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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 18:47:35 -0700 |
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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/44615-0.txt b/44615-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e34ff41 --- /dev/null +++ b/44615-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,3477 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44615 *** + + SIAM: + + ITS + GOVERNMENT, MANNERS, CUSTOMS, &c. + + + BY + Rev. N. A. McDONALD, + For ten years a Missionary in that country. + + + PHILADELPHIA: + ALFRED MARTIEN, + 1214 CHESTNUT STREET. + 1871. + + + + + Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1871, by + ALFRED MARTIEN, + In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. + + + + + To the Memory + Of the Founder of Milnwood Academy, + REV. J. Y. McGINNES, + + Who had the cause of Foreign Missions very much at heart; + + AND TO ALL WHO HAVE BEEN + PUPILS OF THAT INSTITUTION, + THIS LITTLE VOLUME + + Is respectfully dedicated, by one of the earliest + Students of the Institution, + + The Author. + + + + + [Illustration: The present King of Siam.] + + + + + Contents. + + CHAPTER I. + GEOGRAPHY + + CHAPTER II. + THE GOVERNMENT + + CHAPTER III. + RELIGION + + CHAPTER IV. + EDUCATION AND LITERATURE + + CHAPTER V. + MANNERS AND CUSTOMS + + CHAPTER VI. + COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE + + CHAPTER VII. + CEREMONIES FOR THE DYING AND DEAD + + CHAPTER VIII. + THEORY AND PRACTICE OF MEDICINE + + CHAPTER IX. + FARMING AND PRODUCTS + + CHAPTER X. + MODE OF DIVIDING TIME + + CHAPTER XI. + MISSIONARY OPERATIONS + + + + +PREFACE. + +In giving these pages to the public the author has no ambition to make +a book. Having been invited by the Principal of Milnwood Academy, at +Shade Gap, Pa., to deliver in that Institution a series of lectures, +or talks, on Siam, its government, manners, customs, &c., a few +friends have requested that they be reduced to paper and published, +which is his only apology for giving them to the public in book form. +A few additions have been made, and the facts are narrated as seen and +understood by the author. In a few instances, to refresh his memory, +he has referred to articles on Siam, published in the _Bangkok +Calendar_ and elsewhere. The work is intended chiefly for a class of +readers who may not have access to the more pretending works recently +published on that country. + + N. A. M. + +Shade Gap, Pa., April, 1871. + + + + +SIAM. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + +GEOGRAPHY, Etc. + + +On my "overland" journey from Siam to the United States, through +France and England, many persons were accustomed to accost me saying, +"Pardon me, Sir, but what nationality is that young man who is with +you?" referring to my Siamese boy. That boy, Sir, is a Siamese. "A +Siamese! Well, I must confess my geography is a little shaky,--I +scarcely know where Siam is,--but I remember now that is where the +Siamese twins came from." Referring, of course, to those unfortunate +beings who by some "lusus naturæ" are inseparably connected together, +and have been obliged to spend a long life in that condition, and who +have consequently become almost the only means by which their native +country is known to a vast majority of Europeans. When I, in 1860, +determined to go to Siam, I found it next to impossible to gather from +books any reliable information concerning it, and consequently took +shipping at New York almost as ignorant of the country to which I was +going, as I was of the moon. Fortunately however, some of our party +were returning, and before we arrived at our destination I was pretty +well prepared for what I was to encounter. Geographies are nearly +silent in regard to Siam, from the simple fact that geographers +themselves know nothing about it. It is also to be regretted that, +until very recently, chiefly all the books concerning Oriental +countries were written by mere cursory travellers, whose knowledge of +the countries through which they passed, or at which they touched, +must necessarily have been limited, and the chief object of many of +them appears to have been to make a readable book, oftentimes at the +expense of truth. + +You will naturally ask, where is Siam? At the extreme point of that +vast continent extending from the snows of Siberia to the Equator, and +terminating in the long narrow Malay peninsula, is the little island +of Singapore, separated from the mainland by a narrow strait. The +island is about twenty-five miles long, and about fourteen miles +broad, and commands the entrance of the China sea. The English, who +have ever had an eye to strategic points, and especially in the East, +took possession of it in 1819, being then little more than a Malay +fishing village, and a nest for pirates. The present town of +Singapore, well laid out and neatly built, and situated on the +southern extremity of the island commanding the anchorage, contains +perhaps one hundred thousand inhabitants, whilst the principal English +merchants live in palatial residences on the hills in the rear of the +town. The government of the island, together with Malacca, Penang, and +Province Wellesley, has lately teen transferred from the Indian +Government directly to the Crown. It is a beautiful little island, +with a genial climate, and I know of no place in the East where I +would rather live. + +Leaving Singapore, and passing through the strait, up the peninsula, +over the lower part of the China sea, and up the gulf of Siam about +eight hundred miles, you come to the kingdom of Siam, sandwitched +between Cambodia on the east and Burmah on the west, extending from +about latitude 4° to 22° north, and from longitude about 98° to +104° east; consequently there is neither frost or snow, but perpetual +summer reigns. The leaves fall and are replaced by new ones, whilst +those who are daily witnesses to it scarcely notice the change. + +The climate of Siam is genial and healthy, but the constant heat is +trying to the constitutions of Europeans, who require a change at +least once in ten years. The seasons are two, the wet and the dry. +From November to May scarcely a cloud obscures the sky, and no rain +falls except perhaps a shower in January. The Siamese look for a +shower in that month, and are disappointed if it does not come. They +think it necessary for certain kinds of fruit which is just then +forming, and they also think it indicative of a good rice season. I +have, however, in ten years, seen January pass several times without +the expected shower. From November to February the weather is +delightful, being the cool season, but the thermometer is seldom lower +than 64°. March and April are the hottest months, but the thermometer +does not rise as high as might be expected in such a climate. I have +never seen it over 98°, but on account of the long absence of rain, +the ground in most places becomes dry and parched, and the rays of the +sun, reflected from the heated earth, give the atmosphere a kind of +bake-oven feeling, which is oftentimes hard to endure. From November +to May the wind blows constantly from the northeast, and is called the +"northeast monsoon." From May till November again, is the wet season, +the wind blowing constantly from the southwest, and is called the +"southwest monsoon," the rain falling in copious showers almost every +day. The showers come in a kind of rotation. If there is one to-day at +a certain hour, there will be one to-morrow an hour later. The showers +are copious indeed, and sometimes one would think the "windows of +heaven were opened." The lightning is vivid, and the thunder +oftentimes terrific. + +Whither the name Siam came, or whence it is derived, it is now +impossible to tell. The Siamese themselves know nothing of it, only as +it is applied to their country by Europeans. The name they apply to +their country is "Muang Thai," the free country, in distinction from +those countries which are tributary. The name Siam, however, is now +coming into common use, and is sometimes inserted in public documents. + +The geology of Siam is simple, the lower portion near the gulf being +an alluvial deposit, the result of the annual overflowing of the +rivers, which takes place at the close of every rainy season. The +water from the copious rains rushes down from the mountains up the +country, and overflows the lowlands, enriching them and causing them +to produce abundant crops of rice. The mountains are volcanic, and +some of them have the appearance of having been thrown from a distance +and set down in their present positions. + +Many of them are barren of almost everything green, presenting to the +eye but little that is attractive, but others, especially in the North +Laos country, present scenery indescribably grand. In many places, +especially along the seacoast, the old granite, the foundation of all +things, geologically speaking, comes to the surface, and even projects +out in bold bluffs and headlands. The rocks on many of the mountains +present the appearance of having at one time been lashed by the waves +of the sea, and there is abundant evidence that much of the lower +country has been redeemed from the sea at no very remote period. + +The country is drained by three streams of considerable size, which +empty into the gulf. The principal one is put down on our maps as the +Menam, but called by the Siamese Menam Chow Phya, Menam being the +generic name for river, meaning mother of water, and Chow Phya being +the specific name for that particular river. Were it not for a sandbar +at its mouth, it would be navigable for the largest class of vessels +to Bangkok, but on that account the largest vessels are obliged to +anchor in the roadstead outside. The Bampakong on the east, and +Tacheen on the west, are also streams of some importance. Besides +these, there are also a number of smaller streams. + +Bangkok, the capital of the kingdom, is situated on both sides of the +Menam Chow Phya, about twenty-five miles from its mouth. It contains +about four hundred thousand inhabitants, and has been called the +Venice of the East, from the fact that much of the city is floating on +the river in the form of floating houses. These floating houses are a +kind of nondescript affair, and it is impossible to give one who has +never seen them any idea of them. The following description, by the +oldest missionary in Siam, and published in the _Bangkok Calendar_ of +1866, though quite too elaborate for easy reading, is as good as +anything that can be given, and I shall insert it "in toto." + +"Our friends in the western world have heard a good deal about the +floating houses of Bangkok, but they universally speak of being unable +to understand, after all that has been written, what kind of things +they are. If the descriptions that have been given of them could have +always been accompanied by good photographic pictures of the same, our +friends would have had much less difficulty in understanding them. But +such pictures are too expensive to procure for illustrating 'The +Bangkok Calendar,' which never pays for its cost, and hence we must do +the next best thing, and that is to descend into quite minute detail, +if we would make our friends who have never visited Bangkok understand +such unique structures as the floating houses of the city. And as +these houses form a large part of the dwellings and mercantile shops +of this great metropolis, being the most conspicuous of all buildings +(the temples only excepted) as you pass up and down the Menam Chow +Phya, the 'Broadway' of Bangkok, they seem to demand a minute +description in 'The Calendar.' These floating houses are moored on +both sides of the river for a distance of nearly three miles. Their +size, on an average, is about forty by thirty feet on the base; in +height, eight feet to the eves, and fifteen feet to the ridge of the +roof. As this base could not be covered by a roof of only two sides, +and make it sufficiently steep to shed rain well, without being too +high for safety on the river in time of a squall, the natives divide +the area to be covered into two nearly equal parts, and put a +two-sided roof over each division, thatched with the attap palm leaf, +(_cocos nipa_.) The two eves that thus meet in the middle of the house +have an eve-trough common to both of them, which is always seen in the +house about eight feet from the floor, passing uniformly in the +direction of the river. Hence nearly all these floating houses appear +to be double, standing sidewise to the river, the ridge of the front +being a little lower than the one behind it. There is always a narrow +verandah four or five feet wide attached to the front division, which +is covered with an extra roof of attap leaves, extending from under +the main point roof, with a more gentle slope than the front roof, and +then, in front of these, there is usually a small bamboo float from +three to five feet wide. This is sometimes extended the whole length +of the house, and sometimes only from three to ten feet. The eve of +the verandah is not more than six feet above the floor. From this +there is often suspended a bamboo mat, or some other material more +tasty, for a screen from the glare of the river. The ends of the two +double roofs are all furnished precisely alike with a peculiar kind of +moulding made of a thin plank tastefully curved at the bottom, like +the written capital A, and put up edgewise at the extreme end, to +constitute a neat finish for the thatching. The triangular area made +by each double roof at the ends is generally closed with attap +thatching; sometimes with bamboo matting, sometimes with wooden +pannelled work, sometimes with a regular clap-boarding, and rarely +with woodwork radiating from the lower side of the triangle upwards. + +"These floating houses are always divided into two main rooms--the +front and inner one. The floor of the latter is about one foot higher +than the front. There are narrow passages five feet wide at the right +and left of these rooms, which are simply enclosed verandahs, with +each an attap roof, leading to a narrow room of the same width and +kind in the extreme rear. The front room is used for the purpose of a +variety-store, and the inner one for a bed-room. + +"In it you will generally find the family idol-altar, if the occupant +be a Chinese. It is often used for putting away lots of goods, a few +samples of which are daily exposed for sale in the front room. These +exhibitions are made on a kind of amphitheatre-formed shelving facing +the river, so that every article can be seen at a glance by passers-by +in boats. The whole front is exposed to view in the daytime, not by +opening all the doors and windows, but by taking down much of the +front siding, which consists of boards varying from ten to twelve +inches in width, standing up endwise, and fitted into grooves above +and below. These boards are slid out early every morning, one by one, +and laid away out of sight under the floor, in a place reserved for +them during the day. Early in the evening each board is put in its +place for closing up the front of the shop, leaving not the least door +or window by which one may have direct access to it. But there is a +small door in front of each of the narrow passages in the extreme +rear. + +"This narrow room is commonly used for the purposes of a cook-room. +The fire place is simply a shallow wooden box filled with clay. There +is no chimney or stovepipe attached to any of them. In the place of +one they make a scuttle hole in the thatched roof only six feet above, +and this has a trap door made of the same material as the roof, which +can be closed in rainy weather. Even in the best weather only a part +of the smoke escapes through the opening, while the remainder finds +its way out in all quarters. Consequently this little cook-room is +always a very smoky place, and is blackened with soot to a greater or +less extent, as are also many other parts of the establishment. + +"Some better-to-do occupants of these floating houses have a small +bamboo caboose, moored at one end of the dwelling house. The floating +houses are usually enclosed with teak boards standing up endwise, and +permanently fixed into grooves above and below. Sometimes the siding +is made of bamboo wattling. + +"It remains to be shown the mode of buoying up the floating houses +above the water, which being quite unique, deserves a particular +description. In the sills of the house are framed five rows of +scantling, four-by-six inches or larger, which descend into the water +five or six feet. These are so arranged that they divide the whole +area underneath the sills into four equal parts, or, as the Siamese +say, _hawngs_, or sections, for filling with bamboo poles. The first +object of these five rows of _legs_, bounding as they do the four +equal divisions, is to prevent the bamboo poles from rolling out +sideways under the pressure of the superincumbent house; and the other +is to render it quite convenient to exchange every year old and rotten +bamboos for new ones. Now a new set of bamboos will serve well the +purposes of a buoy only about two years; and to save the trouble of +exchanging all under the house at once, the natives manage to exchange +only half of them annually, so that the house is not for a moment left +without enough to keep it well out of the water. This is done by +removing all the bamboos from one or two of the divisions which have +been in use two years, and filling their places with new ones. The +divisions which have bamboos of one year's service remain undisturbed +until next year; when their time has expired, they too are cast out to +give place to others. Thus there are always left two divisions of the +last year's bamboos to serve in conjunction with two divisions of new +ones. The annual cost of new bamboos for a floating house of medium +size is not far from forty _Ticals_, and the number of bamboo poles +required is from five to eight hundred. + +"As these floating houses are generally moored close together, +standing end to end, in an even line in the direction of the river, it +becomes necessary that the house which is to be replenished with +bamboos should be moved out a little in front of its neighbor's, thus +making room for sliding out the old bamboos from either end, and +sliding in new ones to fill their places. There are men who follow +this business as their profession, and do it very dextrously. One day +is quite sufficient to accomplish the whole work for any house. The +bamboos, it scarcely need be said, are slender poles, from three to +four inches in diameter at the butt-end, and not more than half that +size at the top. They are from twenty-five to thirty feet in length. +The top ends of the poles are always the ones that are pushed under +the house, and consequently are hidden, while the butt-ends are always +external, forming an even surface at each end of the house. The poles +being about three-fourths the length of the house, the smaller +extremities consequently overlap each other from eight to ten feet, +and make an equal thickness of buoying material beneath the middle of +the house, with that of each end. + +"A house newly buoyed up looks quite tidy and dry, its floors being +from three to four feet above water. The houses are kept in their +places, forming a regular line with their fellows, thirty feet or more +from shore, by means of three or four teak posts or piles, driven at +each end into the soft bottom of the river six or eight feet; and +these are made mutual supporters of each other by lashing a bamboo +pole across them all near their tops. The house is then fastened to +these posts by means of bands or hoops encircling very loosely each +post, so that they shall readily slip up and down as the tide raises +the house or causes it to settle down. For this purpose it is +indispensable that there be no notches or knots on the posts that +shall cause the hoops to catch on them. Such a notch would cause the +post to be drawn up out of its place in a flowing tide, and would sink +it deeper in an ebbing one. While sitting in these houses you will +often hear a crack, and consequent sudden sinking of the house, caused +by the sliding of a hoop out of the place where it had been caught on +the posts. Where the water is unusually deep where a floating house is +moored, and the bottom of the river unstable, you will see the tops of +the mooring posts made fast by a cable to something firm on shore. +Sometimes the whole gives way notwithstanding, and then the house is +adrift at the mercy of the tide. The writer was once in a floating +house that had got adrift in the night time, and floated down the +river many miles before it could be made to submit to the power of the +ropes and cables, with which we endeavoured many times in vain to stop +her downward way. She would snap our stoutest ropes, as Samson did all +the instruments with which his enemies bound him. These floating +houses are often moved from place to place, and it is no uncommon +thing to see one floating up or down the river with the family in, and +everything going on as regularly within as if it was snugly moored." + +The buildings on shore belonging to the chief princes and nobles, are +built of rough brick and stuccoed inside and out. The style of +architecture is a kind of Siamo-Chinese. The next best kind of house +consists of posts sunk into the ground, which constitute the frame +work, whilst the sides are made of boards wrought into a kind of +pannel work. This is called a _"ruen fa kadan,"_ or weatherboarded +house. These are the houses of the poorer princes and nobles, and the +better class of the common people. The houses of the poorer classes of +the common people are made on the same plan, only the sides are +constructed of bamboo wattling. These are called _"ruen fa tak,"_ or +open-sided house. + +The river is the "Broadway" of the city, whilst canals form the +principal cross streets or avenues. Chiefly all travel in the city, +and indeed everywhere in Siam, is done in boats. If a person wishes to +go to church, to market, to call on a friend--in short, any where, he +goes in a boat. The rivers are the great avenues of trade, whilst the +whole country near the Gulf is intersected by a network of canals. But +in those portions distant from the rivers or canals resort must be had +to ox-carts and elephants. + +Siam is the genial land of the elephant. He roams wild in her forests, +but those which have not at least been partially tamed are now +becoming scarce. He constitutes in the northern provinces the chief +beast of burden, and one of the special uses to which he is put, is +drawing timber from the forest to the bank of the river, where it can +be formed into rafts and floated to market. I have seen a huge +elephant with his tusks and trunk roll a large log up a declivity more +quickly and dextrously than a dozen men would have done it. + +Siam has also been denominated the land of the "white elephant," from +the peculiar reverence shown for that animal. There is, however, no +such thing as a white elephant. The standing color is black, but +occasionally one is found which by some freak in nature is a kind of +Albino, or flesh color. He comes as near the color of a badly burned +brick as anything else. The Siamese do not call him a white elephant, +but a _"chang puak,"_ a strange colored elephant. From time immemorial +the Siamese have considered this strange colored animal the emblem of +good luck, and the king, who has had the greatest number of them, is +handed down in history as the most fortunate monarch. A certain king +had at one time three of them. The king of Burmah sent an embassy, +asking one as a special favor, which was emphatically denied. At this +the king of Burmah took umbrage, and sent an army and took the whole +of them. When one is found in the forest, word is sent immediately to +the capital, and preparations are made for conducting him to the +palace with the greatest honors and religious ceremonies. He is +enthroned in a palace within the walls of the king's palace, and is +henceforth fed on the luxuries of the land. He seldom, however, lives +long, being killed with kindness. He would be much happier and his +life would be considerably prolonged by allowing him to roam in his +native forest. The finder of such an elephant too, is generally +handsomely rewarded. Some travellers have stated that the white +elephant is worshipped, but I have never seen anything of the kind, +nor do I believe it. He is, however, held in peculiar reverence, +because he is considered the emblem of good luck. The flag of the +country is the flag of the white elephant. I am told that some +Frenchman has lately written a book, in which he states that he has in +his possession a hair from the tail of the white elephant of Siam, +which he obtained at great sacrifice, and even risk of his life. The +hair he may have, but the rest is imaginary. + +The present population of Siam cannot be much short of eight millions. +The Siamese proper are evidently an off-shoot from the Mongolian race, +but by what admixtures they have arrived at their present status it +would be difficult to ascertain. Some one has given the following +description of them, which is substantially correct. "The average +height is five feet three inches, arms long, limbs large, and bodies +inclined to obesity. The face is broad and flat, the cheek bones high, +and the whole face assumes a lozenge shape. The nose is small, mouth +wide, and lips thick, but not protruding. The eyes are small and +black, and the forehead low. The complexion rather inclined to a +yellowish hue. The whole physiognomy has a sullen aspect, and the gait +sluggish." The Siamese, as a general thing, do not tattoo their bodies +as many eastern nations do. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + +THE GOVERNMENT. + + +Siam proper is divided into fifty-eight provinces, which are each +presided over by a Governor appointed by the Central Government at +Bangkok. There are also several Malay states down the peninsula, and +six or eight petty Laos kingdoms north of Siam proper which are +tributary to the king of Siam. These Laos kingdoms pay a small annual +tribute, and the King of Siam claims the prerogative of nominating a +successor to the throne, when a vacancy occurs. This successor is +taken of course from their own princes, but receives his insignia of +office from the King of Siam. Aside from this, each of those kings is +absolute in his own dominions. All the tributary states, however, are +virtually under the Protectorate of the King of Siam, he being _Lord_ +paramount, or Suzerain. + +The civil government is divided amongst the three principal ministers +of state, _Chow Phya Pra Kalehome_, _Chow Phya Puterapei_, and _Chow +Phya Praklang_. The _Kalehome_ has special charge of the provinces to +the west and southwest, and is _Prime Minister_, having charge of +everything pertaining to army and navy. _Puterapei_ has charge of the +provinces to the north, and is over everything that pertains to +habitations and dwellings of the people. The _Praklang_ has charge of +the provinces to the southeast, and is over all foreign interests, all +vessels of trade foreign and domestic, and has charge to a certain +extent of the treasury, hence the name _Praklang_. This was the +arrangement under the late reign, and I presume it is very little +changed, if any, as yet under the present. + +The king is an absolute despot. No hereditary aristocracy or +legislative assemblies control his will. There is an aristocracy or +nobility, it is true, but their power is not felt only as instruments +in carrying out the will of the king. The people exist for the +monarch, and not the monarch for the people. The laws, as a general +thing, are laws of the king and not of the country. The old adage, +"New kings make new laws," is often literally true in Siam, providing +the new sovereign is so disposed. He is absolute master of the +persons, property, liberty and lives of his subjects. In speaking of +him they do not say he rules or governs, but he "eats the kingdom," +which is too often literally true. Almost any man in the kingdom is +liable to be drafted at any time to do king's work, and the +descendants of captives of war, such as Cambodians, Peguins, Burmese, +&c., are obliged to render three months service, or its equivalent, to +the government annually. The person of the king is held in extreme +sacredness and reverence, and in addressing him the same titles and +attributes are applied to him which are applied to _Budha_. For one of +his subjects to inquire after the king's health would be an almost +unpardonable offence, as it is presumed that the king never takes +sick, or dies, as common people do. Some of these absurd ideas +appeared in the late reign to have become obsolete, but are evidently +being renewed again in the present. Formerly the king was both a +monopolist and a trader, claiming exclusive right over such +commodities as tin, ivory, cardamums, eagle-wood, Sapan-wood, gamboge, +&c., but when the late king entered into treaty relations with the +western powers, this monopoly was in a great measure yielded. + +It is strange to say that this monarchy is not hereditary--that is, +not in the sense that that term is understood in Europe. There is what +is called the _Senabodee_, or Royal Counsellors, consisting of the +chief ministers of state, who during the life of the king are merely +silent counsellors, but upon his death their power becomes manifest, +and upon them devolves the responsibility of selecting a successor, +and governing the kingdom until such successor is chosen. The +successor must be a prince of the realm, but not necessarily the +eldest son of the late king--indeed, not necessarily a son of his at +all. + +The death of the late king occurred about nine o'clock, P. M. The +Prime Minister was immediately summoned to the palace, who convened +the _Senabodee_, and before midnight the succession was determined, +and everything going on smoothly. They chose in this instance the +eldest son of the late king, _Somdetch Chowfa Chulalangkorn_, a boy +about sixteen years old. + +His coronation took place on Wednesday, November 11, 1868, being the +day decided upon by the Brahmin astrologers as the one most +propitious. At this coronation there was a slight innovation upon the +usual Siamese custom. No European had ever before witnessed the +coronation ceremonies of any king of Siam. The late king, after his +coronation, wrote a private note to some of his European friends, +stating that he would have been glad to have had them present, but +"state reasons forbade it." The number of Europeans present at the +coronation proper of the present king were few, consisting of the +consuls of the different treaty powers, with their suites; the +officers of H. B. M.'s gunboat Avon, and a few others. The writer held +at the time the seals of the United States Consulate, and was the only +representative of our government in the kingdom, and consequently +received an invitation, which might not have been accorded to him as a +mere missionary. The company of Siamese present was equally select, +consisting only of the chief princes and nobles of the kingdom. + +The hour named was six o'clock, A.M., but owing to some delay it was +nearly eight when we passed into a small triangular court, facing one +of the doors of the inner audience hall. In front of the door of the +hall stood an elevated platform richly gilded, and upon that platform +was placed a very large golden basin. Within that basin was a golden +tripod, or three-legged stool. Over the platform was a quadrangular +canopy, and over the canopy was the nine-storied umbrella, tapering in +the form of a _pagoda_. Over the centre of the canopy was a vessel +containing consecrated water, said to have been prayed over nine +times, and poured through nine different circular vessels before +reaching the top of the canopy. This water is collected from the chief +rivers of Siam, and at a point above tidal influence, and is +constantly kept on hand, in reservoirs near the temples in the +capital. In the vessel was placed a tube or syphon, representing the +pericarp of the lotus flower, after the petals have fallen off. At a +flourish of crooked trumpets, resembling rams' horns, the king elect +descended from the steps of the hall, arrayed in a simple waist-cloth +of white muslin, with a piece of the same material thrown over his +shoulders, and took his seat upon the tripod in the basin. A Brahmin +priest approached him and offered him some water in a golden +lotus-shaped cup, into which he dipped his hand, and rubbed it over +his head. This was the signal for the pulling of a rope, and letting +loose the sacred water above in the form of a shower-bath upon his +person. This shower-bath represents the _Tewadas_, or Budhist angels, +sending blessings upon His Majesty. A Budhist priest then approached +and poured a goblet of water over his person. Next came the Brahmin +priests and did the same. Next came the chief princes, uncles of the +king; next two aged princesses, his aunts. The vessels used by these +princes and princesses were conch-shells, tipped with gold. Then came +the chief nobles, each with a vessel of a different material, such as +gold, silver, pinchbeck, earthenware, &c. Then, last of all, the Prime +Minister with a vessel of iron. This finished the royal bath. He then +descended from the stool in a shivering state, and was divested of his +wet clothes, and was arrayed in regal robes of golden cloth, studded +with diamonds. In the south end of the audience hall was an octagonal +throne, having eight sides, corresponding to the eight points of the +compass. He first seated himself on the side facing the north, passing +around toward the east. In front of each side of the throne was +crouched a Budhist and a Brahmin priest, who presented him with a bowl +of water, of which he drank and rubbed some on his face. At each side +they read to him a prayer, to which he responded. I was too far off to +hear all, but the following is said to be a translation of it. + + _Priest_. "Be thou learned in the laws of nature and of the +universe." + + _King_. "Inspire me, O Thou who wert a law unto thyself." + + _P_. "Be thou endowed with all wisdom and all acts of industry." + + _K_. "Inspire me with all knowledge, O Thou, the enlightened." + + _P_. "Let mercy and truth be thy right and left arms of life." + + _K_. "Inspire me, O Thou who hast proved all truth and mercy." + + _P_. "Let the sun, moon, and stars bless thee." + + _K_. "All praise to Thee, through whom all forms are conquered." + + _P_. "Let the earth, air, and water bless thee." + + _K_. "Through the merit of Thee, O Thou conqueror of death." + +He was then conducted to the north end of the hall, and was seated +upon another throne. The insignia of Royalty were then presented to +him. They were handed to him by his uncle, Prince _Chowfa Maha Mala_. +First came the sword, then the sceptre, then two massive gold chains +in a casket, which he suspended around his shoulders. Then came the +crown, which he placed on his own head, and at that instant the royal +salute proclaimed him King, under the title of _Prabat Somdetch Pra +Paramendr Maha Chulalang Korn Kate Klou Yu Hua_. Then came the golden +slippers, the fan, the umbrella, two large massive rings set with huge +diamonds, which he placed on each of his forefingers. Then one of each +of the Siamese weapons of war were handed him, which he received and +handed back. The Brahmins then wound up with a short address, to which +he briefly responded. He then distributed a few gold and silver +flowers amongst his friends, and the Europeans then withdrew to +breakfast, which had been prepared for them. It may be asked why the +Brahmins officiate so much when Siam is emphatically a Budhist +country. I have asked several well-informed noblemen for the reason, +but have as yet been unable to ascertain the true reason. No one +appeared able to give any true reason. There are a number of Brahmins +in the country, but their existence is scarcely ever noticed except on +some such occasion as the above. + +At 11 o'clock, A.M., the new king appeared for the first time before +his whole Court. The outer audience hall was richly decorated and +spread with rich Brussels carpet. When the Foreign Consuls entered in +a body the whole Siamese Court was prostrate on their knees and elbows +on the carpet. Very soon the king entered, arrayed in regal robes, and +wearing his crown, and seated himself upon the throne. The whole Court +simultaneously placed the palms of their hands together, and then +raising them up to the forehead, bowed their heads three times to the +floor. The chief ministers of state then formally delivered over their +several departments to the new monarch, to whom he briefly responded. +Senhor G. F. Vianna, Esq., Consul-General for Portugal, his being the +oldest consulate, then on behalf of the consuls present read a short +congratulatory address, which called forth another brief response, and +the audience retired. + +The public audiences of European ambassadors and officials are +extremely ridiculous. I have been present on several such occasions, +both as Vice-Consul and as Interpreter to others. The King is seated +upon his throne, and the whole court resting on their knees and elbows +before him, with their "beam ends" turned up to the gaze. All +communication must be held through the Court Speaker. When I went as +Interpreter, the communication was given me in English, which I +rendered into Siamese to the Speaker. He would then commence by +ascribing to the King a long "rigmarole" of titles and attributes, at +the same time apparently so much afraid that he scarcely knew what he +was doing, and by the time he was ready to deliver my communication he +had forgotten about half of it. When he received the King's reply, he +had to repeat the same nonsense, and by the time he was ready to give +the message to me there was but little of it left. Had I not been able +myself to catch it directly from the King's lips, the interview would +have been most unsatisfactory. + +The present King is about sixteen years old, and is apparently a +sprightly, good-looking boy. His father, some time before his death, +had employed an English governess for the palace, and the present +king, in common with all the royal children, received from her some +knowledge of the English language, and probably a smattering of some +of the sciences; but when he ascended the throne, instead of employing +for him a tutor capable of instructing him in the sciences, and the +different forms of government, everything of the kind was abandoned, +and he was allowed to give himself up almost wholly to women, which is +likely to destroy in a great measure any original talent he may have +had. It is now difficult to tell what he will be by the time he +arrives at an age suitable to assume the responsibility of the +government. He is also at present very much secluded from Europeans. +His father, vain of his knowledge of English, and the advancement he +had made in the sciences, which, to say the least, was truly +commendable, was very fond of European society, and was accessible at +almost any time by the better classes of Europeans in Siam, but the +son, for reasons best known to those in authority, is at present cut +off from all such intercourse. I have also been informed that he has +removed from the palace the fine European furniture placed there by +his father, and is replacing it with Chinese furniture, which looks +like a step backwards. + +The government at present is in the hands of His Excellency _Chow Phya +Sri Surywongse_, with the title of Regent. He was Prime Minister +during the late reign, and consequently chief of the _Senabodee_. He +is also a man of undoubted ability, coupled with the usual oriental +shrewdness and low cunning, and is with all extremely selfish and +moody. His love for Europeans and western civilization is not very +great, only so far as he can use them to his own advantage; he is +however, too shrewd a man to do anything which would interfere with +the European trade, or violate the existing treaties. The country is +perhaps better governed now than ever it has been before. + +His younger half-brother. _Chow Phya Bhanuwongse_, is Minister of +Foreign Affairs. He is a free, affable, gentlemanly man, and is +perhaps more free from that extreme selfishness which constitutes so +large an element in Siamese character, than any man in the kingdom. He +has been to Europe, and has profited much by the trip. His eldest son +is now in King's College, London. The Foreign Minister is, however, +too near the shadow of his greater brother to act out his natural +character, especially in his official capacity. + +During the last and present reigns, Siam has been the mildest and best +heathen government on the face of the globe. Oppressions from high +quarters are very rare. Petty officers sometimes take advantage of +their positions to "squeeze" the poor. Redress for such grievances can +always be had by appealing to headquarters, but there are usually so +many unchained lions in the way that such a course is seldom resorted +to. + +There is also a Second King, which is merely a nominal title without +any of the responsibility of the government. He is surrounded by his +court, and has nearly all the honors of the First King shown him, but +has nothing to do with government except amongst his own personal +adherents. Even at the death of the First King he does not assume, +even temporally, any authority. He may be chosen First King. A few +instances are on record in which this has been the case. The son of +the late Second King now occupies the second throne, under the title +of _Krom Pra Raja Bowawn Sahthan Mongkoon_. This prince is better +known to Europeans by the name of George Washington, a name given him +when a boy, either by his father, or by some of the American +missionaries who taught him English. His father is said to have +manifested a great love for the memory of Washington. The Second King +is now about thirty-five years old, has a pretty good knowledge of +English, some knowledge of the sciences, western civilization and +governments, is polite and gentlemanly in his manners, and apparently +very friendly to Europeans. He is also well liked by all Europeans. +The commander of one of our United States war vessels, after an +audience with the Second King, remarked to me on retiring from the +palace, "That is the man who should have been First King." The title +of Second King appears to have been originally established to satisfy +the disappointed one of two rival princes. + +The Siamese have an excellent code of civil and criminal laws, if they +were properly enforced, but, unfortunately, the Judiciary are so +corrupt that justice is seldom meted out, the one paying the largest +bribe generally gets the case. The Lord Mayor's and Sub-Mayor's Courts +are the chief criminal courts in the city. There are also within the +palace walls several other courts, chiefly for civil cases, and +presided over by the chief Ministers of State. There is also an +International Court, established by the late King, for the +investigation of those cases in which both Siamese and the subjects of +treaty powers are involved. Besides these, every prince of rank is +vested with judicial powers, and can hold court at his own palace. The +courts in the provinces are presided over by the provincial governors, +but those governors have not the power of life and death unless +delegated to them, in a special emergency, by the King. The judge of +any court is vested with full powers to investigate and decide any +case, subject, however, to an appeal to the King. There is, however, +seldom such an appeal, as, in other instances of oppression, the +unchained lions in the way are numerous. There are associate or +assistant judges, but they are simply for the investigation of minor +cases. The judge places his mat down on the floor in one end of the +court-room, upon which he places a three-cornered pillow, and then +places himself in a reclining position. The litigants are crouching +around him, presenting their cases, and the whole thing frequently +turns into a general conversation and brow-beating. There is nothing +like a jury. The witnesses are taken out to a Budhist temple, where +the following ironclad oath is administered to them. "I, who have been +brought here as a witness in this matter, do now, in the presence of +the sacred image of Budha, declare that I am wholly unprejudiced +against either party, and uninfluenced in any way by the opinions or +advice of others; that no prospects of pecuniary advantage or +advancement to office have been held out to me. I also declare that I +have not received any bribe on this occasion. If what I have now to +say be false, or if in my further averments I shall color or pervert +the truth so as to lead the judgment of others astray, may the Three +Holy Existences before whom I now stand, together with the glorious +_Tewadas_ of the twenty-two firmaments, punish me. If I have not seen, +and yet shall say I have seen; if I shall say I know that which I do +not know, then may I be thus punished. Should innumerable descents of +Deity happen for the regeneration and salvation of mankind, may my +erring and migratory soul be found beyond the pale of their mercy. +Wherever I go may I be compassed with dangers, and not escape from +them, whether murderers, robbers, spirits of the earth, woods, or +water, or air, or all the divinities who adore Budha; or from the gods +of the four elements, and all other spirits. May blood flow out of +every pore of my skin, that my crime may be made manifest to the +world. May all or any of these evils overtake me within three days, or +may I never stir from the spot on which I now stand; or may the +lightning cut me in two, so that I may be exposed to the derision of +the people; or if I should be walking abroad, may I be torn in pieces +by either of the supernaturally endowed lions, or destroyed by +poisonous serpents. If on the water of the river or ocean, may +supernatural crocodiles or great fish devour me; or may the winds and +waves overwhelm me, or may the dread of such evils keep me a prisoner +during life at home, estranged from every pleasure. May I be afflicted +with intolerable oppression of my superiors, or may a plague cause my +death; after which may I be precipitated into hell, there to go +through innumerable stages of torture, amongst which may I be +condemned to carry water over the flaming regions in wicker baskets, +to assuage the heat of _Than Tretonwan_, when he enters the infernal +hell of justice, and thereafter may I fall into the lowest pit of +hell; or if these miseries should not ensue, may I after death migrate +into the body of a slave, and suffer all the pain and hardship +attending the worst state of such a being, during the period measured +by the sand of the sea; or may I animate the body of an animal or +beast during five hundred generations, or be born a hermaphrodite five +hundred times, or endure in the body of a deaf, dumb, blind, and +houseless beggar every species of disease, during the same number of +generations; and then may I be buried to narok, and there be crucified +by Phya Yam." + +They have also a way of extorting confessions from criminals, which is +terribly severe. The first way is by the use of the lash or ratan. He +first receives ninety stripes, and then, if he don't confess, he is +allowed a respite of a few days and receives ninety more; and if he +stills holds out, he is allowed another respite, and receives ninety +the third time. Any one who can endure three times ninety without +confessing is presumed to be innocent. They have also other modes, by +putting split _bamboos_ on their fingers, something like the thumb +screw of old. Persons often confess when they are innocent, from fear +of the torture. + +They punish with death murder, highway-robbery, and treason. Their +mode of execution is decapitation. The criminals are brought out in +chains, and a clamp consisting of two bamboo poles is placed on the +neck. He is then made to sit down on the ground, the one end of the +clamp resting on the ground. They then most generally drug the +criminal, so as to produce stupor, amounting oftentimes to +unconsciousness, and also stop up their ears with soft mud. At a +signal the executioner runs out with a sword and cuts off the head. He +generally does it very neatly with one stroke, but I have known one or +two instances in which the executioner, to give him nerve, took quite +too much liquor, and made wonderful hacking of it. + +Corporal punishment with the ratan is very common--so common that +there is little or no stigma attached to it. I have known high +officers to be severely thrashed. On public occasions I have seen +those in charge of certain things, who displeased the King, taken out +and thrashed. They were made to lie down on their face on the +pavement, and a man stood over with a ratan and put it down in no +light manner, the victim crying, "Ooey! ooey!" at every stroke. So you +perceive that it may in some respects be called a _ratan_ government. + +The revenue of the country is derived from various sources. Certain +things are sold out by the government to the highest bidder, who, when +he receives it, has full control of the whole matter. He sub-lets +again to other minor parties and retailers, and has full powers to +punish all those who violate the right which he has so dearly +purchased. These are called _farms_. The most lucrative is the opium +farm. There is also the spirit farm, that is liquor distilled from +rice; the gambling farm; the rice farm; the cocoanut-oil farm, and +some others. There is also a tax on fisheries, on trading-boats, on +fruit orchards, on shops and stores; an export duty on rice, and an +import duty of three per cent, on all goods imported. There is also a +triennial poll tax of about two dollars on every Chinaman in the +kingdom, which amounts to a large sum every three years. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + +RELIGION. + + +The religion of Siam is Budhism. It would however be impossible on an +occasion of this kind to give any extended outline of Budhism, and +besides this the principal works on that subject in the English +language are dry and uninteresting to the general reader or listener. +Any translations from the Budhist classics must also be necessarily +stiff, and many of the names unintelligible, unless accompanied with +explanations; I shall only, therefore, give as brief an outline as I +can of the Budhist faith, and describe, as nearly as possible, the +manner in which it is practised in Siam. + +Budhism arose from a man of royal blood called Gautama, but by the +Siamese, _Somanakodome_. His father ruled a small kingdom in the +province of Oude, near the Himelaya mountains. Gautama died probably +about 534 B.C., and is supposed to have been nearly cotemporary with +the prophet Daniel. Becoming disgusted with the luxuries and pleasures +of courtly life he adopted that of a hermit, and like all hermits +became an enthusiast, and fancied that he had found the only true road +to all good, and thus leaped from the circle of eternal transmigration +into a "sublimation of existence that has no attribute and knows no +change." + +The late king of Siam speaks of the founder of the Budhist faith thus: +"Budha was a man who came into being on a certain time, by ordinary +generation; that he was a most extraordinary man, more mysterious and +wonderful than all heavenly beings, because he made vast merit by the +use of his body, his words and his will. He reigned as king +twenty-nine years, (meaning doubtless that he lived in princely state +until twenty-nine years old); that he then practised the most severe +asceticism, and with the greatest assiduity for a period of six years, +when his mind became so sublimated and refined that he habitually +numbered and measured every thought he had, fixing his mind upon that +single object, to the utter exclusion of every other care, and that +consequently he attained to the highest perfection, not knowing +anything alike of happiness or sorrow, being in a middle state between +the two; and as a result of this, he then had power to remember many +of the transmigrations of being through which he had come, and could +see with angelic eyes distinctly all the various and numberless +transmigrations of human, angelic, and animal being throughout the +universe; and thence onward to the time of his death he gave his mind +entirely to the destroying of sin in his own body and soul, and became +the most pure and spotless, not only externally, but also in all the +secret recesses of his life and soul, and thence is worthily +denominated Arahang. He then saw by his own power alone, that all the +forms and bodies which merit and demerit have caused to come into +being, and all other things which exist without any cause, are +altogether illusive, unreal, unsubstantial, and evanescent; without a +maker, proprietor, or lord, and that hence is he also _Samma +Sampootó_. This says he is the sacred Budh, whom others before us +have thus eulogized as having come into the world, and lived in it, +and is commonly called according to his family name, _Gótama_. He +spent forty-five years in publishing the way to holiness and +substantial and eternal peace, and then extinguished his life, and +departed into Nipán." + +The pantheism of Brahminism had by long operation produced that +sluggishness of mind--its legitimate fruit--and confounded the Deity +with his works, and making it appear that the aggregate of creation is +itself God. In opposition to this, Budhism produced the doctrine that +all forms are mere illusions, and that will, purpose, action, feeling, +thought, desire, love, hatred, and every other attribute that can be +predicated of the mind, is unstable, and unreal, and therefore cannot +be associated with perfect peace. A state of "sublimation of existence +above all qualities," is the only thing that is real and substantial. +Budha has attained to that state which is called in the Pali +_Nirwana_, but by the Siamese _Nipán_. The literal meaning of the +word is, "absence of all desire," which involves an absence of +thought, and may hence be called a state of dreamless perpetual sleep. +To attain to that state the Budhist dogma, that all things which +appear in creation are illusive, and unreal, and consequently +unsubstantial, must be firmly fixed upon the mind. This lesson, +however, can only be learned by the most studious application of the +mind, and moral discipline by self-denial during a period of at least +100,000 transmigrations. To our mind Nipán is nothing but +annihilation, but Budhists will not admit it to be such, but maintain +that Budha has a perpetual existence there, Nipán is the Budhist's +highest idea of happiness. Omnipotence may be attained by perfect +virtue, abstinence, thought, and meditation. + +Fatality is the cause of creation. The universe came into existence by +the inherent force of fixed and invariable laws, which brings the +worlds out of chaos, and conducts them on by gradation to a state of +high perfection, and then downward again by the same gradation to +dissolution, and then back again, upward and downward in a series that +had no beginning, and will have no end. If any Siamese in the kingdom +be asked who made the world, he will invariably answer "pen eng," it +made itself. + +The teachings of Budha appear to have been transmitted by tradition +for about four hundred and fifty years after his death, and were then +committed to writing by the authority of a Budhist Council. + +The Budhist system of the universe is found in a book called the _Trei +Poom_, or a book settling all questions about the existence of the +three worlds. The Trei Poom of the Siamese was originally translated +from the Pali. The work was doubtless originally written in Ceylon, +and carried thence to all Budhist countries. The Rev. Dr. Bradley, the +oldest missionary in Siam, has prepared an abstract from the Trei +Poom, and published in the _Bangkok Calendar_, from which I shall make +a few extracts on the present occasion. + +The universe consists of an infinite number of systems, called by the +Siamese _Chackrawan_. Each Chackrawan has a sun, moon and stars +revolving around the top of a central mountain, called _Kow Pra Men_, +which extends above the surface of the ocean about 840,000 miles, and +the same distance into the ocean. It forms a perfect circle, having a +circumference equal to 2,520,000 miles. Parallel to the circle it +describes, and at a distance of 420,000 miles, is the first of seven +circular mountains, being variously distant from each other. Their +depth in water is the same as their height above it. The names, +height, circumference, &c., of these mountains are all given, but +would occupy too much space to enumerate here. Between each of the +seven mountains is a sea called _Seetawtara Samoot_. The width and +depth of each is as the distance between the mountains which bound it, +and the depth of the mountains below the surface of the water. The +water is exceedingly refined and light. The fish that live in those +seas are wonderful for variety and size, being many thousand miles +long. Parallel with the circle described by the seventh mountain, and +5,513,650 miles from it, is a circular glass mountain, called _Kow +Chakrawan_. This mountain forms the horizontal boundary of the system. +Its height is 820,000 miles, and its thickness 120,000. The circular +area which this mountain encloses is 12,034,500 miles in diameter. The +circumference of the mountains on the outside is 136,035,500 miles. +The water on both sides is 820,000 miles deep. The width of the ocean +between it and _Kow Asa Kan_ is 3,513,650 miles. Within this vast +expanse of water are situated the four grand divisions of the +populated plane or surface of the Chakrawan. These are called +_Taweeps_, which, for want of a better term to express them, have been +translated continents. These all have their appropriate names. The +first, in its horizontal contour, is shaped somewhat like the face of +a man, and hence is inhabited by mankind with faces like itself. The +second has a form like a half-moon, and is inhabited by an intelligent +race with semi-circular faces. The third is a perfect square, and is +inhabited by square-faced beings. The fourth is circular, and is +inhabited by beings having faces like the full moon. The distance from +each _Taweep_ to _Kow Chakrawan_ is 2,798,600 miles. Each Chakrawan +system is underlaid by a body of water independent of their oceans. +The distance from the surface of the earth to it is 260,000 miles, and +the depth of it is 480,000 miles. Underlying this body there is a +stratum of air 960,000 miles in depth, and thence downward there is +nothing but an open and utter void. + +Each Chackrawan has attached to it, somewhere in the subterranean +regions, eight chief hells, called by the Siamese _Narok_, meaning +worlds of utter misery. Each of these hells has attached to it sixteen +smaller ones, making one hundred and twenty-eight in all. Outside of +these there is another range of purgatories, forty to each chief hell, +making in all three hundred and seventy. + +Each Chakrawan has attached to it six inferior heavenly worlds, called +_Tewalok_, situated above each other, and at immense distances apart. +The first is situated on the top of the first of the seven circular +mountains, and the second on the top of _Kow Pra Men_. The others have +no terrestrial foundation, but are suspended in open space. + +These Chakrawans are far more innumerable than the particles of matter +which compose the earth. A mighty _Prom_ once desired to find the +limits of these systems. He was so powerful that by one step he could +cross a Chakrawan as swiftly as an arrow crosses the shadow of a +palmyra tree at midday. He travelled from one Chakrawan to another at +that rate for one thousand years, and then onward ten thousand more, +and then one hundred thousand more, until he was convinced that it was +impossible to find the limit, or to express their immensity in +numbers. + +The Budhist decalogue consists of ten commandments, viz. + +I. From the meanest insect up to man, thou shalt kill no animal +whatever. + +II. Thou shalt not steal. + +III. Thou shalt not violate the wife of another, nor his concubine. + +IV. Thou shalt speak no word that is false. + +V. Thou shalt not drink wine, nor anything that may intoxicate. + +VI. Thou shalt avoid all anger, hatred, and bitter language. + +VII. Thou shalt not indulge in idle and vain talk. + +VIII. Thou shalt not covet thy neighbor's goods. + +IX. Thou shalt not harbor envy, nor pride, nor malice, nor revenge, +nor the desire of thy neighbor's death or misfortune. + +X. Thou shalt not follow the doctrines of false gods. + +All who are habitually engaged in killing animals, stealing, +committing adultery, drinking ardent spirits and getting drunk, will +sink to the lowest hell. There are, however, five crimes which are +especially damnable, viz., murder of father or mother, murder of the +highest order of priests, called Arahang, wounding Budha's foot, so as +to make it bleed, (supposed to refer to the renouncing of the Budhist +religion,) and persuading priests to follow false doctrines or +practices. Those committing such sins go down to the very bottom of +the lowest hell. + +No new souls are ever made, the universe is ever stocked with +intelligent beings, and has been from eternity. These are continually +transmigrating from one state of being into another. All depends upon +merit and demerit. Every action and thought have their consequences, +either in the present or some future state of existence. Evil actions +produce evil consequences, which will eventually become manifest, and +cause a future birth, either in hell or in some inferior animal. +Hence, in speaking of the future, the Siamese always say _"tam boon +tam kam,"_ according to merit or demerit. An amount of demerit may be +cancelled by a corresponding amount of merit. We have had cooks in our +employ who have been obliged to kill animals such as chickens, &c., +and who, after leaving us, have entered the priesthood to atone for +their demerit. + +Over four hundred millions of the human race hold the Budhist religion +in some form or other. There is no people, however, who excel the +Siamese in devotedness and fidelity, and can show so many gorgeous +temples and monasteries. The government and the religion are so +inseparably connected together, that it is impossible to see how the +one can be overthrown without the other. It is a mutual union of +Church and State. No one can hold any civil office whatever under the +government, who has not spent at least three months in the priesthood. + +Budhism was brought from Ceylon to Cambodia, and thence to Siam, and +probably arrived in Siam about the fifth century of the Christian era. +The Siamese know of no other religion having existed amongst them. + +They make merit in Siam in different ways. One prolific source is the +building of temples or monasteries. These temples oftentimes cover +acres of ground, and besides the regular temple or shrine of the +idols, have houses or dormitories for the monks, and other +outbuildings. The temples are gaudy, but not magnificent, grand, or +massive. They are all accompanied with spires or pagodas, which +frequently reach a great height. The temple building proper is filled +with idols which are hideous in their appearance. Some are sitting, +some standing, and some are in a reclining posture. There is one +temple at the old city of Audia, said to have twenty thousand idols in +it, and the estimate cannot be far in excess of the real number. There +is one reclining idol in Bangkok, about one hundred and seventy-five +feet long, eighteen feet across the breast; and the feet of the idol +are six feet long. It is made of brick and mortar, heavily overlaid +with gold, and cost probably about $3,000. When the King wishes to +make merit, he builds a temple costing perhaps $100,000. When any of +the chief princes or nobles wish to make merit they do the same. The +temples built by the princes and nobles are all given to the King, and +then formally dedicated. These are called "Wat HLuang," or royal +temples, from the fact that the kings visit them once a year, and +distribute presents to the priests. The common people also join +together, and build temples, which are called "Wat Ratsadon," or the +people's temples. They are the same as the others, only not so grand, +and the kings do not visit them. There are in the city of Bangkok +alone about one hundred and twenty temples. + +Another prolific source of merit is by entering the priesthood. It is +the highest ambition of every mother to have all her sons take holy +orders in the priesthood, at some time or other during life, but +generally in the prime of it, as they thus not only make merit for +themselves, but also for the parents. It consequently becomes an +ambition to have as many sons as possible. The advent of a son is +hailed with delight, whilst that of a daughter is rather an occasion +of lamentation. The first question asked on the advent of a little +stranger is, "pen pu chai rú pu ying?" is it a boy or a girl? When +our first child was born, and our Siamese friends came to see the +little white stranger, finding it to be a girl, the only +congratulations they offered were, "tempte Maú tempte," too bad, +Doctor, too bad. The shortest time any one can remain in the +priesthood is three months, and as much longer as they choose. I have +met men who had been in the priesthood over forty years. I have met +them also who had been in it a number of times. It is no uncommon +thing for a man to leave his wife and family for a short time, and +enter the priesthood. + +The ceremony is very simple, consisting of asking the candidate a few +questions as to his motives, shaving his head, and bathing him +copiously with holy water, and clothing him with yellow robes. They +have also the order of _nains_, or novices, consisting of those too +young to take full orders. The clothing of the priests consists of a +yellow robe resembling somewhat the old Roman toga, with a scarf of +the same material, or something richer, thrown over the shoulders. But +as Budha was clothed in rags, they must imitate to some extent his +example, they therefore take the new yellow cloth, tear it in pieces, +and then sew it together again. This is done by the women, and is also +a source of merit. + +The priests go out early in the morning for their daily food. At every +house is stationed some member of the family, with a basin of boiled +rice, and a large brass spoon in it. When a priest comes along he +uncovers his vessel, and receives a spoonful of rice, and then passes +on to the next house. Some also give fish, fruit, and other things to +eat with the rice. When sufficient rice is collected for the day, they +return to the temples and take the morning meal. The next meal is +eaten just before noon, and nothing more until the next morning. It is +considered very sinful for a priest to eat after noon. The people also +frequently meet together at the different temples, and make feasts for +the priests, and give presents to them. + +There are in Bangkok alone over ten thousand priests, and all that +vast army can be seen starting out early every morning in search of +their daily food. + +It must cost Siam annually nearly $25,000,000 to keep up the +priesthood alone, and supposing the population to be eight millions, +which is perhaps an over-estimate, it will make on an average of over +three dollars for every man, woman and child in the kingdom. Now, if +every man, woman and child in the evangelical Christian Church would +average three dollars per annum, there would not be so many starving +ministers, and the Boards of the Church would not be compelled so +frequently to go a begging. The world too, at that rate, would soon be +evangelized. If the heathen can do so much for a false religion, what +should Christians not be willing to do for the holy religion of Jesus, +to which they owe everything they have, and are, and hope to be? + +Any violation of the laws of chastity whilst in the priesthood is most +severely punished. The culprit is publicly whipped with a ratan. He is +then paraded for three days around the city with a crier going before, +proclaiming his crime, and is then condemned to cut grass for the +king's elephants for life, and his posterity after him, to the most +remote generation. The other offending party is condemned to turn the +king's rice-mill for life, and her posterity after her to the most +remote generation. In consequence of the severe punishment, _slips_ of +that kind whilst in the priesthood, in proportion to the numbers, are +much less frequent than among the Christian ministry. Sodomy, however, +and other unmentionable crimes, are fearfully prevalent. + +The priests are the only persons in the kingdom who are not obliged to +crouch before the king. The king himself crouches before the +high-priest. When any one meets a priest, he places the palms of his +hands together and raises them to his forehead in reverence. + +The duty of the priests is to take care of the religion, recite +prayers at funerals, weddings, &c., and preach when called upon to do +so. The people frequently invite the priests to their houses to have +preaching. The sermons consist chiefly of exhortations to make merit, +and are generally in such lofty words and terms, taken from the Pali, +that the common people do not understand them. + +The Siamese also make pilgrimages to _Prabat_ and other sacred places. +Prabat is a beautiful little volcanic mountain about eighty miles +north of Bangkok. The rocks appear to have been thrown up in a plastic +state, and in cooling down left innumerable little holes or crevices +in the solid rock. One of these, about six feet long, is imagined to +be the impress of Budha's foot. They have accordingly bricked it up, +and have overlaid the wall with gold leaf. They have also erected over +it a beautiful little temple, whose floor is covered with silver +cloth, and whose walls are heavily covered with gold. Vast multitudes +flock thither during the months of January and February of every year, +to make their offerings at that sacred shrine. The principal offering +is gold leaf, which they paste on the inside of the footprint. There +are at least $5000 expended there annually in gold leaf alone. The +little caves also, with which the mountain abounds, are filled with +idols, and every prominent point is capped with a _pagoda_. At the +foot of the mountain is rather a hideous idol, at which all pilgrims +dismount from their elephants, and make an offering before ascending +to the more holy place. The offering consists chiefly of a twig from a +tree, or a few flowers. The tradition is, that whoever refuses to make +this offering will die before leaving the place. They were very much +surprised that we refused at least to dismount. They told us that Sir +Robert Schomburgk, the English Consul, who had visited there the +previous year, had also refused to dismount, and that he himself had +not died, but a favorite dog he had with him on the elephant had died +before he left the mountain. Sir Robert however, had a different +theory in regard to his dog, and blamed some one for administering to +him a dose of poison. Many of the most intelligent princes and nobles +have no faith in Prabat, but still assist in keeping up the delusion. + +There is also a short distance north of Prabat a very lofty rock +called Pra Chei, or sacred glory, where Budha is said to have once +taken shelter from a shower of rain, and departing, left his shadow. +Multitudes also flock thither to worship. We arrived there about ten +o'clock at night, and upon ascending a long flight of steps, found +numbers bowed before the rock and pasting gold leaf upon it. When we +told them that we could see no shadow, they attributed it to a want of +faith. + +The Siamese are also very much tormented with the fear of spirits, +both good and evil, and use every means to propitiate them. Witchcraft +is also very much feared. Wizards and witches are believed to have +power to put into the stomach of any one a piece of buffalo meat, or +other substance. A very disgusting circumstance of this kind occurred +near our premises. The father of a certain family took sick and died. +The family believed some foul play had been exercised in his case, and +when they came to burn the body, a small portion, perhaps the heart, +did not consume as rapidly as the rest. This was taken at once to be +the buffalo meat, and was taken home and eaten by the family. The +whole family ate of it, except one little girl who was absent in the +family of a missionary. The belief is that if they eat of it, they can +never be affected the same way. + +It is just to state that there are two schools of Budhism in Siam. The +late king, whilst a prince and in the priesthood, studied astronomy, +and became too intelligent to believe the teachings of the Budhist +books in reference to the system of the universe, and accordingly +undertook to reform Budhism, by discarding from the sacred books all +those things which conflicted with modern science, and especially in +reference to astronomy. Many of the most intelligent princes and +nobles went with him. A vast majority, however, swallow the whole of +the Budhist teachings. + +The greatest champion of the New School was Chow Phya Thipakon, late +Minister of Foreign Affairs. He was in some respects the greatest +thinker in the kingdom. He was the only man in the kingdom who, as +yet, has ventured to write a book, and have it printed wholly by his +own workmen. It consists of several hundred pages, and was +lithographed throughout, which must have taken considerable pains and +labor. The title is "Kitchanukit," a book explaining many things. He +commences by rather ridiculing the elementary system of education +practised in the temples, and tries to stimulate the natives to better +things. He also takes up the different systems of religion throughout +the world, so far as his knowledge extends, and compares them with his +own. He confutes, in his own way, the elementary religious tracts +published by the missionaries, and the evidences of Christianity. He +maintains his belief in his own system, and gives a few arguments in +favor of the transmigration of souls. He also gives a number of +illustrations and anecdotes bearing on that subject, of which the +following is a specimen: "Another instance is that of the child of a +Peguan at Paklat, (a town near Bangkok,) who, as soon as he had +learned to speak, told his parents that he was formerly named Makran, +and had been killed by a fall from a cocoanut tree, and as he fell, +his axe fell from his hand and dropped into a ditch; and they seeing +that his story coincided with something that had happened within their +knowledge, tried the child by making him point out the tree, and he +pointed out the tree, and his story was confirmed by their digging up +the axe from the ditch." + +Although the book evinces some thought and considerable knowledge, it +is infantile when he attempts to grapple with the great truths of +Christianity. H. Alabaster, Esq., for ten years Interpreter to H. B. +M. Consulate in Siam, has translated portions of the book, accompanied +with remarks of his own, and published it under the title of "The +Modern Budhist." + +It may be asked, what is the effect of such a system of religion upon +the morals of the people in comparison with those of eminently +Christian countries? There are many kinds of crimes in which Christian +nations far surpass them, such as those daring and dark outrages +perpetrated in our large cities, the recital of which shocks our +sensibilities every time we take up a morning paper. But heathen +morals have ever been the same, and the description which Paul gives +of the heathen of old, in the first chapter of the Epistle to the +Romans, is a complete description of the heathen of to-day. There is a +rottenness about everything, morally speaking, which we do not find in +Christian countries. It would be impossible on an occasion of this +kind, and before a mixed audience, to give you any idea of the +prevailing state of morals. I am not one of those, who, like the +English governess in the _Atlantic Monthly_, would consider Budhism a +shadow of Christianity, and "thank God" for it. It is eminently the +offspring of Satan, as all its bearings and workings on the heart and +morals will abundantly show. I have seen none of those glorious +death-bed scenes which she describes, and think they are rare. A +Siamese man lived neighbor to us for ten years. He could sit in his +own door and hear the gospel preached in our mission chapel. He was an +excellent neighbor, and was to all appearance a moral man. He had +observed, as nearly as possible, all the tenets of his religion. He +had made merit in every possible way. All his sons had entered the +priesthood. He was about seventy years old, and his death-sickness +came. The future was all dark to him. He struggled with, disease and +death for a number of days. One of our native church members called to +see his old neighbor, and ventured to speak to him about the +approaching change. The old man was unwilling to give up, and +answered, "Mai yak tai," I do not want to die; "Klua tai," I am afraid +to die; and then summoning all his remaining strength exclaimed, "Ch? +mai tai," I will not die. Still he had to die, as millions of his race +have done, without one ray of light to illuminate the soul, and no +faith in Jesus opening up to him the glories of the eternal world. