necessary only to -bring the eccentric around so that the mark on it will correspond with -the mark on the shaft. - -You can easily tell whether the lead is the same at both ends by -listening to the exhaust. If it is longer at one end than the other, -the valve is not properly set. - - -SLIPPING OF THE ECCENTRIC OR VALVE. - -If the eccentric slips the least bit it may cause the engine to stop, -or to act very queerly. Therefore the marks on the shaft and on the -eccentric should be watched closely, and of course all grease and dirt -should be kept wiped off, so that they can be seen easily. Then the jam -nuts should be tightened up a little from time to time. - -If the engine seems to act strangely, and yet the eccentrics are all -right, look at the valve in the steam chest. If the valve stem has -worked loose from the valve, trouble will be caused. It may be held in -place by a nut, and the nut may work off; or the valve may be held by -a clamp and pin, and the pin may work loose. Either will cause loss of -motion, and perhaps a sudden stopping of the engine. - - -USE OF THE CYLINDER STEAM COCKS. - -It is a comparatively simple matter to test a steam cylinder by use -of the cylinder cocks. To do this, open both cocks, place the engine -on the forward center, and turn on a little steam. If the steam blows -out at the forward cock, we may judge that our lead is all right. Now -turn the engine to the back center and let on the steam. It should blow -out the same at the back cock. A little training of the ear will show -whether the escape of steam is the same at both ends. Then reverse the -engine, set it on each center successfully, and notice whether the -steam blows out from one cock at a time and in the same degree of force. - -If the steam blows out of both cocks at the same time, or out of one -cock on one center, but not out of the other cock on its corresponding -center, we may know something is wrong. The valve does not work -properly. - -We will first look at the eccentrics and see that they are all right. -If they are, we must open the steam chest, first turning off all steam. -Probably we shall find that the valve is loose on the valve rod, if our -trouble was that the steam blew out of the cock but did not out of the -other when the engine was on the opposite center. - -If our trouble was that steam blew out of both cocks at the same time, -we may conclude either that the cylinder rings leak or else the valve -has cut its seat. It will be a little difficult to tell which at first -sight. In any case it is a bad thing, for it means loss of power and -waste of steam and fuel. To tell just where the trouble is you must -take off the cylinder head, after setting the engine on the forward -center. Let in a little steam from the throttle. If it blows through -around the rings, the trouble is with them; but if it blows through the -valve port, the trouble is with the valve and valve seat. - -If the rings leak you must get a new set if they are of the -self-adjusting type. But if they are of the spring or adjusting type -you can set them out yourself; but few engines now use the latter kind -of rings, so a new pair will probably be required. - -If the trouble is in the valve and valve seat, you should take the -valve out and have the seat planed down, and the valve fitted to the -seat. This should always be done by a skilled mechanic fully equipped -for such work, as a novice is almost sure to make bad work of it. The -valve seat and valve must be scraped down by the use of a flat piece -of very hard steel, an eighth of an inch thick and about 3 by 4 inches -in size. The scraping edge must be absolutely straight. It will be a -slow and tedious process, and a little too much scraping on one side or -the other will prevent a perfect fit. Both valve and valve seat must -be scraped equally. Novices sometimes try to reseat a valve by the use -of emery. This is very dangerous and is sure to ruin the valve, as it -works into the pores of the iron and causes cutting. - - -LUBRICATION. - -A knowledge of the difference between good oil and poor oil, and of how -to use oil and grease, is a prime essential for an engineer. - -First let us give a little attention to the theory of lubrication. The -oil or grease should form a lining between the journal and its pin or -shaft. It is in the nature of a slight and frictionless cushion at all -points where the two pieces of metal meet. - -Now if oil is to keep its place between the bearing and the shaft or -pin it must stick tight to both pieces of metal, and the tighter the -better. If the oil is light the forces at work on the bearings will -force the oil away and bring the metals together. As soon as they come -together they begin to wear on each other, and sometimes the wear is -very rapid. This is called "cutting." If a little sand or grit gets -into the bearing, that will help the cutting wonderfully, and more -especially if there is no grease there. - -For instance, gasoline and kerosene are oils, but they are so light -they will not stick to a journal, and so are valueless for lubricating. -Good lubricating oil will cost a little more than cheap oil which has -been mixed with worthless oils to increase its bulk without increasing -its cost. The higher priced oil will really cost less in the end, -because there is a larger percentage of it which will do service. A -good engineer will have it in his contract that he is to be furnished -with good oil. - -Now an engine requires two different kinds of oil, one for the -bearings, such as the crank, pin, the cross-head and journals, and -quite a different kind for lubricating the steam cylinder. - -It is extremely important that the steam cylinder should be well -lubricated; and this cannot be done direct. The oil must be carried -into the valve and cylinder with steam. The heat of the steam, -moreover, ranging from about 320 degrees Fahr. for 90 lbs. pressure to -350 degrees for 125 lbs. of pressure, will quickly destroy the efficacy -of a poor oil, and a good cylinder oil must be one that will stick to -the cylinder and valve seat under this high temperature. It must have -staying qualities. - -The link reverse is one of the best for its purpose; but it requires a -good quality of oil on the valve for it to work well. If the valve gets -a little dry, or the poor oil used does not serve its purpose properly, -the link will begin to jump and pound. This is a reason why makers are -substituting other kinds of reverse gear in many ways not as good, but -not open to this objection. If a link reverse begins to pound when you -are using good oil, and the oiler is working properly, you may be sure -something is the matter with the valve or the gear. - -A good engineer will train his ear so that he will detect by simply -listening at the cylinder whether everything is working exactly as it -ought. For example, the exhaust at each end of the cylinder, which you -can hear distinctly, should be the same and equal. If the exhaust at -one end is less than it is at the other, you may know that one end of -the cylinder is doing more work than the other. And also any little -looseness or lack of oil will signify itself by the peculiar sound it -will cause. - -While the cylinder requires cylinder oil, the crank, cross-head and -journals require engine oil, or hard grease. The use of hard grease is -rapidly increasing, and it is highly to be recommended. With a good -automatic spring grease cup hard grease will be far less likely to let -the bearings heat than common oil will. At the same time it will be -much easier to keep an engine clean if hard grease is used. - -An old engineer[6] gives the following directions for fitting a grease -cup on a box not previously arranged for one: "Remove the journal, -take a gouge and cut a clean groove across the box, starting at one -corner, about one-eighth of an inch from the point of the box, and -cut diagonally across, coming out at the opposite corner on the other -end of the box. Then start at the opposite corner and run through as -before, crossing the first groove in the center of the box. Groove both -halves of the box the same, being careful not to cut out at either -end, as this will allow the grease to escape from the box and cause -unnecessary waste. The shimming or packing in the box should be cut so -as to touch the journal at both ends of the box, but not in the center -or between these two points. So when the top box is brought down tight -this will form another reservoir for the grease. If the box is not -tapped directly in the center for the cup, it will be necessary to cut -another groove from where it is tapped into the grooves already made. -A box prepared in this way and carefully polished inside, will require -little attention if you use good grease." - - Footnote 6: J. H. Maggard. - - -A HOT BOX. - -When a box heats in the least degree, it is a sign that for lack of oil -or for some other reason the metals are wearing together. - -The first thing to do, of course, is to see that the box is supplied -with plenty of good oil or grease. - -If this does not cause the box to cool off, take it apart and clean it -thoroughly. Then coat the journal with white lead mixed with good oil. -Great care should be exercised to keep all dirt or grit out of your can -of lead and away from the bearing. - -Replace the oil or grease cup, and the box will soon cool down. - - -THE FRICTION CLUTCH. - -Nearly all traction engines are now provided with the friction clutch -for engaging the engine with the propelling gear. The clutch is usually -provided with wooden shoes, which are adjustable as they wear; and the -clutch is thrown on by a lever, conveniently placed. - -[Illustration: A. W. STEVENS CO. FRICTION CLUTCH.] - -Before running an engine, you must make sure that the clutch shoes are -properly adjusted. Great care must be taken to be sure that both shoes -will come in contact with the friction wheel at the same instant; for -if one shoe touches the wheel before the other the clutch will probably -slip. - -The shoes should be so set as to make it a trifle difficult to draw the -lever clear back. - -To regulate the shoes on the Rumely engine, for example, first throw -the friction in. The nut on the top of the toggle connecting the sleeve -of the friction with the shoe must then be loosened, and the nut below -the shoe tightened up, forcing the shoe toward the wheel. Both shoes -should be carefully adjusted so that they will engage the band wheel -equally and at exactly the same time. - -To use the friction clutch, first start the engine, throwing the -throttle gradually wide open. When the engine is running at its usual -speed, slowly bring up the clutch until the gearing is fully engaged, -letting the engine start slowly and smoothly, without any jar. - -Traction engines having the friction clutch are also provided with a -pin for securing a rigid connection, to be used in cases of necessity, -as when the clutch gets broken or something about it gives out, or you -have difficulty in making it hold when climbing hills. This pin is a -simple round or square pin that can be placed through a hole in one of -the spokes of the band wheel until it comes into a similar opening in -the friction wheel. When the pin is taken out, so as to disconnect the -wheels, it must be entirely removed, not left sticking in the hole, as -it is liable to catch in some other part of the machinery. - -[Illustration: AULTMAN & TAYLOR FRICTION CLUTCH.] - - -MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. - -Be careful not to open the throttle valve too quickly, or you may throw -off the driving belt. You may also stir up the water and cause it to -pass over with the steam, starting what is called "priming." - -Always open your cylinder cocks when you stop, to make sure all water -has been drained out of the cylinder; and see that they are open when -you start, of course closing them as soon as the steam is let in. - -When you pull out the ashes always have a pail of water ready, for you -may start a fire that will do no end of damage. - -If the water in your boiler gets low and you are waiting for the tank -to come up, don't think you "can keep on a little longer," but stop -your engine at once. It is better to lose a little time than run the -risk of an explosion that will ruin your reputation as an engineer and -cause your employer a heavy expense. - -Never start the pump when the water in the boiler is low. - -Be sure the exhaust nozzle does not get limed up, and be sure the pipe -where the water enters the boiler from the heater is not limed up, or -you may split a heater pipe or knock out a check valve. - -Never leave your engine in cold weather without draining off all the -water; and always cover up your engine when you leave it. - -Never disconnect the engine with a leaky throttle. - -Keep the steam pressure steady, not varying more than 10 to 15 lbs. - -If called on to run an old boiler, have it thoroughly tested before you -touch it. - -Always close your damper before pulling through a stack yard. - -Examine every bridge before you pull on to it. - -Do not stop going down a steep grade. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -HANDLING A TRACTION ENGINE ON THE ROAD. - - -It is something of a trick to handle a traction engine on the road. The -novice is almost certain to run it into a ditch the first thing, or get -stuck on a hill, or in a sand patch or a mudhole. Some attention must -therefore be paid to handling a traction engine on the road. - -In the first place, never pull the throttle open with a jerk, nor put -down the reverse lever with a snap. Handle your engine deliberately -and thoughtfully, knowing beforehand just what you wish to do and how -you will do it. A traction engine is much like an ox; try to goad it -on too fast and it will stop and turn around on you. It does its best -work when moving slowly and steadily, and seldom is anything gained by -rushing. - -The first thing for an engineer to learn is to handle his throttle. -When an engine is doing work the throttle should be wide open; but on -the road, or in turning, backing, etc., the engineer's hand must be -on the throttle all the time and he must exercise a nice judgment as -to just how much steam the engine will need to do a certain amount -of work. This the novice will find out best by opening the throttle -slowly, taking all the time he needs, and never allowing any one to -hurry him. - -As an engineer learns the throttle, he gradually comes to have -confidence in it. As it were, he feels the pulse of the animal and -never makes a mistake. Such an engineer always has power to spare, and -never wastes any power. He finds that a little is often much better -than too much. - -The next thing to learn is the steering wheel. It has tricks of its -own, which one must learn by practice. Most young engineers turn the -wheel altogether too much. If you let your engine run slowly you will -have time to turn the wheel slowly, and accomplish just what you want -to do. If you hurry you will probably have to do your work all over -again, and so lose much more time in the end than if you didn't hurry. - -Always keep your eyes on the front wheels of the engine, and do not -turn around to see how your load is coming on. Your load will take care -of itself if you manage the front wheels all right, for they determine -where you are to go. - -In making a hard turn, especially, go slow. Then you will run no chance -of losing control of your engine, and you can see that neither you nor -your load gets into a ditch. - - -GETTING INTO A HOLE. - -You are sure sooner or later to get into a hole in the road, for a -traction engine is so heavy it is sure to find any soft spot in the -road there may be. - -As to getting out of a hole, observe in the first place that you must -use your best judgment. - -First, never let the drive wheels turn round without doing any work. -The more they spin round without helping you, the worse it will be for -you. - -Your first thought must be to give the drive wheels something they can -climb on, something they can stick to. A heavy chain is perhaps the -very best thing you can put under them. But usually on the road you -have no chain handy. In that case, you must do what you can. Old hay or -straw will help you; and so will old rails or any old timber. - -Spend your time trying to give your wheels something to hold to, rather -than trying to pull out. When the wheels are all right, the engine will -go on its way without any trouble whatever. And do not half do your -work of fixing the wheels before you try to start. See that both wheels -are secure before you put on a pound of steam. Make sure of this the -first time you try, and you will save time in the end. If you fix one -wheel and don't fix the other, you will probably spoil the first wheel -by starting before the other is ready. - -Should you be where your engine will not turn, then you are stuck -indeed. You must lighten your load or dig a way out. - - -BAD BRIDGES. - -A traction engine is so heavy that the greatest care must be exercised -in crossing bridges. If a bridge floor is worn, if you see rotten -planks in it, or liability of holes, don't pull on to that bridge -without taking precautions. - -The best precaution is to carry with you a couple of planks sixteen -feet long, three inches thick in the middle, tapering to two inches at -the ends; also a couple of planks eight feet long and two inches thick, -the latter for culverts and to help out on long bridges. - -Before pulling on to a bad looking bridge, lay down your planks, one -for each pair of wheels of the engine to run on. Be exceedingly careful -not to let the engine drop off the edge of these planks on the way -over, or pass over the ends on to the floor of the bridge. If one pair -of planks is too short, use your second pair. - -Another precaution which it is wise to take is to carry fifty feet of -good, stout hemp rope, and when you come to a shaky bridge, attach your -separator to the engine by this rope at full length, so that the engine -will have crossed the bridge before the weight of the separator comes -upon it. - -Cross a bad bridge very slowly. Nothing will be gained by hurrying. -There should especially be no sudden jerks or starts. - - -SAND PATCHES. - -A sandy road is an exceedingly hard road to pull a load over. - -In the first place, don't hurry over sand. If you do you are liable to -break the footing of the wheels, and then you are gone. - -In the second place, keep your engine as steady and straight as -possible, so that both wheels will always have an equal and even -bearing. They are less liable to slip if you do. It is useless to try -to "wiggle" over a sand patch. Slow, steady, and even is the rule. - -If your wheels slip in sand, a bundle of straw or hay, especially old -hay, will be about the best thing to give them a footing. - - -HILLS. - -In climbing hills take the same advice we have given you all along: Go -slow. Nothing is gained by rushing at a hill with a steam engine. Such -an engine works best when its force is applied steadily and evenly, a -little at a time. - -If you have a friction clutch, as you probably will have, you should be -sure it is in good working order before you attempt to climb hills. It -should be adjusted to a nicety, as we have already explained. When you -come to a bad hill it would probably be well to put in the tight gear -pin; or use it altogether in a hilly country. - -When the friction clutch first came into use, salesmen and others used -to make the following recommendation (a recommendation which we will -say right here is bad). They said, when you come to an obstacle in the -road that you can't very well get your engine over, throw off your -friction clutch from the road wheels, let your engine get under good -headway running free, and then suddenly put on the friction clutch and -jerk yourself over the obstacle. - -Now this is no doubt one way to get over an obstacle; but no good -engineer would take his chances of spoiling his engine by doing any -such thing with it. Some part of it would be badly strained by such a -procedure; and if this were done regularly all through a season, an -engine would be worth very little at the end of the season. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -POINTS FOR THE YOUNG ENGINEER. - - -QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. - -THE BOILER. - -Q. How should water be fed to a boiler? - -A. In a steady stream, by use of a pump or injector working -continuously and supplying just the amount of water required. By this -means the water in the boiler is maintained at a uniform level, and -produces steam most evenly and perfectly. - -Q. Why should pure water be used in a boiler? - -A. Because impure water, or hard water, forms scales on the boiler -flues and plates, and these scales act as non-conductors of heat. Thus -the heat of the furnace is not able to pass easily through the boiler -flues and plates to the water, and your boiler becomes what is called -"a hard steamer." - -Q. What must be done to prevent the formation of scale? - -A. First, use some compound that will either prevent scale from -forming, or will precipitate the scale forming substance as a soft -powder that can easily be washed off. Sal soda dissolved in the feed -water is recommended, but great care should be exercised in the use of -sal soda not to use too much at a time, as it may cause a boiler to -foam. Besides using a compound, clean your boiler often and regularly -with a hand hose and a force pump, and soak it out as often as possible -by using rain water for a day or two, especially before cleaning. Rain -water will soften and bring down the hard scale far better than any -compound. - -Q. How often should you clean your boiler? - -A. As often as it needs it, which will depend upon the work you do and -the condition of the water. Once a week is usually often enough if the -boiler is blown down a little every day. If your water is fairly good, -once a month will be often enough. A boiler should be blown off about -one gauge at a time two or three times a day with the blow-off if the -water is muddy. - -Q. How long should the surface blow-off be left open? - -A. Only for a few seconds, and seldom longer than a minute. The surface -blow-off carries off the scum that forms on the water, and other -impurities that rise with the scum. - -Q. How do you clean a boiler by blowing off? - -A. When the pressure has been allowed to run down open the blow-off -valve at the bottom of the boiler and let the water blow out less than -a minute, till the water drops out of sight in the water gauges, or -about two and one-half inches. Blowing off more is only a waste of heat -and fuel. - -Q. What harm will be done by blowing off a boiler under a high pressure -of steam? - -A. The heat in the boiler while there is such a pressure will be so -great that it will bake the scale on the inside of the boiler, and it -will be very difficult to remove it afterward. After a boiler has been -blown off the scale should be for the most part soft, so that it can be -washed out by a hose and force pump. - -Q. Why should a hot boiler never be filled with cold water? - -A. Because the cold water will cause the boiler to contract more in -some places than in others, and so suddenly that the whole will be -badly strained. Leaky flues are made in this way, and the life of a -boiler greatly shortened. As a rule a boiler should be filled only when -the metal and the water put into it are about at the same temperature. - -Q. After a boiler has been cleaned, how should the manhole and manhole -plates be replaced? - -A. They are held in position by a bolt passing through a yoke that -straddles the hole; but to be steam and water tight they must have -packing all around the junction of the plate with the boiler. The best -packing is sheet rubber cut in the form of a ring just the right size -for the bearing surface. Hemp or cotton packing are also used, but they -should be free from all lumps and soaked in oil. Do not use any more -than is absolutely needed. Be careful, also, to see that the bearings -of the plate and boiler are clean and smooth, with all the old packing -scraped off. Candle wick saturated with red lead is next best to rubber -as packing. - -Q. What are the chief duties of an engineer in care of a boiler? - -A. First, to watch all gauges, fittings, and working parts, to see that -they are in order; try the gauge cocks to make sure the water is at -the right height; try the safety valve from time to time to be sure it -is working; see that there are no leaks, that there is no rusting or -wearing of parts, or to replace parts when they do begin to show wear; -to examine the check valve frequently to make sure no water can escape -through it from the boiler; take precautions against scale and stoppage -of pipes by scale; and keep the fire going uniformly, cleanly, and in -an economical fashion. - -Q. What should you do if the glass water gauge breaks? - -A. Turn off the gauge cocks above and below, the lower one first so -that the hot water will not burn you. You may put in a new glass and -turn on gauge cocks at once. Turn on the lower or water cock first, -then the upper or steam cock. You may go on without the glass gauge, -however, using the gauge cocks or try cocks every few minutes to make -sure the water is at the right height, neither too high nor too low. - -Q. Why is it necessary to use the gauge cocks when the glass gauge is -all right? - -A. First, because you cannot otherwise be sure that the glass gauge is -all right; and, secondly, because if you do not use them frequently -they are likely to become scaled up so that you cannot use them in case -of accident to the glass gauge. - -Q. If a gauge cock gets leaky, what should be done? - -A. Nothing until the boiler has cooled down. Then if the leak is in the -seat, take it out and grind and refit it; if the leak is where the -cock is screwed into the boiler, tighten it up another turn and see if -that remedies the difficulty. If it does not you will probably have to -get a new gauge cock. - -Q. Why not screw up a gauge cock while there is a pressure of steam on? - -A. The cock might blow out and cause serious injury to yourself or some -one else. Make it a rule never to fool with any boiler fittings while -there is a pressure of steam on the boiler. It is exceedingly dangerous. - -Sometimes a gauge cock gets broken off accidentally while the boiler is -in use. If such an accident happens, bank the fire by closing the draft -and covering the fire with fresh fuel or ashes. Stop the engine and let -the water blow out of the hole till only steam appears; then try to -plug the opening with a long whitewood or poplar, or even a pine stick -(six or eight feet long), one end of which you have whittled down to -about the size of the hole. When the steam has been stopped the stick -may be cut off close to the boiler and the plug driven in tight. If -necessary you may continue to use the boiler in this condition until a -new cock can be put in. - -Q. What should you do when a gauge cock is stopped up? - -A. Let the steam pressure go down, and then take off the front part -and run a small wire into the passage, working the wire back and forth -until all scale and sediment has been removed. - -Q. What should you do when the steam gauge gets out of order. - -A. If the steam gauge does not work correctly, or you suspect it does -not, you may test it by running the steam up until it blows off at -the safety valve. If the steam gauge does not indicate the pressure -at which the safety valve is set to pop off, and you have reason to -suppose the safety valve is all right, you may conclude that there is -something the matter with the steam gauge. In that case either put in -a new one, or, if you have no extra steam gauge on hand, shut down -your boiler and engine till you can get your steam gauge repaired. -Sometimes this can be done simply by adjusting the pointer, which may -have got loose, and you can test it by attaching it to another boiler -which has a steam gauge that is all right and by which you can check up -yours. It is VERY DANGEROUS to run your boiler without a steam gauge, -depending on the safety valve. Never allow the slightest variation in -correctness of the steam gauge without repairing it at once. It will -nearly always be cheaper in these days to put in a new gauge rather -than try to repair the old one. - -Q. What should you do if the pump fails to work? - -A. Use the injector. - -Q. What should you do if there is no injector? - -A. Stop the engine at once and bank the fire with damp ashes, -especially noting that the water does not fall below the bottom of the -glass gauge. Then examine the pump. First see if the plunger leaks air; -if it is all right, examine the check valves, using the little drain -cock as previously explained to test the upper ones, for the valves -may have become worn and will leak; third, if the check valves are all -right, examine the supply pipe, looking at the strainer, observing -whether suction takes place when the pump is worked, etc. There may -be a leak in the suction hose somewhere during its course where air -can get in, or it may become weak and collapse