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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44725 ***
+
+Established by Edward L. Youmans
+
+APPLETONS' POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY
+
+EDITED BY WILLIAM JAY YOUMANS
+
+VOL. LVI NOVEMBER, 1899, TO APRIL, 1900
+
+NEW YORK D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 1900
+
+
+
+
+COPYRIGHT, 1900, BY D. APPLETON AND COMPANY.
+
+[Illustration: GEORGE M. STERNBERG.]
+
+
+
+
+APPLETONS' POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.
+
+NOVEMBER, 1899.
+
+
+
+
+THE REAL PROBLEMS OF DEMOCRACY.
+
+BY FRANKLIN SMITH.
+
+
+Much has been written of late about "the real problems of democracy."
+According to some "thinkers," they consist of the invention of
+ingenious devices to prevent caucus frauds and the purchase of votes,
+to check the passage of special laws as well as too many laws, and
+to infuse into decent people an ardent desire to participate in
+the wrangles of politics. According to others, they consist of the
+invention of equally ingenious devices to compel corporations to manage
+their business in accordance with Christian principles, to transform
+the so-called natural monopolies into either State or municipal
+monopolies, and to effect, by means of the power of taxation, a more
+equitable distribution of wealth. According to still others, they
+consist of the invention of no less ingenious devices to force people
+to be temperate, to observe humanity toward children and animals, and
+to read and study what will make them model citizens. It is innocently
+and touchingly believed that with the solution of these problems, by
+the application of the authority that society has over the individual,
+"the social conscience" will be awakened. But such a belief can not
+be realized. It has its origin in a conception of democracy that has
+no foundation either in history or science. What are supposed to be
+the real problems of democracy are only the problems of despotism--the
+problems to which every tyrant from time immemorial has addressed
+himself, to the moral and industrial ruin of his subjects.
+
+If democracy be conceived not as a form of political government under
+the _régime_ of universal suffrage, but as a condition of freedom under
+moral control, permitting every man to do as he likes, so long as he
+does not trench upon the equal right of every other man, deliverance
+from the sophistries and absurdities of current social and political
+discussion becomes easy and inevitable. Its real problems cease to
+be an endless succession of political devices that stimulate cunning
+and evasion, and countless encroachments upon individual freedom that
+stir up contention and ill feeling. Instead of being innumerable and
+complex, defying the solvent power of the greatest intellects and the
+efforts of the most enthusiastic philanthropists, they become few and
+simple. While their proper solution is beset with difficulties, these
+difficulties are not as hopeless as the framing of a statute to produce
+a growth of virtue in a depraved heart. Indeed, no such task has ever
+been accomplished, and every effort in that direction has been worse
+than futile. It has encouraged the growth of all the savage traits that
+ages of conflict have stamped so profoundly in the nervous system of
+the race. But let it be understood that the real problems of democracy
+are the problems of self-support and self-control, the problems that
+appeared with the appearance of human life, and that their sole
+solution is to be found in the application of precisely the same
+methods with which Nature disciplines the meanest of her creatures,
+then we may expect a measure of success from the efforts of social
+and political reformers; for freedom of thought and action, coupled
+with the punishment that comes from a failure to comply with the laws
+of life and the conditions of existence, creates an internal control
+far more potent than any law. It impels men to depend upon their own
+efforts to gain a livelihood; it inspires them with a respect for the
+right of others to do the same.
+
+Simple and commonplace as the traits of self-support and self-control
+may seem, they are of transcendent importance. Every other trait sinks
+into insignificance. The society whose members have learned to care for
+themselves and to control themselves has no further moral or economic
+conquests to make. It will be in the happy condition dreamed of by all
+poets, philosophers, and philanthropists. There will be no destitution,
+for each person, being able to maintain himself and his family, will
+have no occasion, except in a case of a sudden and an unforeseen
+misfortune, to look to his friends and neighbors for aid. But in thus
+maintaining himself--that is, in pursuing the occupation best adapted
+to his ability and most congenial to his taste--he will contribute
+in the largest degree to the happiness of the other members of the
+community. While they are pursuing the occupations best adapted to
+their ability and most congenial to their tastes, they will be able to
+obtain from him, as he will be able to obtain from them, those things
+that both need to supplement the products of their own industry. Since
+each will be left in full possession of all the fruits of his own toil,
+he will be at liberty to make just such use of them as will contribute
+most to his happiness, thus permitting the realization, in the only
+practicable way, of Bentham's principle of "the greatest happiness
+of the greatest number." Since all of them will be free to make such
+contracts as they believe will be most advantageous to them, exchanging
+what they are willing to part with for what some one else is willing
+to give in return, there will prevail the only equitable distribution
+of the returns from labor and capital. No one will receive more and no
+one less than he is entitled to. Thus will benefit be in proportion to
+merit, and the most scrupulous justice be satisfied.
+
+But this _régime_ of equity in the distribution of property implies, as
+I have already said, the possession of a high degree of self-control.
+Not only must all persons have such a keen sense of their own rights
+as will never permit them to submit to infringement, but they must
+have such a keen sense of the rights of others that they will not be
+guilty themselves of infringement. Not only will they refrain from the
+commission of those acts of aggression whose ill effects are immediate
+and obvious; they will refrain from those acts whose ill effects are
+remote and obscure. Although they will not, for example, deceive or
+steal or commit personal assaults, they will not urge the adoption of
+a policy that will injure the unknown members of other communities,
+like the Welsh tin-plate makers and the Vienna pearl-button makers that
+the McKinley Bill deprived of employment. Realizing the vice of the
+plea of the opponents of international copyright that cheap literature
+for a people is better than scrupulous honesty, they will not refuse
+to foreign authors the same protection to property that they demand.
+They will not, finally, allow themselves to take by compulsion or by
+persuasion the property of neighbors to be used to alleviate suffering
+or to disseminate knowledge in a way to weaken the moral and physical
+strength of their fellows. But the possession of a sense of justice
+so scrupulous assumes the possession of a fellow-feeling so vivid
+that it will allow no man to refuse all needful aid to the victims of
+misfortune. As suffering to others will mean suffering to himself,
+he will be as powerfully moved to go to their rescue as he would to
+protect himself against the same misfortune. Indeed, he will be moved,
+as all others will be moved, to undertake without compulsion all the
+benevolent work, be it charitable or educational, that may be necessary
+to aid those persons less fortunate than himself to obtain the greatest
+possible satisfaction out of life.
+
+But the methods of social reform now in greatest vogue do not
+contribute to the realization of any such millennium. They are a
+flagrant violation of the laws of life and the conditions of existence.
+They make difficult, if not impossible, the establishment of the moral
+government of a democracy that insures every man and woman not only
+freedom but also sustentation and protection. In disregard of the
+principles of biology, which demand that benefit shall be in proportion
+to merit, the feeble members of society are fostered at the expense
+of the strong. Setting at defiance the principles of psychology,
+which insist upon the cultivation of the clearest perception of the
+inseparable relation of cause and effect and the equally inseparable
+relation of aggression and punishment, honest people are turned into
+thieves and murderers, and thieves and murderers are taught to believe
+that no retribution awaits the commission of the foulest crime.
