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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44206 ***
+
+  Old-Time
+  Nautical Instruments
+
+  BY
+
+  JOHN ROBINSON
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS
+  1921
+
+  ONE HUNDRED COPIES
+  DEPRINTED FROM
+
+  Old-Time New England
+
+  APRIL, 1921
+
+
+[Illustration: SHIP GRAND TURK, 1786]
+
+
+
+
+OLD-TIME NAUTICAL INSTRUMENTS
+
+BY JOHN ROBINSON
+
+_Curator of the Marine Room, Peabody Museum, Salem, Mass._
+
+
+What sort of instruments did the Colonial ship-masters carry? What did
+they have on the _Mayflower_? What did Columbus use? And, to come down
+to comparatively recent times, what instruments were available and were
+actually used on the vessels during the commercial-marine activities
+following the American Revolution and up to the time of the appearance
+of steamships?
+
+These questions are often asked, not only by landsmen but by seafaring
+men as well. The ship-master of today uses instruments so different
+from those of Colonial times, or even of the earlier years of the
+nineteenth century, that unless he has a penchant for research he
+knows nothing about the earlier ones and certainly not how to use
+them if by chance they come to his notice. Holding in his hand a
+Davis quadrant, the skilful navigator of Salem's last square-rigger,
+the ship _Mindoro_, which passed out of service in 1897, said to the
+writer:--"I have no idea how to use it and I do not believe that there
+is a ship-master sailing out of Boston today who does." The Davis
+quadrant was in common use all through the eighteenth century and
+probably later. It is figured and explained in a book on navigation in
+1796. There are two in the Peabody Museum collection in Salem, dated
+respectively, 1768 and 1773, and an undated one in the collection is
+certainly older. Only the student of the history of navigation can
+explain them or their uses. The English navigator, John Davis, the
+inventor of this quadrant, in his "Seaman's Secrets", printed in 1594,
+gives a list of instruments which should be taken on ships, but it is
+to be feared few vessels carried them all or that owners were able to
+provide them. It included,--sea-compass, cross-staff, chart, quadrant,
+astrolabe, instrument to test compass variation, horizontal plane
+sphere, and paradoxical compass.
+
+[Illustration: SIXTEENTH CENTURY SPANISH ASTROLABE
+
+Full size. From Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.]
+
+[Illustration: UNIVERSAL RING-DIAL
+
+Diameter 3-1/2 inches. Owned by Mr. Parker Kemble.]
+
+No one knows exactly what instruments Columbus took with him on his
+voyage in 1492. He undoubtedly had an astrolabe and a cross-staff.
+The astrolabe was devised during the first millennium and Arabian
+astronomers had perfected it as early as the year 700. It is really the
+basis of all future instruments of its class,--cross-staff, quadrant,
+sextant. Some of the most beautiful astrolabes preserved in museums are
+those made for the Persian astronomers in the sixteenth and seventeenth
+centuries. Columbus probably used the form devised by Martin Behaim
+which had been adapted for use at sea about the year 1480. Observations
+with the astrolabe required three persons, one to hold the instrument
+plumb by the ring, another to sight the sun and adjust the arm, and the
+third to read the scale. With these difficulties observations were, of
+course, far from accurate, but approximate time and latitude could be
+obtained. Another device was the ring-dial, or universal ring-dial as
+the old works on navigation called it. This differed from the astrolabe
+by having adjustable rings with the hours and scales engraved upon
+them. Both of these instruments are now rare.
+
+No original cross-staff is known to the writer in any collection in
+this country. It consisted of a rod thirty-six inches long on which
+another of twenty-six inches was centered and arranged to slide up and
+down at right angles to it. By sighting from the end of the longer rod
+and moving the sliding bar until the sun was seen at one end of it and
+the horizon at the other, the figure on the scale at the junction of
+the rods indicated the sun's altitude and from this the latitude was
+obtained.
+
+[Illustration: SEVENTEENTH CENTURY MARINER USING A CROSS-STAFF
+
+From Seller's "Practical Navigation," London, 1676]
+
+[Illustration: SEVENTEENTH CENTURY MARINER USING DAVIS' QUADRANT
+
+From Seller's "Practical Navigation," London, 1676]
+
+Based on this instrument, by laying out the circle on a table, John
+Davis, the explorer, devised his quadrant in 1586. At first the
+observer used it by facing the sun, as the cross-staff had been
+used, but a better form was made later where the observer had the
+sun at his back. This instrument has been called by sailors "jackass
+quadrant" and, supposedly from its shape, "hog-yoke." In early books on
+navigation it is called "sea-quadrant." The earlier form used by the
+observer standing back to the sun had a solid "shade vane" which slid
+along the smaller arc of the instrument. By adjusting this a little
+short of the supposed altitude of the sun and sighting the horizon
+through the minute hole in the "sight vane" until it was seen through
+the "horizon vane" at the apex of the instrument, and then gradually
+moving the "sight vane" along the larger arc until the shadow of the
+"shade vane" met the horizon line, the sum of the degrees on the two
+scales indicated the sun's altitude. This was really the second form of
+the Davis quadrant. In the third, the solid "shade vane" was replaced
+by one with a low-power lens inserted in it arranged to focus on the
+"horizon vane," thus approaching the idea of the reflected sun in
+the Hadley quadrant and the sextant. A most interesting instrument,
+half-way between a cross-staff and the Davis quadrant, is illustrated
+in Seller's book on navigation published in 1676. He calls it a
+"Plough." Above, it has the small arc of the Davis quadrant with the
+sliding rod of the cross-staff below. These were, of course, imperfect
+instruments, but still a great advance over previous devices to obtain
+time and latitude.
+
+[Illustration: SECT. III.
+
+The Description and Use of the Plough.
+
+_The Description of the Plough._
+
+This Instrument was antiently in use amonght Mariners, although at this
+day it is not so commonly used as formerly; it consists of a Staff
+having a small Arch, and three Vanes.
+
+_The Figure of the Plough._
+
+The Staff is about two foot and a half long, or three foot at the most;
+at the Center-end of which is erected a small Arch, that is divided
+into 85 degrees; on the side of the Staff are set off the Graduations
+proper to the Plough, beginning at five or six degrees, and encreasing
+to ten degrees towards the Arch, every degree being divided into single
+minutes.
+
+The Vanes are a _Horizon-Vane_, as A, and _Shadow-Vane_, as B, (to be
+used as in the Quadrant) and a _Sight-Vane_ moving upon the Staff, as
+at C.
+
+PAGE FROM "PRACTICAL NAVIGATION," BY JOHN SELLERS, LONDON, 1676]
+
+[Illustration: DAVIS QUADRANT
+
+"Made by William Williams in King St. Boston." An ivory plate has
+"Malachi Allen 1769." Mahogany, 24 inches long, convex glass in the
+shade vane; fine example of cabinet work. In Peabody Museum, Salem.]
+
+The Davis quadrants are usually made of ebony, rosewood, or other
+dark woods, with boxwood scale arcs and could be made by expert
+wood-workers. The numerous examples preserved attest the skill of the
+old cabinet-makers, for they are never warped or twisted while their
+jointing is a Chinese puzzle. Probably the _Mayflower_ carried a Davis
+quadrant and quite likely an astrolabe, and of course, a compass, for
+the compass had been in use for two centuries.
+
+Whether the compass was independently invented in Europe or was
+borrowed from the Chinese is uncertain. The old marine compasses
+were set in gimbals. The magnet was a thin bar attached, usually
+with sealing wax, to the under side of the compass card, the whole
+mounted in a thin bowl of turned wood. These were the compasses
+of the eighteenth century. There is one in the Salem collection
+inscribed,--"Benjamin King Salem in New England", with the date
+"1770" cut in the box; another has the mark of Benjamin King, 1790.
+A surveyor's compass, wooden throughout, including wooden sights, is
+inscribed,--"Made by James Halsey near ye draw bridge Boston." The
+liquid compass first suggested by Francis Crow in 1813 and improved by
+E. S. Ritchie of Boston, has largely displaced the older devices.
+
+The "nocturnal", used at night, as its name signifies, appeared at
+an early date, exactly when it does not seem possible to say. One in
+the Salem collection is marked,--"Nathaniel Viall 1724". By adjusting
+the movable discs to the date on the scale for the day of the month,
+sighting the north star through the hole in the center and then
+bringing the arm against the "guard stars", the hour was indicated with
+reasonable accuracy. Good pictures and descriptions of the nocturnal
+may be found in old books on navigation.
+
+In 1730, John Hadley in England and Thomas Godfrey in Philadelphia,
+independently invented the octant, known for nearly two hundred
+years as Hadley's quadrant. Both Hadley and Godfrey received awards
+for their devices. Although called quadrant in this country it is
+generally known elsewhere as octant, which is the better name, for the
+instrument represents but one eighth of the circle. By the principle
+of reflection, however, it covers ninety degrees and the scale is so
+marked. The Davis quadrant with its two arcs does represent one fourth
+of the circle and for that instrument the name is correct.
+
+The Hadley was a great improvement over the Davis quadrant and other
+older devices for finding latitude. By moving the arm the sun is
+reflected by the mirror at the apex and "brought down" to the horizon
+line and the eye is protected by colored glasses of various degrees
+of density through which the sun's rays shine. Catching the sun the
+instant it is on the meridian (noon), the scale indicates the altitude
+by which the latitude was figured with the Bowditch Navigator, used for
+more than one hundred years by American seamen, or Moore's before that
+and numerous others back to the early eighteenth century. The Hadley
+quadrant is still used in its modern form with telescopic eye-pieces
+although the sextant--one-sixth of the circle and by reflection
+one-third--is a more accurate instrument and also may be used to make
+lunar observations to obtain longitude, a complicated and difficult
+matter, so difficult that the authors of the older works did not even
+take trouble to explain the process, for only the most expert could
+make this observation, nor were the results satisfactory.
+
+The sextant was devised about 1757 and as now made is framed wholly of
+metal. To prevent corrosion, the scale, which is minutely divided, and
+has a "vernier" with a magnifying glass to show divisions of minutes,
+is made of gold or platinum in the best instruments. A half-circle
+has been devised and is exceedingly rare. An example in the Salem
+collection was made before 1818. A curious double-jointed dividers
+accompanied it and the entry in the museum catalog reads,--"used
+to correct a lunar observation for longitude." A full "circle of
+reflection" is also sometimes used, more often on land than at sea.
+This is a beautiful instrument and is not often met with in collections
+or in use. All of these instruments are similar in character and may be
+traced, as previously stated, to the ancestral astrolabe.
+
+[Illustration: NOCTURNAL
+
+"Nath'll Viall 1724." Boxwood, arm seven inches from centre to tip. In
+Peabody Museum, Salem.]
+
+The early Hadley quadrants were huge affairs made of wood with an
+arm twenty-four inches in length. Today they are more generally of
+metal with arms from ten to twelve inches. Using the sextent or Hadley
+quadrant the observer stands facing the sun, but old Hadley quadrants
+were made with a "back sight" so that they could be used like the Davis
+quadrant, thus making two independent observations the average of which
+would ensure greater accuracy.
+
+[Illustration: HADLEY QUADRANTS (OCTANTS) IN PEABODY MUSEUM, SALEM
+
+1. "Made by John Dupee 1755 for Patrick Montgomerie." All wood, ebony,
+arm 22 inches long.
+
+2. "Made by Ino. Gilbert on Tower Hill London for Hector Orr Augt. 6,
+1768." Ebony, arm 20 inches long.
+
+3. "Norie & Co. London." Ebony and brass, _ca._ 1840. Arm 11-3/4
+inches, telescopic eyepieces, used by Capt. John Hodges.
+
+4. "Spencer Browning and Rust London." Ebony frame, brass arm 17
+inches, ivory scale, pencil inserted in cross piece, _ca._ 1800, used
+by Capt. Henry King.
+
+5. "J: Urings London." All brass, arm 20 inches, back sight broken off,
+_ca._ 1780, rare.]
+
+To obtain the ship's latitude with comparatively good results was an
+easy matter with the quadrant and its fore-runners, but the great
+problem for centuries was how to find the longitude, now universally
+and quickly obtained by the chronometer and simple observations in
+the morning or at noon. Spring clocks and watches appeared about 1530
+but they were unreliable and of no use on long voyages. Sand glasses
+like those of the old Colonial churches were used on ships and so
+conservative is the British mind that some were in use on British naval
+vessels as late as 1828 and one authority states as late as 1839.
+Greenwich Observatory was established in 1675 and a Royal Commission
+was soon appointed with authority to award prizes for important
+inventions in aid of navigation. A prize of £20,000 was finally
+offered for a time-keeper that should meet certain requirements which
+practically meant absolute accuracy. In 1767, John Harrison produced
+the chronometer, based on the principle of an invention of 1735, and
+eventually he received the reward. Chronometers were so expensive and
+so hard to obtain that few New England ships had them until more than a
+half a century later. Other devices were tried to obtain longitude by
+lunar observations and by Jupiter's satellites, but these observations
+were too difficult to be of practical use. Today, fine watches serve
+for short trips and chronometers are carried by nearly all vessels
+making long voyages.
+
+That so important an instrument as a telescope or spy-glass is rarely
+mentioned in books on navigation or in sea journals seems strange. It
+is exceedingly difficult to obtain information of any being taken to
+sea, although one would think a spy-glass would be about the first
+aid on ship-board especially when skirting the coast. Telescopes did
+not become of practical use, even if the principle had been known,
+until they were made in Holland in 1608. It is at least certain
+that Columbus did not have one and probably there was none on the
+_Mayflower_, although its passengers had recently come from Holland
+where telescopes were invented a few years before. So far no references
+to them have been found in a rather casual examination of old log-books.
+
+In the Marine Room Collection of the Peabody Museum at Salem, is a
+spy-glass four feet long, octagonal in form, two and one-half inches in
+diameter, with a short focusing tube. It was taken from a British prize
+vessel off the coast of Ireland, in 1779, by Capt. James Barr in his
+Salem privateer. Another glass of similar form, but longer and with a
+mahogany case, was used on a United States naval vessel about 1815. The
+spy-glass, familiar to everyone, in two or three sections, was used at
+sea through the first half of the nineteenth century and is often seen
+tucked under the left arm, in the portraits of ship-masters brought
+home from foreign ports. Many of these were excellent instruments,
+especially those from Dollond of London. There is also in the Salem
+collection a rude telescope or spy-glass five and one-half feet long
+with a copper case about three inches in diameter looking precisely
+like a section from a house water-conductor. It focuses by a small
+upper sliding section, fitted like a stove funnel. This glass was
+brought from Nagasaki, Japan, by a Salem ship-master about 1865. It had
+been used there to observe vessels coming into the harbor. It may be
+Dutch and it is evidently very old.
+
+[Illustration: SEXTANTS IN PEABODY MUSEUM, SALEM
+
+1. "Bradford London." Brass frame and silver scale arm 14 inches long,
+_ca._ 1815, used by Capt. George Bailey before 1840.
+
+2. "L. Bleuler, London." Ebony frame, ivory scale, brass arm 14 inches
+long, _ca._ 1820, came from Plymouth, Mass.
+
+3. "G. Gowland 76 Castle St. Liverpool." Used by David Livingstone in
+his African explorations and after his death sold at Zanzibar by order
+of the Royal Geographical Society and bought by Capt. William Beadle,
+of Salem, and used on some of his voyages.]
+
+The speed of a vessel was first obtained by throwing overboard a
+floating subject at the bow and noting the time elapsed when it passed
+an observer at the stern. From this the log line with "knots" was
+derived, with the fourteen and twenty-eight seconds sand glasses to
+record speed. A "knot" indicates a geographical or sea mile which has
+been standardized at 6080 feet; the land or statute mile is 5280 feet,
+therefore, if a vessel is said to be sailing at the rate of thirteen
+knots, a railroad train going at the same speed would be running at
+the rate of fifteen miles an hour. The term "knot" is used solely
+to indicate rate of speed; the distance covered is always stated in
+nautical or sea miles. "Heaving the log" meant throwing out from the
+stern of a vessel a small float attached to a line running from a reel
+held clear of the rail, the float remaining stationary in the water.