under the force of the -atmosphere, or the lining of the suction pipe may have become torn or -loose. The slightest leak in the suction pipe will spoil the working -of the pump. Old tubing should never be used, as it is sure to give -trouble. Finally, examine the delivery pipe. Close the cock or valve -next the boiler, and examine the boiler check valve; notice whether -the pipe is getting limed up. If necessary, disconnect the pipe and -clean it out with a stiff wire. If everything is all right up to this -point, you must let the boiler cool off, blow out the water, disconnect -the pipe between the check and the boiler, and thoroughly clean the -delivery pipe into the boiler. Stoppage of the delivery pipe is due to -deposits of lime from the heating of the water in the heater. Stoppage -from this source will be gradual, and you will find less and less -water going into your boiler from your pump until none flows at all. -From this you may guess the trouble. - -Q. How may the communication with the water gauge always be kept free -from lime? - -A. By blowing it off through the drain cock at the bottom. First close -the upper cock and blow off for a few seconds, the water passing -through the lower cock; then close the lower cock and open the upper -one, allowing the steam to blow through this and the drain cock for -a few seconds. If you do this every day or oftener you will have no -trouble. - -Q. Should the water get low for any reason, what should be done? - -A. Close all dampers tight so as to prevent all draft, and bank the -fire with fresh fuel or with ashes (damp ashes are the best if danger -is great). Then let the boiler cool down before putting in fresh water. -Banking the fire is better than drawing or dumping it, as either of -these make the heat greater for a moment or two, and that additional -heat might cause an explosion. Dashing cold water upon the fire is -also very dangerous and in every way unwise. Again, do not open the -safety valve, for that also, by relieving some of the pressure on the -superheated water, might cause it to burst suddenly into steam and so -cause an explosion. - -Q. Under such circumstances, would you stop the engine? - -A. No; for a sudden checking of the outflow of steam might bring about -an explosion. Do nothing but check the heat as quickly and effectively -as you can by banking or covering the fires. - -Q. Why not turn on the feed water? - -A. Because the crown sheet of the boiler has become overheated, and -any cold water coming upon it would cause an explosion. If the pump or -injector are running, of course you may let them run, and the boiler -will gradually refill as the heat decreases. Under such circumstances -low water is due to overheating the boiler. - -Q. Would not the fusible plug avert any disaster from low water? - -A. It might, and it might not. The top of it is liable to get coated -with lime so that the device is worthless. You should act at all times -precisely as if there were no fusible plug. If it ever does avert -an explosion you may be thankful, but averting explosions by taking -such means as we have suggested will be far better for an engineer's -reputation. - -Q. Would not the safety valve be a safeguard against explosion? - -A. No; only under certain conditions. It prevents too high a pressure -for accumulating in the boiler when there is plenty of water; but when -the water gets low the safety valve may only hasten the explosion by -relieving some of the pressure and allowing superheated water to burst -suddenly into steam, thus vastly expanding instantly. - -Q. Should water be allowed to stand in the boiler when it is not in use? - -A. It is better to draw it off and clean the boiler, to prevent -rusting, formation of scale, hardening of sediment, etc., if boiler is -to be left for any great length of time. - -Q. What should you do if a grate bar breaks or falls out? - -A. You should always have a spare grate bar on hand to put in its -place; but if you have none you may fill the space by wedging in a -stick of hard wood cut the right shape to fill the opening. Cover -this wood with ashes before poking the fire over it, and it will last -for several hours before it burns out. You will find it exceedingly -difficult to keep up the fire with a big hole in the grate that will -let cold air into the furnace and allow coal to drop down. - -In case the grate is of the rocker type the opening may be filled by -shaping a piece of flat iron, which can be set in without interfering -with the rocking of the grate; or the opening may be filled with wood -as before if the wood is covered well with ashes. Of course the use of -wood will prevent the grate from rocking and the poker must be used to -clean. - -Q. Why should an engineer never start a boiler with a hot fire, and -never let his fire get hotter than is needed to keep up steam? - -A. Both will cause the sheets to warp and the flues to become leaky, -because under high heat some parts of the boiler will expand more -rapidly than others. For a similar reason, any sudden application of -cold to a boiler, either cold water or cold air through the firebox -door, will cause quicker contraction of certain parts than other parts, -and this will ruin a boiler. - -Q. How should you supply a boiler with water? - -A. In a regular stream continually. Only by making the water pass -regularly and gradually through the heater will you get the full effect -of the heat from the exhaust steam. If a great deal of water is pumped -into the boiler at one time, the exhaust steam will not be sufficient -to heat it as it ought. Then if you have a full boiler and shut off the -water supply, the exhaust steam in the heater is wasted, for it can do -no work at all. Besides, it hurts the boiler to allow the temperature -to change, as it will inevitably do if water is supplied irregularly. - -WHATEVER YOU DO, NEVER ATTEMPT TO TIGHTEN A SCREW OR CALK A BOILER -UNDER STEAM PRESSURE. IF ANYTHING IS LOOSE IT IS LIABLE TO BLOW OUT IN -YOUR FACE WITH DISASTROUS CONSEQUENCES. - -Q. If boiler flues become leaky, can an ordinary person tighten them? - -A. Yes, if the work is done carefully. See full explanation previously -given, p. 17. Great care should be taken not to expand the flues too -much, for by so doing you are likely to loosen other flues and cause -more leaks than you had in the first place. Small leaks inside a boiler -are not particularly dangerous, but they should be remedied at the -earliest possible moment, since they reduce the power of the boiler -and put out the fire. Besides, they look bad for the engineer. - -Q. How should flues be cleaned? - -A. Some use a steam blower; but a better way is to scrape off the metal -with one of the many patent scrapers, which just fill the flue, and -when attached to a rod and worked back and forth a few times the whole -length of the flue do admirable service. - -Q. What harm will dirty flues do? - -A. Two difficulties arise from dirty flues. If they become reduced in -size the fire will not burn well. Then, the same amount of heat will do -far less work because it is so much harder for it to get through the -layer of soot and ashes, which are non-conductors. - -Q. What would you do if the throttle broke? - -A. Use reverse lever. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -POINTS FOR THE YOUNG ENGINEER.--(CONT.) - - -QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. - -THE ENGINE. - -Q. What is the first thing to do with a new engine? - -A. With some cotton waste or a soft rag saturated with benzine or -turpentine clean off all the bright work; then clean every bearing, box -and oil hole, using a force pump with air current first, if you have -a pump, and then wiping the inside out clean with an oily rag, using -a wire if necessary to make the work thorough. If you do not clean -the working parts of the engine thus before setting it up, grit will -get into the bearings and cause them to cut. Parts that have been put -together need not be taken apart; but you should clean everything you -can get at, especially the oil holes and other places that may receive -dirt during transportation. - -After the oil holes have been well cleaned, the oil cups may be wiped -off and put in place, screwing them in with a wrench. - -Q. What kind of oil should you use? - -A. Cylinder oil only for the cylinder; lard oil for the bearings, and -hard grease if your engine is provided with hard grease cup for the -cross-head and crank. The only good substitute for cylinder oil is pure -beef suet tried out. Merchantable tallow should never be used, as it -contains acid. - -Q. Can fittings be screwed on by hand only? - -A. No; all fittings should be screwed up tight with a wrench. - -Q. When all fittings are in place, what must be done before the engine -can be started? - -A. See that the grates in the firebox are in place and all right; then -fill the boiler with clean water until it shows an inch to an inch -and a half in the water gauge. Start your fire, and let it burn slowly -until there is a pressure in the boiler of 10 or 15 lbs. Then you can -turn on the blower to get up draft. In the meantime fill all the oil -cups with oil; put grease on the gears; open and close all cocks to -see that they work all right; turn your engine over a few times to see -that it works all right; let a little steam into the cylinder with both -cylinder cocks open--just enough to show at the cocks without moving -the engine--and slowly turn the engine over, stopping it on the dead -centers to see if the steam comes from only one of the cylinder cocks -at a time, and that the proper one; reverse the engine and make the -same test. Also see that the cylinder oiler is in place and ready for -operation. See that the pump is all right and in place, with the valve -in the feedpipe open and also the valve in the supply pipe. - -By going over the engine in this way you will notice whether everything -is tight and in working order, and whether you have failed to notice -any part which you do not understand. If there is any part or fitting -you do not understand, know all about it before you go ahead. - -Having started your fire with dry wood, add fuel gradually, a little -at a time, until you have a fire covering every part of the grate. -Regulate the fire by the damper alone, never opening the firebox door -even if the fire gets too hot. - -Q. In what way should the engine be started? - -A. When you have from 25 to 40 lbs. of pressure open the throttle valve -a little, allowing the cylinder cocks to be open also. Some steam will -condense at first in the cold cylinder, and this water must be allowed -to drain off. See that the crank is not on a dead center, and put on -just enough steam to start the engine. As soon as it gets warmed up, -and only dry steam appears at the cocks, close the cylinder cocks, open -the throttle gradually till it is wide open, and wait for the engine to -work up to its full speed. - -Q. How is the speed of the engine regulated? - -A. By the governor, which is operated by a belt running to the main -shaft. The governor is a delicate apparatus, and should be watched -closely. It should move up and down freely on the stem, which should -not leak steam. If it doesn't work steadily, you should stop the engine -and adjust it, after watching it for a minute or two to see just where -the difficulty lies. - -Q. Are you likely to have any hot boxes? - -A. There should be none if the bearings are all clean and well supplied -with oil. However, in starting a new engine you should stop now and -then and examine every bearing by laying your hand upon it. Remember -the eccentric, the link pin, the cross-head, the crank pin. If there -is any heat, loosen the boxes up a trifle, but only a very little at -a time. If you notice any knocking or pounding, you have loosened too -much, and should tighten again. - -Q. What must you do in regard to water supply? - -A. After the engine is started and you know it is all right, fill the -tank on the engine and start the injector. It may take some patience -to get the injector started, and you should carefully follow the -directions previously given and those which apply especially to the -type of injector used. Especially be sure that the cocks admitting the -water through the feed pipe and into the boiler are open. - -Q. Why are both a pump and an injector required on an engine? - -A. The pump is most economical, because it permits the heat in the -exhaust steam to be used to heat the feed water, while the injector -heats the water by live steam. There should also be an injector, -however, for use when the engine is not working, in order that the -water in the boiler may be kept up with heated water. If a cross-head -pump is used, of course, it will not operate when the engine is not -running; and in case of an independent pump the heater will not heat -the water when the engine is not running because there is little or no -exhaust steam available. There is an independent pump (the Marsh pump) -which heats the water before it goes into the boiler, and this may be -used when the engine is shut down instead of the injector. - -Q. What is the next thing to test? - -A. The reversing mechanism. Throw the reverse lever back, and see if -the engine will run equally well in the opposite direction. Repeat this -a few times to make sure that the reverse is in good order. - -Q. How is a traction engine set going upon the road? - -A. Most traction engines now have the friction clutch. When the engine -is going at full speed, take hold of the clutch lever and slowly bring -the clutch against the band wheel. It will slip a little at first, -gradually engaging the gears and moving the outfit. Hold the clutch -lever in one hand, while with the other you operate the steering wheel. -By keeping your hand on the clutch lever you may stop forward motion -instantly if anything goes wrong. When the engine is once upon the -road, the clutch lever may set in the notch provided for it, and the -engine will go at full speed. You can then give your entire attention -to steering. - -Q. What should you do if the engine has no friction clutch? - -A. Stop the engine, placing the reversing lever in the center notch. -Then slide the spur pinion into the gear and open the throttle valve -wide. You are now ready to control the engine by the reversing lever. -Throw the lever forward a little, bringing it back, and so continue -until you have got the engine started gradually. When well under way -throw the reverse lever into the last notch, and give your attention to -steering. - -Q. How should you steer a traction engine? - -A. In all cases the same man should handle the throttle and steer the -engine. Skill in steering comes by practice, and about the only rule -that can be given is to go slow, and under no circumstances jerk your -engine about. Good steering depends a great deal on natural ability to -judge distances by the eye and power by the feel. A good engineer must -have a good eye, a good ear, and a good touch (if we may so speak). If -either is wanting, success will be uncertain. - -Q. How should an engine be handled on the road? - -A. There will be no special difficulty in handling an engine on a -straight, level piece of road, especially if the road is hard and -without holes. But when you come to your first hill your troubles will -begin. - -Before ascending a hill, see that the water in the boiler does not -stand more than two inches in the glass gauge. If there is too much -water, as it is thrown to one end of the engine by the grade it is -liable to get into the steam cylinder. If you have too much water, blow -off a little from the bottom blow-off cock. - -In descending a hill never stop your engine for a moment, since your -crown sheet will be uncovered by reason of the water being thrown -forward, and any cessation in the jolting of the engine which keeps the -water flowing over the crown sheet will cause the fusible plug to blow -out, making delay and expense. - -Make it a point never to stop your engine except on the level. - -Before descending a hill, shut off the steam at the throttle, and -control the engine by the friction brake; or if there is no brake, do -not quite close the throttle, but set the reverse lever in the center -notch, or back far enough to control the speed. It is seldom necessary -to use steam in going down hill, however, and if the throttle is closed -even with no friction brake, the reverse may be used in such a way as -to form an air brake in the cylinder. - -Get down to the bottom of a hill as quickly as you can. - -Before descending a hill it would be well to close your dampers and -keep the firebox door closed tight all the time. Cover the fire with -fresh fuel so as to keep the heat down. - -The pump or injector must be kept at work, however, since as you have -let the water down low, you must not let it fall any lower or you are -likely to have trouble. - -In ascending a hill, do just the reverse, namely: Keep your fire brisk -and hot, with steam pressure ascending; and throw the reverse lever in -the last notch, giving the engine all the steam you can, else you may -get stuck. If you stop you are likely to overheat forward end of fire -tubes. You are less liable to get stuck if you go slowly than if you go -fast. Regulate speed by friction clutch. - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -POINTS FOR THE YOUNG ENGINEER.--(CONT.) - - -MISCELLANEOUS. - -Q. What is Foaming? - -A. The word is used to describe the rising of water in large bubbles or -foam. You will detect it by noticing that the water in the glass gauge -rises and falls, or is foamy. It is due to sediment in the boiler, or -grease and other impurities in the feed supply. Shaking up the boiler -will start foaming sometimes; at other times it will start without -apparent cause. In such cases it is due to the steam trying to get -through a thick crust on the surface of the water. - -Q. How may you prevent foaming? - -A. It may be checked for a moment by turning off the throttle, so -giving the water a chance to settle. It is generally prevented by -frequently using the surface blow-off to clear away the scum. Of course -the water must be kept as pure as possible, and especially should -alkali water be avoided. - -Q. What is priming? - -A. Priming is not the same as foaming, though it is often caused by -foaming. Priming is the carrying of water into the steam cylinder with -the steam. It is caused by various things beside foaming, for it may -be found when the boiler is quite clean. A sudden and very hot fire -may start priming. Priming sometimes follows lowering of the steam -pressure. Often it is due to lack of capacity in the boiler, especially -lack of steam space, or lack of good circulation. - -Q. How can you detect priming? - -A. By the clicking sound it makes in the steam cylinder. The water in -the gauge will also go up and down violently. There will also be a -shower of water from the exhaust. - -Q. What is the proper remedy for priming? - -A. If it is due to lack of capacity in the boiler nothing can be done -but get a new boiler. In other cases it may be remedied by carrying -less water in the boiler when that can be done safely, by taking steam -from a different point in the steam dome, or if there is no dome by -using a long dry pipe with perforation at the end. - -A larger steam pipe may help it; or it may be remedied by taking out -the top row of flues. - -Leaky cylinder rings or a leaky valve may also have something to do -with it. In all cases these should be made steam tight. If the exhaust -nozzle is choked up with grease or sediment, clean it out. - -A traction engine with small steam ports would prime quickly under -forced speed. - -Q. How would you bank your fires? - -A. Push the fire as far to the back of the firebox as possible and -cover it over with very fine coal or with dry ashes. As large a portion -as possible of the grate should be left open, so that the air may pass -over the fire. Close the damper tight. By banking your fires at night -you keep the boiler warm and can get up steam more quickly in the -morning. - -Q. When water is left in the boiler with banked fire in cold weather, -what precautions ought to be taken? - -A. The cocks in the glass water gauge should be closed and the drain -cock at the bottom opened, for fear the water in the exposed gauge -should freeze. Likewise all drain cocks in steam cylinder and pump -should be opened. - -Q. How should a traction engine be prepared for laying up during the -winter? - -A. First, the outside of the boiler and engine should be thoroughly -cleaned, seeing that all gummy oil or grease is removed. Then give the -outside of the boiler and smokestack a coat of asphalt paint, or a coat -of lampblack and linseed oil, or at any rate a doping of grease. - -The outside of the boiler should be cleaned while it is hot, so that -grease, etc., may be easily removed while soft. - -After the outside has been attended to, blow out the water at low -pressure and thoroughly clean the inside in the usual way, taking -out the handhole and manhole plates, and scraping off all scale and -sediment. - -After the boiler has been cleaned on the inside, fill it nearly full of -water, and pour upon the top a bucket of black oil. Then let the water -out through the blow-off at the bottom. As the water goes down it will -have a coating of oil down the sides of the boiler. - -All the brass fittings should be removed, including gauge cocks, check -valves, safety valve, etc. Disconnect all pipes that may contain water, -to be sure none remains in any of them. Open all stuffing boxes and -take out packing, for the packing will cause the parts they surround to -rust. - -Finally, clean out the inside of the firebox and the fire flues, and -give the ash-pan a good coat of paint all over, inside as well as out. - -The inside of the cylinder should be well greased, which can be done by -removing the cylinder head. - -See that the top of the smoke stack is covered to keep out the weather. - -All brass fittings should be carefully packed and put away in a dry -place. - -A little attention to the engine when you put it up will save twice -as much time when you take it out next season, and besides save many -dollars of value in the life of the engine. - -Q. How should belting be cared for? - -A. First, keep belts free from dust and dirt. - -Never overload belts. - -Do not let oil or grease drip upon them. - -Never put any sticky or pasty grease on a belt. - -Never allow any animal oil or grease to touch a rubber belt, since it -will destroy the life of the rubber. - -The grain or hair side should run next the pulley, as it holds better -and is not so likely to slip. - -Rubber belts will be greatly improved if they are covered with a -mixture of black lead and litharge, equal parts, mixed with boiled oil, -and just enough japan to dry them quickly. This mixture will do to put -on places that peel. - -Q. What is the proper way to lace a belt? - -A. First, square the ends with a proper square, cutting them off to -a nicety. Begin to lace in the middle, and do not cross the laces on -the pulley side. On that side the lacings should run straight with the -length of the belt. - -The holes in the belt should be punched if possible with an oval punch, -the long diameter coinciding with the length of the belt. Make two rows -of holes in each end of the belt, so that the holes in each row will -alternate with those in preceding row, making a zigzag. Four holes will -be required for a three-inch belt in each end, two holes in each row; -in a six-inch belt, place seven holes in each end, four in the row -nearest the end. - -To find the length of a belt when the exact length cannot be measured -conveniently, measure a straight line from the center of one pulley to -the center of the other. Add together half the diameter of each pulley, -and multiply that by 3-1/4 (3.1416). The result added to twice the -distance between the centers will give the total length of the belt. - -A belt will work best if it is allowed to sag just a trifle. - -The seam side of a rubber belt should be placed outward, or away from -the pulley. - -If such a belt slips, coat the inside with boiled linseed oil or soap. - -Cotton belting may be preserved by painting the pulley side while -running with common paint, afterward applying soft oil or grease. - -If a belt slips apply a little oil or soap to the pulley side. - -Q. How does the capacity of belts vary? - -A. In proportion to width and also to the speed. Double the width and -you double the capacity; also, within a certain limit, double the -speed and you double the capacity. A belt should not be run over 5,000 -feet per minute. One four-inch belt will have the same capacity as two -two-inch belts. - -Q. How are piston rods and valve rods packed so that the steam cannot -escape around them? - -A. By packing placed in stuffing-boxes. The stuffing is of some -material that has a certain amount of elasticity, such as lamp wick, -hemp, soap stone, etc., and certain patent preparations. The packing is -held in place by a gland, as it is called, which acts to tighten the -packing as the cap of the stuffing-box is screwed up. - -Q. How would you repack a stuffing-box? - -A. First remove the cap and the gland, and with a proper tool take out -all the old packing. Do not use any rough instrument like a file, which -is liable to scratch the rod, for any injury to the smooth surface of -the rod will make it leak steam or work hard. - -If patent packing is used, cut off a sufficient number of lengths to -make the required rings. They should be exactly the right length to go -around inside the stuffing-box. If too long, they cannot be screwed up -tight, as the ends will press together and cause irregularities. If -too short, the ends will not meet and will leak steam. Cut the ends -diagonally so that they will make a lap joint instead of a square one. -When the stuffing-box has been filled, place the gland in position and -screw up tight. Afterwards loosen the nuts a trifle, as the steam will -cause the packing to expand, usually. The stuffing-box should be just -as loose as it can be and not allow leakage of steam. If steam leaks, -screw up the box a little tighter. If it still leaks, do not screw up -as tight as you possibly can, but repack the box. If the stuffing-box -is too tight, either for the piston rod or valve steam, it will cause -the engine to work hard, and may groove the rods and spoil them. - -If hemp packing is used, pull the fibres out straight and free, getting -rid of all knots and lumps. Twist together a few of the fibres, making -three cords, and braid these three cords together and soak them with -oil or grease, wind around the rod till stuffing-box is sufficiently -full, replace the gland, and screw up as before. - -Stuffing-box for water piston of pump may be packed as described above, -but little oil or grease will be needed. - -Never pack the stuffing-box too tight, or you may flute the rod and -spoil it. - -Always keep the packing in a clean place, well covered up, never -allowing any dust to get into it, for the dust or grit is liable to cut -the rod. - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -ECONOMY IN RUNNING A FARM ENGINE. - - -It is something to be able to run a farm engine and keep out of -trouble. It is even a great deal if everything runs smoothly day in -and day out, if the engine looks clean, and you can always develop the -amount of power you need. You must be able to do this before you can -give the fine points of engineering much consideration. - -When you come to the point where you are always able to keep out of -trouble, you are probably ready to learn how you can make your engine -do more work on less fuel than it does at present. In that direction -the best of us have an infinite amount to learn. It is a fact that -in an ordinary farm engine only about 4 per cent of the coal energy -is actually saved and used for work; the rest is lost, partly in the -boiler, more largely in the engine. So we see what a splendid chance -there is to save. - -If we are asked where all the lost energy goes to, we might reply in -a general sort of way, a good deal goes up the smokestack in smoke or -unused fuel; some is radiated from the boiler in the form of heat and -is lost without producing any effect on the steam within the boiler; -some is lost in the cooling of the steam as it passes to the steam -cylinder; some is lost in the cooling of the cylinder itself after -each stroke; some is lost through the pressure on the back of the -steam valve, causing a friction that requires a good deal of energy -in the engine to overcome; some is lost in friction in the bearings, -stuffing-boxes, etc. At each of these points economy may be practiced -if the engineer knows how to do it. We offer a few suggestions. - - -THEORY OF STEAM POWER. - -As economy is a scientific question, we cannot study it intelligently -without knowing something of the theory of heat, steam and the -transmission of power. There will be nothing technical in the following -pages; and as soon as the theory is explained in simple language, any -intelligent person will know for himself just what he ought to do in -any given case. - -First, let us define