+Scornful of the principles of sociology, which teach in the plainest
+way that the institutions of feudalism are the products of war and can
+serve no other purpose than the promotion of aggression, a deliberate
+effort, born of the astonishing belief that they can be transformed
+into the agencies of progress, is made in time of peace to restore them
+to life.
+
+To the American Philistine nothing is more indicative of the marvelous
+moral superiority of this age and country than the rapid increase
+in the public expenditures for enterprises "to benefit the people."
+Particularly enamored is he of the showy statistics of hospitals,
+asylums, reformatories, and other so-called charitable institutions
+supported by public taxation. "How unselfish we are!" he exclaims,
+swelling with pride as he points to them. "In what other age or in what
+other country has so much been done for the poor and unfortunate?"
+Naught shall ever be said by me against the desire to help others.
+The fellow-feeling that thrives upon the aid rendered to the sick and
+destitute I believe to be the most precious gift of civilization.
+Upon its growth depends the further moral advancement of the race. As
+I have already intimated, only as human beings are able to represent
+to themselves vividly the sufferings of others will they be moved to
+desist from the conduct that contributes to those sufferings. But the
+system of public charity that prevails in this country is not charity
+at all; it is a system of forcible public largesses, as odious and
+demoralizing as the one that contributed so powerfully to the downfall
+of Athens and Rome. By it money is extorted from the taxpayer with as
+little justification as the crime of the highwayman, and expended by
+politicians with as little love as he of their fellows. What is the
+result? Precisely what might be expected. He is infuriated because of
+the growing burden of his taxes. Instead of being made more humane and
+sympathetic with every dollar he gives under compulsion to the poor and
+suffering, he becomes more hard-hearted and bitter toward his fellows.
+The notion that society, as organized at present, is reducing him to
+poverty and degradation takes possession of him. He becomes an agitator
+for violent reforms that will only render his condition worse. At the
+same time the people he aids come to regard him simply as a person
+under obligations to care for them. They feel no more gratitude toward
+him than the wolf toward the victim of its hunger and ferocity.
+
+Akin to public charity are all those public enterprises undertaken to
+ameliorate the condition of the poor--parks, model tenement houses, art
+galleries, free concerts, free baths, and relief works of all kinds. To
+these I must add all those Federal, State, and municipal enterprises,
+such as the post office with the proposed savings attachment, a State
+system of highways and waterways, municipal water, gas and electric
+works, etc., that are supposed to be of inestimable advantage to the
+same worthy class. These likewise fill the heart of the American
+Philistine with immense satisfaction. Although he finds, by his study
+of pleasing romances on municipal government in Europe, that we have
+yet to take some further steps before we fall as completely as the
+inhabitants of Paris and Berlin into the hands of municipal despotism,
+he is convinced that we have made gratifying headway, and that the
+outlook for complete subjection to that despotism is encouraging. But
+it should be remembered that splendid public libraries and public
+baths, and extensive and expensive systems of highways and municipal
+improvements, built under a modified form of the old _corvée_, are
+no measure of the fellow-feeling and enlightenment of a community.
+On the contrary, they indicate a pitiful incapacity to appreciate
+the rights of others, and are, therefore, a measure rather of the
+low degree of civilization. It should be remembered also, especially
+by the impoverished victims of the delusions of the legislative
+philanthropist, that there is no expenditure that yields a smaller
+return in the long run than public expenditure; that however honest the
+belief that public officials will do their duty as conscientiously and
+efficiently as private individuals, history has yet to record the fact
+of any bureaucracy; that however profound the conviction that the cost
+of these "public blessings" comes out of the pockets of the rich and is
+on that account particularly justifiable, it comes largely out of the
+pockets of the poor; and that by the amount abstracted from the income
+of labor and capital by that amount is the sum divided between labor
+and capital reduced.
+
+"But," interposes the optimist, "have the Americans not their great
+public-school system, unrivaled in the world, to check and finally
+to end the evils that appear thus far to be inseparably connected
+with popular government? Is there any truth more firmly established
+than that it is the bulwark of American institutions, and that if we
+maintain it as it should be maintained they will be able to weather any
+storm that may threaten?" Precisely the same argument has been urged
+time out of mind in behalf of an ecclesiastical system supported at
+the expense of the taxpayer. Good men without number have believed,
+and have fought to maintain their belief, that only by the continuance
+of this form of aggression could society be saved from corruption and
+barbarism. Even in England to-day, where freedom and civilization
+have made their most brilliant conquests, this absurd contention
+is made to bolster up the rotten and tottering union of Church and
+state, and to justify the seizure of the property of taxpayers to
+support a particular form of ecclesiastical instruction. But no fact
+of history has received demonstrations more numerous and conclusive
+than that such instruction, whether Protestant or Catholic, Buddhist
+or Mohammedan, in the presence of the demoralizing forces of militant
+activities, is as impotent as the revolutions of the prayer wheel of
+a pious Hindu. To whatever country or people or age we may turn, we
+find that the spirit of the warrior tramples the spirit of the saint
+in the dust. Despite the lofty teachings of Socrates and Plato, the
+Athenians degenerated until the name of the Greek became synonymous
+with that of the blackest knave. With the noble examples and precepts
+of the Stoics in constant view, the Romans became beastlier than any
+beast. All through the middle ages and down to the present century
+the armies of ecclesiastics, the vast libraries of theology, and the
+myriads of homilies and prayers were impotent to prevent the social
+degradation that inundated the world with the outbreak of every great
+conflict. Take, for example, a page from the history of Spain. At the
+time of Philip II, who tried to make his people as rigid as monks, that
+country had no rival in its fanatical devotion to the Church, or its
+slavish observance of the forms of religion. Yet its moral as well as
+its intellectual and industrial life was sinking to the lowest level.
+Official corruption was rampant. The most shameless sexual laxity
+pervaded all ranks. The name of Spanish women, who had "in previous
+times been modest, almost austere and Oriental in their deportment,"
+became a byword and a reproach throughout the world. "The ladies are
+naturally shameless," says Camille Borghese, the Pope's delegate
+to Madrid in 1593, "and even in the streets go up and address men
+unknown to them, looking upon it as a kind of heresy to be properly
+introduced. They admit all sorts of men to their conversation, and
+are not in the least scandalized at the most improper proposals being
+made to them." To see how ecclesiastics themselves fall a prey to the
+ethics of militant activities, becoming as heartless and debauched as
+any other class, take a page from Italian history at the time of Pope
+Alexander VI. "Crimes grosser than Scythian," says a pious Catholic who
+visited Rome, "acts of treachery worse than Carthaginian, are committed
+without disguise in the Vatican itself under the eyes of the Pope.
+There are rapines, murders, incests, debaucheries, cruelties exceeding
+those of the Neros and Caligulas." Similar pages from the history of
+every other country in Europe given up to war, including Protestant
+England, might be quoted.