+At the instant the log is "heaved" a sand glass is turned. On the line
+are knots (hence the term), pieces of marline or rags tied through the
+strands and spaced the same fraction of a mile apart,--above forty-six
+feet and six inches,--which twenty-eight seconds is the fraction of
+an hour,--about one one-hundred and twenty-eighth. Therefore, using a
+twenty-eight seconds glass and checking the line the instant the sand
+runs out, the number of knots and fractions paid out on the line will
+at once indicate the number of sea miles per hour which the vessel is
+going. This, of course, is doubled if the fourteen-seconds glass is
+used, which is done when the vessel is going very fast.
+
+
+The old log lines have been superseded by many forms of the "patent
+log" and the museum is indeed fortunate which possesses an original
+log line, reel and float in perfect condition. There is an excellent
+example in the museum collections of the Marblehead Historical Society.
+Once discarded, the lines were soon used to tie up packages and the
+reels and floats were thrown away. The patent log with its revolving
+blades, now universal, was devised by Humfray Cole in 1578; it was
+improved by various persons from time to time but, strange to say,
+did not come into general use for nearly three centuries. The rotating
+blades in the water record the rate on an indicator on the vessel which
+may be read at any time. So far, the earliest reference to the use of
+a device of this sort among our New England navigators is the "Gould's
+patent log" used by Captain George Crowninshield on his famous yacht
+_Cleopatra's Barge_ during the voyage to the Mediterranean in 1817.
+
+
+Charts were made in very ancient times but they were crude and almost
+useless. The first nautical maps appeared in Italy at the end of the
+thirteenth century, and it is said that Bartholomew Columbus brought
+the first one to England in 1489. The close of the sixteenth century
+saw many map makers at work, including Gerard Mercator whose name is
+perpetuated in the familiar scale charts in our geographies known as
+"Mercator's projection" which were the sea charts in general use.
+Globes were carried on ships in preference to charts in the early
+days and what is known as "great circle" sailing was evolved from
+them. Davis describes it in 1594 and it is possible that Cabot knew of
+the theory a century before. Such a simple instrument as a parallel
+ruler was not invented until late in the sixteenth century and tables
+of logarithms and Gunter's scale by which navigators make all their
+calculations were not known until the year the _Mayflower_ sailed.
+
+
+During the first century following the settlement of New England it is
+probable that the small coasting and fishing vessels were navigated by
+dead reckoning and not venturing far beyond the sight of land a compass
+was the only instrument carried. But the larger vessels sailing from
+Boston, Salem, Portsmouth, Newport and other ports on voyages to the
+West Indies, England and Spain, it would seem should have carried
+instruments with which observations could be made to obtain their
+approximate position. Mr. George Francis Dow has searched the early
+probate records of Essex County coast towns between 1634 and 1680, a
+period of nearly fifty years, and finds but thirteen references to
+nautical instruments in inventories and wills. Sometimes they are
+listed as "marriners instruments" and in one case a quadrant is valued
+at £1. Robert Gray of Salem, who died in 1661, possessed a "quadrant, a
+fore-staffe (cross-staff), a gunter's scale, and a pair of Compasses."
+John Bradstreet, who died at Marblehead the previous year, owned "3
+small sea books" valued at £1. 6s. The inventory of the estate of
+Jonathan Browne of Salem, who died in 1667, discloses a "fore-staff,"
+and that of the estate of John Silsby of Salem, taken in 1676, lists
+"marriners instruments and callender, 14s."
+
+In a very detailed inventory made in Salem before a notary publick on
+Nov. 4, 1702, of the equipment of the ship _Province Galley_, 90 tons,
+owned by Roger Derby, the only instruments for navigation that appear
+are "Two Compasses, two ha[lf] ho[ur] glasses, a ha[lf] Watchglass, a
+ha[lf] minute glass ... a hand lead line, a deep sea lead line."
+
+The _Boston News-Letter_, July 16, 1716, has the following
+advertisement: "A Parcel of Mathematical Instruments, viz: Quadrants,
+Meridian Compasses, all sorts of Rules, black lead Pencils, and brass
+Ring Dials, etc. To be sold by Publick Vendue at the Crown Coffee
+House in King's Street, Boston, on Thursday next." The same issue has
+the advertisement of "William Walker in Merchants Row, near the Swing
+Bridge," who had quadrants for sale.
+
+In looking back and noting the slow process of perfecting all nautical
+instruments, the wonder is how the old ships were navigated through
+distant seas without greater loss of life and vessels. The dangers
+were real during our commercial-marine activities following the period
+of the Revolution and the early nineteenth century, as attested by
+reference to old newspapers and letters, and to such records as the
+Diary of Rev. William Bentley of Salem, where nearly every Sunday some
+of his parishioners asked for prayers for friends at sea or for the
+loss of husband, son or brother. The shipmasters of Salem, Boston,
+Providence, New York and Baltimore, undertaking distant voyages, had
+few good charts--none for the new regions they visited--they had no
+chronometers, few had sextants, and their compasses were frequently
+unreliable. And yet these men--most of them were scarcely past their
+majority in years--with the courage and enthusiasm of youth, in ships
+filled with valuable cargoes, entrusted to their care by wealthy
+owners, sailed into uncharted seas, visited unknown lands, and, all the
+while rarely reported, finally came safely back, to their everlasting
+credit and the enrichment of the country.
+
+We do not know exactly what instruments the old shipmasters carried
+with them on these voyages, but we do know that they were comparatively
+few and very inferior to those in use today. An idea of the paucity in
+some instances may be obtained from the story of the ship _Hannah_,
+condemned at Christiansand in 1810, in the protest of American
+shipmasters which is now preserved in the New Haven Historical Society
+collections. It reads: "We, the undersigned masters of American vessels
+now in the port of Christiansand, having heard with astonishment that
+one of the principal charges against the American brig _Hannah_, from
+Boston, bound direct to Riga, and condemned at the prize court at this
+place, is as follows,--that the said court have pronounced it absolutely
+impossible to cross the Atlantic without a chart or sextant. We
+therefore feel fully authorized to assert that we have frequently made
+voyages from America without the above articles, and we are fully
+persuaded that every seaman with common nautical knowledge can do the
+same."
+
+
+No doubt many valuable data lie hidden in old log-books and sea
+journals, early newspaper files, shipping records of old business
+houses and elsewhere. To anyone with time and the inclination for
+research a fascinating field is open where material of historical and
+scientific value may be found. The writer is not aware that any such
+investigations have been made or accounts of any published.
+
+
+Accurate knowledge of the instruments carried by Colonial shipmasters
+on their voyages to the West Indies or along our coast and across the
+Atlantic would be of much interest, and still more to know what were
+supplied by owners or carried as their personal property by masters
+and supercargoes for the longer voyages to Russia, the Mediterranean,
+Africa, India, China, and the South Seas. It would be interesting to
+know, besides this, what had been their experiences with them: the
+accuracy of observations, how the compass behaved, etc. The early
+nineteenth century shipmasters were close observers, and in his works
+on navigation Lieut. M. F. Maury pays them high compliment for the
+valuable assistance rendered in furnishing notes and observations on
+currents, shoals, coast lines, compass variations and winds, for the
+charts and sailing directions which he compiled.
+
+With these things in mind this paper has been prepared, hoping that
+someone may be encouraged to take up the work systematically. It is a
+subject which seems to have been neglected, and the results certainly
+will repay much time devoted to its investigation.
+
+[Illustration: SCHOONER BALTICK, CAPT. EDWARD ALLEN
+
+Coming out of St. Eustatia, Nov. 16, 1765]
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Old-Time Nautical Instruments, by John Robinson
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44206 ***
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+    </style>
+<link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover.jpg" />
+  </head>
+<body>
+<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44206 ***</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_001.jpg" width="500" height="728" alt="TITLE PAGE" />
+</div>
+
+<h1>Old-Time<br />
+Nautical Instruments</h1>
+
+<p class="center">BY</p>
+
+<p class="center">JOHN ROBINSON<br /><br /></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px; border-style:solid;
+border-width:1px;">
+<img src="images/i_012.jpg" width="250" height="339" alt="SEVENTEENTH CENTURY MARINER USING A CROSS-STAFF" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="center"><br /><br />BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS<br />
+1921
+</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="center">ONE HUNDRED COPIES<br />
+DEPRINTED FROM</p>
+
+<p class="center">Old-Time New England</p>
+
+<p class="center">APRIL, 1921</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_005.jpg" width="500" height="197" alt=">SHIP GRAND TURK, 1786" />
+<p class="center f08">SHIP GRAND TURK, 1786<br /><br /></p></div>
+
+<h2>OLD-TIME NAUTICAL INSTRUMENTS</h2>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">By John Robinson</span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Curator of the Marine Room, Peabody Museum, Salem, Mass.</i></p>
+
+<p><span class="dropcap">W</span>HAT sort of instruments did
+the Colonial ship-masters carry?
+What did they have on
+the <i>Mayflower</i>? What did Columbus
+use? And, to come down to comparatively
+recent times, what instruments
+were available and were actually
+used on the vessels during the
+commercial-marine activities following
+the American Revolution and up to the
+time of the appearance of steamships?</p>
+
+<p>These questions are often asked,
+not only by landsmen but by seafaring
+men as well. The ship-master of today
+uses instruments so different from
+those of Colonial times, or even of the
+earlier years of the nineteenth century,
+that unless he has a penchant
+for research he knows nothing about
+the earlier ones and certainly not how
+to use them if by chance they come
+to his notice. Holding in his hand a
+Davis quadrant, the skilful navigator
+of Salem’s last square-rigger, the ship
+<i>Mindoro</i>, which passed out of service
+in 1897, said to the writer:—“I have
+no idea how to use it and I do not
+believe that there is a ship-master sailing
+out of Boston today who does.”
+The Davis quadrant was in common
+use all through the eighteenth century
+and probably later. It is figured and
+explained in a book on navigation in
+1796. There are two in the Peabody
+Museum collection in Salem, dated
+respectively, 1768 and 1773, and an
+undated one in the collection is certainly
+older. Only the student of the
+history of navigation can explain them
+or their uses. The English navigator,
+John Davis, the inventor of this quadrant,
+in his “Seaman’s Secrets”, printed
+in 1594, gives a list of instruments
+which should be taken on ships, but it
+is to be feared few vessels carried them
+all or that owners were able to provide
+them. It included,—sea-compass,
+cross-staff, chart, quadrant, astrolabe,
+instrument to test compass variation,
+horizontal plane sphere, and paradoxical
+compass.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_008.jpg" width="400" height="565" alt="SIXTEENTH CENTURY SPANISH ASTROLABE" />
+<p class="center f08">SIXTEENTH CENTURY SPANISH ASTROLABE<br />
+Full size. From Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_009.jpg" width="400" height="403" alt="UNIVERSAL RING-DIAL" />
+<p class="center f08">UNIVERSAL RING-DIAL<br />
+Diameter 3-1/2 inches. Owned by Mr. Parker Kemble.</p></div>
+
+<p>No one knows exactly what instruments
+Columbus took with him on his
+voyage in 1492. He undoubtedly had
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span>
+an astrolabe and a cross-staff. The
+astrolabe was devised during the first
+millennium and Arabian astronomers
+had perfected it as early as the year
+700. It is really the basis of all future
+instruments of its class,—cross-staff,
+quadrant, sextant. Some of the
+most beautiful astrolabes preserved in
+museums are those made for the Persian
+astronomers in the sixteenth and
+seventeenth centuries. Columbus probably
+used the form devised by Martin
+Behaim which had been adapted for
+use at sea about the year 1480. Observations
+with the astrolabe required
+three persons, one to hold the instrument
+plumb by the ring, another to
+sight the sun and adjust the arm, and
+the third to read the scale. With these
+difficulties observations were, of
+course, far from accurate, but approximate
+time and latitude could be obtained.
+Another device was the ring-dial,
+or universal ring-dial as the old
+works on navigation called it. This
+differed from the astrolabe by having
+adjustable rings with the hours and
+scales engraved upon them. Both of
+these instruments are now rare.</p>
+
+<p>No original cross-staff is known to
+the writer in any collection in this
+country. It consisted of a rod thirty-six
+inches long on which another of
+twenty-six inches was centered and arranged
+to slide up and down at right
+angles to it. By sighting from the
+end of the longer rod and moving the
+sliding bar until the sun was seen at
+one end of it and the horizon at the
+other, the figure on the scale at the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span>
+junction of the rods indicated the sun’s
+altitude and from this the latitude was
+obtained.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/i_012.jpg" width="250" height="339" alt="SEVENTEENTH CENTURY MARINER USING A CROSS-STAFF" />
+<p class="center f08">SEVENTEENTH CENTURY MARINER USING A CROSS-STAFF<br />
+From Seller’s “Practical Navigation,” London, 1676</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/i_013.jpg" width="250" height="329" alt="SEVENTEENTH CENTURY MARINER USING DAVIS’ QUADRANT" />
+<p class="center f08">SEVENTEENTH CENTURY MARINER USING DAVIS’ QUADRANT<br />
+From Seller’s “Practical Navigation,” London, 1676</p></div>
+
+<p>Based on this instrument, by laying
+out the circle on a table, John Davis,
+the explorer, devised his quadrant in
+1586. At first the observer used it
+by facing the sun, as the cross-staff
+had been used, but a better form was
+made later where the observer had the
+sun at his back. This instrument has
+been called by sailors “jackass quadrant”
+and, supposedly from its shape,
+“hog-yoke.” In early books on navigation
+it is called “sea-quadrant.” The
+earlier form used by the observer
+standing back to the sun had a solid
+“shade vane” which slid along the
+smaller arc of the instrument. By
+adjusting this a little short of the supposed
+altitude of the sun and sighting
+the horizon through the minute hole
+in the “sight vane” until it was seen
+through the “horizon vane” at the apex
+of the instrument, and then gradually
+moving the “sight vane” along the
+larger arc until the shadow of the
+“shade vane” met the horizon line,
+the sum of the degrees on the two
+scales indicated the sun’s altitude. This
+was really the second form of the
+Davis quadrant. In the third, the solid
+“shade vane” was replaced by one with
+a low-power lens inserted in it arranged
+to focus on the “horizon vane,”
+thus approaching the idea of the reflected
+sun in the Hadley quadrant and
+the sextant. A most interesting instrument,
+half-way between a cross-staff
+and the Davis quadrant, is illustrated
+in Seller’s book on navigation published
+in 1676. He calls it a “Plough.”
+Above, it has the small arc of the
+Davis quadrant with the sliding rod of
+the cross-staff below. These were, of
+course, imperfect instruments, but still
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span>
+a great advance over previous devices
+to obtain time and latitude.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px; border-style:solid;
+border-width:2px;">
+<img src="images/p_009.jpg" width="500" height="702" alt="PAGE FROM “PRACTICAL NAVIGATION" />
+</div>
+<p class="center f08">PAGE FROM “PRACTICAL NAVIGATION,”<br />
+BY JOHN SELLERS, LONDON, 1676<br /><br /></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/i_015.jpg" width="250" height="438" alt="DAVIS QUADRANT" />
+<p class="center f08">DAVIS QUADRANT</p>
+<p class="center f08">“Made by William Williams in King St. Boston.”
+An ivory plate has “Malachi Allen 1769.” Mahogany,
+24 inches long, convex glass in the shade vane;
+fine example of cabinet work. In Peabody Museum,
+Salem.</p></div>
+
+<p>The Davis quadrants are usually
+made of ebony, rosewood, or other
+dark woods, with boxwood scale arcs
+and could be made by expert wood-workers.