or describe heat according to the scientific -theory. Scientists suppose that all matter is made up of small -particles called molecules, so small that they have never been seen. -Each molecule is made up of still smaller particles called atoms. There -is nothing smaller than an atom, and there are only about sixty-five -different kinds of atoms, which are called elements; or rather, any -substance made up of only one kind of atom is called an element. -Thus iron is an element, and so is zinc, hydrogen, oxygen, etc. But -a substance like water is not an element, but a compound, since its -molecules are made up of an atom of oxygen united with two atoms of -hydrogen. Wood is made up of many different kinds of atoms united in -various ways. Air is not a compound, but a mixture of oxygen, nitrogen -and a few other substances in small quantities. - -The reason why air is a mixture and not a compound is an interesting -one, and brings us to our next point. In order to form a compound, -two different kinds of atoms must have an attraction for each other. -There is no attraction between oxygen and nitrogen; but there is great -attraction between oxygen and carbon, and when they get a chance they -rush together like long separated lovers. Anthracite coal is almost -pure carbon. So is charcoal. Soft coal consists of carbon with which -various other things are united, one of them being hydrogen. This is -interesting and important, because it accounts for a curious thing in -firing up boilers with soft coal. We have already said that water is -oxygen united with hydrogen. When soft coal burns, not only does the -carbon unite with oxygen, but the hydrogen unites with oxygen and forms -water, or steam. While the boilers are cold they will condense the -water or steam in the smoke, just as a cold plate in a steamy room will -condense water from the steamy air, so sweating. - -Now the scientists suppose that two or three atoms stick together by -reason of their attraction for each other and form molecules. These -molecules in turn stick together and form liquids and solids. The -tighter they stick, the harder the substance. At the same time, these -molecules are more or less loose, and are constantly moving back and -forth. In a solid like iron they move very little; but a current of -electricity through iron makes the molecules move in a peculiar way. In -a liquid like water, the molecules cling together very loosely, and may -easily be pulled apart. In any gas, like air or steam, the molecules -are entirely disconnected, and are constantly trying to get farther -apart. - -Heat, says the scientist, is nothing more or less than the movement -of the molecules back and forth. Heat up a piece of iron in a hot -furnace, and the molecules keep getting further and further apart, -and the iron gets softer and softer, till it becomes a liquid. If we -take some liquid like water and heat it, the molecules get farther and -farther apart, till the water boils, as we say, or turns into steam. -As steam the molecules have broken apart entirely, and are beating -back and forth so rapidly that they have a tendency to push each other -farther and farther apart. This pushing tendency is the cause of steam -pressure. It also explains why steam has an expansive power. - -Heat, then, is the movement of the molecules back and forth. There are -three fixed ranges in which they move; the small range makes a solid; -the next range makes a liquid; the third range makes a gas, such as -steam. These three states of matter as affected by heat are very sharp -and definite. The point at which a solid turns to a liquid is called -the melting point. The melting point of ice is 32 deg. Fahr. The point at -which it turns to a gas is called the boiling point. With water that is -212 deg. Fahr. The general tendency of heat is to push apart, or expand; -and when the heat is taken away the substances contract. - -Let us consider our steam boiler. We saw that some different kinds of -atoms have a strong tendency to rush together; for example, oxygen -and carbon. The air is full of oxygen, and coal and wood are full -of carbon. When they are raised to a certain temperature, and the -molecules get loose enough so that they can tear themselves away from -whatever they are attached to, they rush together with terrible force, -which sets all surrounding molecules to vibrating faster than ever. -This means that heat is given out. - -Another important thing is that when a solid changes to a liquid, or a -liquid to a gas, it must take up a certain amount of heat to keep the -molecules always just so far apart. That heat is said to become latent, -for it will not show in a thermometer, it will not cause anything to -expand, nor will it do any work. It merely serves to hold the molecules -just so far apart. - - -HOW ENERGY IS LOST. - -We may now see some of the ways in which energy is lost. First, the air -which goes into the firebox consists of nitrogen as well as oxygen. -That nitrogen is only in the way, and takes heat from the fire, which -it carries out at the smokestack. - -Again, if the air cannot get through the bed of coals easily enough, -or there is not enough of it so that every atom of carbon, etc., will -find the right number of atoms of oxygen, some of the atoms of carbon -will be torn off and united with oxygen, and the other atoms of carbon, -left without any oxygen to unite with, will go floating out at the -smokestack as black smoke. Also, the carbon and the oxygen cannot unite -except at a certain temperature, and when fresh fuel is thrown on the -fire it is cold, and a good many atoms of carbon after being loosened -up, get cooled off again before they have a chance to find an atom of -oxygen, and so they, too, go floating off and are lost. - -If the smoke could be heated up, and there were enough oxygen mixed -with it, the loose carbon would still burn and produce heat, and there -would be an economy of fuel. This has given rise to smoke consumers, -and arranging two boilers, so that when one is being fired the heat -from the other will catch the loose carbon before it gets away and burn -it up. - -So we have these points: - -1. Enough oxygen or air must get into a furnace so that every atom of -carbon will have its atom of oxygen. This means that you must have a -good draft and that the air must have a chance to get through the coal -or other fuel. - -2. The fuel must be kept hot enough all the time so that the carbon and -oxygen can unite. Throwing on too much cold fuel at one time will lower -the heat beyond the economical point and cause loss in thick smoke. - -3. If the smoke can pass over a hot bed of coals, or through a hot -chamber, the carbon in it may still be burned. This suggests putting -fuel at the front of the firebox, a little at a time, so that its smoke -will have to pass over a hot bed of coals and the waste carbon will be -burned. When the fresh fuel gets heated up, it may be pushed farther -back. - -From a practical point of view these points mean, No dead plates in a -furnace to keep the air from going through coal or wood; a thin fire so -the air can get through easily; place the fresh fuel where its smoke -will have a chance to be burned; and do not cool off the furnace by -putting on much fresh fuel at a time. - -(Later we will give more hints on firing.) - - -HOW HEAT IS DISTRIBUTED. - -We have described heat as the movement of molecules back and forth at a -high rate of speed. If these heated molecules beat against a solid like -iron, its molecules are set in motion, one knocks the next, and so on, -just as you push one man in a crowd, he pushes the next, and so on till -the push comes out on the other side. So heat passes through iron and -appears on the other side. This is called "conduction." - -All space is supposed to be filled with a substance in which heat, -light, etc., may be transmitted, called the ether. When the molecules -of a sheet of iron are heated, or set vibrating, they transmit the -vibration through the air, or ether. This is called "radiation." Heat -is "conducted" through solid and liquid substances, and "radiated" -through gases. - -Now some substances conduct heat readily, and some do so with the -greatest difficulty. Iron is a good conductor; carbon, or soot on the -flues of a boiler, and lime or scale on the inside of a boiler, are -very poor conductors. So the heat will go through the iron and steel to -the water in a boiler quickly and easily, and a large per cent of the -heat of the furnace will get to the water in a boiler. When a boiler is -old and is clogged with soot and coated with lime, the heat cannot get -through easily, and goes off in the smokestack. The air coming out of -the smokestack will be much hotter; and that extra heat is lost. - -Iron is a good radiator, too. So if the outer shell of a boiler is -exposed to the air, a great deal of heat will run off into space and be -lost. Here, then, is where you need a non-conductor, as it is called, -such as lime, wood, or the like. - -Economy says, cover the outside of a boiler shell with a non-conductor. -This may be brickwork in a set boiler; in a traction boiler it means -a jacket of wood, plaster, hair, or the like. The steam pipe, if it -passes through outer air, should be covered with felt; and the steam -cylinder ought to have its jacket, too. - -At the same time all soot and all scale should be scrupulously cleaned -away. - - -PROPERTIES OF STEAM. - -As we have already seen, steam is a gas. It is slightly blue in color, -just as the water in the ocean is blue, or the air in the sky. - -We must distinguish between steam and vapor. Vapor is small particles -of water hanging in the air. They seem to stick to the molecules -composing the air, or hang there in minute drops. Water hanging in the -air is, of course, water still. Its molecules do not have the movement -that the molecules of a true gas do, such as steam is. Steam, moreover, -has absorbed latent heat, and has expansive force; but vapor has no -latent heat, and no expansive force. So vapor is dead and lifeless, -while steam is live and full of energy to do work. - -When vapor gets mixed with steam it is only in the way; it is a sort of -dead weight that must be carried; and the steam power is diminished by -having vapor mixed with it. - -Now all steam as it bubbles up through water in boiling takes up with -it a certain amount of vapor. Such steam is called "wet" steam. When -the vapor is no longer in it, the steam is called "dry" steam. It is -dry steam that does the best work, and that every engineer wants to get. - -While water will be taken up to great heights in the air and form -clouds, in steam it will not rise very much, and at a certain height -above the level of the water in a boiler the steam will be much drier -than near the surface. For this reason steam domes have been devised, -so that the steam may be taken out at a point as high as possible above -the water in the boiler, and so be as dry as possible. Also "dry tubes" -have been devised, which let the steam pass through many small holes -that serve to keep back the water to a certain extent. - -However, there will be more or less moisture in all steam until it -has been superheated, as it is called. This may be done by passing it -through the hot part of the furnace, where the added heat will turn all -the moisture in the steam into steam, and we shall have perfectly dry -steam. - -The moment, however, that steam goes through a cold pipe, or one cooled -by radiation, or goes into a cold cylinder, or a cylinder cooled by -radiation, some of the steam will turn to water, or condense, as it is -called. So we have the same trouble again. - -Much moisture passing into the cylinder with the steam is called -"priming." In that case the dead weight of water has become so great as -to kill a great part of the steam power. - - -HOW TO USE THE EXPANSIVE POWER OF STEAM. - -We have said that the molecules in steam are always trying to get -farther and farther apart. If they are free in the air, they will soon -scatter; but if they are confined in a boiler or cylinder they merely -push out in every direction, forming "pressure." - -When steam is let into the cylinder it has the whole accumulated -pressure in the boiler behind it, and of course that exerts a strong -push on the piston. Shut off the boiler pressure and the steam in the -cylinder will still have its own natural tendency to expand. As the -space in the cylinder grows larger with the movement of the piston from -end to end, the expansive power of the steam becomes less and less, -of course. However, every little helps, and the push this lessened -expansive force exerts on the piston is so much energy saved. If the -full boiler pressure is kept on the piston the whole length of the -stroke, and then the exhaust port is immediately opened, all this -expansive energy of the steam is lost. It escapes through the exhaust -nozzle into the smokestack and is gone. Possibly it cannot get out -quickly enough, and causes back pressure on the cylinder when the -piston begins its return stroke, so reducing the power of the engine. - -To save this the skilled engineer "notches up" his reverse lever, as -they say. The reverse lever controls the valve travel. When the lever -is in the last notch the valve has its full travel. When the lever is -in the center notch the valve has no travel at all, and no steam can -get into the cylinder; on the other side the lever allows the valve to -travel gradually more and more in the opposite direction, so reversing -the engine. - -As the change from one direction to the other direction is, of course, -gradual, the valve movement is shortened by degrees, and lets steam -into the cylinder for a correspondingly less time. At its full travel -it perhaps lets steam into the cylinder for three-quarters of its -stroke. For the last quarter the work is done by the expansive power of -the steam. - -Set the lever in the half notch, and the travel of the valve is so -altered that steam can get into the cylinder only during half the -stroke of the piston, the work during the rest of the stroke being done -by the expansive force of the steam. - -Set the lever in the notch next to the middle notch, or the quarter -notch, and steam will get into the cylinder only during a quarter of -the stroke of the piston, the work being done during three-quarters of -the stroke by the expansive force of the steam. - -Obviously the more the steam is expanded the less work it can do. But -when it escapes at the exhaust there will be very little pressure to be -carried away and lost. - -Therefore when the load on his engine is light the economical engineer -will "notch up" his engine with the reverse lever, and will use up -correspondingly less steam and save correspondingly more fuel. When the -load is unusually heavy, however, he will have to use the full power of -the pressure in the boiler, and the waste cannot be helped. - - -THE COMPOUND ENGINE. - -The compound engine is an arrangement of steam cylinders to save the -expansive power of steam at all times by letting the steam from one -cylinder where it is at high pressure into another after it exhausts -from the first, in this second cylinder doing more work purely by the -expansive power of the steam. - -The illustration shows a sectional view of a compound engine having two -cylinders, one high pressure and one low. The low pressure cylinder is -much larger than the high pressure. There is a single plate between -them called the center head, and the same piston rod is fitted with two -pistons, one for each cylinder. The steam chest does not receive steam -from the boiler, but from the exhaust of the high pressure cylinder. -The steam from the boiler goes into a chamber in the double valve, from -which it passes to the ports of the high pressure cylinder. At the -return stroke the exhaust steam escapes into the steam chest, and from -there it passes into the low pressure cylinder. There may be one valve -riding on the back of another; but the simplest form of compound engine -is built with a single double valve, which opens and closes the ports -for both cylinders at one movement. - -[Illustration: WOOLF TANDEM CYLINDER.] - -Theoretically the compound engine should effect a genuine economy. In -practice there are many things to operate against this. Of course if -the steam pressure is low to start with, the amount of pressure lost in -the exhaust will be small. But if it is very high, the saving in the -low pressure cylinder will be relatively large. If the work can be done -just as well with a low pressure, it would be a practical waste to keep -the pressure abnormally high in order to make the most of the compound -engine. - -An engine must be a certain size before the saving of a compound -cylinder will be appreciable. In these days nearly all very large -engines are compound, while small engines are simple. - -Another consideration to be taken into account is that a compound is -more complicated and so harder to manage; and when any unfavorable -condition causes loss it causes proportionately more loss on a compound -than on a simple engine. For these and other reasons compound engines -have been used less for traction purposes than simple engines have. -It is probable that a skilled and thoroughly competent engineer, who -would manage his engine in a scientific manner, would get more out of -a compound than out of a simple; and this would be especially true -in regions where fuel is high. If fuel is cheap and the engineer -unskilled, a compound engine would be a poor economizer. - - -FRICTION. - -We have seen that the molecules of water have a tendency to stick in -the steam as vapor or moisture. All molecules that are brought into -close contact have more or less tendency to stick together, and this is -called friction. The steam as it passes along the steam pipe is checked -to a certain extent by the friction on the sides of the pipe. Friction -causes heat, and it means that the heat caused has been taken from some -source of energy. The friction of the steam diminishes the energy of -the steam. - -So, too, the fly wheel moving against the air suffers friction with -the air, besides having to drive particles of air out of its path. All -the moving parts of an engine where one metal moves on another suffer -friction, since where the metals are pressed very tightly together they -have more tendency to stick than when not pressed so tightly. When -iron is pressed too tightly, as under the blows of a hammer in a soft -state, it actually welds together solidly. - -There is a great deal of friction in the steam cylinder, since the -packing rings must press hard against the walls of the cylinder to -prevent the steam from getting through. There is a great deal of -friction between the D valve and its seat, because of the high steam -pressure on the back of the valve. There is friction in the stuffing -boxes both of the valve and the piston. There is friction at all the -bearings. - -There are various ways in which friction may be reduced. The most -obvious is to adjust all parts so nicely that they will bind as little -as possible. The stuffing-boxes will be no tighter than is necessary to -prevent leaking of steam; and so with the piston rings. Journal boxes -will be tight enough to prevent pounding, but no tighter. To obtain -just the right adjustment requires great patience and the keen powers -of observation and judgment. - -The makers of engines try to reduce friction as much as possible by -using anti-friction metals in the boxes. Iron and steel have to be used -in shafts, gears, etc., because of the strength that they possess; but -there are some metals that stick to each other and to iron and steel -much less than iron or steel stick to each other when pressed close -together. These metals are more or less soft; but they may be used in -boxes and journal bearings. They are called anti-friction metals. The -hardest for practical purposes is brass, and brass is used where there -is much wear. Where there is less wear various alloys of copper, tin, -zinc, etc., may be used in the boxes. One of these is babbit metal, -which is often used in the main journal box. - -All these anti-friction metals wear out rapidly, and they must be put -in so that they can be adjusted or renewed easily. - -But the great anti-friction agent is oil. - -Oil is peculiar in that while the molecules seem to stick tightly -together and to a metal like iron or steel, they roll around upon each -other with the utmost ease. An ideal lubricator is one that sticks so -tight to the journal that it forms a sort of cushion all around it, and -prevents any of its molecules coming into contact with the molecules of -the metal box. All the friction then takes place between the different -molecules of oil, and this friction is a minimum. - -The same principle has been applied to mechanics in the ball bearing. -A number of little balls roll around between the journal and its box, -preventing the two metals from coming into contact with each other; -while the balls, being spheres, touch each other only at a single -point, and the total space at which sticking can occur is reduced to a -minimum. - -As is well known, there is great difference in oils. Some evaporate, -like gasoline and kerosene, and so disappear quickly. Others do not -stick tightly to the journal, so are easily forced out of place, and -the metals are allowed to come together. What is wanted, then, is a -heavy, sticky oil that will not get hard, but will always form a good -cushion between bearings. - -Steam cylinders cannot be oiled directly, but the oil must be carried -to the steam chest and cylinder in the steam. A good cylinder oil must -be able to stand a high temperature. While it is diffused easily in the -steam, it must stick tightly to the walls of the steam cylinder and -to the valve seat, and keep them lubricated. Once it is stuck to the -metal, the heat of the steam should not evaporate it and carry it away. - -Again, a cylinder oil should not have any acid in it which would have -a tendency to corrode the metal. Nearly all animal fats do have some -such acid. So tallow and the like should not be placed where they can -corrode iron or steel. Lard and suet alone are suitable for use on an -engine. - -When it comes to lubricating traction gears, other problems appear. A -heavy grease will stick to the gears and prevent them from cutting; but -it will stick equally to all sand and grit that may come along, and -that, working between the cogs, may cut them badly. So some engineers -recommend the use on gears of an oil that does not gather so much dirt. - -The friction of the valve on its seat due to the pressure of the steam -on its back has given rise to many inventions for counteracting it. -The most obvious of these is what is called "the balanced valve." In -the compound engine, where the steam pressure is obtained upon both -sides of the valve, it rides much more lightly on its seat--so lightly, -indeed, that when steam pressure is low, as in going down hill or -operating under a light load, plunger pistons must be used to keep the -valve down tight on its seat. - -The poppet valves were devised to obviate the undue friction of the D -valve; but the same loss of energy is to a certain extent transferred, -and the practical saving is not always equal to the theoretical. On -large stationary engines rotary valves and other forms, such as are -used on the Corliss engine, have come into common use; but they are too -complicated for a farm engine, which must be as simple as possible, -with least possible liability of getting out of order. - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -ECONOMY IN RUNNING A FARM ENGINE.--(CONT.) - - -PRACTICAL POINTS. - -The first practical point in the direction of farm engine economy is -to note that the best work can be done only when every part of the -engine and boiler are in due proportion. If the power is in excess of -the work to be done there is loss; if the grate surface is too large -cold air gets through the fuel and prevents complete combustion, and -if the grate surface is too small, not enough air gets in; if the -steaming power of the boiler is too large, heat is radiated away that -otherwise could be saved, for every foot of exposed area in the boiler -is a source of loss; if the steaming power of the boiler is too low -for the work to be done, it requires extra fuel to force the boiler to -do its work, and any forcing means comparatively large loss or waste. -It will be seen that not only must the engine and boiler be built with -the proper proportions, but they must be bought with a nice sense -of proportion to the work expected of them. This requires excellent -judgment and some experience in measuring work in horsepowers. - - -GRATE SURFACE AND FUEL. - -The grate surface in a firebox should be not less than two-thirds -of a square foot per horsepower, for average size traction engines. -If the horsepower of an engine is small, proportionately more grate -surface will be needed; if it is large, the grate surface may be -proportionately much smaller. An engine boiler 7x8x200 rev., with 100 -lbs. pressure, should have a grate surface not less than six square -feet, and seven would be better. In a traction engine there is always -a tendency to make the grate surface as small as possible, so that the -engine will not be cumbersome. - -Another reason why the grate surface should be sufficiently large is -that forced draft is a bad thing, since it has a tendency to carry the -products of combustion and hot gases through the smokestack and out -into space before they have time to complete combustion and especially -before the heat of the gases has time to be absorbed by the boiler -surface. A large grate surface, then, with a moderate draft, is the -most economical. - -The draft depends on other things, however. If a great deal of fine -fuel is thrown on a fire, the air must be forced through, because it -cannot get through in the natural way. This results in waste. So a fire -should be as open as possible. Coal should be "thin" on the grates; -wood should be thrown in so that there will be plenty of air spaces; -straw should be fed in just so that it will burn up completely as it -goes in. Moderate size coal is better than small or fine. Dust in coal -checks the draft. A good engineer will choose his fuel and handle his -fire so that he can get along with as little forced draft as possible. - -In a straw burning engine a good circulation of air can be obtained, if -the draft door is just below the straw funnel, by extending the funnel -into the furnace six inches or so. This keeps the straw from clogging -up the place where the air enters and enables it to get at the fuel so -much more freely that the combustion is much more complete. - -We have already suggested that in firing with coal, the fresh fuel be -deposited in front, so that the smoke will have to pass over live coals -and so the combustion will be more complete. Then when the coal is well -lighted it can be poked back over the other portions of the grate. This -method has another advantage, in that the first heating is usually -sufficient to separate the pure coal from the mineral substances which -form clinkers, and most of the clinkers will be deposited at that one -point in the grate. Here they can easily be lifted out, and will not -seriously interfere with the burning of the coal as they would if -scattered all over the grate. Clinkers in front can easily be taken -out by hooking the poker over them toward the back of the firebox and -pulling them up and to the front. They often come out as one big mass -which can be easily lifted out. - -The best time to clean the grate is when there is a good brisk fire. -Then it will not cause steam to go down. Stirring a fire does little -good. For one thing, it breaks up the clinkers and allows them to run -down on the grate bars when they stick and finally warp the bars. -If the fire is not stirred the clinkers can be lifted out in large -masses. Stirring a fire also creates a tendency to choke up or coke, -and interferes with the even and regular combustion of the coal at all -points. - -The highest heat that can be produced is a yellow heat. When there is a -good yellow heat, forced draft will only carry off the heat and cause -waste. It will not cause still more rapid combustion. When the heat is -merely red, increased draft will raise the temperature. Combustion is -not complete until the flame shows yellow. However, if the draft is -slight and time is given, red heat will be nearly as effective, but it -will not carry the heated gases over so large a part of the heating -surface of the boiler. With a very large grate surface, red heat will -do very well. Certainly it will be better than a forced draft, or an -effort at heating beyond the yellow point. - - -BOILER HEATING SURFACE. - -The heat of the furnace does its work only as the heated gases touch -the boiler surface. The iron conducts the heat through to the water, -which is raised to the boiling point and turned into steam. - -Now the amount of heat that the boiler will take up is directly -in proportion to the amount of exposed surface and to the time of -exposure. If the boiler