+
+But what is true of ecclesiastical effort in the presence of militant
+activities is true of pedagogic effort in the presence of political
+activities. For more than half a century the public-school system
+in its existing form has been in full and energetic operation. The
+money devoted to it every year now reaches the enormous total of one
+hundred and eighty million dollars. Simultaneously an unprecedented
+extension of secondary education has occurred. Since the war, colleges
+and universities, supported in whole or in part at the public expense,
+have been established in more than half of the States and Territories
+of the Union. To these must be added the phenomenal growth of normal
+schools, high schools, and academies, and of the equipment of the
+educational institutions already in existence. Yet, as a result, are
+the American people more moral than they were half a century ago? Have
+American institutions--that is, the institutions based upon the freedom
+of the individual--been made more secure? I venture to answer both
+questions with an emphatic negative. The construction and operation
+of the greatest machine of pedagogy recorded in history has been
+absolutely impotent to stem the rising tide of political corruption
+and social degeneration. If there are skeptics that doubt the truth
+of this indictment let them study the criminal history of the day
+that records the annual commission of more than six thousand suicides
+and more than ten thousand homicides, and the embezzlement of more
+than eleven million dollars. Let them study the lying pleas of the
+commercial interests of the country that demand protection against "the
+pauper labor of Europe," and thus commit a shameless aggression upon
+the pauper labor of America. Let them study the records of the deeds
+of intolerance and violence committed upon workingmen that refuse to
+exchange their personal liberty for membership of a despotic labor
+organization. Let them study the columns of the newspapers, crowded
+with records of crime, salacious stories, and ignorant comment on
+current questions and events that appeal to a population as unlettered
+and base as themselves. Let them study, finally, the appalling
+indictment of American political life, in a State where the native
+blood still runs pure in the veins of the majority of the inhabitants,
+that Mr. John Wanamaker framed in a great speech at the opening of
+his memorable campaign in Lancaster against the most powerful and
+most corrupt despotism that can be found outside of Russia or Turkey.
+"In the fourth century of Rome, in the time of Emperor Theodosius,
+Hellebichus was master of the forces," he said, endeavoring to describe
+a condition of affairs that exists in a similar degree in every State
+in the Union, "and Cæsarius was count of the offices. In the nineteenth
+century, M. S. Quay is count of the offices, and W. A. Andrews, Prince
+of Lexow, is master of forces in Pennsylvania, and we have to come
+through the iron age and the silver age to the worst of all ages--the
+degraded, evil age of conscienceless, debauched politics.... Profligacy
+and extravagance and boss rule everywhere oppress the people. By the
+multiplication of indictments your district attorney has multiplied
+his fees far beyond the joint salaries of both your judges. The
+administration of justice before the magistrates has degenerated
+into organized raids on the county treasury.... Voters are corruptly
+influenced or forcibly coerced to do the bidding of the bosses, and
+thus force the fetters of political vassalage on the freemen of the
+old guard. School directors, supervisors, and magistrates, and the
+whole machinery of local government, are involved and dominated by this
+accursed system."
+
+But Mr. Wanamaker might have added that the whole social and industrial
+life of the country is involved and dominated by the same system. It
+is a well-established law of social science that the evil effects
+of a dominant activity are not confined to the persons engaged
+in it. Like a contagion, they spread to every part of the social
+organization, and poison the life farthest removed from their origin.
+Yet the public-school system, so impotent to save us from social and
+political degradation and still such an object of unbounded pride and
+adulation, is, as Mr. Wanamaker, all unconscious of the implication of
+his scathing criticism, points out in so many words, an integral part
+of the vast and complex machinery that political despotism has seized
+upon to plunder and enslave the American people. As in the case of
+every other extension of the duties of government beyond the limits
+of the preservation of order and the enforcement of justice, it is an
+aggression upon the rights of the individual, and, as in the case of
+every other aggression, contributes powerfully to the decay of national
+character and free institutions. It adds thousands upon thousands to
+the constantly growing army of tax eaters that are impoverishing the
+people still striving against heavy odds to gain an honest livelihood.
+It places in the hands of the political despots now ruling the country,
+without the responsibility that the most odious monarchs have to bear,
+a revenue and an army of mercenaries that make more and more difficult
+emancipation from their shackles. It is doing more than anything else
+except the post-office department to teach people that there is no
+connection between merit and benefit; that they have the right to look
+to the State rather than to themselves for maintenance; that they
+are under no obligations to see that they do not take from others,
+in the form of salaries not earned nor intended to be earned, what
+does not belong to them. In the face of this wholesale destruction of
+fellow-feeling such as occurred in France under the old _régime_ and is
+occurring to-day in Italy and Spain, and the inculcation of the ethics
+of militant activities, such as may be observed in these countries as
+well as elsewhere in Europe, is it any wonder that the mind-stuffing
+that goes on in the public schools has no more effect upon the morals
+of the American people than the creeds and prayers of the mediæval
+ecclesiastics that joined in wars and the spoliation of oppressed
+populations throughout Europe?
+
+Since the path that all people under popular government as well
+as under forms more despotic are pursuing so energetically and
+hopefully leads to the certain destruction of the foundations of
+civilization, what is the path that social science points out? What
+must they do to prevent the extinction of the priceless acquisition
+of fellow-feeling, now vanishing so rapidly before the most unselfish
+efforts to promote it? The supposition is that the social teachings
+of the philosophy of evolution have no answer to these questions.
+Believing that they inculcate the hideous _laissez-faire_ doctrine of
+"each for himself and the devil take the hindmost," so characteristic
+of human relations among all classes of people in this country, the
+victims of this supposition have repudiated them. But I propose to
+show that they are the only teachings that give the slightest promise
+of social amelioration. Although they are ignorantly stigmatized as
+individualistic, and therefore necessarily selfish and inconsiderate
+of the welfare of others, they are in reality socialistic in the best
+sense of the word--that is, they enjoin voluntary, not coercive,
+co-operation, and insure the noblest humanity and the most perfect
+civilization, moral as well as material, that can be attained.
+
+Why a society organized upon the individualistic instead of the
+socialistic basis will realize every achievement admits of easy
+explanation. A man dependent upon himself is forced by the struggle
+for existence to exercise every faculty he possesses or can possibly
+develop to save himself and his progeny from extinction. Under
+such pitiless and irresistible pressure he acquires the highest
+physical and intellectual strength. Thus equipped with weapons
+absolutely indispensable in any state of society, whether civilized
+or uncivilized, he is prepared for the conquest of the world. He
+gains also the physical and moral courage needful to cope with the
+difficulties that terrify and paralyze the people that have not been
+subjected to the same rigid discipline. Energetic and self-reliant, he
+assails them with no thought of failure. If, however, he meets with
+reverses, he renews the attack, and repeats it until success finally
+comes to reward his efforts. Such prolonged struggles give steadiness
+and solidity to his character that do not permit him to abandon himself
+to trifles or to yield easily, if at all, to excitement and panic. He
+never falls a victim to Reigns of Terror. The more trying the times,
+the more self-possessed, clear-headed, and capable of grappling with
+the situation he becomes, and soon rises superior to it. With every
+triumph over difficulties there never fails to come the joy that
+more than balances the pain and suffering endured. But the pain and
+suffering are as precious as the joy of triumph. Indelibly registered
+in the nervous system, they enable their victim to feel as others feel
+passing through the same experience, and this fellow-feeling prompts
+him to render them the assistance they may need. In this way be becomes
+a philanthropist. Possessed of the abundant means that the success of
+his enterprises has placed in his hands, he is in a position to help
+them to a degree not within the reach nor the desires of the member of
+the society organized upon the socialistic basis.
+
+In the briefest appeal to history may be found the amplest support
+for these deductions from the principles of social science. Wherever
+the individual has been given the largest freedom to do whatever he
+pleases, as long as he does not trench upon the equal freedom of
+others, there we witness all those achievements and discover all
+those traits that indicate an advanced state of social progress.