+The numerous examples preserved
+attest the skill of the old cabinet-makers,
+for they are never warped
+or twisted while their jointing is a
+Chinese puzzle. Probably the <i>Mayflower</i>
+carried a Davis quadrant and
+quite likely an astrolabe, and of course,
+a compass, for the compass had been
+in use for two centuries.</p>
+
+<p>Whether the compass was independently
+invented in Europe or was borrowed
+from the Chinese is uncertain.
+The old marine compasses were set in
+gimbals. The magnet was a thin bar
+attached, usually with sealing wax, to
+the under side of the compass card, the
+whole mounted in a thin bowl of
+turned wood. These were the compasses
+of the eighteenth century. There
+is one in the Salem collection inscribed,—“Benjamin
+King Salem in New
+England”, with the date “1770” cut
+in the box; another has the mark of
+Benjamin King, 1790. A surveyor’s
+compass, wooden throughout, including
+wooden sights, is inscribed,—“Made
+by James Halsey near ye draw bridge
+Boston.” The liquid compass first
+suggested by Francis Crow in 1813
+and improved by E. S. Ritchie of Boston,
+has largely displaced the older
+devices.</p>
+
+<p>The “nocturnal”, used at night, as
+its name signifies, appeared at an early
+date, exactly when it does not seem
+possible to say. One in the Salem collection
+is marked,—“Nathaniel
+Viall 1724”. By adjusting the movable discs
+to the date on the scale for the day of
+the month, sighting the north star
+through the hole in the center and then
+bringing the arm against the “guard
+stars”, the hour was indicated with
+reasonable accuracy. Good pictures
+and descriptions of the nocturnal may
+be found in old books on navigation.</p>
+
+<p>In 1730, John Hadley in England
+and Thomas Godfrey in Philadelphia,
+independently invented the octant,
+known for nearly two hundred years
+as Hadley’s quadrant. Both Hadley
+and Godfrey received awards for their
+devices. Although called quadrant in
+this country it is generally known
+elsewhere as octant, which is the better
+name, for the instrument represents
+but one eighth of the circle. By
+the principle of reflection, however, it
+covers ninety degrees and the scale
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span>
+is so marked. The Davis quadrant
+with its two arcs does represent one
+fourth of the circle and for that instrument
+the name is correct.</p>
+
+<p>The Hadley was a great improvement
+over the Davis quadrant and
+other older devices for finding latitude.
+By moving the arm the sun is
+reflected by the mirror at the apex
+and “brought down” to the horizon
+line and the eye is protected by colored
+glasses of various degrees of density
+through which the sun’s rays
+shine. Catching the sun the instant
+it is on the meridian (noon), the scale
+indicates the altitude by which the
+latitude was figured with the Bowditch
+Navigator, used for more than
+one hundred years by American seamen,
+or Moore’s before that and
+numerous others back to the early
+eighteenth century. The Hadley quadrant
+is still used in its modern form
+with telescopic eye-pieces although the
+sextant—one-sixth of the circle and
+by reflection one-third—is a more accurate
+instrument and also may be
+used to make lunar observations to obtain
+longitude, a complicated and difficult
+matter, so difficult that the authors
+of the older works did not even
+take trouble to explain the process, for
+only the most expert could make this
+observation, nor were the results satisfactory.</p>
+
+<p>The sextant was devised about 1757
+and as now made is framed wholly of
+metal. To prevent corrosion, the scale,
+which is minutely divided, and has a
+“vernier” with a magnifying glass
+to show divisions of minutes, is made
+of gold or platinum in the best instruments.
+A half-circle has been devised
+and is exceedingly rare. An example
+in the Salem collection was made before
+1818. A curious double-jointed
+dividers accompanied it and the entry
+in the museum catalog reads,—“used
+to correct a lunar observation for longitude.”
+A full “circle of reflection”
+is also sometimes used, more often on
+land than at sea. This is a beautiful
+instrument and is not often met with
+in collections or in use. All of these
+instruments are similar in character
+and may be traced, as previously
+stated, to the ancestral astrolabe.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/i_018.jpg" width="250" height="360" alt="NOCTURNAL" />
+<p class="center f08">NOCTURNAL</p>
+<p class="center f08">“Nath’ll Viall 1724.” Boxwood, arm seven inches
+from centre to tip. In Peabody Museum, Salem.</p></div>
+
+<p>The early Hadley quadrants were
+huge affairs made of wood with an
+arm twenty-four inches in length. Today
+they are more generally of metal
+with arms from ten to twelve inches.
+Using the sextent or Hadley quadrant
+the observer stands facing the
+sun, but old Hadley quadrants were
+made with a “back sight” so that they
+could be used like the Davis quadrant,
+thus making two independent observations
+the average of which would ensure
+greater accuracy.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_019.jpg" width="500" height="546" alt="HADLEY QUADRANTS (OCTANTS)" />
+<p class="center f08">HADLEY QUADRANTS (OCTANTS) IN PEABODY MUSEUM, SALEM</p>
+
+<table summary="QUADRANTS"><tr>
+<td class="tdl padr1 f08" style="width: 50%">1. “Made by John Dupee 1755 for Patrick
+Montgomerie.” All wood, ebony, arm 22 inches
+long.</td>
+<td class="tdl f08" style="width: 50%">2. “Made by Ino. Gilbert on Tower Hill
+London for Hector Orr Augt. 6, 1768.” Ebony,
+arm 20 inches long.</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdc padl5 padr5 f08" style="width: 50%" colspan="2"><p>3. “Norie &amp; Co. London.” Ebony and brass, <i>ca.</i> 1840. Arm 11-3/4 inches,
+telescopic eyepieces, used by Capt. John Hodges.</p></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl padr1 f08" style="width: 50%">4. “Spencer Browning and Rust London.”
+Ebony frame, brass arm 17 inches, ivory scale,
+pencil inserted in cross piece, <i>ca.</i> 1800, used by
+Capt. Henry King.</td>
+<td class="tdl vertt f08" style="width: 50%">5. “J: Urings London.” All brass, arm 20
+inches, back sight broken off, <i>ca.</i> 1780, rare.</td></tr></table></div>
+
+<p>To obtain the ship’s latitude with
+comparatively good results was an
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span>
+easy matter with the quadrant and its
+fore-runners, but the great problem
+for centuries was how to find the longitude,
+now universally and quickly
+obtained by the chronometer and simple
+observations in the morning or at
+noon. Spring clocks and watches appeared
+about 1530 but they were unreliable
+and of no use on long voyages.
+Sand glasses like those of the old Colonial
+churches were used on ships and
+so conservative is the British mind that
+some were in use on British naval vessels
+as late as 1828 and one authority
+states as late as 1839. Greenwich Observatory
+was established in 1675 and
+a Royal Commission was soon appointed
+with authority to award prizes
+for important inventions in aid of navigation.
+A prize of £20,000 was finally
+offered for a time-keeper that should
+meet certain requirements which practically
+meant absolute accuracy. In
+1767, John Harrison produced the
+chronometer, based on the principle of
+an invention of 1735, and eventually
+he received the reward. Chronometers
+were so expensive and so hard to obtain
+that few New England ships had
+them until more than a half a century
+later. Other devices were tried to obtain
+longitude by lunar observations
+and by Jupiter’s satellites, but these
+observations were too difficult to be
+of practical use. Today, fine watches
+serve for short trips and chronometers
+are carried by nearly all vessels making
+long voyages.</p>
+
+<p>That so important an instrument as
+a telescope or spy-glass is rarely mentioned
+in books on navigation or in
+sea journals seems strange. It is exceedingly
+difficult to obtain information
+of any being taken to sea, although
+one would think a spy-glass
+would be about the first aid on shipboard
+especially when skirting the
+coast. Telescopes did not become of
+practical use, even if the principle had
+been known, until they were made in
+Holland in 1608. It is at least certain
+that Columbus did not have one and
+probably there was none on the <i>Mayflower</i>,
+although its passengers had
+recently come from Holland where
+telescopes were invented a few years
+before. So far no references to them
+have been found in a rather casual examination
+of old log-books.</p>
+
+<p>In the Marine Room Collection of
+the Peabody Museum at Salem, is a
+spy-glass four feet long, octagonal in
+form, two and one-half inches in diameter,
+with a short focusing tube.
+It was taken from a British prize vessel
+off the coast of Ireland, in 1779,
+by Capt. James Barr in his Salem privateer.
+Another glass of similar form,
+but longer and with a mahogany case,
+was used on a United States naval vessel
+about 1815. The spy-glass, familiar
+to everyone, in two or three sections,
+was used at sea through the first
+half of the nineteenth century and is
+often seen tucked under the left arm,
+in the portraits of ship-masters
+brought home from foreign ports.
+Many of these were excellent instruments,
+especially those from Dollond
+of London. There is also in the Salem
+collection a rude telescope or spy-glass
+five and one-half feet long with
+a copper case about three inches in
+diameter looking precisely like a section
+from a house water-conductor.
+It focuses by a small upper sliding section,
+fitted like a stove funnel. This
+glass was brought from Nagasaki, Japan,
+by a Salem ship-master about
+1865. It had been used there to observe
+vessels coming into the harbor.
+It may be Dutch and it is evidently
+very old.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_022.jpg" width="500" height="529" alt="SEXTANTS IN PEABODY MUSEUM, SALEM" />
+<p class="center f08">SEXTANTS IN PEABODY MUSEUM, SALEM</p>
+
+<table summary="SEXTANTS"><tr>
+<td class="tdl f08 padr1" style="width: 50%">1. “Bradford London.” Brass frame and silver
+scale arm 14 inches long, <i>ca.</i> 1815, used by Capt.
+George Bailey before 1840.</td>
+<td class="tdl f08 vertt" style="width: 50%">2. “L. Bleuler, London.” Ebony frame, ivory
+scale, brass arm 14 inches long, <i>ca.</i> 1820, came from
+Plymouth, Mass.</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdc f08 padr5 padl5" colspan="2"><p>3. “G. Gowland 76 Castle St. Liverpool.” Used by David Livingstone in his African
+explorations and after his death sold at Zanzibar by order of the Royal Geographical
+Society and bought by Capt. William Beadle, of Salem, and used on some of his
+voyages.</p></td></tr></table></div>
+
+<p>The speed of a vessel was first obtained
+by throwing overboard a floating
+subject at the bow and noting the
+time elapsed when it passed an observer
+at the stern. From this the log
+line with “knots” was derived, with
+the fourteen and twenty-eight seconds
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span>
+sand glasses to record speed. A “knot”
+indicates a geographical or sea mile
+which has been standardized at 6080
+feet; the land or statute mile is 5280
+feet, therefore, if a vessel is said to be
+sailing at the rate of thirteen knots,
+a railroad train going at the same
+speed would be running at the rate of
+fifteen miles an hour. The term “knot”
+is used solely to indicate rate of speed;
+the distance covered is always stated
+in nautical or sea miles. “Heaving the
+log” meant throwing out from the
+stern of a vessel a small float attached
+to a line running from a reel held clear
+of the rail, the float remaining stationary
+in the water. At the instant
+the log is “heaved” a sand glass is
+turned. On the line are knots (hence
+the term), pieces of marline or rags
+tied through the strands and spaced
+the same fraction of a mile apart,—above
+forty-six feet and six inches,—which
+twenty-eight seconds is the
+fraction of an hour,—about one one-hundred
+and twenty-eighth. Therefore,
+using a twenty-eight seconds glass and
+checking the line the instant the sand
+runs out, the number of knots and
+fractions paid out on the line will at
+once indicate the number of sea miles
+per hour which the vessel is going.
+This, of course, is doubled if the fourteen-seconds
+glass is used, which is
+done when the vessel is going very fast.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">The old log lines have been superseded
+by many forms of the “patent
+log” and the museum is indeed fortunate
+which possesses an original log
+line, reel and float in perfect condition.
+There is an excellent example in the
+museum collections of the Marblehead
+Historical Society. Once discarded,
+the lines were soon used to tie up
+packages and the reels and floats were
+thrown away. The patent log with its
+revolving blades, now universal, was
+devised by Humfray Cole in 1578;
+it was improved by various persons
+from time to time but, strange to say,
+did not come into general use for nearly
+three centuries. The rotating blades
+in the water record the rate on an indicator
+on the vessel which may be
+read at any time. So far, the earliest
+reference to the use of a device of this
+sort among our New England navigators
+is the “Gould’s patent log” used
+by Captain George Crowninshield on
+his famous yacht <i>Cleopatra’s Barge</i>
+during the voyage to the Mediterranean
+in 1817.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">Charts were made in very ancient
+times but they were crude and almost
+useless. The first nautical maps appeared
+in Italy at the end of the thirteenth
+century, and it is said that
+Bartholomew Columbus brought the
+first one to England in 1489. The
+close of the sixteenth century saw
+many map makers at work, including
+Gerard Mercator whose name is perpetuated
+in the familiar scale charts
+in our geographies known as “Mercator’s
+projection” which were the sea
+charts in general use. Globes were
+carried on ships in preference to charts
+in the early days and what is known as
+“great circle” sailing was evolved from
+them. Davis describes it in 1594 and
+it is possible that Cabot knew of the
+theory a century before. Such a simple
+instrument as a parallel ruler was
+not invented until late in the sixteenth
+century and tables of logarithms and
+Gunter’s scale by which navigators
+make all their calculations were not
+known until the year the <i>Mayflower</i>
+sailed.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">During the first century following
+the settlement of New England it is
+probable that the small coasting and
+fishing vessels were navigated by dead
+reckoning and not venturing far beyond
+the sight of land a compass was
+the only instrument carried. But the
+larger vessels sailing from Boston,
+Salem, Portsmouth, Newport and other
+ports on voyages to the West Indies,
+England and Spain, it would seem
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span>
+should have carried instruments with
+which observations could be made to
+obtain their approximate position. Mr.
+George Francis Dow has searched the
+early probate records of Essex County
+coast towns between 1634 and 1680, a
+period of nearly fifty years, and finds
+but thirteen references to nautical instruments
+in inventories and wills.
+Sometimes they are listed as “marriners
+instruments” and in one case a
+quadrant is valued at £1. Robert Gray
+of Salem, who died in 1661, possessed
+a “quadrant, a fore-staffe (cross-staff),
+a gunter’s scale, and a pair of Compasses.”