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +EDUCATION AND LITERATURE. + + +The education of the Siamese is necessarily limited and the standard +low, when compared with that of European countries. The temples or +monasteries are the common schools of the country. Every priest can +take to the temple with him as many pupils as he can teach, so that at +almost every temple can be found a nice collection of boys, making a +very respectable school. These boys besides being taught the rudiments +of their own language, and the tenets of the Budhist religion, act +also as servants to the teacher, propelling his boat when he goes out +on the river, and doing other like menial turns for him. They live on +the surplus rice which is left, after the priests are satisfied. Every +pupil is taught to hold his teacher in special reverence, which lasts +through life. The males are all thus gathered in when boys, and taught +to read and write their own language, and the simple rules of +arithmetic, as the Siamese knowledge of that art does not extend +beyond the simple rules. It is consequently rare that a male can be +found who cannot read and write his own language, and on the other +hand it is just as rare that a female is found who can. No provision +has yet been made there for the education of females. Indeed the +feeling in high quarters has hitherto been against it, but not near so +strong as in India, and many other places, but that feeling is now +happily passing away. It used to be said that if woman could read she +would become too tricky for man. The females, amongst the common +people especially, are the drudges, and become wives and mothers so +early, that there is but little time for their education. Some of the +women of the higher classes have in some way learned to read, and the +missionary ladies have managed to teach some few others to read, +whilst employed in their families, but aside from these few exceptions +the great mass of the women are ignorant of letters. The late king +made one or two spasmodic efforts to have the women of the palace +taught English. Soon after he ascended the throne he employed some of +the missionary ladies to go to the palace regularly and teach, but +soon became alarmed lest they should teach too much religion, and +requested them to stop. A few years previous to his death also, he +employed an English governess in the palace, who, after about three +years rather arduous labor succeeded in giving the women and children +of the palace some knowledge of English, and perhaps a smattering of +some of the sciences. The higher order of education amongst the males +consists of a correct knowledge of their own language, and a +smattering at least of the Pali or sacred language. Some few who +remain sufficiently long in the priesthood make considerable +proficiency in the Pali. Their standard of education is also rather +depreciating than rising. Missionaries now find it difficult to secure +a young man sufficiently educated to make a good teacher. One reason +of this is that since the country has been opened to foreign commerce, +opportunities to make money are more common than previously, and young +men do not now remain sufficiently long in the priesthood to become +good scholars, but leave it to go into business. + +The Siamese language proper is monosyllabic and rather +poverty-stricken. It has however, been enriched from time to time from +the Pali, and from the languages of the surrounding nations, and by a +few words from the Chinese. Titles of nobility and distinction are all +taken from the Pali. Many of the words used in addressing the King, +and others high in authority, have been transferred from the Pali, and +some few from the Sanscrit. The late King professed to be proficient +in the Sanscrit, and some of their learned men now make pretensions in +that way. It is doubtful, however, whether the late King, although the +most learned man in the kingdom, had anything more than a smattering +of Sanscrit, and I do not suppose there is any one now in the kingdom +who knows anything about it worth naming. + +The Siamese alphabet consists of forty-four consonants, with several +vowel-points, diacritical marks and abbreviations. The alphabet is +divided into three classes, and there are also seven tones, so that +words beginning with a certain class of letters are spoken with a +raised tone, whilst others are spoken with rather a depressed tone. +Some of the consonants too, are spoken with an aspirate, whilst in +others the aspirate is withheld. This putting on the tone and the +aspirate in certain instances, and leaving them off in others, makes +it very difficult for one not born to it to acquire the language +correctly, _"Kai,"_ with an aspirate, means an egg, but by leaving off +the aspirate it is a chicken. Although spelled somewhat differently, +the sound to an unaccustomed ear is exactly the same. In these things +foreigners make some ridiculous mistakes. You have all probably heard +of the missionary lady somewhere, who, whilst in her garden, told a +servant to bring her a knife, as she thought, but was surprised to see +him coming out with a table on his head. I once heard a missionary, +otherwise good in the language, but who could never manage the +aspirates and unaspirates correctly, announcing to his audience that +there would be services at such an hour in the Siamese language, but +unfortunately he left off the aspirate, and announced that there would +be services in the _dead language_. Still the audience understood from +the connection what he meant. + +The literature of the Siamese is very meagre. They have a history of +their country which commences in fable, but after a few pages are +passed, it becomes a correct and reliable history of the kingdom. It +is written in a condensed style, and couched in good language. They +have also tolerably reliable histories of the neighboring countries, +such as Cambodia, Pegu, and Birmah. They are exceedingly fond of +fiction, and have a fabulous history of China, which has been +translated into Siamese, and is very popular. The Regent and Foreign +Minister have both been recently engaged in translating additions to +that fabulous history. If they would take as much pains in translating +the histories of the different countries of Europe and of America, +their people would soon become well informed in regard to the great +transactions of the world. The remainder of their literature consists +in vile and disgusting plays, in which they take great delight, both +in reading and seeing them performed in their theatres. They are also +very fond of a kind of jingling verse, and will listen for hours to +the mere jingle, caring little or nothing for the sense, of which it +is generally devoid. + + + + +CHAPTER V. + +MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. + + +The principle clothing of the Siamese consists of a waist-cloth called +a _"pa nung,"_ corresponding to the _sarang_ of India. It is about +two-and-one-half yards long, and one yard wide; is placed around the +waist, neatly tucked in, the two ends brought together, twisted, and +brought back between the legs and tucked in behind. Formerly this was +the only clothing worn, except a scarf thrown around the shoulders in +cool weather. The King formerly used to receive foreigners whilst +dressed in that style. Since the influx of foreigners however, they +have adopted a neat jacket with sleeves, and cut to fit tight to the +skin, and buttoned up in front. Those of the higher classes are made +of silk, but those of the common people are nothing but common white +muslin. The _"pa nungs,"_ also, of the better classes are made of +silk, whilst those of the common people are generally cotton. The +attire of the females is pretty much like that of the males, except +when they wish to dress, they have a neat yellow silk scarf which they +fold gracefully over the shoulders. The Siamese display excellent +taste in the selection of colors and figures, and have no love for the +gaudy in the way of clothing, like the Malays and some other eastern +nations. Shoes are seldom worn. The better classes have sandals or +slippers, but very likely a slave will be carrying them after the +owner, and when worn, are always thrown off before entering a house. +Occasionally however, you can see some young fellow rendering himself +ridiculous in a pair of European shoes and a European coat. + +The males shave the head, except a tuft on the top, which resembles a +shoe-brush. The females do not shave the head, but clip the hair as +closely as possible, leaving the tuft similar to the males, and a +small love-lock in front of each ear. + +They have a universal and disgusting practice of chewing the areca +nut. The nut of the areca palm is possessed of astringent properties +similar to the bark used in tanning. In connection with this nut they +use the leaf of the seri vine, which has a kind of pepperish taste. +They take white stone lime while yet unslaked, and mix with it the +powdered turmeric root, which turns it a crimson color. They take the +seri leaf and put on it a quantity of that red lime in the form of +paste, and then a portion of the areca nut, the leaf with the lime on +it, and some fine cut tobacco, are all put into the mouth together. +The saliva arising from such a mixture is a kind of blood-red color, +and is very copious. Their houses and walks have frequently a very +disgusting appearance, from large deposits of that red saliva having +been spit out of the mouth upon them. This process turns the teeth +black, and indeed destroys them, as the lime adheres to the teeth and +destroys the enamel, and finally they drop out by wholesale. Those who +have no teeth to chew the mixture, carry with them a small mortar, and +pound it all up together before putting it into the mouth. Both sexes +are addicted to this practice, and an exception can rarely be found. + +Black teeth are an element of beauty, and besides the chewing of the +areca nut, they resort to other means of coloring. When cautioned +against thus destroying the teeth, they invariably reply that "any +monkey can have white teeth." They never go anywhere without the box +containing the ingredients for chewing. The poorer classes carry their +own, but the rich have theirs carried after them by a slave. A man's +rank is indicated somewhat by the number of slaves that follow him, +and the golden box containing the areca nut, &c., and a teapot, are +the insignia. When one person calls on another, almost the first thing +done is to set out the tray containing the chewing material, and not +to do so is considered almost an insult. The males are also all +inveterate smokers from infancy. + +In going anywhere together, they never walk side by side as we would +do, but one after the other, according to rank or age. The husband +also always goes before, and his wife or wives walk behind. It is also +contrary to Siamese custom to have any one pass over their head, and +consequently they will not occupy the lower story of a house when +persons are above them on the next story. When the King goes out on +the canals in his boat, all the bridges have to be drawn, lest his +sacred head should pass under where some person had walked. No greater +insult can be offered than to take a man by the tuft of hair on his +head. It is the same as spitting in a man's face with us. + +Like all heathen, and I am sorry to say too many Christians, they are +very fond of jewelry, especially the women. Their fingers are +frequently nearly covered over with rings; gold chains are also thrown +around the neck and shoulders, and a neat gold pin through the lobe of +the ear. Children wear anklets and bracelets. Those of the rich are of +gold, and quite heavy; some are of silver, and those of the poorer +classes are brass. I have seen some of the children of princes and +nobles with several hundred dollars worth of jewelry on in the form of +anklets, bracelets and gold chains, and aside from the jewelry the +body was perfectly nude. + +The people are very much attached to the customs of their ancestors, +and what their fathers have done they must do, how absurd soever it +may be. _"Pen tumneum Thai,"_ it is Siamese custom, is sufficient +reason for doing anything. + +The principle food of the Siamese is rice and fish. Fish are very +abundant and cheap, and become a wholesome diet for that climate. It +is contrary to their religion to take animal life, and they never kill +any animals for their own consumption, but they do not scruple to eat +anything killed by another, if they can only roll off the +responsibility of killing it. They buy pork and fowls which have been +killed and dressed by the Chinese. They also eat animals which have +died. When warned that perhaps the animal died of some bad disease +which may prove injurious to them, they will answer that it can't +stand the fire; if there is anything of the kind, it will depart when +the meat comes in contact with the fire. They also live largely on +vegetables and hot peppers. The rice is boiled, and dished out into a +large basin or platter, and placed on the floor. The meats and +vegetables which have all been cut up fine before cooking, are also +dished out into small bowls and placed near the rice. Those about to +eat seat themselves around, tailor fashion, in a circle, each with a +bowl in his hand. He takes some rice from the large dish into his own +bowl, and then uses his fingers dexterously. When he wishes any of the +accompaniments he dips his fingers into the common dish. When there is +anything like soup or gravy, they have a common spoon, and each one +takes a spoonful into his mouth, and then passes the spoon to his +neighbor, and it thus goes around. They eat with apparent ease and +enjoyment, rolling up a ball of rice in the fingers, then throwing the +head a little back, and the mouth wide open, it disappears without +difficulty. They have never attempted to improve upon the fingers. The +Chinese invented the chop-sticks, and are apparently well pleased with +the result, for they never attempt to improve upon them; but any one +who has ever seen a Chinaman slabbering and blowing over his bowl of +rice, with a pair of chop-sticks, could not but wish to see him back +again at the more primitive fingers. The Siamese think we eat with +difficulty, and rather pity us for having so much ceremony. A +missionary and his wife were out on a mission tour, and came to a +village not frequented by Europeans. They stopped at the village and +partook of a meal. They of course had a table, and table implements +with them on their boat. The natives flocked around to see the +foreigners eat, and one old woman, after watching eagerly for a time, +turned away with a sigh, remarking, _"Kow kin yak tedio,"_ they eat +with great difficulty. + +Some of the princes and nobles have secured table furniture, and can +imitate European style very nicely, and some of their dinners given to +European officials are quite creditable; but when alone, they go back +again to their own mode. + +They have their own ideas of politeness in their social intercourse, +and are very strict in carrying them out; but in their intercourse +with foreigners they frequently try to imitate our customs, and as a +general thing spoil both. When a man meets a superior, he either +prostrates himself on the ground, or squats down, places the palms of +his hands together, and raises them up to the face. When equals meet +they do not say "Good morning," as we would do, but "Pai nai,"--where +are you going. The other will give an evasive answer, saying, "O, I am +not going anywhere, only up here a little ways." + +Their household furniture is generally meagre, consisting only of a +few cooking utensils, and mats and moscheto bars for sleeping. There +was a while that some of the higher classes manifested a desire for +European furniture, and bought it up very readily, but perhaps on +account of a nod from high quarters, there appears to be a reaction in +that quarter. + +The people are generally indolent, and lazy, and very much addicted to +gambling, which is, perhaps, the ruling vice of the country. At every +gambling house groups of men and women may be seen sitting from +morning till night, and from night till morning, intently gambling. +They will gamble away everything they have, and incur large debts; and +then sell their wives, children, and even themselves into slavery, to +pay their "debts of honor." They have different kinds of games, but +that on which they stake most is a Chinese game called _po_, and is a +kind of dice. + +They are exceedingly fond of theatricals, and every prince and +nobleman, who can afford it, has a theatre of his own. No festival of +any kind can be held without theatricals. Their plays are generally +some fictitious love tale, or history, and some of the actions of the +actresses are most lascivious and vulgar, but perhaps not more so than +the exhibitions of the stage in Europe and America to-day. + +They are also very fond of bathing, which is perhaps very conducive to +health in that climate. They bathe regularly at least three times a +day. They always carry a cloth with them for bathing purposes. Both +sexes meet together at the common bathing place, and they slip off the +regular cloth and don the bathing cloth so dexterously that nothing +amiss can be noticed in the transaction, and then plunge into the +river, both sexes being expert swimmers. Notwithstanding their +frequent ablutions, however, cleanliness is by no means a national +virtue, and some of their habits are extremely filthy. + +There are some things in which "Young America" might well pattern +after the Siamese. One is extreme reverence and respect for age. The +aged receive that reverence justly due to them in Siam, perhaps more +than in any other country. Another is love and reverence for parents. +The parent may sell a child into slavery, which is frequently done, +still when the child grows up, he never loses respect for that parent. +When a child too, commits a crime, and tries to evade the law, the +authorities at once lay hold upon the parents, which is sure to bring +the culprit back to give himself up. + +Although the Chinese have more natural stability of character than the +Siamese, and are in many other respects superior to them, still the +latter are in many respects the more hopeful people. A Chinaman knows +everything, in his own estimation already, and is unwilling to learn +from any one; whilst the Siamese will pick up all the information they +can from others. Whatever they can get of European arts and sciences, +without acknowledging the authority, and especially without costing +them anything, they have no scruples about receiving. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + +COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE. + + +It has long been the custom amongst the Siamese to ascribe honor and +glory to their princes and lords, in proportion to the number of wives +they have, and can maintain. + +The king has generally one whom he constitutes his Queen Consort. A +young princess of the highest rank that can be found in the kingdom is +selected. She however is not certain of promotion until after she has +lived with the king for a time, and has succeeded in gaining a large +place in the royal affections. When this is sufficiently accomplished, +the king appoints a day for her exaltation. Three days are usually +devoted to the purpose. The chief officers of the palace, the chief +scribes, and the chief princes and nobles of the kingdom are present. +The principal ceremonies devolve upon the priests, of whom there are +quite a number present, both Budhist and Brahmin. The princess is +copiously bathed in pure water, in which the leaves of a certain kind +of tree, supposed to possess purifying and healthful influences, are +put. Most of the time is spent in feasting, but on the third day she +is placed on a small throne under a white canopy, where she is bathed +with holy water, the priests reciting prayers the while. She is then +conducted to a place where the wet clothes are laid aside, and she is +arrayed in queenly costume, jewels, and diamonds, and then displays +herself to those in attendance. Instances have occurred when the king +had two Queen Consorts. In such cases one is called the queen of the +right hand, and the other the queen of the left hand. + +It has only happened about twice in Siamese history, that the king has +taken a foreign princess for his Queen Consort. This can happen in one +of two ways. The foreign prince wishing to secure the friendship and +alliance of the king of Siam, makes the first advance, offering his +daughter to the king of Siam. If, after having received testimonials +of her beauty and worth, the king is favorably disposed, he sends an +embassy to formally ask her of the father. The other way is, that the +king of Siam is the first mover in the matter, and makes the first +overtures. + +In addition to his Queen Consort the king can have as many inferior +wives, or concubines, as he wishes. These are called _"Nang-ham,"_ +literally, a woman forbidden--that is forbidden to go out of the +palace. Although women as a general thing in Siam are not in any way +secluded, still these inferior wives are rigidly confined within the +palace walls. During the late reign however, much more laxity in this +respect was displayed, than in any former reign. They cannot go +outside of the palace walls without a royal permit, and that only on +special and extraordinary occasions. The king seldom seeks an inferior +wife, but they are presented to him by princes and nobles wishing to +gain the royal favor, and thus they consign their daughters to a life +oftentimes worse than exile for that purpose. It is said that the late +king never left home but he returned with some new accessions to his +harem, and that they became so numerous that he oftentimes had to +refuse them. + +The better classes amongst them procure wives something after the +following manner. There is nothing like courting amongst the young +folks, as we understand that term, unless it is done by stealth, which +is almost impossible, from the fact that the mothers exercise the +strictest vigilance over their unmarried daughters. In this respect +American mothers might often profit by the example of these heathen. +Girls become wives there at the early age of fourteen, and an old maid +is quite a curiosity. + +Although young men in search of wives are not allowed the privilege of +courting, still they keep their eyes open, and when one sees a young +lady he fancies, he takes the proper steps to secure her. He makes the +matter known to his parents, if he has any; they employ an elderly +lady who is denominated a _"Maa su"_, and who is acquainted with and +respected by the young lady's parents. This _"Maa su"_ goes to the +house of the young lady's parents, and by a series of nice +insinuations, or otherwise, finds out how such a match would take, and +returns to report progress. If indications are favorable, the parents +of the young man then select a number of elderly persons of both +sexes, who are respectable, and intimate with both families. These +they invite to their house, and hold a consultation, and after the +matter is thoroughly discussed and the match decided to be a favorable +one, a propitious day is chosen, and the elderly persons repair to the +house of the young lady's parents. These of course divining their +object, receive them kindly, and according to custom, set out the tray +containing areca nut, seri leaf, red lime, and tobacco for chewing. +This ceremony over, the elders broach the subject of their mission, +taking good care to address the parents according to their rank, as +one improperly used pronoun might spoil the whole. If it is proper to +say _you_, they say it, and if it is proper to say your _honors_, or +your _graces_, they say that. + +"Such parents having ascertained that this is a propitious day, have +commissioned us to come and confer with you concerning their son of +such a name, who has as yet no wife. His parents having put the +question to him, 'Have you any one in your mind, you would like to +have become your wife, and to whom you could trust your life in +sickness, and your obsequies after death?' The young man answered, +that he had your daughter of such a name, and her only. The parents +have therefore commissioned us to visit you the much respected parents +of the young lady, and confer with you in reference to this matter. +What do you the parents say?" + +The parents reply: "Our daughter is one we love much, and the young +man is one whom his parents love much. We have an ancient proverb +which says, 'Move slowly and you will gain your object, and a +prolonged effort generally results favorably.' We will consult our +relatives on the right hand, and on the left, and see what they say +about it. Please call again." + +After waiting a reasonable time and another propitious day has come, +the elders call again. The parents of the young lady will say: "We +have consulted our relatives, and they are unanimously of the opinion +that if the young man really loves our daughter, and can confide in +her as a proper person to take care of him in sickness, and take +charge of his body after death, his affections and confidence should +be planted." "But how is it in regard to the ages, and birthdays of +the parties? Are they such as to be suitable to each other?" The +Siamese have a superstition that persons born in certain years, are +incompatible with each other. For instance, if one was born in the +year of the _dog_, and the other in the year of the _rat_, or one in +the year of the _cow_, and the other in the year of the _tiger_, they +would be incompatible with each other. The matter is accordingly +referred to some fortune-teller, who, for a small fee, generally +pronounces no serious difficulty in the way. + +This difficulty cleared up, the elders call for a further discussion +of the preliminaries. They say:--"Since birth-days do not interfere, +what shall be said about the mutual stock for the young couple to +commence business on, and the money for building a house for the young +couple?" According to Siamese custom the bridegroom almost invariably +goes to live with the parents of the bride, and accordingly puts up a +house on their premises, and as near the old mansion as possible. Thus +a man who has a number of daughters, finds himself surrounded by a +village, by the time they are all married off. The parents of the +young lady will answer, "We are by no means affluent, that we could +devote much money to that purpose. But allow us to ask, how will it be +with the parents of the young man--how much will they be willing to +give their son?" The others will reply, "It depends altogether on the +parents of the young lady." The other party will reply, "If such be +the case, we would suggest that they appropriate, say one hundred +_ticals_ ($60), for the purpose of building a house; and for mutual +trade _five hundred ticals_, and that they also contribute areca nut, +seri leaf, red lime, cakes, &c., for wedding purposes, say one hundred +salvers or dishes." The plan of the new house, and the number of rooms +are generally also specified. The elders then return and report to the +parents of the young man, and if they are satisfied, a bargain is +struck. + +All preliminaries having been made, the young man goes to work to +build his house, which generally requires but a short time, and the +parents of the young lady do not delay to consult astrologers in +reference to a propitious day for the wedding. The day having been +fixed, and all things arranged, the friends of both parties are +invited to assist in carrying out the arrangements. The parents of +both parties unite in selecting some elderly persons, who shall be the +bearers of the money, together with two suits of white raiment, an +offering to the bride's parents, and the wedding cakes, &c. This is +done in procession, either in boats on the river, or by land, with +bands of music playing wedding airs. The money and presents are given +over to the bride's parents, and they in turn bring out their portion +of the money, and perhaps a slave or two, to assist the young bride in +performing her household duties. The guests being all assembled, the +money and presents are all exhibited. The elders then count the money +of both parties, as legal witnesses. Both sums are thrown together, +and sprinkled over with a little rice, scented oil, flowers, &c., +symbolical of blessings craved on the young couple. The joint stock is +then delivered over to the parents of the bride for safe keeping. + +Some time is then spent in feasting and mutual conversation, and +priests are chanting prayers the while. The bridegroom then, in +company with some of his young friends, goes to his new house. + +The bride at the same time dispatches a lad neatly dressed, bearing a +tray of areca nut, who meets them there, and invites them to be seated +and enjoy themselves. She also decks herself in gay apparel, and in +company with some of her attendants repairs to the same building, but +the two parties are still separated by a screen. Religious services +are then held, after which the screen is withdrawn and the elders +proceed to bathe the young couple copiously with holy water. The chief +elder pours it first upon the head of the bridegroom, and then upon +the head of the bride, pronouncing a blessing upon each. The +attendants of the bride then assist her in changing her wet apparel +for dry, but still, if anything, more gay than the former. A finely +dressed lad then appears with a silver plated tray, containing a +handsome suit for the bridegroom, being a present from the bride's +parents, in which he speedily attires himself. Whilst these things are +going on the priests are rehearsing prayers for the benefit of the +young couple. All are then invited to a feast prepared by the bride's +parents, and when this is over the guests all return to their homes. +The bride stays with her parents, but the bridegroom goes to his new +house, where he has secured a band of music, and serenades the bride +until a late hour. Early next morning the guests all assemble, and +have a feast for the priests in which all vie with each other in their +attentions to the clergy. They then have another feast for themselves. +If this is a propitious day the ceremonies are closed in the evening. +A respectable couple, friends of the bride, who are man and wife, and +who themselves have been blessed with a large family of children, are +selected, and they then repair to the new house and prepare the bridal +bed. About 9 o'clock in the evening the elders conduct the bride to +her new home, and after some counsels and exhortations, the young +couple are left alone perhaps for the first time. Oftentimes however, +if the second day is unpropitious, the ceremonies are continued until +the third or fourth day. + +After a few days have elapsed the bridegroom conducts his bride to +visit his parents. She takes with her a few presents of cakes and +fruit, and upon entering the house prostrates herself three times to +the floor, and is then taken into the embrace and confidence of the +family. The bridegroom also pays a formal visit to the bride's +parents, and prostrates himself before them. + +After the birth of the first child the joint stock of money is +produced, and the young couple enter into business for themselves, as +they are supposed to have lived off the bride's parents up to this +time. There are three things which are considered absolutely essential +in these wedding ceremonies. These are three metallic platters, one +containing a kind of sweet cakes called _"Kanome cheen",_ or Chinese +cakes; another contains a kind of mince-meat, highly seasoned, and +much prized; and the third contains areca nut, seri leaf, red lime, +and tobacco for chewing purposes. These articles constitute what is +called the _"Kan mak,"_ literally the areca-nut tray, but which has +become one of their names for a wedding. + +Marriage amongst them appears to be little more than a civil contract, +in which the bride has but little choice, but yields implicit +obedience to the will of the parents. + +If a young man attempts to pay his addresses to a young lady without +going through the proper channel, he is supposed to be doing so from +improper motives, and stands a chance to get himself chastised by some +male member of the family. We had once in our school a young man, who +was rather fancy, and who attempted to address a young lady in the +neighborhood, without taking the proper steps. One evening two of the +young lady's brothers met him, and administered to him a sound +thrashing. + +A man in Siam possesses the prerogative of administering to his wife a +little wholesome chastisement, if she fails to fulfil her duties. I +have seen a few instances in which I really thought it was deserved, +and did good, but as a Christian missionary, and a representative of +the free United States, where women are clamoring for the same rights +as men, I had to discourage such things under all circumstances. + +Polygamy is not common amongst the middle and lower classes, simply on +account of their inability to maintain more than one wife, but divorce +is very easy, being only a dissolving of the civil contract by the +mutual consent of the parties, and then each party is at liberty to +marry again. There are however, many happy marriages in Siam, and I +have seen old people of seventy, who had spent a long life together +and raised large families. + +Notwithstanding the vigilance of the mothers, there is occasionally a +runaway match. In such cases however, they as soon as possible take +all proper steps to propitiate the parents. They select respectable +persons, and send them with presents to the parents, and, as a general +thing, like runaway matches everywhere; after a short time every thing +is smoothed over satisfactorily. I had in my employ a young man who +was an orphan. He became enamored with a young lady in the +neighborhood, and through his friends secured the consent of her +parents, but as he was poor, the wedding was to be postponed a year. +In the mean time, a well-to-do Chinaman, who had considerable money at +his command, came along and proposed. The parents consented, +notwithstanding the former contract, and went on to make arrangements +for the wedding, without telling the daughter anything about it. A few +days before the wedding was to come off, she got wind of what was +going on, and that night ran away and came down to our place, to hunt +up her other lover. In the morning he came to me in great trepidation, +but unwilling to give up his prize. I rather felt for the young folks, +and selected some of the most honorable persons in the neighborhood, +and sent them up to the parents, but they were inexorable. I then sent +for them to come down to our place, which they did through respect for +me, but would still do nothing, and threatened to go to law; but I +told them I would defend the young man in his just rights to the last. +After a few days however, all was quieted down, and the matter +smoothed over amicably. A faithful creature she also proved to be. She +worked and kept up the house, and all the expenses, whilst he worked +to pay me a tolerably large debt, for money which I advanced him on +the occasion. + +The nobility have all a plurality of wives, in proportion to their +means and rank. The first one taken, is head or mistress over the +others, and the whole get along as harmoniously together as such an +arrangement could be expected to do, and much more so than the same +arrangement would do with us. A nobleman is rather to be envied than +otherwise on his return home, as he receives so many delicate +attentions from his numerous wives, who all vie with each other in +meriting a liberal share of the divided affections of their lord. +Woman knows her place in Siam, and there are no such unfrocked +specimens of the sex there, as Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Lucretia Mott, +and others. Polygamy is however, one of the curses of the land, and +one of the great barriers to the introduction of the gospel. It is one +of those mountains which the power of the gospel must eventually bring +low. The day is coming when it must be abolished even in Siam. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + +CEREMONIES FOR THE DYING AND DEAD. + + +The Siamese dispose of their dead by cremation. When a prince of rank +is found to be near death, the relatives suspend every other care, and +assist in giving the departing spirit as good a passport as possible +into the spirit land. Every effort is made to fix the thoughts of the +dying man on Budha. They take their turns in calling out as loudly, +and distinctly as possible, _"Pra Arahang,"_ one of the names of +Budha. It is uttered as much as eight times in a minute, so that it is +impossible to hear anything else. This seems to be the "Extreme +Unction" of the Budhist. When all evidence of the dying man's hearing +is past, the attendant friends will raise their voices to a stunning +pitch, hoping that the departing spirit may still hear _Pra Arahang_. +After it is thought Pra Arahang can be no longer heard, the most +uncontrollable wailing is commenced, which can be heard to a great +distance. The friends of the deceased, household slaves, and all, +engage in this outburst of grief. + +When a prince of high rank has died, the King visits the house of +mourning and bathes the corpse with water, with his own hands. After +him other princes present come forward, and pour a dipper of water +upon the corpse. Next comes the nobles who are present, according to +their rank, and do the same. When all the princes and nobles present +have performed this office, certain officials present proceed to dress +the corpse. They put on it a pair of tight-fitting pantaloons, and a +tight jacket. Over these they apply a winding-sheet, wrapping it as +tightly as possible. Quicksilver is also poured down the throat. The +corpse is then placed in a copper urn, in a sitting posture. This +copper urn is then placed inside of a golden urn. The inner urn has a +grating at the bottom, and the outer one has a stop-cock, by which the +juices flowing from the body are daily drawn off, until it becomes +perfectly dry. The King usually remains until the corpse has been +placed in the urn, and that placed on an elevated platform, ascending +by three gradations to the height of about five feet. Whilst the +corpse is being thus elevated, conch-shell blowers and trumpeters are +performing lustily upon their instruments, with all the harmony +possible. This trumpeting is called the inviting of the corpse to be +seated on the platform. + +When thus seated, all the insignia of royalty to which the prince has +been accustomed during life are brought and arranged in order at the +foot of the urn. These consist of his golden areca nut box, his golden +cigar case, his golden spittoon, his writing apparatus--in short, all +the utensils which he was accustomed to use in daily life. The band of +trumpeters come at early dawn, at noon, and at dusk, every day, to +perform the funeral dirge. They come in concert with some wailing +women, who chant the virtues and excellences of the deceased. These +women spend an hour each day in that service, and in the intervals a +company of priests, seated upon a platform near by the urn, chant +incantations, and recite moral lessons in the Pali language. These +services are kept up daily until the time appointed for burning has +arrived, which is six, and sometimes even eight months after death. +The remains of a king generally lie in state about twelve months, +before burning. + +Upon the death of a king his successor commences at once to make +arrangements for erecting the temporary building for his cremation, +which is called a _Pra mane_. The building is generally in size and +grandeur proportionate to the estimation in which the deceased has +been held. Royal orders are sent to all the provinces, and even to the +tributary States, where large timber grows, requiring them to furnish +posts for the _Pra mane_, and especially four enormous sticks, which +are to form the central pillars of the building. These central pillars +must be of the finest timber that can be found, very straight, and +from two hundred to two hundred and fifty feet long. Besides the large +ones, twelve other pillars of smaller size are needed. Timbers which +have been used on a former occasion cannot be used again, but all must +be new. The large pillars are cut in the forest, dragged to the river +by elephants, and floated down at high water to the capital. When they +arrive at the city, a general levy is made all over the country for +workmen, and those huge logs are dragged up to the place mainly by +force, as it would be contrary to custom to employ any labor-saving +machine in getting them up. They are first dressed off, and then +planted with great difficulty in the ground about thirty feet deep. +The four large pillars are planted in a square, about one hundred and +sixty feet in circumference. When planted, the tops incline a little +toward each other, forming a kind of truncated pyramid, having four +sides, and is about two hundred feet high. On the top of these pillars +is erected a pagoda-shaped spire, adding about fifty feet more to the +height. The spire is covered with gilded and tinselled paper, so as to +give it a neat and grand appearance, especially from a distance. At +each side of this central pyramid is erected a wing, by means of other +smaller posts, and extending about forty feet, and facing the four +cardinal points of the compass; and each wing is also capped with a +pagoda spire. The whole is covered with a basket-work made of bamboo +splits, which is covered again with gilt and tinselled paper. The +building is surrounded by a bamboo fence, enclosing, perhaps, two +acres of ground, and entered by two large gates. Inside of the fence +are numerous temporary buildings, made of bamboo, for the +accommodation of priests, theatrical performances, and other +exhibitions. On the west side of the Pra mane is the building for the +accommodation of the King and his family. The roof of this building is +made of crimson cloth, with gilt edges, and the sides are covered with +curtains, which in front are tucked in neatly to the posts. At each +end, at the comb of the roof, is a peculiar shaped horn extending out, +which is peculiar to royal buildings and temples. + +The whole area of the enclosure is covered with a floor made of split +bamboos neatly woven together. Immediately at the base of the Pra mane +are small artificial mountains, and artificial lakes, and ponds, upon +which small boats and miniature floating houses are moored. Also +flowers, shrubbery, and every other thing imaginable, which is +considered at all ornamental. On the outside of the enclosure are +houses built for the accommodation of princes, nobles, and all +foreigners who may wish to attend, and who are all entertained at the +royal expense. Rope dancing, juggling, and every other imaginable feat +are also carried on outside. At night, too, those brilliant fireworks, +in which the Siamese so much excel, are touched off by the King +himself, and are kept up to a late hour every night. + +Directly under the tall spire in the centre of the building is erected +what may be termed the _Pra mane_ proper. A floor is laid over the +whole building about twenty feet from the ground, and upon that floor, +directly under the tall spire, is erected an octagonal pyramid, about +sixty feet in circumference. It diminishes by right angled gradations, +to the height of about thirty feet, and terminates in a truncated top, +and upon this top is placed the urn containing the royal remains. On +an appointed day the royal remains are brought out and placed upon the +_Pra mane_. This is done in a procession. The governors of the +different provinces, and the kings of the different tributary states +have all been ordered to be present at the cremation. Early in the +morning of the day of the procession, the chief princes, nobles, and +rulers, assemble at the palace. The golden urn, richly decked with +diamonds, containing the remains, is placed on an elevated seat, upon +a huge and unwieldy car, drawn by two horses, assisted by hundreds of +men. The funeral car is preceded in the procession by two others. The +first is occupied by the high-priest of the kingdom alone, reading as +he goes moral lessons from the sacred books, in the Pali language. The +second car is occupied by a few of the favorite children of the +deceased. A strip of silver cloth, about six inches wide, extends from +the thighs of the high-priest to the seat occupied by the children in +the next car, and thence to the funeral car, and is attached to the +urn. This forms the mystical union between the deceased, the sacred +book, and his children. The car next behind the funeral car contains a +few sticks of sandal wood, with ends gilded, for the purpose of +burning the corpse. These cars are all drawn by horses, assisted by +scores of men. There are also in the procession numbers of other cars, +containing figures of lions, tigers, elephants, rhinoceroses, and +numbers of indescribable fabulous animals, and upon the backs of all +these animals are placed piles of yellow cloths, to be presented to +the priests. There are also numbers of boats placed on small wheels +and drawn along, which are also to be presented to the priests. In +front and rear of the cars are hundreds of men, dressed in white, and +having white turbans, terminating in a pagoda point, and who represent +the _Tewedas_, or Budhist angels. When the procession arrives at the +place, the urn is drawn up an inclined plane, and placed upon the top +of the truncated platform already described. The piece of narrow +silver cloth, already mentioned, is attached to the top of the urn, +and extends to the floor, and then out the east and west wings of the +building to the steps. High above the urn is suspended a neat golden +canopy, of that indescribable form for which the Siamese are so +celebrated. Around and under the canopy are hung beautiful white +scented flowers, arranged in the form of a chandelier; splendid +chandeliers are also suspended all around for the purpose of +brilliantly lighting up the _Pra mane_. Nearly all the priests in the +kingdom are called into requisition on these occasions, who chant +prayers and recite moral lessons. + +All the chief princes and nobles, the family and family servants of +the deceased, are all dressed in white, and have their heads shaven, +the badge of mourning. When the time has come for igniting the fire +the outer golden urn is removed, leaving only the inner copper urn. +The grating at the bottom of the copper urn is covered over with +spices and fragrant powders. All valuable or precious articles are +removed from the platform. The platform is also lowered some feet, to +make it more convenient. The sandal wood is arranged under the grate +of the urn, and precious spices and fragrant articles are placed +amongst the wood. A gunpowder train is arranged, extending to the +place where the king is. All being ready, the king takes electrical +fire, which has been preserved in the palace for a long time for such +purposes, and ignites the fuse, and soon the wood is in a blaze. The +family of the deceased, and the chief princes and nobles are all +standing near, with lighted wax candles in their hands, and each in +turn steps up and places the candle amongst the wood. Tubs of water +are standing near, and men with dippers ready to prevent the flames +from rising too high, and consuming the whole building. Many persons +from reading descriptions of these cremations, have got the idea that +the whole building is burned, but nothing is burned but the sandal +wood and the corpse which is in the urn. When the wood is fired the +band strikes a funeral dirge, and the women commence wailing, which +generally lasts only a few minutes. When the ceremonies are all over +the _Pra mane_ is taken down, never to be used again. + +The corpse is generally burned on the third day of the ceremonies, and +they are kept up in the same manner for three days after the burning +proper, making about six days in all. After the burning, the charred +bones still remaining are collected, put into a small golden urn, and +kept by the family. The present king has the remains of his ancestors +for many generations back, preserved in this manner. The ashes are +also collected, when a procession of boats is formed, and they are +scattered upon the river. + +During these ceremonies much is given away in presents, for the +purpose of making merit. Small gold and silver coins, and gold rings, +are put into _limes_, and other small fruit, and these are scattered +amongst the crowd, and they scramble for them. The king amuses himself +at this kind of sport very frequently during the ceremonies. Other +small fruits contain lottery tickets, which always draw a small +article of some kind. These are also given away. Outside the enclosure +are artificial trees, full of _limes_, in every one of which is a +small coin. A person frequently during the ceremonies ascends a +platform, pulls off the _limes_ and scatters them amongst the crowd, +and then such a scramble as there will be. Persons frequently get hurt +in the scramble, and it is frequently muddy, and I have seen the +scramblers all covered over with mud. The royal funerals are very +expensive. The funeral of the late king must have cost at least +$150,000. + +The common people, on account of the expense, do not keep their dead +long, but burn them as soon as possible, but in substantially the same +manner. They do not erect a _Pra mane_, but most of the temple grounds +have a permanent _Pra mane_. I have also frequently seen them burning, +out in the open space, without any covering. The corpse is placed in a +board coffin, covered over with figured paper, and is then taken to +the temple and burned. There is a very disgusting practice more or +less common amongst them. Sometimes the person dying orders it to be +done in order to make merit, and sometimes the friends do it of their +own accord. When the corpse is taken to the place of burning, they +take knives, cut the flesh from the bones, and feed it to the +vultures. These filthy birds will be perched near by, and will come +down into the crowd to receive the coveted morsel, which they either +carry off, or swallow upon the spot. After the flesh is thus taken +off, the bones are burned. + +Persons dying of cholera, small-pox, in childbirth, or any sudden +disease, and by suicide, are not burned immediately, but are buried +for a few months, and are then taken up and burned. Criminals +executed, and paupers, are given to the vultures wholesale. Medical +students would have no difficulty in getting subjects there. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +THEORY AND PRACTICE OF MEDICINE + + +When we consider that amidst all the light which the latter half of +the nineteenth century sheds upon the subject, the theory and practice +of medicine amongst western nations are still enveloped in darkness, +and are constantly changing, it is not to be wondered at that a nation +like the Siamese is almost wholly in the dark upon such a subject. The +Rev. D. B. Bradly, M.D., the oldest missionary in Siam, and who for +many years practised medicine in Bangkok, has prepared an abstract of +the Siamese "Theory and Practice of Medicine," which was published in +the _Bangkok Calendar_ of 1865, and from which the abstract which I +shall give at present is mainly taken. + +The Siamese believe the human system to be composed of four +elements--water, air, fire, and earth, and that disease is simply a +derangement in the proportions of these elements. They believe also +that all nature is constituted in the same way, and that the elements +without, are continually operating upon the elements within the body, +producing health or disease. For instance, if fire from without enters +the body in undue proportions, it will derange the healthy equilibrium +of the same element within, and will produce one or more of the +diseases into which fire enters, such as fevers, measles, small-pox, +&c. Each element is supposed to have its season of influence to +produce disease, just as the fruits of the earth have their seasons. +Their medical books, and common parlance, both say that in such and +such months, wind produces most disease, and in such and such other +months, fire produces most, and so with all the other elements. The +internal elements are also supposed at certain times to become +deranged from causes wholly internal. For instance, one of their +theories in regard to apoplexy is, that the internal wind blows from +all parts of the body upon the heart, with such force that it is often +ruptured, and death immediately ensues. The other theory is, that the +wind has fled, and left a vacuum in the upper story, and it must be +forced back again, if a cure is to be effected. + +All diseases are produced either from an excess or diminution of one +or more of the four elements; and, according to their theory, wind +produces more disease than any, or all of the other elements combined. +If you ask any Siamese what is the matter with him, in nine cases out +of ten, he will answer, _"Pen lom"_--it is wind, or disease produced +by wind. + +Their theory also teaches that all vital motions of the body are +primarily produced by wind taken into the system by inhalation, as +wind enters a bellows, and proceeds to the heart, and the heart by its +expansions, invites it into the body, and then, by its own power it +passes to all parts, and is the approximate cause of all internal +circulation. + +There are two grand divisions of internal wind, viz., that above, and +that below the diaphragm. Strictures in the chest, headache, epilepsy, +and apoplexy, are produced by wind beating upward. Colic, flatulency, +inflammation of the bowels, &c., are caused by wind from above beating +downward. + +It is seldom however, that disease runs its course without involving +two or more of the other elements. For instance, in case of a common +boil, the wind first drives the blood from all quarters into the +locality of the disease, where it stagnates, being invested by wind. +Secondly, the water from the blood consequently settles in that place, +as water in a tea-kettle before the fire is applied. Thirdly, the +internal fire having nothing to drive it away, acts upon the water, +and heats it to scalding. And, fourthly, the earth, inclusive of the +crassiment of the blood, which had stagnated, and other solid matter +in the locality, become diseased from great heat, and are consequently +decomposed and melted down into matter. Anasarca, or general dropsy, +belongs to the water-class, and is produced by the watery parts of the +blood settling under the skin, and among the muscles, causing the +parts to puff outward. But water is not the sole cause; there is also +a diminution of fire. If fire had been present in due proportions, it +would have dried up the surplus water, as the sun dries up the dew. + +In the hot season, heat from without combines with heat from within, +and produces an unhealthful degree of heat in the body, and causes +disease of the fire-class. In the rainy season too much water is +absorbed into the system, filling intensely the natural vacuum in the +upper part of the head, and produces disease of the water-class. The +earth produces disease through her mists and vapors. Cholera is +supposed to arise from this source. + +They also believe that spirits, good and evil, have great power over +the elements, and have much to do in producing disease. They are +consequently held in continued dread of them, and use every means to +propitiate them. They never start on a journey, or enter a forest +where fevers prevail, without first making an offering to the spirits. + +They believe that medicine has power to counteract the deranged +elements, and restore them to a healthful equilibrium. The origin and +practice of medicine they believe to have been supernatural. Their +medical books declare that the father of medicine was so privileged, +that wherever he went, every individual member of the vegeto-medical +kingdom was sure to summon his attention, and speak out, revealing its +name and medical properties; and since the days of miracles have +passed away, the science is only now to be acquired by following +closely the original medical books. + +They have four classes of medicines, each calculated to counteract the +disturbances caused by each of the four elements. The _modus operandi_ +of each individual class is supposed to be as various as the specific +diseases. For instance, medicine for wind in the head is quite +different, and acts differently from medicine for wind in the bowels. +A sternutatory snuff, a wash for the head, a patch or plaster, may +dispel the wind in the head, whilst it will require a carminative to +allay the storm in the bowels. It is believed that wind of every kind +may not only be expelled from the body by way of the esophagus and +rectum, but also by the pores of the skin, and all the secreting +organs of the body. It may hence be drawn off by suction; as cupping, +poultices, bleeding, and scarification. They also attempt to drive the +surplus wind from one part of the body to another part where it may be +wanting. If the disease arise from a deficiency of wind, they try to +raise an artificial breeze in the system by appropriate medicines. +Giddiness is supposed to arise from a deficiency of wind blowing +upward upon the brain, and the upper part of the skull becomes a +vacuum. They consequently fill the stomach as full as possible with +food, and put the patient to bed, and he will awake quite well. If +there is a want of heat, they produce artificial heat; and if there is +too much, they employ a refrigerating treatment. If there is too much +water, they try to draw it off by drastic cathartics. In all their +treatment they employ opposites. + +Their medicines are derived chiefly from the vegetable kingdom, and +from those kinds too which are indigenous to their own country. Some +few articles are brought from China, and sold by the Chinese +apothecaries. Barks, roots, leaves, chips, fruits, and herbs, +constitute the great bulk of their _materia medica_. They also employ +some articles belonging to the animal kingdom, such as bones, teeth, +sea-shells, fish-skins, snake-skins, snake's galls, urine, birds' +eyes, &c. They have also a few from the mineral kingdom, such as +stones, saltpetre, borax, lead, antimony, sulphate of copper, table +salt, sulphate of magnesia, and rarely mercury. They have a few gums +also, of which aloes and gamboge are the chief. + +But few articles of the vegetable kingdom however, escape enlistment +in the war against disease. They depend more upon great combinations, +than upon the power of a single ingredient, and consequently scores of +kinds, or ingredients, often figure in a single dose. Dr. Bradly says +he has seen one instance in which one hundred and seventy four +ingredients were employed in one prescription, and the whole to be +taken at three doses. The work of preparing medicines is therefore +onerous. Vegetable combinations are used chiefly in a state of +decoction or infusion. They frequently speak of a patient having taken +four or five pots full--a pot holding from two to four quarts. They +knew nothing of tinctures until European physicians came amongst them, +and they are slow to adopt them. + +After such a system, it may readily be supposed that their physicians +are in keeping with it. They are wholly self-taught, or, more +properly, untaught. They have nothing like medical colleges, or a +system of medical discipline. They are like too many in our own +country who rush into the study of medicine without a sufficient +literary or scientific education upon which to base a medical +education, and thus prostitute a noble profession. Without a correct +knowledge of their own language, they read a few of their medical +manuscripts, and start out for a patient, following the manuscript +very closely in their treatment. Should they get a patient who is +pretty sick, and he recover in spite of their treatment, their +reputation is made. The reputation once made seldom wanes, for the +physician's tongue helps him out of a great many scrapes. If he loses +a patient, the spirits or some other insurmountable object have always +been in the way. + +It is seldom however, that a man professes to be a general +practitioner; they turn their attention to specialities. One will be +renowned for fevers, whilst another will have a reputation in cases of +small-pox. The Siamese physicians are held in great esteem by the +people, an esteem but little less than that offered to princes and +nobles, but of a different kind. That given to the latter is a kind of +servile reverence, but the former is a true esteem. They have two +general classes of physicians, viz., the royal physicians and the +people's physicians. The former class are appointed by the King to +practice in the palace, and amongst the princes and nobles, and +receive a small salary from the royal treasury. The latter class are +self-appointed, and receive no regular salary, but depend upon their +fees for their living, and as a general thing make it pay better than +the other class. A common physician of reputation is frequently +promoted to be a royal physician. + +They have also another kind of doctors who profess to cure certain +kinds of diseases by shampooing and manipulating. They are well versed +in the locality of the muscles, tendons, and blood-vessels. They +gently press these points, and when one is tired and weary, it has a +soothing effect, and produces sleep, and in some diseases it may prove +beneficial. I have found it very beneficial at times of great +weariness and lassitude. + +The common physicians are always employed by the job, and always on +the condition, no cure no pay. Sometimes, if the disease is chronic, +and but little hope of recovery, they stipulate to pay a certain sum +in case of an alleviation of the disease, and so much more in case of +a permanent cure. A bargain is always struck by the patient himself, +or by his friends, before the physician takes charge of the case. +Sometimes, if a doctor sees his patient is going to die, and he be the +loser, he will take "French leave" without giving the friends any +notice whatever of his intentions. Generally however a more honorable +course is pursued, and the doctor gives up the patient, and releases +the friends from all obligations, and they are at liberty to call +another doctor. The physician is thus changed frequently, several +times before death or recovery, each new one putting in for a higher +bid. They have also a kind of domestic water treatment, by copious +bathing, which in many cases is far more beneficial than their +nostrums. + +They are also great people for recipes, and many of the temples have +these recipes inscribed by scores upon the walls, and upon little +marble tablets, for the benefit of the poor, and all others who wish +to use them. The king frequently makes merit by having these recipes +thus inscribed. The following one for small-pox, will serve as a +specimen: + +"One portion of conch-shell; two kinds of aperient fruit, one portion +of each; two kinds of sour leaves, one portion of each; one portion of +asafoetida, one of borax, one of ginger, nine kinds of pepper, +including the hottest, a portion of each; four kinds of cooling roots, +a portion of each; one of an astringent root; four kinds of drastic +cathartics, including the fruit and leaves of the croton plant, one +portion of each; one of rhubarb, and one of Epsom salts. Boil in three +measures of water until it be diminished to one measure of the +decoction. Then squeeze out the oily parts, dry, and pulverize. A +woman may take the weight of thirty cents in silver, and a child may +take the weight of seven and one-half cents in silver. It will purge +off everything in the bowels." + +They have as yet little or no confidence in European physicians and +medicines. They however, are obliged to acknowledge their ability as +surgeons, and they are beginning to have confidence in quinine in the +treatment of fevers. They know nothing of anatomy; and consequently +nothing of surgery. They do not pretend to lance even a common boil, +but depend upon opening it with poultices. + +The first amputation was performed in Siam by Dr. Bradly, in 1837. A +company of priests at the dedication of a temple were playing with +fireworks, when a cannon burst, and killed several and wounded many +more. Dr. Bradly offered his professional services, but all the +wounded refused, except two. He amputated the arm of one of them, and +dressed their other wounds, and they soon recovered, but all the +others died. Inoculation for small-pox was introduced by the +missionary physicians in 1838. They found themselves surrounded by the +disease, and being without vaccine virus, they inoculated their own +children as the next best thing that could be done. It acted so well +that the king sent a number of the royal physicians to examine into +it, and learn how it was done. Having learned, he sent them out +through the city to inoculate. + +Vaccination was introduced in 1840, from a scab sent out from Boston +_via_ the Cape of Good Hope. It finally died out, and was again +renewed from time to time. It is now constantly kept up by Dr. +Campbell, a Scotch physician, in connection with the English +Consulate. The natives no longer hesitate to have their children +vaccinated, and it has done much towards staying the ravages of the +small-pox. + +The first operation for cataract was successfully performed by Dr. +Bradly, upon the eyes of a distinguished nobleman and minister of +state. + +They know nothing of obstetrics, and those cases where nature needs to +be assisted, are left to die. Superstition too, has enveloped the +whole afiair in silly and ridiculous notions. Since they believe in +the transmigration of souls, and that the spirits of all persons who +are born have existed in some previous state, their books on midwifery +pretend to teach parents how they may know whence their children came, +and whether the expected stranger will be a boy or girl. There is also +a choice in the day of the week upon which a child is born. Wednesday +and Thursday are particularly favorable for robust constitutions, and +bright intellects. Children born on Sunday, are liable to be careless +and reckless all their lives. + +This business is almost wholly committed to elderly women or midwives. +Male physicians are seldom called in on such occasions, unless the +case requires extraordinary skill, and then they are as ignorant as +the midwives themselves. They always attempt to assist natural labor +by the use of domestic medicines, shampooing, and other manipulations, +and in many instances do positive injury by deranging natural labor. +Facts however, prove that parturition amongst the Siamese is much +shorter and easier than amongst Europeans and Americans. One reason +is, that they have more of the animal in their natures, and doubtless +the kind of dress they wear has much to do with it--their dress being +more in accordance with nature. + +It is after the birth of the child that the Siamese mothers have to +endure torture. It is a custom amongst them, as immutable as the laws +of the Medes and Persians, that the mother after the birth of the +child, must lie by a hot fire from five to thirty days. After the +first child they must remain by the fire about thirty days, but the +time gradually diminishes with every subsequent birth. She is placed +on a hard board, with nothing under her but a thin mat, and no +clothing but a narrow waist-cloth and is thus obliged to lie within +four or five feet of a hot fire. This is generally, too, in a small +room, with no chimney, but the fire is on an open furnace, and the +smoke is allowed to escape as best it can. In such a climate as Siam, +this must be positively injurious, and it certainly makes young +mothers look prematurely old. It is not known whence this custom +originated. It is also practised amongst the Cambodians, Peguans, +Burmese, and Cochin Chinese. + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + +FARMING AND PRODUCTS. + + +The staple of the country is rice. Their farming operations are simple +in the extreme, and as the soil is very fertile, I know of no place +where the husbandman is so abundantly rewarded for so little labor. +Their plough is exactly like that used in Scripture times, and +pictures of which you have doubtless seen in books on biblical +antiquities. It consists simply of a crooked stick, answering for beam +and handle, to which a sheath is attached, to the end of which a small +shovel is affixed. It has but one handle, and is difficult to hold, +and hence from the same kind of an instrument we have the Scripture +illustration, "No man having put his hand to the plough and looking +back, is fit for the kingdom of heaven." To this plough they attach a +couple of oxen, or Indian buffaloes, and when sufficient rain has +fallen to soften the ground a little, they scratch it over with their +little plough. When sufficient rain has fallen to turn the ground into +a perfect mortar, they stir it up again, and sow the rice upon the +mud. This they sometimes harrow over with a brush or rude wooden +harrow. About this time the water in the rivers begins to overflow the +banks, and gradually overflows the rice fields to the depth of three +or four feet. The rice however, manages to grow, and keep head above +water, and so long as it can do this it is all right. The water keeps +up until the rice is out in heads, and then it begins to subside until +harvest, when the ground is generally quite dry. I have rode in my +boat for a whole day, directly over the rice fields, when the rice was +coming out in heads, and found the water in many places four feet +deep, but the heads of the rice were waving in the wind majestically +above it. The best quality of rice is raised by transplanting. The +ground is prepared the same as before, but instead of sowing +broadcast, they take the rice plants, and place them in the soft mud +with the hand. This work is generally done by women and children, and +they do it very dextrously, placing the plant in the mud with the +thumb and finger almost as fast as they can walk. It is put down in +rows, about two or three inches apart. This is the same kind of rice +as the other, only the grains are fuller and better, and it commands a +better price in market. + +After planting his rice the farmer has little or nothing to do until +his crop begins to ripen, when all hands have to turn out to drive off +the birds. There are immense flocks of a diminutive little bird, with +gray and red wings, and about the size of a canary, and sings almost +as sweetly. They are beautiful little creatures, but great +rice-eaters, and would soon destroy a whole crop if not driven away. +Men, women and children have all to turn out to guard off these, and +other rice-eating birds, until the harvest is gathered. + +The rice crop is harvested about the first of January, with a kind of +primitive sickle, and bound into small sheaves. It is then collected +by means of a nondescript ox-cart into one place, where they intend to +thresh it. The threshing floor is levelled off on the ground, as in +Scripture times, and a bamboo pole is set up in the centre, upon the +top of which a few heads of the best rice have been tied, as a kind of +first fruit-offering to the spirits. The sheaves are then placed +around in a circle, and a number of oxen are driven around abreast +upon it. When threshed, the rice is collected into a heap and winnowed +with a large fan. The threshing is frequently done at night, and I +have seen the banks of some of the rivers illuminated for miles with +fires around the threshing floors. The crops are generally abundant, +and the labors of the husbandman abundantly rewarded. + +The native mills for hulling the rice are small basket affairs turned +by band, but there are now in operation four steam rice-mills, built +and owned by Europeans, and which clean on an average about four +thousand piculs of cargo rice daily. + +Bangkok is one of the greatest rice ports in the world, and vast +quantities are shipped every year to China, Europe, California and +other places. + +Cotton grows well, and the quality is good, but is not raised in any +quantities. A few Hainan Chinese have located up the country, and are +raising cotton, but all they raise is shipped in junks to the island +of Hainan. + +Some little Indian corn is raised, but not as a business; it is +generally used when soft. Vegetables of various kinds are also raised +in considerable quantities, such as sweet potatoes, turnips, cabbage, +beans, peas, cucumbers, squashes and egg-plants. + +All tropical fruits are also abundant, such as oranges in great +variety, shaddocks, plantains, mangos, mango-stines, jack-fruit and +bread-fruit. The king of fruits to the natives however, is the +_durien_, a large fruit about the size of a man's head, with a prickly +shell. Inside the shell there are a number of lobes, each having a +large seed, surrounded with a white pulpy substance, resembling +custard highly flavored with garlic. To most Europeans the smell of +the fruit is very offensive, resembling that of a spoiled egg. When a +boat load of the fruit is passing up the river, even before the shell +is broken, it can be smelled at a great distance. Strange to say +however, after a few contacts most Europeans become extremely fond of +the fruit, notwithstanding the smell. It is however, like most +acquired tastes, the end gained scarcely justifies the effort in +obtaining it. + +The palm is there also in considerable variety. The palmyra, the +cocoanut, the nypa, the date, and the areca palms, all figure to some +extent. + +Amongst the woods the teak is most valued for ship building, and +quantities of it are shipped every year to China and Europe for that +purpose. Rosewood is also abundant, and a variety of other red woods. +Sapan wood is largely exported to China for dyeing purposes. + +There is scarcely anything so generally used and so universally prized +as the _bamboo_. It grows in clumps to the height of about +seventy-five feet; and when full grown is about six or eight inches in +diameter at the butt. It also grows in joints, and is hollow except at +the joint. The houses of the poorer classes are all built of this. +Their baskets, boxes, buckets, boat covers, and nearly all the +utensils used by the poorer classes, are made of it. It is to all +appearances a _"sine qua non"_ in the country. + +Their domestic animals are few. The ox and the Indian buffalo are +prized for farming purposes. Fowls and ducks are raised in great +quantities, but by the Siamese only for the eggs; the Chinese however, +eat large quantities of them. The ducks have lost the instinct of +incubation, and the eggs are hatched by artificial means. Pariah dogs +are there in great numbers, and many of them without any owners, and +they frequently render night hideous by their howling. + +Amongst the ferocious animals the tiger is chief; both the Bengal and +leopard species are found in numbers in the jungles. The fox, wolf, +and a small species of bear, are also found. + +Monkeys in great variety are there, and in passing up the rivers and +along the canals they can be seen in large droves perched upon the +trees, cutting up their antics apparently for the benefit of the +passer by. Several species of deer, and wild hogs, abound in the +jungles. Jungle-fowls, pea-fowls, and a vast variety of other birds +abound, so that an expert sportsman can find plenty to do for his gun. + +About thirty species of venomous serpents are known to the natives, +about one half of which are considered very poisonous. A few inflict +deadly wounds with their tails. One of the most venomous is five or +six feet long, and has the power of reflecting prismatic colors. The +cobra, or hooded serpent, is abundant. The boa constrictor is also +common, but does little harm except rob hen-roosts at night. The +writer has frequently been obliged to arise at night to relieve his +hen-roost from their attacks, and he has seen them, when killed, +measuring twelve and fifteen feet long. The natives tell marvellous +stories about those found in the forests, forty and fifty feet long, +and which can crush and swallow a deer, or an ox, without any +difficulty. Vast numbers of harmless little lizards are constantly +sporting upon the walls of your house and bed-room. The most noted is +the "gecho," a large dragon-headed lizard, about six or eight inches +long, called by the Siamese _"To-kay."