+The people are the most energetic, the most resourceful, the most
+prosperous, the most considerate and humane, the most anxious, and the
+most competent to care for their less fortunate fellows. On the other
+hand, wherever the individual has been most repressed, deterred by
+custom or legislation from making the most of himself in every way,
+there are to be observed social immobility or retrogression and all
+the hateful traits that belong to barbarians. The people are inert,
+slavish, cruel, and superstitious. In the ancient world one type
+of society is represented by the Egyptians and Assyrians, and the
+other by the Greeks and Romans. In the modern world all the Oriental
+peoples, particularly the Hindus and Chinese, represent the former, and
+the Occidental peoples, particularly the Anglo-Saxons, represent the
+latter. So superior, in fact, are the Anglo-Saxons because of their
+observance of the sacred and fruitful principle of individual freedom
+that they control the most desirable parts of the earth's surface. If
+not checked by the practice of a philosophy that has destroyed all
+the great peoples of antiquity and paralyzed their competitors in the
+establishment of colonies in the New as well as the Old World, there is
+no reason to doubt that the time will eventually come when, like the
+Romans, there will be no other rule than theirs in all the choicest
+parts of the globe.
+
+It is the immense material superiority of the Anglo-Saxon peoples
+over all other nations that first arrests attention. No people in
+Europe possess the capital or conduct the enterprises that the
+English and Americans do. They have more railroads, more steamships,
+more factories, more foundries, more warehouses, more of everything
+that requires wealth and energy than their rivals. Though the fact
+evokes the sneers of the Ruskins and Carlyles, these enterprises are
+the indispensable agents of civilization. They have done more for
+civilization, for the union of distant peoples, and the development of
+fellow-feeling--for all that makes life worth living--than all the art,
+literature, and theology ever produced. Without industry and commerce,
+which these devotees of "the higher life" never weary of deprecating,
+how would the inhabitants of the Italian republics have achieved the
+intellectual and artistic conquests that make them the admiration of
+every historian? The Stones of Venice could not have been written. The
+artists could not have lived that enabled Vassari to hand his name
+down to posterity. The new learning would have been a flower planted
+in a barren soil, and even before it had come to bud it would have
+fallen withered. May we not, therefore, expect that in like manner the
+wealth and freedom of the Anglo-Saxon race will bring forth fruits
+that shall not evoke scorn and contempt? Already their achievements
+in every field except painting, sculpture, and architecture eclipse
+those of their rivals. Not excepting the literature of the Greeks,
+is any so rich, varied, powerful, and voluminous as theirs? If they
+have no Cæsar or Napoleon, they have a long list of men that have been
+of infinitely greater use to civilization than those two products of
+militant barbarism. If judged by practical results, they are without
+rivals in the work of education. By their inventions and their
+applications of the discoveries of science they have distanced all
+competitors in the race for industrial and commercial supremacy. In
+the work of philanthropy no people has done as much as they. The volume
+of their personal effort and pecuniary contributions to ameliorate
+the condition of the poor and unfortunate are without parallel in the
+annals of charity. Yet Professor Ely, echoing the opinion of Charles
+Booth and other misguided philanthropists, has the assurance to tell us
+that "individualism has broken down." It is the social philosophy that
+they are trying to thrust upon the world again that stands hopelessly
+condemned before the remorseless tribunal of universal experience.
+
+In the light thus obtained from science and history, the duty of the
+American people toward the current social and political philosophy
+and all the quack measures it proposes for the amelioration of the
+condition of the unfortunate becomes clear and urgent. It is to
+pursue without equivocation or deviation the policy of larger and
+larger freedom for the individual that has given the Anglo-Saxon his
+superiority and present dominance in the world. To this end they should
+oppose with all possible vigor every proposed extension of the duty
+of the state that does not look to the preservation of order and the
+enforcement of justice. Regarding it as an onslaught of the forces of
+barbarism, they should make no compromise with it; they should fight it
+until freedom has triumphed. The next duty is to conquer the freedom
+they still lack. Here the battle must be for the suppression of the
+system of protective tariffs, for the transfer to private enterprise
+and beneficence, the duties of the post office, the public schools, and
+all public charities, for the repeal of all laws in regulation of trade
+and industry as well as those in regulation of habits and morals. As
+an inspiration it should be remembered that the struggle is not only
+for freedom but for honesty. For the truth can not be too loudly or
+too often proclaimed that every law taking a dollar from a man without
+his consent, or regulating his conduct not in accordance with his own
+notions, but in accordance with those of his neighbors, contributes to
+the education of a people in idleness and crime. The next duty is to
+encourage on every hand an appeal to voluntary effort to accomplish
+all tasks too great for the strength of the individual. Whether those
+tasks be moral, industrial, or educational, voluntary co-operation
+alone should assume them and carry them to a successful issue. The
+government should have no more to do with them than it has to do with
+the cultivation of wheat or the management of Sunday schools or the
+suppression of backbiting. The last and final duty should be to cheapen
+and, as fast as possible, to establish gratuitous justice. With the
+great diminution of crime that would result from the observance of the
+duties already mentioned there would be much less occasion than now
+to appeal to the courts. But, whenever the occasion arises, it should
+involve no cost to the person that feels that his rights have been
+invaded.
+
+Thus will be solved indirectly all the problems of democracy that
+social and political reformers seek in vain to solve directly. With the
+diminution of the duties of the state to the preservation of order and
+the enforcement of justice will be effected a reform as important and
+far reaching as the suppression of chronic warfare. When politicians
+are deprived of the immense plunder now involved in political warfare,
+it will not be necessary to devise futile plans for caucus reform, or
+ballot reform, or convention reform, or charter reform, or legislative
+reform. Having no more incentive to engage in their nefarious business
+than the smugglers that the abolition of the infamous tariff laws
+banished from Europe, they will disappear among the crowd of honest
+toilers. The suppression of the robberies of the tax collectors and
+tax eaters, who have become so vast an army in the United States,
+will effect also a solution of all labor problems. A society that
+permits every toiler to work for whomsoever he pleases and for whatever
+he pleases, protecting him in the full enjoyment of all the fruits
+of his labor, has done for him everything that can be done. It has
+taught him self-support and self-control. In thus guaranteeing him
+freedom of contract and putting an end to the plunder of a bureaucracy
+and privileged classes of private individuals, the beneficiaries of
+special legislation, it has effected the only equitable distribution
+of property possible. At the same time it has accomplished a vastly
+greater work. As I have shown, the indispensable condition of success
+of all movements for moral reform is the suppression not only of
+militant strife, but of political strife. While they prevail, all
+ecclesiastical and pedagogic efforts to better the condition of society
+must fail. Despite lectures, despite sermons and prayers, despite also
+literature and art, the ethics controlling the conduct of men and women
+will be those of war. But with the abolition of both forms of militant
+strife it becomes an easy task to teach the ethics of peace, and to
+establish a state of society that requires no other government than
+that of conscience. All the forces of industrialism contribute to the
+work and insure its success.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+"This thirst for shooting every rare or unwonted kind of bird," says
+the author of an article in the London Saturday Review, "is accountable
+for the disappearance of many interesting forms of life in the British
+Islands."
+
+
+
+
+AN ENGLISH UNIVERSITY.