+John Bradstreet, who died
+at Marblehead the previous year,
+owned “3 small sea books” valued at
+£1. 6s. The inventory of the estate of
+Jonathan Browne of Salem, who died
+in 1667, discloses a “fore-staff,” and
+that of the estate of John Silsby of
+Salem, taken in 1676, lists “marriners
+instruments and callender, 14s.”</p>
+
+<p>In a very detailed inventory made
+in Salem before a notary publick on
+Nov. 4, 1702, of the equipment of the
+ship <i>Province Galley</i>, 90 tons, owned
+by Roger Derby, the only instruments
+for navigation that appear are “Two
+Compasses, two ha[lf] ho[ur] glasses,
+a ha[lf] Watchglass, a ha[lf] minute
+glass ... a hand lead line, a deep
+sea lead line.”</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Boston News-Letter</i>, July 16,
+1716, has the following advertisement:
+“A Parcel of Mathematical Instruments,
+viz: Quadrants, Meridian Compasses,
+all sorts of Rules, black lead
+Pencils, and brass Ring Dials, etc. To
+be sold by Publick Vendue at the
+Crown Coffee House in King’s Street,
+Boston, on Thursday next.” The same
+issue has the advertisement of “William
+Walker in Merchants Row, near
+the Swing Bridge,” who had quadrants
+for sale.</p>
+
+<p>In looking back and noting the slow
+process of perfecting all nautical instruments,
+the wonder is how the old
+ships were navigated through distant
+seas without greater loss of life and
+vessels. The dangers were real during
+our commercial-marine activities following
+the period of the Revolution
+and the early nineteenth century, as
+attested by reference to old newspapers
+and letters, and to such records
+as the Diary of Rev. William Bentley
+of Salem, where nearly every Sunday
+some of his parishioners asked for
+prayers for friends at sea or for the
+loss of husband, son or brother. The
+shipmasters of Salem, Boston, Providence,
+New York and Baltimore, undertaking
+distant voyages, had few
+good charts—none for the new regions
+they visited—they had no chronometers,
+few had sextants, and their compasses
+were frequently unreliable. And
+yet these men—most of them were
+scarcely past their majority in years—with
+the courage and enthusiasm of
+youth, in ships filled with valuable
+cargoes, entrusted to their care by
+wealthy owners, sailed into uncharted
+seas, visited unknown lands, and, all
+the while rarely reported, finally came
+safely back, to their everlasting credit
+and the enrichment of the country.</p>
+
+<p>We do not know exactly what instruments
+the old shipmasters carried
+with them on these voyages, but we do
+know that they were comparatively
+few and very inferior to those in use
+today. An idea of the paucity in some
+instances may be obtained from the
+story of the ship <i>Hannah</i>, condemned
+at Christiansand in 1810, in the protest
+of American shipmasters which is
+now preserved in the New Haven Historical
+Society collections. It reads:
+“We, the undersigned masters of
+American vessels now in the port of
+Christiansand, having heard with astonishment
+that one of the principal
+charges against the American brig
+<i>Hannah</i>, from Boston, bound direct to
+Riga, and condemned at the prize
+court at this place, is as follows,—that
+the said court have pronounced it absolutely
+impossible to cross the Atlan<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span>tic
+without a chart or sextant. We
+therefore feel fully authorized to assert
+that we have frequently made voyages
+from America without the above articles,
+and we are fully persuaded that
+every seaman with common nautical
+knowledge can do the same.”</p>
+
+<p class="tb">No doubt many valuable data lie
+hidden in old log-books and sea journals,
+early newspaper files, shipping
+records of old business houses and
+elsewhere. To anyone with time and
+the inclination for research a fascinating
+field is open where material of
+historical and scientific value may be
+found. The writer is not aware that
+any such investigations have been
+made or accounts of any published.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">Accurate knowledge of the instruments
+carried by Colonial shipmasters
+on their voyages to the West Indies or
+along our coast and across the Atlantic
+would be of much interest, and still
+more to know what were supplied by
+owners or carried as their personal
+property by masters and supercargoes
+for the longer voyages to Russia, the
+Mediterranean, Africa, India, China,
+and the South Seas. It would be interesting
+to know, besides this, what
+had been their experiences with them:
+the accuracy of observations, how the
+compass behaved, etc. The early nineteenth
+century shipmasters were close
+observers, and in his works on navigation
+Lieut. M. F. Maury pays them
+high compliment for the valuable assistance
+rendered in furnishing notes
+and observations on currents, shoals,
+coast lines, compass variations and
+winds, for the charts and sailing directions
+which he compiled.</p>
+
+<p>With these things in mind this paper
+has been prepared, hoping that someone
+may be encouraged to take up the
+work systematically. It is a subject
+which seems to have been neglected,
+and the results certainly will repay
+much time devoted to its investigation.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/i_028.jpg" width="250" height="162" alt="SCHOONER BALTICK, CAPT. EDWARD ALLEN" /></div>
+<p class="center f08">SCHOONER BALTICK, CAPT. EDWARD ALLEN<br />
+Coming out of St. Eustatia, Nov. 16, 1765</p>
+
+<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44206 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #44206 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/44206)
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+Project Gutenberg's Old-Time Nautical Instruments, by John Robinson
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Old-Time Nautical Instruments
+
+Author: John Robinson
+
+Release Date: November 17, 2013 [EBook #44206]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OLD-TIME NAUTICAL INSTRUMENTS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Turgut Dincer and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+  Old-Time
+  Nautical Instruments
+
+  BY
+
+  JOHN ROBINSON
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS
+  1921
+
+  ONE HUNDRED COPIES
+  DEPRINTED FROM
+
+  Old-Time New England
+
+  APRIL, 1921
+
+
+[Illustration: SHIP GRAND TURK, 1786]
+
+
+
+
+OLD-TIME NAUTICAL INSTRUMENTS
+
+BY JOHN ROBINSON
+
+_Curator of the Marine Room, Peabody Museum, Salem, Mass._
+
+
+What sort of instruments did the Colonial ship-masters carry? What did
+they have on the _Mayflower_? What did Columbus use? And, to come down
+to comparatively recent times, what instruments were available and were
+actually used on the vessels during the commercial-marine activities
+following the American Revolution and up to the time of the appearance
+of steamships?
+
+These questions are often asked, not only by landsmen but by seafaring
+men as well. The ship-master of today uses instruments so different
+from those of Colonial times, or even of the earlier years of the
+nineteenth century, that unless he has a penchant for research he
+knows nothing about the earlier ones and certainly not how to use
+them if by chance they come to his notice. Holding in his hand a
+Davis quadrant, the skilful navigator of Salem's last square-rigger,
+the ship _Mindoro_, which passed out of service in 1897, said to the
+writer:--"I have no idea how to use it and I do not believe that there
+is a ship-master sailing out of Boston today who does." The Davis
+quadrant was in common use all through the eighteenth century and
+probably later. It is figured and explained in a book on navigation in
+1796. There are two in the Peabody Museum collection in Salem, dated
+respectively, 1768 and 1773, and an undated one in the collection is
+certainly older. Only the student of the history of navigation can
+explain them or their uses. The English navigator, John Davis, the
+inventor of this quadrant, in his "Seaman's Secrets", printed in 1594,
+gives a list of instruments which should be taken on ships, but it is
+to be feared few vessels carried them all or that owners were able to
+provide them. It included,--sea-compass, cross-staff, chart, quadrant,
+astrolabe, instrument to test compass variation, horizontal plane
+sphere, and paradoxical compass.
+
+[Illustration: SIXTEENTH CENTURY SPANISH ASTROLABE
+
+Full size. From Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.]
+
+[Illustration: UNIVERSAL RING-DIAL
+
+Diameter 3-1/2 inches. Owned by Mr. Parker Kemble.]
+
+No one knows exactly what instruments Columbus took with him on his
+voyage in 1492. He undoubtedly had an astrolabe and a cross-staff.
+The astrolabe was devised during the first millennium and Arabian
+astronomers had perfected it as early as the year 700. It is really the
+basis of all future instruments of its class,--cross-staff, quadrant,
+sextant. Some of the most beautiful astrolabes preserved in museums are
+those made for the Persian astronomers in the sixteenth and seventeenth
+centuries. Columbus probably used the form devised by Martin Behaim
+which had been adapted for use at sea about the year 1480. Observations
+with the astrolabe required three persons, one to hold the instrument
+plumb by the ring, another to sight the sun and adjust the arm, and the
+third to read the scale. With these difficulties observations were, of
+course, far from accurate, but approximate time and latitude could be
+obtained. Another device was the ring-dial, or universal ring-dial as
+the old works on navigation called it. This differed from the astrolabe
+by having adjustable rings with the hours and scales engraved upon
+them. Both of these instruments are now rare.
+
+No original cross-staff is known to the writer in any collection in
+this country. It consisted of a rod thirty-six inches long on which
+another of twenty-six inches was centered and arranged to slide up and
+down at right angles to it. By sighting from the end of the longer rod
+and moving the sliding bar until the sun was seen at one end of it and
+the horizon at the other, the figure on the scale at the junction of
+the rods indicated the sun's altitude and from this the latitude was
+obtained.
+
+[Illustration: SEVENTEENTH CENTURY MARINER USING A CROSS-STAFF
+
+From Seller's "Practical Navigation," London, 1676]
+
+[Illustration: SEVENTEENTH CENTURY MARINER USING DAVIS' QUADRANT
+
+From Seller's "Practical Navigation," London, 1676]
+
+Based on this instrument, by laying out the circle on a table, John
+Davis, the explorer, devised his quadrant in 1586. At first the
+observer used it by facing the sun, as the cross-staff had been
+used, but a better form was made later where the observer had the
+sun at his back. This instrument has been called by sailors "jackass
+quadrant" and, supposedly from its shape, "hog-yoke." In early books on
+navigation it is called "sea-quadrant." The earlier form used by the
+observer standing back to the sun had a solid "shade vane" which slid
+along the smaller arc of the instrument. By adjusting this a little
+short of the supposed altitude of the sun and sighting the horizon
+through the minute hole in the "sight vane" until it was seen through
+the "horizon vane" at the apex of the instrument, and then gradually
+moving the "sight vane" along the larger arc until the shadow of the
+"shade vane" met the horizon line, the sum of the degrees on the two
+scales indicated the sun's altitude. This was really the second form of
+the Davis quadrant. In the third, the solid "shade vane" was replaced
+by one with a low-power lens inserted in it arranged to focus on the
+"horizon vane," thus approaching the idea of the reflected sun in
+the Hadley quadrant and the sextant. A most interesting instrument,
+half-way between a cross-staff and the Davis quadrant, is illustrated
+in Seller's book on navigation published in 1676. He calls it a
+"Plough." Above, it has the small arc of the Davis quadrant with the
+sliding rod of the cross-staff below. These were, of course, imperfect
+instruments, but still a great advance over previous devices to obtain
+time and latitude.
+
+[Illustration: SECT. III.
+
+The Description and Use of the Plough.
+
+_The Description of the Plough._
+
+This Instrument was antiently in use amonght Mariners, although at this
+day it is not so commonly used as formerly; it consists of a Staff
+having a small Arch, and three Vanes.
+
+_The Figure of the Plough._
+
+The Staff is about two foot and a half long, or three foot at the most;
+at the Center-end of which is erected a small Arch, that is divided
+into 85 degrees; on the side of the Staff are set off the Graduations
+proper to the Plough, beginning at five or six degrees, and encreasing
+to ten degrees towards the Arch, every degree being divided into single
+minutes.
+
+The Vanes are a _Horizon-Vane_, as A, and _Shadow-Vane_, as B, (to be
+used as in the Quadrant) and a _Sight-Vane_ moving upon the Staff, as
+at C.
+
+PAGE FROM "PRACTICAL NAVIGATION," BY JOHN SELLERS, LONDON, 1676]
+
+[Illustration: DAVIS QUADRANT
+
+"Made by William Williams in King St. Boston." An ivory plate has
+"Malachi Allen 1769." Mahogany, 24 inches long, convex glass in the
+shade vane; fine example of cabinet work. In Peabody Museum, Salem.]
+
+The Davis quadrants are usually made of ebony, rosewood, or other
+dark woods, with boxwood scale arcs and could be made by expert
+wood-workers. The numerous examples preserved attest the skill of the
+old cabinet-makers, for they are never warped or twisted while their
+jointing is a Chinese puzzle. Probably the _Mayflower_ carried a Davis
+quadrant and quite likely an astrolabe, and of course, a compass, for
+the compass had been in use for two centuries.
+
+Whether the compass was independently invented in Europe or was
+borrowed from the Chinese is uncertain. The old marine compasses
+were set in gimbals. The magnet was a thin bar attached, usually
+with sealing wax, to the under side of the compass card, the whole
+mounted in a thin bowl of turned wood. These were the compasses
+of the eighteenth century. There is one in the Salem collection
+inscribed,--"Benjamin King Salem in New England", with the date
+"1770" cut in the box; another has the mark of Benjamin King, 1790.
+A surveyor's compass, wooden throughout, including wooden sights, is
+inscribed,--"Made by James Halsey near ye draw bridge Boston." The
+liquid compass first suggested by Francis Crow in 1813 and improved by
+E. S. Ritchie of Boston, has largely displaced the older devices.
+
+The "nocturnal", used at night, as its name signifies, appeared at
+an early date, exactly when it does not seem possible to say. One in
+the Salem collection is marked,--"Nathaniel Viall 1724". By adjusting
+the movable discs to the date on the scale for the day of the month,
+sighting the north star through the hole in the center and then
+bringing the arm against the "guard stars", the hour was indicated with
+reasonable accuracy. Good pictures and descriptions of the nocturnal
+may be found in old books on navigation.
+
+In 1730, John Hadley in England and Thomas Godfrey in Philadelphia,
+independently invented the octant, known for nearly two hundred
+years as Hadley's quadrant. Both Hadley and Godfrey received awards
+for their devices. Although called quadrant in this country it is
+generally known elsewhere as octant, which is the better name, for the
+instrument represents but one eighth of the circle. By the principle
+of reflection, however, it covers ninety degrees and the scale is so
+marked. The Davis quadrant with its two arcs does represent one fourth
+of the circle and for that instrument the name is correct.
+
+The Hadley was a great improvement over the Davis quadrant and other
+older devices for finding latitude. By moving the arm the sun is
+reflected by the mirror at the apex and "brought down" to the horizon
+line and the eye is protected by colored glasses of various degrees
+of density through which the sun's rays shine. Catching the sun the
+instant it is on the meridian (noon), the scale indicates the altitude
+by which the latitude was figured with the Bowditch Navigator, used for
+more than one hundred years by American seamen, or Moore's before that
+and numerous others back to the early eighteenth century. The Hadley
+quadrant is still used in its modern form with telescopic eye-pieces
+although the sextant--one-sixth of the circle and by reflection
+one-third--is a more accurate instrument and also may be used to make
+lunar observations to obtain longitude, a complicated and difficult
+matter, so difficult that the authors of the older works did not even
+take trouble to explain the process, for only the most expert could
+make this observation, nor were the results satisfactory.
+
+The sextant was devised about 1757 and as now made is framed wholly of
+metal. To prevent corrosion, the scale, which is minutely divided, and
+has a "vernier" with a magnifying glass to show divisions of minutes,
+is made of gold or platinum in the best instruments. A half-circle
+has been devised and is exceedingly rare. An example in the Salem
+collection was made before 1818. A curious double-jointed dividers
+accompanied it and the entry in the museum catalog reads,--"used
+to correct a lunar observation for longitude." A full "circle of
+reflection" is also sometimes used, more often on land than at sea.
+This is a beautiful instrument and is not often met with in collections
+or in use. All of these instruments are similar in character and may be
+traced, as previously stated, to the ancestral astrolabe.
+
+[Illustration: NOCTURNAL
+
+"Nath'll Viall 1724." Boxwood, arm seven inches from centre to tip. In
+Peabody Museum, Salem.]
+
+The early Hadley quadrants were huge affairs made of wood with an
+arm twenty-four inches in length. Today they are more generally of
+metal with arms from ten to twelve inches. Using the sextent or Hadley
+quadrant the observer stands facing the sun, but old Hadley quadrants
+were made with a "back sight" so that they could be used like the Davis
+quadrant, thus making two independent observations the average of which
+would ensure greater accuracy.
+
+[Illustration: HADLEY QUADRANTS (OCTANTS) IN PEABODY MUSEUM, SALEM
+
+1. "Made by John Dupee 1755 for Patrick Montgomerie." All wood, ebony,
+arm 22 inches long.
+
+2. "Made by Ino. Gilbert on Tower Hill London for Hector Orr Augt. 6,
+1768." Ebony, arm 20 inches long.
+
+3. "Norie & Co. London." Ebony and brass, _ca._ 1840. Arm 11-3/4
+inches, telescopic eyepieces, used by Capt. John Hodges.
+
+4. "Spencer Browning and Rust London." Ebony frame, brass arm 17
+inches, ivory scale, pencil inserted in cross piece, _ca._ 1800, used
+by Capt. Henry King.
+
+5. "J: Urings London." All brass, arm 20 inches, back sight broken off,
+_ca._ 1780, rare.]