_ He secretes himself during the +day, but comes out on the walls at night in search of moschetos and +other things for food. He is a fierce-looking fellow, and most +Europeans at first sight are terribly afraid of him. Shortly after our +arrival in the country, one evening when we were about to retire, we +discovered something, presenting rather a ferocious appearance, in the +corner of the bed-room near the ceiling. My wife could not think of +retiring with such a creature so near the bed, so I got a long bamboo +pole and called in a native man to assist, and after a considerable +contest we succeeded in worsting him. They have also a tremendous +voice, and at night will often keep you awake by hollowing "To-kay, +To-kay," from some secret corner of your bed-room. We once lived in a +part of a house, the other half of which was occupied by another +mission family. There was a large "To-kay" which had been about the +house for some time, and was quite a pet with the other family, and +they would not allow him to be disturbed. In the evening, however, +just when our baby would get to sleep, he would come out and commence +his hollowing and wake her up again. One afternoon when the other +family were out, he came out on the porch, or veranda, and commenced +hollowing lustily, and I loaded my shot gun and brought him down. +This, and the one already alluded to, are the only encounters I have +ever had with the "To-kays." + +An American gentleman who was traveling around the world, once stopped +with us. He arrived from the ship about 9 o'clock in the evening. He +was scarcely in the house until a To-kay commenced hollowing, +apparently for his edification. The gentleman looked up in +consternation, exclaiming, "What's that--a billy-goat?" + + + + +CHAPTER X. + +MODE OF DIVIDING TIME. + + +The twenty-fours of the day are divided into two equal parts. The day +is called _Wán_, and the night _Kún_. The former begins at 6 A.M., +and the latter at 6 P.M. The hours of the forenoon are numbered from +one up to six, or mid-day. The hours of the afternoon are numbered in +the same way. The forenoon is called _Pëla Chow_, and the afternoon +_Pëla Bai_. The word denoting an hour of the day is _Mong_, and that +denoting an hour of the night is _Toom_. In expressing 9 o'clock, +A.M., they would say, _"Sam Mong Chow,"_ or the third hour of the +morning. Three o'clock, P.M., they would say, _"Sam Mong Bai,"_ or the +third hour of the afternoon. Nine o'clock in the evening, they would +say _"Sam Toom."_ + +Siamese months are lunar months, but often vary from the moon, a day +or two. Each month is divided into two parts, the _waxing_ and +_waning_ moon. The former has always fifteen days, but the latter has +sometimes fifteen and sometimes fourteen. Six of their months have +thirty days, and six twenty-nine days, making three hundred and +fifty-four days to the year, which lacks eleven days of a full solar +year. To compensate this deficiency, they have an intercalary month of +thirty days, every two or three years. There is still however, a +deficiency of about three days in nineteen years, which is supplied by +adding a day to the seventh month from time to time, whenever the +astrologers may think proper. + +They have no word to denote a week of time, but each day has its +appropriate name and number, commencing at Sunday and ending at +Saturday. By the recurrence of the first and seventh days, they are +reminded that seven days of time have elapsed. + +The days of the week are: + +1st. Wan Atit, (day of the sun,) Sunday. 2d. Wan Chan, (day of the +moon,) Monday. 3d. Wan Angkan, (day of Mars,) Tuesday. 4th. Wan Póot, +(day of Mercury,) Wednesday. 5th. Wan Prahat, (day of Jupiter,) +Thursday. 6th. Wan Sook, (day of Venus,) Friday. 7th. Wan Sów, (day +of Saturn,) Saturday. + +Their months are numbered from one up to twelve, and have no +particular names, but are designated by their numbers. The first and +second months, it is true, are called by names, but their names have +the same meaning as their numbers. + +They have two cycles, one within the other. The greater cycle is +twelve, the smaller ten. The former is called _Pee_, their common name +for year, and the latter is called _Sok_. Every year of each kind of +cycles has its own specific name. + +The years of the cycle of twelve are: + +1st. Pee Chóoat, _year of the Rat._ 2d. Pee Cháloo, _year of the +Cow._ 3d. Pee Kán, _year of the Tiger._ 4th. Pee Taw, _year of the +Rabbit._ 5th. Pee Marong, _year of the Great Dragon._ 6th. Pee Maseng, +_year of the Small Dragon._ 7th. Pee Mameea, _year of the Horse._ 8th. +Pee Mamaa, _year of the Goat._ 9th. Pee Wawk, _year of the Monkey._ +10th. Pee Raka, _year of the Cock._ 11th. Pee Chaw, _year of the Dog._ +12th. Pee Koon, _year of the Hog._ + +The years of the cycle of ten are: + +Eka Sók, 1st. _cycle._ To Sok, 2d. _cycle._ Tree Sok, 3d. _cycle._ +Chattawa Sok, 4th. _cycle._ Benya Sok, 5th. _cycle._ Chaw Sok, 6th. +_cycle._ Sapta Sok, 7th. _cycle._ Atta Sok, 8th. _cycle._ Woppa Sok, +9th. _cycle._ Samretti Sok, 10th. _cycle._ + +In writing the number of their era, they mention the name of each +cycle, as it happens to be. For instance, January 1870, would be 1231 +_Pee Maseng Eka Sok_, year of the _small dragon_, 1st of the cycle of +10, and 1231 of the civil era. The Siamese sacred era is reckoned from +the time of Budha's supposed death, which, on the full moon of May +1870, was 2413 years. This era is only used in religious matters. The +civil era is reckoned from the time that _Pra Rooang_, a Siamese king +of great celebrity, established it, and on March 27, 1870, was 1231 +full years. + +Although the Brahmin astrologers manage to calculate eclipses with +considerable accuracy, the great mass of the Siamese are wholly +ignorant of their true cause. They attribute them to _Rahú_, a +terrible monster who threatens to devour the sun and moon. When they +see an eclipse of any kind coming on, they commence firing guns, +beating gongs and tin-pans, and shouting, to frighten away _Rahú_. +The late king however, studied astronomy, and could calculate eclipses +in the European way, and did much to dispel the ignorance of his +subjects in regard to such matters. + + + + +CHAPTER XI. + +MISSIONARY OPERATIONS. + + +It would be unjust to close without at least some reference to the +efforts of missionaries to evangelize Siam, It is also just to state +that there is scarcely any other field, in which modern missions have +been established, where the introduction of the gospel has met with so +little opposition as in Siam proper, and especially during the late +reign, and so far during the present. It is equally just to say that +there is scarcely any other field which has been so barren of results. +Pure Budhism appears to yield more slowly to the power of the gospel +than any other false system. Even Brahminism itself yields more +rapidly. The Siamese have the utmost confidence in the strength of +their own religion to withstand the power of the gospel, and hence +that stolid indifference which they manifest to the introduction of +the gospel amongst them. A nobleman high in rank, once playfully +remarked to a missionary, "Do you expect, with your little chisel, to +remove this great mountain?" + +To the Rev. W. H. Medhurst belongs the honor of projecting the first +Protestant mission in Siam. As early as 1827 he proposed to visit Siam +and some of the neighboring kingdoms, but never was able to accomplish +his designs. The Rev. Charles Gutzlaff and Rev. Jacob Tomlin arrived +in Siam, August 23d, 1828, on a Chinese junk. They obtained liberty to +remain in Bangkok, and labor amongst the Chinese, but through the +influence, of the Jesuit missionaries they were afterwards threatened +with expulsion from the country. The Portuguese consul, Signior Carlos +de Silveira, the only resident consul in Siam at that time, interested +himself in their behalf, and partly through his influence they were +allowed to remain. They were out constantly talking to the Chinese, +and distributing books, which soon excited the suspicions of the +Siamese, that the missionaries were endeavoring to incite the Chinese +to rebellion. The King ordered some of their books to be examined, and +when nothing objectionable was found in them, they were allowed to +proceed. It is believed however that a secret edict was issued, +forbidding the people to receive the books. The only English merchant +then in the country was quietly requested to take the missionaries +away in one of his ships. They however demanded of the Minister of +Foreign Affairs the cause of such a step, and claimed equal rights +with the Roman Catholic missionaries, who were allowed to pursue their +labors without molestation. This appeal brought the Minister to terms, +and they were allowed to remain. They studied to some extent the +Siamese language, and endeavored to translate portions of the +Scriptures into that language, which was of course labor lost, as they +had only been in the country about six months, and it was impossible +that they could have acquired the Siamese sufficiently to do anything +at translating. + +Mr. Tomlin's health had now failed to some extent, and he left for +Singapore. Mr. Gutzlaff remained a short time, and also left for a +time. During his absence he married Miss Maria Newell, an English lady +then residing at Malacca, and then returned with his wife to Bangkok. +They were there however, but little over a year when Mrs. Gutzlaff +died, and Mr. Gutzlaff becoming discouraged, took passage to China on +a junk. Messrs. Gutzlaff and Tomlin however had visited Siam wholly on +their own responsibility, and perhaps never intended to remain +permanently. + +The Prudential Committee of the American Board, upon the solicitation +of Messrs. Gutzlaff and Tomlin, sent the Rev. David Abeel, then in +Canton, to Siam to make arrangements for establishing a mission there. +Mr. Abeel on his way met with Mr. Tomlin, and the two together +proceeded to Bangkok, and arrived there in June, 1831. They found the +people still eager for books, and soon established a place for public +worship and the distribution of books. Mr. Abeel however, was soon +brought down by a fever, and when sufficiently recovered to do so, he +and Mr. Tomlin both returned to Singapore. Mr. Abeel's health being +recruited, he embarked again alone for Bangkok on a Chinese junk. He +prosecuted his labors for about six months more, but in consequence of +continued ill health he was obliged to leave for good. + +In 1832 the Rev. Messrs. Stephen Johnston and Charles Robinson were +appointed by the American Board for Siam, but before they arrived, and +even before Mr. Abeel left, the Baptist mission in Burmah transferred +the Rev. J. T. Jones to Bangkok. Mr. Jones was permitted to reap the +fruits of some of the seed sown by those who preceded him, and a small +Chinese church was organized by him, which is still in existence, and +is now under the pastoral care of the Rev. William Dean, D. D. Messrs. +Johnston and Robinson, already alluded to, arrived in Bangkok, July +25th, 1834. They were kindly received by the Minister of Foreign +Affairs, and soon after arrival secured a lot of ground and proceeded +to build upon it. Thus was finally established in Siam the mission of +the American Board, which, after several years of labor, was +eventually removed to China. + +The Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions in 1840 sent out the Rev. +W. P. Buell and his wife to Siam. Mr. Buell however, had scarcely +acquired the language sufficiently well to become useful, when he was +obliged to return to the United States on account of Mrs. Buell's +health. In 1841 that Board sent out the Rev. Stephen Mattoon and wife, +and the Rev. S. R. House, M. D. By the time they arrived the king then +upon the throne had become tired of not only missionaries, but all +foreigners, and had determined upon an exclusive policy. He refused to +make commercial treaties with western powers, or to open up the +country any more to commerce. Sir James Brook, the English ambassador, +received what he considered an insult to his nation, and left with the +intention of returning, prepared to open up the country by force. Our +missionaries in consequence of this determination of the King, were +unable to secure a site for the mission, or any foothold whatever. +They were not flatly refused, but were baffled, according to Siamese +custom, with trifling excuses and postponements, so that they became +discouraged, and were upon the eve of leaving the country to seek some +other, where they might find an opening. At this juncture the King was +providentially removed by death, and the now late King ascended the +throne. He was a prince who had imbibed more liberal views in regard +to foreigners, and he immediately opened up the country to foreign +commerce, and our missionaries were permitted to secure a location. + +It may also be stated here, that to the missionaries belongs the honor +of opening up the country, although many will doubtless deny them this +just due. The late King, whilst a priest in a monastery, studied the +English language with some of the missionaries, and especially with +the Rev. J. Caswell. He also studied astronomy, and some other +branches in which he made commendable proficiency. He also imbibed +from them more liberal views in regard to western nations, and +consequently as soon as he ascended the throne he was prepared to +treat with them; and that which in many other countries had to be done +by gunpowder, was in this instance accomplished by missionary effort. + +The present Regent once in the presence of the writer, whilst +conversing with an American, George F. Seward, Esq., United States +Consul-General to Shanghae, shrewdly remarked that "Siam had not been +disciplined by English and French guns as China, but the country had +been opened by missionaries." + +The late King always entertained the highest regard for his +instructor, the Rev. J. Caswell, and besides building a tomb over his +grave, presented his widow with $1,500 as a token of his regard. + +The Presbyterian Board has now six missionaries with their families in +Siam proper, and two amongst the Laos, a tributary kingdom to the +north. They are distributed as follows:-- Messrs. House, McDonald, +George, and Carrington, in Bangkok; Messrs. McFarland and Van Dyke in +Petchaburi; and Messrs. McGilvary and Wilson amongst the Laos. The +American Baptist Union has also a mission to the Chinese in Siam. The +missionaries are. Rev. William Dean, D. D., and Rev. S. B. Partridge, +with their wives, and the Misses F. A. Dean and A. M. Fielde, single +ladies. The Rev. D. B. Bradly, M. D., was originally sent out by the +American Board, but is now in nominal connection with the American +Missionary Association, but is wholly self-sustaining, receiving no +support from any Board. Besides supporting his family, he preaches +regularly and does other mission work. The Rev. S. J. Smith was +formerly in connection with the American Baptist Union, but has +dissolved his connection with that Board, and is now self-sustaining, +and also does much missionary work. This is our force for at least +eight millions of people. + +When the writer arrived in Siam ten years ago, there was but one +native convert in connection with the Presbyterian mission church. We +have now at Bangkok a church numbering about twenty members; also one +at Petchaburi with about the same membership. We have also a school in +connection with our mission which averages about twenty five pupils. +This school has not met the expectations of those who have had charge +of it, but there is no reason to be discouraged at the results. Whilst +many of the pupils have gone back to heathenism, and others have +turned out badly, a goodly number are exemplary Christians, and some +are looking forward to the ministry, and hope some day to preach the +gospel to their countrymen. + +Ten years ago we had the Gospels alone of the Scriptures translated; +we have now the whole New Testament. Many portions of it, especially +the Epistles, need revising, still it answers the purpose. We have +also the Old Testament translated as far as through Joshua, and also +the prophecy of Ezekiel, and minor prophets. Our mission hopes soon to +be able to give the people the entire Scriptures in their own +language. Our printing press is constantly at work printing the +Scriptures and religious tracts. + +It has also been the duty of the writer, shortly before leaving the +country, to visit the scene of the last persecution (if we except the +late troubles in China) which the history of the church has to record. +North of Siam proper, there are a number of petty Laos kingdoms, all +of which are in a certain sense tributary to Siam. They pay a small +annual tribute, and the King of Siam claims the prerogative of +nominating the successor to the throne when a vacancy occurs, but +aside from this each of those kings is absolute in his own dominions. +The largest of those kingdoms is Chieng Mai, and the capital city of +the same name is situated in latitude 18° 48' north, or about five +degees north of Bangkok. About three years ago two of our +missionaries, Rev. Messrs. McGilvary and Wilson, having previously +made a visit to that kingdom, determined to establish a mission there. +They obtained permission from the King, and also from the Siamese +government, and with great difficulty and self-denial removed their +families thither, following the river all the way up over the +thirty-two rapids. Their goods at the rapids had to be taken from the +boats and carried around, whilst the boats had to be drawn up with +ropes. The whole journey occupied some three months, a much longer +time than it now takes to come to the United States. + +At first they were kindly received by the King, but gradually his +friendship began to cool down. This they attributed to the influence +of a mongrel Portuguese whom the King had taken into his employ, and +who was a Roman Catholic, and looked upon the missionaries as his +enemies. After his departure the King again became more friendly. Some +two years after their arrival they were permitted to baptize two Laos +Christians, and not long afterwards five others were received. This +appeared to arouse the wrath of the King, and before the missionaries +were aware of it, he had arrested and executed two of the Christians, +and warrants were issued for the other five, but they managed to +escape arrest. The two who were executed were faithful witnesses for +the truth, and died as courageously and as triumphantly for the faith, +as any in that long list of martyrs which the history of the Church +has to record. We find here amongst the mountaineer Laos, men who but +a short time before had embraced Christ,--infants as it were, but a +span long in faith,--sealing their faith with their blood. Had we no +other fruits of our long labors in Siam than this glorious conversion, +and still more glorious death of those mountaineer Laos, that alone +will more than a thousand times repay all the expenditure of men and +money upon that kingdom. + +The missionaries were not aware of the execution of the Christians at +the time, but soon discovered that servants and all those in +connection with them were leaving, and upon inquiring the cause +learned with difficulty what had happened, and that the others were +leaving through fear of the King. Most of the princes of the kingdom, +and apparently all the people, were indignant at the conduct of the +King, but such was the fear of him that no one durst scarcely whisper +a word, lest it might come to his ears, and their head pay the penalty +of their rashness. He ruled with a rod of iron. The slightest theft, +and continual drunkenness, were punished with death; and I must say, I +know of no country where property is so secure from theft as in Chieng +Mai. + +Such however, was the known treachery of the King, and such the many +stories afloat, that the missionaries supposed their own lives in +danger. They tried to communicate with the mission at Bangkok, but +such was the fear of the King that they could get no one to carry a +letter, although they offered at one time as high as five hundred +rupees ($225) to any one who would carry a letter to Bangkok. +Fortunately however, a Burmese came along who was a native of British +Burmah, and an English subject, and who offered to carry the letter +for nothing. When we at Bangkok heard the news, we did not know but +that they and their families might be murdered; we however deemed it +our duty to make some effort to communicate with them. We accordingly +sent a committee to wait upon the Regent of Siam, who, after +expressing his indignation at what had happened, kindly offered a _"Ka +HLuáng,"_ or government officer, to accompany any one of us who might +wish to go up, who should be the bearer of a letter to the King of +Chieng Mai, and who should also be a safe conduct to us. The officer +had power to levy on provincial towns along the way such provisions +and other things as we needed, and had also power to chastise +delinquent governors who were slow to comply with our demands. It fell +to the lot of the writer, in company with the Rev. S. C. George, to go +on this important and rather dangerous errand. The letter from the +Siamese government only ordered the King of Chieng Mai to allow the +missionaries to remain peaceably, if they wished to, and if they +desired to leave, to offer them every facility in his power to do so, +and by no means to offer them any personal violence, as that would +involve the Siamese government in difficulty with the United States +government. + +After storing our boat with a few necessaries which could not be +secured by the way, and shipping a crew of six good boatmen, we turned +her bow toward the north. The Siamese officer with his boats was to +follow on in a day or two, expecting to overtake us ere we reached +Raheng. We rowed by day, and a few hours by night when the moon was +favorable, and when bedtime came, tied our boat up to the bank and +slept till morning. After taking our morning meal of rice we were off +again. We thus journeyed for ten days, passing the provincial towns of +_Aungtawng_, _Chinat_, _Monorom_, &c., all of which provinces have +governors. + +There is nothing striking in the country or scenery on this portion of +the route. The banks of the river are low and the scenery rather +monotonous. The tenth day brought us to Nakawn Sawán, a provincial +town at the junction of the two principal branches of the river. Here +the novelty of the trip (if there be any novelty in it) was to +commence. Our course lay rather northwest, and the current in the +branch of the river which we were to take became very rapid, so that +our oars which had hitherto served us a good purpose refused to serve +us further. We had now to resort to poling. We had however, prepared +ourselves somewhat for the emergency, and had secured several bamboo +poles about fifteen feet long, in the butt ends of which were short +iron forks. A man with one of these poles walked to the bow of the +boat, and placing the end of the pole containing the fork firmly upon +the bottom, he placed his shoulder to the other end and walked to the +stern. Another was ready to take his place, and thus they kept the +boat constantly moving. It required great dexterity however on the +part of the steersman to keep the bow of the boat to the current, and +thus be enabled to stem it. So soon as he allowed the bow to turn the +least to the current, the poles would lose their hold, and we were set +adrift, and in a few minutes would lose what we would make in an hour, +and besides it was dangerous, as the river was full of snags. The +river here spreads out over a sandy bottom, and many places where it +was tolerably shallow it presented the appearance of a boiling +chaldron. The bottom too, was treacherous; on one side of the boat we +would be against a sand-bar, whilst on the other our poles would not +touch bottom. The receding waters too, at that season of the year, +left huge sand-bars running out from either bank to a point in the +middle of the stream, and also numerous little sand-islands. Some +portions of the route were solitary in the extreme, and in the morning +we were aroused by the crowing of the jungle-fowl, and the scream of +the peacock. In ten days more of poling, making in all about +twenty-one from Bangkok, we reached Raheng, the last Siamese +provincial town on the Laos borders. Here it was determined to leave +our boats and take elephants across the country to Chieng Mai. We +accordingly levied upon the Governor a sufficient number of elephants, +and an escort of men to see us through the jungle. After some little +delay our elephants were reported ready. The Governor of Raheng also, +as a special favor, allowed his Lieutenant-Governor, a fine young +nobleman, acquainted with the route, to accompany us in addition to +the principal officer who had accompanied us from Bangkok. Our +elephants were brought up each with a saddle, or _howdah_, on his +back. A frame is made not unlike a wood-horse, on the top of which a +seat is made about four feet long, like a buggie seat, and over which +a basket cover is placed to shield the rider from the sun, and the +whole, when on the elephant, resembles somewhat the top of a calash +buggie. Raw hides are placed on the back of the elephant to keep it +from chafing, and the saddle is then girthed on with a strong ratan +rope. A cushion is placed in the seat, so that the rider, for a +change, can lie down. The Siamese often sleep whilst the elephant is +going, but we preferred to sit upright. You mount by means of a high +block, or stand, but in the absence of this the elephant is taught to +hold up his front leg, and his knee forms a step by means of which the +rider can climb up. The driver sits astride the neck, in front of the +saddle, with a short stick in his hand, on the end of which is a sharp +iron hook, and when the animal becomes unruly he drives this hook +unmercifully into his flesh, which soon brings him to his senses. +Oftentimes one or two of the natives would crawl on behind to ride, +for a rest. An elephant can carry four persons and a considerable +amount of baggage with ease. + +We started with our train of elephants single file. The man ahead +carried a huge gong, which he beat for a halt in the evening, and for +starting in the morning, and when approaching a town or village, to +let the people know that a great personage was coming. Our course lay +directly through the forest and jungle, and over the mountains. About +4 P. M. of the first day we encamped at the foot of a mountain spur, +where there was a pool of water. The elephants were unloaded, +fettered, and turned out to browse. As we had no tent along, our +saddles were placed around in a circle, and a fire was kindled in the +middle. Watch fires were also lighted around outside. After cooking +our rice, and taking our suppers, we retired to rest. As many as +could, slept in the saddles, and the others threw themselves down on +the ground, with a single blanket around them. A watch was also +appointed to keep up fires, and guard against tigers and robbers. +Elephant-stealing is common there, just as horse-stealing is with us +sometimes. About the middle of the first night we were aroused by the +elephants beating the ground with their trunks, which they always do +when alarmed, and the watch cried out, _"súa, súa!"_ a tiger, a +tiger! The tiger however, seeing our fires and watch, considered +discretion the best part of valor, and made off. In the morning we +were up early, and had our rice eaten and were ready to start by +daylight. Owing to the difficulty in carrying many utensils and much +provisions on elephants, the two noblemen and us usually took our +meals together. It was amusing to see us with our knives and forks, +and they with their fingers, all dipping into the same dish. On one +occasion I was considerably provoked at the chief man. At a certain +Laos town they brought us victuals already cooked, but the fowls +prepared after their style were not suitable to our taste. The +Lieutenant-Governor of Raheng, who was ever more mindful of our wants +than the headman, requested that some live fowls should be brought in, +that we might have them cooked to our taste. The fowls soon came, and +were delivered over to the chief man, who not knowing that they had +been particularly requested, came to us saying, "Doctors, this is our +sacred day, and if you don't object, I will let these fowls go, and +make merit by saving their lives." I was about to object, but my +companion, ever ready, quickly responded, _"ou tert, ou tert,"_ take +them, take them. I was determined however, not to be done out of a +fowl in that style, so I gave my shot-gun to one of my men, and he +went out and shot one. Our cook fixed it up nicely, and when we came +to eat, before I could get a piece, for myself, the chief man was into +it with his fingers, and had like to have spoiled the whole. + +We crossed deep ravines, wound around precipices, which to look down +would make the hair stand on the head, and went over mountains where +one unaccustomed to it would say an elephant could never go. He is +however, sure-footed, and when he once plants his foot, which he does +with great deliberation, it is there. I once remarked to the driver, +is there no danger of him falling? The reply was, "He knows better +than to fall, for if he does, he gets killed." We went down one or two +declivities where I would fain have dismounted, could I have done so, +but it was impossible. The driver spoke to his elephant, saying, +"slowly." He placed first one fore-foot forward, and then the other by +its side firmly. The driver then said "drag," and he threw his hind +parts down on the ground, and drew them up to the fore-feet, and then +held on until he could again plant the fore-feet, and in this way the +whole train passed down. + +Sometimes, too, our course lay across vast plains of rice-fields. The +rice had been harvested and threshed, and they were busied in carrying +it to the villages. Trains of elephants, with baskets holding ten or +twelve bushels on their backs, were walking along majestically with +their loads. Long trains of bullocks were also employed for this +purpose. Two baskets were fastened on a frame, and thrown across the +back like a pair of saddle-bags. The front bullock was fantastically +dressed up with a mask, and a huge peacock tail in it, and numerous +strings of little bells resembling sleigh-bells. He had also a driver, +and all the rest followed after without any drivers. On the afternoon +of the thirteenth day, the spires of the city of Chieng Mai began to +loom up in the distance, and about 5 o'clock P. M. we entered the city +with gong beating lustily. Our approach had been heralded ahead, and +the King had his officers waiting to receive us. Our missionary +brethren, whom we found well, but rather depressed in spirits, also +came to meet us with open arms. The next day the letter of the Regent +of Siam was to be conducted to the palace, under the royal umbrella, +and we, of course, were to accompany it. Before starting, the +missionaries held a consultation, and it was deemed best not to cover +anything over, which might break out again, as soon as we were gone. +It was thought expedient to bring matters to a focus, and then abide +the consequences. We found the old King in his audience hall, +surrounded by his court, who were prostrate before him. He appeared +pale, with suppressed rage. After the reading of the Siamese letter, +he remarked that "This letter only gives the missionaries privilege to +remain, if they wish--or to go, if they wish." This opened the way, +and I went on to state, that some three years ago the missionaries had +come up there with his consent, and we might say with his invitation, +and also with the consent of the Siamese government. They were at +first kindly received by him, and he showed them many kindnesses, for +which he deserved praise, and for which they had praised him. But +latterly, things were not going on so well, and circumstances had +transpired which justified them in writing to their friends at +Bangkok. They were now ready to commence building suitable houses to +live in, but could get no workmen, as the people were all afraid to +work for them; and the reason was, that he had taken two, in +connection with them, and put them to death. This did not appear to +ruffle him, and he replied, that as to workmen and servants he had +never put anything in the way. He had put a couple of fellows to +death, who had failed to do their government work. It appears that an +order had been issued to a certain number of men, for each to bring a +stick of timber to repair the city wall. The order had been issued +some two days previous, and when the two Christians were on their way +to get the timber, they were arrested and executed. The pretext given +for their arrest was that they had failed to comply with the King's +command. Mr. McGilvary then proved to him most clearly, that they had +in no way failed to perform their government work; and that when they +were executed, not one out of fifty of those who had received the +order had complied with it. When he saw he could not lie out of it, he +fairly boiled over with rage. So great was his anger that I at one +time feared that it might become so uncontrollable that he might break +over all restraints, and do us some personal injury. The highest +prince in the kingdom would not have dared to say the one hundredth +part of what we did, without losing his head. And then to be +contradicted and proven a liar, before his court, was hard to bear. He +said he had executed them because they had embraced the Christian +religion, and he would continue to kill all who did the same. The +missionaries might remain, in accordance with the command of the +Siamese government, but could not teach religion--they could not make +Christians. The Siamese officer was also alarmed for our safety. After +a consultation it was considered expedient to break up the mission for +a time, and we sent in word that the missionaries would leave as soon +as the river would rise sufficiently for the larger class of boats to +pass down, hoping, however, that Providence would so interfere in the +meantime as to prevent the breaking up of the mission. He has most +wonderfully interfered. When we left, the King was preparing to come +down to Bangkok, to attend the cremation of the late king of Siam. +Whilst at Bangkok the United States Consul-General, F. W. Partridge, +demanded of the Siamese government that they would make the King of +Chieng Mai conduct himself more properly, and grant religious +toleration. They doubtless gave him such orders, but he secretly told +some one that when he returned, the missionaries would have to leave, +according to promise. He however, took suddenly sick, and left Bangkok +in haste, but was never permitted to enter again his own capital. He +died on his way home, and according to Laos custom, no corpse is +permitted to enter the city, and his remains are now lying in state in +his river palace outside the city walls. He was apparently the only +obstacle to the spread of the Gospel amongst that people. The Laos are +a hardy mountaineer people, with much more stamina of character than +the Siamese, and free from many of their vices. I know of no more +interesting missionary field than Chieng Mai. They also appear to be +ready for some more substantial religion than Budhism. + +After spending ten days in Chieng Mai we began to think of returning +home. The letter of the chief Siamese officer required that he should +return by elephants, as he had come, but we were anxious to follow the +river down, in order that we might pass over the thirty-two rapids, or +falls, and witness the scenery on the way. To this the King gave his +consent if we would secure boats, and he would then send a letter +ahead to have us sent from village to village along the way, and would +give us pilots to take us over the rapids. We accordingly secured +three boats, each about thirty feet long and two feet beam, propelled +by two short oars, and steered with a long paddle fastened to the +stern with a ratan rope. These boats are peculiarly adapted for +shooting over the rapids. We divided our party, the chief man +returning on elephants, whilst the Lieutenant-Governor of Raheng, and +a number of the men, accompanied us. After some little delay we got +started, and things went on pretty well for part of the first day. Men +were waiting on the bank at every village, to send us on to the next. +Soon however, we got ahead of the King's letter, which had started the +previous day. Rather than wait on men, we put our own men to the oars, +and passed the villages by. Nothing of importance transpired for the +first five days. Occasionally we would run on a sand-bar, and our men +would have to get out and push the boats off. Sometimes a company of +men and women would come down to the river to bathe. The Siamese never +bathe without a waist-cloth around them, but the Laos go into the +water perfectly nude, yet it is done with such dexterity, that nothing +amiss can be seen in it, although both sexes bathe together. The Laos +women wear a garment resembling a lady's skirt, but very narrow. They +step into the water, gradually raising the garment, until the water +becomes sufficiently deep to cover their nakedness, and then they slip +the garment over the head, and lay it aside. When they are ready to +come out, they again practise the same dexterity in putting it on. +Nothing is thought of such a scene amongst them, and it does not call +forth such expressions of vulgarity as a similar scene would amongst +us. + +At one time we came near falling into the hands of what we supposed to +be a band of robbers. In a solitary bend of the river, some twenty +persons were stationed, some with flintlock muskets, and others with +short swords. They beckoned to our men to stop, as if they had +business, but our men, suspecting their character, gave them a wide +birth, and we put our guns in order, determined to die hard should +they make an attack. Fortunately there were no sand-bars in the river, +and we shot rapidly past them, without their attempting to do us any +injury. + +The fifth day brought us to the village at the head of the rapids. We +did not know but now we might be in a tight place. It would be +impossible for us to pass the rapids without pilots who were +intimately acquainted with every rock in the river, and these we could +not get without the King's order. The letter must be three days behind +us, and it would be trying to wait on it. The villagers too, seeing us +pass without stopping, might not send it on. And then, might it not be +a trick of the King, to get us into a scrape, as he was in no pleasant +mood towards us. We determined however, to make the best of it. After +arriving at the village, the Lieutenant-Governor, who was with us, +sent for the head-man of the village, who soon made his appearance. He +then inquired, "Has the King's letter to send us down the rapids +arrived?" "No," was the reply. "Well, it is coming, and we are in +haste. I want you to furnish us by to-morrow morning, three of the +best pilots you have, and also two additional rowers for each boat, to +send us down the rapids. I have foreigners in my charge, and if +anything happens to them, the blame will rest with you." The next +morning the men made their appearance, and a faithful set of fellows +they were. We were off early, and very soon began to near the +mountains, and just where the mountains on each side come down to the +river is the first rapid. Before approaching it, the pilots ran the +boats ashore, and taking some rice, fruit, and cigars, they made an +offering to the spirits of the mountain, and then pushed off. Our boat +was ahead, and the pilot, seemingly aware of the responsibility which +rested upon him, rose up and stood upon the stern, seized tight hold +of his steering oar, spoke a few hurried words to the oarsmen in +front, such as, "Lay heavy to the right or left", and then apparently +held his breath. We also held ours; the hair appeared to rise upon the +head, and the heart beat very near the throat, but in a moment the +long breath of the pilot indicated that danger was past, and our boat +was dancing over the waves caused by the falling of the water below. +We had passed the first rapid. Were a boat to be capsized, death must +ensue, for the water is so rapid, and rocks so abundant, that the most +expert swimmer could do nothing. + +The scenery here is indescribably grand. Much of the boasted scenery +of Europe and America would be tame in comparison with it. Grandeur +and beauty oftentimes struggle for the mastery, first one and then the +other prevailing, and sometimes both combined. The river winds its way +along between the mountains which rise perpendicularly from one bank, +and in an amphitheatrical order from the other. Sometimes the ascent +is gradual on both sides. In one or two places no outlet can be seen +for the river at all, and one would think that soon all would be +dashed against the opposing mountains; but a slight turn would open up +a channel, with perpendicular banks on each side, to the height of at +least six-hundred feet, whilst between those perpendicular masses of +solid rock would be one of those indescribable rapids to be passed. +The fish-eagle would be screaming hundreds of feet above our heads, +and the little mountain-goat, sticking on a cliff, apparently midway +between heaven and earth, would look down upon us with apparent +contempt. We could seldom see a quarter of a mile either way, and the +sun shone upon us but a few hours at midday. Huge stylactites, the +formation of ages, were pending from the crevices. At one of the +rapids the river passes under a projecting rock for some distance, and +a little cascade, which in the rainy season must be quite a stream, +falls into the river some distance beyond the boat. When night came +on, we stopped in the solitude, tied our boats to the shore, cooked +our rice and then retired, we sleeping on the boat, but our men on the +sand. + +The scientific geologist might find an ample field here, and the +sportsman would also have plenty of sport amongst tigers, deer, +wild-hogs, pea-fowls, and jungle-chickens. For a passing effect +however, a simple ride down the rapids is best. Five days brought us +through the rapids to Raheng, where we had left our other boats, +making about ten days from Chieng Mai. We were not long in getting our +boats ready, and the rapid current brought us to Bangkok in about one +fourth of the time it took to ascend against it. We arrived at home +without a moment of sickness, or any mishap, except the loss of one +poor fellow, a slave of the chief man, who died of jungle-fever. + +It may be asked why Budhism, and especially the Budhism of Siam, +yields so slowly to the power of the Gospel? The cardinal doctrine of +the system is, no God, no intelligent creator and proprietor of the +universe. The unrenewed heart loves such a doctrine better than all +religious creeds and dogmas, yea, better than the simple gospel of +Jesus. As soon as sin entered the world, our first parents were afraid +of God, and could they have done so, would have dispensed with him all +their days. Thus it is that in Christian countries men batch up +development theories, and every imaginable falsehood, to dispense with +an intelligent first-cause. Men of natural good sense on other +subjects, on account of this enmity against God, become fools upon the +great subject, "The fool hath said in his heart no God." Alabaster, in +his "Modern Budhist," closes up with the following remarkable +flourish:--"The religion of Budha meddled not with the beginning, +which it could not fathom; avoided the action of a deity it could not +perceive; and left open to endless discussion that problem which it +could not solve, the ultimate reward of the perfect. It dealt with +life as it found it; it declared all good which led to its sole +object, the diminution of the misery of sentient beings; it laid down +rules of conduct which have never been surpassed; and held out +reasonable hopes of a future of the most perfect happiness. + +"Its proofs rest on the assumption that the reason of man is his +surest guide, and that the law of nature is perfect justice. To the +disproof of those assumptions we recommend the attention of those +missionaries who would convert Budhists." + +Mr. Alabaster must think missionaries very obtuse, not to be able in +thirty years labor in Siam, to find out the strongholds of Budhism. +Those "assumptions" have been "disproved" a thousand times, but as +they harmonize with the natural heart of the Budhist, and indeed with +that of very many who are nominal Christians, but who are in greater +condemnation than the Budhist, all reasonable proof is rejected. + +Again, in all Budhist countries there is a mutual union of church and +state, and the Budhist regards kings as the proper rulers of the land, +and also the regulator of the religion. A man in Siam who embraces +Christianity, expects to cut himself off from everything which has +hitherto been near and dear to him. They have the most profound +reverence for the King, and cannot understand how the United States +can get along without one. A nobleman not long since asked a +missionary in good faith, if the United States would not soon be far +enough advanced to have a King, like England and France. The +missionary replied, that from present indications England and France +would soon be far enough advanced to do without one. + +The Siamese are also wonderfully addicted to custom. Whatever their +fathers have done they must do, how ridiculous soever that may be. +"_Pen tumneum thai_,"--it is Siamese custom, is sufficient reason for +doing anything. It is seldom that a Siamese can be drawn into an +argument, even on religion. They will generally assent to everything +the missionary says, and will reply, "Your religion is no doubt much +better than ours, but it would be contrary to custom to abandon our +religion in this life; in the next life we will embrace Christianity." +Apostasy from Budhism too, is one of their unpardonable sins. + +One of the greatest obstacles to the spread of the Gospel amongst the +heathen is, the ungodly example of those who have been brought up in +Christian countries, and who unfortunately bear the Christian name. +Every port open to commerce is overrun with adventurers from western +countries. So few of them have any religion at all, that the heathen +are unable to make any distinction. Many too, who have professed +religion, when they come to the East manifest no vital godliness, and +soon abandon themselves to every imaginable vice. Most of the official +representatives sent out by western governments are either avowed +infidels, or men of no moral character. All these things are against +us. The Siamese have frequently said to me, "Why do you offer us your +religion, whilst those in our midst, who have been brought up in that +religion, are no better than we, and are even more abandoned? True, +you missionaries do not engage in those vices to which the others are +addicted, but religion is your business. You are paid for it." It will +also be found that all such characters are opposed to Christian +missions, and missionaries in general, and are ever ready to bear +testimony against them. + +I have often thought that a few such business men as George H. Stuart, +who carry religion into business and every-day life, would do more in +the East in converting the heathen, than a host of missionaries. It is +not however, "By might nor by power, but by my Spirit, saith the +Lord." + +In view therefore, of all these obstacles and difficulties, we appeal +to all true Christians for their sympathies and prayers for the +success of this great work which God has committed to his Church. + + +THE END. + + + + +Transcriber's Note: + +Archaic spellings have been retained, but obvious typographic errors +have been corrected. Otherwise the author's spelling of non-English +words, including tone marks, has been preserved as printed, even when +inconsistent, e.g. Birmah vs. Burmah. + +Use of double capital letters in HLuang appears to be intentional by +the author, to represent the digraph in the Thai spelling of the word, +and as such has been preserved as is. + +Ditto marks in lists have been replaced with the appropriate text. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Siam: Its Government, Manners, +Customs, &c., by N. Abraham McDonald + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44615 *** diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. 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Abraham McDonald + +Release Date: January 7, 2014 [EBook #44615] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SIAM: GOVERNMENT, MANNERS, CUSTOMS *** + + + + +Produced by the volunteers of Project Gutenberg Thailand. +Proofreading by users emil, dekpient, brianjungwi, rikker, +kaewmala, ianh68, nblackburn. PGT is an affiliated sister +project focusing on public domain books on Thailand and +Southeast Asia. Project leads: Rikker Dockum, Emil Kloeden. +(This file was produced from images generously made +available by The Internet Archive.) + + + + + + + + + + SIAM: + + ITS + GOVERNMENT, MANNERS, CUSTOMS, &c. + + + BY + Rev. N. A. McDONALD, + For ten years a Missionary in that country. + + + PHILADELPHIA: + ALFRED MARTIEN, + 1214 CHESTNUT STREET. + 1871. + + + + + Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1871, by + ALFRED MARTIEN, + In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. + + + + + To the Memory + Of the Founder of Milnwood Academy, + REV. J. Y. McGINNES, + + Who had the cause of Foreign Missions very much at heart; + + AND TO ALL WHO HAVE BEEN + PUPILS OF THAT INSTITUTION, + THIS LITTLE VOLUME + + Is respectfully dedicated, by one of the earliest + Students of the Institution, + + The Author. + + + + + [Illustration: The present King of Siam.] + + + + + Contents. + + CHAPTER I. + GEOGRAPHY + + CHAPTER II. + THE GOVERNMENT + + CHAPTER III. + RELIGION + + CHAPTER IV. + EDUCATION AND LITERATURE + + CHAPTER V. + MANNERS AND CUSTOMS + + CHAPTER VI. + COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE + + CHAPTER VII. + CEREMONIES FOR THE DYING AND DEAD + + CHAPTER VIII. + THEORY AND PRACTICE OF MEDICINE + + CHAPTER IX. + FARMING AND PRODUCTS + + CHAPTER X. + MODE OF DIVIDING TIME + + CHAPTER XI. + MISSIONARY OPERATIONS + + + + +PREFACE. + +In giving these pages to the public the author has no ambition to make +a book. Having been invited by the Principal of Milnwood Academy, at +Shade Gap, Pa., to deliver in that Institution a series of lectures, +or talks, on Siam, its government, manners, customs, &c., a few +friends have requested that they be reduced to paper and published, +which is his only apology for giving them to the public in book form. +A few additions have been made, and the facts are narrated as seen and +understood by the author. In a few instances, to refresh his memory, +he has referred to articles on Siam, published in the _Bangkok +Calendar_ and elsewhere. The work is intended chiefly for a class of +readers who may not have access to the more pretending works recently +published on that country. + + N. A. M. + +Shade Gap, Pa., April, 1871. + + + + +SIAM. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + +GEOGRAPHY, Etc. + + +On my "overland" journey from Siam to the United States, through +France and England, many persons were accustomed to accost me saying, +"Pardon me, Sir, but what nationality is that young man who is with +you?" referring to my Siamese boy. That boy, Sir, is a Siamese. "A +Siamese! Well, I must confess my geography is a little shaky,--I +scarcely know where Siam is,--but I remember now that is where the +Siamese twins came from." Referring, of course, to those unfortunate +beings who by some "lusus naturæ" are inseparably connected together, +and have been obliged to spend a long life in that condition, and who +have consequently become almost the only means by which their native +country is known to a vast majority of Europeans. When I, in 1860, +determined to go to Siam, I found it next to impossible to gather from +books any reliable information concerning it, and consequently took +shipping at New York almost as ignorant of the country to which I was +going, as I was of the moon. Fortunately however, some of our party +were returning, and before we arrived at our destination I was pretty +well prepared for what I was to encounter. Geographies are nearly +silent in regard to Siam, from the simple fact that geographers +themselves know nothing about it. It is also to be regretted that, +until very recently, chiefly all the books concerning Oriental +countries were written by mere cursory travellers, whose knowledge of +the countries through which they passed, or at which they touched, +must necessarily have been limited, and the chief object of many of +them appears to have been to make a readable book, oftentimes at the +expense of truth. + +You will naturally ask, where is Siam? At the extreme point of that +vast continent extending from the snows of Siberia to the Equator, and +terminating in the long narrow Malay peninsula, is the little island +of Singapore, separated from the mainland by a narrow strait. The +island is about twenty-five miles long, and about fourteen miles +broad, and commands the entrance of the China sea. The English, who +have ever had an eye to strategic points, and especially in the East, +took possession of it in 1819, being then little more than a Malay +fishing village, and a nest for pirates. The present town of +Singapore, well laid out and neatly built, and situated on the +southern extremity of the island commanding the anchorage, contains +perhaps one hundred thousand inhabitants, whilst the principal English +merchants live in palatial residences on the hills in the rear of the +town. The government of the island, together with Malacca, Penang, and +Province Wellesley, has lately teen transferred from the Indian +Government directly to the Crown. It is a beautiful little island, +with a genial climate, and I know of no place in the East where I +would rather live. + +Leaving Singapore, and passing through the strait, up the peninsula, +over the lower part of the China sea, and up the gulf of Siam about +eight hundred miles, you come to the kingdom of Siam, sandwitched +between Cambodia on the east and Burmah on the west, extending from +about latitude 4° to 22° north, and from longitude about 98° to +104° east; consequently there is neither frost or snow, but perpetual +summer reigns. The leaves fall and are replaced by new ones, whilst +those who are daily witnesses to it scarcely notice the change. + +The climate of Siam is genial and healthy, but the constant heat is +trying to the constitutions of Europeans, who require a change at +least once in ten years. The seasons are two, the wet and the dry. +From November to May scarcely a cloud obscures the sky, and no rain +falls except perhaps a shower in January. The Siamese look for a +shower in that month, and are disappointed if it does not come. They +think it necessary for certain kinds of fruit which is just then +forming, and they also think it indicative of a good rice season. I +have, however, in ten years, seen January pass several times without +the expected shower. From November to February the weather is +delightful, being the cool season, but the thermometer is seldom lower +than 64°. March and April are the hottest months, but the thermometer +does not rise as high as might be expected in such a climate. I have +never seen it over 98°, but on account of the long absence of rain, +the ground in most places becomes dry and parched, and the rays of the +sun, reflected from the heated earth, give the atmosphere a kind of +bake-oven feeling, which is oftentimes hard to endure. From November +to May the wind blows constantly from the northeast, and is called the +"northeast monsoon." From May till November again, is the wet season, +the wind blowing constantly from the southwest, and is called the +"southwest monsoon," the rain falling in copious showers almost every +day. The showers come in a kind of rotation. If there is one to-day at +a certain hour, there will be one to-morrow an hour later. The showers +are copious indeed, and sometimes one would think the "windows of +heaven were opened." The lightning is vivid, and the thunder +oftentimes terrific. + +Whither the name Siam came, or whence it is derived, it is now +impossible to tell. The Siamese themselves know nothing of it, only as +it is applied to their country by Europeans. The name they apply to +their country is "Muang Thai," the free country, in distinction from +those countries which are tributary. The name Siam, however, is now +coming into common use, and is sometimes inserted in public documents. + +The geology of Siam is simple, the lower portion near the gulf being +an alluvial deposit, the result of the annual overflowing of the +rivers, which takes place at the close of every rainy season. The +water from the copious rains rushes down from the mountains up the +country, and overflows the lowlands, enriching them and causing them +to produce abundant crops of rice. The mountains are volcanic, and +some of them have the appearance of having been thrown from a distance +and set down in their present positions. + +Many of them are barren of almost everything green, presenting to the +eye but little that is attractive, but others, especially in the North +Laos country, present scenery indescribably grand. In many places, +especially along the seacoast, the old granite, the foundation of all +things, geologically speaking, comes to the surface, and even projects +out in bold bluffs and headlands. The rocks on many of the mountains +present the appearance of having at one time been lashed by the waves +of the sea, and there is abundant evidence that much of the lower +country has been redeemed from the sea at no very remote period. + +The country is drained by three streams of considerable size, which +empty into the gulf. The principal one is put down on our maps as the +Menam, but called by the Siamese Menam Chow Phya, Menam being the +generic name for river, meaning mother of water, and Chow Phya being +the specific name for that particular river. Were it not for a sandbar +at its mouth, it would be navigable for the largest class of vessels +to Bangkok, but on that account the largest vessels are obliged to +anchor in the roadstead outside. The Bampakong on the east, and +Tacheen on the west, are also streams of some importance. Besides +these, there are also a number of smaller streams. + +Bangkok, the capital of the kingdom, is situated on both sides of the +Menam Chow Phya, about twenty-five miles from its mouth. It contains +about four hundred thousand inhabitants, and has been called the +Venice of the East, from the fact that much of the city is floating on +the river in the form of floating houses. These floating houses are a +kind of nondescript affair, and it is impossible to give one who has +never seen them any idea of them. The following description, by the +oldest missionary in Siam, and published in the _Bangkok Calendar_ of +1866, though quite too elaborate for easy reading, is as good as +anything that can be given, and I shall insert it "in toto." + +"Our friends in the western world have heard a good deal about the +floating houses of Bangkok, but they universally speak of being unable +to understand, after all that has been written, what kind of things +they are. If the descriptions that have been given of them could have +always been accompanied by good photographic pictures of the same, our +friends would have had much less difficulty in understanding them. But +such pictures are too expensive to procure for illustrating 'The +Bangkok Calendar,' which never pays for its cost, and hence we must do +the next best thing, and that is to descend into quite minute detail, +if we would make our friends who have never visited Bangkok understand +such unique structures as the floating houses of the city. And as +these houses form a large part of the dwellings and mercantile shops +of this great metropolis, being the most conspicuous of all buildings +(the temples only excepted) as you pass up and down the Menam Chow +Phya, the 'Broadway' of Bangkok, they seem to demand a minute +description in 'The Calendar.' These floating houses are moored on +both sides of the river for a distance of nearly three miles. Their +size, on an average, is about forty by thirty feet on the base; in +height, eight feet to the eves, and fifteen feet to the ridge of the +roof. As this base could not be covered by a roof of only two sides, +and make it sufficiently steep to shed rain well, without being too +high for safety on the river in time of a squall, the natives divide +the area to be covered into two nearly equal parts, and put a +two-sided roof over each division, thatched with the attap palm leaf, +(_cocos nipa_.) The two eves that thus meet in the middle of the house +have an eve-trough common to both of them, which is always seen in the +house about eight feet from the floor, passing uniformly in the +direction of the river. Hence nearly all these floating houses appear +to be double, standing sidewise to the river, the ridge of the front +being a little lower than the one behind it. There is always a narrow +verandah four or five feet wide attached to the front division, which +is covered with an extra roof of attap leaves, extending from under +the main point roof, with a more gentle slope than the front roof, and +then, in front of these, there is usually a small bamboo float from +three to five feet wide. This is sometimes extended the whole length +of the house, and sometimes only from three to ten feet. The eve of +the verandah is not more than six feet above the floor. From this +there is often suspended a bamboo mat, or some other material more +tasty, for a screen from the glare of the river. The ends of the two +double roofs are all furnished precisely alike with a peculiar kind of +moulding made of a thin plank tastefully curved at the bottom, like +the written capital A, and put up edgewise at the extreme end, to +constitute a neat finish for the thatching. The triangular area made +by each double roof at the ends is generally closed with attap +thatching; sometimes with bamboo matting, sometimes with wooden +pannelled work, sometimes with a regular clap-boarding, and rarely +with woodwork radiating from the lower side of the triangle upwards. + +"These floating houses are always divided into two main rooms--the +front and inner one. The floor of the latter is about one foot higher +than the front. There are narrow passages five feet wide at the right +and left of these rooms, which are simply enclosed verandahs, with +each an attap roof, leading to a narrow room of the same width and +kind in the extreme rear. The front room is used for the purpose of a +variety-store, and the inner one for a bed-room. + +"In it you will generally find the family idol-altar, if the occupant +be a Chinese. It is often used for putting away lots of goods, a few +samples of which are daily exposed for sale in the front room. These +exhibitions are made on a kind of amphitheatre-formed shelving facing +the river, so that every article can be seen at a glance by passers-by +in boats. The whole front is exposed to view in the daytime, not by +opening all the doors and windows, but by taking down much of the +front siding, which consists of boards varying from ten to twelve +inches in width, standing up endwise, and fitted into grooves above +and below. These boards are slid out early every morning, one by one, +and laid away out of sight under the floor, in a place reserved for +them during the day. Early in the evening each board is put in its +place for closing up the front of the shop, leaving not the least door +or window by which one may have direct access to it. But there is a +small door in front of each of the narrow passages in the extreme +rear. + +"This narrow room is commonly used for the purposes of a cook-room. +The fire place is simply a shallow wooden box filled with clay. There +is no chimney or stovepipe attached to any of them. In the place of +one they make a scuttle hole in the thatched roof only six feet above, +and this has a trap door made of the same material as the roof, which +can be closed in rainy weather. Even in the best weather only a part +of the smoke escapes through the opening, while the remainder finds +its way out in all quarters. Consequently this little cook-room is +always a very smoky place, and is blackened with soot to a greater or +less extent, as are also many other parts of the establishment. + +"Some better-to-do occupants of these floating houses have a small +bamboo caboose, moored at one end of the dwelling house. The floating +houses are usually enclosed with teak boards standing up endwise, and +permanently fixed into grooves above and below. Sometimes the siding +is made of bamboo wattling. + +"It remains to be shown the mode of buoying up the floating houses +above the water, which being quite unique, deserves a particular +description. In the sills of the house are framed five rows of +scantling, four-by-six inches or larger, which descend into the water +five or six feet. These are so arranged that they divide the whole +area underneath the sills into four equal parts, or, as the Siamese +say, _hawngs_, or sections, for filling with bamboo poles. The first +object of these five rows of _legs_, bounding as they do the four +equal divisions, is to prevent the bamboo poles from rolling out +sideways under the pressure of the superincumbent house; and the other +is to render it quite convenient to exchange every year old and rotten +bamboos for new ones. Now a new set of bamboos will serve well the +purposes of a buoy only about two years; and to save the trouble of +exchanging all under the house at once, the natives manage to exchange +only half of them annually, so that the house is not for a moment left +without enough to keep it well out of the water. This is done by +removing all the bamboos from one or two of the divisions which have +been in use two years, and filling their places with new ones. The +divisions which have bamboos of one year's service remain undisturbed +until next year; when their time has expired, they too are cast out to +give place to others. Thus there are always left two divisions of the +last year's bamboos to serve in conjunction with two divisions of new +ones. The annual cost of new bamboos for a floating house of medium +size is not far from forty _Ticals_, and the number of bamboo poles +required is from five to eight hundred. + +"As these floating houses are generally moored close together, +standing end to end, in an even line in the direction of the river, it +becomes necessary that the house which is to be replenished with +bamboos should be moved out a little in front of its neighbor's, thus +making room for sliding out the old bamboos from either end, and +sliding in new ones to fill their places. There are men who follow +this business as their profession, and do it very dextrously. One day +is quite sufficient to accomplish the whole work for any house. The +bamboos, it scarcely need be said, are slender poles, from three to +four inches in diameter at the butt-end, and not more than half that +size at the top. They are from twenty-five to thirty feet in length. +The top ends of the poles are always the ones that are pushed under +the house, and consequently are hidden, while the butt-ends are always +external, forming an even surface at each end of the house. The poles +being about three-fourths the length of the house, the smaller +extremities consequently overlap each other from eight to ten feet, +and make an equal thickness of buoying material beneath the middle of +the house, with that of each end. + +"A house newly buoyed up looks quite tidy and dry, its floors being +from three to four feet above water. The houses are kept in their +places, forming a regular line with their fellows, thirty feet or more +from shore, by means of three or four teak posts or piles, driven at +each end into the soft bottom of the river six or eight feet; and +these are made mutual supporters of each other by lashing a bamboo +pole across them all near their tops. The house is then fastened to +these posts by means of bands or hoops encircling very loosely each +post, so that they shall readily slip up and down as the tide raises +the house or causes it to settle down. For this purpose it is +indispensable that there be no notches or knots on the posts that +shall cause the hoops to catch on them. Such a notch would cause the +post to be drawn up out of its place in a flowing tide, and would sink +it deeper in an ebbing one. While sitting in these houses you will +often hear a crack, and consequent sudden sinking of the house, caused +by the sliding of a hoop out of the place where it had been caught on +the posts. Where the water is unusually deep where a floating house is +moored, and the bottom of the river unstable, you will see the tops of +the mooring posts made fast by a cable to something firm on shore. +Sometimes the whole gives way notwithstanding, and then the house is +adrift at the mercy of the tide. The writer was once in a floating +house that had got adrift in the night time, and floated down the +river many miles before it could be made to submit to the power of the +ropes and cables, with which we endeavoured many times in vain to stop +her downward way. She would snap our stoutest ropes, as Samson did all +the instruments with which his enemies bound him. These floating +houses are often moved from place to place, and it is no uncommon +thing to see one floating up or down the river with the family in, and +everything going on as regularly within as if it was snugly moored." + +The buildings on shore belonging to the chief princes and nobles, are +built of rough brick and stuccoed inside and out. The style of +architecture is a kind of Siamo-Chinese. The next best kind of house +consists of posts sunk into the ground, which constitute the frame +work, whilst the sides are made of boards wrought into a kind of +pannel work. This is called a _"ruen fa kadan,"_ or weatherboarded +house. These are the houses of the poorer princes and nobles, and the +better class of the common people. The houses of the poorer classes of +the common people are made on the same plan, only the sides are +constructed of bamboo wattling. These are called _"ruen fa tak,"_ or +open-sided house. + +The river is the "Broadway" of the city, whilst canals form the +principal cross streets or avenues. Chiefly all travel in the city, +and indeed everywhere in Siam, is done in boats. If a person wishes to +go to church, to market, to call on a friend--in short, any where, he +goes in a boat. The rivers are the great avenues of trade, whilst the +whole country near the Gulf is intersected by a network of canals. But +in those portions distant from the rivers or canals resort must be had +to ox-carts and elephants. + +Siam is the genial land of the elephant. He roams wild in her forests, +but those which have not at least been partially tamed are now +becoming scarce. He constitutes in the northern provinces the chief +beast of burden, and one of the special uses to which he is put, is +drawing timber from the forest to the bank of the river, where it can +be formed into rafts and floated to market. I have seen a huge +elephant with his tusks and trunk roll a large log up a declivity more +quickly and dextrously than a dozen men would have done it. + +Siam has also been denominated the land of the "white elephant," from +the peculiar reverence shown for that animal. There is, however, no +such thing as a white elephant. The standing color is black, but +occasionally one is found which by some freak in nature is a kind of +Albino, or flesh color. He comes as near the color of a badly burned +brick as anything else. The Siamese do not call him a white elephant, +but a _"chang puak,"_ a strange colored elephant. From time immemorial +the Siamese have considered this strange colored animal the emblem of +good luck, and the king, who has had the greatest number of them, is +handed down in history as the most fortunate monarch. A certain king +had at one time three of them. The king of Burmah sent an embassy, +asking one as a special favor, which was emphatically denied. At this +the king of Burmah took umbrage, and sent an army and took the whole +of them. When one is found in the forest, word is sent immediately to +the capital, and preparations are made for conducting him to the +palace with the greatest honors and religious ceremonies. He is +enthroned in a palace within the walls of the king's palace, and is +henceforth fed on the luxuries of the land. He seldom, however, lives +long, being killed with kindness. He would be much happier and his +life would be considerably prolonged by allowing him to roam in his +native forest. The finder of such an elephant too, is generally +handsomely rewarded. Some travellers have stated that the white +elephant is worshipped, but I have never seen anything of the kind, +nor do I believe it. He is, however, held in peculiar reverence, +because he is considered the emblem of good luck. The flag of the +country is the flag of the white elephant. I am told that some +Frenchman has lately written a book, in which he states that he has in +his possession a hair from the tail of the white elephant of Siam, +which he obtained at great sacrifice, and even risk of his life. The +hair he may have, but the rest is imaginary. + +The present population of Siam cannot be much short of eight millions. +The Siamese proper are evidently an off-shoot from the Mongolian race, +but by what admixtures they have arrived at their present status it +would be difficult to ascertain. Some one has given the following +description of them, which is substantially correct. "The average +height is five feet three inches, arms long, limbs large, and bodies +inclined to obesity. The face is broad and flat, the cheek bones high, +and the whole face assumes a lozenge shape. The nose is small, mouth +wide, and lips thick, but not protruding. The eyes are small and +black, and the forehead low. The complexion rather inclined to a +yellowish hue. The whole physiognomy has a sullen aspect, and the gait +sluggish." The Siamese, as a general thing, do not tattoo their bodies +as many eastern nations do. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + +THE GOVERNMENT. + + +Siam proper is divided into fifty-eight provinces, which are each +presided over by a Governor appointed by the Central Government at +Bangkok. There are also several Malay states down the peninsula, and +six or eight petty Laos kingdoms north of Siam proper which are +tributary to the king of Siam. These Laos kingdoms pay a small annual +tribute, and the King of Siam claims the prerogative of nominating a +successor to the throne, when a vacancy occurs. This successor is +taken of course from their own princes, but receives his insignia of +office from the King of Siam. Aside from this, each of those kings is +absolute in his own dominions. All the tributary states, however, are +virtually under the Protectorate of the King of Siam, he being _Lord_ +paramount, or Suzerain. + +The civil government is divided amongst the three principal ministers +of state, _Chow Phya Pra Kalehome_, _Chow Phya Puterapei_, and _Chow +Phya Praklang_. The _Kalehome_ has special charge of the provinces to +the west and southwest, and is _Prime Minister_, having charge of +everything pertaining to army and navy. _Puterapei_ has charge of the +provinces to the north, and is over everything that pertains to +habitations and dwellings of the people. The _Praklang_ has charge of +the provinces to the southeast, and is over all foreign interests, all +vessels of trade foreign and domestic, and has charge to a certain +extent of the treasury, hence the name _Praklang_. This was the +arrangement under the late reign, and I presume it is very little +changed, if any, as yet under the present. + +The king is an absolute despot. No hereditary aristocracy or +legislative assemblies control his will. There is an aristocracy or +nobility, it is true, but their power is not felt only as instruments +in carrying out the will of the king. The people exist for the +monarch, and not the monarch for the people. The laws, as a general +thing, are laws of the king and not of the country. The old adage, +"New kings make new laws," is often literally true in Siam, providing +the new sovereign is so disposed. He is absolute master of the +persons, property, liberty and lives of his subjects. In speaking of +him they do not say he rules or governs, but he "eats the kingdom," +which is too often literally true. Almost any man in the kingdom is +liable to be drafted at any time to do king's work, and the +descendants of captives of war, such as Cambodians, Peguins, Burmese, +&c., are obliged to render three months service, or its equivalent, to +the government annually. The person of the king is held in extreme +sacredness and reverence, and in addressing him the same titles and +attributes are applied to him which are applied to _Budha_. For one of +his subjects to inquire after the king's health would be an almost +unpardonable offence, as it is presumed that the king never takes +sick, or dies, as common people do. Some of these absurd ideas +appeared in the late reign to have become obsolete, but are evidently +being renewed again in the present. Formerly the king was both a +monopolist and a trader, claiming exclusive right over such +commodities as tin, ivory, cardamums, eagle-wood, Sapan-wood, gamboge, +&c., but when the late king entered into treaty relations with the +western powers, this monopoly was in a great measure yielded. + +It is strange to say that this monarchy is not hereditary--that is, +not in the sense that that term is understood in Europe. There is what +is called the _Senabodee_, or Royal Counsellors, consisting of the +chief ministers of state, who during the life of the king are merely +silent counsellors, but upon his death their power becomes manifest, +and upon them devolves the responsibility of selecting a successor, +and governing the kingdom until such successor is chosen. The +successor must be a prince of the realm, but not necessarily the +eldest son of the late king--indeed, not necessarily a son of his at +all. + +The death of the late king occurred about nine o'clock, P. M. The +Prime Minister was immediately summoned to the palace, who convened +the _Senabodee_, and before midnight the succession was determined, +and everything going on smoothly. They chose in this instance the +eldest son of the late king, _Somdetch Chowfa Chulalangkorn_, a boy +about sixteen years old. + +His coronation took place on Wednesday, November 11, 1868, being the +day decided upon by the Brahmin astrologers as the one most +propitious. At this coronation there was a slight innovation upon the +usual Siamese custom. No European had ever before witnessed the +coronation ceremonies of any king of Siam. The late king, after his +coronation, wrote a private note to some of his European friends, +stating that he would have been glad to have had them present, but +"state reasons forbade it." The number of Europeans present at the +coronation proper of the present king were few, consisting of the +consuls of the different treaty powers, with their suites; the +officers of H. B. M.'s gunboat Avon, and a few others. The writer held +at the time the seals of the United States Consulate, and was the only +representative of our government in the kingdom, and consequently +received an invitation, which might not have been accorded to him as a +mere missionary. The company of Siamese present was equally select, +consisting only of the chief princes and nobles of the kingdom. + +The hour named was six o'clock, A.M., but owing to some delay it was +nearly eight when we passed into a small triangular court, facing one +of the doors of the inner audience hall. In front of the door of the +hall stood an elevated platform richly gilded, and upon that platform +was placed a very large golden basin. Within that basin was a golden +tripod, or three-legged stool. Over the platform was a quadrangular +canopy, and over the canopy was the nine-storied umbrella, tapering in +the form of a _pagoda_. Over the centre of the canopy was a vessel +containing consecrated water, said to have been prayed over nine +times, and poured through nine different circular vessels before +reaching the top of the canopy. This water is collected from the chief +rivers of Siam, and at a point above tidal influence, and is +constantly kept on hand, in reservoirs near the temples in the +capital. In the vessel was placed a tube or syphon, representing the +pericarp of the lotus flower, after the petals have fallen off. At a +flourish of crooked trumpets, resembling rams' horns, the king elect +descended from the steps of the hall, arrayed in a simple waist-cloth +of white muslin, with a piece of the same material thrown over his +shoulders, and took his seat upon the tripod in the basin. A Brahmin +priest approached him and offered him some water in a golden +lotus-shaped cup, into which he dipped his hand, and rubbed it over +his head. This was the signal for the pulling of a rope, and letting +loose the sacred water above in the form of a shower-bath upon his +person. This shower-bath represents the _Tewadas_, or Budhist angels, +sending blessings upon His Majesty. A Budhist priest then approached +and poured a goblet of water over his person. Next came the Brahmin +priests and did the same. Next came the chief princes, uncles of the +king; next two aged princesses, his aunts. The vessels used by these +princes and princesses were conch-shells, tipped with gold. Then came +the chief nobles, each with a vessel of a different material, such as +gold, silver, pinchbeck, earthenware, &c. Then, last of all, the Prime +Minister with a vessel of iron. This finished the royal bath. He then +descended from the stool in a shivering state, and was divested of his +wet clothes, and was arrayed in regal robes of golden cloth, studded +with diamonds. In the south end of the audience hall was an octagonal +throne, having eight sides, corresponding to the eight points of the +compass. He first seated himself on the side facing the north, passing +around toward the east. In front of each side of the throne was +crouched a Budhist and a Brahmin priest, who presented him with a bowl +of water, of which he drank and rubbed some on his face. At each side +they read to him a prayer, to which he responded. I was too far off to +hear all, but the following is said to be a translation of it. + + _Priest_. "Be thou learned in the laws of nature and of the +universe." + + _King_. "Inspire me, O Thou who wert a law unto thyself." + + _P_. "Be thou endowed with all wisdom and all acts of industry." + + _K_. "Inspire me with all knowledge, O Thou, the enlightened." + + _P_. "Let mercy and truth be thy right and left arms of life." + + _K_. "Inspire me, O Thou who hast proved all truth and mercy." + + _P_. "Let the sun, moon, and stars bless thee." + + _K_. "All praise to Thee, through whom all forms are conquered." + + _P_. "Let the earth, air, and water bless thee." + + _K_. "Through the merit of Thee, O Thou conqueror of death." + +He was then conducted to the north end of the hall, and was seated +upon another throne. The insignia of Royalty were then presented to +him. They were handed to him by his uncle, Prince _Chowfa Maha Mala_. +First came the sword, then the sceptre, then two massive gold chains +in a casket, which he suspended around his shoulders. Then came the +crown, which he placed on his own head, and at that instant the royal +salute proclaimed him King, under the title of _Prabat Somdetch Pra +Paramendr Maha Chulalang Korn Kate Klou Yu Hua_. Then came the golden +slippers, the fan, the umbrella, two large massive rings set with huge +diamonds, which he placed on each of his forefingers. Then one of each +of the Siamese weapons of war were handed him, which he received and +handed back. The Brahmins then wound up with a short address, to which +he briefly responded. He then distributed a few gold and silver +flowers amongst his friends, and the Europeans then withdrew to +breakfast, which had been prepared for them. It may be asked why the +Brahmins officiate so much when Siam is emphatically a Budhist +country. I have asked several well-informed noblemen for the reason, +but have as yet been unable to ascertain the true reason. No one +appeared able to give any true reason. There are a number of Brahmins +in the country, but their existence is scarcely ever noticed except on +some such occasion as the above. + +At 11 o'clock, A.M., the new king appeared for the first time before +his whole Court. The outer audience hall was richly decorated and +spread with rich Brussels carpet. When the Foreign Consuls entered in +a body the whole Siamese Court was prostrate on their knees and elbows +on the carpet. Very soon the king entered, arrayed in regal robes, and +wearing his crown, and seated himself upon the throne. The whole Court +simultaneously placed the palms of their hands together, and then +raising them up to the forehead, bowed their heads three times to the +floor. The chief ministers of state then formally delivered over their +several departments to the new monarch, to whom he briefly responded. +Senhor G. F. Vianna, Esq., Consul-General for Portugal, his being the +oldest consulate, then on behalf of the consuls present read a short +congratulatory address, which called forth another brief response, and +the audience retired. + +The public audiences of European ambassadors and officials are +extremely ridiculous. I have been present on several such occasions, +both as Vice-Consul and as Interpreter to others. The King is seated +upon his throne, and the whole court resting on their knees and elbows +before him, with their "beam ends" turned up to the gaze. All +communication must be held through the Court Speaker. When I went as +Interpreter, the communication was given me in English, which I +rendered into Siamese to the Speaker. He would then commence by +ascribing to the King a long "rigmarole" of titles and attributes, at +the same time apparently so much afraid that he scarcely knew what he +was doing, and by the time he was ready to deliver my communication he +had forgotten about half of it. When he received the King's reply, he +had to repeat the same nonsense, and by the time he was ready to give +the message to me there was but little of it left. Had I not been able +myself to catch it directly from the King's lips, the interview would +have been most unsatisfactory. + +The present King is about sixteen years old, and is apparently a +sprightly, good-looking boy. His father, some time before his death, +had employed an English governess for the palace, and the present +king, in common with all the royal children, received from her some +knowledge of the English language, and probably a smattering of some +of the sciences; but when he ascended the throne, instead of employing +for him a tutor capable of instructing him in the sciences, and the +different forms of government, everything of the kind was abandoned, +and he was allowed to give himself up almost wholly to women, which is +likely to destroy in a great measure any original talent he may have +had. It is now difficult to tell what he will be by the time he +arrives at an age suitable to assume the responsibility of the +government. He is also at present very much secluded from Europeans. +His father, vain of his knowledge of English, and the advancement he +had made in the sciences, which, to say the least, was truly +commendable, was very fond of European society, and was accessible at +almost any time by the better classes of Europeans in Siam, but the +son, for reasons best known to those in authority, is at present cut +off from all such intercourse. I have also been informed that he has +removed from the palace the fine European furniture placed there by +his father, and is replacing it with Chinese furniture, which looks +like a step backwards. + +The government at present is in the hands of His Excellency _Chow Phya +Sri Surywongse_, with the title of Regent. He was Prime Minister +during the late reign, and consequently chief of the _Senabodee_. He +is also a man of undoubted ability, coupled with the usual oriental +shrewdness and low cunning, and is with all extremely selfish and +moody. His love for Europeans and western civilization is not very +great, only so far as he can use them to his own advantage; he is +however, too shrewd a man to do anything which would interfere with +the European trade, or violate the existing treaties. The country is +perhaps better governed now than ever it has been before. + +His younger half-brother. _Chow Phya Bhanuwongse_, is Minister of +Foreign Affairs. He is a free, affable, gentlemanly man, and is +perhaps more free from that extreme selfishness which constitutes so +large an element in Siamese character, than any man in the kingdom. He +has been to Europe, and has profited much by the trip. His eldest son +is now in King's College, London. The Foreign Minister is, however, +too near the shadow of his greater brother to act out his natural +character, especially in his official capacity. + +During the last and present reigns, Siam has been the mildest and best +heathen government on the face of the globe. Oppressions from high +quarters are very rare. Petty officers sometimes take advantage of +their positions to "squeeze" the poor. Redress for such grievances can +always be had by appealing to headquarters, but there are usually so +many unchained lions in the way that such a course is seldom resorted +to. + +There is also a Second King, which is merely a nominal title without +any of the responsibility of the government. He is surrounded by his +court, and has nearly all the honors of the First King shown him, but +has nothing to do with government except amongst his own personal +adherents. Even at the death of the First King he does not assume, +even temporally, any authority. He may be chosen First King. A few +instances are on record in which this has been the case. The son of +the late Second King now occupies the second throne, under the title +of _Krom Pra Raja Bowawn Sahthan Mongkoon_. This prince is better +known to Europeans by the name of George Washington, a name given him +when a boy, either by his father, or by some of the American +missionaries who taught him English. His father is said to have +manifested a great love for the memory of Washington. The Second King +is now about thirty-five years old, has a pretty good knowledge of +English, some knowledge of the sciences, western civilization and +governments, is polite and gentlemanly in his manners, and apparently +very friendly to Europeans. He is also well liked by all Europeans. +The commander of one of our United States war vessels, after an +audience with the Second King, remarked to me on retiring from the +palace, "That is the man who should have been First King." The title +of Second King appears to have been originally established to satisfy +the disappointed one of two rival princes. + +The Siamese have an excellent code of civil and criminal laws, if they +were properly enforced, but, unfortunately, the Judiciary are so +corrupt that justice is seldom meted out, the one paying the largest +bribe generally gets the case. The Lord Mayor's and Sub-Mayor's Courts +are the chief criminal courts in the city. There are also within the +palace walls several other courts, chiefly for civil cases, and +presided over by the chief Ministers of State. There is also an +International Court, established by the late King, for the +investigation of those cases in which both Siamese and the subjects of +treaty powers are involved. Besides these, every prince of rank is +vested with judicial powers, and can hold court at his own palace. The +courts in the provinces are presided over by the provincial governors, +but those governors have not the power of life and death unless +delegated to them, in a special emergency, by the King. The judge of +any court is vested with full powers to investigate and decide any +case, subject, however, to an appeal to the King. There is, however, +seldom such an appeal, as, in other instances of oppression, the +unchained lions in the way are numerous. There are associate or +assistant judges, but they are simply for the investigation of minor +cases. The judge places his mat down on the floor in one end of the +court-room, upon which he places a three-cornered pillow, and then +places himself in a reclining position. The litigants are crouching +around him, presenting their cases, and the whole thing frequently +turns into a general conversation and brow-beating. There is nothing +like a jury. The witnesses are taken out to a Budhist temple, where +the following ironclad oath is administered to them. "I, who have been +brought here as a witness in this matter, do now, in the presence of +the sacred image of Budha, declare that I am wholly unprejudiced +against either party, and uninfluenced in any way by the opinions or +advice of others; that no prospects of pecuniary advantage or +advancement to office have been held out to me. I also declare that I +have not received any bribe on this occasion. If what I have now to +say be false, or if in my further averments I shall color or pervert +the truth so as to lead the judgment of others astray, may the Three +Holy Existences before whom I now stand, together with the glorious +_Tewadas_ of the twenty-two firmaments, punish me. If I have not seen, +and yet shall say I have seen; if I shall say I know that which I do +not know, then may I be thus punished. Should innumerable descents of +Deity happen for the regeneration and salvation of mankind, may my +erring and migratory soul be found beyond the pale of their mercy. +Wherever I go may I be compassed with dangers, and not escape from +them, whether murderers, robbers, spirits of the earth, woods, or +water, or air, or all the divinities who adore Budha; or from the gods +of the four elements, and all other spirits. May blood flow out of +every pore of my skin, that my crime may be made manifest to the +world. May all or any of these evils overtake me within three days, or +may I never stir from the spot on which I now stand; or may the +lightning cut me in two, so that I may be exposed to the derision of +the people; or if I should be walking abroad, may I be torn in pieces +by either of the supernaturally endowed lions, or destroyed by +poisonous serpents. If on the water of the river or ocean, may +supernatural crocodiles or great fish devour me; or may the winds and +waves overwhelm me, or may the dread of such evils keep me a prisoner +during life at home, estranged from every pleasure. May I be afflicted +with intolerable oppression of my superiors, or may a plague cause my +death; after which may I be precipitated into hell, there to go +through innumerable stages of torture, amongst which may I be +condemned to carry water over the flaming regions in wicker baskets, +to assuage the heat of _Than Tretonwan_, when he enters the infernal +hell of justice, and thereafter may I fall into the lowest pit of +hell; or if these miseries should not ensue, may I after death migrate +into the body of a slave, and suffer all the pain and hardship +attending the worst state of such a being, during the period measured +by the sand of the sea; or may I animate the body of an animal or +beast during five hundred generations, or be born a hermaphrodite five +hundred times, or endure in the body of a deaf, dumb, blind, and +houseless beggar every species of disease, during the same number of +generations; and then may I be buried to narok, and there be crucified +by Phya Yam." + +They have also a way of extorting confessions from criminals, which is +terribly severe. The first way is by the use of the lash or ratan. He +first receives ninety stripes, and then, if he don't confess, he is +allowed a respite of a few days and receives ninety more; and if he +stills holds out, he is allowed another respite, and receives ninety +the third time. Any one who can endure three times ninety without +confessing is presumed to be innocent. They have also other modes, by +putting split _bamboos_ on their fingers, something like the thumb +screw of old. Persons often confess when they are innocent, from fear +of the torture. + +They punish with death murder, highway-robbery, and treason. Their +mode of execution is decapitation. The criminals are brought out in +chains, and a clamp consisting of two bamboo poles is placed on the +neck. He is then made to sit down on the ground, the one end of the +clamp resting on the ground. They then most generally drug the +criminal, so as to produce stupor, amounting oftentimes to +unconsciousness, and also stop up their ears with soft mud. At a +signal the executioner runs out with a sword and cuts off the head. He +generally does it very neatly with one stroke, but I have known one or +two instances in which the executioner, to give him nerve, took quite +too much liquor, and made wonderful hacking of it. + +Corporal punishment with the ratan is very common--so common that +there is little or no stigma attached to it. I have known high +officers to be severely thrashed. On public occasions I have seen +those in charge of certain things, who displeased the King, taken out +and thrashed. They were made to lie down on their face on the +pavement, and a man stood over with a ratan and put it down in no +light manner, the victim crying, "Ooey! ooey!" at every stroke. So you +perceive that it may in some respects be called a _ratan_ government. + +The revenue of the country is derived from various sources. Certain +things are sold out by the government to the highest bidder, who, when +he receives it, has full control of the whole matter. He sub-lets +again to other minor parties and retailers, and has full powers to +punish all those who violate the right which he has so dearly +purchased. These are called _farms_. The most lucrative is the opium +farm. There is also the spirit farm, that is liquor distilled from +rice; the gambling farm; the rice farm; the cocoanut-oil farm, and +some others. There is also a tax on fisheries, on trading-boats, on +fruit orchards, on shops and stores; an export duty on rice, and an +import duty of three per cent, on all goods imported. There is also a +triennial poll tax of about two dollars on every Chinaman in the +kingdom, which amounts to a large sum every three years. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + +RELIGION. + + +The religion of Siam is Budhism. It would however be impossible on an +occasion of this kind to give any extended outline of Budhism, and +besides this the principal works on that subject in the English +language are dry and uninteresting to the general reader or listener. +Any translations from the Budhist classics must also be necessarily +stiff, and many of the names unintelligible, unless accompanied with +explanations; I shall only, therefore, give as brief an outline as I +can of the Budhist faith, and describe, as nearly as possible, the +manner in which it is practised in Siam. + +Budhism arose from a man of royal blood called Gautama, but by the +Siamese, _Somanakodome_. His father ruled a small kingdom in the +province of Oude, near the Himelaya mountains. Gautama died probably +about 534 B.C., and is supposed to have been nearly cotemporary with +the prophet Daniel. Becoming disgusted with the luxuries and pleasures +of courtly life he adopted that of a hermit, and like all hermits +became an enthusiast, and fancied that he had found the only true road +to all good, and thus leaped from the circle of eternal transmigration +into a "sublimation of existence that has no attribute and knows no +change." + +The late king of Siam speaks of the founder of the Budhist faith thus: +"Budha was a man who came into being on a certain time, by ordinary +generation; that he was a most extraordinary man, more mysterious and +wonderful than all heavenly beings, because he made vast merit by the +use of his body, his words and his will. He reigned as king +twenty-nine years, (meaning doubtless that he lived in princely state +until twenty-nine years old); that he then practised the most severe +asceticism, and with the greatest assiduity for a period of six years, +when his mind became so sublimated and refined that he habitually +numbered and measured every thought he had, fixing his mind upon that +single object, to the utter exclusion of every other care, and that +consequently he attained to the highest perfection, not knowing +anything alike of happiness or sorrow, being in a middle state between +the two; and as a result of this, he then had power to remember many +of the transmigrations of being through which he had come, and could +see with angelic eyes distinctly all the various and numberless +transmigrations of human, angelic, and animal being throughout the +universe; and thence onward to the time of his death he gave his mind +entirely to the destroying of sin in his own body and soul, and became +the most pure and spotless, not only externally, but also in all the +secret recesses of his life and soul, and thence is worthily +denominated Arahang. He then saw by his own power alone, that all the +forms and bodies which merit and demerit have caused to come into +being, and all other things which exist without any cause, are +altogether illusive, unreal, unsubstantial, and evanescent; without a +maker, proprietor, or lord, and that hence is he also _Samma +Sampootó_. This says he is the sacred Budh, whom others before us +have thus eulogized as having come into the world, and lived in it, +and is commonly called according to his family name, _Gótama_. He +spent forty-five years in publishing the way to holiness and +substantial and eternal peace, and then extinguished his life, and +departed into Nipán." + +The pantheism of Brahminism had by long operation produced that +sluggishness of mind--its legitimate fruit--and confounded the Deity +with his works, and making it appear that the aggregate of creation is +itself God. In opposition to this, Budhism produced the doctrine that +all forms are mere illusions, and that will, purpose, action, feeling, +thought, desire, love, hatred, and every other attribute that can be +predicated of the mind, is unstable, and unreal, and therefore cannot +be associated with perfect peace. A state of "sublimation of existence +above all qualities," is the only thing that is real and substantial. +Budha has attained to that state which is called in the Pali +_Nirwana_, but by the Siamese _Nipán_. The literal meaning of the +word is, "absence of all desire," which involves an absence of +thought, and may hence be called a state of dreamless perpetual sleep. +To attain to that state the Budhist dogma, that all things which +appear in creation are illusive, and unreal, and consequently +unsubstantial, must be firmly fixed upon the mind. This lesson, +however, can only be learned by the most studious application of the +mind, and moral discipline by self-denial during a period of at least +100,000 transmigrations. To our mind Nipán is nothing but +annihilation, but Budhists will not admit it to be such, but maintain +that Budha has a perpetual existence there, Nipán is the Budhist's +highest idea of happiness. Omnipotence may be attained by perfect +virtue, abstinence, thought, and meditation. + +Fatality is the cause of creation. The universe came into existence by +the inherent force of fixed and invariable laws, which brings the +worlds out of chaos, and conducts them on by gradation to a state of +high perfection, and then downward again by the same gradation to +dissolution, and then back again, upward and downward in a series that +had no beginning, and will have no end. If any Siamese in the kingdom +be asked who made the world, he will invariably answer "pen eng," it +made itself. + +The teachings of Budha appear to have been transmitted by tradition +for about four hundred and fifty years after his death, and were then +committed to writing by the authority of a Budhist Council. + +The Budhist system of the universe is found in a book called the _Trei +Poom_, or a book settling all questions about the existence of the +three worlds. The Trei Poom of the Siamese was originally translated +from the Pali. The work was doubtless originally written in Ceylon, +and carried thence to all Budhist countries. The Rev. Dr. Bradley, the +oldest missionary in Siam, has prepared an abstract from the Trei +Poom, and published in the _Bangkok Calendar_, from which I shall make +a few extracts on the present occasion. + +The universe consists of an infinite number of systems, called by the +Siamese _Chackrawan_. Each Chackrawan has a sun, moon and stars +revolving around the top of a central mountain, called _Kow Pra Men_, +which extends above the surface of the ocean about 840,000 miles, and +the same distance into the ocean. It forms a perfect circle, having a +circumference equal to 2,520,000 miles. Parallel to the circle it +describes, and at a distance of 420,000 miles, is the first of seven +circular mountains, being variously distant from each other. Their +depth in water is the same as their height above it. The names, +height, circumference, &c., of these mountains are all given, but +would occupy too much space to enumerate here. Between each of the +seven mountains is a sea called _Seetawtara Samoot_. The width and +depth of each is as the distance between the mountains which bound it, +and the depth of the mountains below the surface of the water. The +water is exceedingly refined and light. The fish that live in those +seas are wonderful for variety and size, being many thousand miles +long. Parallel with the circle described by the seventh mountain, and +5,513,650 miles from it, is a circular glass mountain, called _Kow +Chakrawan_. This mountain forms the horizontal boundary of the system. +Its height is 820,000 miles, and its thickness 120,000. The circular +area which this mountain encloses is 12,034,500 miles in diameter. The +circumference of the mountains on the outside is 136,035,500 miles. +The water on both sides is 820,000 miles deep. The width of the ocean +between it and _Kow Asa Kan_ is 3,513,650 miles. Within this vast +expanse of water are situated the four grand divisions of the +populated plane or surface of the Chakrawan. These are called +_Taweeps_, which, for want of a better term to express them, have been +translated continents. These all have their appropriate names. The +first, in its horizontal contour, is shaped somewhat like the face of +a man, and hence is inhabited by mankind with faces like itself. The +second has a form like a half-moon, and is inhabited by an intelligent +race with semi-circular faces. The third is a perfect square, and is +inhabited by square-faced beings. The fourth is circular, and is +inhabited by beings having faces like the full moon. The distance from +each _Taweep_ to _Kow Chakrawan_ is 2,798,600 miles. Each Chakrawan +system is underlaid by a body of water independent of their oceans. +The distance from the surface of the earth to it is 260,000 miles, and +the depth of it is 480,000 miles. Underlying this body there is a +stratum of air 960,000 miles in depth, and thence downward there is +nothing but an open and utter void. + +Each Chackrawan has attached to it, somewhere in the subterranean +regions, eight chief hells, called by the Siamese _Narok_, meaning +worlds of utter misery. Each of these hells has attached to it sixteen +smaller ones, making one hundred and twenty-eight in all. Outside of +these there is another range of purgatories, forty to each chief hell, +making in all three hundred and seventy. + +Each Chakrawan has attached to it six inferior heavenly worlds, called +_Tewalok_, situated above each other, and at immense distances apart. +The first is situated on the top of the first of the seven circular +mountains, and the second on the top of _Kow Pra Men_. The others have +no terrestrial foundation, but are suspended in open space. + +These Chakrawans are far more innumerable than the particles of matter +which compose the earth. A mighty _Prom_ once desired to find the +limits of these systems. He was so powerful that by one step he could +cross a Chakrawan as swiftly as an arrow crosses the shadow of a +palmyra tree at midday. He travelled from one Chakrawan to another at +that rate for one thousand years, and then onward ten thousand more, +and then one hundred thousand more, until he was convinced that it was +impossible to find the limit, or to express their immensity in +numbers. + +The Budhist decalogue consists of ten commandments, viz. + +I. From the meanest insect up to man, thou shalt kill no animal +whatever. + +II. Thou shalt not steal. + +III. Thou shalt not violate the wife of another, nor his concubine. + +IV. Thou shalt speak no word that is false. + +V. Thou shalt not drink wine, nor anything that may intoxicate. + +VI. Thou shalt avoid all anger, hatred, and bitter language. + +VII. Thou shalt not indulge in idle and vain talk. + +VIII. Thou shalt not covet thy neighbor's goods. + +IX. Thou shalt not harbor envy, nor pride, nor malice, nor revenge, +nor the desire of thy neighbor's death or misfortune. + +X. Thou shalt not follow the doctrines of false gods. + +All who are habitually engaged in killing animals, stealing, +committing adultery, drinking ardent spirits and getting drunk, will +sink to the lowest hell. There are, however, five crimes which are +especially damnable, viz., murder of father or mother, murder of the +highest order of priests, called Arahang, wounding Budha's foot, so as +to make it bleed, (supposed to refer to the renouncing of the Budhist +religion,) and persuading priests to follow false doctrines or +practices. Those committing such sins go down to the very bottom of +the lowest hell. + +No new souls are ever made, the universe is ever stocked with +intelligent beings, and has been from eternity. These are continually +transmigrating from one state of being into another. All depends upon +merit and demerit. Every action and thought have their consequences, +either in the present or some future state of existence. Evil actions +produce evil consequences, which will eventually become manifest, and +cause a future birth, either in hell or in some inferior animal. +Hence, in speaking of the future, the Siamese always say _"tam boon +tam kam,"_ according to merit or demerit. An amount of demerit may be +cancelled by a corresponding amount of merit. We have had cooks in our +employ who have been obliged to kill animals such as chickens, &c., +and who, after leaving us, have entered the priesthood to atone for +their demerit. + +Over four hundred millions of the human race hold the Budhist religion +in some form or other. There is no people, however, who excel the +Siamese in devotedness and fidelity, and can show so many gorgeous +temples and monasteries. The government and the religion are so +inseparably connected together, that it is impossible to see how the +one can be overthrown without the other. It is a mutual union of +Church and State. No one can hold any civil office whatever under the +government, who has not spent at least three months in the priesthood. + +Budhism was brought from Ceylon to Cambodia, and thence to Siam, and +probably arrived in Siam about the fifth century of the Christian era. +The Siamese know of no other religion having existed amongst them. + +They make merit in Siam in different ways. One prolific source is the +building of temples or monasteries. These temples oftentimes cover +acres of ground, and besides the regular temple or shrine of the +idols, have houses or dormitories for the monks, and other +outbuildings. The temples are gaudy, but not magnificent, grand, or +massive. They are all accompanied with spires or pagodas, which +frequently reach a great height. The temple building proper is filled +with idols which are hideous in their appearance. Some are sitting, +some standing, and some are in a reclining posture. There is one +temple at the old city of Audia, said to have twenty thousand idols in +it, and the estimate cannot be far in excess of the real number. There +is one reclining idol in Bangkok, about one hundred and seventy-five +feet long, eighteen feet across the breast; and the feet of the idol +are six feet long. It is made of brick and mortar, heavily overlaid +with gold, and cost probably about $3,000. When the King wishes to +make merit, he builds a temple costing perhaps $100,000. When any of +the chief princes or nobles wish to make merit they do the same. The +temples built by the princes and nobles are all given to the King, and +then formally dedicated. These are called "Wat HLuang," or royal +temples, from the fact that the kings visit them once a year, and +distribute presents to the priests. The common people also join +together, and build temples, which are called "Wat Ratsadon," or the +people's temples. They are the same as the others, only not so grand, +and the kings do not visit them. There are in the city of Bangkok +alone about one hundred and twenty temples. + +Another prolific source of merit is by entering the priesthood. It is +the highest ambition of every mother to have all her sons take holy +orders in the priesthood, at some time or other during life, but +generally in the prime of it, as they thus not only make merit for +themselves, but also for the parents. It consequently becomes an +ambition to have as many sons as possible. The advent of a son is +hailed with delight, whilst that of a daughter is rather an occasion +of lamentation. The first question asked on the advent of a little +stranger is, "pen pu chai rú pu ying?" is it a boy or a girl? When +our first child was born, and our Siamese friends came to see the +little white stranger, finding it to be a girl, the only +congratulations they offered were, "tempte Maú tempte," too bad, +Doctor, too bad. The shortest time any one can remain in the +priesthood is three months, and as much longer as they choose. I have +met men who had been in the priesthood over forty years. I have met +them also who had been in it a number of times. It is no uncommon +thing for a man to leave his wife and family for a short time, and +enter the priesthood. + +The ceremony is very simple, consisting of asking the candidate a few +questions as to his motives, shaving his head, and bathing him +copiously with holy water, and clothing him with yellow robes. They +have also the order of _nains_, or novices, consisting of those too +young to take full orders. The clothing of the priests consists of a +yellow robe resembling somewhat the old Roman toga, with a scarf of +the same material, or something richer, thrown over the shoulders. But +as Budha was clothed in rags, they must imitate to some extent his +example, they therefore take the new yellow cloth, tear it in pieces, +and then sew it together again. This is done by the women, and is also +a source of merit. + +The priests go out early in the morning for their daily food. At every +house is stationed some member of the family, with a basin of boiled +rice, and a large brass spoon in it. When a priest comes along he +uncovers his vessel, and receives a spoonful of rice, and then passes +on to the next house. Some also give fish, fruit, and other things to +eat with the rice. When sufficient rice is collected for the day, they +return to the temples and take the morning meal. The next meal is +eaten just before noon, and nothing more until the next morning. It is +considered very sinful for a priest to eat after noon. The people also +frequently meet together at the different temples, and make feasts for +the priests, and give presents to them. + +There are in Bangkok alone over ten thousand priests, and all that +vast army can be seen starting out early every morning in search of +their daily food. + +It must cost Siam annually nearly $25,000,000 to keep up the +priesthood alone, and supposing the population to be eight millions, +which is perhaps an over-estimate, it will make on an average of over +three dollars for every man, woman and child in the kingdom. Now, if +every man, woman and child in the evangelical Christian Church would +average three dollars per annum, there would not be so many starving +ministers, and the Boards of the Church would not be compelled so +frequently to go a begging. The world too, at that rate, would soon be +evangelized. If the heathen can do so much for a false religion, what +should Christians not be willing to do for the holy religion of Jesus, +to which they owe everything they have, and are, and hope to be? + +Any violation of the laws of chastity whilst in the priesthood is most +severely punished. The culprit is publicly whipped with a ratan. He is +then paraded for three days around the city with a crier going before, +proclaiming his crime, and is then condemned to cut grass for the +king's elephants for life, and his posterity after him, to the most +remote generation. The other offending party is condemned to turn the +king's rice-mill for life, and her posterity after her to the most +remote generation. In consequence of the severe punishment, _slips_ of +that kind whilst in the priesthood, in proportion to the numbers, are +much less frequent than among the Christian ministry. Sodomy, however, +and other unmentionable crimes, are fearfully prevalent. + +The priests are the only persons in the kingdom who are not obliged to +crouch before the king. The king himself crouches before the +high-priest. When any one meets a priest, he places the palms of his +hands together and raises them to his forehead in reverence. + +The duty of the priests is to take care of the religion, recite +prayers at funerals, weddings, &c., and preach when called upon to do +so. The people frequently invite the priests to their houses to have +preaching. The sermons consist chiefly of exhortations to make merit, +and are generally in such lofty words and terms, taken from the Pali, +that the common people do not understand them. + +The Siamese also make pilgrimages to _Prabat_ and other sacred places. +Prabat is a beautiful little volcanic mountain about eighty miles +north of Bangkok. The rocks appear to have been thrown up in a plastic +state, and in cooling down left innumerable little holes or crevices +in the solid rock. One of these, about six feet long, is imagined to +be the impress of Budha's foot. They have accordingly bricked it up, +and have overlaid the wall with gold leaf. They have also erected over +it a beautiful little temple, whose floor is covered with silver +cloth, and whose walls are heavily covered with gold. Vast multitudes +flock thither during the months of January and February of every year, +to make their offerings at that sacred shrine. The principal offering +is gold leaf, which they paste on the inside of the footprint. There +are at least $5000 expended there annually in gold leaf alone. The +little caves also, with which the mountain abounds, are filled with +idols, and every prominent point is capped with a _pagoda_. At the +foot of the mountain is rather a hideous idol, at which all pilgrims +dismount from their elephants, and make an offering before ascending +to the more holy place. The offering consists chiefly of a twig from a +tree, or a few flowers. The tradition is, that whoever refuses to make +this offering will die before leaving the place. They were very much +surprised that we refused at least to dismount. They told us that Sir +Robert Schomburgk, the English Consul, who had visited there the +previous year, had also refused to dismount, and that he himself had +not died, but a favorite dog he had with him on the elephant had died +before he left the mountain. Sir Robert however, had a different +theory in regard to his dog, and blamed some one for administering to +him a dose of poison. Many of the most intelligent princes and nobles +have no faith in Prabat, but still assist in keeping up the delusion. + +There is also a short distance north of Prabat a very lofty rock +called Pra Chei, or sacred glory, where Budha is said to have once +taken shelter from a shower of rain, and departing, left his shadow. +Multitudes also flock thither to worship. We arrived there about ten +o'clock at night, and upon ascending a long flight of steps, found +numbers bowed before the rock and pasting gold leaf upon it. When we +told them that we could see no shadow, they attributed it to a want of +faith. + +The Siamese are also very much tormented with the fear of spirits, +both good and evil, and use every means to propitiate them. Witchcraft +is also very much feared. Wizards and witches are believed to have +power to put into the stomach of any one a piece of buffalo meat, or +other substance. A very disgusting circumstance of this kind occurred +near our premises. The father of a certain family took sick and died. +The family believed some foul play had been exercised in his case, and +when they came to burn the body, a small portion, perhaps the heart, +did not consume as rapidly as the rest. This was taken at once to be +the buffalo meat, and was taken home and eaten by the family. The +whole family ate of it, except one little girl who was absent in the +family of a missionary. The belief is that if they eat of it, they can +never be affected the same way. + +It is just to state that there are two schools of Budhism in Siam. The +late king, whilst a prince and in the priesthood, studied astronomy, +and became too intelligent to believe the teachings of the Budhist +books in reference to the system of the universe, and accordingly +undertook to reform Budhism, by discarding from the sacred books all +those things which conflicted with modern science, and especially in +reference to astronomy. Many of the most intelligent princes and +nobles went with him. A vast majority, however, swallow the whole of +the Budhist teachings. + +The greatest champion of the New School was Chow Phya Thipakon, late +Minister of Foreign Affairs. He was in some respects the greatest +thinker in the kingdom. He was the only man in the kingdom who, as +yet, has ventured to write a book, and have it printed wholly by his +own workmen. It consists of several hundred pages, and was +lithographed throughout, which must have taken considerable pains and +labor. The title is "Kitchanukit," a book explaining many things. He +commences by rather ridiculing the elementary system of education +practised in the temples, and tries to stimulate the natives to better +things. He also takes up the different systems of religion throughout +the world, so far as his knowledge extends, and compares them with his +own. He confutes, in his own way, the elementary religious tracts +published by the missionaries, and the evidences of Christianity. He +maintains his belief in his own system, and gives a few arguments in +favor of the transmigration of souls. He also gives a number of +illustrations and anecdotes bearing on that subject, of which the +following is a specimen: "Another instance is that of the child of a +Peguan at Paklat, (a town near Bangkok,) who, as soon as he had +learned to speak, told his parents that he was formerly named Makran, +and had been killed by a fall from a cocoanut tree, and as he fell, +his axe fell from his hand and dropped into a ditch; and they seeing +that his story coincided with something that had happened within their +knowledge, tried the child by making him point out the tree, and he +pointed out the tree, and his story was confirmed by their digging up +the axe from the ditch." + +Although the book evinces some thought and considerable knowledge, it +is infantile when he attempts to grapple with the great truths of +Christianity. H. Alabaster, Esq., for ten years Interpreter to H. B. +M. Consulate in Siam, has translated portions of the book, accompanied +with remarks of his own, and published it under the title of "The +Modern Budhist." + +It may be asked, what is the effect of such a system of religion upon +the morals of the people in comparison with those of eminently +Christian countries? There are many kinds of crimes in which Christian +nations far surpass them, such as those daring and dark outrages +perpetrated in our large cities, the recital of which shocks our +sensibilities every time we take up a morning paper. But heathen +morals have ever been the same, and the description which Paul gives +of the heathen of old, in the first chapter of the Epistle to the +Romans, is a complete description of the heathen of to-day. There is a +rottenness about everything, morally speaking, which we do not find in +Christian countries. It would be impossible on an occasion of this +kind, and before a mixed audience, to give you any idea of the +prevailing state of morals. I am not one of those, who, like the +English governess in the _Atlantic Monthly_, would consider Budhism a +shadow of Christianity, and "thank God" for it. It is eminently the +offspring of Satan, as all its bearings and workings on the heart and +morals will abundantly show. I have seen none of those glorious +death-bed scenes which she describes, and think they are rare. A +Siamese man lived neighbor to us for ten years. He could sit in his +own door and hear the gospel preached in our mission chapel. He was an +excellent neighbor, and was to all appearance a moral man. He had +observed, as nearly as possible, all the tenets of his religion. He +had made merit in every possible way. All his sons had entered the +priesthood. He was about seventy years old, and his death-sickness +came. The future was all dark to him. He struggled with, disease and +death for a number of days. One of our native church members called to +see his old neighbor, and ventured to speak to him about the +approaching change. The old man was unwilling to give up, and +answered, "Mai yak tai," I do not want to die; "Klua tai," I am afraid +to die; and then summoning all his remaining strength exclaimed, "Ch? +mai tai," I will not die. Still he had to die, as millions of his race +have done, without one ray of light to illuminate the soul, and no +faith in Jesus opening up to him the glories of the eternal world. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +EDUCATION AND LITERATURE. + + +The education of the Siamese is necessarily limited and the standard +low, when compared with that of European countries. The temples or +monasteries are the common schools of the country. Every priest can +take to the temple with him as many pupils as he can teach, so that at +almost every temple can be found a nice collection of boys, making a +very respectable school. These boys besides being taught the rudiments +of their own language, and the tenets of the Budhist religion, act +also as servants to the teacher, propelling his boat when he goes out +on the river, and doing other like menial turns for him. They live on +the surplus rice which is left, after the priests are satisfied. Every +pupil is taught to hold his teacher in special reverence, which lasts +through life. The males are all thus gathered in when boys, and taught +to read and write their own language, and the simple rules of +arithmetic, as the Siamese knowledge of that art does not extend +beyond the simple rules. It is consequently rare that a male can be +found who cannot read and write his own language, and on the other +hand it is just as rare that a female is found who can. No provision +has yet been made there for the education of females. Indeed the +feeling in high quarters has hitherto been against it, but not near so +strong as in India, and many other places, but that feeling is now +happily passing away. It used to be said that if woman could read she +would become too tricky for man. The females, amongst the common +people especially, are the drudges, and become wives and mothers so +early, that there is but little time for their education. Some of the +women of the higher classes have in some way learned to read, and the +missionary ladies have managed to teach some few others to read, +whilst employed in their families, but aside from these few exceptions +the great mass of the women are ignorant of letters. The late king +made one or two spasmodic efforts to have the women of the palace +taught English. Soon after he ascended the throne he employed some of +the missionary ladies to go to the palace regularly and teach, but +soon became alarmed lest they should teach too much religion, and +requested them to stop. A few years previous to his death also, he +employed an English governess in the palace, who, after about three +years rather arduous labor succeeded in giving the women and children +of the palace some knowledge of English, and perhaps a smattering of +some of the sciences. The higher order of education amongst the males +consists of a correct knowledge of their own language, and a +smattering at least of the Pali or sacred language. Some few who +remain sufficiently long in the priesthood make considerable +proficiency in the Pali. Their standard of education is also rather +depreciating than rising. Missionaries now find it difficult to secure +a young man sufficiently educated to make a good teacher. One reason +of this is that since the country has been opened to foreign commerce, +opportunities to make money are more common than previously, and young +men do not now remain sufficiently long in the priesthood to become +good scholars, but leave it to go into business. + +The Siamese language proper is monosyllabic and rather +poverty-stricken. It has however, been enriched from time to time from +the Pali, and from the languages of the surrounding nations, and by a +few words from the Chinese. Titles of nobility and distinction are all +taken from the Pali. Many of the words used in addressing the King, +and others high in authority, have been transferred from the Pali, and +some few from the Sanscrit. The late King professed to be proficient +in the Sanscrit, and some of their learned men now make pretensions in +that way. It is doubtful, however, whether the late King, although the +most learned man in the kingdom, had anything more than a smattering +of Sanscrit, and I do not suppose there is any one now in the kingdom +who knows anything about it worth naming. + +The Siamese alphabet consists of forty-four consonants, with several +vowel-points, diacritical marks and abbreviations. The alphabet is +divided into three classes, and there are also seven tones, so that +words beginning with a certain class of letters are spoken with a +raised tone, whilst others are spoken with rather a depressed tone. +Some of the consonants too, are spoken with an aspirate, whilst in +others the aspirate is withheld. This putting on the tone and the +aspirate in certain instances, and leaving them off in others, makes +it very difficult for one not born to it to acquire the language +correctly, _"Kai,"_ with an aspirate, means an egg, but by leaving off +the aspirate it is a chicken. Although spelled somewhat differently, +the sound to an unaccustomed ear is exactly the same. In these things +foreigners make some ridiculous mistakes. You have all probably heard +of the missionary lady somewhere, who, whilst in her garden, told a +servant to bring her a knife, as she thought, but was surprised to see +him coming out with a table on his head. I once heard a missionary, +otherwise good in the language, but who could never manage the +aspirates and unaspirates correctly, announcing to his audience that +there would be services at such an hour in the Siamese language, but +unfortunately he left off the aspirate, and announced that there would +be services in the _dead language_. Still the audience understood from +the connection what he meant. + +The literature of the Siamese is very meagre. They have a history of +their country which commences in fable, but after a few pages are +passed, it becomes a correct and reliable history of the kingdom. It +is written in a condensed style, and couched in good language. They +have also tolerably reliable histories of the neighboring countries, +such as Cambodia, Pegu, and Birmah. They are exceedingly fond of +fiction, and have a fabulous history of China, which has been +translated into Siamese, and is very popular. The Regent and Foreign +Minister have both been recently engaged in translating additions to +that fabulous history. If they would take as much pains in translating +the histories of the different countries of Europe and of America, +their people would soon become well informed in regard to the great +transactions of the world. The remainder of their literature consists +in vile and disgusting plays, in which they take great delight, both +in reading and seeing them performed in their theatres. They are also +very fond of a kind of jingling verse, and will listen for hours to +the mere jingle, caring little or nothing for the sense, of which it +is generally devoid. + + + + +CHAPTER V. + +MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. + + +The principle clothing of the Siamese consists of a waist-cloth called +a _"pa nung,"_ corresponding to the _sarang_ of India. It is about +two-and-one-half yards long, and one yard wide; is placed around the +waist, neatly tucked in, the two ends brought together, twisted, and +brought back between the legs and tucked in behind. Formerly this was +the only clothing worn, except a scarf thrown around the shoulders in +cool weather. The King formerly used to receive foreigners whilst +dressed in that style. Since the influx of foreigners however, they +have adopted a neat jacket with sleeves, and cut to fit tight to the +skin, and buttoned up in front. Those of the higher classes are made +of silk, but those of the common people are nothing but common white +muslin. The _"pa nungs,"_ also, of the better classes are made of +silk, whilst those of the common people are generally cotton. The +attire of the females is pretty much like that of the males, except +when they wish to dress, they have a neat yellow silk scarf which they +fold gracefully over the shoulders. The Siamese display excellent +taste in the selection of colors and figures, and have no love for the +gaudy in the way of clothing, like the Malays and some other eastern +nations. Shoes are seldom worn. The better classes have sandals or +slippers, but very likely a slave will be carrying them after the +owner, and when worn, are always thrown off before entering a house. +Occasionally however, you can see some young fellow rendering himself +ridiculous in a pair of European shoes and a European coat. + +The males shave the head, except a tuft on the top, which resembles a +shoe-brush. The females do not shave the head, but clip the hair as +closely as possible, leaving the tuft similar to the males, and a +small love-lock in front of each ear. + +They have a universal and disgusting practice of chewing the areca +nut. The nut of the areca palm is possessed of astringent properties +similar to the bark used in tanning. In connection with this nut they +use the leaf of the seri vine, which has a kind of pepperish taste. +They take white stone lime while yet unslaked, and mix with it the +powdered turmeric root, which turns it a crimson color. They take the +seri leaf and put on it a quantity of that red lime in the form of +paste, and then a portion of the areca nut, the leaf with the lime on +it, and some fine cut tobacco, are all put into the mouth together. +The saliva arising from such a mixture is a kind of blood-red color, +and is very copious. Their houses and walks have frequently a very +disgusting appearance, from large deposits of that red saliva having +been spit out of the mouth upon them. This process turns the teeth +black, and indeed destroys them, as the lime adheres to the teeth and +destroys the enamel, and finally they drop out by wholesale. Those who +have no teeth to chew the mixture, carry with them a small mortar, and +pound it all up together before putting it into the mouth. Both sexes +are addicted to this practice, and an exception can rarely be found. + +Black teeth are an element of beauty, and besides the chewing of the +areca nut, they resort to other means of coloring. When cautioned +against thus destroying the teeth, they invariably reply that "any +monkey can have white teeth." They never go anywhere without the box +containing the ingredients for chewing. The poorer classes carry their +own, but the rich have theirs carried after them by a slave. A man's +rank is indicated somewhat by the number of slaves that follow him, +and the golden box containing the areca nut, &c., and a teapot, are +the insignia. When one person calls on another, almost the first thing +done is to set out the tray containing the chewing material, and not +to do so is considered almost an insult. The males are also all +inveterate smokers from infancy. + +In going anywhere together, they never walk side by side as we would +do, but one after the other, according to rank or age. The husband +also always goes before, and his wife or wives walk behind. It is also +contrary to Siamese custom to have any one pass over their head, and +consequently they will not occupy the lower story of a house when +persons are above them on the next story. When the King goes out on +the canals in his boat, all the bridges have to be drawn, lest his +sacred head should pass under where some person had walked. No greater +insult can be offered than to take a man by the tuft of hair on his +head. It is the same as spitting in a man's face with us. + +Like all heathen, and I am sorry to say too many Christians, they are +very fond of jewelry, especially the women. Their fingers are +frequently nearly covered over with rings; gold chains are also thrown +around the neck and shoulders, and a neat gold pin through the lobe of +the ear. Children wear anklets and bracelets. Those of the rich are of +gold, and quite heavy; some are of silver, and those of the poorer +classes are brass. I have seen some of the children of princes and +nobles with several hundred dollars worth of jewelry on in the form of +anklets, bracelets and gold chains, and aside from the jewelry the +body was perfectly nude. + +The people are very much attached to the customs of their ancestors, +and what their fathers have done they must do, how absurd soever it +may be. _"Pen tumneum Thai,"_ it is Siamese custom, is sufficient +reason for doing anything. + +The principle food of the Siamese is rice and fish. Fish are very +abundant and cheap, and become a wholesome diet for that climate. It +is contrary to their religion to take animal life, and they never kill +any animals for their own consumption, but they do not scruple to eat +anything killed by another, if they can only roll off the +responsibility of killing it. They buy pork and fowls which have been +killed and dressed by the Chinese. They also eat animals which have +died. When warned that perhaps the animal died of some bad disease +which may prove injurious to them, they will answer that it can't +stand the fire; if there is anything of the kind, it will depart when +the meat comes in contact with the fire. They also live largely on +vegetables and hot peppers. The rice is boiled, and dished out into a +large basin or platter, and placed on the floor. The meats and +vegetables which have all been cut up fine before cooking, are also +dished out into small bowls and placed near the rice. Those about to +eat seat themselves around, tailor fashion, in a circle, each with a +bowl in his hand. He takes some rice from the large dish into his own +bowl, and then uses his fingers dexterously. When he wishes any of the +accompaniments he dips his fingers into the common dish. When there is +anything like soup or gravy, they have a common spoon, and each one +takes a spoonful into his mouth, and then passes the spoon to his +neighbor, and it thus goes around. They eat with apparent ease and +enjoyment, rolling up a ball of rice in the fingers, then throwing the +head a little back, and the mouth wide open, it disappears without +difficulty. They have never attempted to improve upon the fingers. The +Chinese invented the chop-sticks, and are apparently well pleased with +the result, for they never attempt to improve upon them; but any one +who has ever seen a Chinaman slabbering and blowing over his bowl of +rice, with a pair of chop-sticks, could not but wish to see him back +again at the more primitive fingers. The Siamese think we eat with +difficulty, and rather pity us for having so much ceremony. A +missionary and his wife were out on a mission tour, and came to a +village not frequented by Europeans. They stopped at the village and +partook of a meal. They of course had a table, and table implements +with them on their boat. The natives flocked around to see the +foreigners eat, and one old woman, after watching eagerly for a time, +turned away with a sigh, remarking, _"Kow kin yak tedio,"_ they eat +with great difficulty. + +Some of the princes and nobles have secured table furniture, and can +imitate European style very nicely, and some of their dinners given to +European officials are quite creditable; but when alone, they go back +again to their own mode. + +They have their own ideas of politeness in their social intercourse, +and are very strict in carrying them out; but in their intercourse +with foreigners they frequently try to imitate our customs, and as a +general thing spoil both. When a man meets a superior, he either +prostrates himself on the ground, or squats down, places the palms of +his hands together, and raises them up to the face. When equals meet +they do not say "Good morning," as we would do, but "Pai nai,"--where +are you going. The other will give an evasive answer, saying, "O, I am +not going anywhere, only up here a little ways." + +Their household furniture is generally meagre, consisting only of a +few cooking utensils, and mats and moscheto bars for sleeping. There +was a while that some of the higher classes manifested a desire for +European furniture, and bought it up very readily, but perhaps on +account of a nod from high quarters, there appears to be a reaction in +that quarter. + +The people are generally indolent, and lazy, and very much addicted to +gambling, which is, perhaps, the ruling vice of the country. At every +gambling house groups of men and women may be seen sitting from +morning till night, and from night till morning, intently gambling. +They will gamble away everything they have, and incur large debts; and +then sell their wives, children, and even themselves into slavery, to +pay their "debts of honor." They have different kinds of games, but +that on which they stake most is a Chinese game called _po_, and is a +kind of dice. + +They are exceedingly fond of theatricals, and every prince and +nobleman, who can afford it, has a theatre of his own. No festival of +any kind can be held without theatricals. Their plays are generally +some fictitious love tale, or history, and some of the actions of the +actresses are most lascivious and vulgar, but perhaps not more so than +the exhibitions of the stage in Europe and America to-day. + +They are also very fond of bathing, which is perhaps very conducive to +health in that climate. They bathe regularly at least three times a +day. They always carry a cloth with them for bathing purposes. Both +sexes meet together at the common bathing place, and they slip off the +regular cloth and don the bathing cloth so dexterously that nothing +amiss can be noticed in the transaction, and then plunge into the +river, both sexes being expert swimmers. Notwithstanding their +frequent ablutions, however, cleanliness is by no means a national +virtue, and some of their habits are extremely filthy. + +There are some things in which "Young America" might well pattern +after the Siamese. One is extreme reverence and respect for age. The +aged receive that reverence justly due to them in Siam, perhaps more +than in any other country. Another is love and reverence for parents. +The parent may sell a child into slavery, which is frequently done, +still when the child grows up, he never loses respect for that parent. +When a child too, commits a crime, and tries to evade the law, the +authorities at once lay hold upon the parents, which is sure to bring +the culprit back to give himself up. + +Although the Chinese have more natural stability of character than the +Siamese, and are in many other respects superior to them, still the +latter are in many respects the more hopeful people. A Chinaman knows +everything, in his own estimation already, and is unwilling to learn +from any one; whilst the Siamese will pick up all the information they +can from others. Whatever they can get of European arts and sciences, +without acknowledging the authority, and especially without costing +them anything, they have no scruples about receiving. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + +COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE. + + +It has long been the custom amongst the Siamese to ascribe honor and +glory to their princes and lords, in proportion to the number of wives +they have, and can maintain. + +The king has generally one whom he constitutes his Queen Consort. A +young princess of the highest rank that can be found in the kingdom is +selected. She however is not certain of promotion until after she has +lived with the king for a time, and has succeeded in gaining a large +place in the royal affections. When this is sufficiently accomplished, +the king appoints a day for her exaltation. Three days are usually +devoted to the purpose. The chief officers of the palace, the chief +scribes, and the chief princes and nobles of the kingdom are present. +The principal ceremonies devolve upon the priests, of whom there are +quite a number present, both Budhist and Brahmin. The princess is +copiously bathed in pure water, in which the leaves of a certain kind +of tree, supposed to possess purifying and healthful influences, are +put. Most of the time is spent in feasting, but on the third day she +is placed on a small throne under a white canopy, where she is bathed +with holy water, the priests reciting prayers the while. She is then +conducted to a place where the wet clothes are laid aside, and she is +arrayed in queenly costume, jewels, and diamonds, and then displays +herself to those in attendance. Instances have occurred when the king +had two Queen Consorts. In such cases one is called the queen of the +right hand, and the other the queen of the left hand. + +It has only happened about twice in Siamese history, that the king has +taken a foreign princess for his Queen Consort. This can happen in one +of two ways. The foreign prince wishing to secure the friendship and +alliance of the king of Siam, makes the first advance, offering his +daughter to the king of Siam. If, after having received testimonials +of her beauty and worth, the king is favorably disposed, he sends an +embassy to formally ask her of the father. The other way is, that the +king of Siam is the first mover in the matter, and makes the first +overtures. + +In addition to his Queen Consort the king can have as many inferior +wives, or concubines, as he wishes. These are called _"Nang-ham,"_ +literally, a woman forbidden--that is forbidden to go out of the +palace. Although women as a general thing in Siam are not in any way +secluded, still these inferior wives are rigidly confined within the +palace walls. During the late reign however, much more laxity in this +respect was displayed, than in any former reign. They cannot go +outside of the palace walls without a royal permit, and that only on +special and extraordinary occasions. The king seldom seeks an inferior +wife, but they are presented to him by princes and nobles wishing to +gain the royal favor, and thus they consign their daughters to a life +oftentimes worse than exile for that purpose. It is said that the late +king never left home but he returned with some new accessions to his +harem, and that they became so numerous that he oftentimes had to +refuse them. + +The better classes amongst them procure wives something after the +following manner. There is nothing like courting amongst the young +folks, as we understand that term, unless it is done by stealth, which +is almost impossible, from the fact that the mothers exercise the +strictest vigilance over their unmarried daughters. In this respect +American mothers might often profit by the example of these heathen. +Girls become wives there at the early age of fourteen, and an old maid +is quite a curiosity. + +Although young men in search of wives are not allowed the privilege of +courting, still they keep their eyes open, and when one sees a young +lady he fancies, he takes the proper steps to secure her. He makes the +matter known to his parents, if he has any; they employ an elderly +lady who is denominated a _"Maa su"_, and who is acquainted with and +respected by the young lady's parents. This _"Maa su"_ goes to the +house of the young lady's parents, and by a series of nice +insinuations, or otherwise, finds out how such a match would take, and +returns to report progress. If indications are favorable, the parents +of the young man then select a number of elderly persons of both +sexes, who are respectable, and intimate with both families. These +they invite to their house, and hold a consultation, and after the +matter is thoroughly discussed and the match decided to be a favorable +one, a propitious day is chosen, and the elderly persons repair to the +house of the young lady's parents. These of course divining their +object, receive them kindly, and according to custom, set out the tray +containing areca nut, seri leaf, red lime, and tobacco for chewing. +This ceremony over, the elders broach the subject of their mission, +taking good care to address the parents according to their rank, as +one improperly used pronoun might spoil the whole. If it is proper to +say _you_, they say it, and if it is proper to say your _honors_, or +your _graces_, they say that. + +"Such parents having ascertained that this is a propitious day, have +commissioned us to come and confer with you concerning their son of +such a name, who has as yet no wife. His parents having put the +question to him, 'Have you any one in your mind, you would like to +have become your wife, and to whom you could trust your life in +sickness, and your obsequies after death?' The young man answered, +that he had your daughter of such a name, and her only. The parents +have therefore commissioned us to visit you the much respected parents +of the young lady, and confer with you in reference to this matter. +What do you the parents say?" + +The parents reply: "Our daughter is one we love much, and the young +man is one whom his parents love much. We have an ancient proverb +which says, 'Move slowly and you will gain your object, and a +prolonged effort generally results favorably.' We will consult our +relatives on the right hand, and on the left, and see what they say +about it. Please call again." + +After waiting a reasonable time and another propitious day has come, +the elders call again. The parents of the young lady will say: "We +have consulted our relatives, and they are unanimously of the opinion +that if the young man really loves our daughter, and can confide in +her as a proper person to take care of him in sickness, and take +charge of his body after death, his affections and confidence should +be planted." "But how is it in regard to the ages, and birthdays of +the parties? Are they such as to be suitable to each other?" The +Siamese have a superstition that persons born in certain years, are +incompatible with each other. For instance, if one was born in the +year of the _dog_, and the other in the year of the _rat_, or one in +the year of the _cow_, and the other in the year of the _tiger_, they +would be incompatible with each other. The matter is accordingly +referred to some fortune-teller, who, for a small fee, generally +pronounces no serious difficulty in the way. + +This difficulty cleared up, the elders call for a further discussion +of the preliminaries. They say:--"Since birth-days do not interfere, +what shall be said about the mutual stock for the young couple to +commence business on, and the money for building a house for the young +couple?" According to Siamese custom the bridegroom almost invariably +goes to live with the parents of the bride, and accordingly puts up a +house on their premises, and as near the old mansion as possible. Thus +a man who has a number of daughters, finds himself surrounded by a +village, by the time they are all married off. The parents of the +young lady will answer, "We are by no means affluent, that we could +devote much money to that purpose. But allow us to ask, how will it be +with the parents of the young man--how much will they be willing to +give their son?" The others will reply, "It depends altogether on the +parents of the young lady." The other party will reply, "If such be +the case, we would suggest that they appropriate, say one hundred +_ticals_ ($60), for the purpose of building a house; and for mutual +trade _five hundred ticals_, and that they also contribute areca nut, +seri leaf, red lime, cakes, &c., for wedding purposes, say one hundred +salvers or dishes." The plan of the new house, and the number of rooms +are generally also specified. The elders then return and report to the +parents of the young man, and if they are satisfied, a bargain is +struck. + +All preliminaries having been made, the young man goes to work to +build his house, which generally requires but a short time, and the +parents of the young lady do not delay to consult astrologers in +reference to a propitious day for the wedding. The day having been +fixed, and all things arranged, the friends of both parties are +invited to assist in carrying out the arrangements. The parents of +both parties unite in selecting some elderly persons, who shall be the +bearers of the money, together with two suits of white raiment, an +offering to the bride's parents, and the wedding cakes, &c. This is +done in procession, either in boats on the river, or by land, with +bands of music playing wedding airs. The money and presents are given +over to the bride's parents, and they in turn bring out their portion +of the money, and perhaps a slave or two, to assist the young bride in +performing her household duties. The guests being all assembled, the +money and presents are all exhibited. The elders then count the money +of both parties, as legal witnesses. Both sums are thrown together, +and sprinkled over with a little rice, scented oil, flowers, &c., +symbolical of blessings craved on the young couple. The joint stock is +then delivered over to the parents of the bride for safe keeping. + +Some time is then spent in feasting and mutual conversation, and +priests are chanting prayers the while. The bridegroom then, in +company with some of his young friends, goes to his new house. + +The bride at the same time dispatches a lad neatly dressed, bearing a +tray of areca nut, who meets them there, and invites them to be seated +and enjoy themselves. She also decks herself in gay apparel, and in +company with some of her attendants repairs to the same building, but +the two parties are still separated by a screen. Religious services +are then held, after which the screen is withdrawn and the elders +proceed to bathe the young couple copiously with holy water. The chief +elder pours it first upon the head of the bridegroom, and then upon +the head of the bride, pronouncing a blessing upon each. The +attendants of the bride then assist her in changing her wet apparel +for dry, but still, if anything, more gay than the former. A finely +dressed lad then appears with a silver plated tray, containing a +handsome suit for the bridegroom, being a present from the bride's +parents, in which he speedily attires himself. Whilst these things are +going on the priests are rehearsing prayers for the benefit of the +young couple. All are then invited to a feast prepared by the bride's +parents, and when this is over the guests all return to their homes. +The bride stays with her parents, but the bridegroom goes to his new +house, where he has secured a band of music, and serenades the bride +until a late hour. Early next morning the guests all assemble, and +have a feast for the priests in which all vie with each other in their +attentions to the clergy. They then have another feast for themselves. +If this is a propitious day the ceremonies are closed in the evening. +A respectable couple, friends of the bride, who are man and wife, and +who themselves have been blessed with a large family of children, are +selected, and they then repair to the new house and prepare the bridal +bed. About 9 o'clock in the evening the elders conduct the bride to +her new home, and after some counsels and exhortations, the young +couple are left alone perhaps for the first time. Oftentimes however, +if the second day is unpropitious, the ceremonies are continued until +the third or fourth day. + +After a few days have elapsed the bridegroom conducts his bride to +visit his parents. She takes with her a few presents of cakes and +fruit, and upon entering the house prostrates herself three times to +the floor, and is then taken into the embrace and confidence of the +family. The bridegroom also pays a formal visit to the bride's +parents, and prostrates himself before them. + +After the birth of the first child the joint stock of money is +produced, and the young couple enter into business for themselves, as +they are supposed to have lived off the bride's parents up to this +time. There are three things which are considered absolutely essential +in these wedding ceremonies. These are three metallic platters, one +containing a kind of sweet cakes called _"Kanome cheen",_ or Chinese +cakes; another contains a kind of mince-meat, highly seasoned, and +much prized; and the third contains areca nut, seri leaf, red lime, +and tobacco for chewing purposes. These articles constitute what is +called the _"Kan mak,"_ literally the areca-nut tray, but which has +become one of their names for a wedding. + +Marriage amongst them appears to be little more than a civil contract, +in which the bride has but little choice, but yields implicit +obedience to the will of the parents. + +If a young man attempts to pay his addresses to a young lady without +going through the proper channel, he is supposed to be doing so from +improper motives, and stands a chance to get himself chastised by some +male member of the family. We had once in our school a young man, who +was rather fancy, and who attempted to address a young lady in the +neighborhood, without taking the proper steps. One evening two of the +young lady's brothers met him, and administered to him a sound +thrashing. + +A man in Siam possesses the prerogative of administering to his wife a +little wholesome chastisement, if she fails to fulfil her duties. I +have seen a few instances in which I really thought it was deserved, +and did good, but as a Christian missionary, and a representative of +the free United States, where women are clamoring for the same rights +as men, I had to discourage such things under all circumstances. + +Polygamy is not common amongst the middle and lower classes, simply on +account of their inability to maintain more than one wife, but divorce +is very easy, being only a dissolving of the civil contract by the +mutual consent of the parties, and then each party is at liberty to +marry again. There are however, many happy marriages in Siam, and I +have seen old people of seventy, who had spent a long life together +and raised large families. + +Notwithstanding the vigilance of the mothers, there is occasionally a +runaway match. In such cases however, they as soon as possible take +all proper steps to propitiate the parents. They select respectable +persons, and send them with presents to the parents, and, as a general +thing, like runaway matches everywhere; after a short time every thing +is smoothed over satisfactorily. I had in my employ a young man who +was an orphan. He became enamored with a young lady in the +neighborhood, and through his friends secured the consent of her +parents, but as he was poor, the wedding was to be postponed a year. +In the mean time, a well-to-do Chinaman, who had considerable money at +his command, came along and proposed. The parents consented, +notwithstanding the former contract, and went on to make arrangements +for the wedding, without telling the daughter anything about it. A few +days before the wedding was to come off, she got wind of what was +going on, and that night ran away and came down to our place, to hunt +up her other lover. In the morning he came to me in great trepidation, +but unwilling to give up his prize. I rather felt for the young folks, +and selected some of the most honorable persons in the neighborhood, +and sent them up to the parents, but they were inexorable. I then sent +for them to come down to our place, which they did through respect for +me, but would still do nothing, and threatened to go to law; but I +told them I would defend the young man in his just rights to the last. +After a few days however, all was quieted down, and the matter +smoothed over amicably. A faithful creature she also proved to be. She +worked and kept up the house, and all the expenses, whilst he worked +to pay me a tolerably large debt, for money which I advanced him on +the occasion. + +The nobility have all a plurality of wives, in proportion to their +means and rank. The first one taken, is head or mistress over the +others, and the whole get along as harmoniously together as such an +arrangement could be expected to do, and much more so than the same +arrangement would do with us. A nobleman is rather to be envied than +otherwise on his return home, as he receives so many delicate +attentions from his numerous wives, who all vie with each other in +meriting a liberal share of the divided affections of their lord. +Woman knows her place in Siam, and there are no such unfrocked +specimens of the sex there, as Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Lucretia Mott, +and others. Polygamy is however, one of the curses of the land, and +one of the great barriers to the introduction of the gospel. It is one +of those mountains which the power of the gospel must eventually bring +low. The day is coming when it must be abolished even in Siam. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + +CEREMONIES FOR THE DYING AND DEAD. + + +The Siamese dispose of their dead by cremation. When a prince of rank +is found to be near death, the relatives suspend every other care, and +assist in giving the departing spirit as good a passport as possible +into the spirit land. Every effort is made to fix the thoughts of the +dying man on Budha. They take their turns in calling out as loudly, +and distinctly as possible, _"Pra Arahang,"_ one of the names of +Budha. It is uttered as much as eight times in a minute, so that it is +impossible to hear anything else. This seems to be the "Extreme +Unction" of the Budhist. When all evidence of the dying man's hearing +is past, the attendant friends will raise their voices to a stunning +pitch, hoping that the departing spirit may still hear _Pra Arahang_. +After it is thought Pra Arahang can be no longer heard, the most +uncontrollable wailing is commenced, which can be heard to a great +distance. The friends of the deceased, household slaves, and all, +engage in this outburst of grief. + +When a prince of high rank has died, the King visits the house of +mourning and bathes the corpse with water, with his own hands. After +him other princes present come forward, and pour a dipper of water +upon the corpse. Next comes the nobles who are present, according to +their rank, and do the same. When all the princes and nobles present +have performed this office, certain officials present proceed to dress +the corpse. They put on it a pair of tight-fitting pantaloons, and a +tight jacket. Over these they apply a winding-sheet, wrapping it as +tightly as possible. Quicksilver is also poured down the throat. The +corpse is then placed in a copper urn, in a sitting posture. This +copper urn is then placed inside of a golden urn. The inner urn has a +grating at the bottom, and the outer one has a stop-cock, by which the +juices flowing from the body are daily drawn off, until it becomes +perfectly dry. The King usually remains until the corpse has been +placed in the urn, and that placed on an elevated platform, ascending +by three gradations to the height of about five feet. Whilst the +corpse is being thus elevated, conch-shell blowers and trumpeters are +performing lustily upon their instruments, with all the harmony +possible. This trumpeting is called the inviting of the corpse to be +seated on the platform. + +When thus seated, all the insignia of royalty to which the prince has +been accustomed during life are brought and arranged in order at the +foot of the urn. These consist of his golden areca nut box, his golden +cigar case, his golden spittoon, his writing apparatus--in short, all +the utensils which he was accustomed to use in daily life. The band of +trumpeters come at early dawn, at noon, and at dusk, every day, to +perform the funeral dirge. They come in concert with some wailing +women, who chant the virtues and excellences of the deceased. These +women spend an hour each day in that service, and in the intervals a +company of priests, seated upon a platform near by the urn, chant +incantations, and recite moral lessons in the Pali language. These +services are kept up daily until the time appointed for burning has +arrived, which is six, and sometimes even eight months after death. +The remains of a king generally lie in state about twelve months, +before burning. + +Upon the death of a king his successor commences at once to make +arrangements for erecting the temporary building for his cremation, +which is called a _Pra mane_. The building is generally in size and +grandeur proportionate to the estimation in which the deceased has +been held. Royal orders are sent to all the provinces, and even to the +tributary States, where large timber grows, requiring them to furnish +posts for the _Pra mane_, and especially four enormous sticks, which +are to form the central pillars of the building. These central pillars +must be of the finest timber that can be found, very straight, and +from two hundred to two hundred and fifty feet long. Besides the large +ones, twelve other pillars of smaller size are needed. Timbers which +have been used on a former occasion cannot be used again, but all must +be new. The large pillars are cut in the forest, dragged to the river +by elephants, and floated down at high water to the capital. When they +arrive at the city, a general levy is made all over the country for +workmen, and those huge logs are dragged up to the place mainly by +force, as it would be contrary to custom to employ any labor-saving +machine in getting them up. They are first dressed off, and then +planted with great difficulty in the ground about thirty feet deep. +The four large pillars are planted in a square, about one hundred and +sixty feet in circumference. When planted, the tops incline a little +toward each other, forming a kind of truncated pyramid, having four +sides, and is about two hundred feet high. On the top of these pillars +is erected a pagoda-shaped spire, adding about fifty feet more to the +height. The spire is covered with gilded and tinselled paper, so as to +give it a neat and grand appearance, especially from a distance. At +each side of this central pyramid is erected a wing, by means of other +smaller posts, and extending about forty feet, and facing the four +cardinal points of the compass; and each wing is also capped with a +pagoda spire. The whole is covered with a basket-work made of bamboo +splits, which is covered again with gilt and tinselled paper. The +building is surrounded by a bamboo fence, enclosing, perhaps, two +acres of ground, and entered by two large gates. Inside of the fence +are numerous temporary buildings, made of bamboo, for the +accommodation of priests, theatrical performances, and other +exhibitions. On the west side of the Pra mane is the building for the +accommodation of the King and his family. The roof of this building is +made of crimson cloth, with gilt edges, and the sides are covered with +curtains, which in front are tucked in neatly to the posts. At each +end, at the comb of the roof, is a peculiar shaped horn extending out, +which is peculiar to royal buildings and temples. + +The whole area of the enclosure is covered with a floor made of split +bamboos neatly woven together. Immediately at the base of the Pra mane +are small artificial mountains, and artificial lakes, and ponds, upon +which small boats and miniature floating houses are moored. Also +flowers, shrubbery, and every other thing imaginable, which is +considered at all ornamental. On the outside of the enclosure are +houses built for the accommodation of princes, nobles, and all +foreigners who may wish to attend, and who are all entertained at the +royal expense. Rope dancing, juggling, and every other imaginable feat +are also carried on outside. At night, too, those brilliant fireworks, +in which the Siamese so much excel, are touched off by the King +himself, and are kept up to a late hour every night. + +Directly under the tall spire in the centre of the building is erected +what may be termed the _Pra mane_ proper. A floor is laid over the +whole building about twenty feet from the ground, and upon that floor, +directly under the tall spire, is erected an octagonal pyramid, about +sixty feet in circumference. It diminishes by right angled gradations, +to the height of about thirty feet, and terminates in a truncated top, +and upon this top is placed the urn containing the royal remains. On +an appointed day the royal remains are brought out and placed upon the +_Pra mane_. This is done in a procession. The governors of the +different provinces, and the kings of the different tributary states +have all been ordered to be present at the cremation. Early in the +morning of the day of the procession, the chief princes, nobles, and +rulers, assemble at the palace. The golden urn, richly decked with +diamonds, containing the remains, is placed on an elevated seat, upon +a huge and unwieldy car, drawn by two horses, assisted by hundreds of +men. The funeral car is preceded in the procession by two others. The +first is occupied by the high-priest of the kingdom alone, reading as +he goes moral lessons from the sacred books, in the Pali language. The +second car is occupied by a few of the favorite children of the +deceased. A strip of silver cloth, about six inches wide, extends from +the thighs of the high-priest to the seat occupied by the children in +the next car, and thence to the funeral car, and is attached to the +urn. This forms the mystical union between the deceased, the sacred +book, and his children. The car next behind the funeral car contains a +few sticks of sandal wood, with ends gilded, for the purpose of +burning the corpse. These cars are all drawn by horses, assisted by +scores of men. There are also in the procession numbers of other cars, +containing figures of lions, tigers, elephants, rhinoceroses, and +numbers of indescribable fabulous animals, and upon the backs of all +these animals are placed piles of yellow cloths, to be presented to +the priests. There are also numbers of boats placed on small wheels +and drawn along, which are also to be presented to the priests. In +front and rear of the cars are hundreds of men, dressed in white, and +having white turbans, terminating in a pagoda point, and who represent +the _Tewedas_, or Budhist angels. When the procession arrives at the +place, the urn is drawn up an inclined plane, and placed upon the top +of the truncated platform already described. The piece of narrow +silver cloth, already mentioned, is attached to the top of the urn, +and extends to the floor, and then out the east and west wings of the +building to the steps. High above the urn is suspended a neat golden +canopy, of that indescribable form for which the Siamese are so +celebrated. Around and under the canopy are hung beautiful white +scented flowers, arranged in the form of a chandelier; splendid +chandeliers are also suspended all around for the purpose of +brilliantly lighting up the _Pra mane_. Nearly all the priests in the +kingdom are called into requisition on these occasions, who chant +prayers and recite moral lessons. + +All the chief princes and nobles, the family and family servants of +the deceased, are all dressed in white, and have their heads shaven, +the badge of mourning. When the time has come for igniting the fire +the outer golden urn is removed, leaving only the inner copper urn. +The grating at the bottom of the copper urn is covered over with +spices and fragrant powders. All valuable or precious articles are +removed from the platform. The platform is also lowered some feet, to +make it more convenient. The sandal wood is arranged under the grate +of the urn, and precious spices and fragrant articles are placed +amongst the wood. A gunpowder train is arranged, extending to the +place where the king is. All being ready, the king takes electrical +fire, which has been preserved in the palace for a long time for such +purposes, and ignites the fuse, and soon the wood is in a blaze. The +family of the deceased, and the chief princes and nobles are all +standing near, with lighted wax candles in their hands, and each in +turn steps up and places the candle amongst the wood. Tubs of water +are standing near, and men with dippers ready to prevent the flames +from rising too high, and consuming the whole building. Many persons +from reading descriptions of these cremations, have got the idea that +the whole building is burned, but nothing is burned but the sandal +wood and the corpse which is in the urn. When the wood is fired the +band strikes a funeral dirge, and the women commence wailing, which +generally lasts only a few minutes. When the ceremonies are all over +the _Pra mane_ is taken down, never to be used again. + +The corpse is generally burned on the third day of the ceremonies, and +they are kept up in the same manner for three days after the burning +proper, making about six days in all. After the burning, the charred +bones still remaining are collected, put into a small golden urn, and +kept by the family. The present king has the remains of his ancestors +for many generations back, preserved in this manner. The ashes are +also collected, when a procession of boats is formed, and they are +scattered upon the river. + +During these ceremonies much is given away in presents, for the +purpose of making merit. Small gold and silver coins, and gold rings, +are put into _limes_, and other small fruit, and these are scattered +amongst the crowd, and they scramble for them. The king amuses himself +at this kind of sport very frequently during the ceremonies. Other +small fruits contain lottery tickets, which always draw a small +article of some kind. These are also given away. Outside the enclosure +are artificial trees, full of _limes_, in every one of which is a +small coin. A person frequently during the ceremonies ascends a +platform, pulls off the _limes_ and scatters them amongst the crowd, +and then such a scramble as there will be. Persons frequently get hurt +in the scramble, and it is frequently muddy, and I have seen the +scramblers all covered over with mud. The royal funerals are very +expensive. The funeral of the late king must have cost at least +$150,000. + +The common people, on account of the expense, do not keep their dead +long, but burn them as soon as possible, but in substantially the same +manner. They do not erect a _Pra mane_, but most of the temple grounds +have a permanent _Pra mane_. I have also frequently seen them burning, +out in the open space, without any covering. The corpse is placed in a +board coffin, covered over with figured paper, and is then taken to +the temple and burned. There is a very disgusting practice more or +less common amongst them. Sometimes the person dying orders it to be +done in order to make merit, and sometimes the friends do it of their +own accord. When the corpse is taken to the place of burning, they +take knives, cut the flesh from the bones, and feed it to the +vultures. These filthy birds will be perched near by, and will come +down into the crowd to receive the coveted morsel, which they either +carry off, or swallow upon the spot. After the flesh is thus taken +off, the bones are burned. + +Persons dying of cholera, small-pox, in childbirth, or any sudden +disease, and by suicide, are not burned immediately, but are buried +for a few months, and are then taken up and burned. Criminals +executed, and paupers, are given to the vultures wholesale. Medical +students would have no difficulty in getting subjects there. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +THEORY AND PRACTICE OF MEDICINE + + +When we consider that amidst all the light which the latter half of +the nineteenth century sheds upon the subject, the theory and practice +of medicine amongst western nations are still enveloped in darkness, +and are constantly changing, it is not to be wondered at that a nation +like the Siamese is almost wholly in the dark upon such a subject. The +Rev. D. B. Bradly, M.D., the oldest missionary in Siam, and who for +many years practised medicine in Bangkok, has prepared an abstract of +the Siamese "Theory and Practice of Medicine," which was published in +the _Bangkok Calendar_ of 1865, and from which the abstract which I +shall give at present is mainly taken. + +The Siamese believe the human system to be composed of four +elements--water, air, fire, and earth, and that disease is simply a +derangement in the proportions of these elements. They believe also +that all nature is constituted in the same way, and that the elements +without, are continually operating upon the elements within the body, +producing health or disease. For instance, if fire from without enters +the body in undue proportions, it will derange the healthy equilibrium +of the same element within, and will produce one or more of the +diseases into which fire enters, such as fevers, measles, small-pox, +&c. Each element is supposed to have its season of influence to +produce disease, just as the fruits of the earth have their seasons. +Their medical books, and common parlance, both say that in such and +such months, wind produces most disease, and in such and such other +months, fire produces most, and so with all the other elements. The +internal elements are also supposed at certain times to become +deranged from causes wholly internal. For instance, one of their +theories in regard to apoplexy is, that the internal wind blows from +all parts of the body upon the heart, with such force that it is often +ruptured, and death immediately ensues. The other theory is, that the +wind has fled, and left a vacuum in the upper story, and it must be +forced back again, if a cure is to be effected. + +All diseases are produced either from an excess or diminution of one +or more of the four elements; and, according to their theory, wind +produces more disease than any, or all of the other elements combined. +If you ask any Siamese what is the matter with him, in nine cases out +of ten, he will answer, _"Pen lom"_--it is wind, or disease produced +by wind. + +Their theory also teaches that all vital motions of the body are +primarily produced by wind taken into the system by inhalation, as +wind enters a bellows, and proceeds to the heart, and the heart by its +expansions, invites it into the body, and then, by its own power it +passes to all parts, and is the approximate cause of all internal +circulation. + +There are two grand divisions of internal wind, viz., that above, and +that below the diaphragm. Strictures in the chest, headache, epilepsy, +and apoplexy, are produced by wind beating upward. Colic, flatulency, +inflammation of the bowels, &c., are caused by wind from above beating +downward. + +It is seldom however, that disease runs its course without involving +two or more of the other elements. For instance, in case of a common +boil, the wind first drives the blood from all quarters into the +locality of the disease, where it stagnates, being invested by wind. +Secondly, the water from the blood consequently settles in that place, +as water in a tea-kettle before the fire is applied. Thirdly, the +internal fire having nothing to drive it away, acts upon the water, +and heats it to scalding. And, fourthly, the earth, inclusive of the +crassiment of the blood, which had stagnated, and other solid matter +in the locality, become diseased from great heat, and are consequently +decomposed and melted down into matter. Anasarca, or general dropsy, +belongs to the water-class, and is produced by the watery parts of the +blood settling under the skin, and among the muscles, causing the +parts to puff outward. But water is not the sole cause; there is also +a diminution of fire. If fire had been present in due proportions, it +would have dried up the surplus water, as the sun dries up the dew. + +In the hot season, heat from without combines with heat from within, +and produces an unhealthful degree of heat in the body, and causes +disease of the fire-class. In the rainy season too much water is +absorbed into the system, filling intensely the natural vacuum in the +upper part of the head, and produces disease of the water-class. The +earth produces disease through her mists and vapors. Cholera is +supposed to arise from this source. + +They also believe that spirits, good and evil, have great power over +the elements, and have much to do in producing disease. They are +consequently held in continued dread of them, and use every means to +propitiate them. They never start on a journey, or enter a forest +where fevers prevail, without first making an offering to the spirits. + +They believe that medicine has power to counteract the deranged +elements, and restore them to a healthful equilibrium. The origin and +practice of medicine they believe to have been supernatural. Their +medical books declare that the father of medicine was so privileged, +that wherever he went, every individual member of the vegeto-medical +kingdom was sure to summon his attention, and speak out, revealing its +name and medical properties; and since the days of miracles have +passed away, the science is only now to be acquired by following +closely the original medical books. + +They have four classes of medicines, each calculated to counteract the +disturbances caused by each of the four elements. The _modus operandi_ +of each individual class is supposed to be as various as the specific +diseases. For instance, medicine for wind in the head is quite +different, and acts differently from medicine for wind in the bowels. +A sternutatory snuff, a wash for the head, a patch or plaster, may +dispel the wind in the head, whilst it will require a carminative to +allay the storm in the bowels. It is believed that wind of every kind +may not only be expelled from the body by way of the esophagus and +rectum, but also by the pores of the skin, and all the secreting +organs of the body. It may hence be drawn off by suction; as cupping, +poultices, bleeding, and scarification. They also attempt to drive the +surplus wind from one part of the body to another part where it may be +wanting. If the disease arise from a deficiency of wind, they try to +raise an artificial breeze in the system by appropriate medicines. +Giddiness is supposed to arise from a deficiency of wind blowing +upward upon the brain, and the upper part of the skull becomes a +vacuum. They consequently fill the stomach as full as possible with +food, and put the patient to bed, and he will awake quite well. If +there is a want of heat, they produce artificial heat; and if there is +too much, they employ a refrigerating treatment. If there is too much +water, they try to draw it off by drastic cathartics. In all their +treatment they employ opposites. + +Their medicines are derived chiefly from the vegetable kingdom, and +from those kinds too which are indigenous to their own country. Some +few articles are brought from China, and sold by the Chinese +apothecaries. Barks, roots, leaves, chips, fruits, and herbs, +constitute the great bulk of their _materia medica_. They also employ +some articles belonging to the animal kingdom, such as bones, teeth, +sea-shells, fish-skins, snake-skins, snake's galls, urine, birds' +eyes, &c. They have also a few from the mineral kingdom, such as +stones, saltpetre, borax, lead, antimony, sulphate of copper, table +salt, sulphate of magnesia, and rarely mercury. They have a few gums +also, of which aloes and gamboge are the chief. + +But few articles of the vegetable kingdom however, escape enlistment +in the war against disease. They depend more upon great combinations, +than upon the power of a single ingredient, and consequently scores of +kinds, or ingredients, often figure in a single dose. Dr. Bradly says +he has seen one instance in which one hundred and seventy four +ingredients were employed in one prescription, and the whole to be +taken at three doses. The work of preparing medicines is therefore +onerous. Vegetable combinations are used chiefly in a state of +decoction or infusion. They frequently speak of a patient having taken +four or five pots full--a pot holding from two to four quarts. They +knew nothing of tinctures until European physicians came amongst them, +and they are slow to adopt them. + +After such a system, it may readily be supposed that their physicians +are in keeping with it. They are wholly self-taught, or, more +properly, untaught. They have nothing like medical colleges, or a +system of medical discipline. They are like too many in our own +country who rush into the study of medicine without a sufficient +literary or scientific education upon which to base a medical +education, and thus prostitute a noble profession. Without a correct +knowledge of their own language, they read a few of their medical +manuscripts, and start out for a patient, following the manuscript +very closely in their treatment. Should they get a patient who is +pretty sick, and he recover in spite of their treatment, their +reputation is made. The reputation once made seldom wanes, for the +physician's tongue helps him out of a great many scrapes. If he loses +a patient, the spirits or some other insurmountable object have always +been in the way. + +It is seldom however, that a man professes to be a general +practitioner; they turn their attention to specialities. One will be +renowned for fevers, whilst another will have a reputation in cases of +small-pox. The Siamese physicians are held in great esteem by the +people, an esteem but little less than that offered to princes and +nobles, but of a different kind. That given to the latter is a kind of +servile reverence, but the former is a true esteem. They have two +general classes of physicians, viz., the royal physicians and the +people's physicians. The former class are appointed by the King to +practice in the palace, and amongst the princes and nobles, and +receive a small salary from the royal treasury. The latter class are +self-appointed, and receive no regular salary, but depend upon their +fees for their living, and as a general thing make it pay better than +the other class. A common physician of reputation is frequently +promoted to be a royal physician. + +They have also another kind of doctors who profess to cure certain +kinds of diseases by shampooing and manipulating. They are well versed +in the locality of the muscles, tendons, and blood-vessels. They +gently press these points, and when one is tired and weary, it has a +soothing effect, and produces sleep, and in some diseases it may prove +beneficial. I have found it very beneficial at times of great +weariness and lassitude. + +The common physicians are always employed by the job, and always on +the condition, no cure no pay. Sometimes, if the disease is chronic, +and but little hope of recovery, they stipulate to pay a certain sum +in case of an alleviation of the disease, and so much more in case of +a permanent cure. A bargain is always struck by the patient himself, +or by his friends, before the physician takes charge of the case. +Sometimes, if a doctor sees his patient is going to die, and he be the +loser, he will take "French leave" without giving the friends any +notice whatever of his intentions. Generally however a more honorable +course is pursued, and the doctor gives up the patient, and releases +the friends from all obligations, and they are at liberty to call +another doctor. The physician is thus changed frequently, several +times before death or recovery, each new one putting in for a higher +bid. They have also a kind of domestic water treatment, by copious +bathing, which in many cases is far more beneficial than their +nostrums. + +They are also great people for recipes, and many of the temples have +these recipes inscribed by scores upon the walls, and upon little +marble tablets, for the benefit of the poor, and all others who wish +to use them. The king frequently makes merit by having these recipes +thus inscribed. The following one for small-pox, will serve as a +specimen: + +"One portion of conch-shell; two kinds of aperient fruit, one portion +of each; two kinds of sour leaves, one portion of each; one portion of +asafoetida, one of borax, one of ginger, nine kinds of pepper, +including the hottest, a portion of each; four kinds of cooling roots, +a portion of each; one of an astringent root; four kinds of drastic +cathartics, including the fruit and leaves of the croton plant, one +portion of each; one of rhubarb, and one of Epsom salts. Boil in three +measures of water until it be diminished to one measure of the +decoction. Then squeeze out the oily parts, dry, and pulverize. A +woman may take the weight of thirty cents in silver, and a child may +take the weight of seven and one-half cents in silver. It will purge +off everything in the bowels." + +They have as yet little or no confidence in European physicians and +medicines. They however, are obliged to acknowledge their ability as +surgeons, and they are beginning to have confidence in quinine in the +treatment of fevers. They know nothing of anatomy; and consequently +nothing of surgery. They do not pretend to lance even a common boil, +but depend upon opening it with poultices. + +The first amputation was performed in Siam by Dr. Bradly, in 1837. A +company of priests at the dedication of a temple were playing with +fireworks, when a cannon burst, and killed several and wounded many +more. Dr. Bradly offered his professional services, but all the +wounded refused, except two. He amputated the arm of one of them, and +dressed their other wounds, and they soon recovered, but all the +others died. Inoculation for small-pox was introduced by the +missionary physicians in 1838. They found themselves surrounded by the +disease, and being without vaccine virus, they inoculated their own +children as the next best thing that could be done. It acted so well +that the king sent a number of the royal physicians to examine into +it, and learn how it was done. Having learned, he sent them out +through the city to inoculate. + +Vaccination was introduced in 1840, from a scab sent out from Boston +_via_ the Cape of Good Hope. It finally died out, and was again +renewed from time to time. It is now constantly kept up by Dr. +Campbell, a Scotch physician, in connection with the English +Consulate. The natives no longer hesitate to have their children +vaccinated, and it has done much towards staying the ravages of the +small-pox. + +The first operation for cataract was successfully performed by Dr. +Bradly, upon the eyes of a distinguished nobleman and minister of +state. + +They know nothing of obstetrics, and those cases where nature needs to +be assisted, are left to die. Superstition too, has enveloped the +whole afiair in silly and ridiculous notions. Since they believe in +the transmigration of souls, and that the spirits of all persons who +are born have existed in some previous state, their books on midwifery +pretend to teach parents how they may know whence their children came, +and whether the expected stranger will be a boy or girl. There is also +a choice in the day of the week upon which a child is born. Wednesday +and Thursday are particularly favorable for robust constitutions, and +bright intellects. Children born on Sunday, are liable to be careless +and reckless all their lives. + +This business is almost wholly committed to elderly women or midwives. +Male physicians are seldom called in on such occasions, unless the +case requires extraordinary skill, and then they are as ignorant as +the midwives themselves. They always attempt to assist natural labor +by the use of domestic medicines, shampooing, and other manipulations, +and in many instances do positive injury by deranging natural labor. +Facts however, prove that parturition amongst the Siamese is much +shorter and easier than amongst Europeans and Americans. One reason +is, that they have more of the animal in their natures, and doubtless +the kind of dress they wear has much to do with it--their dress being +more in accordance with nature. + +It is after the birth of the child that the Siamese mothers have to +endure torture. It is a custom amongst them, as immutable as the laws +of the Medes and Persians, that the mother after the birth of the +child, must lie by a hot fire from five to thirty days. After the +first child they must remain by the fire about thirty days, but the +time gradually diminishes with every subsequent birth. She is placed +on a hard board, with nothing under her but a thin mat, and no +clothing but a narrow waist-cloth and is thus obliged to lie within +four or five feet of a hot fire. This is generally, too, in a small +room, with no chimney, but the fire is on an open furnace, and the +smoke is allowed to escape as best it can. In such a climate as Siam, +this must be positively injurious, and it certainly makes young +mothers look prematurely old. It is not known whence this custom +originated. It is also practised amongst the Cambodians, Peguans, +Burmese, and Cochin Chinese. + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + +FARMING AND PRODUCTS. + + +The staple of the country is rice. Their farming operations are simple +in the extreme, and as the soil is very fertile, I know of no place +where the husbandman is so abundantly rewarded for so little labor. +Their plough is exactly like that used in Scripture times, and +pictures of which you have doubtless seen in books on biblical +antiquities. It consists simply of a crooked stick, answering for beam +and handle, to which a sheath is attached, to the end of which a small +shovel is affixed. It has but one handle, and is difficult to hold, +and hence from the same kind of an instrument we have the Scripture +illustration, "No man having put his hand to the plough and looking +back, is fit for the kingdom of heaven." To this plough they attach a +couple of oxen, or Indian buffaloes, and when sufficient rain has +fallen to soften the ground a little, they scratch it over with their +little plough. When sufficient rain has fallen to turn the ground into +a perfect mortar, they stir it up again, and sow the rice upon the +mud. This they sometimes harrow over with a brush or rude wooden +harrow. About this time the water in the rivers begins to overflow the +banks, and gradually overflows the rice fields to the depth of three +or four feet. The rice however, manages to grow, and keep head above +water, and so long as it can do this it is all right. The water keeps +up until the rice is out in heads, and then it begins to subside until +harvest, when the ground is generally quite dry. I have rode in my +boat for a whole day, directly over the rice fields, when the rice was +coming out in heads, and found the water in many places four feet +deep, but the heads of the rice were waving in the wind majestically +above it. The best quality of rice is raised by transplanting. The +ground is prepared the same as before, but instead of sowing +broadcast, they take the rice plants, and place them in the soft mud +with the hand. This work is generally done by women and children, and +they do it very dextrously, placing the plant in the mud with the +thumb and finger almost as fast as they can walk. It is put down in +rows, about two or three inches apart. This is the same kind of rice +as the other, only the grains are fuller and better, and it commands a +better price in market. + +After planting his rice the farmer has little or nothing to do until +his crop begins to ripen, when all hands have to turn out to drive off +the birds. There are immense flocks of a diminutive little bird, with +gray and red wings, and about the size of a canary, and sings almost +as sweetly. They are beautiful little creatures, but great +rice-eaters, and would soon destroy a whole crop if not driven away. +Men, women and children have all to turn out to guard off these, and +other rice-eating birds, until the harvest is gathered. + +The rice crop is harvested about the first of January, with a kind of +primitive sickle, and bound into small sheaves. It is then collected +by means of a nondescript ox-cart into one place, where they intend to +thresh it. The threshing floor is levelled off on the ground, as in +Scripture times, and a bamboo pole is set up in the centre, upon the +top of which a few heads of the best rice have been tied, as a kind of +first fruit-offering to the spirits. The sheaves are then placed +around in a circle, and a number of oxen are driven around abreast +upon it. When threshed, the rice is collected into a heap and winnowed +with a large fan. The threshing is frequently done at night, and I +have seen the banks of some of the rivers illuminated for miles with +fires around the threshing floors. The crops are generally abundant, +and the labors of the husbandman abundantly rewarded. + +The native mills for hulling the rice are small basket affairs turned +by band, but there are now in operation four steam rice-mills, built +and owned by Europeans, and which clean on an average about four +thousand piculs of cargo rice daily. + +Bangkok is one of the greatest rice ports in the world, and vast +quantities are shipped every year to China, Europe, California and +other places. + +Cotton grows well, and the quality is good, but is not raised in any +quantities. A few Hainan Chinese have located up the country, and are +raising cotton, but all they raise is shipped in junks to the island +of Hainan. + +Some little Indian corn is raised, but not as a business; it is +generally used when soft. Vegetables of various kinds are also raised +in considerable quantities, such as sweet potatoes, turnips, cabbage, +beans, peas, cucumbers, squashes and egg-plants. + +All tropical fruits are also abundant, such as oranges in great +variety, shaddocks, plantains, mangos, mango-stines, jack-fruit and +bread-fruit. The king of fruits to the natives however, is the +_durien_, a large fruit about the size of a man's head, with a prickly +shell. Inside the shell there are a number of lobes, each having a +large seed, surrounded with a white pulpy substance, resembling +custard highly flavored with garlic. To most Europeans the smell of +the fruit is very offensive, resembling that of a spoiled egg. When a +boat load of the fruit is passing up the river, even before the shell +is broken, it can be smelled at a great distance. Strange to say +however, after a few contacts most Europeans become extremely fond of +the fruit, notwithstanding the smell. It is however, like most +acquired tastes, the end gained scarcely justifies the effort in +obtaining it. + +The palm is there also in considerable variety. The palmyra, the +cocoanut, the nypa, the date, and the areca palms, all figure to some +extent. + +Amongst the woods the teak is most valued for ship building, and +quantities of it are shipped every year to China and Europe for that +purpose. Rosewood is also abundant, and a variety of other red woods. +Sapan wood is largely exported to China for dyeing purposes. + +There is scarcely anything so generally used and so universally prized +as the _bamboo_. It grows in clumps to the height of about +seventy-five feet; and when full grown is about six or eight inches in +diameter at the butt. It also grows in joints, and is hollow except at +the joint. The houses of the poorer classes are all built of this. +Their baskets, boxes, buckets, boat covers, and nearly all the +utensils used by the poorer classes, are made of it. It is to all +appearances a _"sine qua non"_ in the country. + +Their domestic animals are few. The ox and the Indian buffalo are +prized for farming purposes. Fowls and ducks are raised in great +quantities, but by the Siamese only for the eggs; the Chinese however, +eat large quantities of them. The ducks have lost the instinct of +incubation, and the eggs are hatched by artificial means. Pariah dogs +are there in great numbers, and many of them without any owners, and +they frequently render night hideous by their howling. + +Amongst the ferocious animals the tiger is chief; both the Bengal and +leopard species are found in numbers in the jungles. The fox, wolf, +and a small species of bear, are also found. + +Monkeys in great variety are there, and in passing up the rivers and +along the canals they can be seen in large droves perched upon the +trees, cutting up their antics apparently for the benefit of the +passer by. Several species of deer, and wild hogs, abound in the +jungles. Jungle-fowls, pea-fowls, and a vast variety of other birds +abound, so that an expert sportsman can find plenty to do for his gun. + +About thirty species of venomous serpents are known to the natives, +about one half of which are considered very poisonous. A few inflict +deadly wounds with their tails. One of the most venomous is five or +six feet long, and has the power of reflecting prismatic colors. The +cobra, or hooded serpent, is abundant. The boa constrictor is also +common, but does little harm except rob hen-roosts at night. The +writer has frequently been obliged to arise at night to relieve his +hen-roost from their attacks, and he has seen them, when killed, +measuring twelve and fifteen feet long. The natives tell marvellous +stories about those found in the forests, forty and fifty feet long, +and which can crush and swallow a deer, or an ox, without any +difficulty. Vast numbers of harmless little lizards are constantly +sporting upon the walls of your house and bed-room. The most noted is +the "gecho," a large dragon-headed lizard, about six or eight inches +long, called by the Siamese _"To-kay."_ He secretes himself during the +day, but comes out on the walls at night in search of moschetos and +other things for food. He is a fierce-looking fellow, and most +Europeans at first sight are terribly afraid of him. Shortly after our +arrival in the country, one evening when we were about to retire, we +discovered something, presenting rather a ferocious appearance, in the +corner of the bed-room near the ceiling. My wife could not think of +retiring with such a creature so near the bed, so I got a long bamboo +pole and called in a native man to assist, and after a considerable +contest we succeeded in worsting him. They have also a tremendous +voice, and at night will often keep you awake by hollowing "To-kay, +To-kay," from some secret corner of your bed-room. We once lived in a +part of a house, the other half of which was occupied by another +mission family. There was a large "To-kay" which had been about the +house for some time, and was quite a pet with the other family, and +they would not allow him to be disturbed. In the evening, however, +just when our baby would get to sleep, he would come out and commence +his hollowing and wake her up again. One afternoon when the other +family were out, he came out on the porch, or veranda, and commenced +hollowing lustily, and I loaded my shot gun and brought him down. +This, and the one already alluded to, are the only encounters I have +ever had with the "To-kays." + +An American gentleman who was traveling around the world, once stopped +with us. He arrived from the ship about 9 o'clock in the evening. He +was scarcely in the house until a To-kay commenced hollowing, +apparently for his edification. The gentleman looked up in +consternation, exclaiming, "What's that--a billy-goat?" + + + + +CHAPTER X. + +MODE OF DIVIDING TIME. + + +The twenty-fours of the day are divided into two equal parts. The day +is called _Wán_, and the night _Kún_. The former begins at 6 A.M., +and the latter at 6 P.M. The hours of the forenoon are numbered from +one up to six, or mid-day. The hours of the afternoon are numbered in +the same way. The forenoon is called _Pëla Chow_, and the afternoon +_Pëla Bai_. The word denoting an hour of the day is _Mong_, and that +denoting an hour of the night is _Toom_. In expressing 9 o'clock, +A.M., they would say, _"Sam Mong Chow,"_ or the third hour of the +morning. Three o'clock, P.M., they would say, _"Sam Mong Bai,"_ or the +third hour of the afternoon. Nine o'clock in the evening, they would +say _"Sam Toom."_ + +Siamese months are lunar months, but often vary from the moon, a day +or two. Each month is divided into two parts, the _waxing_ and +_waning_ moon. The former has always fifteen days, but the latter has +sometimes fifteen and sometimes fourteen. Six of their months have +thirty days, and six twenty-nine days, making three hundred and +fifty-four days to the year, which lacks eleven days of a full solar +year. To compensate this deficiency, they have an intercalary month of +thirty days, every two or three years. There is still however, a +deficiency of about three days in nineteen years, which is supplied by +adding a day to the seventh month from time to time, whenever the +astrologers may think proper. + +They have no word to denote a week of time, but each day has its +appropriate name and number, commencing at Sunday and ending at +Saturday. By the recurrence of the first and seventh days, they are +reminded that seven days of time have elapsed. + +The days of the week are: + +1st. Wan Atit, (day of the sun,) Sunday. 2d. Wan Chan, (day of the +moon,) Monday. 3d. Wan Angkan, (day of Mars,) Tuesday. 4th. Wan Póot, +(day of Mercury,) Wednesday. 5th. Wan Prahat, (day of Jupiter,) +Thursday. 6th. Wan Sook, (day of Venus,) Friday. 7th. Wan Sów, (day +of Saturn,) Saturday. + +Their months are numbered from one up to twelve, and have no +particular names, but are designated by their numbers. The first and +second months, it is true, are called by names, but their names have +the same meaning as their numbers. + +They have two cycles, one within the other. The greater cycle is +twelve, the smaller ten. The former is called _Pee_, their common name +for year, and the latter is called _Sok_. Every year of each kind of +cycles has its own specific name. + +The years of the cycle of twelve are: + +1st. Pee Chóoat, _year of the Rat._ 2d. Pee Cháloo, _year of the +Cow._ 3d. Pee Kán, _year of the Tiger._ 4th. Pee Taw, _year of the +Rabbit._ 5th. Pee Marong, _year of the Great Dragon._ 6th. Pee Maseng, +_year of the Small Dragon._ 7th. Pee Mameea, _year of the Horse._ 8th. +Pee Mamaa, _year of the Goat._ 9th. Pee Wawk, _year of the Monkey._ +10th. Pee Raka, _year of the Cock._ 11th. Pee Chaw, _year of the Dog._ +12th. Pee Koon, _year of the Hog._ + +The years of the cycle of ten are: + +Eka Sók, 1st. _cycle._ To Sok, 2d. _cycle._ Tree Sok, 3d. _cycle._ +Chattawa Sok, 4th. _cycle._ Benya Sok, 5th. _cycle._ Chaw Sok, 6th. +_cycle._ Sapta Sok, 7th. _cycle._ Atta Sok, 8th. _cycle._ Woppa Sok, +9th. _cycle._ Samretti Sok, 10th. _cycle._ + +In writing the number of their era, they mention the name of each +cycle, as it happens to be. For instance, January 1870, would be 1231 +_Pee Maseng Eka Sok_, year of the _small dragon_, 1st of the cycle of +10, and 1231 of the civil era. The Siamese sacred era is reckoned from +the time of Budha's supposed death, which, on the full moon of May +1870, was 2413 years. This era is only used in religious matters. The +civil era is reckoned from the time that _Pra Rooang_, a Siamese king +of great celebrity, established it, and on March 27, 1870, was 1231 +full years. + +Although the Brahmin astrologers manage to calculate eclipses with +considerable accuracy, the great mass of the Siamese are wholly +ignorant of their true cause. They attribute them to _Rahú_, a +terrible monster who threatens to devour the sun and moon. When they +see an eclipse of any kind coming on, they commence firing guns, +beating gongs and tin-pans, and shouting, to frighten away _Rahú_. +The late king however, studied astronomy, and could calculate eclipses +in the European way, and did much to dispel the ignorance of his +subjects in regard to such matters. + + + + +CHAPTER XI. + +MISSIONARY OPERATIONS. + + +It would be unjust to close without at least some reference to the +efforts of missionaries to evangelize Siam, It is also just to state +that there is scarcely any other field, in which modern missions have +been established, where the introduction of the gospel has met with so +little opposition as in Siam proper, and especially during the late +reign, and so far during the present. It is equally just to say that +there is scarcely any other field which has been so barren of results. +Pure Budhism appears to yield more slowly to the power of the gospel +than any other false system. Even Brahminism itself yields more +rapidly. The Siamese have the utmost confidence in the strength of +their own religion to withstand the power of the gospel, and hence +that stolid indifference which they manifest to the introduction of +the gospel amongst them. A nobleman high in rank, once playfully +remarked to a missionary, "Do you expect, with your little chisel, to +remove this great mountain?" + +To the Rev. W. H. Medhurst belongs the honor of projecting the first +Protestant mission in Siam. As early as 1827 he proposed to visit Siam +and some of the neighboring kingdoms, but never was able to accomplish +his designs. The Rev. Charles Gutzlaff and Rev. Jacob Tomlin arrived +in Siam, August 23d, 1828, on a Chinese junk. They obtained liberty to +remain in Bangkok, and labor amongst the Chinese, but through the +influence, of the Jesuit missionaries they were afterwards threatened +with expulsion from the country. The Portuguese consul, Signior Carlos +de Silveira, the only resident consul in Siam at that time, interested +himself in their behalf, and partly through his influence they were +allowed to remain. They were out constantly talking to the Chinese, +and distributing books, which soon excited the suspicions of the +Siamese, that the missionaries were endeavoring to incite the Chinese +to rebellion. The King ordered some of their books to be examined, and +when nothing objectionable was found in them, they were allowed to +proceed. It is believed however that a secret edict was issued, +forbidding the people to receive the books. The only English merchant +then in the country was quietly requested to take the missionaries +away in one of his ships. They however demanded of the Minister of +Foreign Affairs the cause of such a step, and claimed equal rights +with the Roman Catholic missionaries, who were allowed to pursue their +labors without molestation. This appeal brought the Minister to terms, +and they were allowed to remain. They studied to some extent the +Siamese language, and endeavored to translate portions of the +Scriptures into that language, which was of course labor lost, as they +had only been in the country about six months, and it was impossible +that they could have acquired the Siamese sufficiently to do anything +at translating. + +Mr. Tomlin's health had now failed to some extent, and he left for +Singapore. Mr. Gutzlaff remained a short time, and also left for a +time. During his absence he married Miss Maria Newell, an English lady +then residing at Malacca, and then returned with his wife to Bangkok. +They were there however, but little over a year when Mrs. Gutzlaff +died, and Mr. Gutzlaff becoming discouraged, took passage to China on +a junk. Messrs. Gutzlaff and Tomlin however had visited Siam wholly on +their own responsibility, and perhaps never intended to remain +permanently. + +The Prudential Committee of the American Board, upon the solicitation +of Messrs. Gutzlaff and Tomlin, sent the Rev. David Abeel, then in +Canton, to Siam to make arrangements for establishing a mission there. +Mr. Abeel on his way met with Mr. Tomlin, and the two together +proceeded to Bangkok, and arrived there in June, 1831. They found the +people still eager for books, and soon established a place for public +worship and the distribution of books. Mr. Abeel however, was soon +brought down by a fever, and when sufficiently recovered to do so, he +and Mr. Tomlin both returned to Singapore. Mr. Abeel's health being +recruited, he embarked again alone for Bangkok on a Chinese junk. He +prosecuted his labors for about six months more, but in consequence of +continued ill health he was obliged to leave for good. + +In 1832 the Rev. Messrs. Stephen Johnston and Charles Robinson were +appointed by the American Board for Siam, but before they arrived, and +even before Mr. Abeel left, the Baptist mission in Burmah transferred +the Rev. J. T. Jones to Bangkok. Mr. Jones was permitted to reap the +fruits of some of the seed sown by those who preceded him, and a small +Chinese church was organized by him, which is still in existence, and +is now under the pastoral care of the Rev. William Dean, D. D. Messrs. +Johnston and Robinson, already alluded to, arrived in Bangkok, July +25th, 1834. They were kindly received by the Minister of Foreign +Affairs, and soon after arrival secured a lot of ground and proceeded +to build upon it. Thus was finally established in Siam the mission of +the American Board, which, after several years of labor, was +eventually removed to China. + +The Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions in 1840 sent out the Rev. +W. P. Buell and his wife to Siam. Mr. Buell however, had scarcely +acquired the language sufficiently well to become useful, when he was +obliged to return to the United States on account of Mrs. Buell's +health. In 1841 that Board sent out the Rev. Stephen Mattoon and wife, +and the Rev. S. R. House, M. D. By the time they arrived the king then +upon the throne had become tired of not only missionaries, but all +foreigners, and had determined upon an exclusive policy. He refused to +make commercial treaties with western powers, or to open up the +country any more to commerce. Sir James Brook, the English ambassador, +received what he considered an insult to his nation, and left with the +intention of returning, prepared to open up the country by force. Our +missionaries in consequence of this determination of the King, were +unable to secure a site for the mission, or any foothold whatever. +They were not flatly refused, but were baffled, according to Siamese +custom, with trifling excuses and postponements, so that they became +discouraged, and were upon the eve of leaving the country to seek some +other, where they might find an opening. At this juncture the King was +providentially removed by death, and the now late King ascended the +throne. He was a prince who had imbibed more liberal views in regard +to foreigners, and he immediately opened up the country to foreign +commerce, and our missionaries were permitted to secure a location. + +It may also be stated here, that to the missionaries belongs the honor +of opening up the country, although many will doubtless deny them this +just due. The late King, whilst a priest in a monastery, studied the +English language with some of the missionaries, and especially with +the Rev. J. Caswell. He also studied astronomy, and some other +branches in which he made commendable proficiency. He also imbibed +from them more liberal views in regard to western nations, and +consequently as soon as he ascended the throne he was prepared to +treat with them; and that which in many other countries had to be done +by gunpowder, was in this instance accomplished by missionary effort. + +The present Regent once in the presence of the writer, whilst +conversing with an American, George F. Seward, Esq., United States +Consul-General to Shanghae, shrewdly remarked that "Siam had not been +disciplined by English and French guns as China, but the country had +been opened by missionaries." + +The late King always entertained the highest regard for his +instructor, the Rev. J. Caswell, and besides building a tomb over his +grave, presented his widow with $1,500 as a token of his regard. + +The Presbyterian Board has now six missionaries with their families in +Siam proper, and two amongst the Laos, a tributary kingdom to the +north. They are distributed as follows:-- Messrs. House, McDonald, +George, and Carrington, in Bangkok; Messrs. McFarland and Van Dyke in +Petchaburi; and Messrs. McGilvary and Wilson amongst the Laos. The +American Baptist Union has also a mission to the Chinese in Siam. The +missionaries are. Rev. William Dean, D. D., and Rev. S. B. Partridge, +with their wives, and the Misses F. A. Dean and A. M. Fielde, single +ladies. The Rev. D. B. Bradly, M. D., was originally sent out by the +American Board, but is now in nominal connection with the American +Missionary Association, but is wholly self-sustaining, receiving no +support from any Board. Besides supporting his family, he preaches +regularly and does other mission work. The Rev. S. J. Smith was +formerly in connection with the American Baptist Union, but has +dissolved his connection with that Board, and is now self-sustaining, +and also does much missionary work. This is our force for at least +eight millions of people. + +When the writer arrived in Siam ten years ago, there was but one +native convert in connection with the Presbyterian mission church. We +have now at Bangkok a church numbering about twenty members; also one +at Petchaburi with about the same membership. We have also a school in +connection with our mission which averages about twenty five pupils. +This school has not met the expectations of those who have had charge +of it, but there is no reason to be discouraged at the results. Whilst +many of the pupils have gone back to heathenism, and others have +turned out badly, a goodly number are exemplary Christians, and some +are looking forward to the ministry, and hope some day to preach the +gospel to their countrymen. + +Ten years ago we had the Gospels alone of the Scriptures translated; +we have now the whole New Testament. Many portions of it, especially +the Epistles, need revising, still it answers the purpose. We have +also the Old Testament translated as far as through Joshua, and also +the prophecy of Ezekiel, and minor prophets. Our mission hopes soon to +be able to give the people the entire Scriptures in their own +language. Our printing press is constantly at work printing the +Scriptures and religious tracts. + +It has also been the duty of the writer, shortly before leaving the +country, to visit the scene of the last persecution (if we except the +late troubles in China) which the history of the church has to record. +North of Siam proper, there are a number of petty Laos kingdoms, all +of which are in a certain sense tributary to Siam. They pay a small +annual tribute, and the King of Siam claims the prerogative of +nominating the successor to the throne when a vacancy occurs, but +aside from this each of those kings is absolute in his own dominions. +The largest of those kingdoms is Chieng Mai, and the capital city of +the same name is situated in latitude 18° 48' north, or about five +degees north of Bangkok. About three years ago two of our +missionaries, Rev. Messrs. McGilvary and Wilson, having previously +made a visit to that kingdom, determined to establish a mission there. +They obtained permission from the King, and also from the Siamese +government, and with great difficulty and self-denial removed their +families thither, following the river all the way up over the +thirty-two rapids. Their goods at the rapids had to be taken from the +boats and carried around, whilst the boats had to be drawn up with +ropes. The whole journey occupied some three months, a much longer +time than it now takes to come to the United States. + +At first they were kindly received by the King, but gradually his +friendship began to cool down. This they attributed to the influence +of a mongrel Portuguese whom the King had taken into his employ, and +who was a Roman Catholic, and looked upon the missionaries as his +enemies. After his departure the King again became more friendly. Some +two years after their arrival they were permitted to baptize two Laos +Christians, and not long afterwards five others were received. This +appeared to arouse the wrath of the King, and before the missionaries +were aware of it, he had arrested and executed two of the Christians, +and warrants were issued for the other five, but they managed to +escape arrest. The two who were executed were faithful witnesses for +the truth, and died as courageously and as triumphantly for the faith, +as any in that long list of martyrs which the history of the Church +has to record. We find here amongst the mountaineer Laos, men who but +a short time before had embraced Christ,--infants as it were, but a +span long in faith,--sealing their faith with their blood. Had we no +other fruits of our long labors in Siam than this glorious conversion, +and still more glorious death of those mountaineer Laos, that alone +will more than a thousand times repay all the expenditure of men and +money upon that kingdom. + +The missionaries were not aware of the execution of the Christians at +the time, but soon discovered that servants and all those in +connection with them were leaving, and upon inquiring the cause +learned with difficulty what had happened, and that the others were +leaving through fear of the King. Most of the princes of the kingdom, +and apparently all the people, were indignant at the conduct of the +King, but such was the fear of him that no one durst scarcely whisper +a word, lest it might come to his ears, and their head pay the penalty +of their rashness. He ruled with a rod of iron. The slightest theft, +and continual drunkenness, were punished with death; and I must say, I +know of no country where property is so secure from theft as in Chieng +Mai. + +Such however, was the known treachery of the King, and such the many +stories afloat, that the missionaries supposed their own lives in +danger. They tried to communicate with the mission at Bangkok, but +such was the fear of the King that they could get no one to carry a +letter, although they offered at one time as high as five hundred +rupees ($225) to any one who would carry a letter to Bangkok. +Fortunately however, a Burmese came along who was a native of British +Burmah, and an English subject, and who offered to carry the letter +for nothing. When we at Bangkok heard the news, we did not know but +that they and their families might be murdered; we however deemed it +our duty to make some effort to communicate with them. We accordingly +sent a committee to wait upon the Regent of Siam, who, after +expressing his indignation at what had happened, kindly offered a _"Ka +HLuáng,"_ or government officer, to accompany any one of us who might +wish to go up, who should be the bearer of a letter to the King of +Chieng Mai, and who should also be a safe conduct to us. The officer +had power to levy on provincial towns along the way such provisions +and other things as we needed, and had also power to chastise +delinquent governors who were slow to comply with our demands. It fell +to the lot of the writer, in company with the Rev. S. C. George, to go +on this important and rather dangerous errand. The letter from the +Siamese government only ordered the King of Chieng Mai to allow the +missionaries to remain peaceably, if they wished to, and if they +desired to leave, to offer them every facility in his power to do so, +and by no means to offer them any personal violence, as that would +involve the Siamese government in difficulty with the United States +government. + +After storing our boat with a few necessaries which could not be +secured by the way, and shipping a crew of six good boatmen, we turned +her bow toward the north. The Siamese officer with his boats was to +follow on in a day or two, expecting to overtake us ere we reached +Raheng. We rowed by day, and a few hours by night when the moon was +favorable, and when bedtime came, tied our boat up to the bank and +slept till morning. After taking our morning meal of rice we were off +again. We thus journeyed for ten days, passing the provincial towns of +_Aungtawng_, _Chinat_, _Monorom_, &c., all of which provinces have +governors. + +There is nothing striking in the country or scenery on this portion of +the route. The banks of the river are low and the scenery rather +monotonous. The tenth day brought us to Nakawn Sawán, a provincial +town at the junction of the two principal branches of the river. Here +the novelty of the trip (if there be any novelty in it) was to +commence. Our course lay rather northwest, and the current in the +branch of the river which we were to take became very rapid, so that +our oars which had hitherto served us a good purpose refused to serve +us further. We had now to resort to poling. We had however, prepared +ourselves somewhat for the emergency, and had secured several bamboo +poles about fifteen feet long, in the butt ends of which were short +iron forks. A man with one of these poles walked to the bow of the +boat, and placing the end of the pole containing the fork firmly upon +the bottom, he placed his shoulder to the other end and walked to the +stern. Another was ready to take his place, and thus they kept the +boat constantly moving. It required great dexterity however on the +part of the steersman to keep the bow of the boat to the current, and +thus be enabled to stem it. So soon as he allowed the bow to turn the +least to the current, the poles would lose their hold, and we were set +adrift, and in a few minutes would lose what we would make in an hour, +and besides it was dangerous, as the river was full of snags. The +river here spreads out over a sandy bottom, and many places where it +was tolerably shallow it presented the appearance of a boiling +chaldron. The bottom too, was treacherous; on one side of the boat we +would be against a sand-bar, whilst on the other our poles would not +touch bottom. The receding waters too, at that season of the year, +left huge sand-bars running out from either bank to a point in the +middle of the stream, and also numerous little sand-islands. Some +portions of the route were solitary in the extreme, and in the morning +we were aroused by the crowing of the jungle-fowl, and the scream of +the peacock. In ten days more of poling, making in all about +twenty-one from Bangkok, we reached Raheng, the last Siamese +provincial town on the Laos borders. Here it was determined to leave +our boats and take elephants across the country to Chieng Mai. We +accordingly levied upon the Governor a sufficient number of elephants, +and an escort of men to see us through the jungle. After some little +delay our elephants were reported ready. The Governor of Raheng also, +as a special favor, allowed his Lieutenant-Governor, a fine young +nobleman, acquainted with the route, to accompany us in addition to +the principal officer who had accompanied us from Bangkok. Our +elephants were brought up each with a saddle, or _howdah_, on his +back. A frame is made not unlike a wood-horse, on the top of which a +seat is made about four feet long, like a buggie seat, and over which +a basket cover is placed to shield the rider from the sun, and the +whole, when on the elephant, resembles somewhat the top of a calash +buggie. Raw hides are placed on the back of the elephant to keep it +from chafing, and the saddle is then girthed on with a strong ratan +rope. A cushion is placed in the seat, so that the rider, for a +change, can lie down. The Siamese often sleep whilst the elephant is +going, but we preferred to sit upright. You mount by means of a high +block, or stand, but in the absence of this the elephant is taught to +hold up his front leg, and his knee forms a step by means of which the +rider can climb up. The driver sits astride the neck, in front of the +saddle, with a short stick in his hand, on the end of which is a sharp +iron hook, and when the animal becomes unruly he drives this hook +unmercifully into his flesh, which soon brings him to his senses. +Oftentimes one or two of the natives would crawl on behind to ride, +for a rest. An elephant can carry four persons and a considerable +amount of baggage with ease. + +We started with our train of elephants single file. The man ahead +carried a huge gong, which he beat for a halt in the evening, and for +starting in the morning, and when approaching a town or village, to +let the people know that a great personage was coming. Our course lay +directly through the forest and jungle, and over the mountains. About +4 P. M. of the first day we encamped at the foot of a mountain spur, +where there was a pool of water. The elephants were unloaded, +fettered, and turned out to browse. As we had no tent along, our +saddles were placed around in a circle, and a fire was kindled in the +middle. Watch fires were also lighted around outside. After cooking +our rice, and taking our suppers, we retired to rest. As many as +could, slept in the saddles, and the others threw themselves down on +the ground, with a single blanket around them. A watch was also +appointed to keep up fires, and guard against tigers and robbers. +Elephant-stealing is common there, just as horse-stealing is with us +sometimes. About the middle of the first night we were aroused by the +elephants beating the ground with their trunks, which they always do +when alarmed, and the watch cried out, _"súa, súa!"