+
+BY HERBERT STOTESBURY.
+
+
+[Illustration: MICHAEL FOSTER, K. C. B., M. A., F. R. S., Trinity.
+Professor of Physiology.]
+
+Most minds in America, as in England, if they think about the
+subject at all, impute to the two ancient centers of Anglo-Saxon
+learning--Oxford and Cambridge--an unquestionable supremacy. A halo
+of greatness surrounds these august institutions, none the less real
+because to the American mind, at least, it is vague. Half the books
+students at other institutions require in their various courses have
+the names of eminent Cambridge or Oxford men upon the fly leaf.
+Michael Foster's Physiology, Sidgwick's Methods of Ethics, and Bryce's
+American Commonwealth are recognized text-books wherever the subjects
+of which they treat are studied; while Sir G. G. Stokes, Jebb, Lord
+Acton, Caird, Max Müller, and Ray Lankester are as well known to
+students of Leland Stanford or Princeton as they are to Englishmen.
+One can scarcely read a work on English literature or open an English
+novel which does not make some reference to one or other of the great
+universities or their colleges, inseparably associated as they are
+with English life and history, past and present. Our oldest college
+owes its existence to John Harvard, of Emmanuel, Cambridge, and the
+name of the mother university still clings to her transatlantic
+offspring. The English institutions have become firmly associated in
+the vulgar mind with all that is dignified, venerable, and thorough in
+learning, but, beyond a vague sentiment of admiration, little adequate
+knowledge on the subject is abroad. American or German universities are
+organizations not very difficult to comprehend, and a vague knowledge
+of them is perhaps sufficient. The understanding, however, of those
+complicated academic communities, Oxford and Cambridge, is a matter of
+intimate experience. They differ widely from their sister institutions
+in other countries, and in attempting to give some conception of
+their peculiarities the writer proposes to restrict himself chiefly
+to Cambridge, because there are not very many striking differences
+between the latter and Oxford, and because the scientific supremacy
+of Cambridge is sufficiently established to render her an object of
+greater interest to the readers of the Science Monthly.
+
+[Illustration: The Right Hon. LORD ACTON, M. A., LL. D., Trinity.
+Professor of Modern History.]
+
+First of all, it must be borne in mind that throughout most of their
+history these institutions have been closely related, not to the body
+of the people, but to the aristocracy. This was not so much the case
+at first, before the university became an aggregate of colleges. Then
+a rather poor and humble class were enabled, through the small expense
+involved, to acquire the rudiments of an education, and even to become
+proficient in the scholastic dialectic. But ere long, and with the
+gradual endowment of different colleges, the expenses of a student
+became much greater, and, save where scholarships could be obtained,
+it required some affluence before parents could afford to give their
+sons an academic training. Hence, the more fortunate or aristocratic
+classes came in time to contribute the large majority of the student
+body. Those whose intellectual attainments were so unusual as to
+constitute ways and means have never been debarred, but impecunious
+mediocrity had and still has little place or opportunity. It is well to
+remember, in addition, that the Church fostered these universities in
+their infancy, that it deserves unqualified credit for having nursed
+them through their early months, and that it continues to have some
+considerable influence over the modern institutions. Finally, the
+growth of Cambridge and Oxford has largely been occasioned by lack of
+rivals in their own class. In this branch or that, other institutions
+have become deservedly famous. Edinburgh has a high reputation in
+moral science; Manchester is renowned for her physics, chemistry,
+and engineering; and London for her medical schools. But Oxford and
+Cambridge are strong in many branches. Financially powerful, they are
+able to attract the majority of promising and eminent men, whence has
+resulted that remarkable _coterie_ of unrivaled intellects through whom
+the above-named universities are chiefly known to the outer and foreign
+world. This characteristic has its opposite illustrated in the United
+States, where the tendency is centrifugal, no one or two universities
+or colleges having advantages so decided as inevitably to attract most
+of the best minds, and where, in consequence, the best minds are found
+scattered from California to Harvard and Pennsylvania.
+
+[Illustration: J. J. THOMSON, M. A., F. R. S., Trinity. Professor of
+Experimental Physics.]
+
+The characteristic peculiar to Cambridge and Oxford, and which
+distinguishes them not only from American but also from all other
+universities in England and elsewhere, is the college system. Thus
+Cambridge is a collection of eighteen colleges which, though nominally
+united to form one institution, are really distinct, inasmuch as
+each is a separate community with its own buildings and grounds, its
+own resident students, its own lecturers, and Fellows--a community
+which is supported by its own moneys without aid from the university
+exchequer, and which in most matters legislates for itself. The
+system is not unlike the American Union on a small scale, with its
+cluster of governments and their relation to a supreme center. The
+advantages of this scheme might theoretically be very great. With
+each college handsomely endowed and, though managing its own affairs,
+entering freely, in addition, into those relations of reciprocity
+which make for the good of the whole, one can readily imagine an
+ideal academic commonwealth. And while the present condition of the
+university can scarcely be said to approximate very closely to such
+an academic Utopia, it yet derives from its constitution numerous
+obvious advantages which universities otherwise constituted would and
+do undoubtedly lack. The chief evils besetting the university are
+perhaps more adventitious than inherent; they are largely financial,
+and arise from carrying the system of college individualism too far. A
+description of the college and university organization may make this
+apparent. By its endowment a college must support a certain number
+of Fellows and scholars. The latter form a temporary body, while the
+former are more or less permanent, and therefore upon them devolves the
+management of the college. Business is usually done by a council chosen
+from the Fellows, and the election of new Fellows to fill vacancies is
+made by this select body. The head of a college is known as the master;
+he is elected by the Fellows save in one or two cases, where his
+appointment rests with the crown or with certain wealthy individuals.
+He lives in the college lodge especially built for him, draws a salary
+large in proportion to the wealth of his college, and exerts an
+influence corresponding to his intelligence.
+
+[Illustration: G. H. DARWIN, M. A., F. R. S., Trinity. Plumian
+Professor of Astronomy.]
+
+The Fellows are in most cases chosen from those men who have achieved
+the greatest success in an honor course. At Cambridge College
+individualism has progressed so far that the Fellows of, say, Magdalen
+must be Magdalen men, the students of Queens', St Catherine's, or any
+other being ineligible save for their own fellowships. Oxford obtains
+perhaps better men on the whole by throwing open the fellowships of
+each particular college to the graduates of all, thus producing a
+wider competition. A fellowship until recently was tenable for life,
+but it has been reduced to about six years, the Fellows as a whole,
+however, retaining the power to extend the period of possession. And,
+further, the holding of a college office for fifteen years in general
+qualifies for the holding of a fellowship for life, and for a pension
+as lecturer or tutor. Thus a man is able to devote himself to research
+with little fear that at the latter end of his career he will lack the
+means of support. It is perhaps not too much to say that the offices of
+college dean, tutor, and lecturer are more perquisites than anything
+else. They are meant to keep and attract men of ability and parts.