heating surface is small, and the draft is -forced so that the gases pass through rapidly, they do not have a -chance to communicate much heat. - -Also if the heating surface is too large, so that it cannot all be -utilized, the part not used becomes a radiating surface, and the -efficiency of the boiler is impaired. - -Practice has shown that the amount of heating surface practically -required by a boiler is 12 to 15 square feet per horsepower. In -reckoning heating surface, all area which the heated gases touch is -calculated. - -Another point in regard to heating surface in the production of steam -is this, that only such surface as is exposed to a heat equal to -turning the water into steam is effective. If there is a pressure -of 150 lbs. the temperature at which the water would turn to steam -would be 357 degrees, and any gases whose temperature was below 357 -degrees would have no effect on the heating surface except to prevent -radiation. Thus in a return flue boiler the heated gases become cooled -often to such an extent before they pass out at the smokestack that -they do not help the generation of steam. Yet a heat just below 357 -degrees would turn water into steam under 149 lbs. pressure. Though it -has work in it, the heat is lost. - -Another practical point as to economy in large heating surface is that -it costs money to make, and is cumbersome to move about. It may cost -more to move a traction engine with large boiler from place to place -than the saving in fuel would amount to. So the kind of roads and the -cost of fuel must be taken into account and nicely balanced. - -However, it may be said that a boiler with certain outside dimensions -that will generate 20 horsepower will be more economical than one of -the same size that will generate only 10 horsepower. In selecting an -engine, the higher the horsepower for the given dimensions, the more -economical of both fuel and water. - -The value of heating surface also depends on the material through which -the heat must penetrate, and the rapidity with which the heat will -pass. We have already pointed out that soot and lime scale permit heat -to pass but slowly and if they are allowed to accumulate will greatly -reduce the steaming power of a boiler for a given consumption of -fuel. Another point is that the thinner the iron or steel, the better -will the heat get through even that. So it follows that flues, being -thinner, are better conductors than the sides of the firebox. Long -flues are better than short ones in that the long ones allow less soot, -etc., to accumulate than the short ones do, and afford more time for -the boiler to absorb the heat of the gases. - -Again, we have stated that heating surface is valuable only as it is -exposed to the gases at a sufficiently high temperature. Some boilers -have a tendency to draw the hot gases most rapidly through the upper -flues, while the lower flues do not get their proportion of the heat. -This results in a loss, for the heat to give its full benefit should be -equally distributed. - -To prevent the heat being drawn too rapidly through upper flues, a -baffle plate may be placed in the smoke box just above the upper flues, -thus preventing them from getting so much of the draft. - -Again, if the exhaust nozzle is too low down, the draft through the -lower flues may be greater than through the upper. This is remedied -by putting a piece of pipe on the exhaust to raise it higher in the -smokestack. - - -EXPANSION AND CONDENSATION. - -We have already pointed out that economy results if we hook up -the reverse lever so that the expansive force of the steam has an -opportunity to work during half or three-quarters of the stroke. - -One difficulty arising from this method is that the walls of the -cylinder cool more rapidly when not under the full boiler pressure. -Condensation in the cylinder is a practical difficulty which should be -met and overcome as far as possible. - -High speed gives some advantage. A judicious use of cushion helps -condensation somewhat also, because when any gas like steam or air is -compressed, it gives off heat, and this heat in the cushion will keep -up the temperature of the cylinder. This cannot be carried very far, -however, for the back pressure of cushion will reduce the energy of the -engine movement. - - -LEAD AND CLEARANCE. - -Too much clearance will detract from the power of an engine, as there -is just so much more waste space to be filled with hot steam. Too -little clearance will cause pounding. - -Likewise there will be loss of power in an engine if the lead is too -great or too little. The proper amount of lead differs with conditions. -A high speed engine requires more than a low speed, and if an engine -is adjusted for a certain speed, it should be kept uniformly at that -speed, as variation causes loss. The more clearance an engine has the -more lead it needs. Also the quicker the valve motion, the less lead -required. Sometimes when a large engine is pulling only a light load -and there is no chance to shorten the cut-off, a turn of the eccentric -disk for a trifle more lead will effect some economy. - -Cut-off should be as sharp as possible. A slow cut-off in reducing -pressure before cut-off is complete, causes a loss of power in the -engine. - - -THE EXHAUST. - -If the exhaust from the cylinder does not begin before the piston -begins its return stroke, there will be back pressure due to the -slowness with which the valve opens. The exhaust should be earlier in -proportion to the slowness of the valve motion, and also, in proportion -to the speed of the engine, since the higher the speed the less time -there is for the steam to get out. It follows that an engine whose -exhaust is arranged for a low speed cannot be run at a high speed -without causing loss from back pressure. - -In using steam expansively the relative proportion between the back -pressure and the force of the steam is of course greater. So in using -steam expansively the back pressure must be at a minimum, and this is -especially true in the compound engine. So many things affect this, -that it becomes one of the reasons why it is hard to use a compound -engine with as great economy as theory would indicate. - -Another thing, the smallness of the exhaust nozzle in the smokestack -affects the back pressure. The smaller the nozzle, the greater the -draft a given amount of steam will create; but the more back pressure -there will be, due to the inability of the exhaust steam to get out -easily. So the exhaust nozzle should be as large as circumstances -will permit. It is a favorite trick with engineers testing the pulling -power of their engines to remove the exhaust nozzle entirely for a few -minutes when the fire is up. The back pressure saved will at once show -in the pulling power of the engine, and every one will be surprised. Of -course the fire couldn't be kept going long without the nozzle on. We -have already pointed out that a natural draft is better than a forced -one. Here is another reason for it. - - -LEAKS. - -Leaks always cause a waste of power. They may usually be seen when -about the boiler; but leaks in the piston and valve will often go -unnoticed. - -It is to be observed that if a valve does not travel a short distance -beyond the end of its seat, it will wear the part it does travel on, -while the remaining part will not wear and will become a shoulder. Such -a shoulder will nearly always cause a leak in the valve, and besides -will add the friction, and otherwise destroy the economy of the engine. - -Likewise the piston will wear part of the cylinder and leave a shoulder -at either end if it does not pass entirely beyond the steam-tight -portion of the inside of the cylinder. That it may always do this and -yet leave sufficient clearance, the counterbore has been devised. All -good engines are bored larger at each end so that the piston will pass -beyond the steam-tight portion a trifle at the end of each stroke. Of -course it must not pass far enough to allow any steam to get through. - -Self-setting piston rings are now generally used. They are kept in -place by their own tension. There will always be a little leakage at -the lap. The best lap is probably a broken joint rather than a diagonal -one. Moreover, as the rings wear they will have a tendency to get loose -unless they are thickest at a point just opposite to the lap, since -this is the point at which it is necessary to make up for the tension -lost by the lapping. - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -DIFFERENT TYPES OF ENGINES. - - -STATIONARY. - -So far we have described and referred exclusively to the usual form of -the farm traction engine, which is nearly always the simplest kind of -an engine, except in one particular, namely, the reverse which gives a -variable cut-off. Stationary engines, however, are worked under such -conditions that various changes in the arrangement may be made which -gives economy in operating, or other desirable qualities. We will now -briefly describe some of the different kinds of stationary engines. - -[Illustration: D. JUNE & CO.'S STATIONARY FOUR-VALVE ENGINE.] - - -THROTTLING AND AUTOMATIC CUT-OFF TYPES. - -Engines may be divided into two classes, namely, throttling and -automatic cut-off engines. The throttling engine regulates the speed of -the engine by cutting off the supply of steam from the boiler, either -by the hand of the engineer on the throttle or by a governor working a -special throttling governor valve. Railroad locomotives are throttling -engines, and moreover they have no governor, the speed being regulated -by the engineer at the throttle valve. Traction engines are usually -throttling engines provided with a governor. - -An automatic cut-off engine regulates its speed by a governor -connected with the valve, and does it by shortening the time during -which steam can enter the cylinder. This is a great advantage, in -that the expansive power of steam is given a chance to work, while in -the throttling engine steam is merely cut off. The subject has been -fully discussed under "Economy in Running a Farm Engine." An automatic -cut-off engine is much the most economical. - -While on traction engines the governor is usually of the ball variety, -on stationary engines improved forms of governors are also placed in -the fly wheel, and work in various ways, according to the requirements -of the valve gear. - - -THE CORLISS ENGINE. - -The Corliss engine is a type now well known and made by many different -manufacturers. It is considered one of the most economical stationary -engines made, but cannot be used for traction purposes. It may be -compound, and may be used with a condenser. It cannot be used as a high -speed engine, since the valves will not work rapidly enough. - -The peculiarity of a Corliss engine is the arrangement of the valves. -It has four valves instead of one, and they are of the semi-rotary -type. They consist of a small, long cylinder which rocks back and -forth, so as to close and open the port, which is rather wide and short -compared to other types. There is a valve at each end of the cylinder -opening usually into the clearance space, to admit steam; and two more -valves below the cylinder for the exhaust. These exhaust valves allow -any water of condensation to run out of the cylinder. Moreover, as the -steam when it leaves the cylinder is much colder than when it enters, -the exhaust always cools the steam ports, and when the same ports are -used for exhaust and admission the fresh steam has to pass through -ports that have been cooled and cause condensation. In the Corliss -engine the exhaust does not have an opportunity to cool the live steam -ports and the condensation is reduced. This works considerable economy. - -Also the Corliss valves have little friction from steam pressure on -their own backs, since the moment they are lifted from their seats they -work freely. The valves are controlled by a governor so as to make the -automatic cut-off engine. - -The Corliss type of frame for engine is often used on traction engines -and means the use of convex shoes on cross-head and concave ways or -guides. In locomotive type, cross-head slides in four square angle -guides. - - -THE HIGH SPEED ENGINE. - -A high speed engine means one in which the speed of the piston back and -forth is high, rather than the speed of rotation, there being sometimes -a difference. High speed engines came into use because of the need of -such to run dynamos for electric lighting. Without a high speed engine -an intermediate gear would have to be used, so as to increase the speed -of the operating shaft. In the high speed engine this is done away with. - -As an engine's power varies directly as its speed as well as its -cylinder capacity or size, an engine commonly used for ten horsepower -would become a twenty horsepower engine if the speed could be doubled. -So high speed engines are very small and compact, and require less -metal to build them. Therefore they should be much cheaper per -horsepower. - -A high speed engine differs from a low speed in no essential -particular, except the adjustment of parts. A high steam pressure must -be used; a long, narrow valve port is used, so that the full steam -pressure may be let on quickly at the beginning of the stroke when the -piston is reversing its motion and needs power to get started quickly -on its return; the slide valve must be used, since the semi-rotary -Corliss would be too wide and short for a quick opening. Some high -speed engines are built which use four valves, as does the Corliss. The -friction of the slide valve is usually "balanced" in some way, either -by "pressure plates" above the valve, which prevent the steam from -getting at the top and pressing the valve down, or by letting the steam -under the valve, making it slide on narrow strips, since the pressure -above would then be reduced in proportion with the smallness of the -bearing surface below, and if the bearing surface were very small the -pressure above would be correspondingly small, perhaps only enough to -keep the valve in place. Some automatic cut-off gear is almost always -used. A high speed engine may attain 900 revolutions per minute, 600 -being common. In many ways it is economical. - - -CONDENSING AND NON-CONDENSING. - -In the traction engine the exhaust is used in the smokestack to help -the draft, since the smokestack must necessarily be short. A stationary -engine is usually provided with a boiler set in brickwork, and a -furnace with a high chimney, which creates all the draft needed. In -other words, the heated gases wasted in a traction engine are utilized -to make the draft. - -It then becomes desirable to save the power in the exhaust steam in -some way. Some of this can be used to heat the feed water, but only a -fraction of it. - -Now when the exhaust steam issues into the air it must overcome the -pressure of the atmosphere, nearly 15 lbs. to the square inch, which -is a large item to begin with. This can be saved by letting the steam -exhaust into a condenser, where a spray of cold water or the like -suddenly condenses the steam so that a vacuum is created. There is -then no back pressure on the exhaust steam, theoretically. Practically -a perfect vacuum cannot be created, and there is a back pressure of 2 -or 3 lbs. per square inch. By the use of a condenser a back pressure -of about 12 lbs. is taken off the head of the piston on its return -stroke, a matter of considerable economy. But an immense amount of -water is required to run a condenser, namely, 20 times as much for a -given saving of power as is required in a boiler to make that power. So -condensers are used only where water is cheap. - - -COMPOUND AND CROSS-COMPOUND. - -We have already explained the economy effected by the compound engine, -in which a large low pressure cylinder is operated by the exhaust -from a small high pressure cylinder. In the cut used for illustration -the low pressure cylinder is in direct line with the high pressure -cylinder, and one piston rod connects both pistons. This arrangement is -called the "tandem." Sometimes the low pressure cylinder is placed by -the side of the high pressure, or at a distance from it, and operates -another piston and connecting rod. By using a steam chest to store the -exhaust steam and varying the cut-off of the two cylinders, the crank -of the low pressure may be at an angle of 90 degrees with the crank of -the high pressure, and there can be no dead center. - -[Illustration: THE WOOLF COMPOUND.] - -When a very high pressure of steam is used the exhaust from the low -pressure cylinder may be used to operate a third cylinder; and the -exhaust from that to operate a fourth. Engines so arranged are termed -triple and quadruple expansion engines, or multiple expansion. - -The practical saving of a compound engine when its value can be -utilized to the full is 10 per cent to 20 per cent. Small engines are -seldom compounded, large engines nearly always. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -GAS AND GASOLINE ENGINES. - - -The gas and gasoline engines (they are exactly the same except that one -generates the gas it needs from gasoline, while the other takes common -illuminating gas, the use of gas or gasoline being interchangeable on -the same engine by readjustment of some of the parts) are operated on -a principle entirely different from steam. While they are arranged -very much as a steam engine, the power is given by an explosion of gas -mixed with air in the cylinder. Instead of being a steady pressure -like that furnished by steam, it is a sudden pressure given to one end -of the piston usually once in four strokes or two revolutions, one -stroke being required to draw the gasoline in, the second to compress -it, the third to receive the effect of the explosion (this is the only -power stroke), the fourth to push out the burned gases preparatory to -admitting a new charge. The fact that force is given the cylinder at -such wide intervals makes it necessary to have an extra heavy flywheel -to keep the engine steady, and the double cylinder engine which -can give a stroke at least every revolution is still better and is -indispensable when the flywheel cannot be above a certain weight. - -For small horsepowers, such as are required for pumping, feed grinding, -churning, etc., the gas engine is so much more convenient and so -very much cheaper in operation than the small steam engine that it -is safe to say that within a very few years the gas engine will have -completely displaced the small steam engine. In fact, the discovery of -the gas engine permits the same economies for the small engine that the -progress in steam engineering has made possible for the large steam -engine. As yet the gas engine has made little or no progress against -the large steam plant, with its Corliss engine, its triple expansion, -its condenser, and all the other appliances which are not practicable -with the small engine. - - -COMPARISON OF STEAM AND GAS ENGINES. - -The following points prepared by an experienced farm engine -manufacturer will show clearly the advantages of the gas engine over -the steam engine for general use about a farm: - -In the first place, the farmer uses power, as a rule, at short -intervals, and also uses small power. Should he install a steam engine -and wish power for an hour or two, it would be necessary for him to -start a fire under the boiler and get up steam before he could start -the engine. This would take at least an hour. At the end of the run -he would have a good fire and good steam pressure, but no use for it, -and would have to let the fire die out and the pressure run down. This -involves a great waste of water, time and fuel. With a gasoline engine -he is always ready and can start to work within a few minutes after -he makes up his mind to do so, and he does not have to anticipate -his wants in the power line for half a day. Aside from this, in some -states, notably Ohio, the law compels any person operating an engine -above ten horsepower to carry a steam engineer's license. This does not -apply to a gasoline engine. - -Again, the gasoline engine is as portable as a traction engine, and can -be applied to all the uses of a traction engine and to general farm -use all the rest of the year. At little expense it can be fitted up to -hoist hay, to pump water, to husk and shell corn, to saw wood, and even -by recent inventions to plowing. It is as good about a farm as an extra -man and a team of horses. - -A gasoline engine can be run on a pint of gasoline per hour for -each horsepower, and as soon as the work is done there is no more -consumption of fuel and the engine can be left without fear, except for -draining off the water in the water jacket in cold weather. A steam -engine for farm use would require at least four pounds of coal per -horsepower per hour, and in the majority of cases it would be twice -that, taking into consideration the amount of fuel necessary to start -the fire and that left unburned after the farmer is through with his -power. If you know the cost of crude gasoline at your point and the -cost of coal, you can easily figure the exact economy of a gasoline -engine for your use. To the economy of fuel question may be added the -labor or cost of pumping or hauling water. - -The only point wherein a farmer might find it advantageous to have a -steam plant would be where he is running a dairy and wished steam and -hot water for cleansing his creamery machinery. This can be largely -overcome by using the water from the jackets which can be kept at -a temperature of about 175 degrees, and if a higher temperature is -needed he can heat it with the exhaust from the engine. The time will -certainly come soon when no farmer will consider himself up to date -until he has a gasoline engine. - -Some persons unaccustomed to gasoline may wonder if a gasoline engine -is as safe as a steam engine. The fact is, they are very much safer, -and do not require a skilled engineer to run them. The gasoline tank is -usually placed outside the building, where the danger from an explosion -is reduced to a minimum. The only danger that may be encountered is in -starting the engine, filling the supply tank when a burner near at hand -is in flame, etc. Once a gasoline engine is started and is supplied -with gasoline, it may be left entirely alone without care for hours at -a time without danger and without adjustment. - -With a steam engine there is always danger, unless a highly skilled man -is watching the engine every moment. If the water gets a little low he -is liable to have an explosion; if it gets a little too high he may -knock out a cylinder head in his engine; the fire must be fed every few -minutes; the grates cleaned. There is always something to be done about -a steam engine. - -So here is another point of great saving in a gasoline engine, namely, -the saving of one man's time. The man who runs the gasoline engine may -give nearly all his time to other work, such as feeding a corn-sheller, -a fodder chopper, or the like. - -Kerosene may also be used in the same way with a special type of gas -engine. - -The amounts of fuel required of the different kinds possible in a gas -engine are compared as follows by Roper: - -Illuminating gas, 17 to 20 cubic feet per horsepower per hour. - -Pittsburg natural gas, as low as 11 cubic feet. - -74 deg. gasoline, known as stove gasoline, one-tenth of a gallon. - -Refined petroleum, one-tenth of a gallon. - -If a gas producing plant using coal supplies the gas, one pound of coal -per horsepower per hour is sufficient on a large engine. - - -DESCRIPTION OF THE GAS OR GASOLINE ENGINE. - -The gas engine consists of a cylinder and piston, piston rod, -cross-head, connecting rod, crank and flywheel, very similar to those -used in the steam engine. - -There is a gas valve, an exhaust valve, and in connection with the gas -valve a self-acting air valve. The gas valve and the exhaust valve -are operated by lever arm or cam worked from the main shaft, arranged -by spiral gear or the like so that it gets one movement for each two -revolutions of the main shaft. Such an engine is called "four cycle" -(meaning one power stroke to each four strokes of the piston), and -works as follows: - -As the piston moves forward the air and fuel valves are simultaneously -opened and closed, starting to open just as the piston starts forward -and closing just as the piston completes its forward stroke. Gas and -air are simultaneously sucked into the cylinder, by this movement. -As the cylinder returns it compresses the charge taken in during the -forward stroke until it again reaches back center. The mixture in the -Otto engine is compressed to about 70 pounds per square inch. Ignition -then takes place, causing the mixture to explode and giving the force -from which the power is derived. As the crank again reaches its forward -center the piston uncovers a port which allows the greater part of -the burnt gases to escape. As the piston comes back, the exhaust -valve is opened, enabling the piston to sweep out the remainder of the -burnt gases. By the time the crank is on the back center the exhaust -valve is closed and the engine is ready to take another charge, having -completed two revolutions or four strokes. The side shaft which -performs the functions of opening and closing the valves, getting its -motion in the Columbus engine by a pair of spiral gears, makes but one -revolution to two of the crank shaft. - -[Illustration: FAIRBANKS, MORSE & CO.'S GASOLINE ENGINE. - -A is engine cylinder. H is gasoline supply tank located outside of -building and under ground. I is air-suction pipe. E is gasoline pump. -O is suction pipe from gasoline tank. N is pipe from pump E leading to -reservoir P. Q is igniter tube. R is chimney surrounding tube. T is -tank supplying Bunsen burner for heating tube.] - -Gas engines are governed in various ways. One method is to attach a -ball governor similar to the Waters on the steam engine. When the speed -is too high, the balls go out, and a valve is closed or partly closed, -cutting off the fuel supply. Since the engine takes in fuel only once -in four strokes, the governing cannot be so close as on the steam -engine, since longer time must elapse before the governor can act. - -Another type of governor operates by opening the exhaust port and -holding it open. The piston then merely draws in air through the -exhaust port, but no gas. This is called the "hit or miss" governing -type. One power stroke is missed completely. - -The heat caused by the explosion within the cylinder is very great, -some say as high as 3,000 degrees. Such a heat would soon destroy the -oil used to lubricate the cylinder and make the piston cut, as well -as destroying the piston packing. To keep this heat down the cylinder -is provided with a water jacket, and a current of water is kept -circulating around it to cool it off. - -When gas is used, the gas is passed through a rubber bag, which helps -to make the supply even. It is admitted to the engine by a valve -similar to the throttle valve on an engine. - -Gasoline is turned on by a similar valve, or throttle. It does not -have to be gasefied, but is sucked into the cylinder in the form -of a spray. As soon as the engine is started, the high heat of the -cylinder caused by the constant explosions readily turns the gasoline -to gas as it enters. The supply tank of gasoline is placed outside -the building, or at a distance, and stands at a point below the feed. -A small pump pumps it up to a small box or feed tank, which has an -overflow pipe to conduct any superfluous gasoline back to the supply -tank. In the gasoline box or feed tank a conical-shaped basin is filled -with gasoline to a certain height, which can be regulated. Whatever -this conical basin contains is sucked into the cylinder with the air. -By regulating the amount in the basin the supply of gasoline in the -cylinder can be regulated to the amount required for any given amount -of work. In the Columbus engine this regulation is accomplished by -screwing the overflow regulator up or down. - -There are two methods of igniting the charge in the cylinder in order -to explode it. One is by what is called a gasoline or gas torch. A -hollow pin or pipe is fixed in the top of the cylinder. The upper part -of this pin or pipe runs up into a gasoline or gas lamp of the Bunsen -type where it is heated red hot. When the gas and air in the cylinder -are compressed by the back stroke of the piston, some of the mixture -is forced up into this pipe or tube until it comes in contact with the -heated portion and is exploded, together with the rest of the charge in -the cylinder. Of course this tube becomes filled with burnt gases which -must be compressed before the explosive mixture can reach the heated -portion, and no explosion is theoretically possible until the piston -causes compression to the full capacity of the cylinder. The length of -the tube must therefore be nicely regulated to the requirements of the -particular engine used. - -The other method is by an electric spark from a battery. Two electrodes -of platinum or some similar substance are placed in the compression end -of the cylinder. The spark might be caused by bringing