+
+To obtain the ship's latitude with comparatively good results was an
+easy matter with the quadrant and its fore-runners, but the great
+problem for centuries was how to find the longitude, now universally
+and quickly obtained by the chronometer and simple observations in
+the morning or at noon. Spring clocks and watches appeared about 1530
+but they were unreliable and of no use on long voyages. Sand glasses
+like those of the old Colonial churches were used on ships and so
+conservative is the British mind that some were in use on British naval
+vessels as late as 1828 and one authority states as late as 1839.
+Greenwich Observatory was established in 1675 and a Royal Commission
+was soon appointed with authority to award prizes for important
+inventions in aid of navigation. A prize of �20,000 was finally
+offered for a time-keeper that should meet certain requirements which
+practically meant absolute accuracy. In 1767, John Harrison produced
+the chronometer, based on the principle of an invention of 1735, and
+eventually he received the reward. Chronometers were so expensive and
+so hard to obtain that few New England ships had them until more than a
+half a century later. Other devices were tried to obtain longitude by
+lunar observations and by Jupiter's satellites, but these observations
+were too difficult to be of practical use. Today, fine watches serve
+for short trips and chronometers are carried by nearly all vessels
+making long voyages.
+
+That so important an instrument as a telescope or spy-glass is rarely
+mentioned in books on navigation or in sea journals seems strange. It
+is exceedingly difficult to obtain information of any being taken to
+sea, although one would think a spy-glass would be about the first
+aid on ship-board especially when skirting the coast. Telescopes did
+not become of practical use, even if the principle had been known,
+until they were made in Holland in 1608. It is at least certain
+that Columbus did not have one and probably there was none on the
+_Mayflower_, although its passengers had recently come from Holland
+where telescopes were invented a few years before. So far no references
+to them have been found in a rather casual examination of old log-books.
+
+In the Marine Room Collection of the Peabody Museum at Salem, is a
+spy-glass four feet long, octagonal in form, two and one-half inches in
+diameter, with a short focusing tube. It was taken from a British prize
+vessel off the coast of Ireland, in 1779, by Capt. James Barr in his
+Salem privateer. Another glass of similar form, but longer and with a
+mahogany case, was used on a United States naval vessel about 1815. The
+spy-glass, familiar to everyone, in two or three sections, was used at
+sea through the first half of the nineteenth century and is often seen
+tucked under the left arm, in the portraits of ship-masters brought
+home from foreign ports. Many of these were excellent instruments,
+especially those from Dollond of London. There is also in the Salem
+collection a rude telescope or spy-glass five and one-half feet long
+with a copper case about three inches in diameter looking precisely
+like a section from a house water-conductor. It focuses by a small
+upper sliding section, fitted like a stove funnel. This glass was
+brought from Nagasaki, Japan, by a Salem ship-master about 1865. It had
+been used there to observe vessels coming into the harbor. It may be
+Dutch and it is evidently very old.
+
+[Illustration: SEXTANTS IN PEABODY MUSEUM, SALEM
+
+1. "Bradford London." Brass frame and silver scale arm 14 inches long,
+_ca._ 1815, used by Capt. George Bailey before 1840.
+
+2. "L. Bleuler, London." Ebony frame, ivory scale, brass arm 14 inches
+long, _ca._ 1820, came from Plymouth, Mass.
+
+3. "G. Gowland 76 Castle St. Liverpool." Used by David Livingstone in
+his African explorations and after his death sold at Zanzibar by order
+of the Royal Geographical Society and bought by Capt. William Beadle,
+of Salem, and used on some of his voyages.]
+
+The speed of a vessel was first obtained by throwing overboard a
+floating subject at the bow and noting the time elapsed when it passed
+an observer at the stern. From this the log line with "knots" was
+derived, with the fourteen and twenty-eight seconds sand glasses to
+record speed. A "knot" indicates a geographical or sea mile which has
+been standardized at 6080 feet; the land or statute mile is 5280 feet,
+therefore, if a vessel is said to be sailing at the rate of thirteen
+knots, a railroad train going at the same speed would be running at
+the rate of fifteen miles an hour. The term "knot" is used solely
+to indicate rate of speed; the distance covered is always stated in
+nautical or sea miles. "Heaving the log" meant throwing out from the
+stern of a vessel a small float attached to a line running from a reel
+held clear of the rail, the float remaining stationary in the water.
+At the instant the log is "heaved" a sand glass is turned. On the line
+are knots (hence the term), pieces of marline or rags tied through the
+strands and spaced the same fraction of a mile apart,--above forty-six
+feet and six inches,--which twenty-eight seconds is the fraction of
+an hour,--about one one-hundred and twenty-eighth. Therefore, using a
+twenty-eight seconds glass and checking the line the instant the sand
+runs out, the number of knots and fractions paid out on the line will
+at once indicate the number of sea miles per hour which the vessel is
+going. This, of course, is doubled if the fourteen-seconds glass is
+used, which is done when the vessel is going very fast.
+
+
+The old log lines have been superseded by many forms of the "patent
+log" and the museum is indeed fortunate which possesses an original
+log line, reel and float in perfect condition. There is an excellent
+example in the museum collections of the Marblehead Historical Society.
+Once discarded, the lines were soon used to tie up packages and the
+reels and floats were thrown away. The patent log with its revolving
+blades, now universal, was devised by Humfray Cole in 1578; it was
+improved by various persons from time to time but, strange to say,
+did not come into general use for nearly three centuries. The rotating
+blades in the water record the rate on an indicator on the vessel which
+may be read at any time. So far, the earliest reference to the use of
+a device of this sort among our New England navigators is the "Gould's
+patent log" used by Captain George Crowninshield on his famous yacht
+_Cleopatra's Barge_ during the voyage to the Mediterranean in 1817.
+
+
+Charts were made in very ancient times but they were crude and almost
+useless. The first nautical maps appeared in Italy at the end of the
+thirteenth century, and it is said that Bartholomew Columbus brought
+the first one to England in 1489. The close of the sixteenth century
+saw many map makers at work, including Gerard Mercator whose name is
+perpetuated in the familiar scale charts in our geographies known as
+"Mercator's projection" which were the sea charts in general use.
+Globes were carried on ships in preference to charts in the early
+days and what is known as "great circle" sailing was evolved from
+them. Davis describes it in 1594 and it is possible that Cabot knew of
+the theory a century before. Such a simple instrument as a parallel
+ruler was not invented until late in the sixteenth century and tables
+of logarithms and Gunter's scale by which navigators make all their
+calculations were not known until the year the _Mayflower_ sailed.
+
+
+During the first century following the settlement of New England it is
+probable that the small coasting and fishing vessels were navigated by
+dead reckoning and not venturing far beyond the sight of land a compass
+was the only instrument carried. But the larger vessels sailing from
+Boston, Salem, Portsmouth, Newport and other ports on voyages to the
+West Indies, England and Spain, it would seem should have carried
+instruments with which observations could be made to obtain their
+approximate position. Mr. George Francis Dow has searched the early
+probate records of Essex County coast towns between 1634 and 1680, a
+period of nearly fifty years, and finds but thirteen references to
+nautical instruments in inventories and wills. Sometimes they are
+listed as "marriners instruments" and in one case a quadrant is valued
+at �1. Robert Gray of Salem, who died in 1661, possessed a "quadrant, a
+fore-staffe (cross-staff), a gunter's scale, and a pair of Compasses."
+John Bradstreet, who died at Marblehead the previous year, owned "3
+small sea books" valued at �1. 6s. The inventory of the estate of
+Jonathan Browne of Salem, who died in 1667, discloses a "fore-staff,"
+and that of the estate of John Silsby of Salem, taken in 1676, lists
+"marriners instruments and callender, 14s."
+
+In a very detailed inventory made in Salem before a notary publick on
+Nov. 4, 1702, of the equipment of the ship _Province Galley_, 90 tons,
+owned by Roger Derby, the only instruments for navigation that appear
+are "Two Compasses, two ha[lf] ho[ur] glasses, a ha[lf] Watchglass, a
+ha[lf] minute glass ... a hand lead line, a deep sea lead line."
+
+The _Boston News-Letter_, July 16, 1716, has the following
+advertisement: "A Parcel of Mathematical Instruments, viz: Quadrants,
+Meridian Compasses, all sorts of Rules, black lead Pencils, and brass
+Ring Dials, etc. To be sold by Publick Vendue at the Crown Coffee
+House in King's Street, Boston, on Thursday next." The same issue has
+the advertisement of "William Walker in Merchants Row, near the Swing
+Bridge," who had quadrants for sale.
+
+In looking back and noting the slow process of perfecting all nautical
+instruments, the wonder is how the old ships were navigated through
+distant seas without greater loss of life and vessels. The dangers
+were real during our commercial-marine activities following the period
+of the Revolution and the early nineteenth century, as attested by
+reference to old newspapers and letters, and to such records as the
+Diary of Rev. William Bentley of Salem, where nearly every Sunday some
+of his parishioners asked for prayers for friends at sea or for the
+loss of husband, son or brother. The shipmasters of Salem, Boston,
+Providence, New York and Baltimore, undertaking distant voyages, had
+few good charts--none for the new regions they visited--they had no
+chronometers, few had sextants, and their compasses were frequently
+unreliable. And yet these men--most of them were scarcely past their
+majority in years--with the courage and enthusiasm of youth, in ships
+filled with valuable cargoes, entrusted to their care by wealthy
+owners, sailed into uncharted seas, visited unknown lands, and, all the
+while rarely reported, finally came safely back, to their everlasting
+credit and the enrichment of the country.
+
+We do not know exactly what instruments the old shipmasters carried
+with them on these voyages, but we do know that they were comparatively
+few and very inferior to those in use today. An idea of the paucity in
+some instances may be obtained from the story of the ship _Hannah_,
+condemned at Christiansand in 1810, in the protest of American
+shipmasters which is now preserved in the New Haven Historical Society
+collections. It reads: "We, the undersigned masters of American vessels
+now in the port of Christiansand, having heard with astonishment that
+one of the principal charges against the American brig _Hannah_, from
+Boston, bound direct to Riga, and condemned at the prize court at this
+place, is as follows,--that the said court have pronounced it absolutely
+impossible to cross the Atlantic without a chart or sextant. We
+therefore feel fully authorized to assert that we have frequently made
+voyages from America without the above articles, and we are fully
+persuaded that every seaman with common nautical knowledge can do the
+same."
+
+
+No doubt many valuable data lie hidden in old log-books and sea
+journals, early newspaper files, shipping records of old business
+houses and elsewhere. To anyone with time and the inclination for
+research a fascinating field is open where material of historical and
+scientific value may be found. The writer is not aware that any such
+investigations have been made or accounts of any published.
+
+
+Accurate knowledge of the instruments carried by Colonial shipmasters
+on their voyages to the West Indies or along our coast and across the
+Atlantic would be of much interest, and still more to know what were
+supplied by owners or carried as their personal property by masters
+and supercargoes for the longer voyages to Russia, the Mediterranean,
+Africa, India, China, and the South Seas. It would be interesting to
+know, besides this, what had been their experiences with them: the
+accuracy of observations, how the compass behaved, etc. The early
+nineteenth century shipmasters were close observers, and in his works
+on navigation Lieut. M. F. Maury pays them high compliment for the
+valuable assistance rendered in furnishing notes and observations on
+currents, shoals, coast lines, compass variations and winds, for the
+charts and sailing directions which he compiled.
+
+With these things in mind this paper has been prepared, hoping that
+someone may be encouraged to take up the work systematically. It is a
+subject which seems to have been neglected, and the results certainly
+will repay much time devoted to its investigation.
+
+[Illustration: SCHOONER BALTICK, CAPT. EDWARD ALLEN
+
+Coming out of St. Eustatia, Nov. 16, 1765]
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Old-Time Nautical Instruments, by John Robinson
+
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+
+Project Gutenberg's Old-Time Nautical Instruments, by John Robinson
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Old-Time Nautical Instruments
+
+Author: John Robinson
+
+Release Date: November 17, 2013 [EBook #44206]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OLD-TIME NAUTICAL INSTRUMENTS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Turgut Dincer and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
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+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_001.jpg" width="500" height="728" alt="TITLE PAGE" />
+</div>
+
+<h1>Old-Time<br />
+Nautical Instruments</h1>
+
+<p class="center">BY</p>
+
+<p class="center">JOHN ROBINSON<br /><br /></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px; border-style:solid;
+border-width:1px;">
+<img src="images/i_012.jpg" width="250" height="339" alt="SEVENTEENTH CENTURY MARINER USING A CROSS-STAFF" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="center"><br /><br />BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS<br />
+1921
+</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="center">ONE HUNDRED COPIES<br />
+DEPRINTED FROM</p>
+
+<p class="center">Old-Time New England</p>
+
+<p class="center">APRIL, 1921</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_005.jpg" width="500" height="197" alt=">SHIP GRAND TURK, 1786" />
+<p class="center f08">SHIP GRAND TURK, 1786<br /><br /></p></div>
+
+<h2>OLD-TIME NAUTICAL INSTRUMENTS</h2>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">By John Robinson</span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Curator of the Marine Room, Peabody Museum, Salem, Mass.</i></p>
+
+<p><span class="dropcap">W</span>HAT sort of instruments did
+the Colonial ship-masters carry?
+What did they have on
+the <i>Mayflower</i>? What did Columbus
+use? And, to come down to comparatively
+recent times, what instruments
+were available and were actually
+used on the vessels during the
+commercial-marine activities following
+the American Revolution and up to the
+time of the appearance of steamships?</p>
+
+<p>These questions are often asked,
+not only by landsmen but by seafaring
+men as well. The ship-master of today
+uses instruments so different from
+those of Colonial times, or even of the
+earlier years of the nineteenth century,
+that unless he has a penchant
+for research he knows nothing about
+the earlier ones and certainly not how
+to use them if by chance they come
+to his notice. Holding in his hand a
+Davis quadrant, the skilful navigator
+of Salem’s last square-rigger, the ship
+<i>Mindoro</i>, which passed out of service
+in 1897, said to the writer:—“I have
+no idea how to use it and I do not
+believe that there is a ship-master sailing
+out of Boston today who does.”
+The Davis quadrant was in common
+use all through the eighteenth century
+and probably later. It is figured and
+explained in a book on navigation in
+1796. There are two in the Peabody
+Museum collection in Salem, dated
+respectively, 1768 and 1773, and an
+undated one in the collection is certainly
+older. Only the student of the
+history of navigation can explain them
+or their uses. The English navigator,
+John Davis, the inventor of this quadrant,
+in his “Seaman’s Secrets”, printed
+in 1594, gives a list of instruments
+which should be taken on ships, but it
+is to be feared few vessels carried them
+all or that owners were able to provide
+them. It included,—sea-compass,
+cross-staff, chart, quadrant, astrolabe,
+instrument to test compass variation,
+horizontal plane sphere, and paradoxical
+compass.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_008.jpg" width="400" height="565" alt="SIXTEENTH CENTURY SPANISH ASTROLABE" />
+<p class="center f08">SIXTEENTH CENTURY SPANISH ASTROLABE<br />
+Full size. From Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_009.jpg" width="400" height="403" alt="UNIVERSAL RING-DIAL" />
+<p class="center f08">UNIVERSAL RING-DIAL<br />
+Diameter 3-1/2 inches. Owned by Mr. Parker Kemble.</p></div>
+
+<p>No one knows exactly what instruments
+Columbus took with him on his
+voyage in 1492. He undoubtedly had
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span>
+an astrolabe and a cross-staff. The
+astrolabe was devised during the first
+millennium and Arabian astronomers
+had perfected it as early as the year
+700. It is really the basis of all future
+instruments of its class,—cross-staff,
+quadrant, sextant. Some of the
+most beautiful astrolabes preserved in
+museums are those made for the Persian
+astronomers in the sixteenth and
+seventeenth centuries. Columbus probably
+used the form devised by Martin
+Behaim which had been adapted for
+use at sea about the year 1480. Observations
+with the astrolabe required
+three persons, one to hold the instrument
+plumb by the ring, another to
+sight the sun and adjust the arm, and
+the third to read the scale. With these
+difficulties observations were, of
+course, far from accurate, but approximate
+time and latitude could be obtained.