+However, their existence reacts upon the student body by augmenting
+the expenses of the latter out of proportion to the benefits to be
+obtained. For instance, instead of utilizing one set of lecturers for
+one class of subjects, which all students could attend for a small fee,
+each of the larger colleges, at any rate, pays special lecturers, drawn
+from its own Fellows, to speak upon the same subjects each to a mere
+handful of men from their own college only. The tutor is another luxury
+inherited from the middle ages and therefore retained, and one for
+which the students have to pay dearly. The chief business of the tutor
+is not to teach, but to "look after" a certain number of students who
+are theoretically relegated to his charge. He looks up their lodgings
+for them, pays their bills at the end of the term, gets them out of
+scrapes, and draws a large salary. The tutorships seem to the writer
+to be a good illustration of how an office necessary to one period
+persists after that for which it was instituted has ceased to exist.
+When the students of Oxford and Cambridge were many of them thirteen
+and fourteen years of age, as in the fourteenth century, nurses were
+doubtless necessary, but they are still retained when the greater
+maturity of the students renders them not only unnecessary but at times
+even an impertinence.
+
+The dean is not, as with us, the head of a department; his functions
+are not so many, his tasks far less onerous. It is before a college
+dean that students are "hauled" for such offenses as irregularity at
+chapel, returning to the college after 12 P. M., smoking in college
+precincts, bringing dogs into the college grounds, and other villainous
+offenses against regulations. A dean must also attend chapel. Some
+colleges require two deans to struggle through these complicated and
+laborious duties, though some possessing only a few dozen students
+succeed in getting along with one.
+
+The line of demarcation between the university and the colleges is
+very distinct. The legislative influence of the former extends over a
+comparatively restricted field. All professorial chairs and certain
+lectureships belong to and are paid by the university; the latter
+has the arranging of the curricula, the care of the laboratories,
+the disposition of certain noncollegiate scholarships; but, broadly
+speaking, its two functions are the examination of all students and the
+conferring of degrees. The supreme legislative body is the senate,
+and it is composed of all masters of arts, doctors, and bachelors
+of divinity whose names still remain on the university books--that
+is, who continue to pay certain fees into the university treasury.
+In addition to the legislative body there is an executive head or
+council of nineteen, including the chancellor--at present the Duke of
+Devonshire--and the vice-chancellor. Both these bodies must govern
+according to the statutes, no alteration in which can be effected
+without recourse being had to Parliament. The senate is a peculiar
+body, and on occasions becomes somewhat unwieldy. It consists at
+present of some 6,800 members, of whom only 452 are in residence at
+Cambridge. Upon ordinary occasions only these 452 vote upon questions
+proposed by the council; but on occasions of great moment, as when
+the question of granting university degrees to women came up, some
+thousands or more of the nonresident members, who in many cases have
+lost touch with the modern university and modern systems of education,
+swarm to their alma mater, annihilate the champions of reform, and are
+hailed by their brethren as the saviors of their university.
+
+[Illustration: R. C. JEBB, Litt. D., M. P., Trinity. Regius Professor
+of Greek.]
+
+The university's exchequer is supplied partly by its endowment, but
+chiefly by an assessment on the college incomes, a capitation tax on
+all undergraduates, and the fees attending matriculation, examinations,
+and the granting of degrees. The examinations are numerous. Every
+student on entering is required to pass, or to claim exemption from,
+an entrance examination. In either case he pays £3 to the university,
+and upon admission to any honor course or "tripos" to qualify for
+the degree of Bachelor of Arts £3 more is exacted. The income of the
+university from these examination fees alone amounts to £9,400 per
+annum, £4,600 of which goes to pay the examiners. In America this is
+supposed to be a part of the professor's or instructor's duty, no
+additional remuneration is allowed, and hence it does not become
+necessary to make an additional tax upon the students' resources. The
+conferring of degrees is also made a very profitable affair. Each
+candidate for the degree of B. A. pays out £7 to the voracious 'varsity
+chest, and upon proceeding to the M. A. a further contribution of £12
+is requested. In this way the university makes about £12,000 a year,
+and, as though this was not sufficient, she requires a matriculation
+fee of £5 for every student who becomes a member. By this means another
+annual £5,000 is obtained. It must be remembered that these fees are
+entirely separate from the college fees. When the £5 matriculation for
+the latter is taken into consideration and the £8 a term (at Trinity)
+for lectures, two thirds of which the student does not attend, when it
+is understood that all this and more does not include living expenses,
+which are by no means slight, and that there are three terms instead of
+two, as with us, it will be obvious that Cambridge adheres very closely
+to the rule that to them only who have wealth shall her refining
+influence be given. That the greatest universities in existence should
+render it almost totally impossible for aught but the rich to obtain
+the advantages of their unusual educational facilities jars with that
+idea of democracy of learning which an American training is apt to
+foster. But, as we shall point out later, an aristocracy of learning
+may also have its uses.
+
+[Illustration: HENRY SIDGWICK, Litt. D., Trinity. Knightbridge
+Professor of Moral Philosophy.]
+
+With all the revenues the university collects from colleges and
+students, amounting in all to about £65,000, Cambridge still finds
+herself poor. Some of the colleges, notably King's and Trinity,
+are extremely wealthy, but the university remains, if not exactly
+impecunious, at least on the ragged edge of financial difficulties.
+The various regius and other professorships, inadequately endowed by
+the munificence of the crown and of individuals, have each to be
+augmented from the university chest. The continual repairing of the old
+laboratories and scientific apparatus, the salaries to lecturers, to
+proctors, bedells, and other officers, cause a continual drain on the
+exchequer, which, with the rapidly growing need for larger laboratories
+and newer apparatus, has finally resulted in an appeal to the country
+for the sum of half a million pounds.
+
+[Illustration: DONALD MACALISTER, M. A., M. D., St. Johns. Linacre
+Lecturer of Physics.]
+
+It has been seen that the drains on a student's pocket are very
+considerable at Cambridge, owing to the number of perquisites showered
+by the colleges on their Fellows, and it may appear that this state
+of things is unjust and wrong. At present Oxford and Cambridge are
+practically within the reach of only the moneyed population. According,
+however, to a plausible and frequently repeated theory, it is not the
+function of these universities to meet the educational needs of the
+mediocre poor. The writer's critical attitude toward the financial
+system in vogue at Cambridge is a proper one, only on the assumption
+that a maximum of education to all classes alike at a minimum of
+expense is the final cause and desideratum of a university's existence.
+But if one assumes that Oxford and Cambridge exist for a different
+purpose, that the chief end they propose to themselves is individual
+research, and the advancement, not the promulgation, of learning, it
+must be admitted that their system has little that is reprehensible.
+According to this standpoint the students only exist by courtesy of
+the dons (a name for the Fellows), who have a perfect right to impose
+upon the students, in return for the condescension which is shown them,
+what terms they see fit. And they argue that this view is the historic
+one. The colleges were originally endowed solely for the benefit of
+a certain limited number of Fellows and scholars. The undergraduate
+body, as it at present exists, is a later growth, whose eventual
+existence and the importance of which to the university was probably
+not anticipated by the college founders. Starting with this, the
+defenders of the present _régime_ would point out, in addition, that
+there are other English institutions where the poorer classes may be
+educated, that Cambridge and Oxford are not only not bound to take upon
+themselves this task, but that they actually subserve a higher purpose
+and one just as necessary to the development of English science and
+letters and to the education of the English intellect by specializing
+in another direction. The good of a philosopher's lifelong reflections,
+they would say, is not always manifest, but the teachers who instruct
+the nation's youth are themselves dependent for rational standpoints
+upon the labor of the greater teacher, and they act as the instruments
+of communication between the most learned and the unlettered. So Oxford
+and Cambridge are the sources from whose fountains of wisdom and
+culture flow streams supplying all the academic mills of Britain, which
+in their turn are enabled to feed the inhabitants. It would be absurd,
+they maintain, to insist that the streams and the mills could equally
+well fulfill the same functions. Cambridge and Oxford instruct just so
+far as so doing is compatible with what for them is the main end--the
+furthering of various kinds of research and the offering of all sorts
+of inducements in order to keep and attract the interested attention of
+classical butterflies and scientific worms. How well they succeed in
+this noble ambition is known throughout the civilized world.