the electrodes -sufficiently near together at just the right moment, but the more -practical and usual way is to break the current, closing it sharply by -means of a lever worked by the gearing at just the moment the piston is -ready to return after compressing the charge. The electric spark is by -long odds the most desirable method of ignition, being safer and easier -to take care of, but it requires some knowledge of electricity and -electric connection to keep it always in working order. - - -OPERATION OF GAS AND GASOLINE ENGINES. - -To all intents and purposes the operation of a gas or gasoline engine -is the same as that of a steam engine with the care of the boiler -eliminated. The care of the engine itself is practically the same, -though the bearings are relatively larger in a gasoline or gas engine -and do not require adjustment so often. Some manufacturers will tell -you that a gas engine requires no attention at all. Any one who went on -that theory would soon ruin his engine. To keep a gasoline engine in -working order so as to get the best service from it and make it last as -long as possible, you should give it the best of care. - -An engine of this kind needs just as much oiling and cleaning as a -steam engine. All bearings must be lubricated and kept free from -dirt, great care must be taken that the piston and cylinder are well -lubricated. In addition, the engineer must see that the valves all -work perfectly tight, and when they leak in any way they must be taken -out and cleaned. Usually the valve seats are cast separate from the -cylinder, so that they can be removed and ground when they have worn. - -Also the water jacket must be kept in order so that the cylinder cannot -become too hot. - - -STARTING A GASOLINE ENGINE. - -It is something of a trick to get a gasoline or gas engine -started--especially a gasoline engine--and some skill must be developed -in this or there will be trouble. This arises from the fact that -when an engine has not been running the cylinder is cold and does -not readily gasefy the gasoline. At best only a part of a charge of -gasoline can be gasefied, and if the cylinder is very cold indeed the -charge will not explode at all till the cylinder is warmed up. - -When preparing to start an engine, first see that the nuts or studs -holding cylinder head to cylinder are tight, as the heating and cooling -of the cylinder are liable to loosen them. Then oil all bearings with a -hand oil can, and carefully wipe off all outside grease. - -When all is ready, work the gasoline pump to get the air out of the -feed pipes and fill the reservoir. - -First, the engine must be turned so that the piston is as far back as -it will go, and to prevent air being pressed back the exhaust must be -held open, or a cock in priming cup on top of cylinder opened. - -If gasoline priming is needed, the gasoline must be poured into the -priming cup after closing the cock into the cylinder, for it would do -no good to merely let the gasoline run down into the cylinder in a cold -stream: it must be sprayed in. If the exhaust has been held open, and -the priming charge of gasoline is to be drawn in through the regular -supply pipe and valve, the exhaust should be closed and the throttle -turned on to a point indicated by the manufacturer of the engine. - -We suppose that the igniter is ready to work. If the hot tube is used, -the tube should be hot; if the electric igniter is used, the igniter -bar should be in position to be snapped so as to close the circuit and -cause a spark when the charge has been compressed. - -If all is ready, open the cock from which the supply of gasoline is to -be obtained, and at the same time turn the engine over so as to draw -the charge into the cylinder. If a priming cock has been opened, that -must be closed by hand as soon as the cylinder is filled and the piston -ready to return for compression. If the regular feed is used, the -automatic valve will close of itself. - -Bring the flywheel over to back center so that piston will compress the -charge. With the flywheel in the hand, bring the piston back sharply -two or three times, compressing the charge. This repeated compression -causes a little heat to be liberated, which warms up the cylinder -inside. If the cylinder is very cold this compression may be repeated -until the cylinder is sufficiently warm to ignite. When performing this -preparatory compression the piston may be brought nearly up to the dead -center but not quite. At last bring it over the dead center, and just -as it passes over, snap the electric ignition bar. If an explosion -follows the engine will be started. - -If the hot tube is used, the flywheel may be brought around sharply -each time so that the piston will pass the dead center, as an explosion -will follow complete compression. If the explosion does not follow, -the flywheel may be turned back again and brought up sharply past the -dead center. Each successive compression will warm up the cylinder a -little till at last an explosion will take place and the engine will be -started. - -More gasoline will be needed to start in cold weather than in warm, and -the starting supply should be regulated accordingly. Moreover, when the -engine gets to going, the cylinder will warm up, more of the gasoline -will vaporize, and a smaller supply will be needed. Then the throttle -can be turned so as to reduce the supply. - -After the engine is started, the water jacket should be set in -operation, and you should see that the cylinder lubrication is taking -place as it ought. - -As the above method of starting the engine will not always work well, -especially in cold weather, what are called "self-starters" are used. -They are variously arranged on different engines, but are constructed -on the same general principle. This is, first, to pump air and gasoline -into the cylinder instead of drawing it in by suction. Sometimes the -gasoline is forced in by an air compression tank. The engine is turned -just past the back center, care having been taken to make sure that the -stroke is the regular explosion stroke. This may be told by looking at -the valve cam or shaft. If an electric igniter is used, it is set ready -to snap by hand. If the tube igniter is used, a detonator is arranged -in the cylinder, to be charged by the head of a snapping parlor match -which can be exploded by hand. Holding the flywheel with one hand with -piston just past back center, fill the compressed end of the cylinder -by working the pump or turning on the air in compression tank till you -feel a strong pressure on the piston through the flywheel. Then snap -igniter or detonator and the engine is off. If throttle valve has not -been opened, it may now be immediately opened. - -The skill comes in managing the flywheel with one hand, or one hand -and a foot, and the igniter, etc., with the other hand. Care must be -exercised not to get caught when the flywheel starts off. The foot must -never be put through the arm of the wheel, the wheel merely being held -when necessary by the ball of the big toe, so that if the flywheel -should start suddenly it would merely slip off the toe without -carrying the foot around or unbalancing the engineer. Until one gets -used to it, it is better to have some one else manage the flywheel, -while you look after the gasoline supply, igniter, etc. When used to -it, one man can easily start any gasoline engine up to 15 horsepower. - - -WHAT TO DO WITH A GASOLINE ENGINE WHEN IT DOESN'T WORK. - -Questions and Answers. - -Q. If the engine suddenly stops, what would you do? - -A. First, see that the gasoline feed is all right, plenty of gasoline -in the tank, feed pipe filled, gasoline pump working, and then if -valves are all in working order. Perhaps there may be dirt in the feed -reservoir, or the pipe leading from it may be stopped up. If everything -is right so far, examine the valves to see that they work freely and -do not get stuck from lack of good oil, or from use of poor oil. Raise -them a few times to see if they work freely. Carefully observe if the -air valve is not tight in sleeve of gas valve. - -Q. What would be the cause of the piston's sticking in the cylinder? - -A. Either it was not properly lubricated, or it got too hot, the heat -causing it to expand. - -Q. Are boxes on a gasoline engine likely to get hot? - -A. Yes, though not so likely as on a steam engine. They must be watched -with the same care as they would be on a steam engine. If the engine -stops, turn it by hand a few times to see that it works freely without -sticking anywhere. - -Q. Is the electric sparking device likely to get out of order? - -A. Yes. You can always test it by loosening one wire at the cylinder -and touching it to the other to see that a spark passes between them. -If there is no spark, there is trouble with the battery. - -Q. How should the batteries be connected up? - -A. A wire should pass from carbon of No. 1 to copper of No. 2; from -carbon of No. 2 to copper of No. 3, etc., always from copper to carbon, -never from carbon to carbon or copper to copper. Wire from last carbon -to spark coil and from coil to switch, and from switch to one of the -connections on the engine. Wire from copper of No. 1 to the other -connection on the engine. In wiring, always scrape the ends of the wire -clean and bright where the connection is to be made with any other -metal. - -Q. What precautions can be taken to keep batteries in order? - -A. The connections between the cells can be changed every few days, -No. 1 being connected with No. 3, No. 3 with No. 5, etc., alternating -them, but always making a single line of connection from one connection -on cylinder to first copper, from the carbon of that cell to copper of -next cell, and so on till the circuit to the cylinder is completed. -When the engine is not in operation, always throw out the switch, to -prevent possible short circuiting. If battery is feeble at first, -fasten wires together for half an hour at engine till current gets well -started. - -Q. Is there likely to be trouble with the igniter inside cylinder? - -A. There may be. You will probably find a plug that can be taken out -so as to provide a peep hole. Never put your eye near this hole, for -some gasoline may escape and when spark is made it will explode and put -out your eye. Always keep the eye a foot away from the hole. Practice -looking at the spark when you know it is all right and no gasoline is -near, in order that you may get the right position at which to see the -spark in case of trouble. In any case, always take pains to force out -any possible gas before snapping igniter to see if the spark works all -right. - -Q. If there is no spark, what should be done? - -A. Clean the platinum points. This may be done by throwing out switch -and cutting a piece of pine one-eighth of an inch thick and one-half -inch wide, and rubbing it between the points. It may be necessary to -push cam out a trifle to compensate for wear. - -Q. How can you look into peep hole without endangering eyesight? - -A. By use of a mirror. - -Q. If the hot tube fails to work, what may be done? - -A. Conditions of atmosphere, pressure, etc., vary so much that the -length of the tube cannot always be determined. If a tube of the usual -length fails to work, try one a little longer or shorter, but not -varying over 1-1/2 inches. - -Q. When gas is used, what may interfere with gas supply? - -A. Water in the gas pipes. This is always true of gas pipes not -properly drained, especially in cold weather when condensation may take -place. If water accumulates, tubes must be taken apart and blown out, -and if necessary a drain cock can be put in at the lowest point. - -Q. What trouble is likely to be had with the valves? - -A. In time the seats will wear, and must be taken out and ground with -flour or emery. - -Q. Should the cylinder of a gasoline engine be kept as cool as it can -be kept with running water? - -A. No. It should be as hot as the hand can be borne upon it, or about -100 degrees. If it is kept cooler than this the gasoline will not -gasefy well. If a tank is used, the circulation in the tank will -justify the temperature properly. The water may be kept at 175 degrees -of temperature, and used for hot water heating. The exhaust gases are -also hot and may be used for heating by carrying in pipes coiled in a -hot water heater. - -Q. Are water joints likely to leak? - -A. Yes. The great heating given the cylinder is liable to loosen the -water joints. They are best packed with asbestos soaked in oil, sheets -1-16 inch thick. Old packing should always be thoroughly cleaned off -when new packing is put in. - -Q. How may the bearings be readjusted when worn? - -A. Usually there are liners to adjust bearing. In crank box adjust as -in steam engine by tightening the key. - -Q. If you hear a loud explosion in the exhaust pipe after the regular -explosion, should you be alarmed? - -A. No. All gas or gasoline engines give them at times and they are -harmless. If the gas or gasoline fed to the engine is not sufficient to -make an explosive mixture, the engine will perhaps miss the explosion, -and live gas will go into the exhaust pipe. After two or three of -these have accumulated an explosion may take place and the burned -gases coming out of the port as hot flames will explode the live gas -previously exhausted. Any missing of the regular explosion by the -engine, through trouble with battery, or the like, will cause the same -condition. - -Q. When you get exhaust pipe explosions, what should you do? - -A. Turn on the fuel till the exhaust is smoky. Then you know you have -fuel enough and more than enough. If the explosions still continue, -conclude that the igniter spark is too weak, or does not take place. - -Q. What precaution must be taken in cold weather? - -A. The water must be carefully drained out of jacket. - -Q. Will common steam engine cylinder oil do for a gasoline engine? - -A. No. The heat is so great that only a special high grade mineral oil -will do. Any oil containing animal fat will be worse than useless. - -Q. How can you tell if right amount of gas or gasoline is being fed to -engine to give highest power? - -A. Turn on as much as possible without producing smoke. A smokeless -mixture is better than one which causes smoke. - -Q. If you have reason to suppose gas may be in the cylinder, should you -try to start cylinder? - -A. No. Empty the gas all out by turning the engine over a few times by -hand, holding exhaust open if necessary. - -Q. How long will a battery run without recharging? - -A. The time varies. Usually not over three or four months. - -Q. Is it objectionable to connect an electric bell with an engine -battery? - -A. Certainly. Never do it. - -Q. If your engine doesn't run, how many things are likely to be the -trouble? - -A. Not more than four--compression, spark, gas supply, valves. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV. - -HOW TO RUN A THRESHING MACHINE. - - -A threshing machine, though large, is a comparatively simple machine, -consisting of a cylinder with teeth working into other teeth which are -usually concaved (this primary part really separates the grain from -the husk), and rotary fan and sieves to separate grain from chaff, and -some sort of stacker to carry off the straw. The common stacker merely -carries off the straw by some endless arrangement of slats working in -a long box; while the so-called "wind stacker" is a pneumatic device -for blowing the straw through a large pipe. It has the advantage of -keeping the straw under more perfect control than the common stacker. -The separation of the grain from the straw is variously effected by -different manufacturers, there being three general types, called apron, -vibrating, and agitating. - -The following list of parts packed inside the J. I. Case separator (of -the agitative type) when it is shipped will be useful for reference in -connection with any type of separator: - - 2 Hopper arms, Right and Left, - 1 Hopper bottom, - 1 Hopper rod with thumb nut, - 2 Feed tables, - 2 Feed table legs, - 2 Band cutter stands and bolts, - 1 Large crank shaft, - 1 Grain auger with 1223 T. pulley and 1154 T., Box, - 1 Tailings auger, - 1 Elevator spout, - 1 Elevator shake arm, complete, - 1 Set fish-backs, for straw-rack, - 1 Elevator pulley, 529 T., - 1 Beater pulley, 6-inch 1254 T., or 4-inch 1255 T., - 1 Elevator drive pulley 1673 T., - 1 Crank pulley to drive grain auger 1605 T., - 1 Cylinder pulley to drive crank 4-inch 973 T., or 6-inch 1085 T., - 1 Cylinder pulley to drive fan 1347 T., 1348 T., or 1633 T., - 1 Fan pulley, 1244 T., or 1231 T., - 1 Belt tightener, complete, with pulley, - 1 Belt reel, 5016 T., or 1642 T., with crank and bolt, - 4 Shoe sieves, - 4 Shoe rods, with nuts and washers, - 1 Conveyor extension, - 1 Sheet iron tail board, - 2 Tail board castings 1654 T., and 1655 T. - -In addition to these are the parts of the stacker. - -As each manufacturer furnishes all needed directions for putting the -parts together, we will suppose the separator is in working condition. - -A new machine should be set up and run for a couple of hours before -attempting to thresh any grain. The oil boxes should be carefully -cleaned, and all dirt, cinders, and paint removed from the oil holes. -The grease cups on cylinder, beater and crank boxes should be screwed -down after being filled with hard oil, moderately thin oil being used -for other parts of the machine. Before putting on the belts, turn the -machine by hand a few times to see that no parts are loose. Look into -the machine on straw rack and conveyor. - -First connect up belt with engine and run the cylinder only for a -time. Screw down the grease cup lugs when necessary, and see that no -boxes heat. Take off the tightener pulley, clean out oil chambers and -thoroughly oil the spindle. Then oil each separate bearing in turn, -seeing that oil hole is clean, and that pulley or journal works freely. -The successive belts may then be put on one at a time, until the -stacker belt is put on after its pulleys have been oiled. Especially -note which belts are to run crossed--usually the main belt and the -stacker belt. You can tell by noting which way the machinery must run -to keep the straw moving in the proper direction. - -Oiling on the first run of a machine is especially important, as the -bearings are a trifle rough and more liable to heat than after machine -has been used for some time. It is well to oil a shaft while it runs, -since the motion helps the oil to work in over the whole surface. - -The sieves, concaves, check board and blinds must be adjusted to the -kind of grain to be threshed. When they have been so adjusted the -machine is ready to thresh. - - -SETTING SEPARATOR. - -It is important that the machine be kept perfectly steady, and that it -be level from side to side, though its being a little higher or lower -at one end or the other may not matter much. If the level sidewise is -not perfect the grain will have a tendency to work over to one side. A -spirit level should be used. - -[Illustration: SECTIONAL VIEW OF THE AGITATOR SEPARATOR.] - -One or more of the wheels should be set in holes, according to the -unevenness of the ground, and the rear wheels should be well blocked. -Get the holes ready, judging as well as possible what will give a true -level and a convenient position. Haul the machine into position and -see that it is all right before uncoupling the engine. If holes need -redigging to secure proper level, machine may be pulled out and backed -in again by the engine. When machine is high in front it can easily be -leveled when engine or team have been removed, by cramping the front -wheels and digging in front of one and behind the other, then pulling -the tongue around square. - -Block the right hind wheel to prevent the belt drawing machine forward. -Always carry a suitable block to have one handy. - -In starting out of holes or on soft ground, cramp the front axle -around, and it will require only half the power to start that would be -required by a straight pull. - -In setting the machine, if the position can be chosen, choose one in -which the straw will move in the general direction of the wind, but a -little quartering, so that dust and smoke from engine will be carried -away from the men and the straw stack. In this position there is less -danger from fire when wood is used. - - -THE CYLINDER. - -The cylinder is arranged with several rows of teeth working into -stationary teeth in what is called the concave. It is important that -all these teeth be kept tight, and that the cylinder should not work -from side to side. The teeth are liable to get loose in a new machine, -and should be tightened up frequently. A little brine on each nut will -cause it to rust slightly and help to hold it in place. If the cylinder -slips endwise even a sixteenth of an inch, the teeth will be so much -nearer the concaves on one side and so much farther away from them -on the other side. Where they are close, they will crack the grain; -where they are wide apart they will let the straw go through without -threshing or taking out the grain. So it is important that the cylinder -and its teeth run true and steady. If the teeth get bent in any way, -they must be straightened. - -The speed of the cylinder is important, since its pulley gives motion -to the other parts of the machine, and this movement must be up to -a certain point to do the work well. A usual speed for the cylinder -pulley is 1,075 revolutions per minute, up to 1,150. - -There is always an arrangement for adjusting the cylinder endwise, so -that teeth will come in the middle. This should be adjusted carefully -when necessary. The end play to avoid heating may be about 1-64 of an -inch. It may be remembered that the cylinder teeth carry the straw to -the concaves, and the concaves do the threshing. - - -THE CONCAVES. - -The concaves are to be adjusted to suit the kind of grain threshed. -When desiring to adjust concaves, lift them up a few times and drop so -as to jar out dust. Wedging a block of wood between cylinder teeth and -concaves will in some types of separator serve to bring up concaves -when cylinder is slowly turned by hand. - -There are from two to six rows of teeth in the concave, and usually the -number of rows is adjustable or variable. Two rows will thresh oats, -where six are required for flax and timothy. Four rows are commonly -used for wheat and barley. The arrangement of rows of teeth and blanks -is important. When four rows are used, one is commonly placed well -back, one front, blank in the middle. When straw is dry and brittle, -cylinder can be given "draw" by placing blank in front. Always use as -few teeth and leave them as low as possible to thresh clean, since with -more teeth than necessary set higher than required the straw will be -cut up and a great deal of chopped straw will get into the sieves, all -of which also requires additional power. Sometimes the teeth can be -taken out of one row, so that one, three, or five rows may be used. For -especially difficult grain like Turkey wheat, a concave with corrugated -teeth may be used, in sets of three rows each up to nine rows. The -corrugated teeth are used for alfalfa in localities where much is -raised. - - -THE BEATER AND CHECK BOARD. - -After the cylinder has loosened the grain from the husk and straw, it -must still be separated. Some threshers have a grate under the cylinder -and behind it. In any case the beater causes the heavy grain to work -toward the bottom, and the check board keeps the grain from being -carried to rear on top of the straw, where it would not have a chance -to become separated. If the grain is very heavy or damp, there may be a -tendency for the straw to stick to the cylinder and be carried around -too far. In such a case the beater should be adjusted to give more -space, and the check board raised to allow the straw to pass to the -rear freely. - - -STRAW RACK. - -The straw rack and conveyor carry the straw and grain to the rear with -a vibratory movement, causing the grain to be shaken out. To do good -work the straw rack must move with a sufficient number of vibrations -per minute, say 230. A speed indicator on the crank shaft will show the -number of vibrations best. Great care must be taken with this part of -the thresher, or a great deal of grain will be carried into the straw. -The less the straw is cut up, the better this portion of the machine -works; so the smallest practicable number of teeth in the concave -should be used. - -The crank boxes and pitmans should be adjusted so that there is no -pounding. If the rear vibrating arms drop too low they get below -the dead center and are liable to break, at any rate causing severe -pounding and hard running. To prevent this, the crank boxes can be -moved forward by putting leather between them and the posts, or should -be otherwise adjusted. The trouble being due to the pitmans having worn -short, the pitmans may be lengthened in some way by putting pieces of -leather over the end or the like, or new pitmans may be introduced. - - -THE FAN. - -The chief difficulty likely to arise with the fan is blowing over -grain. To prevent this blinds are usually arranged, which may be -adjusted while the machine is running so as to prevent the grain from -being blown over. At the same time it is important to clean the grain, -so the adjustment should not go to one extreme or the other. - -In windy weather the blinds should be closed more on one side than on -the other. The speed of the fan must be adjusted to the requirements of -the locality. - -As much blast should be used as the grain will stand, and heavy feeding -requires more wind than light feeding, since the chaff checks the blast -to a certain extent. - -Care should be taken that the wind board over the grain auger does not -get bent, and it should be adjusted so that the strongest part of the -blast will come about the middle of the sieve. - - -SIEVES. - -There is usually one conveyor sieve, which causes the grain to -move along, and shoe sieves, which are required to clean the grain -thoroughly. Different kinds of sieves are provided for different kinds -of grain, and the proper selection and adjustment of these sieves as to -mesh, etc., is of the utmost importance. - -Much depends on the way the sieves are set, and on the rate at which -the thresher is fed, or the amount of work it is really doing. The best -guide is close observation and experience, both your own and that of -other threshermen. - - -CONVEYOR EXTENSION. - -This carries the coarse chaff from the conveyor sieve to the stacker. -The conveyor sieve should be coarse enough to let all the good grain -through, as whatever is carried on to the extension must be returned -with the tailings to the cylinder. This means so much waste work. The -conveyor extension is removable, and should always be tight before -machine is started. See that it is. - -When necessary, the grain may be run over a screen, which differs -from a sieve in that the mesh is small and intended to let dust and -small chaff through while the grain does not pass. The refuse from the -screen is dropped onto the ground. All screens have a tendency to -become clogged, and in this condition obstruct the grain and wind. It -is desirable not to use them except when necessary, and if used they -should be frequently cleaned. - - -TAILINGS ELEVATOR. - -The tailings are carried back to the cylinder by an elevator usually -worked with a chain. This chain should be kept tight enough not to -unhook, yet not so tight as to bind. - -To put the chain into the elevator, tie a weight on a rope and drop it -down the lower part of the elevator. The chain may be fastened to the -rope and a man at the top can then pull the chain up, while another -feeds it in at the bottom. When chain has been drawn up to the top, -the rope should be dropped down upper portion of elevator and used at -bottom to pull chain down after it has been adjusted over the sprocket. -Some one at the bottom should continue to feed the chain in as it is -pulled down, so that it will go into the elevator straight. When the -chain has been pulled through it may be hooked and adjusted to lower -sprocket, and tightened up by screws at top. Turn the chain around once -by hand to make sure there are no kinks in it. - -The tailings should be small, containing no light chaff and little -full-size grain. They are a good indication of how the sieves are -working. If much good grain is coming through, see if it gets over the -conveyor sieve by way of the extension to the tailings auger, or over -the shoe sieve. If the sieves are not right, they may be adjusted in -various ways, according to the directions of the manufacturer. - -Grain returned in the tailings is liable to get cracked in the -cylinder, and much chaff in the tailings chokes the cylinder. For every -reason, the tailings should be kept as low as possible. - - -SELF-FEEDER. - -The self-feeder is arranged to cut the bands of the sheaves and feed -the grain to the cylinder automatically. It has a governor to prevent -crowding in too much grain, and usually a change of pulleys for slow -or fast feeding, as circumstances may require. In starting a new -governor the friction pulley and