_ a tiger, a +tiger! The tiger however, seeing our fires and watch, considered +discretion the best part of valor, and made off. In the morning we +were up early, and had our rice eaten and were ready to start by +daylight. Owing to the difficulty in carrying many utensils and much +provisions on elephants, the two noblemen and us usually took our +meals together. It was amusing to see us with our knives and forks, +and they with their fingers, all dipping into the same dish. On one +occasion I was considerably provoked at the chief man. At a certain +Laos town they brought us victuals already cooked, but the fowls +prepared after their style were not suitable to our taste. The +Lieutenant-Governor of Raheng, who was ever more mindful of our wants +than the headman, requested that some live fowls should be brought in, +that we might have them cooked to our taste. The fowls soon came, and +were delivered over to the chief man, who not knowing that they had +been particularly requested, came to us saying, "Doctors, this is our +sacred day, and if you don't object, I will let these fowls go, and +make merit by saving their lives." I was about to object, but my +companion, ever ready, quickly responded, _"ou tert, ou tert,"_ take +them, take them. I was determined however, not to be done out of a +fowl in that style, so I gave my shot-gun to one of my men, and he +went out and shot one. Our cook fixed it up nicely, and when we came +to eat, before I could get a piece, for myself, the chief man was into +it with his fingers, and had like to have spoiled the whole. + +We crossed deep ravines, wound around precipices, which to look down +would make the hair stand on the head, and went over mountains where +one unaccustomed to it would say an elephant could never go. He is +however, sure-footed, and when he once plants his foot, which he does +with great deliberation, it is there. I once remarked to the driver, +is there no danger of him falling? The reply was, "He knows better +than to fall, for if he does, he gets killed." We went down one or two +declivities where I would fain have dismounted, could I have done so, +but it was impossible. The driver spoke to his elephant, saying, +"slowly." He placed first one fore-foot forward, and then the other by +its side firmly. The driver then said "drag," and he threw his hind +parts down on the ground, and drew them up to the fore-feet, and then +held on until he could again plant the fore-feet, and in this way the +whole train passed down. + +Sometimes, too, our course lay across vast plains of rice-fields. The +rice had been harvested and threshed, and they were busied in carrying +it to the villages. Trains of elephants, with baskets holding ten or +twelve bushels on their backs, were walking along majestically with +their loads. Long trains of bullocks were also employed for this +purpose. Two baskets were fastened on a frame, and thrown across the +back like a pair of saddle-bags. The front bullock was fantastically +dressed up with a mask, and a huge peacock tail in it, and numerous +strings of little bells resembling sleigh-bells. He had also a driver, +and all the rest followed after without any drivers. On the afternoon +of the thirteenth day, the spires of the city of Chieng Mai began to +loom up in the distance, and about 5 o'clock P. M. we entered the city +with gong beating lustily. Our approach had been heralded ahead, and +the King had his officers waiting to receive us. Our missionary +brethren, whom we found well, but rather depressed in spirits, also +came to meet us with open arms. The next day the letter of the Regent +of Siam was to be conducted to the palace, under the royal umbrella, +and we, of course, were to accompany it. Before starting, the +missionaries held a consultation, and it was deemed best not to cover +anything over, which might break out again, as soon as we were gone. +It was thought expedient to bring matters to a focus, and then abide +the consequences. We found the old King in his audience hall, +surrounded by his court, who were prostrate before him. He appeared +pale, with suppressed rage. After the reading of the Siamese letter, +he remarked that "This letter only gives the missionaries privilege to +remain, if they wish--or to go, if they wish." This opened the way, +and I went on to state, that some three years ago the missionaries had +come up there with his consent, and we might say with his invitation, +and also with the consent of the Siamese government. They were at +first kindly received by him, and he showed them many kindnesses, for +which he deserved praise, and for which they had praised him. But +latterly, things were not going on so well, and circumstances had +transpired which justified them in writing to their friends at +Bangkok. They were now ready to commence building suitable houses to +live in, but could get no workmen, as the people were all afraid to +work for them; and the reason was, that he had taken two, in +connection with them, and put them to death. This did not appear to +ruffle him, and he replied, that as to workmen and servants he had +never put anything in the way. He had put a couple of fellows to +death, who had failed to do their government work. It appears that an +order had been issued to a certain number of men, for each to bring a +stick of timber to repair the city wall. The order had been issued +some two days previous, and when the two Christians were on their way +to get the timber, they were arrested and executed. The pretext given +for their arrest was that they had failed to comply with the King's +command. Mr. McGilvary then proved to him most clearly, that they had +in no way failed to perform their government work; and that when they +were executed, not one out of fifty of those who had received the +order had complied with it. When he saw he could not lie out of it, he +fairly boiled over with rage. So great was his anger that I at one +time feared that it might become so uncontrollable that he might break +over all restraints, and do us some personal injury. The highest +prince in the kingdom would not have dared to say the one hundredth +part of what we did, without losing his head. And then to be +contradicted and proven a liar, before his court, was hard to bear. He +said he had executed them because they had embraced the Christian +religion, and he would continue to kill all who did the same. The +missionaries might remain, in accordance with the command of the +Siamese government, but could not teach religion--they could not make +Christians. The Siamese officer was also alarmed for our safety. After +a consultation it was considered expedient to break up the mission for +a time, and we sent in word that the missionaries would leave as soon +as the river would rise sufficiently for the larger class of boats to +pass down, hoping, however, that Providence would so interfere in the +meantime as to prevent the breaking up of the mission. He has most +wonderfully interfered. When we left, the King was preparing to come +down to Bangkok, to attend the cremation of the late king of Siam. +Whilst at Bangkok the United States Consul-General, F. W. Partridge, +demanded of the Siamese government that they would make the King of +Chieng Mai conduct himself more properly, and grant religious +toleration. They doubtless gave him such orders, but he secretly told +some one that when he returned, the missionaries would have to leave, +according to promise. He however, took suddenly sick, and left Bangkok +in haste, but was never permitted to enter again his own capital. He +died on his way home, and according to Laos custom, no corpse is +permitted to enter the city, and his remains are now lying in state in +his river palace outside the city walls. He was apparently the only +obstacle to the spread of the Gospel amongst that people. The Laos are +a hardy mountaineer people, with much more stamina of character than +the Siamese, and free from many of their vices. I know of no more +interesting missionary field than Chieng Mai. They also appear to be +ready for some more substantial religion than Budhism. + +After spending ten days in Chieng Mai we began to think of returning +home. The letter of the chief Siamese officer required that he should +return by elephants, as he had come, but we were anxious to follow the +river down, in order that we might pass over the thirty-two rapids, or +falls, and witness the scenery on the way. To this the King gave his +consent if we would secure boats, and he would then send a letter +ahead to have us sent from village to village along the way, and would +give us pilots to take us over the rapids. We accordingly secured +three boats, each about thirty feet long and two feet beam, propelled +by two short oars, and steered with a long paddle fastened to the +stern with a ratan rope. These boats are peculiarly adapted for +shooting over the rapids. We divided our party, the chief man +returning on elephants, whilst the Lieutenant-Governor of Raheng, and +a number of the men, accompanied us. After some little delay we got +started, and things went on pretty well for part of the first day. Men +were waiting on the bank at every village, to send us on to the next. +Soon however, we got ahead of the King's letter, which had started the +previous day. Rather than wait on men, we put our own men to the oars, +and passed the villages by. Nothing of importance transpired for the +first five days. Occasionally we would run on a sand-bar, and our men +would have to get out and push the boats off. Sometimes a company of +men and women would come down to the river to bathe. The Siamese never +bathe without a waist-cloth around them, but the Laos go into the +water perfectly nude, yet it is done with such dexterity, that nothing +amiss can be seen in it, although both sexes bathe together. The Laos +women wear a garment resembling a lady's skirt, but very narrow. They +step into the water, gradually raising the garment, until the water +becomes sufficiently deep to cover their nakedness, and then they slip +the garment over the head, and lay it aside. When they are ready to +come out, they again practise the same dexterity in putting it on. +Nothing is thought of such a scene amongst them, and it does not call +forth such expressions of vulgarity as a similar scene would amongst +us. + +At one time we came near falling into the hands of what we supposed to +be a band of robbers. In a solitary bend of the river, some twenty +persons were stationed, some with flintlock muskets, and others with +short swords. They beckoned to our men to stop, as if they had +business, but our men, suspecting their character, gave them a wide +birth, and we put our guns in order, determined to die hard should +they make an attack. Fortunately there were no sand-bars in the river, +and we shot rapidly past them, without their attempting to do us any +injury. + +The fifth day brought us to the village at the head of the rapids. We +did not know but now we might be in a tight place. It would be +impossible for us to pass the rapids without pilots who were +intimately acquainted with every rock in the river, and these we could +not get without the King's order. The letter must be three days behind +us, and it would be trying to wait on it. The villagers too, seeing us +pass without stopping, might not send it on. And then, might it not be +a trick of the King, to get us into a scrape, as he was in no pleasant +mood towards us. We determined however, to make the best of it. After +arriving at the village, the Lieutenant-Governor, who was with us, +sent for the head-man of the village, who soon made his appearance. He +then inquired, "Has the King's letter to send us down the rapids +arrived?" "No," was the reply. "Well, it is coming, and we are in +haste. I want you to furnish us by to-morrow morning, three of the +best pilots you have, and also two additional rowers for each boat, to +send us down the rapids. I have foreigners in my charge, and if +anything happens to them, the blame will rest with you." The next +morning the men made their appearance, and a faithful set of fellows +they were. We were off early, and very soon began to near the +mountains, and just where the mountains on each side come down to the +river is the first rapid. Before approaching it, the pilots ran the +boats ashore, and taking some rice, fruit, and cigars, they made an +offering to the spirits of the mountain, and then pushed off. Our boat +was ahead, and the pilot, seemingly aware of the responsibility which +rested upon him, rose up and stood upon the stern, seized tight hold +of his steering oar, spoke a few hurried words to the oarsmen in +front, such as, "Lay heavy to the right or left", and then apparently +held his breath. We also held ours; the hair appeared to rise upon the +head, and the heart beat very near the throat, but in a moment the +long breath of the pilot indicated that danger was past, and our boat +was dancing over the waves caused by the falling of the water below. +We had passed the first rapid. Were a boat to be capsized, death must +ensue, for the water is so rapid, and rocks so abundant, that the most +expert swimmer could do nothing. + +The scenery here is indescribably grand. Much of the boasted scenery +of Europe and America would be tame in comparison with it. Grandeur +and beauty oftentimes struggle for the mastery, first one and then the +other prevailing, and sometimes both combined. The river winds its way +along between the mountains which rise perpendicularly from one bank, +and in an amphitheatrical order from the other. Sometimes the ascent +is gradual on both sides. In one or two places no outlet can be seen +for the river at all, and one would think that soon all would be +dashed against the opposing mountains; but a slight turn would open up +a channel, with perpendicular banks on each side, to the height of at +least six-hundred feet, whilst between those perpendicular masses of +solid rock would be one of those indescribable rapids to be passed. +The fish-eagle would be screaming hundreds of feet above our heads, +and the little mountain-goat, sticking on a cliff, apparently midway +between heaven and earth, would look down upon us with apparent +contempt. We could seldom see a quarter of a mile either way, and the +sun shone upon us but a few hours at midday. Huge stylactites, the +formation of ages, were pending from the crevices. At one of the +rapids the river passes under a projecting rock for some distance, and +a little cascade, which in the rainy season must be quite a stream, +falls into the river some distance beyond the boat. When night came +on, we stopped in the solitude, tied our boats to the shore, cooked +our rice and then retired, we sleeping on the boat, but our men on the +sand. + +The scientific geologist might find an ample field here, and the +sportsman would also have plenty of sport amongst tigers, deer, +wild-hogs, pea-fowls, and jungle-chickens. For a passing effect +however, a simple ride down the rapids is best. Five days brought us +through the rapids to Raheng, where we had left our other boats, +making about ten days from Chieng Mai. We were not long in getting our +boats ready, and the rapid current brought us to Bangkok in about one +fourth of the time it took to ascend against it. We arrived at home +without a moment of sickness, or any mishap, except the loss of one +poor fellow, a slave of the chief man, who died of jungle-fever. + +It may be asked why Budhism, and especially the Budhism of Siam, +yields so slowly to the power of the Gospel? The cardinal doctrine of +the system is, no God, no intelligent creator and proprietor of the +universe. The unrenewed heart loves such a doctrine better than all +religious creeds and dogmas, yea, better than the simple gospel of +Jesus. As soon as sin entered the world, our first parents were afraid +of God, and could they have done so, would have dispensed with him all +their days. Thus it is that in Christian countries men batch up +development theories, and every imaginable falsehood, to dispense with +an intelligent first-cause. Men of natural good sense on other +subjects, on account of this enmity against God, become fools upon the +great subject, "The fool hath said in his heart no God." Alabaster, in +his "Modern Budhist," closes up with the following remarkable +flourish:--"The religion of Budha meddled not with the beginning, +which it could not fathom; avoided the action of a deity it could not +perceive; and left open to endless discussion that problem which it +could not solve, the ultimate reward of the perfect. It dealt with +life as it found it; it declared all good which led to its sole +object, the diminution of the misery of sentient beings; it laid down +rules of conduct which have never been surpassed; and held out +reasonable hopes of a future of the most perfect happiness. + +"Its proofs rest on the assumption that the reason of man is his +surest guide, and that the law of nature is perfect justice. To the +disproof of those assumptions we recommend the attention of those +missionaries who would convert Budhists." + +Mr. Alabaster must think missionaries very obtuse, not to be able in +thirty years labor in Siam, to find out the strongholds of Budhism. +Those "assumptions" have been "disproved" a thousand times, but as +they harmonize with the natural heart of the Budhist, and indeed with +that of very many who are nominal Christians, but who are in greater +condemnation than the Budhist, all reasonable proof is rejected. + +Again, in all Budhist countries there is a mutual union of church and +state, and the Budhist regards kings as the proper rulers of the land, +and also the regulator of the religion. A man in Siam who embraces +Christianity, expects to cut himself off from everything which has +hitherto been near and dear to him. They have the most profound +reverence for the King, and cannot understand how the United States +can get along without one. A nobleman not long since asked a +missionary in good faith, if the United States would not soon be far +enough advanced to have a King, like England and France. The +missionary replied, that from present indications England and France +would soon be far enough advanced to do without one. + +The Siamese are also wonderfully addicted to custom. Whatever their +fathers have done they must do, how ridiculous soever that may be. +"_Pen tumneum thai_,"--it is Siamese custom, is sufficient reason for +doing anything. It is seldom that a Siamese can be drawn into an +argument, even on religion. They will generally assent to everything +the missionary says, and will reply, "Your religion is no doubt much +better than ours, but it would be contrary to custom to abandon our +religion in this life; in the next life we will embrace Christianity." +Apostasy from Budhism too, is one of their unpardonable sins. + +One of the greatest obstacles to the spread of the Gospel amongst the +heathen is, the ungodly example of those who have been brought up in +Christian countries, and who unfortunately bear the Christian name. +Every port open to commerce is overrun with adventurers from western +countries. So few of them have any religion at all, that the heathen +are unable to make any distinction. Many too, who have professed +religion, when they come to the East manifest no vital godliness, and +soon abandon themselves to every imaginable vice. Most of the official +representatives sent out by western governments are either avowed +infidels, or men of no moral character. All these things are against +us. The Siamese have frequently said to me, "Why do you offer us your +religion, whilst those in our midst, who have been brought up in that +religion, are no better than we, and are even more abandoned? True, +you missionaries do not engage in those vices to which the others are +addicted, but religion is your business. You are paid for it." It will +also be found that all such characters are opposed to Christian +missions, and missionaries in general, and are ever ready to bear +testimony against them. + +I have often thought that a few such business men as George H. Stuart, +who carry religion into business and every-day life, would do more in +the East in converting the heathen, than a host of missionaries. It is +not however, "By might nor by power, but by my Spirit, saith the +Lord." + +In view therefore, of all these obstacles and difficulties, we appeal +to all true Christians for their sympathies and prayers for the +success of this great work which God has committed to his Church. + + +THE END. + + + + +Transcriber's Note: + +Archaic spellings have been retained, but obvious typographic errors +have been corrected. Otherwise the author's spelling of non-English +words, including tone marks, has been preserved as printed, even when +inconsistent, e.g. Birmah vs. Burmah. + +Use of double capital letters in HLuang appears to be intentional by +the author, to represent the digraph in the Thai spelling of the word, +and as such has been preserved as is. + +Ditto marks in lists have been replaced with the appropriate text. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Siam: Its Government, Manners, +Customs, &c., by N. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Siam: Its Government, Manners, Customs, &c. + +Author: N. Abraham McDonald + +Release Date: January 7, 2014 [EBook #44615] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SIAM: GOVERNMENT, MANNERS, CUSTOMS *** + + + + +Produced by the volunteers of Project Gutenberg Thailand. +Proofreading by users emil, dekpient, brianjungwi, rikker, +kaewmala, ianh68, nblackburn. PGT is an affiliated sister +project focusing on public domain books on Thailand and +Southeast Asia. Project leads: Rikker Dockum, Emil Kloeden. +(This file was produced from images generously made +available by The Internet Archive.) + + + + + + + + + + SIAM: + + ITS + GOVERNMENT, MANNERS, CUSTOMS, &c. + + + BY + Rev. N. A. McDONALD, + For ten years a Missionary in that country. + + + PHILADELPHIA: + ALFRED MARTIEN, + 1214 CHESTNUT STREET. + 1871. + + + + + Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1871, by + ALFRED MARTIEN, + In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. + + + + + To the Memory + Of the Founder of Milnwood Academy, + REV. J. Y. McGINNES, + + Who had the cause of Foreign Missions very much at heart; + + AND TO ALL WHO HAVE BEEN + PUPILS OF THAT INSTITUTION, + THIS LITTLE VOLUME + + Is respectfully dedicated, by one of the earliest + Students of the Institution, + + The Author. + + + + + [Illustration: The present King of Siam.] + + + + + Contents. + + CHAPTER I. + GEOGRAPHY + + CHAPTER II. + THE GOVERNMENT + + CHAPTER III. + RELIGION + + CHAPTER IV. + EDUCATION AND LITERATURE + + CHAPTER V. + MANNERS AND CUSTOMS + + CHAPTER VI. + COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE + + CHAPTER VII. + CEREMONIES FOR THE DYING AND DEAD + + CHAPTER VIII. + THEORY AND PRACTICE OF MEDICINE + + CHAPTER IX. + FARMING AND PRODUCTS + + CHAPTER X. + MODE OF DIVIDING TIME + + CHAPTER XI. + MISSIONARY OPERATIONS + + + + +PREFACE. + +In giving these pages to the public the author has no ambition to make +a book. Having been invited by the Principal of Milnwood Academy, at +Shade Gap, Pa., to deliver in that Institution a series of lectures, +or talks, on Siam, its government, manners, customs, &c., a few +friends have requested that they be reduced to paper and published, +which is his only apology for giving them to the public in book form. +A few additions have been made, and the facts are narrated as seen and +understood by the author. In a few instances, to refresh his memory, +he has referred to articles on Siam, published in the _Bangkok +Calendar_ and elsewhere. The work is intended chiefly for a class of +readers who may not have access to the more pretending works recently +published on that country. + + N. A. M. + +Shade Gap, Pa., April, 1871. + + + + +SIAM. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + +GEOGRAPHY, Etc. + + +On my "overland" journey from Siam to the United States, through +France and England, many persons were accustomed to accost me saying, +"Pardon me, Sir, but what nationality is that young man who is with +you?" referring to my Siamese boy. That boy, Sir, is a Siamese. "A +Siamese! Well, I must confess my geography is a little shaky,--I +scarcely know where Siam is,--but I remember now that is where the +Siamese twins came from." Referring, of course, to those unfortunate +beings who by some "lusus naturae" are inseparably connected together, +and have been obliged to spend a long life in that condition, and who +have consequently become almost the only means by which their native +country is known to a vast majority of Europeans. When I, in 1860, +determined to go to Siam, I found it next to impossible to gather from +books any reliable information concerning it, and consequently took +shipping at New York almost as ignorant of the country to which I was +going, as I was of the moon. Fortunately however, some of our party +were returning, and before we arrived at our destination I was pretty +well prepared for what I was to encounter. Geographies are nearly +silent in regard to Siam, from the simple fact that geographers +themselves know nothing about it. It is also to be regretted that, +until very recently, chiefly all the books concerning Oriental +countries were written by mere cursory travellers, whose knowledge of +the countries through which they passed, or at which they touched, +must necessarily have been limited, and the chief object of many of +them appears to have been to make a readable book, oftentimes at the +expense of truth. + +You will naturally ask, where is Siam? At the extreme point of that +vast continent extending from the snows of Siberia to the Equator, and +terminating in the long narrow Malay peninsula, is the little island +of Singapore, separated from the mainland by a narrow strait. The +island is about twenty-five miles long, and about fourteen miles +broad, and commands the entrance of the China sea. The English, who +have ever had an eye to strategic points, and especially in the East, +took possession of it in 1819, being then little more than a Malay +fishing village, and a nest for pirates. The present town of +Singapore, well laid out and neatly built, and situated on the +southern extremity of the island commanding the anchorage, contains +perhaps one hundred thousand inhabitants, whilst the principal English +merchants live in palatial residences on the hills in the rear of the +town. The government of the island, together with Malacca, Penang, and +Province Wellesley, has lately teen transferred from the Indian +Government directly to the Crown. It is a beautiful little island, +with a genial climate, and I know of no place in the East where I +would rather live. + +Leaving Singapore, and passing through the strait, up the peninsula, +over the lower part of the China sea, and up the gulf of Siam about +eight hundred miles, you come to the kingdom of Siam, sandwitched +between Cambodia on the east and Burmah on the west, extending from +about latitude 4 deg. to 22 deg. north, and from longitude about 98 deg. to +104 deg. east; consequently there is neither frost or snow, but perpetual +summer reigns. The leaves fall and are replaced by new ones, whilst +those who are daily witnesses to it scarcely notice the change. + +The climate of Siam is genial and healthy, but the constant heat is +trying to the constitutions of Europeans, who require a change at +least once in ten years. The seasons are two, the wet and the dry. +From November to May scarcely a cloud obscures the sky, and no rain +falls except perhaps a shower in January. The Siamese look for a +shower in that month, and are disappointed if it does not come. They +think it necessary for certain kinds of fruit which is just then +forming, and they also think it indicative of a good rice season. I +have, however, in ten years, seen January pass several times without +the expected shower. From November to February the weather is +delightful, being the cool season, but the thermometer is seldom lower +than 64 deg. March and April are the hottest months, but the thermometer +does not rise as high as might be expected in such a climate. I have +never seen it over 98 deg., but on account of the long absence of rain, +the ground in most places becomes dry and parched, and the rays of the +sun, reflected from the heated earth, give the atmosphere a kind of +bake-oven feeling, which is oftentimes hard to endure. From November +to May the wind blows constantly from the northeast, and is called the +"northeast monsoon." From May till November again, is the wet season, +the wind blowing constantly from the southwest, and is called the +"southwest monsoon," the rain falling in copious showers almost every +day. The showers come in a kind of rotation. If there is one to-day at +a certain hour, there will be one to-morrow an hour later. The showers +are copious indeed, and sometimes one would think the "windows of +heaven were opened." The lightning is vivid, and the thunder +oftentimes terrific. + +Whither the name Siam came, or whence it is derived, it is now +impossible to tell. The Siamese themselves know nothing of it, only as +it is applied to their country by Europeans. The name they apply to +their country is "Muang Thai," the free country, in distinction from +those countries which are tributary. The name Siam, however, is now +coming into common use, and is sometimes inserted in public documents. + +The geology of Siam is simple, the lower portion near the gulf being +an alluvial deposit, the result of the annual overflowing of the +rivers, which takes place at the close of every rainy season. The +water from the copious rains rushes down from the mountains up the +country, and overflows the lowlands, enriching them and causing them +to produce abundant crops of rice. The mountains are volcanic, and +some of them have the appearance of having been thrown from a distance +and set down in their present positions. + +Many of them are barren of almost everything green, presenting to the +eye but little that is attractive, but others, especially in the North +Laos country, present scenery indescribably grand. In many places, +especially along the seacoast, the old granite, the foundation of all +things, geologically speaking, comes to the surface, and even projects +out in bold bluffs and headlands. The rocks on many of the mountains +present the appearance of having at one time been lashed by the waves +of the sea, and there is abundant evidence that much of the lower +country has been redeemed from the sea at no very remote period. + +The country is drained by three streams of considerable size, which +empty into the gulf. The principal one is put down on our maps as the +Menam, but called by the Siamese Menam Chow Phya, Menam being the +generic name for river, meaning mother of water, and Chow Phya being +the specific name for that particular river. Were it not for a sandbar +at its mouth, it would be navigable for the largest class of vessels +to Bangkok, but on that account the largest vessels are obliged to +anchor in the roadstead outside. The Bampakong on the east, and +Tacheen on the west, are also streams of some importance. Besides +these, there are also a number of smaller streams. + +Bangkok, the capital of the kingdom, is situated on both sides of the +Menam Chow Phya, about twenty-five miles from its mouth. It contains +about four hundred thousand inhabitants, and has been called the +Venice of the East, from the fact that much of the city is floating on +the river in the form of floating houses. These floating houses are a +kind of nondescript affair, and it is impossible to give one who has +never seen them any idea of them. The following description, by the +oldest missionary in Siam, and published in the _Bangkok Calendar_ of +1866, though quite too elaborate for easy reading, is as good as +anything that can be given, and I shall insert it "in toto." + +"Our friends in the western world have heard a good deal about the +floating houses of Bangkok, but they universally speak of being unable +to understand, after all that has been written, what kind of things +they are. If the descriptions that have been given of them could have +always been accompanied by good photographic pictures of the same, our +friends would have had much less difficulty in understanding them. But +such pictures are too expensive to procure for illustrating 'The +Bangkok Calendar,' which never pays for its cost, and hence we must do +the next best thing, and that is to descend into quite minute detail, +if we would make our friends who have never visited Bangkok understand +such unique structures as the floating houses of the city. And as +these houses form a large part of the dwellings and mercantile shops +of this great metropolis, being the most conspicuous of all buildings +(the temples only excepted) as you pass up and down the Menam Chow +Phya, the 'Broadway' of Bangkok, they seem to demand a minute +description in 'The Calendar.' These floating houses are moored on +both sides of the river for a distance of nearly three miles. Their +size, on an average, is about forty by thirty feet on the base; in +height, eight feet to the eves, and fifteen feet to the ridge of the +roof. As this base could not be covered by a roof of only two sides, +and make it sufficiently steep to shed rain well, without being too +high for safety on the river in time of a squall, the natives divide +the area to be covered into two nearly equal parts, and put a +two-sided roof over each division, thatched with the attap palm leaf, +(_cocos nipa_.) The two eves that thus meet in the middle of the house +have an eve-trough common to both of them, which is always seen in the +house about eight feet from the floor, passing uniformly in the +direction of the river. Hence nearly all these floating houses appear +to be double, standing sidewise to the river, the ridge of the front +being a little lower than the one behind it. There is always a narrow +verandah four or five feet wide attached to the front division, which +is covered with an extra roof of attap leaves, extending from under +the main point roof, with a more gentle slope than the front roof, and +then, in front of these, there is usually a small bamboo float from +three to five feet wide. This is sometimes extended the whole length +of the house, and sometimes only from three to ten feet. The eve of +the verandah is not more than six feet above the floor. From this +there is often suspended a bamboo mat, or some other material more +tasty, for a screen from the glare of the river. The ends of the two +double roofs are all furnished precisely alike with a peculiar kind of +moulding made of a thin plank tastefully curved at the bottom, like +the written capital A, and put up edgewise at the extreme end, to +constitute a neat finish for the thatching. The triangular area made +by each double roof at the ends is generally closed with attap +thatching; sometimes with bamboo matting, sometimes with wooden +pannelled work, sometimes with a regular clap-boarding, and rarely +with woodwork radiating from the lower side of the triangle upwards. + +"These floating houses are always divided into two main rooms--the +front and inner one. The floor of the latter is about one foot higher +than the front. There are narrow passages five feet wide at the right +and left of these rooms, which are simply enclosed verandahs, with +each an attap roof, leading to a narrow room of the same width and +kind in the extreme rear. The front room is used for the purpose of a +variety-store, and the inner one for a bed-room. + +"In it you will generally find the family idol-altar, if the occupant +be a Chinese. It is often used for putting away lots of goods, a few +samples of which are daily exposed for sale in the front room. These +exhibitions are made on a kind of amphitheatre-formed shelving facing +the river, so that every article can be seen at a glance by passers-by +in boats. The whole front is exposed to view in the daytime, not by +opening all the doors and windows, but by taking down much of the +front siding, which consists of boards varying from ten to twelve +inches in width, standing up endwise, and fitted into grooves above +and below. These boards are slid out early every morning, one by one, +and laid away out of sight under the floor, in a place reserved for +them during the day. Early in the evening each board is put in its +place for closing up the front of the shop, leaving not the least door +or window by which one may have direct access to it. But there is a +small door in front of each of the narrow passages in the extreme +rear. + +"This narrow room is commonly used for the purposes of a cook-room. +The fire place is simply a shallow wooden box filled with clay. There +is no chimney or stovepipe attached to any of them. In the place of +one they make a scuttle hole in the thatched roof only six feet above, +and this has a trap door made of the same material as the roof, which +can be closed in rainy weather. Even in the best weather only a part +of the smoke escapes through the opening, while the remainder finds +its way out in all quarters. Consequently this little cook-room is +always a very smoky place, and is blackened with soot to a greater or +less extent, as are also many other parts of the establishment. + +"Some better-to-do occupants of these floating houses have a small +bamboo caboose, moored at one end of the dwelling house. The floating +houses are usually enclosed with teak boards standing up endwise, and +permanently fixed into grooves above and below. Sometimes the siding +is made of bamboo wattling. + +"It remains to be shown the mode of buoying up the floating houses +above the water, which being quite unique, deserves a particular +description. In the sills of the house are framed five rows of +scantling, four-by-six inches or larger, which descend into the water +five or six feet. These are so arranged that they divide the whole +area underneath the sills into four equal parts, or, as the Siamese +say, _hawngs_, or sections, for filling with bamboo poles. The first +object of these five rows of _legs_, bounding as they do the four +equal divisions, is to prevent the bamboo poles from rolling out +sideways under the pressure of the superincumbent house; and the other +is to render it quite convenient to exchange every year old and rotten +bamboos for new ones. Now a new set of bamboos will serve well the +purposes of a buoy only about two years; and to save the trouble of +exchanging all under the house at once, the natives manage to exchange +only half of them annually, so that the house is not for a moment left +without enough to keep it well out of the water. This is done by +removing all the bamboos from one or two of the divisions which have +been in use two years, and filling their places with new ones. The +divisions which have bamboos of one year's service remain undisturbed +until next year; when their time has expired, they too are cast out to +give place to others. Thus there are always left two divisions of the +last year's bamboos to serve in conjunction with two divisions of new +ones. The annual cost of new bamboos for a floating house of medium +size is not far from forty _Ticals_, and the number of bamboo poles +required is from five to eight hundred. + +"As these floating houses are generally moored close together, +standing end to end, in an even line in the direction of the river, it +becomes necessary that the house which is to be replenished with +bamboos should be moved out a little in front of its neighbor's, thus +making room for sliding out the old bamboos from either end, and +sliding in new ones to fill their places. There are men who follow +this business as their profession, and do it very dextrously. One day +is quite sufficient to accomplish the whole work for any house. The +bamboos, it scarcely need be said, are slender poles, from three to +four inches in diameter at the butt-end, and not more than half that +size at the top. They are from twenty-five to thirty feet in length. +The top ends of the poles are always the ones that are pushed under +the house, and consequently are hidden, while the butt-ends are always +external, forming an even surface at each end of the house. The poles +being about three-fourths the length of the house, the smaller +extremities consequently overlap each other from eight to ten feet, +and make an equal thickness of buoying material beneath the middle of +the house, with that of each end. + +"A house newly buoyed up looks quite tidy and dry, its floors being +from three to four feet above water. The houses are kept in their +places, forming a regular line with their fellows, thirty feet or more +from shore, by means of three or four teak posts or piles, driven at +each end into the soft bottom of the river six or eight feet; and +these are made mutual supporters of each other by lashing a bamboo +pole across them all near their tops. The house is then fastened to +these posts by means of bands or hoops encircling very loosely each +post, so that they shall readily slip up and down as the tide raises +the house or causes it to settle down. For this purpose it is +indispensable that there be no notches or knots on the posts that +shall cause the hoops to catch on them. Such a notch would cause the +post to be drawn up out of its place in a flowing tide, and would sink +it deeper in an ebbing one. While sitting in these houses you will +often hear a crack, and consequent sudden sinking of the house, caused +by the sliding of a hoop out of the place where it had been caught on +the posts. Where the water is unusually deep where a floating house is +moored, and the bottom of the river unstable, you will see the tops of +the mooring posts made fast by a cable to something firm on shore. +Sometimes the whole gives way notwithstanding, and then the house is +adrift at the mercy of the tide. The writer was once in a floating +house that had got adrift in the night time, and floated down the +river many miles before it could be made to submit to the power of the +ropes and cables, with which we endeavoured many times in vain to stop +her downward way. She would snap our stoutest ropes, as Samson did all +the instruments with which his enemies bound him. These floating +houses are often moved from place to place, and it is no uncommon +thing to see one floating up or down the river with the family in, and +everything going on as regularly within as if it was snugly moored." + +The buildings on shore belonging to the chief princes and nobles, are +built of rough brick and stuccoed inside and out. The style of +architecture is a kind of Siamo-Chinese. The next best kind of house +consists of posts sunk into the ground, which constitute the frame +work, whilst the sides are made of boards wrought into a kind of +pannel work. This is called a _"ruen fa kadan,"_ or weatherboarded +house. These are the houses of the poorer princes and nobles, and the +better class of the common people. The houses of the poorer classes of +the common people are made on the same plan, only the sides are +constructed of bamboo wattling. These are called _"ruen fa tak,"_ or +open-sided house. + +The river is the "Broadway" of the city, whilst canals form the +principal cross streets or avenues. Chiefly all travel in the city, +and indeed everywhere in Siam, is done in boats. If a person wishes to +go to church, to market, to call on a friend--in short, any where, he +goes in a boat. The rivers are the great avenues of trade, whilst the +whole country near the Gulf is intersected by a network of canals. But +in those portions distant from the rivers or canals resort must be had +to ox-carts and elephants. + +Siam is the genial land of the elephant. He roams wild in her forests, +but those which have not at least been partially tamed are now +becoming scarce. He constitutes in the northern provinces the chief +beast of burden, and one of the special uses to which he is put, is +drawing timber from the forest to the bank of the river, where it can +be formed into rafts and floated to market. I have seen a huge +elephant with his tusks and trunk roll a large log up a declivity more +quickly and dextrously than a dozen men would have done it. + +Siam has also been denominated the land of the "white elephant," from +the peculiar reverence shown for that animal. There is, however, no +such thing as a white elephant. The standing color is black, but +occasionally one is found which by some freak in nature is a kind of +Albino, or flesh color. He comes as near the color of a badly burned +brick as anything else. The Siamese do not call him a white elephant, +but a _"chang puak,"_ a strange colored elephant. From time immemorial +the Siamese have considered this strange colored animal the emblem of +good luck, and the king, who has had the greatest number of them, is +handed down in history as the most fortunate monarch. A certain king +had at one time three of them. The king of Burmah sent an embassy, +asking one as a special favor, which was emphatically denied. At this +the king of Burmah took umbrage, and sent an army and took the whole +of them. When one is found in the forest, word is sent immediately to +the capital, and preparations are made for conducting him to the +palace with the greatest honors and religious ceremonies. He is +enthroned in a palace within the walls of the king's palace, and is +henceforth fed on the luxuries of the land. He seldom, however, lives +long, being killed with kindness. He would be much happier and his +life would be considerably prolonged by allowing him to roam in his +native forest. The finder of such an elephant too, is generally +handsomely rewarded. Some travellers have stated that the white +elephant is worshipped, but I have never seen anything of the kind, +nor do I believe it. He is, however, held in peculiar reverence, +because he is considered the emblem of good luck. The flag of the +country is the flag of the white elephant. I am told that some +Frenchman has lately written a book, in which he states that he has in +his possession a hair from the tail of the white elephant of Siam, +which he obtained at great sacrifice, and even risk of his life. The +hair he may have, but the rest is imaginary. + +The present population of Siam cannot be much short of eight millions. +The Siamese proper are evidently an off-shoot from the Mongolian race, +but by what admixtures they have arrived at their present status it +would be difficult to ascertain. Some one has given the following +description of them, which is substantially correct. "The average +height is five feet three inches, arms long, limbs large, and bodies +inclined to obesity. The face is broad and flat, the cheek bones high, +and the whole face assumes a lozenge shape. The nose is small, mouth +wide, and lips thick, but not protruding. The eyes are small and +black, and the forehead low. The complexion rather inclined to a +yellowish hue. The whole physiognomy has a sullen aspect, and the gait +sluggish." The Siamese, as a general thing, do not tattoo their bodies +as many eastern nations do. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + +THE GOVERNMENT. + + +Siam proper is divided into fifty-eight provinces, which are each +presided over by a Governor appointed by the Central Government at +Bangkok. There are also several Malay states down the peninsula, and +six or eight petty Laos kingdoms north of Siam proper which are +tributary to the king of Siam. These Laos kingdoms pay a small annual +tribute, and the King of Siam claims the prerogative of nominating a +successor to the throne, when a vacancy occurs. This successor is +taken of course from their own princes, but receives his insignia of +office from the King of Siam. Aside from this, each of those kings is +absolute in his own dominions. All the tributary states, however, are +virtually under the Protectorate of the King of Siam, he being _Lord_ +paramount, or Suzerain. + +The civil government is divided amongst the three principal ministers +of state, _Chow Phya Pra Kalehome_, _Chow Phya Puterapei_, and _Chow +Phya Praklang_. The _Kalehome_ has special charge of the provinces to +the west and southwest, and is _Prime Minister_, having charge of +everything pertaining to army and navy. _Puterapei_ has charge of the +provinces to the north, and is over everything that pertains to +habitations and dwellings of the people. The _Praklang_ has charge of +the provinces to the southeast, and is over all foreign interests, all +vessels of trade foreign and domestic, and has charge to a certain +extent of the treasury, hence the name _Praklang_. This was the +arrangement under the late reign, and I presume it is very little +changed, if any, as yet under the present. + +The king is an absolute despot. No hereditary aristocracy or +legislative assemblies control his will. There is an aristocracy or +nobility, it is true, but their power is not felt only as instruments +in carrying out the will of the king. The people exist for the +monarch, and not the monarch for the people. The laws, as a general +thing, are laws of the king and not of the country. The old adage, +"New kings make new laws," is often literally true in Siam, providing +the new sovereign is so disposed. He is absolute master of the +persons, property, liberty and lives of his subjects. In speaking of +him they do not say he rules or governs, but he "eats the kingdom," +which is too often literally true. Almost any man in the kingdom is +liable to be drafted at any time to do king's work, and the +descendants of captives of war, such as Cambodians, Peguins, Burmese, +&c., are obliged to render three months service, or its equivalent, to +the government annually. The person of the king is held in extreme +sacredness and reverence, and in addressing him the same titles and +attributes are applied to him which are applied to _Budha_. For one of +his subjects to inquire after the king's health would be an almost +unpardonable offence, as it is presumed that the king never takes +sick, or dies, as common people do. Some of these absurd ideas +appeared in the late reign to have become obsolete, but are evidently +being renewed again in the present. Formerly the king was both a +monopolist and a trader, claiming exclusive right over such +commodities as tin, ivory, cardamums, eagle-wood, Sapan-wood, gamboge, +&c., but when the late king entered into treaty relations with the +western powers, this monopoly was in a great measure yielded. + +It is strange to say that this monarchy is not hereditary--that is, +not in the sense that that term is understood in Europe. There is what +is called the _Senabodee_, or Royal Counsellors, consisting of the +chief ministers of state, who during the life of the king are merely +silent counsellors, but upon his death their power becomes manifest, +and upon them devolves the responsibility of selecting a successor, +and governing the kingdom until such successor is chosen. The +successor must be a prince of the realm, but not necessarily the +eldest son of the late king--indeed, not necessarily a son of his at +all. + +The death of the late king occurred about nine o'clock, P. M. The +Prime Minister was immediately summoned to the palace, who convened +the _Senabodee_, and before midnight the succession was determined, +and everything going on smoothly. They chose in this instance the +eldest son of the late king, _Somdetch Chowfa Chulalangkorn_, a boy +about sixteen years old. + +His coronation took place on Wednesday, November 11, 1868, being the +day decided upon by the Brahmin astrologers as the one most +propitious. At this coronation there was a slight innovation upon the +usual Siamese custom. No European had ever before witnessed the +coronation ceremonies of any king of Siam. The late king, after his +coronation, wrote a private note to some of his European friends, +stating that he would have been glad to have had them present, but +"state reasons forbade it." The number of Europeans present at the +coronation proper of the present king were few, consisting of the +consuls of the different treaty powers, with their suites; the +officers of H. B. M.'s gunboat Avon, and a few others. The writer held +at the time the seals of the United States Consulate, and was the only +representative of our government in the kingdom, and consequently +received an invitation, which might not have been accorded to him as a +mere missionary. The company of Siamese present was equally select, +consisting only of the chief princes and nobles of the kingdom. + +The hour named was six o'clock, A.M., but owing to some delay it was +nearly eight when we passed into a small triangular court, facing one +of the doors of the inner audience hall. In front of the door of the +hall stood an elevated platform richly gilded, and upon that platform +was placed a very large golden basin. Within that basin was a golden +tripod, or three-legged stool. Over the platform was a quadrangular +canopy, and over the canopy was the nine-storied umbrella, tapering in +the form of a _pagoda_. Over the centre of the canopy was a vessel +containing consecrated water, said to have been prayed over nine +times, and poured through nine different circular vessels before +reaching the top of the canopy. This water is collected from the chief +rivers of Siam, and at a point above tidal influence, and is +constantly kept on hand, in reservoirs near the temples in the +capital. In the vessel was placed a tube or syphon, representing the +pericarp of the lotus flower, after the petals have fallen off. At a +flourish of crooked trumpets, resembling rams' horns, the king elect +descended from the steps of the hall, arrayed in a simple waist-cloth +of white muslin, with a piece of the same material thrown over his +shoulders, and took his seat upon the tripod in the basin. A Brahmin +priest approached him and offered him some water in a golden +lotus-shaped cup, into which he dipped his hand, and rubbed it over +his head. This was the signal for the pulling of a rope, and letting +loose the sacred water above in the form of a shower-bath upon his +person. This shower-bath represents the _Tewadas_, or Budhist angels, +sending blessings upon His Majesty. A Budhist priest then approached +and poured a goblet of water over his person. Next came the Brahmin +priests and did the same. Next came the chief princes, uncles of the +king; next two aged princesses, his aunts. The vessels used by these +princes and princesses were conch-shells, tipped with gold. Then came +the chief nobles, each with a vessel of a different material, such as +gold, silver, pinchbeck, earthenware, &c. Then, last of all, the Prime +Minister with a vessel of iron. This finished the royal bath. He then +descended from the stool in a shivering state, and was divested of his +wet clothes, and was arrayed in regal robes of golden cloth, studded +with diamonds. In the south end of the audience hall was an octagonal +throne, having eight sides, corresponding to the eight points of the +compass. He first seated himself on the side facing the north, passing +around toward the east. In front of each side of the throne was +crouched a Budhist and a Brahmin priest, who presented him with a bowl +of water, of which he drank and rubbed some on his face. At each side +they read to him a prayer, to which he responded. I was too far off to +hear all, but the following is said to be a translation of it. + + _Priest_. "Be thou learned in the laws of nature and of the +universe." + + _King_. "Inspire me, O Thou who wert a law unto thyself." + + _P_. "Be thou endowed with all wisdom and all acts of industry." + + _K_. "Inspire me with all knowledge, O Thou, the enlightened." + + _P_. "Let mercy and truth be thy right and left arms of life." + + _K_. "Inspire me, O Thou who hast proved all truth and mercy." + + _P_. "Let the sun, moon, and stars bless thee." + + _K_. "All praise to Thee, through whom all forms are conquered." + + _P_. "Let the earth, air, and water bless thee." + + _K_. "Through the merit of Thee, O Thou conqueror of death." + +He was then conducted to the north end of the hall, and was seated +upon another throne. The insignia of Royalty were then presented to +him. They were handed to him by his uncle, Prince _Chowfa Maha Mala_. +First came the sword, then the sceptre, then two massive gold chains +in a casket, which he suspended around his shoulders. Then came the +crown, which he placed on his own head, and at that instant the royal +salute proclaimed him King, under the title of _Prabat Somdetch Pra +Paramendr Maha Chulalang Korn Kate Klou Yu Hua_. Then came the golden +slippers, the fan, the umbrella, two large massive rings set with huge +diamonds, which he placed on each of his forefingers. Then one of each +of the Siamese weapons of war were handed him, which he received and +handed back. The Brahmins then wound up with a short address, to which +he briefly responded. He then distributed a few gold and silver +flowers amongst his friends, and the Europeans then withdrew to +breakfast, which had been prepared for them. It may be asked why the +Brahmins officiate so much when Siam is emphatically a Budhist +country. I have asked several well-informed noblemen for the reason, +but have as yet been unable to ascertain the true reason. No one +appeared able to give any true reason. There are a number of Brahmins +in the country, but their existence is scarcely ever noticed except on +some such occasion as the above. + +At 11 o'clock, A.M., the new king appeared for the first time before +his whole Court. The outer audience hall was richly decorated and +spread with rich Brussels carpet. When the Foreign Consuls entered in +a body the whole Siamese Court was prostrate on their knees and elbows +on the carpet. Very soon the king entered, arrayed in regal robes, and +wearing his crown, and seated himself upon the throne. The whole Court +simultaneously placed the palms of their hands together, and then +raising them up to the forehead, bowed their heads three times to the +floor. The chief ministers of state then formally delivered over their +several departments to the new monarch, to whom he briefly responded. +Senhor G. F. Vianna, Esq., Consul-General for Portugal, his being the +oldest consulate, then on behalf of the consuls present read a short +congratulatory address, which called forth another brief response, and +the audience retired. + +The public audiences of European ambassadors and officials are +extremely ridiculous. I have been present on several such occasions, +both as Vice-Consul and as Interpreter to others. The King is seated +upon his throne, and the whole court resting on their knees and elbows +before him, with their "beam ends" turned up to the gaze. All +communication must be held through the Court Speaker. When I went as +Interpreter, the communication was given me in English, which I +rendered into Siamese to the Speaker. He would then commence by +ascribing to the King a long "rigmarole" of titles and attributes, at +the same time apparently so much afraid that he scarcely knew what he +was doing, and by the time he was ready to deliver my communication he +had forgotten about half of it. When he received the King's reply, he +had to repeat the same nonsense, and by the time he was ready to give +the message to me there was but little of it left. Had I not been able +myself to catch it directly from the King's lips, the interview would +have been most unsatisfactory. + +The present King is about sixteen years old, and is apparently a +sprightly, good-looking boy. His father, some time before his death, +had employed an English governess for the palace, and the present +king, in common with all the royal children, received from her some +knowledge of the English language, and probably a smattering of some +of the sciences; but when he ascended the throne, instead of employing +for him a tutor capable of instructing him in the sciences, and the +different forms of government, everything of the kind was abandoned, +and he was allowed to give himself up almost wholly to women, which is +likely to destroy in a great measure any original talent he may have +had. It is now difficult to tell what he will be by the time he +arrives at an age suitable to assume the responsibility of the +government. He is also at present very much secluded from Europeans. +His father, vain of his knowledge of English, and the advancement he +had made in the sciences, which, to say the least, was truly +commendable, was very fond of European society, and was accessible at +almost any time by the better classes of Europeans in Siam, but the +son, for reasons best known to those in authority, is at present cut +off from all such intercourse. I have also been informed that he has +removed from the palace the fine European furniture placed there by +his father, and is replacing it with Chinese furniture, which looks +like a step backwards. + +The government at present is in the hands of His Excellency _Chow Phya +Sri Surywongse_, with the title of Regent. He was Prime Minister +during the late reign, and consequently chief of the _Senabodee_. He +is also a man of undoubted ability, coupled with the usual oriental +shrewdness and low cunning, and is with all extremely selfish and +moody. His love for Europeans and western civilization is not very +great, only so far as he can use them to his own advantage; he is +however, too shrewd a man to do anything which would interfere with +the European trade, or violate the existing treaties. The country is +perhaps better governed now than ever it has been before. + +His younger half-brother. _Chow Phya Bhanuwongse_, is Minister of +Foreign Affairs. He is a free, affable, gentlemanly man, and is +perhaps more free from that extreme selfishness which constitutes so +large an element in Siamese character, than any man in the kingdom. He +has been to Europe, and has profited much by the trip. His eldest son +is now in King's College, London. The Foreign Minister is, however, +too near the shadow of his greater brother to act out his natural +character, especially in his official capacity. + +During the last and present reigns, Siam has been the mildest and best +heathen government on the face of the globe. Oppressions from high +quarters are very rare. Petty officers sometimes take advantage of +their positions to "squeeze" the poor. Redress for such grievances can +always be had by appealing to headquarters, but there are usually so +many unchained lions in the way that such a course is seldom resorted +to. + +There is also a Second King, which is merely a nominal title without +any of the responsibility of the government. He is surrounded by his +court, and has nearly all the honors of the First King shown him, but +has nothing to do with government except amongst his own personal +adherents. Even at the death of the First King he does not assume, +even temporally, any authority. He may be chosen First King. A few +instances are on record in which this has been the case. The son of +the late Second King now occupies the second throne, under the title +of _Krom Pra Raja Bowawn Sahthan Mongkoon_. This prince is better +known to Europeans by the name of George Washington, a name given him +when a boy, either by his father, or by some of the American +missionaries who taught him English. His father is said to have +manifested a great love for the memory of Washington. The Second King +is now about thirty-five years old, has a pretty good knowledge of +English, some knowledge of the sciences, western civilization and +governments, is polite and gentlemanly in his manners, and apparently +very friendly to Europeans. He is also well liked by all Europeans. +The commander of one of our United States war vessels, after an +audience with the Second King, remarked to me on retiring from the +palace, "That is the man who should have been First King." The title +of Second King appears to have been originally established to satisfy +the disappointed one of two rival princes. + +The Siamese have an excellent code of civil and criminal laws, if they +were properly enforced, but, unfortunately, the Judiciary are so +corrupt that justice is seldom meted out, the one paying the largest +bribe generally gets the case. The Lord Mayor's and Sub-Mayor's Courts +are the chief criminal courts in the city. There are also within the +palace walls several other courts, chiefly for civil cases, and +presided over by the chief Ministers of State. There is also an +International Court, established by the late King, for the +investigation of those cases in which both Siamese and the subjects of +treaty powers are involved. Besides these, every prince of rank is +vested with judicial powers, and can hold court at his own palace. The +courts in the provinces are presided over by the provincial governors, +but those governors have not the power of life and death unless +delegated to them, in a special emergency, by the King. The judge of +any court is vested with full powers to investigate and decide any +case, subject, however, to an appeal to the King. There is, however, +seldom such an appeal, as, in other instances of oppression, the +unchained lions in the way are numerous. There are associate or +assistant judges, but they are simply for the investigation of minor +cases. The judge places his mat down on the floor in one end of the +court-room, upon which he places a three-cornered pillow, and then +places himself in a reclining position. The litigants are crouching +around him, presenting their cases, and the whole thing frequently +turns into a general conversation and brow-beating. There is nothing +like a jury. The witnesses are taken out to a Budhist temple, where +the following ironclad oath is administered to them. "I, who have been +brought here as a witness in this matter, do now, in the presence of +the sacred image of Budha, declare that I am wholly unprejudiced +against either party, and uninfluenced in any way by the opinions or +advice of others; that no prospects of pecuniary advantage or +advancement to office have been held out to me. I also declare that I +have not received any bribe on this occasion. If what I have now to +say be false, or if in my further averments I shall color or pervert +the truth so as to lead the judgment of others astray, may the Three +Holy Existences before whom I now stand, together with the glorious +_Tewadas_ of the twenty-two firmaments, punish me. If I have not seen, +and yet shall say I have seen; if I shall say I know that which I do +not know, then may I be thus punished. Should innumerable descents of +Deity happen for the regeneration and salvation of mankind, may my +erring and migratory soul be found beyond the pale of their mercy. +Wherever I go may I be compassed with dangers, and not escape from +them, whether murderers, robbers, spirits of the earth, woods, or +water, or air, or all the divinities who adore Budha; or from the gods +of the four elements, and all other spirits. May blood flow out of +every pore of my skin, that my crime may be made manifest to the +world. May all or any of these evils overtake me within three days, or +may I never stir from the spot on which I now stand; or may the +lightning cut me in two, so that I may be exposed to the derision of +the people; or if I should be walking abroad, may I be torn in pieces +by either of the supernaturally endowed lions, or destroyed by +poisonous serpents. If on the water of the river or ocean, may +supernatural crocodiles or great fish devour me; or may the winds and +waves overwhelm me, or may the dread of such evils keep me a prisoner +during life at home, estranged from every pleasure. May I be afflicted +with intolerable oppression of my superiors, or may a plague cause my +death; after which may I be precipitated into hell, there to go +through innumerable stages of torture, amongst which may I be +condemned to carry water over the flaming regions in wicker baskets, +to assuage the heat of _Than Tretonwan_, when he enters the infernal +hell of justice, and thereafter may I fall into the lowest pit of +hell; or if these miseries should not ensue, may I after death migrate +into the body of a slave, and suffer all the pain and hardship +attending the worst state of such a being, during the period measured +by the sand of the sea; or may I animate the body of an animal or +beast during five hundred generations, or be born a hermaphrodite five +hundred times, or endure in the body of a deaf, dumb, blind, and +houseless beggar every species of disease, during the same number of +generations; and then may I be buried to narok, and there be crucified +by Phya Yam." + +They have also a way of extorting confessions from criminals, which is +terribly severe. The first way is by the use of the lash or ratan. He +first receives ninety stripes, and then, if he don't confess, he is +allowed a respite of a few days and receives ninety more; and if he +stills holds out, he is allowed another respite, and receives ninety +the third time. Any one who can endure three times ninety without +confessing is presumed to be innocent. They have also other modes, by +putting split _bamboos_ on their fingers, something like the thumb +screw of old. Persons often confess when they are innocent, from fear +of the torture. + +They punish with death murder, highway-robbery, and treason. Their +mode of execution is decapitation. The criminals are brought out in +chains, and a clamp consisting of two bamboo poles is placed on the +neck. He is then made to sit down on the ground, the one end of the +clamp resting on the ground. They then most generally drug the +criminal, so as to produce stupor, amounting oftentimes to +unconsciousness, and also stop up their ears with soft mud. At a +signal the executioner runs out with a sword and cuts off the head. He +generally does it very neatly with one stroke, but I have known one or +two instances in which the executioner, to give him nerve, took quite +too much liquor, and made wonderful hacking of it. + +Corporal punishment with the ratan is very common--so common that +there is little or no stigma attached to it. I have known high +officers to be severely thrashed. On public occasions I have seen +those in charge of certain things, who displeased the King, taken out +and thrashed. They were made to lie down on their face on the +pavement, and a man stood over with a ratan and put it down in no +light manner, the victim crying, "Ooey! ooey!" at every stroke. So you +perceive that it may in some respects be called a _ratan_ government. + +The revenue of the country is derived from various sources. Certain +things are sold out by the government to the highest bidder, who, when +he receives it, has full control of the whole matter. He sub-lets +again to other minor parties and retailers, and has full powers to +punish all those who violate the right which he has so dearly +purchased. These are called _farms_. The most lucrative is the opium +farm. There is also the spirit farm, that is liquor distilled from +rice; the gambling farm; the rice farm; the cocoanut-oil farm, and +some others. There is also a tax on fisheries, on trading-boats, on +fruit orchards, on shops and stores; an export duty on rice, and an +import duty of three per cent, on all goods imported. There is also a +triennial poll tax of about two dollars on every Chinaman in the +kingdom, which amounts to a large sum every three years. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + +RELIGION. + + +The religion of Siam is Budhism. It would however be impossible on an +occasion of this kind to give any extended outline of Budhism, and +besides this the principal works on that subject in the English +language are dry and uninteresting to the general reader or listener. +Any translations from the Budhist classics must also be necessarily +stiff, and many of the names unintelligible, unless accompanied with +explanations; I shall only, therefore, give as brief an outline as I +can of the Budhist faith, and describe, as nearly as possible, the +manner in which it is practised in Siam. + +Budhism arose from a man of royal blood called Gautama, but by the +Siamese, _Somanakodome_. His father ruled a small kingdom in the +province of Oude, near the Himelaya mountains. Gautama died probably +about 534 B.C., and is supposed to have been nearly cotemporary with +the prophet Daniel. Becoming disgusted with the luxuries and pleasures +of courtly life he adopted that of a hermit, and like all hermits +became an enthusiast, and fancied that he had found the only true road +to all good, and thus leaped from the circle of eternal transmigration +into a "sublimation of existence that has no attribute and knows no +change." + +The late king of Siam speaks of the founder of the Budhist faith thus: +"Budha was a man who came into being on a certain time, by ordinary +generation; that he was a most extraordinary man, more mysterious and +wonderful than all heavenly beings, because he made vast merit by the +use of his body, his words and his will. He reigned as king +twenty-nine years, (meaning doubtless that he lived in princely state +until twenty-nine years old); that he then practised the most severe +asceticism, and with the greatest assiduity for a period of six years, +when his mind became so sublimated and refined that he habitually +numbered and measured every thought he had, fixing his mind upon that +single object, to the utter exclusion of every other care, and that +consequently he attained to the highest perfection, not knowing +anything alike of happiness or sorrow, being in a middle state between +the two; and as a result of this, he then had power to remember many +of the transmigrations of being through which he had come, and could +see with angelic eyes distinctly all the various and numberless +transmigrations of human, angelic, and animal being throughout the +universe; and thence onward to the time of his death he gave his mind +entirely to the destroying of sin in his own body and soul, and became +the most pure and spotless, not only externally, but also in all the +secret recesses of his life and soul, and thence is worthily +denominated Arahang. He then saw by his own power alone, that all the +forms and bodies which merit and demerit have caused to come into +being, and all other things which exist without any cause, are +altogether illusive, unreal, unsubstantial, and evanescent; without a +maker, proprietor, or lord, and that hence is he also _Samma +Sampooto_. This says he is the sacred Budh, whom others before us +have thus eulogized as having come into the world, and lived in it, +and is commonly called according to his family name, _Gotama_. He +spent forty-five years in publishing the way to holiness and +substantial and eternal peace, and then extinguished his life, and +departed into Nipan." + +The pantheism of Brahminism had by long operation produced that +sluggishness of mind--its legitimate fruit--and confounded the Deity +with his works, and making it appear that the aggregate of creation is +itself God. In opposition to this, Budhism produced the doctrine that +all forms are mere illusions, and that will, purpose, action, feeling, +thought, desire, love, hatred, and every other attribute that can be +predicated of the mind, is unstable, and unreal, and therefore cannot +be associated with perfect peace. A state of "sublimation of existence +above all qualities," is the only thing that is real and substantial. +Budha has attained to that state which is called in the Pali +_Nirwana_, but by the Siamese _Nipan_. The literal meaning of the +word is, "absence of all desire," which involves an absence of +thought, and may hence be called a state of dreamless perpetual sleep. +To attain to that state the Budhist dogma, that all things which +appear in creation are illusive, and unreal, and consequently +unsubstantial, must be firmly fixed upon the mind. This lesson, +however, can only be learned by the most studious application of the +mind, and moral discipline by self-denial during a period of at least +100,000 transmigrations. To our mind Nipan is nothing but +annihilation, but Budhists will not admit it to be such, but maintain +that Budha has a perpetual existence there, Nipan is the Budhist's +highest idea of happiness. Omnipotence may be attained by perfect +virtue, abstinence, thought, and meditation. + +Fatality is the cause of creation. The universe came into existence by +the inherent force of fixed and invariable laws, which brings the +worlds out of chaos, and conducts them on by gradation to a state of +high perfection, and then downward again by the same gradation to +dissolution, and then back again, upward and downward in a series that +had no beginning, and will have no end. If any Siamese in the kingdom +be asked who made the world, he will invariably answer "pen eng," it +made itself. + +The teachings of Budha appear to have been transmitted by tradition +for about four hundred and fifty years after his death, and were then +committed to writing by the authority of a Budhist Council. + +The Budhist system of the universe is found in a book called the _Trei +Poom_, or a book settling all questions about the existence of the +three worlds. The Trei Poom of the Siamese was originally translated +from the Pali. The work was doubtless originally written in Ceylon, +and carried thence to all Budhist countries. The Rev. Dr. Bradley, the +oldest missionary in Siam, has prepared an abstract from the Trei +Poom, and published in the _Bangkok Calendar_, from which I shall make +a few extracts on the present occasion. + +The universe consists of an infinite number of systems, called by the +Siamese _Chackrawan_. Each Chackrawan has a sun, moon and stars +revolving around the top of a central mountain, called _Kow Pra Men_, +which extends above the surface of the ocean about 840,000 miles, and +the same distance into the ocean. It forms a perfect circle, having a +circumference equal to 2,520,000 miles. Parallel to the circle it +describes, and at a distance of 420,000 miles, is the first of seven +circular mountains, being variously distant from each other. Their +depth in water is the same as their height above it. The names, +height, circumference, &c., of these mountains are all given, but +would occupy too much space to enumerate here. Between each of the +seven mountains is a sea called _Seetawtara Samoot_. The width and +depth of each is as the distance between the mountains which bound it, +and the depth of the mountains below the surface of the water. The +water is exceedingly refined and light. The fish that live in those +seas are wonderful for variety and size, being many thousand miles +long. Parallel with the circle described by the seventh mountain, and +5,513,650 miles from it, is a circular glass mountain, called _Kow +Chakrawan_. This mountain forms the horizontal boundary of the system. +Its height is 820,000 miles, and its thickness 120,000. The circular +area which this mountain encloses is 12,034,500 miles in diameter. The +circumference of the mountains on the outside is 136,035,500 miles. +The water on both sides is 820,000 miles deep. The width of the ocean +between it and _Kow Asa Kan_ is 3,513,650 miles. Within this vast +expanse of water are situated the four grand divisions of the +populated plane or surface of the Chakrawan. These are called +_Taweeps_, which, for want of a better term to express them, have been +translated continents. These all have their appropriate names. The +first, in its horizontal contour, is shaped somewhat like the face of +a man, and hence is inhabited by mankind with faces like itself. The +second has a form like a half-moon, and is inhabited by an intelligent +race with semi-circular faces. The third is a perfect square, and is +inhabited by square-faced beings. The fourth is circular, and is +inhabited by beings having faces like the full moon. The distance from +each _Taweep_ to _Kow Chakrawan_ is 2,798,600 miles. Each Chakrawan +system is underlaid by a body of water independent of their oceans. +The distance from the surface of the earth to it is 260,000 miles, and +the depth of it is 480,000 miles. Underlying this body there is a +stratum of air 960,000 miles in depth, and thence downward there is +nothing but an open and utter void. + +Each Chackrawan has attached to it, somewhere in the subterranean +regions, eight chief hells, called by the Siamese _Narok_, meaning +worlds of utter misery. Each of these hells has attached to it sixteen +smaller ones, making one hundred and twenty-eight in all. Outside of +these there is another range of purgatories, forty to each chief hell, +making in all three hundred and seventy. + +Each Chakrawan has attached to it six inferior heavenly worlds, called +_Tewalok_, situated above each other, and at immense distances apart. +The first is situated on the top of the first of the seven circular +mountains, and the second on the top of _Kow Pra Men_. The others have +no terrestrial foundation, but are suspended in open space. + +These Chakrawans are far more innumerable than the particles of matter +which compose the earth. A mighty _Prom_ once desired to find the +limits of these systems. He was so powerful that by one step he could +cross a Chakrawan as swiftly as an arrow crosses the shadow of a +palmyra tree at midday. He travelled from one Chakrawan to another at +that rate for one thousand years, and then onward ten thousand more, +and then one hundred thousand more, until he was convinced that it was +impossible to find the limit, or to express their immensity in +numbers. + +The Budhist decalogue consists of ten commandments, viz. + +I. From the meanest insect up to man, thou shalt kill no animal +whatever. + +II. Thou shalt not steal. + +III. Thou shalt not violate the wife of another, nor his concubine. + +IV. Thou shalt speak no word that is false. + +V. Thou shalt not drink wine, nor anything that may intoxicate. + +VI. Thou shalt avoid all anger, hatred, and bitter language. + +VII. Thou shalt not indulge in idle and vain talk. + +VIII. Thou shalt not covet thy neighbor's goods. + +IX. Thou shalt not harbor envy, nor pride, nor malice, nor revenge, +nor the desire of thy neighbor's death or misfortune. + +X. Thou shalt not follow the doctrines of false gods. + +All who are habitually engaged in killing animals, stealing, +committing adultery, drinking ardent spirits and getting drunk, will +sink to the lowest hell. There are, however, five crimes which are +especially damnable, viz., murder of father or mother, murder of the +highest order of priests, called Arahang, wounding Budha's foot, so as +to make it bleed, (supposed to refer to the renouncing of the Budhist +religion,) and persuading priests to follow false doctrines or +practices. Those committing such sins go down to the very bottom of +the lowest hell. + +No new souls are ever made, the universe is ever stocked with +intelligent beings, and has been from eternity. These are continually +transmigrating from one state of being into another. All depends upon +merit and demerit. Every action and thought have their consequences, +either in the present or some future state of existence. Evil actions +produce evil consequences, which will eventually become manifest, and +cause a future birth, either in hell or in some inferior animal. +Hence, in speaking of the future, the Siamese always say _"tam boon +tam kam,"_ according to merit or demerit. An amount of demerit may be +cancelled by a corresponding amount of merit. We have had cooks in our +employ who have been obliged to kill animals such as chickens, &c., +and who, after leaving us, have entered the priesthood to atone for +their demerit. + +Over four hundred millions of the human race hold the Budhist religion +in some form or other. There is no people, however, who excel the +Siamese in devotedness and fidelity, and can show so many gorgeous +temples and monasteries. The government and the religion are so +inseparably connected together, that it is impossible to see how the +one can be overthrown without the other. It is a mutual union of +Church and State. No one can hold any civil office whatever under the +government, who has not spent at least three months in the priesthood. + +Budhism was brought from Ceylon to Cambodia, and thence to Siam, and +probably arrived in Siam about the fifth century of the Christian era. +The Siamese know of no other religion having existed amongst them. + +They make merit in Siam in different ways. One prolific source is the +building of temples or monasteries. These temples oftentimes cover +acres of ground, and besides the regular temple or shrine of the +idols, have houses or dormitories for the monks, and other +outbuildings. The temples are gaudy, but not magnificent, grand, or +massive. They are all accompanied with spires or pagodas, which +frequently reach a great height. The temple building proper is filled +with idols which are hideous in their appearance. Some are sitting, +some standing, and some are in a reclining posture. There is one +temple at the old city of Audia, said to have twenty thousand idols in +it, and the estimate cannot be far in excess of the real number. There +is one reclining idol in Bangkok, about one hundred and seventy-five +feet long, eighteen feet across the breast; and the feet of the idol +are six feet long. It is made of brick and mortar, heavily overlaid +with gold, and cost probably about $3,000. When the King wishes to +make merit, he builds a temple costing perhaps $100,000. When any of +the chief princes or nobles wish to make merit they do the same. The +temples built by the princes and nobles are all given to the King, and +then formally dedicated. These are called "Wat HLuang," or royal +temples, from the fact that the kings visit them once a year, and +distribute presents to the priests. The common people also join +together, and build temples, which are called "Wat Ratsadon," or the +people's temples. They are the same as the others, only not so grand, +and the kings do not visit them. There are in the city of Bangkok +alone about one hundred and twenty temples. + +Another prolific source of merit is by entering the priesthood. It is +the highest ambition of every mother to have all her sons take holy +orders in the priesthood, at some time or other during life, but +generally in the prime of it, as they thus not only make merit for +themselves, but also for the parents. It consequently becomes an +ambition to have as many sons as possible. The advent of a son is +hailed with delight, whilst that of a daughter is rather an occasion +of lamentation. The first question asked on the advent of a little +stranger is, "pen pu chai ru pu ying?" is it a boy or a girl? When +our first child was born, and our Siamese friends came to see the +little white stranger, finding it to be a girl, the only +congratulations they offered were, "tempte Mau tempte," too bad, +Doctor, too bad. The shortest time any one can remain in the +priesthood is three months, and as much longer as they choose. I have +met men who had been in the priesthood over forty years. I have met +them also who had been in it a number of times. It is no uncommon +thing for a man to leave his wife and family for a short time, and +enter the priesthood. + +The ceremony is very simple, consisting of asking the candidate a few +questions as to his motives, shaving his head, and bathing him +copiously with holy water, and clothing him with yellow robes. They +have also the order of _nains_, or novices, consisting of those too +young to take full orders. The clothing of the priests consists of a +yellow robe resembling somewhat the old Roman toga, with a scarf of +the same material, or something richer, thrown over the shoulders. But +as Budha was clothed in rags, they must imitate to some extent his +example, they therefore take the new yellow cloth, tear it in pieces, +and then sew it together again. This is done by the women, and is also +a source of merit. + +The priests go out early in the morning for their daily food. At every +house is stationed some member of the family, with a basin of boiled +rice, and a large brass spoon in it. When a priest comes along he +uncovers his vessel, and receives a spoonful of rice, and then passes +on to the next house. Some also give fish, fruit, and other things to +eat with the rice. When sufficient rice is collected for the day, they +return to the temples and take the morning meal. The next meal is +eaten just before noon, and nothing more until the next morning. It is +considered very sinful for a priest to eat after noon. The people also +frequently meet together at the different temples, and make feasts for +the priests, and give presents to them. + +There are in Bangkok alone over ten thousand priests, and all that +vast army can be seen starting out early every morning in search of +their daily food. + +It must cost Siam annually nearly $25,000,000 to keep up the +priesthood alone, and supposing the population to be eight millions, +which is perhaps an over-estimate, it will make on an average of over +three dollars for every man, woman and child in the kingdom. Now, if +every man, woman and child in the evangelical Christian Church would +average three dollars per annum, there would not be so many starving +ministers, and the Boards of the Church would not be compelled so +frequently to go a begging. The world too, at that rate, would soon be +evangelized. If the heathen can do so much for a false religion, what +should Christians not be willing to do for the holy religion of Jesus, +to which they owe everything they have, and are, and hope to be? + +Any violation of the laws of chastity whilst in the priesthood is most +severely punished. The culprit is publicly whipped with a ratan. He is +then paraded for three days around the city with a crier going before, +proclaiming his crime, and is then condemned to cut grass for the +king's elephants for life, and his posterity after him, to the most +remote generation. The other offending party is condemned to turn the +king's rice-mill for life, and her posterity after her to the most +remote generation. In consequence of the severe punishment, _slips_ of +that kind whilst in the priesthood, in proportion to the numbers, are +much less frequent than among the Christian ministry. Sodomy, however, +and other unmentionable crimes, are fearfully prevalent. + +The priests are the only persons in the kingdom who are not obliged to +crouch before the king. The king himself crouches before the +high-priest. When any one meets a priest, he places the palms of his +hands together and raises them to his forehead in reverence. + +The duty of the priests is to take care of the religion, recite +prayers at funerals, weddings, &c., and preach when called upon to do +so. The people frequently invite the priests to their houses to have +preaching. The sermons consist chiefly of exhortations to make merit, +and are generally in such lofty words and terms, taken from the Pali, +that the common people do not understand them. + +The Siamese also make pilgrimages to _Prabat_ and other sacred places. +Prabat is a beautiful little volcanic mountain about eighty miles +north of Bangkok. The rocks appear to have been thrown up in a plastic +state, and in cooling down left innumerable little holes or crevices +in the solid rock. One of these, about six feet long, is imagined to +be the impress of Budha's foot. They have accordingly bricked it up, +and have overlaid the wall with gold leaf. They have also erected over +it a beautiful little temple, whose floor is covered with silver +cloth, and whose walls are heavily covered with gold. Vast multitudes +flock thither during the months of January and February of every year, +to make their offerings at that sacred shrine. The principal offering +is gold leaf, which they paste on the inside of the footprint. There +are at least $5000 expended there annually in gold leaf alone. The +little caves also, with which the mountain abounds, are filled with +idols, and every prominent point is capped with a _pagoda_. At the +foot of the mountain is rather a hideous idol, at which all pilgrims +dismount from their elephants, and make an offering before ascending +to the more holy place. The offering consists chiefly of a twig from a +tree, or a few flowers. The tradition is, that whoever refuses to make +this offering will die before leaving the place. They were very much +surprised that we refused at least to dismount. They told us that Sir +Robert Schomburgk, the English Consul, who had visited there the +previous year, had also refused to dismount, and that he himself had +not died, but a favorite dog he had with him on the elephant had died +before he left the mountain. Sir Robert however, had a different +theory in regard to his dog, and blamed some one for administering to +him a dose of poison. Many of the most intelligent princes and nobles +have no faith in Prabat, but still assist in keeping up the delusion. + +There is also a short distance north of Prabat a very lofty rock +called Pra Chei, or sacred glory, where Budha is said to have once +taken shelter from a shower of rain, and departing, left his shadow. +Multitudes also flock thither to worship. We arrived there about ten +o'clock at night, and upon ascending a long flight of steps, found +numbers bowed before the rock and pasting gold leaf upon it. When we +told them that we could see no shadow, they attributed it to a want of +faith. + +The Siamese are also very much tormented with the fear of spirits, +both good and evil, and use every means to propitiate them. Witchcraft +is also very much feared. Wizards and witches are believed to have +power to put into the stomach of any one a piece of buffalo meat, or +other substance. A very disgusting circumstance of this kind occurred +near our premises. The father of a certain family took sick and died. +The family believed some foul play had been exercised in his case, and +when they came to burn the body, a small portion, perhaps the heart, +did not consume as rapidly as the rest. This was taken at once to be +the buffalo meat, and was taken home and eaten by the family. The +whole family ate of it, except one little girl who was absent in the +family of a missionary. The belief is that if they eat of it, they can +never be affected the same way. + +It is just to state that there are two schools of Budhism in Siam. The +late king, whilst a prince and in the priesthood, studied astronomy, +and became too intelligent to believe the teachings of the Budhist +books in reference to the system of the universe, and accordingly +undertook to reform Budhism, by discarding from the sacred books all +those things which conflicted with modern science, and especially in +reference to astronomy. Many of the most intelligent princes and +nobles went with him. A vast majority, however, swallow the whole of +the Budhist teachings. + +The greatest champion of the New School was Chow Phya Thipakon, late +Minister of Foreign Affairs. He was in some respects the greatest +thinker in the kingdom. He was the only man in the kingdom who, as +yet, has ventured to write a book, and have it printed wholly by his +own workmen. It consists of several hundred pages, and was +lithographed throughout, which must have taken considerable pains and +labor. The title is "Kitchanukit," a book explaining many things. He +commences by rather ridiculing the elementary system of education +practised in the temples, and tries to stimulate the natives to better +things. He also takes up the different systems of religion throughout +the world, so far as his knowledge extends, and compares them with his +own. He confutes, in his own way, the elementary religious tracts +published by the missionaries, and the evidences of Christianity. He +maintains his belief in his own system, and gives a few arguments in +favor of the transmigration of souls. He also gives a number of +illustrations and anecdotes bearing on that subject, of which the +following is a specimen: "Another instance is that of the child of a +Peguan at Paklat, (a town near Bangkok,) who, as soon as he had +learned to speak, told his parents that he was formerly named Makran, +and had been killed by a fall from a cocoanut tree, and as he fell, +his axe fell from his hand and dropped into a ditch; and they seeing +that his story coincided with something that had happened within their +knowledge, tried the child by making him point out the tree, and he +pointed out the tree, and his story was confirmed by their digging up +the axe from the ditch." + +Although the book evinces some thought and considerable knowledge, it +is infantile when he attempts to grapple with the great truths of +Christianity. H. Alabaster, Esq., for ten years Interpreter to H. B. +M. Consulate in Siam, has translated portions of the book, accompanied +with remarks of his own, and published it under the title of "The +Modern Budhist." + +It may be asked, what is the effect of such a system of religion upon +the morals of the people in comparison with those of eminently +Christian countries? There are many kinds of crimes in which Christian +nations far surpass them, such as those daring and dark outrages +perpetrated in our large cities, the recital of which shocks our +sensibilities every time we take up a morning paper. But heathen +morals have ever been the same, and the description which Paul gives +of the heathen of old, in the first chapter of the Epistle to the +Romans, is a complete description of the heathen of to-day. There is a +rottenness about everything, morally speaking, which we do not find in +Christian countries. It would be impossible on an occasion of this +kind, and before a mixed audience, to give you any idea of the +prevailing state of morals. I am not one of those, who, like the +English governess in the _Atlantic Monthly_, would consider Budhism a +shadow of Christianity, and "thank God" for it. It is eminently the +offspring of Satan, as all its bearings and workings on the heart and +morals will abundantly show. I have seen none of those glorious +death-bed scenes which she describes, and think they are rare. A +Siamese man lived neighbor to us for ten years. He could sit in his +own door and hear the gospel preached in our mission chapel. He was an +excellent neighbor, and was to all appearance a moral man. He had +observed, as nearly as possible, all the tenets of his religion. He +had made merit in every possible way. All his sons had entered the +priesthood. He was about seventy years old, and his death-sickness +came. The future was all dark to him. He struggled with, disease and +death for a number of days. One of our native church members called to +see his old neighbor, and ventured to speak to him about the +approaching change. The old man was unwilling to give up, and +answered, "Mai yak tai," I do not want to die; "Klua tai," I am afraid +to die; and then summoning all his remaining strength exclaimed, "Ch? +mai tai," I will not die. Still he had to die, as millions of his race +have done, without one ray of light to illuminate the soul, and no +faith in Jesus opening up to him the glories of the eternal world. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +EDUCATION AND LITERATURE. + + +The education of the Siamese is necessarily limited and the standard +low, when compared with that of European countries. The temples or +monasteries are the common schools of the country. Every priest can +take to the temple with him as many pupils as he can teach, so that at +almost every temple can be found a nice collection of boys, making a +very respectable school. These boys besides being taught the rudiments +of their own language, and the tenets of the Budhist religion, act +also as servants to the teacher, propelling his boat when he goes out +on the river, and doing other like menial turns for him. They live on +the surplus rice which is left, after the priests are satisfied. Every +pupil is taught to hold his teacher in special reverence, which lasts +through life. The males are all thus gathered in when boys, and taught +to read and write their own language, and the simple rules of +arithmetic, as the Siamese knowledge of that art does not extend +beyond the simple rules. It is consequently rare that a male can be +found who cannot read and write his own language, and on the other +hand it is just as rare that a female is found who can. No provision +has yet been made there for the education of females. Indeed the +feeling in high quarters has hitherto been against it, but not near so +strong as in India, and many other places, but that feeling is now +happily passing away. It used to be said that if woman could read she +would become too tricky for man. The females, amongst the common +people especially, are the drudges, and become wives and mothers so +early, that there is but little time for their education. Some of the +women of the higher classes have in some way learned to read, and the +missionary ladies have managed to teach some few others to read, +whilst employed in their families, but aside from these few exceptions +the great mass of the women are ignorant of letters. The late king +made one or two spasmodic efforts to have the women of the palace +taught English. Soon after he ascended the throne he employed some of +the missionary ladies to go to the palace regularly and teach, but +soon became alarmed lest they should teach too much religion, and +requested them to stop. A few years previous to his death also, he +employed an English governess in the palace, who, after about three +years rather arduous labor succeeded in giving the women and children +of the palace some knowledge of English, and perhaps a smattering of +some of the sciences. The higher order of education amongst the males +consists of a correct knowledge of their own language, and a +smattering at least of the Pali or sacred language. Some few who +remain sufficiently long in the priesthood make considerable +proficiency in the Pali. Their standard of education is also rather +depreciating than rising. Missionaries now find it difficult to secure +a young man sufficiently educated to make a good teacher. One reason +of this is that since the country has been opened to foreign commerce, +opportunities to make money are more common than previously, and young +men do not now remain sufficiently long in the priesthood to become +good scholars, but leave it to go into business. + +The Siamese language proper is monosyllabic and rather +poverty-stricken. It has however, been enriched from time to time from +the Pali, and from the languages of the surrounding nations, and by a +few words from the Chinese. Titles of nobility and distinction are all +taken from the Pali. Many of the words used in addressing the King, +and others high in authority, have been transferred from the Pali, and +some few from the Sanscrit. The late King professed to be proficient +in the Sanscrit, and some of their learned men now make pretensions in +that way. It is doubtful, however, whether the late King, although the +most learned man in the kingdom, had anything more than a smattering +of Sanscrit, and I do not suppose there is any one now in the kingdom +who knows anything about it worth naming. + +The Siamese alphabet consists of forty-four consonants, with several +vowel-points, diacritical marks and abbreviations. The alphabet is +divided into three classes, and there are also seven tones, so that +words beginning with a certain class of letters are spoken with a +raised tone, whilst others are spoken with rather a depressed tone. +Some of the consonants too, are spoken with an aspirate, whilst in +others the aspirate is withheld. This putting on the tone and the +aspirate in certain instances, and leaving them off in others, makes +it very difficult for one not born to it to acquire the language +correctly, _"Kai,"_ with an aspirate, means an egg, but by leaving off +the aspirate it is a chicken. Although spelled somewhat differently, +the sound to an unaccustomed ear is exactly the same. In these things +foreigners make some ridiculous mistakes. You have all probably heard +of the missionary lady somewhere, who, whilst in her garden, told a +servant to bring her a knife, as she thought, but was surprised to see +him coming out with a table on his head. I once heard a missionary, +otherwise good in the language, but who could never manage the +aspirates and unaspirates correctly, announcing to his audience that +there would be services at such an hour in the Siamese language, but +unfortunately he left off the aspirate, and announced that there would +be services in the _dead language_. Still the audience understood from +the connection what he meant. + +The literature of the Siamese is very meagre. They have a history of +their country which commences in fable, but after a few pages are +passed, it becomes a correct and reliable history of the kingdom. It +is written in a condensed style, and couched in good language. They +have also tolerably reliable histories of the neighboring countries, +such as Cambodia, Pegu, and Birmah. They are exceedingly fond of +fiction, and have a fabulous history of China, which has been +translated into Siamese, and is very popular. The Regent and Foreign +Minister have both been recently engaged in translating additions to +that fabulous history. If they would take as much pains in translating +the histories of the different countries of Europe and of America, +their people would soon become well informed in regard to the great +transactions of the world. The remainder of their literature consists +in vile and disgusting plays, in which they take great delight, both +in reading and seeing them performed in their theatres. They are also +very fond of a kind of jingling verse, and will listen for hours to +the mere jingle, caring little or nothing for the sense, of which it +is generally devoid. + + + + +CHAPTER V. + +MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. + + +The principle clothing of the Siamese consists of a waist-cloth called +a _"pa nung,"_ corresponding to the _sarang_ of India. It is about +two-and-one-half yards long, and one yard wide; is placed around the +waist, neatly tucked in, the two ends brought together, twisted, and +brought back between the legs and tucked in behind. Formerly this was +the only clothing worn, except a scarf thrown around the shoulders in +cool weather. The King formerly used to receive foreigners whilst +dressed in that style. Since the influx of foreigners however, they +have adopted a neat jacket with sleeves, and cut to fit tight to the +skin, and buttoned up in front. Those of the higher classes are made +of silk, but those of the common people are nothing but common white +muslin. The _"pa nungs,"_ also, of the better classes are made of +silk, whilst those of the common people are generally cotton. The +attire of the females is pretty much like that of the males, except +when they wish to dress, they have a neat yellow silk scarf which they +fold gracefully over the shoulders. The Siamese display excellent +taste in the selection of colors and figures, and have no love for the +gaudy in the way of clothing, like the Malays and some other eastern +nations. Shoes are seldom worn. The better classes have sandals or +slippers, but very likely a slave will be carrying them after the +owner, and when worn, are always thrown off before entering a house. +Occasionally however, you can see some young fellow rendering himself +ridiculous in a pair of European shoes and a European coat. + +The males shave the head, except a tuft on the top, which resembles a +shoe-brush. The females do not shave the head, but clip the hair as +closely as possible, leaving the tuft similar to the males, and a +small love-lock in front of each ear. + +They have a universal and disgusting practice of chewing the areca +nut. The nut of the areca palm is possessed of astringent properties +similar to the bark used in tanning. In connection with this nut they +use the leaf of the seri vine, which has a kind of pepperish taste. +They take white stone lime while yet unslaked, and mix with it the +powdered turmeric root, which turns it a crimson color. They take the +seri leaf and put on it a quantity of that red lime in the form of +paste, and then a portion of the areca nut, the leaf with the lime on +it, and some fine cut tobacco, are all put into the mouth together. +The saliva arising from such a mixture is a kind of blood-red color, +and is very copious. Their houses and walks have frequently a very +disgusting appearance, from large deposits of that red saliva having +been spit out of the mouth upon them. This process turns the teeth +black, and indeed destroys them, as the lime adheres to the teeth and +destroys the enamel, and finally they drop out by wholesale. Those who +have no teeth to chew the mixture, carry with them a small mortar, and +pound it all up together before putting it into the mouth. Both sexes +are addicted to this practice, and an exception can rarely be found. + +Black teeth are an element of beauty, and besides the chewing of the +areca nut, they resort to other means of coloring. When cautioned +against thus destroying the teeth, they invariably reply that "any +monkey can have white teeth." They never go anywhere without the box +containing the ingredients for chewing. The poorer classes carry their +own, but the rich have theirs carried after them by a slave. A man's +rank is indicated somewhat by the number of slaves that follow him, +and the golden box containing the areca nut, &c., and a teapot, are +the insignia. When one person calls on another, almost the first thing +done is to set out the tray containing the chewing material, and not +to do so is considered almost an insult. The males are also all +inveterate smokers from infancy. + +In going anywhere together, they never walk side by side as we would +do, but one after the other, according to rank or age. The husband +also always goes before, and his wife or wives walk behind. It is also +contrary to Siamese custom to have any one pass over their head, and +consequently they will not occupy the lower story of a house when +persons are above them on the next story. When the King goes out on +the canals in his boat, all the bridges have to be drawn, lest his +sacred head should pass under where some person had walked. No greater +insult can be offered than to take a man by the tuft of hair on his +head. It is the same as spitting in a man's face with us. + +Like all heathen, and I am sorry to say too many Christians, they are +very fond of jewelry, especially the women. Their fingers are +frequently nearly covered over with rings; gold chains are also thrown +around the neck and shoulders, and a neat gold pin through the lobe of +the ear. Children wear anklets and bracelets. Those of the rich are of +gold, and quite heavy; some are of silver, and those of the poorer +classes are brass. I have seen some of the children of princes and +nobles with several hundred dollars worth of jewelry on in the form of +anklets, bracelets and gold chains, and aside from the jewelry the +body was perfectly nude. + +The people are very much attached to the customs of their ancestors, +and what their fathers have done they must do, how absurd soever it +may be. _"Pen tumneum Thai,"_ it is Siamese custom, is sufficient +reason for doing anything. + +The principle food of the Siamese is rice and fish. Fish are very +abundant and cheap, and become a wholesome diet for that climate. It +is contrary to their religion to take animal life, and they never kill +any animals for their own consumption, but they do not scruple to eat +anything killed by another, if they can only roll off the +responsibility of killing it. They buy pork and fowls which have been +killed and dressed by the Chinese. They also eat animals which have +died. When warned that perhaps the animal died of some bad disease +which may prove injurious to them, they will answer that it can't +stand the fire; if there is anything of the kind, it will depart when +the meat comes in contact with the fire. They also live largely on +vegetables and hot peppers. The rice is boiled, and dished out into a +large basin or platter, and placed on the floor. The meats and +vegetables which have all been cut up fine before cooking, are also +dished out into small bowls and placed near the rice. Those about to +eat seat themselves around, tailor fashion, in a circle, each with a +bowl in his hand. He takes some rice from the large dish into his own +bowl, and then uses his fingers dexterously. When he wishes any of the +accompaniments he dips his fingers into the common dish. When there is +anything like soup or gravy, they have a common spoon, and each one +takes a spoonful into his mouth, and then passes the spoon to his +neighbor, and it thus goes around. They eat with apparent ease and +enjoyment, rolling up a ball of rice in the fingers, then throwing the +head a little back, and the mouth wide open, it disappears without +difficulty. They have never attempted to improve upon the fingers. The +Chinese invented the chop-sticks, and are apparently well pleased with +the result, for they never attempt to improve upon them; but any one +who has ever seen a Chinaman slabbering and blowing over his bowl of +rice, with a pair of chop-sticks, could not but wish to see him back +again at the more primitive fingers. The Siamese think we eat with +difficulty, and rather pity us for having so much ceremony. A +missionary and his wife were out on a mission tour, and came to a +village not frequented by Europeans. They stopped at the village and +partook of a meal. They of course had a table, and table implements +with them on their boat. The natives flocked around to see the +foreigners eat, and one old woman, after watching eagerly for a time, +turned away with a sigh, remarking, _"Kow kin yak tedio,"_ they eat +with great difficulty. + +Some of the princes and nobles have secured table furniture, and can +imitate European style very nicely, and some of their dinners given to +European officials are quite creditable; but when alone, they go back +again to their own mode. + +They have their own ideas of politeness in their social intercourse, +and are very strict in carrying them out; but in their intercourse +with foreigners they frequently try to imitate our customs, and as a +general thing spoil both. When a man meets a superior, he either +prostrates himself on the ground, or squats down, places the palms of +his hands together, and raises them up to the face. When equals meet +they do not say "Good morning," as we would do, but "Pai nai,"--where +are you going. The other will give an evasive answer, saying, "O, I am +not going anywhere, only up here a little ways." + +Their household furniture is generally meagre, consisting only of a +few cooking utensils, and mats and moscheto bars for sleeping. There +was a while that some of the higher classes manifested a desire for +European furniture, and bought it up very readily, but perhaps on +account of a nod from high quarters, there appears to be a reaction in +that quarter. + +The people are generally indolent, and lazy, and very much addicted to +gambling, which is, perhaps, the ruling vice of the country. At every +gambling house groups of men and women may be seen sitting from +morning till night, and from night till morning, intently gambling. +They will gamble away everything they have, and incur large debts; and +then sell their wives, children, and even themselves into slavery, to +pay their "debts of honor." They have different kinds of games, but +that on which they stake most is a Chinese game called _po_, and is a +kind of dice. + +They are exceedingly fond of theatricals, and every prince and +nobleman, who can afford it, has a theatre of his own. No festival of +any kind can be held without theatricals. Their plays are generally +some fictitious love tale, or history, and some of the actions of the +actresses are most lascivious and vulgar, but perhaps not more so than +the exhibitions of the stage in Europe and America to-day. + +They are also very fond of bathing, which is perhaps very conducive to +health in that climate. They bathe regularly at least three times a +day. They always carry a cloth with them for bathing purposes. Both +sexes meet together at the common bathing place, and they slip off the +regular cloth and don the bathing cloth so dexterously that nothing +amiss can be noticed in the transaction, and then plunge into the +river, both sexes being expert swimmers. Notwithstanding their +frequent ablutions, however, cleanliness is by no means a national +virtue, and some of their habits are extremely filthy. + +There are some things in which "Young America" might well pattern +after the Siamese. One is extreme reverence and respect for age. The +aged receive that reverence justly due to them in Siam, perhaps more +than in any other country. Another is love and reverence for parents. +The parent may sell a child into slavery, which is frequently done, +still when the child grows up, he never loses respect for that parent. +When a child too, commits a crime, and tries to evade the law, the +authorities at once lay hold upon the parents, which is sure to bring +the culprit back to give himself up. + +Although the Chinese have more natural stability of character than the +Siamese, and are in many other respects superior to them, still the +latter are in many respects the more hopeful people. A Chinaman knows +everything, in his own estimation already, and is unwilling to learn +from any one; whilst the Siamese will pick up all the information they +can from others. Whatever they can get of European arts and sciences, +without acknowledging the authority, and especially without costing +them anything, they have no scruples about receiving. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + +COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE. + + +It has long been the custom amongst the Siamese to ascribe honor and +glory to their princes and lords, in proportion to the number of wives +they have, and can maintain. + +The king has generally one whom he constitutes his Queen Consort. A +young princess of the highest rank that can be found in the kingdom is +selected. She however is not certain of promotion until after she has +lived with the king for a time, and has succeeded in gaining a large +place in the royal affections. When this is sufficiently accomplished, +the king appoints a day for her exaltation. Three days are usually +devoted to the purpose. The chief officers of the palace, the chief +scribes, and the chief princes and nobles of the kingdom are present. +The principal ceremonies devolve upon the priests, of whom there are +quite a number present, both Budhist and Brahmin. The princess is +copiously bathed in pure water, in which the leaves of a certain kind +of tree, supposed to possess purifying and healthful influences, are +put. Most of the time is spent in feasting, but on the third day she +is placed on a small throne under a white canopy, where she is bathed +with holy water, the priests reciting prayers the while. She is then +conducted to a place where the wet clothes are laid aside, and she is +arrayed in queenly costume, jewels, and diamonds, and then displays +herself to those in attendance. Instances have occurred when the king +had two Queen Consorts. In such cases one is called the queen of the +right hand, and the other the queen of the left hand. + +It has only happened about twice in Siamese history, that the king has +taken a foreign princess for his Queen Consort. This can happen in one +of two ways. The foreign prince wishing to secure the friendship and +alliance of the king of Siam, makes the first advance, offering his +daughter to the king of Siam. If, after having received testimonials +of her beauty and worth, the king is favorably disposed, he sends an +embassy to formally ask her of the father. The other way is, that the +king of Siam is the first mover in the matter, and makes the first +overtures. + +In addition to his Queen Consort the king can have as many inferior +wives, or concubines, as he wishes. These are called _"Nang-ham,"_ +literally, a woman forbidden--that is forbidden to go out of the +palace. Although women as a general thing in Siam are not in any way +secluded, still these inferior wives are rigidly confined within the +palace walls. During the late reign however, much more laxity in this +respect was displayed, than in any former reign. They cannot go +outside of the palace walls without a royal permit, and that only on +special and extraordinary occasions. The king seldom seeks an inferior +wife, but they are presented to him by princes and nobles wishing to +gain the royal favor, and thus they consign their daughters to a life +oftentimes worse than exile for that purpose. It is said that the late +king never left home but he returned with some new accessions to his +harem, and that they became so numerous that he oftentimes had to +refuse them. + +The better classes amongst them procure wives something after the +following manner. There is nothing like courting amongst the young +folks, as we understand that term, unless it is done by stealth, which +is almost impossible, from the fact that the mothers exercise the +strictest vigilance over their unmarried daughters. In this respect +American mothers might often profit by the example of these heathen. +Girls become wives there at the early age of fourteen, and an old maid +is quite a curiosity. + +Although young men in search of wives are not allowed the privilege of +courting, still they keep their eyes open, and when one sees a young +lady he fancies, he takes the proper steps to secure her. He makes the +matter known to his parents, if he has any; they employ an elderly +lady who is denominated a _"Maa su"_, and who is acquainted with and +respected by the young lady's parents. This _"Maa su"_ goes to the +house of the young lady's parents, and by a series of nice +insinuations, or otherwise, finds out how such a match would take, and +returns to report progress. If indications are favorable, the parents +of the young man then select a number of elderly persons of both +sexes, who are respectable, and intimate with both families. These +they invite to their house, and hold a consultation, and after the +matter is thoroughly discussed and the match decided to be a favorable +one, a propitious day is chosen, and the elderly persons repair to the +house of the young lady's parents. These of course divining their +object, receive them kindly, and according to custom, set out the tray +containing areca nut, seri leaf, red lime, and tobacco for chewing. +This ceremony over, the elders broach the subject of their mission, +taking good care to address the parents according to their rank, as +one improperly used pronoun might spoil the whole. If it is proper to +say _you_, they say it, and if it is proper to say your _honors_, or +your _graces_, they say that. + +"Such parents having ascertained that this is a propitious day, have +commissioned us to come and confer with you concerning their son of +such a name, who has as yet no wife. His parents having put the +question to him, 'Have you any one in your mind, you would like to +have become your wife, and to whom you could trust your life in +sickness, and your obsequies after death?' The young man answered, +that he had your daughter of such a name, and her only. The parents +have therefore commissioned us to visit you the much respected parents +of the young lady, and confer with you in reference to this matter. +What do you the parents say?" + +The parents reply: "Our daughter is one we love much, and the young +man is one whom his parents love much. We have an ancient proverb +which says, 'Move slowly and you will gain your object, and a +prolonged effort generally results favorably.' We will consult our +relatives on the right hand, and on the left, and see what they say +about it. Please call again." + +After waiting a reasonable time and another propitious day has come, +the elders call again. The parents of the young lady will say: "We +have consulted our relatives, and they are unanimously of the opinion +that if the young man really loves our daughter, and can confide in +her as a proper person to take care of him in sickness, and take +charge of his body after death, his affections and confidence should +be planted." "But how is it in regard to the ages, and birthdays of +the parties? Are they such as to be suitable to each other?" The +Siamese have a superstition that persons born in certain years, are +incompatible with each other. For instance, if one was born in the +year of the _dog_, and the other in the year of the _rat_, or one in +the year of the _cow_, and the other in the year of the _tiger_, they +would be incompatible with each other. The matter is accordingly +referred to some fortune-teller, who, for a small fee, generally +pronounces no serious difficulty in the way. + +This difficulty cleared up, the elders call for a further discussion +of the preliminaries. They say:--"Since birth-days do not interfere, +what shall be said about the mutual stock for the young couple to +commence business on, and the money for building a house for the young +couple?" According to Siamese custom the bridegroom almost invariably +goes to live with the parents of the bride, and accordingly puts up a +house on their premises, and as near the old mansion as possible. Thus +a man who has a number of daughters, finds himself surrounded by a +village, by the time they are all married off. The parents of the +young lady will answer, "We are by no means affluent, that we could +devote much money to that purpose. But allow us to ask, how will it be +with the parents of the young man--how much will they be willing to +give their son?" The others will reply, "It depends altogether on the +parents of the young lady." The other party will reply, "If such be +the case, we would suggest that they appropriate, say one hundred +_ticals_ ($60), for the purpose of building a house; and for mutual +trade _five hundred ticals_, and that they also contribute areca nut, +seri leaf, red lime, cakes, &c., for wedding purposes, say one hundred +salvers or dishes." The plan of the new house, and the number of rooms +are generally also specified. The elders then return and report to the +parents of the young man, and if they are satisfied, a bargain is +struck. + +All preliminaries having been made, the young man goes to work to +build his house, which generally requires but a short time, and the +parents of the young lady do not delay to consult astrologers in +reference to a propitious day for the wedding. The day having been +fixed, and all things arranged, the friends of both parties are +invited to assist in carrying out the arrangements. The parents of +both parties unite in selecting some elderly persons, who shall be the +bearers of the money, together with two suits of white raiment, an +offering to the bride's parents, and the wedding cakes, &c. This is +done in procession, either in boats on the river, or by land, with +bands of music playing wedding airs. The money and presents are given +over to the bride's parents, and they in turn bring out their portion +of the money, and perhaps a slave or two, to assist the young bride in +performing her household duties. The guests being all assembled, the +money and presents are all exhibited. The elders then count the money +of both parties, as legal witnesses. Both sums are thrown together, +and sprinkled over with a little rice, scented oil, flowers, &c., +symbolical of blessings craved on the young couple. The joint stock is +then delivered over to the parents of the bride for safe keeping. + +Some time is then spent in feasting and mutual conversation, and +priests are chanting prayers the while. The bridegroom then, in +company with some of his young friends, goes to his new house. + +The bride at the same time dispatches a lad neatly dressed, bearing a +tray of areca nut, who meets them there, and invites them to be seated +and enjoy themselves. She also decks herself in gay apparel, and in +company with some of her attendants repairs to the same building, but +the two parties are still separated by a screen. Religious services +are then held, after which the screen is withdrawn and the elders +proceed to bathe the young couple copiously with holy water. The chief +elder pours it first upon the head of the bridegroom, and then upon +the head of the bride, pronouncing a blessing upon each. The +attendants of the bride then assist her in changing her wet apparel +for dry, but still, if anything, more gay than the former. A finely +dressed lad then appears with a silver plated tray, containing a +handsome suit for the bridegroom, being a present from the bride's +parents, in which he speedily attires himself. Whilst these things are +going on the priests are rehearsing prayers for the benefit of the +young couple. All are then invited to a feast prepared by the bride's +parents, and when this is over the guests all return to their homes. +The bride stays with her parents, but the bridegroom goes to his new +house, where he has secured a band of music, and serenades the bride +until a late hour. Early next morning the guests all assemble, and +have a feast for the priests in which all vie with each other in their +attentions to the clergy. They then have another feast for themselves. +If this is a propitious day the ceremonies are closed in the evening. +A respectable couple, friends of the bride, who are man and wife, and +who themselves have been blessed with a large family of children, are +selected, and they then repair to the new house and prepare the bridal +bed. About 9 o'clock in the evening the elders conduct the bride to +her new home, and after some counsels and exhortations, the young +couple are left alone perhaps for the first time. Oftentimes however, +if the second day is unpropitious, the ceremonies are continued until +the third or fourth day. + +After a few days have elapsed the bridegroom conducts his bride to +visit his parents. She takes with her a few presents of cakes and +fruit, and upon entering the house prostrates herself three times to +the floor, and is then taken into the embrace and confidence of the +family. The bridegroom also pays a formal visit to the bride's +parents, and prostrates himself before them. + +After the birth of the first child the joint stock of money is +produced, and the young couple enter into business for themselves, as +they are supposed to have lived off the bride's parents up to this +time. There are three things which are considered absolutely essential +in these wedding ceremonies. These are three metallic platters, one +containing a kind of sweet cakes called _"Kanome cheen",_ or Chinese +cakes; another contains a kind of mince-meat, highly seasoned, and +much prized; and the third contains areca nut, seri leaf, red lime, +and tobacco for chewing purposes. These articles constitute what is +called the _"Kan mak,"_ literally the areca-nut tray, but which has +become one of their names for a wedding. + +Marriage amongst them appears to be little more than a civil contract, +in which the bride has but little choice, but yields implicit +obedience to the will of the parents. + +If a young man attempts to pay his addresses to a young lady without +going through the proper channel, he is supposed to be doing so from +improper motives, and stands a chance to get himself chastised by some +male member of the family. We had once in our school a young man, who +was rather fancy, and who attempted to address a young lady in the +neighborhood, without taking the proper steps. One evening two of the +young lady's brothers met him, and administered to him a sound +thrashing. + +A man in Siam possesses the prerogative of administering to his wife a +little wholesome chastisement, if she fails to fulfil her duties. I +have seen a few instances in which I really thought it was deserved, +and did good, but as a Christian missionary, and a representative of +the free United States, where women are clamoring for the same rights +as men, I had to discourage such things under all circumstances. + +Polygamy is not common amongst the middle and lower classes, simply on +account of their inability to maintain more than one wife, but divorce +is very easy, being only a dissolving of the civil contract by the +mutual consent of the parties, and then each party is at liberty to +marry again. There are however, many happy marriages in Siam, and I +have seen old people of seventy, who had spent a long life together +and raised large families. + +Notwithstanding the vigilance of the mothers, there is occasionally a +runaway match. In such cases however, they as soon as possible take +all proper steps to propitiate the parents. They select respectable +persons, and send them with presents to the parents, and, as a general +thing, like runaway matches everywhere; after a short time every thing +is smoothed over satisfactorily. I had in my employ a young man who +was an orphan. He became enamored with a young lady in the +neighborhood, and through his friends secured the consent of her +parents, but as he was poor, the wedding was to be postponed a year. +In the mean time, a well-to-do Chinaman, who had considerable money at +his command, came along and proposed. The parents consented, +notwithstanding the former contract, and went on to make arrangements +for the wedding, without telling the daughter anything about it. A few +days before the wedding was to come off, she got wind of what was +going on, and that night ran away and came down to our place, to hunt +up her other lover. In the morning he came to me in great trepidation, +but unwilling to give up his prize. I rather felt for the young folks, +and selected some of the most honorable persons in the neighborhood, +and sent them up to the parents, but they were inexorable. I then sent +for them to come down to our place, which they did through respect for +me, but would still do nothing, and threatened to go to law; but I +told them I would defend the young man in his just rights to the last. +After a few days however, all was quieted down, and the matter +smoothed over amicably. A faithful creature she also proved to be. She +worked and kept up the house, and all the expenses, whilst he worked +to pay me a tolerably large debt, for money which I advanced him on +the occasion. + +The nobility have all a plurality of wives, in proportion to their +means and rank. The first one taken, is head or mistress over the +others, and the whole get along as harmoniously together as such an +arrangement could be expected to do, and much more so than the same +arrangement would do with us. A nobleman is rather to be envied than +otherwise on his return home, as he receives so many delicate +attentions from his numerous wives, who all vie with each other in +meriting a liberal share of the divided affections of their lord. +Woman knows her place in Siam, and there are no such unfrocked +specimens of the sex there, as Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Lucretia Mott, +and others. Polygamy is however, one of the curses of the land, and +one of the great barriers to the introduction of the gospel. It is one +of those mountains which the power of the gospel must eventually bring +low. The day is coming when it must be abolished even in Siam. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + +CEREMONIES FOR THE DYING AND DEAD. + + +The Siamese dispose of their dead by cremation. When a prince of rank +is found to be near death, the relatives suspend every other care, and +assist in giving the departing spirit as good a passport as possible +into the spirit land. Every effort is made to fix the thoughts of the +dying man on Budha. They take their turns in calling out as loudly, +and distinctly as possible, _"Pra Arahang,"_ one of the names of +Budha. It is uttered as much as eight times in a minute, so that it is +impossible to hear anything else. This seems to be the "Extreme +Unction" of the Budhist. When all evidence of the dying man's hearing +is past, the attendant friends will raise their voices to a stunning +pitch, hoping that the departing spirit may still hear _Pra Arahang_. +After it is thought Pra Arahang can be no longer heard, the most +uncontrollable wailing is commenced, which can be heard to a great +distance. The friends of the deceased, household slaves, and all, +engage in this outburst of grief. + +When a prince of high rank has died, the King visits the house of +mourning and bathes the corpse with water, with his own hands. After +him other princes present come forward, and pour a dipper of water +upon the corpse. Next comes the nobles who are present, according to +their rank, and do the same. When all the princes and nobles present +have performed this office, certain officials present proceed to dress +the corpse. They put on it a pair of tight-fitting pantaloons, and a +tight jacket. Over these they apply a winding-sheet, wrapping it as +tightly as possible. Quicksilver is also poured down the throat. The +corpse is then placed in a copper urn, in a sitting posture. This +copper urn is then placed inside of a golden urn. The inner urn has a +grating at the bottom, and the outer one has a stop-cock, by which the +juices flowing from the body are daily drawn off, until it becomes +perfectly dry. The King usually remains until the corpse has been +placed in the urn, and that placed on an elevated platform, ascending +by three gradations to the height of about five feet. Whilst the +corpse is being thus elevated, conch-shell blowers and trumpeters are +performing lustily upon their instruments, with all the harmony +possible. This trumpeting is called the inviting of the corpse to be +seated on the platform. + +When thus seated, all the insignia of royalty to which the prince has +been accustomed during life are brought and arranged in order at the +foot of the urn. These consist of his golden areca nut box, his golden +cigar case, his golden spittoon, his writing apparatus--in short, all +the utensils which he was accustomed to use in daily life. The band of +trumpeters come at early dawn, at noon, and at dusk, every day, to +perform the funeral dirge. They come in concert with some wailing +women, who chant the virtues and excellences of the deceased. These +women spend an hour each day in that service, and in the intervals a +company of priests, seated upon a platform near by the urn, chant +incantations, and recite moral lessons in the Pali language. These +services are kept up daily until the time appointed for burning has +arrived, which is six, and sometimes even eight months after death. +The remains of a king generally lie in state about twelve months, +before burning. + +Upon the death of a king his successor commences at once to make +arrangements for erecting the temporary building for his cremation, +which is called a _Pra mane_. The building is generally in size and +grandeur proportionate to the estimation in which the deceased has +been held. Royal orders are sent to all the provinces, and even to the +tributary States, where large timber grows, requiring them to furnish +posts for the _Pra mane_, and especially four enormous sticks, which +are to form the central pillars of the building. These central pillars +must be of the finest timber that can be found, very straight, and +from two hundred to two hundred and fifty feet long. Besides the large +ones, twelve other pillars of smaller size are needed. Timbers which +have been used on a former occasion cannot be used again, but all must +be new. The large pillars are cut in the forest, dragged to the river +by elephants, and floated down at high water to the capital. When they +arrive at the city, a general levy is made all over the country for +workmen, and those huge logs are dragged up to the place mainly by +force, as it would be contrary to custom to employ any labor-saving +machine in getting them up. They are first dressed off, and then +planted with great difficulty in the ground about thirty feet deep. +The four large pillars are planted in a square, about one hundred and +sixty feet in circumference. When planted, the tops incline a little +toward each other, forming a kind of truncated pyramid, having four +sides, and is about two hundred feet high. On the top of these pillars +is erected a pagoda-shaped spire, adding about fifty feet more to the +height. The spire is covered with gilded and tinselled paper, so as to +give it a neat and grand appearance, especially from a distance. At +each side of this central pyramid is erected a wing, by means of other +smaller posts, and extending about forty feet, and facing the four +cardinal points of the compass; and each wing is also capped with a +pagoda spire. The whole is covered with a basket-work made of bamboo +splits, which is covered again with gilt and tinselled paper. The +building is surrounded by a bamboo fence, enclosing, perhaps, two +acres of ground, and entered by two large gates. Inside of the fence +are numerous temporary buildings, made of bamboo, for the +accommodation of priests, theatrical performances, and other +exhibitions. On the west side of the Pra mane is the building for the +accommodation of the King and his family. The roof of this building is +made of crimson cloth, with gilt edges, and the sides are covered with +curtains, which in front are tucked in neatly to the posts. At each +end, at the comb of the roof, is a peculiar shaped horn extending out, +which is peculiar to royal buildings and temples. + +The whole area of the enclosure is covered with a floor made of split +bamboos neatly woven together. Immediately at the base of the Pra mane +are small artificial mountains, and artificial lakes, and ponds, upon +which small boats and miniature floating houses are moored. Also +flowers, shrubbery, and every other thing imaginable, which is +considered at all ornamental. On the outside of the enclosure are +houses built for the accommodation of princes, nobles, and all +foreigners who may wish to attend, and who are all entertained at the +royal expense. Rope dancing, juggling, and every other imaginable feat +are also carried on outside. At night, too, those brilliant fireworks, +in which the Siamese so much excel, are touched off by the King +himself, and are kept up to a late hour every night. + +Directly under the tall spire in the centre of the building is erected +what may be termed the _Pra mane_ proper. A floor is laid over the +whole building about twenty feet from the ground, and upon that floor, +directly under the tall spire, is erected an octagonal pyramid, about +sixty feet in circumference. It diminishes by right angled gradations, +to the height of about thirty feet, and terminates in a truncated top, +and upon this top is placed the urn containing the royal remains. On +an appointed day the royal remains are brought out and placed upon the +_Pra mane_. This is done in a procession. The governors of the +different provinces, and the kings of the different tributary states +have all been ordered to be present at the cremation. Early in the +morning of the day of the procession, the chief princes, nobles, and +rulers, assemble at the palace. The golden urn, richly decked with +diamonds, containing the remains, is placed on an elevated seat, upon +a huge and unwieldy car, drawn by two horses, assisted by hundreds of +men. The funeral car is preceded in the procession by two others. The +first is occupied by the high-priest of the kingdom alone, reading as +he goes moral lessons from the sacred books, in the Pali language. The +second car is occupied by a few of the favorite children of the +deceased. A strip of silver cloth, about six inches wide, extends from +the thighs of the high-priest to the seat occupied by the children in +the next car, and thence to the funeral car, and is attached to the +urn. This forms the mystical union between the deceased, the sacred +book, and his children. The car next behind the funeral car contains a +few sticks of sandal wood, with ends gilded, for the purpose of +burning the corpse. These cars are all drawn by horses, assisted by +scores of men. There are also in the procession numbers of other cars, +containing figures of lions, tigers, elephants, rhinoceroses, and +numbers of indescribable fabulous animals, and upon the backs of all +these animals are placed piles of yellow cloths, to be presented to +the priests. There are also numbers of boats placed on small wheels +and drawn along, which are also to be presented to the priests. In +front and rear of the cars are hundreds of men, dressed in white, and +having white turbans, terminating in a pagoda point, and who represent +the _Tewedas_, or Budhist angels. When the procession arrives at the +place, the urn is drawn up an inclined plane, and placed upon the top +of the truncated platform already described. The piece of narrow +silver cloth, already mentioned, is attached to the top of the urn, +and extends to the floor, and then out the east and west wings of the +building to the steps. High above the urn is suspended a neat golden +canopy, of that indescribable form for which the Siamese are so +celebrated. Around and under the canopy are hung beautiful white +scented flowers, arranged in the form of a chandelier; splendid +chandeliers are also suspended all around for the purpose of +brilliantly lighting up the _Pra mane_. Nearly all the priests in the +kingdom are called into requisition on these occasions, who chant +prayers and recite moral lessons. + +All the chief princes and nobles, the family and family servants of +the deceased, are all dressed in white, and have their heads shaven, +the badge of mourning. When the time has come for igniting the fire +the outer golden urn is removed, leaving only the inner copper urn. +The grating at the bottom of the copper urn is covered over with +spices and fragrant powders. All valuable or precious articles are +removed from the platform. The platform is also lowered some feet, to +make it more convenient. The sandal wood is arranged under the grate +of the urn, and precious spices and fragrant articles are placed +amongst the wood. A gunpowder train is arranged, extending to the +place where the king is. All being ready, the king takes electrical +fire, which has been preserved in the palace for a long time for such +purposes, and ignites the fuse, and soon the wood is in a blaze. The +family of the deceased, and the chief princes and nobles are all +standing near, with lighted wax candles in their hands, and each in +turn steps up and places the candle amongst the wood. Tubs of water +are standing near, and men with dippers ready to prevent the flames +from rising too high, and consuming the whole building. Many persons +from reading descriptions of these cremations, have got the idea that +the whole building is burned, but nothing is burned but the sandal +wood and the corpse which is in the urn. When the wood is fired the +band strikes a funeral dirge, and the women commence wailing, which +generally lasts only a few minutes. When the ceremonies are all over +the _Pra mane_ is taken down, never to be used again. + +The corpse is generally burned on the third day of the ceremonies, and +they are kept up in the same manner for three days after the burning +proper, making about six days in all. After the burning, the charred +bones still remaining are collected, put into a small golden urn, and +kept by the family. The present king has the remains of his ancestors +for many generations back, preserved in this manner. The ashes are +also collected, when a procession of boats is formed, and they are +scattered upon the river. + +During these ceremonies much is given away in presents, for the +purpose of making merit. Small gold and silver coins, and gold rings, +are put into _limes_, and other small fruit, and these are scattered +amongst the crowd, and they scramble for them. The king amuses himself +at this kind of sport very frequently during the ceremonies. Other +small fruits contain lottery tickets, which always draw a small +article of some kind. These are also given away. Outside the enclosure +are artificial trees, full of _limes_, in every one of which is a +small coin. A person frequently during the ceremonies ascends a +platform, pulls off the _limes_ and scatters them amongst the crowd, +and then such a scramble as there will be. Persons frequently get hurt +in the scramble, and it is frequently muddy, and I have seen the +scramblers all covered over with mud. The royal funerals are very +expensive. The funeral of the late king must have cost at least +$150,000. + +The common people, on account of the expense, do not keep their dead +long, but burn them as soon as possible, but in substantially the same +manner. They do not erect a _Pra mane_, but most of the temple grounds +have a permanent _Pra mane_. I have also frequently seen them burning, +out in the open space, without any covering. The corpse is placed in a +board coffin, covered over with figured paper, and is then taken to +the temple and burned. There is a very disgusting practice more or +less common amongst them. Sometimes the person dying orders it to be +done in order to make merit, and sometimes the friends do it of their +own accord. When the corpse is taken to the place of burning, they +take knives, cut the flesh from the bones, and feed it to the +vultures. These filthy birds will be perched near by, and will come +down into the crowd to receive the coveted morsel, which they either +carry off, or swallow upon the spot. After the flesh is thus taken +off, the bones are burned. + +Persons dying of cholera, small-pox, in childbirth, or any sudden +disease, and by suicide, are not burned immediately, but are buried +for a few months, and are then taken up and burned. Criminals +executed, and paupers, are given to the vultures wholesale. Medical +students would have no difficulty in getting subjects there. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +THEORY AND PRACTICE OF MEDICINE + + +When we consider that amidst all the light which the latter half of +the nineteenth century sheds upon the subject, the theory and practice +of medicine amongst western nations are still enveloped in darkness, +and are constantly changing, it is not to be wondered at that a nation +like the Siamese is almost wholly in the dark upon such a subject. The +Rev. D. B. Bradly, M.D., the oldest missionary in Siam, and who for +many years practised medicine in Bangkok, has prepared an abstract of +the Siamese "Theory and Practice of Medicine," which was published in +the _Bangkok Calendar_ of 1865, and from which the abstract which I +shall give at present is mainly taken. + +The Siamese believe the human system to be composed of four +elements--water, air, fire, and earth, and that disease is simply a +derangement in the proportions of these elements. They believe also +that all nature is constituted in the same way, and that the elements +without, are continually operating upon the elements within the body, +producing health or disease. For instance, if fire from without enters +the body in undue proportions, it will derange the healthy equilibrium +of the same element within, and will produce one or more of the +diseases into which fire enters, such as fevers, measles, small-pox, +&c. Each element is supposed to have its season of influence to +produce disease, just as the fruits of the earth have their seasons. +Their medical books, and common parlance, both say that in such and +such months, wind produces most disease, and in such and such other +months, fire produces most, and so with all the other elements. The +internal elements are also supposed at certain times to become +deranged from causes wholly internal. For instance, one of their +theories in regard to apoplexy is, that the internal wind blows from +all parts of the body upon the heart, with such force that it is often +ruptured, and death immediately ensues. The other theory is, that the +wind has fled, and left a vacuum in the upper story, and it must be +forced back again, if a cure is to be effected. + +All diseases are produced either from an excess or diminution of one +or more of the four elements; and, according to their theory, wind +produces more disease than any, or all of the other elements combined. +If you ask any Siamese what is the matter with him, in nine cases out +of ten, he will answer, _"Pen lom"_--it is wind, or disease produced +by wind. + +Their theory also teaches that all vital motions of the body are +primarily produced by wind taken into the system by inhalation, as +wind enters a bellows, and proceeds to the heart, and the heart by its +expansions, invites it into the body, and then, by its own power it +passes to all parts, and is the approximate cause of all internal +circulation. + +There are two grand divisions of internal wind, viz., that above, and +that below the diaphragm. Strictures in the chest, headache, epilepsy, +and apoplexy, are produced by wind beating upward. Colic, flatulency, +inflammation of the bowels, &c., are caused by wind from above beating +downward. + +It is seldom however, that disease runs its course without involving +two or more of the other elements. For instance, in case of a common +boil, the wind first drives the blood from all quarters into the +locality of the disease, where it stagnates, being invested by wind. +Secondly, the water from the blood consequently settles in that place, +as water in a tea-kettle before the fire is applied. Thirdly, the +internal fire having nothing to drive it away, acts upon the water, +and heats it to scalding. And, fourthly, the earth, inclusive of the +crassiment of the blood, which had stagnated, and other solid matter +in the locality, become diseased from great heat, and are consequently +decomposed and melted down into matter. Anasarca, or general dropsy, +belongs to the water-class, and is produced by the watery parts of the +blood settling under the skin, and among the muscles, causing the +parts to puff outward. But water is not the sole cause; there is also +a diminution of fire. If fire had been present in due proportions, it +would have dried up the surplus water, as the sun dries up the dew. + +In the hot season, heat from without combines with heat from within, +and produces an unhealthful degree of heat in the body, and causes +disease of the fire-class. In the rainy season too much water is +absorbed into the system, filling intensely the natural vacuum in the +upper part of the head, and produces disease of the water-class. The +earth produces disease through her mists and vapors. Cholera is +supposed to arise from this source. + +They also believe that spirits, good and evil, have great power over +the elements, and have much to do in producing disease. They are +consequently held in continued dread of them, and use every means to +propitiate them. They never start on a journey, or enter a forest +where fevers prevail, without first making an offering to the spirits. + +They believe that medicine has power to counteract the deranged +elements, and restore them to a healthful equilibrium. The origin and +practice of medicine they believe to have been supernatural. Their +medical books declare that the father of medicine was so privileged, +that wherever he went, every individual member of the vegeto-medical +kingdom was sure to summon his attention, and speak out, revealing its +name and medical properties; and since the days of miracles have +passed away, the science is only now to be acquired by following +closely the original medical books. + +They have four classes of medicines, each calculated to counteract the +disturbances caused by each of the four elements. The _modus operandi_ +of each individual class is supposed to be as various as the specific +diseases. For instance, medicine for wind in the head is quite +different, and acts differently from medicine for wind in the bowels. +A sternutatory snuff, a wash for the head, a patch or plaster, may +dispel the wind in the head, whilst it will require a carminative to +allay the storm in the bowels. It is believed that wind of every kind +may not only be expelled from the body by way of the esophagus and +rectum, but also by the pores of the skin, and all the secreting +organs of the body. It may hence be drawn off by suction; as cupping, +poultices, bleeding, and scarification. They also attempt to drive the +surplus wind from one part of the body to another part where it may be +wanting. If the disease arise from a deficiency of wind, they try to +raise an artificial breeze in the system by appropriate medicines. +Giddiness is supposed to arise from a deficiency of wind blowing +upward upon the brain, and the upper part of the skull becomes a +vacuum. They consequently fill the stomach as full as possible with +food, and put the patient to bed, and he will awake quite well. If +there is a want of heat, they produce artificial heat; and if there is +too much, they employ a refrigerating treatment. If there is too much +water, they try to draw it off by drastic cathartics. In all their +treatment they employ opposites. + +Their medicines are derived chiefly from the vegetable kingdom, and +from those kinds too which are indigenous to their own country. Some +few articles are brought from China, and sold by the Chinese +apothecaries. Barks, roots, leaves, chips, fruits, and herbs, +constitute the great bulk of their _materia medica_. They also employ +some articles belonging to the animal kingdom, such as bones, teeth, +sea-shells, fish-skins, snake-skins, snake's galls, urine, birds' +eyes, &c. They have also a few from the mineral kingdom, such as +stones, saltpetre, borax, lead, antimony, sulphate of copper, table +salt, sulphate of magnesia, and rarely mercury. They have a few gums +also, of which aloes and gamboge are the chief. + +But few articles of the vegetable kingdom however, escape enlistment +in the war against disease. They depend more upon great combinations, +than upon the power of a single ingredient, and consequently scores of +kinds, or ingredients, often figure in a single dose. Dr. Bradly says +he has seen one instance in which one hundred and seventy four +ingredients were employed in one prescription, and the whole to be +taken at three doses. The work of preparing medicines is therefore +onerous. Vegetable combinations are used chiefly in a state of +decoction or infusion. They frequently speak of a patient having taken +four or five pots full--a pot holding from two to four quarts. They +knew nothing of tinctures until European physicians came amongst them, +and they are slow to adopt them. + +After such a system, it may readily be supposed that their physicians +are in keeping with it. They are wholly self-taught, or, more +properly, untaught. They have nothing like medical colleges, or a +system of medical discipline. They are like too many in our own +country who rush into the study of medicine without a sufficient +literary or scientific education upon which to base a medical +education, and thus prostitute a noble profession. Without a correct +knowledge of their own language, they read a few of their medical +manuscripts, and start out for a patient, following the manuscript +very closely in their treatment. Should they get a patient who is +pretty sick, and he recover in spite of their treatment, their +reputation is made. The reputation once made seldom wanes, for the +physician's tongue helps him out of a great many scrapes. If he loses +a patient, the spirits or some other insurmountable object have always +been in the way. + +It is seldom however, that a man professes to be a general +practitioner; they turn their attention to specialities. One will be +renowned for fevers, whilst another will have a reputation in cases of +small-pox. The Siamese physicians are held in great esteem by the +people, an esteem but little less than that offered to princes and +nobles, but of a different kind. That given to the latter is a kind of +servile reverence, but the former is a true esteem. They have two +general classes of physicians, viz., the royal physicians and the +people's physicians. The former class are appointed by the King to +practice in the palace, and amongst the princes and nobles, and +receive a small salary from the royal treasury. The latter class are +self-appointed, and receive no regular salary, but depend upon their +fees for their living, and as a general thing make it pay better than +the other class. A common physician of reputation is frequently +promoted to be a royal physician. + +They have also another kind of doctors who profess to cure certain +kinds of diseases by shampooing and manipulating. They are well versed +in the locality of the muscles, tendons, and blood-vessels. They +gently press these points, and when one is tired and weary, it has a +soothing effect, and produces sleep, and in some diseases it may prove +beneficial. I have found it very beneficial at times of great +weariness and lassitude. + +The common physicians are always employed by the job, and always on +the condition, no cure no pay. Sometimes, if the disease is chronic, +and but little hope of recovery, they stipulate to pay a certain sum +in case of an alleviation of the disease, and so much more in case of +a permanent cure. A bargain is always struck by the patient himself, +or by his friends, before the physician takes charge of the case. +Sometimes, if a doctor sees his patient is going to die, and he be the +loser, he will take "French leave" without giving the friends any +notice whatever of his intentions. Generally however a more honorable +course is pursued, and the doctor gives up the patient, and releases +the friends from all obligations, and they are at liberty to call +another doctor. The physician is thus changed frequently, several +times before death or recovery, each new one putting in for a higher +bid. They have also a kind of domestic water treatment, by copious +bathing, which in many cases is far more beneficial than their +nostrums. + +They are also great people for recipes, and many of the temples have +these recipes inscribed by scores upon the walls, and upon little +marble tablets, for the benefit of the poor, and all others who wish +to use them. The king frequently makes merit by having these recipes +thus inscribed. The following one for small-pox, will serve as a +specimen: + +"One portion of conch-shell; two kinds of aperient fruit, one portion +of each; two kinds of sour leaves, one portion of each; one portion of +asafoetida, one of borax, one of ginger, nine kinds of pepper, +including the hottest, a portion of each; four kinds of cooling roots, +a portion of each; one of an astringent root; four kinds of drastic +cathartics, including the fruit and leaves of the croton plant, one +portion of each; one of rhubarb, and one of Epsom salts. Boil in three +measures of water until it be diminished to one measure of the +decoction. Then squeeze out the oily parts, dry, and pulverize. A +woman may take the weight of thirty cents in silver, and a child may +take the weight of seven and one-half cents in silver. It will purge +off everything in the bowels." + +They have as yet little or no confidence in European physicians and +medicines. They however, are obliged to acknowledge their ability as +surgeons, and they are beginning to have confidence in quinine in the +treatment of fevers. They know nothing of anatomy; and consequently +nothing of surgery. They do not pretend to lance even a common boil, +but depend upon opening it with poultices. + +The first amputation was performed in Siam by Dr. Bradly, in 1837. A +company of priests at the dedication of a temple were playing with +fireworks, when a cannon burst, and killed several and wounded many +more. Dr. Bradly offered his professional services, but all the +wounded refused, except two. He amputated the arm of one of them, and +dressed their other wounds, and they soon recovered, but all the +others died. Inoculation for small-pox was introduced by the +missionary physicians in 1838. They found themselves surrounded by the +disease, and being without vaccine virus, they inoculated their own +children as the next best thing that could be done. It acted so well +that the king sent a number of the royal physicians to examine into +it, and learn how it was done. Having learned, he sent them out +through the city to inoculate. + +Vaccination was introduced in 1840, from a scab sent out from Boston +_via_ the Cape of Good Hope. It finally died out, and was again +renewed from time to time. It is now constantly kept up by Dr. +Campbell, a Scotch physician, in connection with the English +Consulate. The natives no longer hesitate to have their children +vaccinated, and it has done much towards staying the ravages of the +small-pox. + +The first operation for cataract was successfully performed by Dr. +Bradly, upon the eyes of a distinguished nobleman and minister of +state. + +They know nothing of obstetrics, and those cases where nature needs to +be assisted, are left to die. Superstition too, has enveloped the +whole afiair in silly and ridiculous notions. Since they believe in +the transmigration of souls, and that the spirits of all persons who +are born have existed in some previous state, their books on midwifery +pretend to teach parents how they may know whence their children came, +and whether the expected stranger will be a boy or girl. There is also +a choice in the day of the week upon which a child is born. Wednesday +and Thursday are particularly favorable for robust constitutions, and +bright intellects. Children born on Sunday, are liable to be careless +and reckless all their lives. + +This business is almost wholly committed to elderly women or midwives. +Male physicians are seldom called in on such occasions, unless the +case requires extraordinary skill, and then they are as ignorant as +the midwives themselves. They always attempt to assist natural labor +by the use of domestic medicines, shampooing, and other manipulations, +and in many instances do positive injury by deranging natural labor. +Facts however, prove that parturition amongst the Siamese is much +shorter and easier than amongst Europeans and Americans. One reason +is, that they have more of the animal in their natures, and doubtless +the kind of dress they wear has much to do with it--their dress being +more in accordance with nature. + +It is after the birth of the child that the Siamese mothers have to +endure torture. It is a custom amongst them, as immutable as the laws +of the Medes and Persians, that the mother after the birth of the +child, must lie by a hot fire from five to thirty days. After the +first child they must remain by the fire about thirty days, but the +time gradually diminishes with every subsequent birth. She is placed +on a hard board, with nothing under her but a thin mat, and no +clothing but a narrow waist-cloth and is thus obliged to lie within +four or five feet of a hot fire. This is generally, too, in a small +room, with no chimney, but the fire is on an open furnace, and the +smoke is allowed to escape as best it can. In such a climate as Siam, +this must be positively injurious, and it certainly makes young +mothers look prematurely old. It is not known whence this custom +originated. It is also practised amongst the Cambodians, Peguans, +Burmese, and Cochin Chinese. + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + +FARMING AND PRODUCTS. + + +The staple of the country is rice. Their farming operations are simple +in the extreme, and as the soil is very fertile, I know of no place +where the husbandman is so abundantly rewarded for so little labor. +Their plough is exactly like that used in Scripture times, and +pictures of which you have doubtless seen in books on biblical +antiquities. It consists simply of a crooked stick, answering for beam +and handle, to which a sheath is attached, to the end of which a small +shovel is affixed. It has but one handle, and is difficult to hold, +and hence from the same kind of an instrument we have the Scripture +illustration, "No man having put his hand to the plough and looking +back, is fit for the kingdom of heaven." To this plough they attach a +couple of oxen, or Indian buffaloes, and when sufficient rain has +fallen to soften the ground a little, they scratch it over with their +little plough. When sufficient rain has fallen to turn the ground into +a perfect mortar, they stir it up again, and sow the rice upon the +mud. This they sometimes harrow over with a brush or rude wooden +harrow. About this time the water in the rivers begins to overflow the +banks, and gradually overflows the rice fields to the depth of three +or four feet. The rice however, manages to grow, and keep head above +water, and so long as it can do this it is all right. The water keeps +up until the rice is out in heads, and then it begins to subside until +harvest, when the ground is generally quite dry. I have rode in my +boat for a whole day, directly over the rice fields, when the rice was +coming out in heads, and found the water in many places four feet +deep, but the heads of the rice were waving in the wind majestically +above it. The best quality of rice is raised by transplanting. The +ground is prepared the same as before, but instead of sowing +broadcast, they take the rice plants, and place them in the soft mud +with the hand. This work is generally done by women and children, and +they do it very dextrously, placing the plant in the mud with the +thumb and finger almost as fast as they can walk. It is put down in +rows, about two or three inches apart. This is the same kind of rice +as the other, only the grains are fuller and better, and it commands a +better price in market. + +After planting his rice the farmer has little or nothing to do until +his crop begins to ripen, when all hands have to turn out to drive off +the birds. There are immense flocks of a diminutive little bird, with +gray and red wings, and about the size of a canary, and sings almost +as sweetly. They are beautiful little creatures, but great +rice-eaters, and would soon destroy a whole crop if not driven away. +Men, women and children have all to turn out to guard off these, and +other rice-eating birds, until the harvest is gathered. + +The rice crop is harvested about the first of January, with a kind of +primitive sickle, and bound into small sheaves. It is then collected +by means of a nondescript ox-cart into one place, where they intend to +thresh it. The threshing floor is levelled off on the ground, as in +Scripture times, and a bamboo pole is set up in the centre, upon the +top of which a few heads of the best rice have been tied, as a kind of +first fruit-offering to the spirits. The sheaves are then placed +around in a circle, and a number of oxen are driven around abreast +upon it. When threshed, the rice is collected into a heap and winnowed +with a large fan. The threshing is frequently done at night, and I +have seen the banks of some of the rivers illuminated for miles with +fires around the threshing floors. The crops are generally abundant, +and the labors of the husbandman abundantly rewarded. + +The native mills for hulling the rice are small basket affairs turned +by band, but there are now in operation four steam rice-mills, built +and owned by Europeans, and which clean on an average about four +thousand piculs of cargo rice daily. + +Bangkok is one of the greatest rice ports in the world, and vast +quantities are shipped every year to China, Europe, California and +other places. + +Cotton grows well, and the quality is good, but is not raised in any +quantities. A few Hainan Chinese have located up the country, and are +raising cotton, but all they raise is shipped in junks to the island +of Hainan. + +Some little Indian corn is raised, but not as a business; it is +generally used when soft. Vegetables of various kinds are also raised +in considerable quantities, such as sweet potatoes, turnips, cabbage, +beans, peas, cucumbers, squashes and egg-plants. + +All tropical fruits are also abundant, such as oranges in great +variety, shaddocks, plantains, mangos, mango-stines, jack-fruit and +bread-fruit. The king of fruits to the natives however, is the +_durien_, a large fruit about the size of a man's head, with a prickly +shell. Inside the shell there are a number of lobes, each having a +large seed, surrounded with a white pulpy substance, resembling +custard highly flavored with garlic. To most Europeans the smell of +the fruit is very offensive, resembling that of a spoiled egg. When a +boat load of the fruit is passing up the river, even before the shell +is broken, it can be smelled at a great distance. Strange to say +however, after a few contacts most Europeans become extremely fond of +the fruit, notwithstanding the smell. It is however, like most +acquired tastes, the end gained scarcely justifies the effort in +obtaining it. + +The palm is there also in considerable variety. The palmyra, the +cocoanut, the nypa, the date, and the areca palms, all figure to some +extent. + +Amongst the woods the teak is most valued for ship building, and +quantities of it are shipped every year to China and Europe for that +purpose. Rosewood is also abundant, and a variety of other red woods. +Sapan wood is largely exported to China for dyeing purposes. + +There is scarcely anything so generally used and so universally prized +as the _bamboo_. It grows in clumps to the height of about +seventy-five feet; and when full grown is about six or eight inches in +diameter at the butt. It also grows in joints, and is hollow except at +the joint. The houses of the poorer classes are all built of this. +Their baskets, boxes, buckets, boat covers, and nearly all the +utensils used by the poorer classes, are made of it. It is to all +appearances a _"sine qua non"_ in the country. + +Their domestic animals are few. The ox and the Indian buffalo are +prized for farming purposes. Fowls and ducks are raised in great +quantities, but by the Siamese only for the eggs; the Chinese however, +eat large quantities of them. The ducks have lost the instinct of +incubation, and the eggs are hatched by artificial means. Pariah dogs +are there in great numbers, and many of them without any owners, and +they frequently render night hideous by their howling. + +Amongst the ferocious animals the tiger is chief; both the Bengal and +leopard species are found in numbers in the jungles. The fox, wolf, +and a small species of bear, are also found. + +Monkeys in great variety are there, and in passing up the rivers and +along the canals they can be seen in large droves perched upon the +trees, cutting up their antics apparently for the benefit of the +passer by. Several species of deer, and wild hogs, abound in the +jungles. Jungle-fowls, pea-fowls, and a vast variety of other birds +abound, so that an expert sportsman can find plenty to do for his gun. + +About thirty species of venomous serpents are known to the natives, +about one half of which are considered very poisonous. A few inflict +deadly wounds with their tails. One of the most venomous is five or +six feet long, and has the power of reflecting prismatic colors. The +cobra, or hooded serpent, is abundant. The boa constrictor is also +common, but does little harm except rob hen-roosts at night. The +writer has frequently been obliged to arise at night to relieve his +hen-roost from their attacks, and he has seen them, when killed, +measuring twelve and fifteen feet long. The natives tell marvellous +stories about those found in the forests, forty and fifty feet long, +and which can crush and swallow a deer, or an ox, without any +difficulty. Vast numbers of harmless little lizards are constantly +sporting upon the walls of your house and bed-room. The most noted is +the "gecho," a large dragon-headed lizard, about six or eight inches +long, called by the Siamese _"To-kay."_ He secretes himself during the +day, but comes out on the walls at night in search of moschetos and +other things for food. He is a fierce-looking fellow, and most +Europeans at first sight are terribly afraid of him. Shortly after our +arrival in the country, one evening when we were about to retire, we +discovered something, presenting rather a ferocious appearance, in the +corner of the bed-room near the ceiling. My wife could not think of +retiring with such a creature so near the bed, so I got a long bamboo +pole and called in a native man to assist, and after a considerable +contest we succeeded in worsting him. They have also a tremendous +voice, and at night will often keep you awake by hollowing "To-kay, +To-kay," from some secret corner of your bed-room. We once lived in a +part of a house, the other half of which was occupied by another +mission family. There was a large "To-kay" which had been about the +house for some time, and was quite a pet with the other family, and +they would not allow him to be disturbed. In the evening, however, +just when our baby would get to sleep, he would come out and commence +his hollowing and wake her up again. One afternoon when the other +family were out, he came out on the porch, or veranda, and commenced +hollowing lustily, and I loaded my shot gun and brought him down. +This, and the one already alluded to, are the only encounters I have +ever had with the "To-kays." + +An American gentleman who was traveling around the world, once stopped +with us. He arrived from the ship about 9 o'clock in the evening. He +was scarcely in the house until a To-kay commenced hollowing, +apparently for his edification. The gentleman looked up in +consternation, exclaiming, "What's that--a billy-goat?" + + + + +CHAPTER X. + +MODE OF DIVIDING TIME. + + +The twenty-fours of the day are divided into two equal parts. The day +is called _Wan_, and the night _Kun_. The former begins at 6 A.M., +and the latter at 6 P.M. The hours of the forenoon are numbered from +one up to six, or mid-day. The hours of the afternoon are numbered in +the same way. The forenoon is called _Pela Chow_, and the afternoon +_Pela Bai_. The word denoting an hour of the day is _Mong_, and that +denoting an hour of the night is _Toom_. In expressing 9 o'clock, +A.M., they would say, _"Sam Mong Chow,"_ or the third hour of the +morning. Three o'clock, P.M., they would say, _"Sam Mong Bai,"_ or the +third hour of the afternoon. Nine o'clock in the evening, they would +say _"Sam Toom."_ + +Siamese months are lunar months, but often vary from the moon, a day +or two. Each month is divided into two parts, the _waxing_ and +_waning_ moon. The former has always fifteen days, but the latter has +sometimes fifteen and sometimes fourteen. Six of their months have +thirty days, and six twenty-nine days, making three hundred and +fifty-four days to the year, which lacks eleven days of a full solar +year. To compensate this deficiency, they have an intercalary month of +thirty days, every two or three years. There is still however, a +deficiency of about three days in nineteen years, which is supplied by +adding a day to the seventh month from time to time, whenever the +astrologers may think proper. + +They have no word to denote a week of time, but each day has its +appropriate name and number, commencing at Sunday and ending at +Saturday. By the recurrence of the first and seventh days, they are +reminded that seven days of time have elapsed. + +The days of the week are: + +1st. Wan Atit, (day of the sun,) Sunday. 2d. Wan Chan, (day of the +moon,) Monday. 3d. Wan Angkan, (day of Mars,) Tuesday. 4th. Wan Poot, +(day of Mercury,) Wednesday. 5th. Wan Prahat, (day of Jupiter,) +Thursday. 6th. Wan Sook, (day of Venus,) Friday. 7th. Wan Sow, (day +of Saturn,) Saturday. + +Their months are numbered from one up to twelve, and have no +particular names, but are designated by their numbers. The first and +second months, it is true, are called by names, but their names have +the same meaning as their numbers. + +They have two cycles, one within the other. The greater cycle is +twelve, the smaller ten. The former is called _Pee_, their common name +for year, and the latter is called _Sok_. Every year of each kind of +cycles has its own specific name. + +The years of the cycle of twelve are: + +1st. Pee Chooat, _year of the Rat._ 2d. Pee Chaloo, _year of the +Cow._ 3d. Pee Kan, _year of the Tiger._ 4th. Pee Taw, _year of the +Rabbit._ 5th. Pee Marong, _year of the Great Dragon._ 6th. Pee Maseng, +_year of the Small Dragon._ 7th. Pee Mameea, _year of the Horse._ 8th. +Pee Mamaa, _year of the Goat._ 9th. Pee Wawk, _year of the Monkey._ +10th. Pee Raka, _year of the Cock._ 11th. Pee Chaw, _year of the Dog._ +12th. Pee Koon, _year of the Hog._ + +The years of the cycle of ten are: + +Eka Sok, 1st. _cycle._ To Sok, 2d. _cycle._ Tree Sok, 3d. _cycle._ +Chattawa Sok, 4th. _cycle._ Benya Sok, 5th. _cycle._ Chaw Sok, 6th. +_cycle._ Sapta Sok, 7th. _cycle._ Atta Sok, 8th. _cycle._ Woppa Sok, +9th. _cycle._ Samretti Sok, 10th. _cycle._ + +In writing the number of their era, they mention the name of each +cycle, as it happens to be. For instance, January 1870, would be 1231 +_Pee Maseng Eka Sok_, year of the _small dragon_, 1st of the cycle of +10, and 1231 of the civil era. The Siamese sacred era is reckoned from +the time of Budha's supposed death, which, on the full moon of May +1870, was 2413 years. This era is only used in religious matters. The +civil era is reckoned from the time that _Pra Rooang_, a Siamese king +of great celebrity, established it, and on March 27, 1870, was 1231 +full years. + +Although the Brahmin astrologers manage to calculate eclipses with +considerable accuracy, the great mass of the Siamese are wholly +ignorant of their true cause. They attribute them to _Rahu_, a +terrible monster who threatens to devour the sun and moon. When they +see an eclipse of any kind coming on, they commence firing guns, +beating gongs and tin-pans, and shouting, to frighten away _Rahu_. +The late king however, studied astronomy, and could calculate eclipses +in the European way, and did much to dispel the ignorance of his +subjects in regard to such matters. + + + + +CHAPTER XI. + +MISSIONARY OPERATIONS. + + +It would be unjust to close without at least some reference to the +efforts of missionaries to evangelize Siam, It is also just to state +that there is scarcely any other field, in which modern missions have +been established, where the introduction of the gospel has met with so +little opposition as in Siam proper, and especially during the late +reign, and so far during the present. It is equally just to say that +there is scarcely any other field which has been so barren of results. +Pure Budhism appears to yield more slowly to the power of the gospel +than any other false system. Even Brahminism itself yields more +rapidly. The Siamese have the utmost confidence in the strength of +their own religion to withstand the power of the gospel, and hence +that stolid indifference which they manifest to the introduction of +the gospel amongst them. A nobleman high in rank, once playfully +remarked to a missionary, "Do you expect, with your little chisel, to +remove this great mountain?" + +To the Rev. W. H. Medhurst belongs the honor of projecting the first +Protestant mission in Siam. As early as 1827 he proposed to visit Siam +and some of the neighboring kingdoms, but never was able to accomplish +his designs. The Rev. Charles Gutzlaff and Rev. Jacob Tomlin arrived +in Siam, August 23d, 1828, on a Chinese junk. They obtained liberty to +remain in Bangkok, and labor amongst the Chinese, but through the +influence, of the Jesuit missionaries they were afterwards threatened +with expulsion from the country. The Portuguese consul, Signior Carlos +de Silveira, the only resident consul in Siam at that time, interested +himself in their behalf, and partly through his influence they were +allowed to remain. They were out constantly talking to the Chinese, +and distributing books, which soon excited the suspicions of the +Siamese, that the missionaries were endeavoring to incite the Chinese +to rebellion. The King ordered some of their books to be examined, and +when nothing objectionable was found in them, they were allowed to +proceed. It is believed however that a secret edict was issued, +forbidding the people to receive the books. The only English merchant +then in the country was quietly requested to take the missionaries +away in one of his ships. They however demanded of the Minister of +Foreign Affairs the cause of such a step, and claimed equal rights +with the Roman Catholic missionaries, who were allowed to pursue their +labors without molestation. This appeal brought the Minister to terms, +and they were allowed to remain. They studied to some extent the +Siamese language, and endeavored to translate portions of the +Scriptures into that language, which was of course labor lost, as they +had only been in the country about six months, and it was impossible +that they could have acquired the Siamese sufficiently to do anything +at translating. + +Mr. Tomlin's health had now failed to some extent, and he left for +Singapore. Mr. Gutzlaff remained a short time, and also left for a +time. During his absence he married Miss Maria Newell, an English lady +then residing at Malacca, and then returned with his wife to Bangkok. +They were there however, but little over a year when Mrs. Gutzlaff +died, and Mr. Gutzlaff becoming discouraged, took passage to China on +a junk. Messrs. Gutzlaff and Tomlin however had visited Siam wholly on +their own responsibility, and perhaps never intended to remain +permanently. + +The Prudential Committee of the American Board, upon the solicitation +of Messrs. Gutzlaff and Tomlin, sent the Rev. David Abeel, then in +Canton, to Siam to make arrangements for establishing a mission there. +Mr. Abeel on his way met with Mr. Tomlin, and the two together +proceeded to Bangkok, and arrived there in June, 1831. They found the +people still eager for books, and soon established a place for public +worship and the distribution of books. Mr. Abeel however, was soon +brought down by a fever, and when sufficiently recovered to do so, he +and Mr. Tomlin both returned to Singapore. Mr. Abeel's health being +recruited, he embarked again alone for Bangkok on a Chinese junk. He +prosecuted his labors for about six months more, but in consequence of +continued ill health he was obliged to leave for good. + +In 1832 the Rev. Messrs. Stephen Johnston and Charles Robinson were +appointed by the American Board for Siam, but before they arrived, and +even before Mr. Abeel left, the Baptist mission in Burmah transferred +the Rev. J. T. Jones to Bangkok. Mr. Jones was permitted to reap the +fruits of some of the seed sown by those who preceded him, and a small +Chinese church was organized by him, which is still in existence, and +is now under the pastoral care of the Rev. William Dean, D. D. Messrs. +Johnston and Robinson, already alluded to, arrived in Bangkok, July +25th, 1834. They were kindly received by the Minister of Foreign +Affairs, and soon after arrival secured a lot of ground and proceeded +to build upon it. Thus was finally established in Siam the mission of +the American Board, which, after several years of labor, was +eventually removed to China. + +The Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions in 1840 sent out the Rev. +W. P. Buell and his wife to Siam. Mr. Buell however, had scarcely +acquired the language sufficiently well to become useful, when he was +obliged to return to the United States on account of Mrs. Buell's +health. In 1841 that Board sent out the Rev. Stephen Mattoon and wife, +and the Rev. S. R. House, M. D. By the time they arrived the king then +upon the throne had become tired of not only missionaries, but all +foreigners, and had determined upon an exclusive policy. He refused to +make commercial treaties with western powers, or to open up the +country any more to commerce. Sir James Brook, the English ambassador, +received what he considered an insult to his nation, and left with the +intention of returning, prepared to open up the country by force. Our +missionaries in consequence of this determination of the King, were +unable to secure a site for the mission, or any foothold whatever. +They were not flatly refused, but were baffled, according to Siamese +custom, with trifling excuses and postponements, so that they became +discouraged, and were upon the eve of leaving the country to seek some +other, where they might find an opening. At this juncture the King was +providentially removed by death, and the now late King ascended the +throne. He was a prince who had imbibed more liberal views in regard +to foreigners, and he immediately opened up the country to foreign +commerce, and our missionaries were permitted to secure a location. + +It may also be stated here, that to the missionaries belongs the honor +of opening up the country, although many will doubtless deny them this +just due. The late King, whilst a priest in a monastery, studied the +English language with some of the missionaries, and especially with +the Rev. J. Caswell. He also studied astronomy, and some other +branches in which he made commendable proficiency. He also imbibed +from them more liberal views in regard to western nations, and +consequently as soon as he ascended the throne he was prepared to +treat with them; and that which in many other countries had to be done +by gunpowder, was in this instance accomplished by missionary effort. + +The present Regent once in the presence of the writer, whilst +conversing with an American, George F. Seward, Esq., United States +Consul-General to Shanghae, shrewdly remarked that "Siam had not been +disciplined by English and French guns as China, but the country had +been opened by missionaries." + +The late King always entertained the highest regard for his +instructor, the Rev. J. Caswell, and besides building a tomb over his +grave, presented his widow with $1,500 as a token of his regard. + +The Presbyterian Board has now six missionaries with their families in +Siam proper, and two amongst the Laos, a tributary kingdom to the +north. They are distributed as follows:-- Messrs. House, McDonald, +George, and Carrington, in Bangkok; Messrs. McFarland and Van Dyke in +Petchaburi; and Messrs. McGilvary and Wilson amongst the Laos. The +American Baptist Union has also a mission to the Chinese in Siam. The +missionaries are. Rev. William Dean, D. D., and Rev. S. B. Partridge, +with their wives, and the Misses F. A. Dean and A. M. Fielde, single +ladies. The Rev. D. B. Bradly, M. D., was originally sent out by the +American Board, but is now in nominal connection with the American +Missionary Association, but is wholly self-sustaining, receiving no +support from any Board. Besides supporting his family, he preaches +regularly and does other mission work. The Rev. S. J. Smith was +formerly in connection with the American Baptist Union, but has +dissolved his connection with that Board, and is now self-sustaining, +and also does much missionary work. This is our force for at least +eight millions of people. + +When the writer arrived in Siam ten years ago, there was but one +native convert in connection with the Presbyterian mission church. We +have now at Bangkok a church numbering about twenty members; also one +at Petchaburi with about the same membership. We have also a school in +connection with our mission which averages about twenty five pupils. +This school has not met the expectations of those who have had charge +of it, but there is no reason to be discouraged at the results. Whilst +many of the pupils have gone back to heathenism, and others have +turned out badly, a goodly number are exemplary Christians, and some +are looking forward to the ministry, and hope some day to preach the +gospel to their countrymen. + +Ten years ago we had the Gospels alone of the Scriptures translated; +we have now the whole New Testament. Many portions of it, especially +the Epistles, need revising, still it answers the purpose. We have +also the Old Testament translated as far as through Joshua, and also +the prophecy of Ezekiel, and minor prophets. Our mission hopes soon to +be able to give the people the entire Scriptures in their own +language. Our printing press is constantly at work printing the +Scriptures and religious tracts. + +It has also been the duty of the writer, shortly before leaving the +country, to visit the scene of the last persecution (if we except the +late troubles in China) which the history of the church has to record. +North of Siam proper, there are a number of petty Laos kingdoms, all +of which are in a certain sense tributary to Siam. They pay a small +annual tribute, and the King of Siam claims the prerogative of +nominating the successor to the throne when a vacancy occurs, but +aside from this each of those kings is absolute in his own dominions. +The largest of those kingdoms is Chieng Mai, and the capital city of +the same name is situated in latitude 18 deg. 48' north, or about five +degees north of Bangkok. About three years ago two of our +missionaries, Rev. Messrs. McGilvary and Wilson, having previously +made a visit to that kingdom, determined to establish a mission there. +They obtained permission from the King, and also from the Siamese +government, and with great difficulty and self-denial removed their +families thither, following the river all the way up over the +thirty-two rapids. Their goods at the rapids had to be taken from the +boats and carried around, whilst the boats had to be drawn up with +ropes. The whole journey occupied some three months, a much longer +time than it now takes to come to the United States. + +At first they were kindly received by the King, but gradually his +friendship began to cool down. This they attributed to the influence +of a mongrel Portuguese whom the King had taken into his employ, and +who was a Roman Catholic, and looked upon the missionaries as his +enemies. After his departure the King again became more friendly. Some +two years after their arrival they were permitted to baptize two Laos +Christians, and not long afterwards five others were received. This +appeared to arouse the wrath of the King, and before the missionaries +were aware of it, he had arrested and executed two of the Christians, +and warrants were issued for the other five, but they managed to +escape arrest. The two who were executed were faithful witnesses for +the truth, and died as courageously and as triumphantly for the faith, +as any in that long list of martyrs which the history of the Church +has to record. We find here amongst the mountaineer Laos, men who but +a short time before had embraced Christ,--infants as it were, but a +span long in faith,--sealing their faith with their blood. Had we no +other fruits of our long labors in Siam than this glorious conversion, +and still more glorious death of those mountaineer Laos, that alone +will more than a thousand times repay all the expenditure of men and +money upon that kingdom. + +The missionaries were not aware of the execution of the Christians at +the time, but soon discovered that servants and all those in +connection with them were leaving, and upon inquiring the cause +learned with difficulty what had happened, and that the others were +leaving through fear of the King. Most of the princes of the kingdom, +and apparently all the people, were indignant at the conduct of the +King, but such was the fear of him that no one durst scarcely whisper +a word, lest it might come to his ears, and their head pay the penalty +of their rashness. He ruled with a rod of iron. The slightest theft, +and continual drunkenness, were punished with death; and I must say, I +know of no country where property is so secure from theft as in Chieng +Mai. + +Such however, was the known treachery of the King, and such the many +stories afloat, that the missionaries supposed their own lives in +danger. They tried to communicate with the mission at Bangkok, but +such was the fear of the King that they could get no one to carry a +letter, although they offered at one time as high as five hundred +rupees ($225) to any one who would carry a letter to Bangkok. +Fortunately however, a Burmese came along who was a native of British +Burmah, and an English subject, and who offered to carry the letter +for nothing. When we at Bangkok heard the news, we did not know but +that they and their families might be murdered; we however deemed it +our duty to make some effort to communicate with them. We accordingly +sent a committee to wait upon the Regent of Siam, who, after +expressing his indignation at what had happened, kindly offered a _"Ka +HLuang,"_ or government officer, to accompany any one of us who might +wish to go up, who should be the bearer of a letter to the King of +Chieng Mai, and who should also be a safe conduct to us. The officer +had power to levy on provincial towns along the way such provisions +and other things as we needed, and had also power to chastise +delinquent governors who were slow to comply with our demands. It fell +to the lot of the writer, in company with the Rev. S. C. George, to go +on this important and rather dangerous errand. The letter from the +Siamese government only ordered the King of Chieng Mai to allow the +missionaries to remain peaceably, if they wished to, and if they +desired to leave, to offer them every facility in his power to do so, +and by no means to offer them any personal violence, as that would +involve the Siamese government in difficulty with the United States +government. + +After storing our boat with a few necessaries which could not be +secured by the way, and shipping a crew of six good boatmen, we turned +her bow toward the north. The Siamese officer with his boats was to +follow on in a day or two, expecting to overtake us ere we reached +Raheng. We rowed by day, and a few hours by night when the moon was +favorable, and when bedtime came, tied our boat up to the bank and +slept till morning. After taking our morning meal of rice we were off +again. We thus journeyed for ten days, passing the provincial towns of +_Aungtawng_, _Chinat_, _Monorom_, &c., all of which provinces have +governors. + +There is nothing striking in the country or scenery on this portion of +the route. The banks of the river are low and the scenery rather +monotonous. The tenth day brought us to Nakawn Sawan, a provincial +town at the junction of the two principal branches of the river. Here +the novelty of the trip (if there be any novelty in it) was to +commence. Our course lay rather northwest, and the current in the +branch of the river which we were to take became very rapid, so that +our oars which had hitherto served us a good purpose refused to serve +us further. We had now to resort to poling. We had however, prepared +ourselves somewhat for the emergency, and had secured several bamboo +poles about fifteen feet long, in the butt ends of which were short +iron forks. A man with one of these poles walked to the bow of the +boat, and placing the end of the pole containing the fork firmly upon +the bottom, he placed his shoulder to the other end and walked to the +stern. Another was ready to take his place, and thus they kept the +boat constantly moving. It required great dexterity however on the +part of the steersman to keep the bow of the boat to the current, and +thus be enabled to stem it. So soon as he allowed the bow to turn the +least to the current, the poles would lose their hold, and we were set +adrift, and in a few minutes would lose what we would make in an hour, +and besides it was dangerous, as the river was full of snags. The +river here spreads out over a sandy bottom, and many places where it +was tolerably shallow it presented the appearance of a boiling +chaldron. The bottom too, was treacherous; on one side of the boat we +would be against a sand-bar, whilst on the other our poles would not +touch bottom. The receding waters too, at that season of the year, +left huge sand-bars running out from either bank to a point in the +middle of the stream, and also numerous little sand-islands. Some +portions of the route were solitary in the extreme, and in the morning +we were aroused by the crowing of the jungle-fowl, and the scream of +the peacock. In ten days more of poling, making in all about +twenty-one from Bangkok, we reached Raheng, the last Siamese +provincial town on the Laos borders. Here it was determined to leave +our boats and take elephants across the country to Chieng Mai. We +accordingly levied upon the Governor a sufficient number of elephants, +and an escort of men to see us through the jungle. After some little +delay our elephants were reported ready. The Governor of Raheng also, +as a special favor, allowed his Lieutenant-Governor, a fine young +nobleman, acquainted with the route, to accompany us in addition to +the principal officer who had accompanied us from Bangkok. Our +elephants were brought up each with a saddle, or _howdah_, on his +back. A frame is made not unlike a wood-horse, on the top of which a +seat is made about four feet long, like a buggie seat, and over which +a basket cover is placed to shield the rider from the sun, and the +whole, when on the elephant, resembles somewhat the top of a calash +buggie. Raw hides are placed on the back of the elephant to keep it +from chafing, and the saddle is then girthed on with a strong ratan +rope. A cushion is placed in the seat, so that the rider, for a +change, can lie down. The Siamese often sleep whilst the elephant is +going, but we preferred to sit upright. You mount by means of a high +block, or stand, but in the absence of this the elephant is taught to +hold up his front leg, and his knee forms a step by means of which the +rider can climb up. The driver sits astride the neck, in front of the +saddle, with a short stick in his hand, on the end of which is a sharp +iron hook, and when the animal becomes unruly he drives this hook +unmercifully into his flesh, which soon brings him to his senses. +Oftentimes one or two of the natives would crawl on behind to ride, +for a rest. An elephant can carry four persons and a considerable +amount of baggage with ease. + +We started with our train of elephants single file. The man ahead +carried a huge gong, which he beat for a halt in the evening, and for +starting in the morning, and when approaching a town or village, to +let the people know that a great personage was coming. Our course lay +directly through the forest and jungle, and over the mountains. About +4 P. M. of the first day we encamped at the foot of a mountain spur, +where there was a pool of water. The elephants were unloaded, +fettered, and turned out to browse. As we had no tent along, our +saddles were placed around in a circle, and a fire was kindled in the +middle. Watch fires were also lighted around outside. After cooking +our rice, and taking our suppers, we retired to rest. As many as +could, slept in the saddles, and the others threw themselves down on +the ground, with a single blanket around them. A watch was also +appointed to keep up fires, and guard against tigers and robbers. +Elephant-stealing is common there, just as horse-stealing is with us +sometimes. About the middle of the first night we were aroused by the +elephants beating the ground with their trunks, which they always do +when alarmed, and the watch cried out, _"sua, sua!"_ a tiger, a +tiger! The tiger however, seeing our fires and watch, considered +discretion the best part of valor, and made off. In the morning we +were up early, and had our rice eaten and were ready to start by +daylight. Owing to the difficulty in carrying many utensils and much +provisions on elephants, the two noblemen and us usually took our +meals together. It was amusing to see us with our knives and forks, +and they with their fingers, all dipping into the same dish. On one +occasion I was considerably provoked at the chief man. At a certain +Laos town they brought us victuals already cooked, but the fowls +prepared after their style were not suitable to our taste. The +Lieutenant-Governor of Raheng, who was ever more mindful of our wants +than the headman, requested that some live fowls should be brought in, +that we might have them cooked to our taste. The fowls soon came, and +were delivered over to the chief man, who not knowing that they had +been particularly requested, came to us saying, "Doctors, this is our +sacred day, and if you don't object, I will let these fowls go, and +make merit by saving their lives." I was about to object, but my +companion, ever ready, quickly responded, _"ou tert, ou tert,"_ take +them, take them. I was determined however, not to be done out of a +fowl in that style, so I gave my shot-gun to one of my men, and he +went out and shot one. Our cook fixed it up nicely, and when we came +to eat, before I could get a piece, for myself, the chief man was into +it with his fingers, and had like to have spoiled the whole. + +We crossed deep ravines, wound around precipices, which to look down +would make the hair stand on the head, and went over mountains where +one unaccustomed to it would say an elephant could never go. He is +however, sure-footed, and when he once plants his foot, which he does +with great deliberation, it is there. I once remarked to the driver, +is there no danger of him falling? The reply was, "He knows better +than to fall, for if he does, he gets killed." We went down one or two +declivities where I would fain have dismounted, could I have done so, +but it was impossible. The driver spoke to his elephant, saying, +"slowly." He placed first one fore-foot forward, and then the other by +its side firmly. The driver then said "drag," and he threw his hind +parts down on the ground, and drew them up to the fore-feet, and then +held on until he could again plant the fore-feet, and in this way the +whole train passed down. + +Sometimes, too, our course lay across vast plains of rice-fields. The +rice had been harvested and threshed, and they were busied in carrying +it to the villages. Trains of elephants, with baskets holding ten or +twelve bushels on their backs, were walking along majestically with +their loads. Long trains of bullocks were also employed for this +purpose. Two baskets were fastened on a frame, and thrown across the +back like a pair of saddle-bags. The front bullock was fantastically +dressed up with a mask, and a huge peacock tail in it, and numerous +strings of little bells resembling sleigh-bells. He had also a driver, +and all the rest followed after without any drivers. On the afternoon +of the thirteenth day, the spires of the city of Chieng Mai began to +loom up in the distance, and about 5 o'clock P. M. we entered the city +with gong beating lustily. Our approach had been heralded ahead, and +the King had his officers waiting to receive us. Our missionary +brethren, whom we found well, but rather depressed in spirits, also +came to meet us with open arms. The next day the letter of the Regent +of Siam was to be conducted to the palace, under the royal umbrella, +and we, of course, were to accompany it. Before starting, the +missionaries held a consultation, and it was deemed best not to cover +anything over, which might break out again, as soon as we were gone. +It was thought expedient to bring matters to a focus, and then abide +the consequences. We found the old King in his audience hall, +surrounded by his court, who were prostrate before him. He appeared +pale, with suppressed rage. After the reading of the Siamese letter, +he remarked that "This letter only gives the missionaries privilege to +remain, if they wish--or to go, if they wish." This opened the way, +and I went on to state, that some three years ago the missionaries had +come up there with his consent, and we might say with his invitation, +and also with the consent of the Siamese government. They were at +first kindly received by him, and he showed them many kindnesses, for +which he deserved praise, and for which they had praised him. But +latterly, things were not going on so well, and circumstances had +transpired which justified them in writing to their friends at +Bangkok. They were now ready to commence building suitable houses to +live in, but could get no workmen, as the people were all afraid to +work for them; and the reason was, that he had taken two, in +connection with them, and put them to death. This did not appear to +ruffle him, and he replied, that as to workmen and servants he had +never put anything in the way. He had put a couple of fellows to +death, who had failed to do their government work. It appears that an +order had been issued to a certain number of men, for each to bring a +stick of timber to repair the city wall. The order had been issued +some two days previous, and when the two Christians were on their way +to get the timber, they were arrested and executed. The pretext given +for their arrest was that they had failed to comply with the King's +command. Mr. McGilvary then proved to him most clearly, that they had +in no way failed to perform their government work; and that when they +were executed, not one out of fifty of those who had received the +order had complied with it. When he saw he could not lie out of it, he +fairly boiled over with rage. So great was his anger that I at one +time feared that it might become so uncontrollable that he might break +over all restraints, and do us some personal injury. The highest +prince in the kingdom would not have dared to say the one hundredth +part of what we did, without losing his head. And then to be +contradicted and proven a liar, before his court, was hard to bear. He +said he had executed them because they had embraced the Christian +religion, and he would continue to kill all who did the same. The +missionaries might remain, in accordance with the command of the +Siamese government, but could not teach religion--they could not make +Christians. The Siamese officer was also alarmed for our safety. After +a consultation it was considered expedient to break up the mission for +a time, and we sent in word that the missionaries would leave as soon +as the river would rise sufficiently for the larger class of boats to +pass down, hoping, however, that Providence would so interfere in the +meantime as to prevent the breaking up of the mission. He has most +wonderfully interfered. When we left, the King was preparing to come +down to Bangkok, to attend the cremation of the late king of Siam. +Whilst at Bangkok the United States Consul-General, F. W. Partridge, +demanded of the Siamese government that they would make the King of +Chieng Mai conduct himself more properly, and grant religious +toleration. They doubtless gave him such orders, but he secretly told +some one that when he returned, the missionaries would have to leave, +according to promise. He however, took suddenly sick, and left Bangkok +in haste, but was never permitted to enter again his own capital. He +died on his way home, and according to Laos custom, no corpse is +permitted to enter the city, and his remains are now lying in state in +his river palace outside the city walls. He was apparently the only +obstacle to the spread of the Gospel amongst that people. The Laos are +a hardy mountaineer people, with much more stamina of character than +the Siamese, and free from many of their vices. I know of no more +interesting missionary field than Chieng Mai. They also appear to be +ready for some more substantial religion than Budhism. + +After spending ten days in Chieng Mai we began to think of returning +home. The letter of the chief Siamese officer required that he should +return by elephants, as he had come, but we were anxious to follow the +river down, in order that we might pass over the thirty-two rapids, or +falls, and witness the scenery on the way. To this the King gave his +consent if we would secure boats, and he would then send a letter +ahead to have us sent from village to village along the way, and would +give us pilots to take us over the rapids. We accordingly secured +three boats, each about thirty feet long and two feet beam, propelled +by two short oars, and steered with a long paddle fastened to the +stern with a ratan rope. These boats are peculiarly adapted for +shooting over the rapids. We divided our party, the chief man +returning on elephants, whilst the Lieutenant-Governor of Raheng, and +a number of the men, accompanied us. After some little delay we got +started, and things went on pretty well for part of the first day. Men +were waiting on the bank at every village, to send us on to the next. +Soon however, we got ahead of the King's letter, which had started the +previous day. Rather than wait on men, we put our own men to the oars, +and passed the villages by. Nothing of importance transpired for the +first five days. Occasionally we would run on a sand-bar, and our men +would have to get out and push the boats off. Sometimes a company of +men and women would come down to the river to bathe. The Siamese never +bathe without a waist-cloth around them, but the Laos go into the +water perfectly nude, yet it is done with such dexterity, that nothing +amiss can be seen in it, although both sexes bathe together. The Laos +women wear a garment resembling a lady's skirt, but very narrow. They +step into the water, gradually raising the garment, until the water +becomes sufficiently deep to cover their nakedness, and then they slip +the garment over the head, and lay it aside. When they are ready to +come out, they again practise the same dexterity in putting it on. +Nothing is thought of such a scene amongst them, and it does not call +forth such expressions of vulgarity as a similar scene would amongst +us. + +At one time we came near falling into the hands of what we supposed to +be a band of robbers. In a solitary bend of the river, some twenty +persons were stationed, some with flintlock muskets, and others with +short swords. They beckoned to our men to stop, as if they had +business, but our men, suspecting their character, gave them a wide +birth, and we put our guns in order, determined to die hard should +they make an attack. Fortunately there were no sand-bars in the river, +and we shot rapidly past them, without their attempting to do us any +injury. + +The fifth day brought us to the village at the head of the rapids. We +did not know but now we might be in a tight place. It would be +impossible for us to pass the rapids without pilots who were +intimately acquainted with every rock in the river, and these we could +not get without the King's order. The letter must be three days behind +us, and it would be trying to wait on it. The villagers too, seeing us +pass without stopping, might not send it on. And then, might it not be +a trick of the King, to get us into a scrape, as he was in no pleasant +mood towards us. We determined however, to make the best of it. After +arriving at the village, the Lieutenant-Governor, who was with us, +sent for the head-man of the village, who soon made his appearance. He +then inquired, "Has the King's letter to send us down the rapids +arrived?" "No," was the reply. "Well, it is coming, and we are in +haste. I want you to furnish us by to-morrow morning, three of the +best pilots you have, and also two additional rowers for each boat, to +send us down the rapids. I have foreigners in my charge, and if +anything happens to them, the blame will rest with you." The next +morning the men made their appearance, and a faithful set of fellows +they were. We were off early, and very soon began to near the +mountains, and just where the mountains on each side come down to the +river is the first rapid. Before approaching it, the pilots ran the +boats ashore, and taking some rice, fruit, and cigars, they made an +offering to the spirits of the mountain, and then pushed off. Our boat +was ahead, and the pilot, seemingly aware of the responsibility which +rested upon him, rose up and stood upon the stern, seized tight hold +of his steering oar, spoke a few hurried words to the oarsmen in +front, such as, "Lay heavy to the right or left", and then apparently +held his breath. We also held ours; the hair appeared to rise upon the +head, and the heart beat very near the throat, but in a moment the +long breath of the pilot indicated that danger was past, and our boat +was dancing over the waves caused by the falling of the water below. +We had passed the first rapid. Were a boat to be capsized, death must +ensue, for the water is so rapid, and rocks so abundant, that the most +expert swimmer could do nothing. + +The scenery here is indescribably grand. Much of the boasted scenery +of Europe and America would be tame in comparison with it. Grandeur +and beauty oftentimes struggle for the mastery, first one and then the +other prevailing, and sometimes both combined. The river winds its way +along between the mountains which rise perpendicularly from one bank, +and in an amphitheatrical order from the other. Sometimes the ascent +is gradual on both sides. In one or two places no outlet can be seen +for the river at all, and one would think that soon all would be +dashed against the opposing mountains; but a slight turn would open up +a channel, with perpendicular banks on each side, to the height of at +least six-hundred feet, whilst between those perpendicular masses of +solid rock would be one of those indescribable rapids to be passed. +The fish-eagle would be screaming hundreds of feet above our heads, +and the little mountain-goat, sticking on a cliff, apparently midway +between heaven and earth, would look down upon us with apparent +contempt. We could seldom see a quarter of a mile either way, and the +sun shone upon us but a few hours at midday. Huge stylactites, the +formation of ages, were pending from the crevices. At one of the +rapids the river passes under a projecting rock for some distance, and +a little cascade, which in the rainy season must be quite a stream, +falls into the river some distance beyond the boat. When night came +on, we stopped in the solitude, tied our boats to the shore, cooked +our rice and then retired, we sleeping on the boat, but our men on the +sand. + +The scientific geologist might find an ample field here, and the +sportsman would also have plenty of sport amongst tigers, deer, +wild-hogs, pea-fowls, and jungle-chickens. For a passing effect +however, a simple ride down the rapids is best. Five days brought us +through the rapids to Raheng, where we had left our other boats, +making about ten days from Chieng Mai. We were not long in getting our +boats ready, and the rapid current brought us to Bangkok in about one +fourth of the time it took to ascend against it. We arrived at home +without a moment of sickness, or any mishap, except the loss of one +poor fellow, a slave of the chief man, who died of jungle-fever. + +It may be asked why Budhism, and especially the Budhism of Siam, +yields so slowly to the power of the Gospel? The cardinal doctrine of +the system is, no God, no intelligent creator and proprietor of the +universe. The unrenewed heart loves such a doctrine better than all +religious creeds and dogmas, yea, better than the simple gospel of +Jesus. As soon as sin entered the world, our first parents were afraid +of God, and could they have done so, would have dispensed with him all +their days. Thus it is that in Christian countries men batch up +development theories, and every imaginable falsehood, to dispense with +an intelligent first-cause. Men of natural good sense on other +subjects, on account of this enmity against God, become fools upon the +great subject, "The fool hath said in his heart no God." Alabaster, in +his "Modern Budhist," closes up with the following remarkable +flourish:--"The religion of Budha meddled not with the beginning, +which it could not fathom; avoided the action of a deity it could not +perceive; and left open to endless discussion that problem which it +could not solve, the ultimate reward of the perfect. It dealt with +life as it found it; it declared all good which led to its sole +object, the diminution of the misery of sentient beings; it laid down +rules of conduct which have never been surpassed; and held out +reasonable hopes of a future of the most perfect happiness. + +"Its proofs rest on the assumption that the reason of man is his +surest guide, and that the law of nature is perfect justice. To the +disproof of those assumptions we recommend the attention of those +missionaries who would convert Budhists." + +Mr. Alabaster must think missionaries very obtuse, not to be able in +thirty years labor in Siam, to find out the strongholds of Budhism. +Those "assumptions" have been "disproved" a thousand times, but as +they harmonize with the natural heart of the Budhist, and indeed with +that of very many who are nominal Christians, but who are in greater +condemnation than the Budhist, all reasonable proof is rejected. + +Again, in all Budhist countries there is a mutual union of church and +state, and the Budhist regards kings as the proper rulers of the land, +and also the regulator of the religion. A man in Siam who embraces +Christianity, expects to cut himself off from everything which has +hitherto been near and dear to him. They have the most profound +reverence for the King, and cannot understand how the United States +can get along without one. A nobleman not long since asked a +missionary in good faith, if the United States would not soon be far +enough advanced to have a King, like England and France. The +missionary replied, that from present indications England and France +would soon be far enough advanced to do without one. + +The Siamese are also wonderfully addicted to custom. Whatever their +fathers have done they must do, how ridiculous soever that may be. +"_Pen tumneum thai_,"--it is Siamese custom, is sufficient reason for +doing anything. It is seldom that a Siamese can be drawn into an +argument, even on religion. They will generally assent to everything +the missionary says, and will reply, "Your religion is no doubt much +better than ours, but it would be contrary to custom to abandon our +religion in this life; in the next life we will embrace Christianity." +Apostasy from Budhism too, is one of their unpardonable sins. + +One of the greatest obstacles to the spread of the Gospel amongst the +heathen is, the ungodly example of those who have been brought up in +Christian countries, and who unfortunately bear the Christian name. +Every port open to commerce is overrun with adventurers from western +countries. So few of them have any religion at all, that the heathen +are unable to make any distinction. Many too, who have professed +religion, when they come to the East manifest no vital godliness, and +soon abandon themselves to every imaginable vice. Most of the official +representatives sent out by western governments are either avowed +infidels, or men of no moral character. All these things are against +us. The Siamese have frequently said to me, "Why do you offer us your +religion, whilst those in our midst, who have been brought up in that +religion, are no better than we, and are even more abandoned? True, +you missionaries do not engage in those vices to which the others are +addicted, but religion is your business. You are paid for it." It will +also be found that all such characters are opposed to Christian +missions, and missionaries in general, and are ever ready to bear +testimony against them. + +I have often thought that a few such business men as George H. Stuart, +who carry religion into business and every-day life, would do more in +the East in converting the heathen, than a host of missionaries. It is +not however, "By might nor by power, but by my Spirit, saith the +Lord." + +In view therefore, of all these obstacles and difficulties, we appeal +to all true Christians for their sympathies and prayers for the +success of this great work which God has committed to his Church. + + +THE END. + + + + +Transcriber's Note: + +Archaic spellings have been retained, but obvious typographic errors +have been corrected. Otherwise the author's spelling of non-English +words, including tone marks, has been preserved as printed, even when +inconsistent, e.g. Birmah vs. Burmah. + +Use of double capital letters in HLuang appears to be intentional by +the author, to represent the digraph in the Thai spelling of the word, +and as such has been preserved as is. + +Ditto marks in lists have been replaced with the appropriate text. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Siam: Its Government, Manners, +Customs, &c., by N. 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