+
+Mr. G. H. Darwin, a son of Charles Darwin, has recently had occasion
+to mention the enormous scientific output of Cambridge University.
+After saying that the Royal Society is the Academy of Sciences in
+England, and that in its publications appear accounts of all the
+most important scientific discoveries in England and most of those
+in Scotland, Ireland, and other parts of Europe, he goes on to state
+that he examined the Transactions of this society for three years and
+discovered that out of the 5,480 pages published in that time 2,418
+were contributed by Cambridge men and 1,324 by residents.
+
+In view of these facts, and despite the shortcomings of this university
+as a teaching institution, it is to be hoped that private generosity
+will answer her appeal for financial assistance. Her laboratories are
+a mine of research, and it is in them and in the men who conduct them
+that Cambridge is perhaps most to be admired.
+
+[Illustration: SIR G. G. STOKES, Bart., M. A., LL. D., Sc. D., F. R.
+S., Pembroke. Lucasian Professor of Mathematics.]
+
+The Cavendish Laboratory of Physics, where Clerk-Maxwell and afterward
+Lord Rayleigh taught, and which is at present in the hand of their
+able successor, J. J. Thomson, is a building of considerable size
+and admirably fitted out, but the rapidly increasing number of young
+physicists who are being allured by the working facilities of the
+place, and by the fame of Professor Thomson, is rendering even this
+splendidly equipped hall of science inadequate. The physiological
+laboratories are many, they are completely furnished with appliances,
+and a large number of students are there trained annually under the
+supervision of one of England's most eminent living scientists,
+Michael Foster, and his scarcely less able associates--Langley, Hardy,
+and Gaskell. Chemistry, zoölogy, botany, anatomy, and geology have
+each their well-appointed halls and masterly exponents. The names
+MacAlister, Liveing, Dewar, Newton, Sedgwick, Marshall Ward, and Hughes
+are not easily matched in any other one institution. Indeed, it is
+when one stops to consider the intellects at Cambridge that it becomes
+a dangerous matter to institute comparisons, and to say that this
+discipline or that is most rich in eminent interpreters. In science,
+at any rate, and in all branches of science, Cambridge stands alone.
+Not even Oxford can be considered for a moment as in the same class
+with her. And of all the sciences it is undoubtedly in mathematics
+and astronomy that the supremacy of Cambridge is most pronounced. The
+names of Profs. Sir G. G. Stokes and Sir R. S. Ball will be familiar to
+every reader, while those of Profs. Forsythe and G. H. Darwin and Mr.
+Baker will be familiar to all mathematicians. In classics Cambridge,
+while not possessing a similar monopoly of almost all the talent,
+still holds her own even with Oxford. Professors Jebb, Mayor, and
+Ridgeway, and Drs. Verrall, Jackson, and Frazer constitute a group of
+men second to none in the subjects of which they treat. Professor Jebb
+is also one of the university's two representatives in Parliament.
+In philosophy Cambridge has two men, Henry Sidgwick and James Ward,
+the former of whom is perhaps by common consent the first living
+authority on moral science, while the latter ranks among the first of
+living psychologists. These men, while representing very different
+philosophical standpoints, unite in opposition not only to the
+Hegelian movement, which, led by Caird and Bradley of Oxford, Seth and
+Stirling of Edinburgh, threatens the invasion of England, but also to
+the Spencerian philosophy. The latter system has not many adherents at
+either university, but the writer has been told by Professor Sully that
+the ascendency of the neo-Hegelian and other systems is by no means
+so pronounced elsewhere in England. The Spencerian biology, on the
+contrary, has been largely defended at Cambridge, while Weismannism,
+for the most part, is repudiated there and at Oxford.
+
+The teaching at Cambridge, as at all universities, is of many grades.
+In many subjects the lectures are not meant to give a student
+sufficient material to get him through an examination, and a "coach"
+becomes requisite, or at any rate is employed. This system of coaching
+has attained large dimensions; its results are often good, but it
+means an additional expense and seems an incentive to laziness, making
+it unnecessary for a student to exert his own mental aggressiveness
+or powers of application as he who fights his own battles must do.
+The Socratic form of instruction, producing a more intimate and
+unrestricted relation between instructor and student, and which is
+largely in operation in the States, is little practiced in England.
+In science the methods of instruction at Cambridge are ideal. That
+practical acquaintance with the facts of Nature which Huxley and
+Tyndall taught is the only true means of knowing Nature, is the key
+according to which all biological and physical instruction at these
+institutions is conducted.
+
+[Illustration: JAMES WARD, Sc. D., Trinity. Professor of Mental
+Philosophy and Logic.]
+
+In the last half dozen years two radical steps have been taken by both
+Oxford and Cambridge--steps leading, to many respectable minds, in
+diametrically opposite directions. The step backward (in the writer's
+view) occurred when the universities, after much excitement, defeated
+with slaughter the proposition granting university degrees to women.
+It was simply proposed that the students of Newnham and Girton, who
+should successfully compete with male students in an honor course,
+should have an equal right with the latter to receive the usual degrees
+from their alma mater. After industrious inquiry among those who were
+foremost in supporting and opposing this movement the writer has
+unearthed no objection of weight against the change. "If the women
+were granted degrees they would have votes in the senate," and "It
+never has been done"--these are the two reasons most persistently
+urged in defense of the conservative view; while justice and utility
+alike appear to be for once, at any rate, unequivocally on the side
+of the women. Prejudice defeated progress, and students celebrated
+the auspicious occasion with bonfires. The step forward was taken
+when the universities and their colleges decided to throw open their
+gates to the graduates of other universities in England, America, and
+elsewhere for the purpose of advanced study. But here, as in other
+things, Cambridge leads the way, and Oxford follows falteringly. The
+advanced students at Cambridge are treated like Cambridge men, they
+have the status of Bachelors of Arts, and possess in most respects
+the advantages, such as they are, of the latter; while at Oxford the
+advanced students are a restricted class, with restricted advantages,
+and their relation to the university is not that of the other
+students. In Cambridge the movement which has resulted in the present
+admirable condition of affairs was largely brought about by the zeal
+and enterprise of Dr. Donald MacAlister, of St. John's College, the
+University Lecturer in Therapeutics, a man of wide sympathies and
+ability, and whose name is closely associated with this university's
+metamorphosis into a more modern institution.
+
+
+
+
+THE WONDERFUL CENTURY.[1]
+
+A REVIEW BY W. K. BROOKS,
+
+PROFESSOR OF ZOÖLOGY IN THE JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY.