inside of the band should have paint -scraped off, and a little oil should be put on face of friction wheel. -The carrier should not start till the machine attains full threshing -motion, and to prevent this a few sheaves should be laid upon it. The -knife arms should be raised or lowered to adjust them to the size of -the sheaves and condition of the grain for cutting bands. - -The cranks and carrier shaft boxes should be oiled regularly, but the -friction bands should not be oiled after it once becomes smooth. - - -THE WIND STACKER. - -The wind stacker is arranged to swing by a hand-wheel or the like, and -also automatically. - -Great care should be taken not to use the hand moving apparatus when -the stacker is set for automatic moving, as a break is liable to -follow. There is a clutch to stop the stacker, however. At times it -will be more convenient to leave off the belt that causes the automatic -movement. - -By the use of various pulleys the speed of the stacker may be altered, -and it should be run no faster than is necessary to do the work -required, which will depend on the character of the straw. Any extra -speed used will add to the cost of running the engine and is a loss in -economy. - -In moving machine with wind stacker in place, care should be taken to -see that it rests in its support before machine moves. - -The canvas curtain under the decking, used to turn the straw into the -hopper, may need a piece of wood fastened to its lower edge to keep it -more stiff when stiff rye straw is passing. The bearings of the fan -and jack shafts should be kept well lubricated with hard oil, and the -bevel gears should be kept well greased with axle grease applied with a -stick. Other bearings and worm gear of automatic device should be oiled -with soft oil. - -The attached stacker is simple in operation, and if it is desired not -to use the automatic swinging device but swing by hand, the automatic -gear may be thrown out. An independent stacker is managed in much the -same way. - - -ATTACHMENTS. - -A weigher, bagger, and a high loader are usually used with a separator. -Their operation is simple, and depends upon the particular type or make. - - -BELTING. - -The care of the belting is one of the most important things about -the management of a threshing machine, and success or failure will -depend largely on the condition in which the belts are kept. Of -course the hair side should be run next the band wheel. Once there -was disagreement among engineers on this point, but it has been -conclusively proven that belts wear longer this way and get better -friction, for the simple reason that the flesh side is more flexible -than the hair side, and when on the outside better accommodates itself -to the shape of the pulley. If the hair side is outermost, it will be -stretched more or less in going around the pulley and in time will -crack. Rubber belts must be run with the seam on the outside. - -When leather belts become hard they should be softened with neatsfoot -oil. A flexible belt is said to transmit considerably more power than a -hard one. - -Pulleys must be kept in line or the belt will slip off. When pulleys -are in line the belt has a tendency to work to the tightest point. -Hence pulleys are usually made larger in the middle, which is called -"crowning." - -Belts on a separator should be looked over every day, and when any -lacing is worn, it should be renewed at once. This will prevent breaks -during working, with loss of time. Some threshermen carry an extra set -of belts to be ready in case anything does break, and they assert that -they save money by so doing. - -Lacing is not stronger in proportion as it is heavy. If it is heavy -and clumsy it gets strained in going round the pulley, and soon gives -out. The ideal way to lace a belt is to make it as nearly like the rest -of the belt as possible, so that it will go over the pulleys without a -jar. The ends of the belt should be cut off square with a try square, -and a small punch used for making holes. Holes should be equally -spaced, and outside ones not so near the edge as to tear out. The rule -is a hole to every inch of the belt, and in a leather belt they may -be as close as a quarter of an inch to the ends without tearing out. -Other things being equal, the nearer the ends the holes are the better, -as belt will then pass over pulley more easily. The chief danger of -tearing is between the holes. - -A stacker web belt may be laced by turning the ends up and lacing them -together flat at right angles to rest of belt. Rubber or cotton belting -that does not run over idler or tightener pulleys so that both sides -must be smooth may be laced in this way. This lacing lasts two or three -times as long with such belts as any other, for the reason that the -string is not exposed to wear and there is no straining in passing -round pulleys. - -The ordinary method of lacing a leather belt is to make the laces -straight on the pulley side, all running in the same direction as the -movement of the belt, and crossing them on the outside diagonally in -both directions. When belts run on pulleys on both sides, as they do on -the belt driving beater and crank, and also on wind stacker, a hinge -lacing may be made by crossing the lacing around the end of the belt to -the next adjacent hole opposite, the lacing showing the same on both -sides. This allows the belt to bend equally well either way. - -The best way to fasten a lacing is to punch a hole where the next row -of lace holes would come when the belt is cut off, and after passing -the lace through this hole, bring the end around and force it through -again, cutting the end off short after it has passed through. This hole -must be small enough to hold the lace securely, and care should be -taken that it is in position to be used as a lace-hole the next time a -series of holes is required. - -New belts stretch a good deal, and the ends of the lacing should not -be cut off short till the stretch is taken out of the belts. - -Belting that has got wet will shrink and lacing must be let out before -belt is put on again. Tight belts have been known to break the end of a -shaft off, and always cause unnecessary friction. - -Cotton or Gandy belting should not be punched for lacing, but holes -made with a pointed awl, since punching cuts some of the threads and -weakens belt. - - -HOW TO BECOME A GOOD FEEDER. - -The art of becoming a good feeder will not be learned in a day. The -bundles should be tipped well up against the cylinder cap, and flat -bundles turned on edge, so that cylinder will take them from the top. -It is not hard to spread a bundle, and in fast threshing a bundle may -be fed on each side, each bundle being kept pretty well to its own -side, while the cylinder is kept full the entire width. A good feeder -will keep the straw carrier evenly covered with straw, and will watch -the stacker, tailings and grain elevator and know the moment anything -goes wrong. - - -WASTE. - -No threshing machine will save every kernel of the grain, but the best -results can be attained only by care and judgment in operating. - -It is easy to exaggerate the loss of grain, for if a very small stream -of grain is seen going into the straw it will seem enormous, though -it will not amount to a bushel a day. There are practically a million -kernels of wheat in a bushel, or 600 handfuls, and even if a handful -is wasted every minute, it would not be enough to counterbalance the -saving in finishing a job quickly. - -Of course, waste must be watched, however, and checked if too great. -First determine whether the grain is carried over in the straw or the -waste is at the shoe sieve. - -If the waste is in the conveyor sieve, catch a handful of the chaff, -and if grain is found, see whether the sieve is the proper mesh. Too -high a speed will cause the grain to be carried over. If too many -teeth are used in the concave, the conveyor sieve will be forced to -carry more chaff than it can handle. The blast may be too strong and -carry over grain, so adjust the blinds that the blast will be no -stronger than is necessary to clean the wheat well and keep sieves -free. If grain is still carried over, the conveyor sieve may be -adjusted for more open work, but care should be taken not to overwork -the shoe sieve. Be careful that the wind board is not bent so that some -grain will go into the fan and be thrown out of the machine altogether. - -If the grain is not separated from the straw thoroughly, it may be due -to "slugging" the cylinder (result of poor feeding), causing a variable -motion. It may also be because speed of crank is not high enough. -Check board should be adjusted as low as possible to prevent grain -being carried on top of straw. See that cylinder and concave teeth -are properly adjusted so as not to cut up straw, while at the same -time threshing out all the grain. Sometimes heads not threshed out by -the cylinder will be threshed out by the fan of the wind stacker, and -the fault will be placed on the separating portions instead of on the -imperfect cylinder. - -Grain passes through the cylinder at the rate of about a mile a minute. -The beater reduces this to 1,500 feet per minute. After passing the -check board the straw moves about 36 feet per minute. At these three -different speeds the straw passes the 17 feet length of the machine -in about 25 seconds. The problem is to stop the grain while the straw -is allowed to pass out. Evidently there must be a small percentage of -loss, and there is always a limit as to what it will pay to try to -save. Each man must judge for himself. - - -BALANCING A CYLINDER. - -A cylinder should be so balanced that it will come to rest at any -point. In a rough way a cylinder may be balanced by placing the -journals on two carpenter's squares laid on saw-horses. Gently roll the -cylinder back and forth and every time it stops, make a chalk mark on -the uppermost bar. If the same bar comes up three times in succession -it probably is light, and a wedge should be driven under center band at -chalk mark. Continue experimenting until cylinder will come to rest at -any point. - - -COVERING PULLEYS. - -This is easily done, but care must be taken that the leathers are tight -or they will soon come off. - -To cover a cylinder pulley, take off what remains of the old cover, -pull out the nails, and renew the wedges if necessary. Select a good -piece of leather a little wider than face of pulley and about four -inches longer than enough to go around. Soak it in water for about an -hour. Cut one end square and nail it to the wedges, using nails just -long enough to clinch. Put a clamp made of two pieces of wood and two -bolts on the leather, block the cylinder to keep it from turning, and -by means of two short levers pry over the clamp to stretch the leather. -Nail to the next wedges, move the clamp and nail to each in turn, -finally nailing to the first one again before cutting off. Trim the -edges even with the rim of the pulley. - -The same method may be used with riveted covers. - - -CARE OF A SEPARATOR. - -A good separator ought to last ten years, and many have been in use -twice that time. After the season is over the machine ought to be -thoroughly cleaned and stored in a dry place. Dirt on a machine holds -moisture and will ruin a separator during a winter if it is left on. It -also causes the wood to rot and sieves and iron work to rust. - -Once in two years at least a separator ought to have a good coat of -first-class coach varnish. Before varnishing, clean off all grease and -oil with benzine and see that paint is bright. - -At the beginning of the season give the machine a thorough overhauling, -putting new teeth in cylinder if any are imperfect, and new slats in -stacker web or straw rack if they are needed. Worn boxes should be -taken up or rebabbitted, and conveyor and shoe eccentrics replaced -if worn out. Tighten nuts, replace lost bolts, leaving the nut always -turned square with the piece it rests on. Every separator ought to be -covered with a canvas during the season. It will pay. - -The right and left sides of a threshing machine are reckoned from the -position of the feeder as he stands facing the machine. - -In case of fire, the quickest way is to let the engine pull the machine -out by the belt. Take blocks away from wheels, place a man at end of -tongue to steer, and back engine slowly. If necessary, men should help -the wheels to start out of holes or soft places. - -Watch the forks of the pitchers to see that none are loose on the -handles, especially if a self-feeder is used. A pitchfork in a -separator is a bad thing. - - - - -CHAPTER XV. - -QUESTIONS ASKED ENGINEERS WHEN APPLYING FOR A LICENSE.[7] - - Footnote 7: Furnished by courtesy of a friend of Aultman & Taylor Co. - - -Q. If you were called on to take charge of a plant, what would be your -first duty? - -A. To ascertain the exact condition of the boiler and all its -attachments (safety valve, steam gauge, pump, injector), and engine. - -Q. How often would you blow off and clean your boilers if you had -ordinary water to use? - -A. Once a month. - -Q. What steam pressure will be allowed on a boiler 50 inches diameter -3/8 inch thick, 60,000 T. S. 1-6 of tensile strength factor of safety? - -A. One-sixth of tensile strength of plate multiplied by thickness -of plate, divided by one-half of the diameter of boiler, gives safe -working pressure. - -Q. How much heating surface is allowed per horse power by builders of -boilers? - -A. Twelve to fifteen feet for tubular and flue boilers. - -Q. How do you estimate the strength of a boiler? - -A. By its diameter and thickness of metal. - -Q. Which is the better, single or double riveting? - -A. Double riveting is from sixteen to twenty per cent stronger than -single. - -Q. How much grate surface do boiler makers allow per horse power? - -A. About two-thirds of a square foot. - -Q. Of what use is a mud drum on a boiler, if any? - -A. For collecting all the sediment of the boiler. - -Q. How often should it be blown out? - -A. Three or four times a day. - -Q. Of what use is a steam dome on a boiler? - -A. For storage of dry steam. - -Q. What is the object of a safety valve on a boiler? - -A. To relieve pressure. - -Q. What is your duty with reference to it? - -A. To raise it twice a day and see that it is in good order. - -Q. What is the use of check valve on a boiler? - -A. To prevent water from returning back into pump or injector which -feeds the boiler. - -Q. Do you think a man-hole in the shell on top of a boiler weakens it -any? - -A. Yes, to a certain extent. - -Q. What effect has cold water on hot boiler plates? - -A. It will fracture them. - -Q. Where should the gauge cock be located? - -A. The lowest gauge cock ought to be placed about an inch and a half -above the top row of flues. - -Q. How would you have your blow-off located? - -A. In the bottom of mud-drum or boiler. - -Q. How would you have your check valve arranged? - -A. With a stop cock between check and boiler. - -Q. How many valves are there in a common plunger force pump? - -A. Two or more--a receiving and a discharge valve. - -Q. How are they located? - -A. One on the suction side, the other on the discharge. - -Q. How do you find the proper size of safety valves for boilers? - -A. Three square feet of grate surface is allowed for one inch area of -spring loaded valves; or two square feet of grate surface to one inch -area of common lever valves. - -Q. Give the reasons why pumps do not work sometimes? - -A. Leak in suction, leak around the plunger, leaky check valve, or -valves out of order, or lift too long. - -Q. How often ought boilers to be thoroughly examined and tested? - -A. Twice a year. - -Q. How would you test them? - -A. With hammer and with hydrostatic test, using warm water. - -Q. Describe the single acting plunger pump; how it gets and discharges -its water? - -A. The plunger displaces the air in the water pipe, causing a vacuum -which is filled by the atmosphere forcing the water therein; the -receiving valve closes and the plunger forces the water out through the -discharge valve. - -Q. What is the most economical boiler-feeder? - -A. The (Trix) Exhaust Injector.[8] - - Footnote 8: So says one expert. Others may think otherwise. - -Q. What economy is there in the Exhaust Injector? - -A. From 15 to 25 per cent saving in fuel. - -Q. Where is the best place to enter the boiler with the feed water? - -A. Below the water level, but so that the cold water can not strike hot -plates. If injector is used this is not so material as feed water is -always hot. - -Q. What are the principal causes of priming in boilers? - -A. To high water, not steam room enough, misconstruction, engine too -large for boiler. - -Q. How do you keep boilers clean or remove scale therefrom? - -A. The best "scale solvent" and "feed water purifier" is an honest, -intelligent engineer who will regularly open up his boilers and clean -them thoroughly, soaking boilers in rain water now and then. - -Q. If you found a thin plate, what would you do? - -A. Put a patch on it. - -Q. Would you put it on the inside or outside? - -A. Inside. - -Q. Why so? - -A. Because the action that has weakened the plate will then set on the -patch, and when this is worn it can be repeated. - -Q. If you found several thin places, what would you do? - -A. Patch each and reduce the pressure. - -Q. If you found a blistered plate? - -A. Put a patch on the fire side. - -Q. If you found a plate on the bottom buckled? - -A. Put a stay through the center of buckle. - -Q. If you found several of the plates buckled? - -A. Stay each and reduce the pressure. - -Q. What is to be done with a cracked plate? - -A. Drill a hole at each end of crack, caulk the crack and put a patch -over it. - -Q. How do you change the water in the boiler when the steam is up? - -A. By putting on more feed and opening the surface blow cock. - -Q. If the safety valve was stuck how would you relieve the pressure on -the boiler if the steam was up and could not make its escape? - -A. Work the steam off with engine after covering fires heavy with coal -or ashes, and when the boiler is sufficiently cool put safety valve in -working order. - -Q. If water in boiler is suffered to get too low, what may be the -result? - -A. Burn top of combustion chamber and tubes, perhaps cause an explosion. - -Q. If water is allowed to get too high, what result? - -A. Cause priming, perhaps cause breaking of cylinder covers or heads. - -Q. What are the principal causes of foaming in boilers? - -A. Dirty and impure water. - -Q. How can foaming be stopped? - -A. Close throttle and keep closed long enough to show true level of -water. If that level is sufficiently high, feeding and blowing off will -usually suffice to correct the evil. - -Q. What would you do if you should find your water gone from sight very -suddenly? - -A. Draw the fires and cool off as quickly as possible. Never open or -close any outlets of steam when your water is out of sight. - -Q. What precautions should you take to blow down a part of the water in -your boiler while running with a good fire? - -A. Never leave the blow-off valve, and watch the water level. - -Q. How much water would you blow off at once while running? - -A. Never blow off more than one gauge of water at a time while running. - -Q. What general views have you in regard to boiler explosions--what is -the greatest cause? - -A. Ignorance and neglect are the greatest causes of boiler explosions. - -Q. What precaution should the engineer take when necessary to stop with -heavy fires? - -A. Close dampers, put on injector or pump and if a bleeder is attached, -use it. - -Q. Where is the proper water level in boilers? - -A. A safe water level is about two and a half inches over top row of -flues. - -Q. What is an engineer's first duty on entering the boiler room? - -A. To ascertain the true water level. - -Q. When should a boiler be blown out? - -A. After it is cooled off, never while hot. - -Q. When laying up a boiler what should be done? - -A. Clean thoroughly inside and out; remove all oxidation and paint -places with red lead; examine all stays and braces to see if any are -loose or badly worn. - -Q. What is the last thing to do at night before leaving plant? - -A. Look around for greasy waste, hot coals, matches, or anything which -could fire the building. - -Q. What would you do if you had a plant in good working order? - -A. Keep it so, and let well enough alone. - -Q. Of what use is the indicator? - -A. The indicator is used to determine the indicated power developed by -an engine, to serve as a guide in setting valves and showing the action -of the steam in the cylinder. - -Q. How would you increase the power of an engine? - -A. To increase the power of an engine, increase the speed; or get -higher pressure of steam, use less expansion. - -Q. How do you find the horsepower of an engine? - -A. Multiply the speed of piston in feet per minute by the total -effective pressure upon the piston in pounds and divide the product by -33,000. - -Q. Which has the most friction, a perfectly fitted, or an imperfectly -fitted valve or bearing? - -A. An imperfect one. - -Q. How hot can you get water under atmospheric pressure with exhaust -steam? - -A. 212 degrees. - -Q. Does pressure have any influence on the boiling point? - -A. Yes. - -Q. Which do you think is the best economy, to run with your throttle -wide open or partly shut? - -A. Always have the throttle wide open on a governor engine. - -Q. At what temperature has iron the greatest tensile strength? - -A. About 600 degrees. - -Q. In what position on the shaft does the eccentric stand in relation -to the crank? - -A. The throw of the eccentric should always be in advance of the crank -pin. - -Q. About how many pounds of water are required to yield one horsepower -with our best engines? - -A. From 25 to 30. - -Q. What is meant by atmospheric pressure? - -A. The weight of the atmosphere. - -Q. What is the weight of atmosphere at sea level? - -A. 14.7 pounds. - -Q. What is the coal consumption per hour per indicated horsepower? - -A. Varies from one and a half to seven pounds. - -Q. What is the consumption of coal per hour on a square foot of grate -surface? - -A. From 10 to 12 pounds. - -Q. What is the water consumption in pounds per hour per indicated -horsepower? - -A. From 25 to 60 pounds. - -Q. How many pounds of water can be evaporated with one pound of best -soft coal? - -A. From 7 to 10 pounds. - -Q. How much steam will one cubic inch of water evaporate under -atmospheric pressure? - -A. One cubic foot of steam (approximately). - -Q. What is the weight of a cubic foot of fresh water? - -A. Sixty-two and a half pounds. - -Q. What is the weight of a cubic foot of iron? - -A. 486.6 pounds. - -Q. What is the weight of a square foot of one-half inch boiler plate? - -A. 20 pounds. - -Q. How much wood equals one ton of soft coal for steam purposes? - -A. About 4,000 pounds of wood. - -Q. How long have you run engines? - -Q. Have you ever done your own firing? - -Q. What is the source of all power in the steam engine? - -A. The heat stored up in the coal. - -Q. How is the heat liberated from the coal? - -A. By burning it; that is, by combustion. - -Q. Of what does coal consist? - -A. Carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur, oxygen and ash. - -Q. What are the relative proportions of these that enter into coal? - -A. There are different proportions in different specimens of coal, but -the following shows the average per cent: Carbon, 80; hydrogen, 5; -nitrogen, 1; sulphur, 2; oxygen, 7; ash, 5. - -Q. What must be mixed with coal before it will burn? - -A. Atmospheric air. - -Q. What is air composed of? - -A. It is composed of nitrogen and oxygen in the proportion of 77 of -nitrogen to 23 of oxygen. - -Q. What parts of the air mix with what parts of the coal? - -A. The oxygen of the air mixes with the carbon and hydrogen of the coal. - -Q. How much air must mix with the coal? - -A. 150 cubic feet of air for every pound of coal. - -Q. How many pounds of air are required to burn one pound of carbon? - -A. Twelve. - -Q. How many pounds of air are required to burn one pound of hydrogen? - -A. Thirty-six. - -Q. Is hydrogen hotter than carbon? - -A. Yes, four and one-half times hotter. - -Q. What part of the coal gives out the most heat? - -A. The hydrogen does part for part, but as there is so much more of -carbon than hydrogen in the coal we get the greatest amount of heat -from carbon. - -Q. In how many different ways is heat transmitted? - -A. Three; by radiation, by conduction and by convection. - -Q. If the fire consisted of glowing fuel, show how the heat enters the -water and forms steam? - -A. The heat from the glowing fuel passes by radiation through the air -space above the fuel to the furnace crown. There it passes through the -iron of the crown by conduction. There it warms the water resting on -the crown, which then rises and parts with its heat to the colder water -by conduction till the whole mass of water is heated. Then the heated -water rises to the surface and parts with its steam, so a constant -circulation of water is maintained by convection. - -Q. What does water consist of? - -A. Oxygen and hydrogen. - -Q. In what proportion? - -A. Eight of oxygen to one of hydrogen by weight. - -Q. What are the different kinds of heat? - -A. Latent heat, sensible heat and sometimes total heat. - -Q. What is meant by latent heat? - -A. Heat that does not affect the thermometer and which expands itself -in changing the nature of a body, such as turning ice into water or -water into steam. - -Q. Under what circumstances do bodies get latent heat? - -A. When they are passing from a solid state to a liquid or from a -liquid to a gaseous state. - -Q. How can latent heat be recovered? - -A. By bringing the body back from a state of gas to a liquid or from -that of a liquid to that of a solid. - -Q. What is meant by a thermal unit? - -A. The heat necessary to raise one pound of water at 39 degrees Fn. 1 -degree Fahrenheit. - -Q. If the power is in coal, why should we use steam? - -A. Because steam has some properties which make it an invaluable agent -for applying the energy of the heat to the engine. - -Q. What is steam? - -A. It is an invisible elastic gas generated from water by the -application of heat. - -Q. What are its properties which make it so valuable to us? - -A. 1.--The ease with which we can condense it. 2.--Its great expansive -power. 3.