+Another device was the ring-dial,
+or universal ring-dial as the old
+works on navigation called it. This
+differed from the astrolabe by having
+adjustable rings with the hours and
+scales engraved upon them. Both of
+these instruments are now rare.</p>
+
+<p>No original cross-staff is known to
+the writer in any collection in this
+country. It consisted of a rod thirty-six
+inches long on which another of
+twenty-six inches was centered and arranged
+to slide up and down at right
+angles to it. By sighting from the
+end of the longer rod and moving the
+sliding bar until the sun was seen at
+one end of it and the horizon at the
+other, the figure on the scale at the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span>
+junction of the rods indicated the sun’s
+altitude and from this the latitude was
+obtained.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/i_012.jpg" width="250" height="339" alt="SEVENTEENTH CENTURY MARINER USING A CROSS-STAFF" />
+<p class="center f08">SEVENTEENTH CENTURY MARINER USING A CROSS-STAFF<br />
+From Seller’s “Practical Navigation,” London, 1676</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/i_013.jpg" width="250" height="329" alt="SEVENTEENTH CENTURY MARINER USING DAVIS’ QUADRANT" />
+<p class="center f08">SEVENTEENTH CENTURY MARINER USING DAVIS’ QUADRANT<br />
+From Seller’s “Practical Navigation,” London, 1676</p></div>
+
+<p>Based on this instrument, by laying
+out the circle on a table, John Davis,
+the explorer, devised his quadrant in
+1586. At first the observer used it
+by facing the sun, as the cross-staff
+had been used, but a better form was
+made later where the observer had the
+sun at his back. This instrument has
+been called by sailors “jackass quadrant”
+and, supposedly from its shape,
+“hog-yoke.” In early books on navigation
+it is called “sea-quadrant.” The
+earlier form used by the observer
+standing back to the sun had a solid
+“shade vane” which slid along the
+smaller arc of the instrument. By
+adjusting this a little short of the supposed
+altitude of the sun and sighting
+the horizon through the minute hole
+in the “sight vane” until it was seen
+through the “horizon vane” at the apex
+of the instrument, and then gradually
+moving the “sight vane” along the
+larger arc until the shadow of the
+“shade vane” met the horizon line,
+the sum of the degrees on the two
+scales indicated the sun’s altitude. This
+was really the second form of the
+Davis quadrant. In the third, the solid
+“shade vane” was replaced by one with
+a low-power lens inserted in it arranged
+to focus on the “horizon vane,”
+thus approaching the idea of the reflected
+sun in the Hadley quadrant and
+the sextant. A most interesting instrument,
+half-way between a cross-staff
+and the Davis quadrant, is illustrated
+in Seller’s book on navigation published
+in 1676. He calls it a “Plough.”
+Above, it has the small arc of the
+Davis quadrant with the sliding rod of
+the cross-staff below. These were, of
+course, imperfect instruments, but still
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span>
+a great advance over previous devices
+to obtain time and latitude.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px; border-style:solid;
+border-width:2px;">
+<img src="images/p_009.jpg" width="500" height="702" alt="PAGE FROM “PRACTICAL NAVIGATION" />
+</div>
+<p class="center f08">PAGE FROM “PRACTICAL NAVIGATION,”<br />
+BY JOHN SELLERS, LONDON, 1676<br /><br /></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/i_015.jpg" width="250" height="438" alt="DAVIS QUADRANT" />
+<p class="center f08">DAVIS QUADRANT</p>
+<p class="center f08">“Made by William Williams in King St. Boston.”
+An ivory plate has “Malachi Allen 1769.” Mahogany,
+24 inches long, convex glass in the shade vane;
+fine example of cabinet work. In Peabody Museum,
+Salem.</p></div>
+
+<p>The Davis quadrants are usually
+made of ebony, rosewood, or other
+dark woods, with boxwood scale arcs
+and could be made by expert wood-workers.
+The numerous examples preserved
+attest the skill of the old cabinet-makers,
+for they are never warped
+or twisted while their jointing is a
+Chinese puzzle. Probably the <i>Mayflower</i>
+carried a Davis quadrant and
+quite likely an astrolabe, and of course,
+a compass, for the compass had been
+in use for two centuries.</p>
+
+<p>Whether the compass was independently
+invented in Europe or was borrowed
+from the Chinese is uncertain.
+The old marine compasses were set in
+gimbals. The magnet was a thin bar
+attached, usually with sealing wax, to
+the under side of the compass card, the
+whole mounted in a thin bowl of
+turned wood. These were the compasses
+of the eighteenth century. There
+is one in the Salem collection inscribed,—“Benjamin
+King Salem in New
+England”, with the date “1770” cut
+in the box; another has the mark of
+Benjamin King, 1790. A surveyor’s
+compass, wooden throughout, including
+wooden sights, is inscribed,—“Made
+by James Halsey near ye draw bridge
+Boston.” The liquid compass first
+suggested by Francis Crow in 1813
+and improved by E. S. Ritchie of Boston,
+has largely displaced the older
+devices.</p>
+
+<p>The “nocturnal”, used at night, as
+its name signifies, appeared at an early
+date, exactly when it does not seem
+possible to say. One in the Salem collection
+is marked,—“Nathaniel
+Viall 1724”. By adjusting the movable discs
+to the date on the scale for the day of
+the month, sighting the north star
+through the hole in the center and then
+bringing the arm against the “guard
+stars”, the hour was indicated with
+reasonable accuracy. Good pictures
+and descriptions of the nocturnal may
+be found in old books on navigation.</p>
+
+<p>In 1730, John Hadley in England
+and Thomas Godfrey in Philadelphia,
+independently invented the octant,
+known for nearly two hundred years
+as Hadley’s quadrant. Both Hadley
+and Godfrey received awards for their
+devices. Although called quadrant in
+this country it is generally known
+elsewhere as octant, which is the better
+name, for the instrument represents
+but one eighth of the circle. By
+the principle of reflection, however, it
+covers ninety degrees and the scale
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span>
+is so marked. The Davis quadrant
+with its two arcs does represent one
+fourth of the circle and for that instrument
+the name is correct.</p>
+
+<p>The Hadley was a great improvement
+over the Davis quadrant and
+other older devices for finding latitude.
+By moving the arm the sun is
+reflected by the mirror at the apex
+and “brought down” to the horizon
+line and the eye is protected by colored
+glasses of various degrees of density
+through which the sun’s rays
+shine. Catching the sun the instant
+it is on the meridian (noon), the scale
+indicates the altitude by which the
+latitude was figured with the Bowditch
+Navigator, used for more than
+one hundred years by American seamen,
+or Moore’s before that and
+numerous others back to the early
+eighteenth century. The Hadley quadrant
+is still used in its modern form
+with telescopic eye-pieces although the
+sextant—one-sixth of the circle and
+by reflection one-third—is a more accurate
+instrument and also may be
+used to make lunar observations to obtain
+longitude, a complicated and difficult
+matter, so difficult that the authors
+of the older works did not even
+take trouble to explain the process, for
+only the most expert could make this
+observation, nor were the results satisfactory.</p>
+
+<p>The sextant was devised about 1757
+and as now made is framed wholly of
+metal. To prevent corrosion, the scale,
+which is minutely divided, and has a
+“vernier” with a magnifying glass
+to show divisions of minutes, is made
+of gold or platinum in the best instruments.
+A half-circle has been devised
+and is exceedingly rare. An example
+in the Salem collection was made before
+1818. A curious double-jointed
+dividers accompanied it and the entry
+in the museum catalog reads,—“used
+to correct a lunar observation for longitude.”
+A full “circle of reflection”
+is also sometimes used, more often on
+land than at sea. This is a beautiful
+instrument and is not often met with
+in collections or in use. All of these
+instruments are similar in character
+and may be traced, as previously
+stated, to the ancestral astrolabe.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/i_018.jpg" width="250" height="360" alt="NOCTURNAL" />
+<p class="center f08">NOCTURNAL</p>
+<p class="center f08">“Nath’ll Viall 1724.” Boxwood, arm seven inches
+from centre to tip. In Peabody Museum, Salem.</p></div>
+
+<p>The early Hadley quadrants were
+huge affairs made of wood with an
+arm twenty-four inches in length. Today
+they are more generally of metal
+with arms from ten to twelve inches.
+Using the sextent or Hadley quadrant
+the observer stands facing the
+sun, but old Hadley quadrants were
+made with a “back sight” so that they
+could be used like the Davis quadrant,
+thus making two independent observations
+the average of which would ensure
+greater accuracy.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_019.jpg" width="500" height="546" alt="HADLEY QUADRANTS (OCTANTS)" />
+<p class="center f08">HADLEY QUADRANTS (OCTANTS) IN PEABODY MUSEUM, SALEM</p>
+
+<table summary="QUADRANTS"><tr>
+<td class="tdl padr1 f08" style="width: 50%">1. “Made by John Dupee 1755 for Patrick
+Montgomerie.” All wood, ebony, arm 22 inches
+long.</td>
+<td class="tdl f08" style="width: 50%">2. “Made by Ino. Gilbert on Tower Hill
+London for Hector Orr Augt. 6, 1768.” Ebony,
+arm 20 inches long.</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdc padl5 padr5 f08" style="width: 50%" colspan="2"><p>3. “Norie &amp; Co. London.” Ebony and brass, <i>ca.</i> 1840. Arm 11-3/4 inches,
+telescopic eyepieces, used by Capt. John Hodges.</p></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdl padr1 f08" style="width: 50%">4. “Spencer Browning and Rust London.”
+Ebony frame, brass arm 17 inches, ivory scale,
+pencil inserted in cross piece, <i>ca.</i> 1800, used by
+Capt. Henry King.</td>
+<td class="tdl vertt f08" style="width: 50%">5. “J: Urings London.” All brass, arm 20
+inches, back sight broken off, <i>ca.</i> 1780, rare.</td></tr></table></div>
+
+<p>To obtain the ship’s latitude with
+comparatively good results was an
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span>
+easy matter with the quadrant and its
+fore-runners, but the great problem
+for centuries was how to find the longitude,
+now universally and quickly
+obtained by the chronometer and simple
+observations in the morning or at
+noon. Spring clocks and watches appeared
+about 1530 but they were unreliable
+and of no use on long voyages.
+Sand glasses like those of the old Colonial
+churches were used on ships and
+so conservative is the British mind that
+some were in use on British naval vessels
+as late as 1828 and one authority
+states as late as 1839. Greenwich Observatory
+was established in 1675 and
+a Royal Commission was soon appointed
+with authority to award prizes
+for important inventions in aid of navigation.
+A prize of £20,000 was finally
+offered for a time-keeper that should
+meet certain requirements which practically
+meant absolute accuracy. In
+1767, John Harrison produced the
+chronometer, based on the principle of
+an invention of 1735, and eventually
+he received the reward. Chronometers
+were so expensive and so hard to obtain
+that few New England ships had
+them until more than a half a century
+later. Other devices were tried to obtain
+longitude by lunar observations
+and by Jupiter’s satellites, but these
+observations were too difficult to be
+of practical use. Today, fine watches
+serve for short trips and chronometers
+are carried by nearly all vessels making
+long voyages.</p>
+
+<p>That so important an instrument as
+a telescope or spy-glass is rarely mentioned
+in books on navigation or in
+sea journals seems strange. It is exceedingly
+difficult to obtain information
+of any being taken to sea, although
+one would think a spy-glass
+would be about the first aid on shipboard
+especially when skirting the
+coast. Telescopes did not become of
+practical use, even if the principle had
+been known, until they were made in
+Holland in 1608. It is at least certain
+that Columbus did not have one and
+probably there was none on the <i>Mayflower</i>,
+although its passengers had
+recently come from Holland where
+telescopes were invented a few years
+before. So far no references to them
+have been found in a rather casual examination
+of old log-books.</p>
+
+<p>In the Marine Room Collection of
+the Peabody Museum at Salem, is a
+spy-glass four feet long, octagonal in
+form, two and one-half inches in diameter,
+with a short focusing tube.
+It was taken from a British prize vessel
+off the coast of Ireland, in 1779,
+by Capt. James Barr in his Salem privateer.
+Another glass of similar form,
+but longer and with a mahogany case,
+was used on a United States naval vessel
+about 1815. The spy-glass, familiar
+to everyone, in two or three sections,
+was used at sea through the first
+half of the nineteenth century and is
+often seen tucked under the left arm,
+in the portraits of ship-masters
+brought home from foreign ports.
+Many of these were excellent instruments,
+especially those from Dollond
+of London. There is also in the Salem
+collection a rude telescope or spy-glass
+five and one-half feet long with
+a copper case about three inches in
+diameter looking precisely like a section
+from a house water-conductor.
+It focuses by a small upper sliding section,
+fitted like a stove funnel. This
+glass was brought from Nagasaki, Japan,
+by a Salem ship-master about
+1865. It had been used there to observe
+vessels coming into the harbor.
+It may be Dutch and it is evidently
+very old.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_022.jpg" width="500" height="529" alt="SEXTANTS IN PEABODY MUSEUM, SALEM" />
+<p class="center f08">SEXTANTS IN PEABODY MUSEUM, SALEM</p>
+
+<table summary="SEXTANTS"><tr>
+<td class="tdl f08 padr1" style="width: 50%">1. “Bradford London.” Brass frame and silver
+scale arm 14 inches long, <i>ca.</i> 1815, used by Capt.
+George Bailey before 1840.</td>
+<td class="tdl f08 vertt" style="width: 50%">2. “L. Bleuler, London.” Ebony frame, ivory
+scale, brass arm 14 inches long, <i>ca.</i> 1820, came from
+Plymouth, Mass.</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdc f08 padr5 padl5" colspan="2"><p>3. “G. Gowland 76 Castle St. Liverpool.” Used by David Livingstone in his African
+explorations and after his death sold at Zanzibar by order of the Royal Geographical
+Society and bought by Capt. William Beadle, of Salem, and used on some of his
+voyages.</p></td></tr></table></div>
+
+<p>The speed of a vessel was first obtained
+by throwing overboard a floating
+subject at the bow and noting the
+time elapsed when it passed an observer
+at the stern. From this the log
+line with “knots” was derived, with
+the fourteen and twenty-eight seconds
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span>
+sand glasses to record speed. A “knot”
+indicates a geographical or sea mile
+which has been standardized at 6080
+feet; the land or statute mile is 5280
+feet, therefore, if a vessel is said to be
+sailing at the rate of thirteen knots,
+a railroad train going at the same
+speed would be running at the rate of
+fifteen miles an hour. The term “knot”
+is used solely to indicate rate of speed;
+the distance covered is always stated
+in nautical or sea miles. “Heaving the
+log” meant throwing out from the
+stern of a vessel a small float attached
+to a line running from a reel held clear
+of the rail, the float remaining stationary
+in the water. At the instant
+the log is “heaved” a sand glass is
+turned. On the line are knots (hence
+the term), pieces of marline or rags
+tied through the strands and spaced
+the same fraction of a mile apart,—above
+forty-six feet and six inches,—which
+twenty-eight seconds is the
+fraction of an hour,—about one one-hundred
+and twenty-eighth. Therefore,
+using a twenty-eight seconds glass and
+checking the line the instant the sand
+runs out, the number of knots and
+fractions paid out on the line will at
+once indicate the number of sea miles
+per hour which the vessel is going.
+This, of course, is doubled if the fourteen-seconds
+glass is used, which is
+done when the vessel is going very fast.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">The old log lines have been superseded
+by many forms of the “patent
+log” and the museum is indeed fortunate
+which possesses an original log
+line, reel and float in perfect condition.