--The small space it occupies when condensed. - -Q. Why do you condense the steam? - -A. To form a vacuum and so destroy the back pressure that would -otherwise be on the piston and thus get more useful work out of the -steam. - -Q. What is vacuum? - -A. A space void of all pressure. - -Q. How do you maintain a vacuum? - -A. By the steam used being constantly condensed by the cold water or -cold tubes, and the air pump as constantly clearing the condenser out. - -Q. Why does condensing the used steam form a vacuum? - -A. Because a cubic foot of steam, at atmospheric pressure, shrinks into -about a cubic inch of water. - -Q. What do you understand by the term horse power? - -A. A horse power is equivalent to raising 33,000 pounds one foot per -minute, or 550 pounds raised one foot per second. - -Q. How do you calculate the horse power of tubular or flue boilers? - -A. For tubular boilers, multiply the square of the diameter by length, -and divide by four. For flue boilers, multiply the diameter by the -length and divide by four; or, multiply area of grate surface in square -feet by 1-1/2. - -Q. What do you understand by lead on an engine's valve? - -A. Lead on a valve is the admission of steam into the cylinder before -the piston completes its stroke. - -Q. What is the clearance of an engine as the term is applied at the -present time? - -A. Clearance is the space between the cylinder head and the piston head -with the ports included. - -Q. What are considered the greatest improvements on the stationary -engine in the last forty years? - -A. The governor, the Corliss valve gear and the triple compound -expansion. - -Q. What is meant by triple expansion engine? - -A. A triple expansion engine has three cylinders using the steam -expansively in each one. - -Q. What is a condenser as applied to an engine? - -A. The condenser is a part of the low pressure engine and is a -receptacle into which the exhaust enters and is there condensed. - -Q. What are the principles which distinguish a high pressure from a low -pressure engine? - -A. Where no condenser is used and the exhaust steam is open to the -atmosphere. - -Q. About how much gain is there by using the condenser? - -A. 17 to 25 per cent where cost of water is not figured. - -Q. What do you understand by the use of steam expansively? - -A. Where steam admitted at a certain pressure is cut off and allowed to -expand to a lower pressure. - -Q. How many inches of vacuum give the best results in a condensing -engine? - -A. Usually considered 25. - -Q. What is meant by a horizontal tandem engine? - -A. One cylinder being behind the other with two pistons on same rod. - -Q. What is a Corliss valve gear? - -A. (_Describe the half moon or crab claw gear, or oval arm gear with -dash pots._) - -Q. From what cause do belts have the power to drive shafting? - -A. By friction or cohesion. - -Q. What do you understand by lap? - -A. Outside lap is that portion of valve which extends beyond the ports -when valve is placed on the center of travel, and inside lap is that -portion of valve which projects over the ports on the inside or towards -the middle of valve. - -Q. What is the use of lap? - -A. To give the engine compression. - -Q. Where is the dead center of an engine? - -A. The point where the crank and the piston rod are in the same right -line. - -Q. What is the tensile strength of American boiler iron? - -A. 40,000 to 60,000 pounds per square inch. - -Q. What is very high tensile strength in boiler iron apt to go with? - -A. Lack of homogeneousness and lack of toughness. - -Q. What is the advantage of toughness in boiler plate? - -A. It stands irregular strains and sudden shocks better. - -Q. What are the principal defects found in boiler iron? - -A. Imperfect welding, brittleness, low ductility. - -Q. What are the advantages of steel as a material for boiler plates? - -A. Homogeneity, tensile strength, malleability, ductility and freedom -from laminations and blisters. - -Q. What are the disadvantages of steel as a material for boiler plates? - -A. It requires greater skill in working than iron, and has, as bad -qualities, brittleness, low ductility and flaws induced by the pressure -of gas bubbles in the ingot. - -Q. When would you oil an engine? - -A. Before starting it and as often while running as necessary. - -Q. How do you find proper size of any stay bolts for a well made boiler? - -A. First, multiply the given steam pressure per square inch by the -square of the distance between centers of stay bolts, and divide the -product by 6,000, and call the answer "the quotient." Second, divide -"the quotient" by .7854, and extract the square root of the last -quotient; the answer will give the required diameter of stay bolts at -the bottom of thread. - -Q. In what position would you place an engine, to take up any slack -motion of the reciprocating parts? - -A. Place engine in the position where the least wear takes place on -the journals. That is, in taking up the wear of the crank-pin brasses, -place the engine on either dead center, as, when running, there is -but little wear upon the crank-pin at these points. If taking up -the cross-head pin brasses--without disconnecting and swinging the -rod--place the engine at half stroke, which is the extreme point -of swing of the rod, there being the least wear on the brasses and -cross-head pin in this position. - -Q. What benefits are derived by using flywheels on steam engines? - -A. The energy developed in the cylinder while the steam is doing its -work is stored up in the flywheel, and given out by it while there is -no work being done in the cylinder--that is, when the engine is passing -the dead centers. This tends to keep the speed of the engine shaft -steady. - -Q. Name several kinds of reducing motions, as used in indicator -practice? - -A. The pantograph, the pendulum, the brumbo pulley, the reducing wheel. - -Q. How can an engineer tell from an indicator diagram whether the -piston or valves are leaking? - -A. Leaky steam valves will cause the expansion curve to become convex; -that is, it will not follow hyperbolic expansion, and will also show -increased back pressure. But if the exhaust valves leak also, one may -offset the other, and the indicator diagram would show no leak. - -A leaky piston can be detected by a rapid falling in the pressure on -the expansion curve immediately after the point of cut-off. It will -also show increased back pressure. - -A falling in pressure in the upper portion of the compression curve -shows a leak in the exhaust valve. - -Q. What would be the best method of treating a badly scaled boiler, -that was to be cleaned by a liberal use of compound? - -A. First open the boiler up and note where the loose scale, if any, -has lodged. Wash out thoroughly and put in the required amount of -compound. While the boiler is in service, open the blow-off valve for a -few seconds, two or three times a day, to be assured that it does not -become stopped up with scale. - -After running the boiler for a week, shut it down, and, when the -pressure is down and the boiler cooled off, run the water out and take -off the hand-hole plates. Note what effect the compound has had on the -scale, and where the disengaged scale has lodged. Wash out thoroughly -and use judgment as to whether it is advisable to use a less or greater -quantity of compound, or to add a small quantity daily. - -Continue the washing out at short intervals, as many boilers have been -burned by large quantities of scale dropping on the crown sheets and -not being removed. - -Q. If a condenser was attached to a side-valve engine, that had been -set to run non-condensing, what changes, if any, would be necessary? - -A. More lap would have to be added to the valve to cut off the steam -at an earlier point of the stroke; if not, the initial pressure into -the cylinder would be throttled down and the economy, to be gained from -running condensing, lessened. - -Q. If you are carrying a vacuum equal to 27-1/2 inches of mercury, what -should the temperature of the water in the hot well be? - -A. 108 degrees Fahrenheit. - -Q. Define specific gravity. - -A. The specific gravity of a substance is the number which expresses -the relation between the weights of equal volume of that substance, and -distilled water of 60 degrees Fahrenheit. - -Q. Find the specific gravity of a body whose volume is 12 cubic inches, -and which floats in water with 7 cubic inches immersed. - -A. When a body floats in water, it displaces a quantity of water equal -to the weight of the floating body. Thus, if a body of 12 cubic inches -in volume floats with 7 cubic inches immersed, 7 cubic inches of water -must be equal in weight to 12 cubic inches of the substance and one -cubic inch of water to twelve-sevenths cubic inches of the substance. - -As specific gravity equals weight of one volume of substance divided by -weight of equal volume of water, then specific gravity of the substance -in this case equals 1 divided by twelve-sevenths. - - -USEFUL INFORMATION. - -To find circumference of a circle, multiply diameter by 3.1416. - -To find diameter of a circle, multiply circumference by .31831. - -To find area of a circle multiply square of diameter by .7854. - -To find area of a triangle, multiply base by one-half the perpendicular -height. - -To find surface of a ball, multiply square of diameter by 3.1416. - -To find solidity of a sphere, multiply cube of diameter by .5236. - -To find side of an equal square, multiply diameter by .8862. - -To find cubic inches in a ball multiply cube of diameter by .5236. - -Doubling the diameter of a pipe increases its capacity four times. - -A gallon of water (U. S. standard) weighs 8 1-3 pounds and contains 231 -cubic inches. - -A cubic foot of water contains 7-1/2 gallons, 1728 cubic inches, and -weighs 62-1/2 pounds. - -To find the pressure in pounds per square inch of a column of water -multiply the height of the column in feet by .434. - -Steam rising from water at its boiling point (212 degrees) has a -pressure equal to the atmosphere (14.7 pounds to the square inch). - -A standard horse power: The evaporation of 30 lbs. of water per hour -from a feed water temperature of 100 degrees F. into steam at 70 lbs. -gauge pressure. - -To find capacity of tanks any size; given dimensions of a cylinder in -inches, to find its capacity in U. S. gallons: Square the diameter, -multiply by the length and by .0034. - -To ascertain heating surface in tubular boilers, multiply two-thirds of -the circumference of boiler by length of boiler in inches and add to it -the area of all the tubes. - -One-sixth of tensile strength of plate multiplied by thickness of plate -and divided by one-half the diameter of boiler gives safe working -pressure for tubular boilers. For marine boilers add 20 per cent for -drilled holes. - -To find the horsepower of an engine, the following four factors must -be considered: Mean effective or average pressure on the cylinder, -length of stroke, diameter of cylinder, and number of revolutions per -minute. Find the area of the piston in square inches by multiplying -the diameter by 3.1416 and multiply the result by the steam pressure -in pounds per square inch; multiply this product by twice the product -of the length of the stroke in feet and the number of revolutions -per minute; divide the result by 33,000, and the result will be the -horsepower of the engine. - -(Theoretically a horsepower is a power that will raise 33,000 pounds -one foot in one minute.) - -The power of fuel is measured theoretically from the following basis: -If a pound weight fall 780 feet in a vacuum, it will generate heat -enough to raise the temperature of one pound of water one degree. -Conversely, power that will raise one pound of water one degree in -temperature will raise a one pound weight 780 feet. The heat force -required to turn a pound of water at 32 degrees into steam would lift -a ton weight 400 feet high, or develop two-fifths of one horsepower -for an hour. The best farm engine practically uses 35 pounds of water -per horsepower per hour, showing that one pound of water would develop -only one-thirty-fifth of a horsepower in an hour, or 7 1-7 per cent of -the heat force liberated. The rest of the heat force is lost in various -ways, as explained in the body of this book. - -The following[9] will assist in determining the amount of power -supplied to an engine: - - Footnote 9: J. H. Maggard in "Rough and Tumble Engineering." - -"For instance, a 1-inch belt of the standard grade with the proper -tension, neither too tight or too loose, running at a maximum speed of -800 feet a minute will transmit one horsepower, running 1,600 feet two -horsepower and 2,400 feet three horsepower. A 2-inch belt at the same -speed, twice the power. - -"Now if you know the circumference of your flywheel, the number of -revolutions your engine is making and the width of belt, you can figure -very nearly the amount of power you can supply without slipping your -belt. For instance, we will say your flywheel is 40 inches in diameter -or 10.5 feet nearly in circumference and your engine was running 225 -revolutions a minute, your belt would be traveling 225x10.5 feet = -2362.5 feet, or very nearly 2,400 feet, and if one inch of belt would -transmit three horsepower running this speed, a 6-inch belt would -transmit eighteen horsepower, a 7-inch belt twenty-one horsepower, an -8-inch belt twenty-four horsepower, and so on. With the above as a -basis for figuring you can satisfy yourself as to the power you are -furnishing. To get the best results a belt wants to sag slightly, as it -hugs the pulley closer, and will last much longer." - - -KEYING PULLEYS.[10] - -A key must be of equal width its whole length and accurately fit the -seats on shaft and in pulley. The thickness should vary enough to make -the taper correspond with that of the seat in the pulley. The keys -should be driven in tight enough to be safe against working loose. The -hubs of most of the pulleys on the machine run against the boxes, and -in keying these on, about 1-32 of an inch end play to the shaft should -be allowed, because there is danger of the pulley rubbing so hard -against the end of the box as to cause it to heat. - -A key that is too thin but otherwise fits all right can be made tight -by putting a strip of tin between the key and the bottom of the seat in -the pulley. - -_Drawing Keys._ If a part of the key stands outside of the hub, catch -it with a pair of horseshoe pinchers and pry with them against the hub, -at the same time hitting the hub with a hammer so as to drive pulley -on. A key can sometimes be drawn by catching the end of it with a claw -hammer and driving on the hub of pulley. If pulley is against box and -key cut off flush with hub, take the shaft out and use a drift from the -inside, or if seat is not long enough to make this possible, drive the -pulley on until the key loosens. - - -BABBITTING BOXES.[10] - -To babbitt any kind of a box, first chip out all of the old babbitt -and clean the shaft and box thoroughly with benzine. This is necessary -or gas will be formed from the grease when the hot metal is poured in -and leave "blow holes." In babbitting a _solid box_ cover the shaft -with paper, draw it smooth and tight, and fasten the lapped ends with -mucilage. If this is not done the shrinkage of the metal in cooling -will make it fast on the shaft, so that it can't be moved. If this -happened it would be necessary to put the shaft and box together in -the fire and melt the babbitt out or else break the box to get it off. -Paper around the shaft will prevent this and if taken out when the -babbitt has cooled the shaft will be found to be just tight enough to -run well. - - Footnote 10: Courtesy J. I. Case Threshing Machine Co., from "Science - of Successful Threshing." - -Before pouring the box, block up the shaft until it is in line and in -center of the box and put stiff putty around the shaft and against -the ends of the box to keep the babbitt from running out. Be sure to -leave air-holes at each end at the top, making a little funnel of putty -around each. Also make a larger funnel around the pouring hole, or, -if there is none, enlarge one of the air-holes at the end and pour in -that. The metal should be heated until it is just hot enough to run -freely and the fire should not be too far away. When ready to pour the -box, don't hesitate or stop, but pour continuously and rapidly until -the metal appears at the air holes. The oil hole may be stopped with a -wooden plug and if this plug extends through far enough to touch the -shaft, it will leave a hole through the babbitt so that it will not be -necessary to drill one. - -_A split box_ is babbitted in the same manner except that strips of -cardboard or sheet-iron are placed between the two halves of the box -and against the shaft to divide the babbitt. To let the babbitt run -from the upper half to the lower, cut four or six V-shaped notches, a -quarter of an inch deep, in the edges of the sheet-iron or cardboard -that come against the shaft. Cover the shaft with paper and put -cardboard liners between the box to allow for adjustment as it wears. -Bolt the cap on securely before pouring. When the babbitt has cooled, -break the box apart by driving a cold chisel between the two halves. -Trim off the sharp edges of the babbitt and with a round-nose chisel -cut oil grooves from the oil hole towards the ends of the box and on -the slack side of the box or the one opposite to the direction in which -the belt pulls. - -The ladle should hold six or eight pounds of metal. If much larger it -is awkward to handle and if too small it will not keep the metal hot -long enough to pour a good box. The cylinder boxes on the separator -take from two to three pounds of metal each. If no putty is at hand, -clay mixed to the proper consistency may be used. Use the best babbitt -you can get for the cylinder boxes. If not sure of the quality, use -ordinary zinc. It is not expensive and is generally satisfactory. - - -MISCELLANEOUS. - -Lime may be taken out of an injector by soaking it over night in a -mixture of one part of muriatic acid and ten parts soft water. If a -larger proportion of acid is used it is likely to spoil the injector. - -A good blacking for boilers and smokestacks is asphaltum dissolved in -turpentine. - -To polish brass, dissolve 5 cents' worth of oxalic acid in a pint of -water and use to clean the brass. When tarnish has been removed, dry -and polish with chalk or whiting. - -It is said that iron or steel will not rust if it is placed for a few -minutes in a warm solution of washing soda. - -Grease on the bottom of a boiler will stick there and prevent the water -from conducting away the heat. When steel is thus covered with grease -it will soon melt in a hot fire, causing a boiler to burst if the steel -is poor, or warping it out of shape if the steel is good. - -Sulphate of lime in water, causing scale, may be counteracted and scale -removed by using coal oil and sal soda. When water contains carbonate -of lime, molasses will remove the scale. - - -CODE OF WHISTLE SIGNALS. - -One short sound means to stop. - -Two short sounds means the engine is about to begin work. - -Three medium short sounds mean that the machine will soon need grain -and grain haulers should hurry. - -One rather long sound followed by three short ones means the water is -low and water hauler should hurry. - -A succession of short, quick whistles means distress or fire. - - -WEIGHT PER BUSHEL OF GRAIN. - -The following table gives the number of pounds per bushel required by -law or custom in the sale of grain in the several states: - - ====================+==+==+==+==+==+==+==+==+==+==+== - | | | | | | | | | S| | - | | | | | | | | | h| | - | | | | | | | | | e| | - | | | B| | | | | | l| | - | | | u| | | | | | l| | - | | | c| | | | | | e| T| - | B| | k| C| | M| | | d| i| - | a| B| w| l| | i| | | | m| W - | r| e| h| o| F| l| O| | C| o| h - | l| a| e| v| l| l| a| R| o| t| e - | e| n| a| e| a| e| t| y| r| h| a - | y| s| t| r| x| t| s| e| n| y| t - | .| .| .| .| .| .| .| .| .| .| . - --------------------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+-- - Arkansas |48|60|52|60|..|..|..|56|56|45|60 - California |50|..|40|..|..|..|32|54|52|..|60 - Connecticut |..|..|45|..|..|..|32|56|56|..|56 - District of Columbia|47|62|48|60|..|..|32|56|56|45|60 - Georgia |40|..|..|60|..|..|35|56|56|45|60 - Illinois |48|60|52|60|56|45|32|56|56|..|60 - Indiana |48|60|50|60|..|..|32|56|56|45|60 - Iowa |48|60|52|60|56|48|32|56|56|45|60 - Kansas |50|60|50|..|..|..|32|56|56|45|60 - Kentucky |48|60|52|60|56|..|32|56|56|45|60 - Louisiana |32|..|..|..|..|..|32|..|56|..|60 - Maine |48|64|48|..|..|..|30|..|56|..|60 - Manitoba |48|..|48|60|56|34|..|56|56|..|60 - Maryland |48|64|48|..|..|..|32|56|56|45|60 - Massachusetts |48|48|..|..|..|..|32|56|56|..|60 - Michigan |48|..|48|60|56|..|32|56|56|45|60 - Minnesota |48|60|42|60|..|48|32|56|56|..|60 - Missouri |48|60|52|60|56|50|32|56|56|45|60 - Nebraska |48|60|52|60|..|..|34|56|56|45|60 - New York |48|62|48|60|..|..|32|56|58|44|60 - New Jersey |48|..|50|64|..|..|30|56|56|..|60 - New Hampshire |..|60|..|..|..|..|30|56|56|..|60 - North Carolina |48|..|50|64|..|..|30|56|54|..|60 - North Dakota |48|..|42|60|56|..|32|56|56|..|60 - Ohio |48|60|50|60|..|..|32|50|56|45|60 - Oklahoma |48|..|42|60|56|..|32|56|56|..|60 - Oregon |46|..|42|60|..|..|36|56|56|..|60 - Pennsylvania |47|..|48|62|..|..|30|56|56|..|60 - South Dakota |48|..|52|60|56|50|32|56|56|..|60 - South Carolina |48|60|56|60|..|..|33|56|56|..|60 - Vermont |48|64|48|..|60|..|32|56|56|42|60 - Virginia |48|60|48|64|..|..|32|56|56|45|60 - West Virginia |48|60|52|60|..|..|32|56|56|45|60 - Wisconsin |48|..|48|60|..|..|32|56|56|..|60 - --------------------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+-- - - - - -CHAPTER XVI. - -DIFFERENT MAKES OF TRACTION ENGINES. - - -J. I. CASE TRACTION ENGINES. - -These engines are among the simplest and at the same time most -substantial and durable traction engines on the market. They are built -of the best materials throughout, and are one of the easiest engines -for a novice to run. - -They are of the side crank type, with spring mounting. The engine is -supported by a bracket bolted to the side of the boiler, and a pillow -block bearing at the firebox end bolted to the side plate of the boiler. - -The valve is the improved Woolf, a single simple valve being used, -worked by a single eccentric. The eccentric strap has an extended arm -pivoted in a wooden block sliding in a guide. The direction of this -guide can be so changed by the reverse lever as to vary the cut-off and -easily reverse the engine when desired. - -The engine is built either with a simple cylinder or with a tandem -compound cylinder. - -In the operation of the differential gear, the power is first -transmitted to spur gear, containing cushion springs, from thence by -the springs to a center ring and four bevel pinions which bear equally -upon both bevel gears. The whole differential consequently will move -together as but one wheel when engine is moving straight forward or -backward; but when turning a corner the four pinions revolve in the -bevel gears just in proportion to the sharpness of the curve. - -There is a friction clutch working on the inside of the flywheel by -means of two friction shoes that can be adjusted as they wear. - -There is a feed water heater with three tubes in a watertight cylinder -into which the exhaust steam is admitted. The three tubes have smaller -pipes inside so that the feed water in passing through forms a thin -cylindrical ring. - -[Illustration: J. I. CASE TRACTION ENGINE.] - -The traction wheels are driven from the rims. The front wheels have a -square band on the center of the rim, to prevent slipping sidewise. The -smokestack is cast iron in one piece. - -The firebox will burn wood, coal or straw, a fire brick arch being used -for straw, making this fuel give a uniform heat. - -The boiler is of the simple locomotive type, with water leg around -the firebox and numerous fire flues connecting the firebox with the -smokestack in front. There is safety plug in crown sheet and the usual -fittings. The water tank is under the platform. The steering wheel and -band wheel are on right side of engine. An independent Marsh pump and -injector are used. The Marsh pump is arranged to heat the feed water -when exhaust heater cannot be used. The governor is the Waters, the -safety valve the Kunkle. - - -THE FRICK CO.'S TRACTION ENGINE. - -The most noticeable feature of this engine is that it has a frame -mounted on the traction wheels entirely independent of the boiler, thus -relieving the boiler of all strain. This is an undeniable advantage, -since usually the strain on the boiler is great enough without forcing -the boiler to carry the engine and gears. - -[Illustration: THE FRICK CO.'S TRACTION ENGINE.] - -The gearing to the traction wheels is simple and direct, and a patent -elastic spring or cushion connection is used which avoids sudden strain -and possible breakage of gears. Steel traction wheels and riveted -spokes. Differential gear in main axle, with locking device when both -traction wheels are required to pull out of a hole. The reverse gear -is single eccentric, the eccentric turning on the shaft. It is well -adapted to using steam expansively. The crown sheet is so arranged as -not to be left bare of water in going up or down hills. Working parts -are covered dust proof. Engine has self-oiling features and sight -feed lubricator. Friction clutch in flywheel. Safety brake on main -axle. Engineer's platform mounted on springs and every part of engine -requiring attention can be reached conveniently from platform. - -Crank is center type. Cross-head pump is used. Usual fittings. - -[Illustration: GAAR, SCOTT & CO.'S TRACTION ENGINE.] - -These engines are built with boiler of locomotive type for burning wood -and coal, and of return flue type for burning straw. They are also -built of three general types, "Corliss-pattern" frame, "Standard" and -"Compound." - -The engine is side crank, mounted on brackets attached to the sides -of the boiler. The bedplate, cylinder and guides are bored at one -operation and cannot get out of alignment. Cylinder has wide ports -and free exhaust, and piston has self-setting rings. The genuine link -reverse gear is used, as on locomotives, and it undoubtedly has many -advantages over any other, including an easily adjustable variable -cut-off by correct setting of reverse lever. - -The differential gear is heavy and effective. A patent steering -attachment, with spiral roll, holds chains taut and gives positive -motion. Friction clutch is mounted on engine shaft and connects with -the hub of the pinion on this shaft. Rigid pinion is also provided. -Cross-head pump and injector are used, and Pickering governor with -improved spring speeder, permitting quick and easy change of speed; -also Sawyer's lever for testing safety. Steam passes direct from dome -to cylinder, without loss from cooling or condensing. The steel water -tank can be filled by a jet pump operated by steam. - - -D. JUNE & CO.'S TRACTION ENGINE. - -This is one of the very few traction engines built with upright boiler, -but it has been on the market many years and has been widely used with -great success as a general road locomotive. - -The engine is mounted on the water tank. The weight of the boiler -comes on the hind wheels, and makes this type of engine superior for -pulling. It is claimed that it has no equal on the market as a puller. -The upright type of boiler has the advantage that the crown sheet -is never exposed and it is claimed flues will last longer than in -horizontal type. It works equally well whether it stands level or not, -an advantage that no other type has. - -This type gets up steam more quickly than any other--it is said, -from cold water, in twenty minutes. The steam is superheated in a -way to economize fuel and water. By being mounted on the tank, the -engine does not get hot as it would if mounted on the boiler, and the -corresponding straining of parts is avoided. A patent water spark -arrester is used which is an absolute protection. - -[Illustration: D. JUNE & CO.'S TRACTION ENGINE.] - -The engine is geared to the traction by a chain, which can easily be -repaired as the links wear. The friction clutch works inside flywheel. -Engine has a new reversible eccentric, and differential gear, with -usual fittings. - - -NICHOLS & SHEPARD TRACTION ENGINE. - -The builders of this engine lay special stress upon the care with which -the boiler and similar parts are constructed. The important seams are -double riveted, and the flue sheet is half inch steel, drilled instead -of punched for the flues, and fitted with seamless steel flues, all of -the best steel. - -[Illustration: NICHOLS & SHEPARD TRACTION ENGINE.] - -The boiler is the direct flue locomotive type. The crown sheet slopes -backward to allow it to be covered with water in descending hills. -Boiler has round-bottom firebox. Axle passes around below the boiler, -and springs are provided. - -The engine is mounted on a long heater, which is attached to the side -of the boiler. The locomotive link reverse is used, with a plain slide -valve. - -Cross-head pump and injector are used, and improved pop safety valve. -Cylinder is jacketed, and cross-head guides are rigid with cylinder, so -that perfect alignment is always secured. - -Engines are built to burn coal or wood. A straw burner is provided with -firebrick arch. Compound engines are also built. - - -THE HUBER TRACTION ENGINE. - -The Huber boiler is of the return flue type, and the gates are in the -large central tube. This does away with the low-hanging firebox, and -enables the engine to cross streams and straddle stumps as the low -firebox type cannot do. The cylindrical shape of the boiler also adds -considerably to its strength. The water tank is carried in front, and -swings around so as to open the smoke box, so that repairs may be made -on the fire tubes at this end easily in the open air. With water front -return flue boilers the workman has to crawl through entire length of -central flue. As there is no firebox, the boiler is mounted above the -axle, not by bolting a plate to the side of the firebox. The boiler -is made fast to the axle, which is mounted on wheels with spring -cushion gear, the springs being placed in the wheel itself, between -the two bearings of the wheel or the hub on trunnions, which form the -spindle for the hub. The wheel revolves on the trunnion instead of on -the axle, and there is no wear on the axle. The traction gear has a -spring connection so that in starting a load there is little danger of -breakage. The compensating gear is all spur. The intermediate gear has -a ten-inch bearing, with an eccentric in the center for adjusting the -gear above and below. There is a spring draw bar and elastic steering -device. An improved friction clutch works on inside of flywheel. Engine -has a special governor adapted to varying work over rough roads, etc. - -[Illustration: THE HUBER TRACTION ENGINE.] - -A single eccentric reverse gear is used, with arm and wood slide block -(Woolf); and there is a variable exhaust, by which a strong draft may -be quickly created by shutting off one of two exhaust nozzles. When -both exhausts are open, back pressure is almost entirely relieved. - -The steam is carried in a pipe down through the middle of the central -flue, so that superheating is secured, which it is claimed makes a -saving of over 8 per cent in fuel and water. The stack is double walled -with air space between the walls. - -A special straw-burning engine is constructed with a firebox extension -in front, and straw passes over the end of a grate in such a way as to -get perfect combustion. This make of engine is peculiarly adapted to -burning straw successfully. - - -A. W. STEVENS' TRACTION ENGINE. - -This engine has locomotive pattern boiler, with sloping crown sheet, -and especially high offset over firebox, doubling steam space that -will give dry steam at all times. A large size steam pipe passes from -dome in rear through boiler to engine in front, superheating steam and -avoiding condensation from exposure. Grate is a rocking one, easily -cleaned and requiring little attention, and firedoor is of a pattern -that remains air-tight and need seldom be opened. - -The engine is mounted upon the boiler, arranged for rear gear traction -attachment. Engine frame, cylinder, guides, etc., are cast in one solid -piece. - -[Illustration: A. W. STEVENS' TRACTION ENGINE.] - -It has a special patented single eccentric reverse, and Pickering -horizontal governor. There is a friction clutch, Marsh steam pump, -and injector. Other fittings are complete, and engine is well made -throughout. - - -AULTMAN-TAYLOR TRACTION ENGINE. - -The Aultman-Taylor Traction Engine is an exceptionally well made -engine of the simplest type, and has been on the market over 25 years. -There are two general types, the wood and coal burners with locomotive -boilers, and return flue boiler style for burning straw. A compound -engine is also made with the Woolf single valve gear. - -[Illustration: AULTMAN-TAYLOR TRACTION ENGINE.] - -A special feature of this engine is that the rear axle comes behind -the firebox instead of between the firebox and the front wheels. This -distributes the weight of the engine more evenly. The makers do not -believe in springs for the rear axle, since they have a tendency to -wear the gear convex or round, and really accomplish much less than -they are supposed to. - -Another special point is the bevel traction gear. The engine is mounted -on the boiler well toward the front, and the flywheel is near the stack -(in the locomotive type). By bevel gears and a long shaft the power is -conducted to the differential gear in connection with the rear wheels. -The makers claim that lost motion can be taken up in a bevel gear much -better than in a spur gear. Besides, the spur gear is noisy and not -nearly so durable. Much less friction is claimed for this type of gear. - -The governor is the Pickering; cross-head pump is used, with U. S. -injector; heater, and other fittings complete. A band friction clutch -is used, said to be very durable. Diamond special spark arrester is -used except in straw burners. The platform and front bolster are -provided with springs. The makers especially recommend their compound -engine, claiming a gain of about 25 per cent. The use of automatic band -cutters and feeders, automatic weighers and baggers, and pneumatic -stackers with threshing machine outfits make additional demands on -an engine that is best met by the compound type. With large outfits, -making large demands, the compound engine gives the required power -without undue weight. - - -AVERY TRACTION ENGINE. - -The Avery is an engine with a return flue boiler and full water front, -and also is arranged with a firebox besides. There is no doubt that it -effects the greatest economy of fuel possible, and is adaptable equally -for wood, coal, or straw. The boiler is so built that a man may readily -crawl through the large central flue and get at the front ends of the -return tubes to repair them. - -[Illustration: AVERY TRACTION ENGINE.] - -The side gear is used with a crank disc instead of arm. The reverse is -the Grime, a single eccentric with device for shifting for reverse. The -friction clutch has unusually long shoes, working inside the flywheel, -with ample clearance when lever is off. A specialty is made of extra -wide traction wheels for soft country. The traction gear is of the spur -variety. There is also a double speed device offered as an extra. - -The water tank is carried in front, and lubricator, steering wheel (on -same side as band wheel for convenience in lining up with separator), -reverse lever, friction clutch, etc., are all right at the hand of the -engineer. - -The traction gear is of the spur variety, adjusted to be evenly -distributed to both traction wheels through the compensating gear, and -to get the best possible pull in case of need. - -For pulling qualities and economy of fuel, this engine is especially -recommended. - - -BUFFALO PITTS TRACTION ENGINE. - -The Buffalo Pitts Engine is built either single cylinder or double -cylinder. The boiler is of the direct flue locomotive type, with full -water bottom firebox. The straw burners are provided with a firebrick -arch in the firebox. Boilers are fully jacketed. - -[Illustration: BUFFALO PITTS TRACTION ENGINE.] - -The single and double cylinder engines differ only in this one -particular, the double cylinder having the advantage of never being on -a dead center and starting with perfect smoothness and gently, seldom -throwing off belt. The frame has bored guides, in same piece with -cylinder, effecting perfect alignment. - -The compensating gear is of the bevel type, half shrouded and so close -together that sand and grit are kept out. Three pinions are used, which -it is claimed prevent rocking caused by two or four pinions. - -Cross-head has shoes unusually long and wide. The engine frame is of -the box pattern, and is also used as a heater, feed water for either -injector or steam pump passing through it. Valve is of the plain -locomotive slide type. - -The friction clutch has hinged arms working into flywheel with but -slight beveling on flywheel inner surface, and being susceptible of -easy release. It is a specially patented device. The Woolf single -eccentric reverse gear is used. Engine is fully provided with all -modern fittings and appliances in addition to those mentioned. It was -the only traction engine exhibited at Pan-American Exposition which won -gold medal or highest award. It claims extra high grade of workmanship -and durability. - - -THE REEVES TRACTION ENGINES. - -These engines are made in two styles, simple double cylinder and cross -compound. The double cylinder and cross compound style have been -very successfully adapted to traction engine purposes with certain -advantages that no other style of traction engine has. With two -cylinders and two pistons placed side by side, with crank pins at right -angles on the shaft, there can be no dead centers, at which an engine -will be completely stuck. Then sudden starting is liable to throw off -the main belt. With a double cylinder engine the starting is always -gradual and easy, and never fails. - -The same is equally true of the cross compound, which has the advantage -of using the steam expansively in the low pressure cylinder. In case of -need the live steam may be introduced into the low pressure cylinder, -enormously increasing the pulling power of the engine for an emergency, -though the capacity of the boiler does not permit long use of both -cylinders in this way. - -[Illustration: THE REEVES TRACTION ENGINE.] - -The engine is placed on top of the firebox portion of the boiler, and -the weight is nicely balanced so that it comes on both sides alike. - -The gearing is attached to the axle and countershaft which extend -across the engine. The compensating gear is strong and well covered -from dirt. The gearing is the gear type, axle turning with the drivers. -There is an independent pump; also injector, and all attachments. The -band wheel being on the steering wheel or right side of the engine, -makes it easy to line up to a threshing machine. Engine frame is of the -Corliss pattern; boiler of locomotive type, and extra strongly built. - - -THE RUMELY TRACTION ENGINE. - -The most striking peculiarity is that the engine is mounted on the -boiler differently from most side crank traction engines, the cylinder -being forward and the shaft at the rear. This brings the gearing nearer -the traction wheels and reduces its weight and complication. - -[Illustration: THE RUMELY TRACTION ENGINE.] - -The boiler is of the round bottom firebox type, with dome in front and -an ash pan in lower part of firebox, and is unusually well built and -firmly riveted. - -The traction wheels are usually high, and the flywheel is between one -wheel and the boiler. - -The engine frame is of the girder pattern, with overhanging cylinder -attached to one end. - -The boiler is of the direct flue locomotive type, fitted for straw, -wood, or coal. Beam axle of the engine is behind the firebox, and is -a single solid steel shaft. Front axle is elliptical, and so stronger -than any other type. - -A double cylinder engine is now being built as well as the single -cylinder. The governor regulates the double cylinder engine more -closely than single cylinder types, and in the Rumely is very close -to the cut-off where a special simple reverse is used with the double -cylinder engine. - -Engine is supplied with cross-head pump and injector, Arnold shifting -eccentric reverse gear, friction clutch, and large cylindrical water -tank on the side. It also has the usual engine and boiler fittings. - - -PORT HURON TRACTION ENGINE. - -The Port Huron traction engine is of the direct flue locomotive type, -built either simple or compound, and of medium weight and excellent -proportions for general purpose use. The compound engine (tandem Woolf -cylinders) is especially recommended and pushed as more economical -than the simple cylinder engine. As live steam can be admitted to the -low pressure cylinder, so turning the compound into a simple cylinder -engine with two cylinders, enormous power can be obtained at a moment's -notice to help out at a difficult point. - -[Illustration: PORT HURON TRACTION ENGINE.] - -Two injectors are furnished with this engine, and the use of the -injector is recommended, contrary to the general belief that a pump is -more economical. The company contends that the long exhaust pipe causes -more back pressure on the cylinder than would be represented by the -saving of heat in the heater. However, a cross-head pump and special -condensing heater will be furnished if desired. - -On the simple engine a piston valve is used, the seat of the valve -completely surrounding it and the ports being circular openings, the -result, it is claimed, being a balanced valve. - -The valve reverse gear is of the Woolf pattern, the engine frame of -the girder type, Waters governor, with special patent speed changer, -specially balanced crank disc, patent straw burner arrangement for -straw burning engines, special patent spark extinguisher, special -patent gear lock, and special patents on front axle, drive wheel and -loco cab. - -The usual fittings are supplied. - - -MINNEAPOLIS TRACTION ENGINE. - -The Minneapolis traction engine is built both simple and compound. -All sizes and styles have the return flue boiler, for wood, coal or -straw. Both axles extend entirely and straight under the boiler, -giving complete support without strain. The cylinder, steam chest and -guides form one piece, and are mounted above a heater, secured firmly -to the boiler; valve single simple D pattern. Special throttle of the -butterfly pattern, large crank pin turned by special device after it -is driven in, so insuring perfect adjustment; special patent exhaust -nozzle made adjustable and so as always to throw steam in center of -stack; friction clutch with three adjustable shoes. Boiler is supplied -with a superheater pipe. Woolf valve and reverse gear. Special heavy -brass boxes and stuffing-boxes. Sight feed lubricator and needle feed -oiler; Gardner spring governor. Complete with usual fittings. This is a -simply constructed but very well made engine. - -[Illustration: MINNEAPOLIS TRACTION ENGINE.] - - - - -INDEX. - - - PAGE - A - - Ash pit, 70 - - Attachments for traction engine, 52 - - Automatic cut-off engines, 137 - - - B - - Babbitt boxes, how to, 189 - - Blast devices, 30 - - Blow-off devices, 30 - - Boiler and engine, test questions, 52 - - Boiler, attachments, 20 - - Boiler, heating surface of, 132 - - Boiler, how to manage, 56 - - Boiler, locomotive, 13 - - Boiler, questions, and answers, 95 - - Boiler, return flue, 15 - - Boiler, starting a, 57 - - Boiler, vertical, 17 - - Boiler, water for, 62 - - Boilers, 11 - - Boilers, how to fill with water, 24 - - Boilers, terms connected with, 17 - - Boss, 43 - - Box, a hot, 87 - - Boxes, how to babbitt, 189 - - Bridges, how to cross safely, 93 - - Buying an engine, 7 - - - C - - Clearance, 35 - - Clearance and lead, 134 - - Compound and cross-compound engines, 141 - - Compound engines, 124 - - Condensation and expansion, 134 - - Condenser, 35 - - Condensing engines, 140 - - Connecting rod, 34 - - Corliss engines, 138 - - Crank, 34, 41, 42 - - Cross-head, 33 - - Cushion, 35 - - Cylinder cocks, 50 - - Cylinder cocks, how to use, 83 - - Cylinder head, 33 - - Cylinder lubricators, 45 - - - D - - Differential gear, 46 - - Double eccentric, how to set valve, 82 - - - E - - Eccentric, 36 - - Eccentric rod, 36 - - Eccentric, slipping of, 83 - - Economy in running farm engine, 116, 130 - - Engine and boiler, test questions, 52 - - Engine, compound, 124 - - Engines, different types of, 137 - - Engine, how to manage, 77 - - Engine, simple, 32 - - Exhaust chamber, 35 - - Exhaust, the, 135 - - Exhaust nozzle, 35 - - Expansion and condensation, 134 - - Expansive power of steam, how to use, 122 - - - F - - Farm, engine, economy in running, 116, 130 - - Fire, starting, 70 - - Firing, economical, 67 - - Firing with coal, 68 - - Firing with straw, 69 - - Firing with wood, 69 - - Fly-wheel, 44 - - Friction, 126 - - Friction clutch, 47, 88 - - Fuel and grate surface, 130 - - Fusible plug, 48, 72 - - - G - - Gas and gasoline engines, 143 - - Gas engines compared with steam, 144 - - Gasoline engines, description of, 146 - - Gasoline engines, how to operate, 150 - - Gasoline engines, what to do when they don't work, 153 - - Gauge, water, 20 - - Gauge, steam, 22 - - Governors, 40 - - Grain, weight per bushel, 192 - - Grate surface, 130 - - - H - - Heater, 67 - - Heating surface of a boiler, 132 - - High speed engines, 139 - - Hills, how to pass with engine, 94 - - Hole, how to get out of, 92 - - Hot box, a, 87 - - How energy is lost, 119 - - How heat is distributed, 120 - - - I - - Indicator, steam, 50 - - Injectors, 28-66 - - - J - - Journals, 41, 44 - - - K - - Key, gib, and strap, 42 - - Knock, what makes an engine, 79 - - - L - - Lap of a valve, 35 - - Lead, 35, 80 - - Lead and clearance, 134 - - Leaks, 136 - - Leaky flues, 73 - - License, questions asked applicants for, 173 - - Link gear, 37 - - Lubrication, 85 - - Lubricators, 44 - - - M - - Meyer valve gear, 40 - - - N - - Non-condensing engines, 140 - - - P - - Pillow blocks, 44 - - Piston, 33 - - Ports, 34 - - Practical points of economy, 130 - - Pulleys, how to key, 189 - - Pumps, boiler, 25, 63 - - - Q - - Questions and answers, 95, 173, 104 - - Questions and answers, the boiler, 95 - - Questions and answers, the engine, 104 - - Questions, test, on engine and boiler, 52 - - - R - - Reversing gear, 37 - - Road, how to handle traction engine on the, 91 - - - S - - Safety valves, 23 - - Sand patches, how to get over with engine, 93 - - Setting a valve, 35, 81 - - Shaft, 41 - - Smoke, 71 - - Spark arresters, 31 - - Sparks, 72 - - Stationary engines, 137 - - Steam-chest, 34 - - Steam cylinder, 33 - - Steam, how to use expansive power of, 122 - - Steam, properties of, 121 - - Steam valve, 34 - - Stuffing box, 35, 50 - - - T - - Threshing machines, how to run, 158 - Attachments, 167 - Balancing a cylinder, 170 - Belting, 167 - Concaves, 162 - Conveyor extension, 164 - Covering pulleys, 171 - Cylinder, 161 - Fan, 163 - How to feed, 169 - Self-feeder, 165 - Separator, how to set, 160 - Separator, care of, 171 - Sieves, 164 - Straw rack, 163 - Tailings elevator, 165 - Waste, 169 - Wind stacker, 166 - - Theory of steam power, 116 - - Throttling engines, 137 - - Throttle, 34 - - Throw of an eccentric, 36 - - Traction engines, different makes, 193 - - Traction, engine, how, to handle on the road, 91 - - Traction, engine, how, to manage, 77 - - - V - - Valve gear, 36 - - Valve, how to set simple, 81 - - Valve seat, 34 - - Valve, setting, 35 - - Valve stem, 35 - - Valve, steam, 34 - - - W - - Whistle signals, code of, 191 - - Woolf reversing gear, 39 - - - Y - - Young engineers, points for, 95, 104, 110 - - - - -"ANNOUNCEMENT" - -=A NEW WORK= =UP-TO-DATE=, WILL BE PUBLISHED March 15th, 1903. A book -every carpenter and builder, machinist, mechanic and apprentice will -want. The life work of that well-known writer, Mr. Fred T. Hodgson. - -[Illustration] - -"PRACTICAL USES OF THE STEEL SQUARE" - -A Modern Treatise by Fred T. Hodgson. An exhaustive work including a -brief history of the Square; a description of many of the Squares that -are now, and have been in the market, including some very ingenious -devices for laying out Bevels for Rafters, Braces and other inclined -work; also chapters on the Square as a calculating machine, showing how -to measure Solids, Surfaces and Distances--very useful to builders and -estimators. Chapters on roofing and how to form them by the aid of the -Square; Octagon, Hexagon, Hip and other Roofs are shown and explained, -and the manner of getting the rafters and jacks given; Chapters on -heavy timber framing, showing how the Square is used for laying out -Mortises, Tenons, Shoulders, Inclined Work, Angle Corners and similar -work. - -The work abounds with hundreds of fine illustrations and explanatory -diagrams, which will prove a perfect mine of instruction for the -mechanic, young or old. - -Two large volumes, bound in fine cloth, printed on a superior quality -of paper from new large type. Each copy bears the Union Label, being -made entirely by Union labor. - - PRICE, 2 Vols, in a Box, Cloth Binding $2.00 - PRICE, 2 Vols, in a Box, Half-morocco Leather Binding 3.00 - -=PUBLISHERS' NOTE=--We wish to state this work is entirely new and must -not be mistaken for Mr. Hodgson's former works on the "Steel Square," -which were published some twenty years ago. Be sure and ask for -"Practical Uses of the Steel Square," by Fred T. Hodgson, which bears -the imprint of - - Send for descriptive circulars. - - =FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO., Publishers= of - Hodgson's "Modern Carpentry," "Common-Sense Handrailing," etc. - - - - -_Common-Sense Handrailings and How to Build Them_ - -By FRED T. HODGSON - -_ILLUSTRATED_ - -[Illustration] - -This new volume contains three distinct treatises on the subject, -each of which is complete in itself. The system of forming the lines -for obtaining the various curves, wreaths, ramps and face moulds for -handrails are the simplest in use and those employed by the most -successful handrailers. Mr. Hodgson has placed this unusually intricate -subject before his readers in a very plain and easily understood -manner, and any workman having a fair knowledge of "lines" and who can -construct an ordinary straight stairway can readily grasp the whole -system of "handrailing" after a small study of this work. - -The building of stairs and properly making and placing over them a -graceful handrail and suitable balusters and newel posts is one of the -greatest achievements of the joiner's art and skill, yet it is an art -that is the least understood of any of the constructive processes the -carpenter or joiner is called upon to accomplish. In but very few of -the plans made by an architect are the stairs properly laid down or -divided off; indeed, most of the stairs as laid out and planned by the -architect, are impossible ones owing to the fact that the circumstances -that govern the formation of the rail, are either not understood, or -not noticed by the designer, and the expert handrailer often finds -it difficult to conform the stairs and rail to the plan. Generally, -however, he gets so close to it that the character or the design is -seldom changed. - -The stairs are the great feature of a building as they are the first -object that meets the visitor and claims his attention, and it is -essential, therefore, that the stair and its adjuncts should have a -neat and graceful appearance, and this can only be accomplished by -having the rail properly made and set up. - -This little book gives such instructions in the art of handrailing as -will enable the young workman to build a rail so that it will assume a -handsome appearance when set in place. There are eleven distinct styles -of stairs shown, but the same principle that governs the making of the -simplest rail, governs the construction of the most difficult, so, once -having mastered the simple problems in this system, progress in the -art will become easy, and a little study and practice will enable the -workman to construct a rail for the most tortuous stairway. - -The book is copiously illustrated with nearly one hundred working -diagrams together with full descriptive text. - - _12mo CLOTH, PRICE, $1.00_ - - FREDERICK J. DRAKE 6 CO., Publishers - 211-213 East Madison St., CHICAGO - - - - -Modern Carpentry - -A PRACTICAL MANUAL - -FOR CARPENTERS AND WOOD WORKERS GENERALLY - -By Fred T. Hodgson, Architect, Editor of the National Builder, -Practical Carpentry, Steel Square and Its Uses, etc., etc. - -[Illustration] - -A new, complete guide, containing =hundreds of quick methods= for -performing work in =carpentry, joining and general wood-work=. Like all -of Mr. Hodgson's works, it is written in a simple, every-day style, -and does not bewilder the working-man with long mathematical formulas -or abstract theories. The illustrations, of which there are many, -are explanatory, so that any one who can read plain English will be -able to understand them easily and to follow the work in hand without -difficulty. - -The book contains methods of =laying roofs=, =rafters=, =stairs=, -=floors=, =hoppers=, =bevels=, =joining mouldings=, =mitering=, -=coping=, =plain hand-railing=, =circular work=, =splayed work=, and -many other things the carpenter wants to know to help him in his -every day vocation. It is the =most complete= and =very latest= work -published, being =thorough=, =practical= and =reliable=. One which no -carpenter can afford to be without. - -The work is printed from new, large type plates on a superior quality -of cream wove paper, durably bound in English cloth. - -Price $1.00 - - FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO. - 211-213 E. Madison St., Chicago. - - - - -Scientific Horse, Mule _and_ Ox Shoeing - -By J. G. Holmstrom, - -Author of Modern Blacksmithing - -[Illustration] - -=A standard treatise=, adapted to the demand of =Veterinarians=, -=Farriers= and the =Amateur Horseshoer=. Illustrated. The book is -concisely written; no long articles over the experiments of others, but -gives the best methods known up to date. - -Although there are principles laid down in the book that will stand -so long as the horse is a horse, the author does not lay any claim to -infalibility or perfection; he has simply laid a foundation upon which -the ironer of horses' feet may build and develop a perfect structure. - -Among some of the valuable contents are:-- - - Anatomy of the Foot. - The Shoe and How to Make it. - Right and Wrong Filling. - How to Nail the Shoe. - How to Fit and Recalk Old Shoes. - Interfering. - Preparing the Foot for Shoeing. - Shoeing a Trotter. - Mule Shoeing. - Ox Shoeing. - Diseases of the Horse. - Hot and Cold Fitting. - How to Shoe Vicious Horses. - Kneesprung. - Stringhalt. - Contraction. - Sand Cracks, etc., etc. - -Many of the fine illustrations used are reproduced by permission from -books issued by the U. S. Department of Agriculture. - -Large 12mo, Cloth, with Special Cover Design, =$1.00= - -Sold by Booksellers generally, or sent postpaid upon receipt of price. - - FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO., Publisher. - 211-213 East Madison St., CHICAGO - - - - -ALL TECHNICAL TERMS AVOIDED - -Practical Telephone Hand Book and Guide to Telephonic Exchange - -HOW TO CONSTRUCT AND MAINTAIN TELEPHONE LINES - -By T. S. BALDWIN, M. A. Illustrated. - -[Illustration] - -Containing chapters on "The Use of the Telephone, Series and Bridging -phones, Line Construction, Materials to be used, Locating and -Correction of Faults in Instruments and Lines." - -This is the best book ever published on Farm Telephones and has -been the sensation of the past year in telephone circles. It is the -only book ever issued which treats the subject exhaustively and -comprehensively. It is of inestimable value to promoters of rural party -lines because it contains all of the arguments that are necessary to -show the advantages of rural party lines. It also tells how such lines -should be constructed and cared for. - -The great growth of the telephone industry during the past few years, -and in response to the demand for a comprehensive book, giving a clear, -terse idea of the different principles governing the construction, -installation, care and management of the various telephones and their -appliances, the Practical Telephone Hand Book has been compiled. It is -written in a most clear and careful style and aims to give a complete -review of the subject of telephony. - -No expense has been spared in gathering valuable information, and it -has been the aim of the author to make this treatise the most complete -elementary book ever written on this subject for all persons interested -in this great achievement of modern science. - -The text is profusely illustrated by cuts of commercial apparatus and -carefully prepared diagrams of circuits. No diagram is given without -a full explanation. The apparatus and methods used in making all the -tests required in commercial telephone work, including the exchange, -are fully treated. - -12 Mo. Cloth, fully illustrated, price =$1.25= - - - - -BOOKKEEPING SELF-TAUGHT - -_By PHILLIP C. GOODWIN_ - -[Illustration] - -Few, if any of the technical works, which purport to be -self-instructing have justified the claims made for them, and -invariably the student either becomes discouraged and abandons his -purpose and aim, or he is compelled to enlist the offices of a -professional teacher, which in the great majority of instances is -impracticable when considered in relation to the demands upon time and -the condition of life to which the great busy public is subjected. - -Mr. Goodwin's treatise on Bookkeeping is an entirely new departure from -all former methods of self-instruction and one which can be studied -systematically and alone by the student with quick and permanent -results, or taken up in leisure moments with an absolute certainty of -acquiring the science in a very short time and with little effort. The -book is both a marvel of skill and simplicity. Every feature and every -detail leading to the climax of scientific perfection are so thoroughly -complete in this logical procedure and the analysis so thorough -and deftly made that the self-teaching student is led by almost -imperceptible, but sure and certain steps to the basic principles of -the science, which the author in a most comprehensive and lucid style -lays bare to intelligence of, even the most mediocre order. - -The work is the most masterly exposition of the scientific principles -of Bookkeeping and their practical application which has ever appeared -in the English language, and it should be in the hands of every school -boy or girl, every clerk, farmer, teacher and business or professional -man; for a knowledge of Bookkeeping, even though it may not be followed -as a profession, is a necessity felt by every person in business life -and a recognized prime factor of business success. - -In addition to a very simple yet elaborate explanation in detail of the -systems of both single and double entry Bookkeeping, beginning with the -initial transactions and leading the student along to the culminating -exhibit of the balance sheet, the work contains a glossary of all the -commercial terms employed in the business world, together with accounts -in illustration, exercises for practice and one set of books completely -written up. - -12mo Cloth. Price $1.00. - -Sent postpaid to any address upon receipt of price. - - Frederick J. Drake & Co., Publishers - 211-213 EAST MADISON ST., CHICAGO - - - - - * * * * * - - - - -Transcriber's Notes. - -Italic text is denoted by _underscores_ and bold text by =equals -signs=. Variant spelling, punctuation, and inconsistent hyphenation -have been preserved as printed; simple typographical errors have been -corrected. The following list notes the changes made or shows the -changed text below the original text. - - Page 21: - They open directly ut - They open directly out - - Page 52: - (1 is left in place.) - [added closing parenthesis] - - Page 52: - 15 ft. lin. Suction Hose - 15 ft. 1 in. Suction Hose - - Page 55: - used for rest of engine? - used for rest of the engine? - - Page 59: - imperfect team gauge - imperfect steam gauge - - Page 59: - tightning up a box there - tightening up a box there - - Page 96: - Blown off more is only a waste of heat - Blowing off more is only a waste of heat - - Page 117: - long separated overs - long separated lovers - - Page 130: - should have a great surface - should have a grate surface - - Advertisements: - Special Cover Design, $1.00 - [added decimal point] - - Advertisements: - Few, if any of of the technical works - Few, if any of the technical works - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Farm Engines and How to Run Them, by -James H. 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