+There is an excellent example in the
+museum collections of the Marblehead
+Historical Society. Once discarded,
+the lines were soon used to tie up
+packages and the reels and floats were
+thrown away. The patent log with its
+revolving blades, now universal, was
+devised by Humfray Cole in 1578;
+it was improved by various persons
+from time to time but, strange to say,
+did not come into general use for nearly
+three centuries. The rotating blades
+in the water record the rate on an indicator
+on the vessel which may be
+read at any time. So far, the earliest
+reference to the use of a device of this
+sort among our New England navigators
+is the “Gould’s patent log” used
+by Captain George Crowninshield on
+his famous yacht <i>Cleopatra’s Barge</i>
+during the voyage to the Mediterranean
+in 1817.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">Charts were made in very ancient
+times but they were crude and almost
+useless. The first nautical maps appeared
+in Italy at the end of the thirteenth
+century, and it is said that
+Bartholomew Columbus brought the
+first one to England in 1489. The
+close of the sixteenth century saw
+many map makers at work, including
+Gerard Mercator whose name is perpetuated
+in the familiar scale charts
+in our geographies known as “Mercator’s
+projection” which were the sea
+charts in general use. Globes were
+carried on ships in preference to charts
+in the early days and what is known as
+“great circle” sailing was evolved from
+them. Davis describes it in 1594 and
+it is possible that Cabot knew of the
+theory a century before. Such a simple
+instrument as a parallel ruler was
+not invented until late in the sixteenth
+century and tables of logarithms and
+Gunter’s scale by which navigators
+make all their calculations were not
+known until the year the <i>Mayflower</i>
+sailed.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">During the first century following
+the settlement of New England it is
+probable that the small coasting and
+fishing vessels were navigated by dead
+reckoning and not venturing far beyond
+the sight of land a compass was
+the only instrument carried. But the
+larger vessels sailing from Boston,
+Salem, Portsmouth, Newport and other
+ports on voyages to the West Indies,
+England and Spain, it would seem
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span>
+should have carried instruments with
+which observations could be made to
+obtain their approximate position. Mr.
+George Francis Dow has searched the
+early probate records of Essex County
+coast towns between 1634 and 1680, a
+period of nearly fifty years, and finds
+but thirteen references to nautical instruments
+in inventories and wills.
+Sometimes they are listed as “marriners
+instruments” and in one case a
+quadrant is valued at £1. Robert Gray
+of Salem, who died in 1661, possessed
+a “quadrant, a fore-staffe (cross-staff),
+a gunter’s scale, and a pair of Compasses.”
+John Bradstreet, who died
+at Marblehead the previous year,
+owned “3 small sea books” valued at
+£1. 6s. The inventory of the estate of
+Jonathan Browne of Salem, who died
+in 1667, discloses a “fore-staff,” and
+that of the estate of John Silsby of
+Salem, taken in 1676, lists “marriners
+instruments and callender, 14s.”</p>
+
+<p>In a very detailed inventory made
+in Salem before a notary publick on
+Nov. 4, 1702, of the equipment of the
+ship <i>Province Galley</i>, 90 tons, owned
+by Roger Derby, the only instruments
+for navigation that appear are “Two
+Compasses, two ha[lf] ho[ur] glasses,
+a ha[lf] Watchglass, a ha[lf] minute
+glass ... a hand lead line, a deep
+sea lead line.”</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Boston News-Letter</i>, July 16,
+1716, has the following advertisement:
+“A Parcel of Mathematical Instruments,
+viz: Quadrants, Meridian Compasses,
+all sorts of Rules, black lead
+Pencils, and brass Ring Dials, etc. To
+be sold by Publick Vendue at the
+Crown Coffee House in King’s Street,
+Boston, on Thursday next.” The same
+issue has the advertisement of “William
+Walker in Merchants Row, near
+the Swing Bridge,” who had quadrants
+for sale.</p>
+
+<p>In looking back and noting the slow
+process of perfecting all nautical instruments,
+the wonder is how the old
+ships were navigated through distant
+seas without greater loss of life and
+vessels. The dangers were real during
+our commercial-marine activities following
+the period of the Revolution
+and the early nineteenth century, as
+attested by reference to old newspapers
+and letters, and to such records
+as the Diary of Rev. William Bentley
+of Salem, where nearly every Sunday
+some of his parishioners asked for
+prayers for friends at sea or for the
+loss of husband, son or brother. The
+shipmasters of Salem, Boston, Providence,
+New York and Baltimore, undertaking
+distant voyages, had few
+good charts—none for the new regions
+they visited—they had no chronometers,
+few had sextants, and their compasses
+were frequently unreliable. And
+yet these men—most of them were
+scarcely past their majority in years—with
+the courage and enthusiasm of
+youth, in ships filled with valuable
+cargoes, entrusted to their care by
+wealthy owners, sailed into uncharted
+seas, visited unknown lands, and, all
+the while rarely reported, finally came
+safely back, to their everlasting credit
+and the enrichment of the country.</p>
+
+<p>We do not know exactly what instruments
+the old shipmasters carried
+with them on these voyages, but we do
+know that they were comparatively
+few and very inferior to those in use
+today. An idea of the paucity in some
+instances may be obtained from the
+story of the ship <i>Hannah</i>, condemned
+at Christiansand in 1810, in the protest
+of American shipmasters which is
+now preserved in the New Haven Historical
+Society collections. It reads:
+“We, the undersigned masters of
+American vessels now in the port of
+Christiansand, having heard with astonishment
+that one of the principal
+charges against the American brig
+<i>Hannah</i>, from Boston, bound direct to
+Riga, and condemned at the prize
+court at this place, is as follows,—that
+the said court have pronounced it absolutely
+impossible to cross the Atlan<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span>tic
+without a chart or sextant. We
+therefore feel fully authorized to assert
+that we have frequently made voyages
+from America without the above articles,
+and we are fully persuaded that
+every seaman with common nautical
+knowledge can do the same.”</p>
+
+<p class="tb">No doubt many valuable data lie
+hidden in old log-books and sea journals,
+early newspaper files, shipping
+records of old business houses and
+elsewhere. To anyone with time and
+the inclination for research a fascinating
+field is open where material of
+historical and scientific value may be
+found. The writer is not aware that
+any such investigations have been
+made or accounts of any published.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">Accurate knowledge of the instruments
+carried by Colonial shipmasters
+on their voyages to the West Indies or
+along our coast and across the Atlantic
+would be of much interest, and still
+more to know what were supplied by
+owners or carried as their personal
+property by masters and supercargoes
+for the longer voyages to Russia, the
+Mediterranean, Africa, India, China,
+and the South Seas. It would be interesting
+to know, besides this, what
+had been their experiences with them:
+the accuracy of observations, how the
+compass behaved, etc. The early nineteenth
+century shipmasters were close
+observers, and in his works on navigation
+Lieut. M. F. Maury pays them
+high compliment for the valuable assistance
+rendered in furnishing notes
+and observations on currents, shoals,
+coast lines, compass variations and
+winds, for the charts and sailing directions
+which he compiled.</p>
+
+<p>With these things in mind this paper
+has been prepared, hoping that someone
+may be encouraged to take up the
+work systematically. It is a subject
+which seems to have been neglected,
+and the results certainly will repay
+much time devoted to its investigation.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/i_028.jpg" width="250" height="162" alt="SCHOONER BALTICK, CAPT. EDWARD ALLEN" /></div>
+<p class="center f08">SCHOONER BALTICK, CAPT. EDWARD ALLEN<br />
+Coming out of St. Eustatia, Nov. 16, 1765</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Old-Time Nautical Instruments, by John Robinson
+
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+Project Gutenberg's Old-Time Nautical Instruments, by John Robinson
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Old-Time Nautical Instruments
+
+Author: John Robinson
+
+Release Date: November 17, 2013 [EBook #44206]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OLD-TIME NAUTICAL INSTRUMENTS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Turgut Dincer and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+  Old-Time
+  Nautical Instruments
+
+  BY
+
+  JOHN ROBINSON
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS
+  1921
+
+  ONE HUNDRED COPIES
+  DEPRINTED FROM
+
+  Old-Time New England
+
+  APRIL, 1921
+
+
+[Illustration: SHIP GRAND TURK, 1786]
+
+
+
+
+OLD-TIME NAUTICAL INSTRUMENTS
+
+BY JOHN ROBINSON
+
+_Curator of the Marine Room, Peabody Museum, Salem, Mass._
+
+
+What sort of instruments did the Colonial ship-masters carry? What did
+they have on the _Mayflower_? What did Columbus use? And, to come down
+to comparatively recent times, what instruments were available and were
+actually used on the vessels during the commercial-marine activities
+following the American Revolution and up to the time of the appearance
+of steamships?
+
+These questions are often asked, not only by landsmen but by seafaring
+men as well. The ship-master of today uses instruments so different
+from those of Colonial times, or even of the earlier years of the
+nineteenth century, that unless he has a penchant for research he
+knows nothing about the earlier ones and certainly not how to use
+them if by chance they come to his notice. Holding in his hand a
+Davis quadrant, the skilful navigator of Salem's last square-rigger,
+the ship _Mindoro_, which passed out of service in 1897, said to the
+writer:--"I have no idea how to use it and I do not believe that there
+is a ship-master sailing out of Boston today who does." The Davis
+quadrant was in common use all through the eighteenth century and
+probably later. It is figured and explained in a book on navigation in
+1796. There are two in the Peabody Museum collection in Salem, dated
+respectively, 1768 and 1773, and an undated one in the collection is
+certainly older. Only the student of the history of navigation can
+explain them or their uses. The English navigator, John Davis, the
+inventor of this quadrant, in his "Seaman's Secrets", printed in 1594,
+gives a list of instruments which should be taken on ships, but it is
+to be feared few vessels carried them all or that owners were able to
+provide them. It included,--sea-compass, cross-staff, chart, quadrant,
+astrolabe, instrument to test compass variation, horizontal plane
+sphere, and paradoxical compass.
+
+[Illustration: SIXTEENTH CENTURY SPANISH ASTROLABE
+
+Full size. From Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.]
+
+[Illustration: UNIVERSAL RING-DIAL
+
+Diameter 3-1/2 inches. Owned by Mr. Parker Kemble.]
+
+No one knows exactly what instruments Columbus took with him on his
+voyage in 1492. He undoubtedly had an astrolabe and a cross-staff.
+The astrolabe was devised during the first millennium and Arabian
+astronomers had perfected it as early as the year 700. It is really the
+basis of all future instruments of its class,--cross-staff, quadrant,
+sextant. Some of the most beautiful astrolabes preserved in museums are
+those made for the Persian astronomers in the sixteenth and seventeenth
+centuries. Columbus probably used the form devised by Martin Behaim
+which had been adapted for use at sea about the year 1480. Observations
+with the astrolabe required three persons, one to hold the instrument
+plumb by the ring, another to sight the sun and adjust the arm, and the
+third to read the scale. With these difficulties observations were, of
+course, far from accurate, but approximate time and latitude could be
+obtained. Another device was the ring-dial, or universal ring-dial as
+the old works on navigation called it. This differed from the astrolabe
+by having adjustable rings with the hours and scales engraved upon
+them. Both of these instruments are now rare.
+
+No original cross-staff is known to the writer in any collection in
+this country. It consisted of a rod thirty-six inches long on which
+another of twenty-six inches was centered and arranged to slide up and
+down at right angles to it. By sighting from the end of the longer rod
+and moving the sliding bar until the sun was seen at one end of it and
+the horizon at the other, the figure on the scale at the junction of
+the rods indicated the sun's altitude and from this the latitude was
+obtained.
+
+[Illustration: SEVENTEENTH CENTURY MARINER USING A CROSS-STAFF
+
+From Seller's "Practical Navigation," London, 1676]
+
+[Illustration: SEVENTEENTH CENTURY MARINER USING DAVIS' QUADRANT
+
+From Seller's "Practical Navigation," London, 1676]
+
+Based on this instrument, by laying out the circle on a table, John
+Davis, the explorer, devised his quadrant in 1586. At first the
+observer used it by facing the sun, as the cross-staff had been
+used, but a better form was made later where the observer had the
+sun at his back. This instrument has been called by sailors "jackass
+quadrant" and, supposedly from its shape, "hog-yoke." In early books on
+navigation it is called "sea-quadrant." The earlier form used by the
+observer standing back to the sun had a solid "shade vane" which slid
+along the smaller arc of the instrument. By adjusting this a little
+short of the supposed altitude of the sun and sighting the horizon
+through the minute hole in the "sight vane" until it was seen through
+the "horizon vane" at the apex of the instrument, and then gradually
+moving the "sight vane" along the larger arc until the shadow of the
+"shade vane" met the horizon line, the sum of the degrees on the two
+scales indicated the sun's altitude. This was really the second form of
+the Davis quadrant. In the third, the solid "shade vane" was replaced
+by one with a low-power lens inserted in it arranged to focus on the
+"horizon vane," thus approaching the idea of the reflected sun in
+the Hadley quadrant and the sextant. A most interesting instrument,
+half-way between a cross-staff and the Davis quadrant, is illustrated
+in Seller's book on navigation published in 1676. He calls it a
+"Plough." Above, it has the small arc of the Davis quadrant with the
+sliding rod of the cross-staff below. These were, of course, imperfect
+instruments, but still a great advance over previous devices to obtain
+time and latitude.
+
+[Illustration: SECT. III.
+
+The Description and Use of the Plough.
+
+_The Description of the Plough._
+
+This Instrument was antiently in use amonght Mariners, although at this
+day it is not so commonly used as formerly; it consists of a Staff
+having a small Arch, and three Vanes.
+
+_The Figure of the Plough._
+
+The Staff is about two foot and a half long, or three foot at the most;
+at the Center-end of which is erected a small Arch, that is divided
+into 85 degrees; on the side of the Staff are set off the Graduations
+proper to the Plough, beginning at five or six degrees, and encreasing
+to ten degrees towards the Arch, every degree being divided into single
+minutes.
+
+The Vanes are a _Horizon-Vane_, as A, and _Shadow-Vane_, as B, (to be
+used as in the Quadrant) and a _Sight-Vane_ moving upon the Staff, as
+at C.
+
+PAGE FROM "PRACTICAL NAVIGATION," BY JOHN SELLERS, LONDON, 1676]
+
+[Illustration: DAVIS QUADRANT
+
+"Made by William Williams in King St. Boston." An ivory plate has
+"Malachi Allen 1769." Mahogany, 24 inches long, convex glass in the
+shade vane; fine example of cabinet work. In Peabody Museum, Salem.]
+
+The Davis quadrants are usually made of ebony, rosewood, or other
+dark woods, with boxwood scale arcs and could be made by expert
+wood-workers. The numerous examples preserved attest the skill of the
+old cabinet-makers, for they are never warped or twisted while their
+jointing is a Chinese puzzle. Probably the _Mayflower_ carried a Davis
+quadrant and quite likely an astrolabe, and of course, a compass, for
+the compass had been in use for two centuries.
+
+Whether the compass was independently invented in Europe or was
+borrowed from the Chinese is uncertain. The old marine compasses
+were set in gimbals. The magnet was a thin bar attached, usually
+with sealing wax, to the under side of the compass card, the whole
+mounted in a thin bowl of turned wood. These were the compasses
+of the eighteenth century. There is one in the Salem collection
+inscribed,--"Benjamin King Salem in New England", with the date
+"1770" cut in the box; another has the mark of Benjamin King, 1790.
+A surveyor's compass, wooden throughout, including wooden sights, is
+inscribed,--"Made by James Halsey near ye draw bridge Boston." The
+liquid compass first suggested by Francis Crow in 1813 and improved by
+E. S. Ritchie of Boston, has largely displaced the older devices.
+
+The "nocturnal", used at night, as its name signifies, appeared at
+an early date, exactly when it does not seem possible to say. One in
+the Salem collection is marked,--"Nathaniel Viall 1724". By adjusting
+the movable discs to the date on the scale for the day of the month,
+sighting the north star through the hole in the center and then
+bringing the arm against the "guard stars", the hour was indicated with
+reasonable accuracy. Good pictures and descriptions of the nocturnal
+may be found in old books on navigation.
+
+In 1730, John Hadley in England and Thomas Godfrey in Philadelphia,
+independently invented the octant, known for nearly two hundred
+years as Hadley's quadrant. Both Hadley and Godfrey received awards
+for their devices. Although called quadrant in this country it is
+generally known elsewhere as octant, which is the better name, for the
+instrument represents but one eighth of the circle. By the principle
+of reflection, however, it covers ninety degrees and the scale is so
+marked. The Davis quadrant with its two arcs does represent one fourth
+of the circle and for that instrument the name is correct.
+
+The Hadley was a great improvement over the Davis quadrant and other
+older devices for finding latitude. By moving the arm the sun is
+reflected by the mirror at the apex and "brought down" to the horizon
+line and the eye is protected by colored glasses of various degrees
+of density through which the sun's rays shine. Catching the sun the
+instant it is on the meridian (noon), the scale indicates the altitude
+by which the latitude was figured with the Bowditch Navigator, used for
+more than one hundred years by American seamen, or Moore's before that
+and numerous others back to the early eighteenth century. The Hadley
+quadrant is still used in its modern form with telescopic eye-pieces
+although the sextant--one-sixth of the circle and by reflection
+one-third--is a more accurate instrument and also may be used to make
+lunar observations to obtain longitude, a complicated and difficult
+matter, so difficult that the authors of the older works did not even
+take trouble to explain the process, for only the most expert could
+make this observation, nor were the results satisfactory.
+
+The sextant was devised about 1757 and as now made is framed wholly of
+metal. To prevent corrosion, the scale, which is minutely divided, and
+has a "vernier" with a magnifying glass to show divisions of minutes,
+is made of gold or platinum in the best instruments. A half-circle
+has been devised and is exceedingly rare. An example in the Salem
+collection was made before 1818. A curious double-jointed dividers
+accompanied it and the entry in the museum catalog reads,--"used
+to correct a lunar observation for longitude." A full "circle of
+reflection" is also sometimes used, more often on land than at sea.
+This is a beautiful instrument and is not often met with in collections
+or in use. All of these instruments are similar in character and may be
+traced, as previously stated, to the ancestral astrolabe.
+
+[Illustration: NOCTURNAL
+
+"Nath'll Viall 1724." Boxwood, arm seven inches from centre to tip. In
+Peabody Museum, Salem.]
+
+The early Hadley quadrants were huge affairs made of wood with an
+arm twenty-four inches in length. Today they are more generally of
+metal with arms from ten to twelve inches. Using the sextent or Hadley
+quadrant the observer stands facing the sun, but old Hadley quadrants
+were made with a "back sight" so that they could be used like the Davis
+quadrant, thus making two independent observations the average of which
+would ensure greater accuracy.
+
+[Illustration: HADLEY QUADRANTS (OCTANTS) IN PEABODY MUSEUM, SALEM
+
+1. "Made by John Dupee 1755 for Patrick Montgomerie." All wood, ebony,
+arm 22 inches long.
+
+2. "Made by Ino. Gilbert on Tower Hill London for Hector Orr Augt. 6,
+1768." Ebony, arm 20 inches long.
+
+3. "Norie & Co. London." Ebony and brass, _ca._ 1840. Arm 11-3/4
+inches, telescopic eyepieces, used by Capt. John Hodges.
+
+4. "Spencer Browning and Rust London." Ebony frame, brass arm 17
+inches, ivory scale, pencil inserted in cross piece, _ca._ 1800, used
+by Capt. Henry King.
+
+5. "J: Urings London." All brass, arm 20 inches, back sight broken off,
+_ca._ 1780, rare.]
+
+To obtain the ship's latitude with comparatively good results was an
+easy matter with the quadrant and its fore-runners, but the great
+problem for centuries was how to find the longitude, now universally
+and quickly obtained by the chronometer and simple observations in
+the morning or at noon. Spring clocks and watches appeared about 1530
+but they were unreliable and of no use on long voyages. Sand glasses
+like those of the old Colonial churches were used on ships and so
+conservative is the British mind that some were in use on British naval
+vessels as late as 1828 and one authority states as late as 1839.
+Greenwich Observatory was established in 1675 and a Royal Commission
+was soon appointed with authority to award prizes for important
+inventions in aid of navigation. A prize of L20,000 was finally
+offered for a time-keeper that should meet certain requirements which
+practically meant absolute accuracy. In 1767, John Harrison produced
+the chronometer, based on the principle of an invention of 1735, and
+eventually he received the reward. Chronometers were so expensive and
+so hard to obtain that few New England ships had them until more than a
+half a century later. Other devices were tried to obtain longitude by
+lunar observations and by Jupiter's satellites, but these observations
+were too difficult to be of practical use. Today, fine watches serve
+for short trips and chronometers are carried by nearly all vessels
+making long voyages.
+
+That so important an instrument as a telescope or spy-glass is rarely
+mentioned in books on navigation or in sea journals seems strange. It
+is exceedingly difficult to obtain information of any being taken to
+sea, although one would think a spy-glass would be about the first
+aid on ship-board especially when skirting the coast. Telescopes did
+not become of practical use, even if the principle had been known,
+until they were made in Holland in 1608. It is at least certain
+that Columbus did not have one and probably there was none on the
+_Mayflower_, although its passengers had recently come from Holland
+where telescopes were invented a few years before. So far no references
+to them have been found in a rather casual examination of old log-books.
+
+In the Marine Room Collection of the Peabody Museum at Salem, is a
+spy-glass four feet long, octagonal in form, two and one-half inches in
+diameter, with a short focusing tube. It was taken from a British prize
+vessel off the coast of Ireland, in 1779, by Capt. James Barr in his
+Salem privateer. Another glass of similar form, but longer and with a
+mahogany case, was used on a United States naval vessel about 1815. The
+spy-glass, familiar to everyone, in two or three sections, was used at
+sea through the first half of the nineteenth century and is often seen
+tucked under the left arm, in the portraits of ship-masters brought
+home from foreign ports. Many of these were excellent instruments,
+especially those from Dollond of London. There is also in the Salem
+collection a rude telescope or spy-glass five and one-half feet long
+with a copper case about three inches in diameter looking precisely
+like a section from a house water-conductor. It focuses by a small
+upper sliding section, fitted like a stove funnel. This glass was
+brought from Nagasaki, Japan, by a Salem ship-master about 1865. It had
+been used there to observe vessels coming into the harbor. It may be
+Dutch and it is evidently very old.
+
+[Illustration: SEXTANTS IN PEABODY MUSEUM, SALEM
+
+1. "Bradford London." Brass frame and silver scale arm 14 inches long,
+_ca._ 1815, used by Capt. George Bailey before 1840.
+
+2. "L. Bleuler, London." Ebony frame, ivory scale, brass arm 14 inches
+long, _ca._ 1820, came from Plymouth, Mass.
+
+3. "G. Gowland 76 Castle St. Liverpool." Used by David Livingstone in
+his African explorations and after his death sold at Zanzibar by order
+of the Royal Geographical Society and bought by Capt. William Beadle,
+of Salem, and used on some of his voyages.]
+
+The speed of a vessel was first obtained by throwing overboard a
+floating subject at the bow and noting the time elapsed when it passed
+an observer at the stern. From this the log line with "knots" was
+derived, with the fourteen and twenty-eight seconds sand glasses to
+record speed. A "knot" indicates a geographical or sea mile which has
+been standardized at 6080 feet; the land or statute mile is 5280 feet,
+therefore, if a vessel is said to be sailing at the rate of thirteen
+knots, a railroad train going at the same speed would be running at
+the rate of fifteen miles an hour. The term "knot" is used solely
+to indicate rate of speed; the distance covered is always stated in
+nautical or sea miles. "Heaving the log" meant throwing out from the
+stern of a vessel a small float attached to a line running from a reel
+held clear of the rail, the float remaining stationary in the water.
+At the instant the log is "heaved" a sand glass is turned. On the line
+are knots (hence the term), pieces of marline or rags tied through the
+strands and spaced the same fraction of a mile apart,--above forty-six
+feet and six inches,--which twenty-eight seconds is the fraction of
+an hour,--about one one-hundred and twenty-eighth. Therefore, using a
+twenty-eight seconds glass and checking the line the instant the sand
+runs out, the number of knots and fractions paid out on the line will
+at once indicate the number of sea miles per hour which the vessel is
+going. This, of course, is doubled if the fourteen-seconds glass is
+used, which is done when the vessel is going very fast.
+
+
+The old log lines have been superseded by many forms of the "patent
+log" and the museum is indeed fortunate which possesses an original
+log line, reel and float in perfect condition. There is an excellent
+example in the museum collections of the Marblehead Historical Society.
+Once discarded, the lines were soon used to tie up packages and the
+reels and floats were thrown away. The patent log with its revolving
+blades, now universal, was devised by Humfray Cole in 1578; it was
+improved by various persons from time to time but, strange to say,
+did not come into general use for nearly three centuries. The rotating
+blades in the water record the rate on an indicator on the vessel which
+may be read at any time. So far, the earliest reference to the use of
+a device of this sort among our New England navigators is the "Gould's
+patent log" used by Captain George Crowninshield on his famous yacht
+_Cleopatra's Barge_ during the voyage to the Mediterranean in 1817.
+
+
+Charts were made in very ancient times but they were crude and almost
+useless. The first nautical maps appeared in Italy at the end of the
+thirteenth century, and it is said that Bartholomew Columbus brought
+the first one to England in 1489. The close of the sixteenth century
+saw many map makers at work, including Gerard Mercator whose name is
+perpetuated in the familiar scale charts in our geographies known as
+"Mercator's projection" which were the sea charts in general use.
+Globes were carried on ships in preference to charts in the early
+days and what is known as "great circle" sailing was evolved from
+them. Davis describes it in 1594 and it is possible that Cabot knew of
+the theory a century before. Such a simple instrument as a parallel
+ruler was not invented until late in the sixteenth century and tables
+of logarithms and Gunter's scale by which navigators make all their
+calculations were not known until the year the _Mayflower_ sailed.
+
+
+During the first century following the settlement of New England it is
+probable that the small coasting and fishing vessels were navigated by
+dead reckoning and not venturing far beyond the sight of land a compass
+was the only instrument carried. But the larger vessels sailing from
+Boston, Salem, Portsmouth, Newport and other ports on voyages to the
+West Indies, England and Spain, it would seem should have carried
+instruments with which observations could be made to obtain their
+approximate position. Mr. George Francis Dow has searched the early
+probate records of Essex County coast towns between 1634 and 1680, a
+period of nearly fifty years, and finds but thirteen references to
+nautical instruments in inventories and wills. Sometimes they are
+listed as "marriners instruments" and in one case a quadrant is valued
+at L1. Robert Gray of Salem, who died in 1661, possessed a "quadrant, a
+fore-staffe (cross-staff), a gunter's scale, and a pair of Compasses."
+John Bradstreet, who died at Marblehead the previous year, owned "3
+small sea books" valued at L1. 6s. The inventory of the estate of
+Jonathan Browne of Salem, who died in 1667, discloses a "fore-staff,"
+and that of the estate of John Silsby of Salem, taken in 1676, lists
+"marriners instruments and callender, 14s."
+
+In a very detailed inventory made in Salem before a notary publick on
+Nov. 4, 1702, of the equipment of the ship _Province Galley_, 90 tons,
+owned by Roger Derby, the only instruments for navigation that appear
+are "Two Compasses, two ha[lf] ho[ur] glasses, a ha[lf] Watchglass, a
+ha[lf] minute glass ... a hand lead line, a deep sea lead line."
+
+The _Boston News-Letter_, July 16, 1716, has the following
+advertisement: "A Parcel of Mathematical Instruments, viz: Quadrants,
+Meridian Compasses, all sorts of Rules, black lead Pencils, and brass
+Ring Dials, etc. To be sold by Publick Vendue at the Crown Coffee
+House in King's Street, Boston, on Thursday next." The same issue has
+the advertisement of "William Walker in Merchants Row, near the Swing
+Bridge," who had quadrants for sale.
+
+In looking back and noting the slow process of perfecting all nautical
+instruments, the wonder is how the old ships were navigated through
+distant seas without greater loss of life and vessels. The dangers
+were real during our commercial-marine activities following the period
+of the Revolution and the early nineteenth century, as attested by
+reference to old newspapers and letters, and to such records as the
+Diary of Rev. William Bentley of Salem, where nearly every Sunday some
+of his parishioners asked for prayers for friends at sea or for the
+loss of husband, son or brother. The shipmasters of Salem, Boston,
+Providence, New York and Baltimore, undertaking distant voyages, had
+few good charts--none for the new regions they visited--they had no
+chronometers, few had sextants, and their compasses were frequently
+unreliable. And yet these men--most of them were scarcely past their
+majority in years--with the courage and enthusiasm of youth, in ships
+filled with valuable cargoes, entrusted to their care by wealthy
+owners, sailed into uncharted seas, visited unknown lands, and, all the
+while rarely reported, finally came safely back, to their everlasting
+credit and the enrichment of the country.
+
+We do not know exactly what instruments the old shipmasters carried
+with them on these voyages, but we do know that they were comparatively
+few and very inferior to those in use today. An idea of the paucity in
+some instances may be obtained from the story of the ship _Hannah_,
+condemned at Christiansand in 1810, in the protest of American
+shipmasters which is now preserved in the New Haven Historical Society
+collections. It reads: "We, the undersigned masters of American vessels
+now in the port of Christiansand, having heard with astonishment that
+one of the principal charges against the American brig _Hannah_, from
+Boston, bound direct to Riga, and condemned at the prize court at this
+place, is as follows,--that the said court have pronounced it absolutely
+impossible to cross the Atlantic without a chart or sextant. We
+therefore feel fully authorized to assert that we have frequently made
+voyages from America without the above articles, and we are fully
+persuaded that every seaman with common nautical knowledge can do the
+same."
+
+
+No doubt many valuable data lie hidden in old log-books and sea
+journals, early newspaper files, shipping records of old business
+houses and elsewhere. To anyone with time and the inclination for
+research a fascinating field is open where material of historical and
+scientific value may be found. The writer is not aware that any such
+investigations have been made or accounts of any published.
+
+
+Accurate knowledge of the instruments carried by Colonial shipmasters
+on their voyages to the West Indies or along our coast and across the
+Atlantic would be of much interest, and still more to know what were
+supplied by owners or carried as their personal property by masters
+and supercargoes for the longer voyages to Russia, the Mediterranean,
+Africa, India, China, and the South Seas. It would be interesting to
+know, besides this, what had been their experiences with them: the
+accuracy of observations, how the compass behaved, etc. The early
+nineteenth century shipmasters were close observers, and in his works
+on navigation Lieut. M. F. Maury pays them high compliment for the
+valuable assistance rendered in furnishing notes and observations on
+currents, shoals, coast lines, compass variations and winds, for the
+charts and sailing directions which he compiled.
+
+With these things in mind this paper has been prepared, hoping that
+someone may be encouraged to take up the work systematically. It is a
+subject which seems to have been neglected, and the results certainly
+will repay much time devoted to its investigation.
+
+[Illustration: SCHOONER BALTICK, CAPT. EDWARD ALLEN
+
+Coming out of St. Eustatia, Nov. 16, 1765]
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Old-Time Nautical Instruments, by John Robinson
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OLD-TIME NAUTICAL INSTRUMENTS ***
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