+
+
+Every naturalist has in his heart a warm affection for the author of
+the Malay Archipelago, and is glad to acknowledge with gratitude his
+debt to this great explorer and thinker and teacher who gave us the law
+of natural selection independently of Darwin. When the history of our
+century is written, the foremost place among those who have guided the
+thought of their generation and opened new fields for discovery will
+assuredly be given to Wallace and Darwin.
+
+[1] Dodd, Mead & Co., New York, 1899.
+
+Few of the great men who have helped to make our century memorable
+in the history of thought are witnesses of its end, and all who have
+profited by the labors of Wallace will rejoice that he has been
+permitted to stand on the threshold of a new century, and, reviewing
+the past, to give us his impressions of the wonderful century.
+
+We men of the nineteenth century, he says, have not been slow to praise
+it. The wise and the foolish, the learned and the unlearned, the poet
+and the pressman, the rich and the poor, alike swell the chorus of
+admiration for the marvelous inventions and discoveries of our own age,
+and especially for those innumerable applications of science which now
+form part of our daily life, and which remind us every hour of our
+immense superiority over our comparatively ignorant forefathers.
+
+Our century, he tells us, has been characterized by a marvelous and
+altogether unprecedented progress in the knowledge of the universe and
+of its complex forces, and also in the application of that knowledge
+to an infinite variety of purposes calculated, if properly utilized,
+to supply all the wants of every human being and to add greatly to the
+comforts, the enjoyments, and the refinements of life. The bounds of
+human knowledge have been so far extended that new vistas have opened
+to us in nearly all directions where it had been thought that we could
+never penetrate, and the more we learn the more we seem capable of
+learning in the ever-widening expanse of the universe. It may, he
+says, be truly said of the men of science that they have become as
+gods knowing good and evil, since they have been able not only to
+utilize the most recondite powers of Nature in their service, but have
+in many cases been able to discover the sources of much of the evil
+that afflicts humanity, to abolish pain, to lengthen life, and to add
+immensely to the intellectual as well as the physical enjoyments of our
+race.
+
+In order to get any adequate measure for comparison with the nineteenth
+century we must take not any preceding century, but the whole preceding
+epoch of human history. We must take into consideration not only the
+changes effected in science, in the arts, in the possibilities of
+human intercourse, and in the extension of our knowledge both of the
+earth and of the whole visible universe, but the means our century has
+furnished for future advancement.
+
+Our author, who has borne such a distinguished part in the intellectual
+progress of our century, shows clearly that in means for the discovery
+of truth, for the extension of our control over Nature, and for the
+alleviation of the ills that beset mankind, the inheritance of the
+twentieth century from the nineteenth will be greater than our own
+inheritance from all the centuries that have gone before.
+
+Some may regret that, while only one third of Wallace's book is
+devoted to the successes of the wonderful century, the author finds
+the remaining two thirds none too much for the enumeration of some of
+its most notable failures; but it is natural for one who has borne his
+own distinguished part in all this marvelous progress to ask where the
+century has fallen short of the enthusiastic hopes of its leaders, what
+that it might have done it has failed to do, and what lies ready at
+the hand of the workers who will begin the new century with this rich
+inheritance of new thoughts, new methods, and new resources.
+
+The more we realize the vast possibilities of human welfare which
+science has given us the more, he says, must we recognize our total
+failure to make any adequate use of them.
+
+Along with this continuous progress in science, in the arts, and in
+wealth-production, which has dazzled our imaginations to such an extent
+that we can hardly admit the possibility of any serious evils having
+accompanied or been caused by it, there has, he says, been many serious
+failures--intellectual, social, and moral. Some of our great thinkers,
+he says, have been so impressed by the terrible nature of these
+failures that they have doubted whether the final result of the work
+of the century has any balance of good over evil, of happiness over
+misery, for mankind at large.
+
+Wallace is no pessimist, but one who believes that the first step in
+retrieving our failures is to perceive clearly where we have failed,
+for he says there can be no doubt of the magnitude of the evils that
+have grown up or persisted in the midst of all our triumphs over
+natural forces and our unprecedented growth in wealth and luxury, and
+he holds it not the least important part of his work to call attention
+to some of these failures.
+
+With ample knowledge of the sources of health, we allow and even
+compel the bulk of our population to live and work under conditions
+which greatly shorten life. In our mad race for wealth we have made
+gold more sacred than human life; we have made life so hard for many
+that suicide and insanity and crime are alike increasing. The struggle
+for wealth has been accompanied by a reckless destruction of the
+stored-up products of Nature, which is even more deplorable because
+irretrievable. Not only have forest growths of many hundred years been
+cleared away, often with disastrous consequences, but the whole of
+the mineral treasures of the earth's surface, the slow productions of
+long-past eras of time and geological change, have been and are still
+being exhausted with reckless disregard of our duties to posterity and
+solely in the interest of landlords and capitalists. With all our
+labor-saving machinery and all our command over the forces of Nature,
+the struggle for existence has become more fierce than ever before,
+and year by year an ever-increasing proportion of our people sink into
+paupers' graves.
+
+When the brightness of future ages shall have dimmed the glamour of our
+material progress he says that the judgment of history will surely be
+that our ethical standard was low and that we were unworthy to possess
+the great and beneficent powers that science had placed in our hands,
+for, instead of devoting the highest powers of our greatest men to
+remedy these evils, we see the governments of the most advanced nations
+arming their people to the teeth and expending most of the wealth and
+all the resources of their science in preparation for the destruction
+of life, of property, and of happiness.
+
+He reminds us that the first International Exhibition, in 1851,
+fostered the hope that men would soon perceive that peace and
+commercial intercourse are essential to national well-being. Poets and
+statesmen joined in hailing the dawn of an era of peaceful industry,
+and exposition following exposition taught the nations how much they
+have to learn from each other and how much to give to each other for
+the benefit and happiness of all.
+
+Dueling, which had long prevailed, in spite of its absurdity and
+harmfulness, as a means of settling disputes, was practically abolished
+by the general diffusion of a spirit of intolerance of private war; and
+as the same public opinion which condemns it should, if consistent,
+also condemn war between nations, many thought they perceived the dawn
+of a wiser policy between nations.
+
+Yet so far are we from progress toward its abolition that the latter
+half of the century has witnessed not the decay, but a revival of the
+war spirit, and at its end we find all nations loaded with the burden
+of increasing armies and navies.
+
+The armies are continually being equipped with new and more deadly
+weapons at a cost which strains the resources of even the most wealthy
+nations and impoverishes the mass of the people by increasing burdens
+of debt and taxation, and all this as a means of settling disputes
+which have no sufficient cause and no relation whatever to the
+well-being of the communities which engage in them.
+
+The evils of war do not cease with the awful loss of life and
+destruction of property which are their immediate results, since they
+form the excuse for inordinate increase of armaments--an increase
+which has been intensified by the application to war purposes of those
+mechanical inventions and scientific discoveries which, properly used,
+should bring peace and plenty to all, but which when seized upon by the
+spirit of militarism directly lead to enmity among nations and to the
+misery of the people.
+
+The first steps in this military development were the adoption of a new
+rifle by the Prussian army in 1846, the application of steam to ships
+of war in 1840, and the use of armor for battle ships in 1859. The
+remainder of the century has witnessed a mad race between the nations
+to increase the death-dealing power of their weapons and to add to
+the number and efficiency of their armies, while all the resources of
+modern science have been utilized in order to add to the destructive
+power of cannon and both the defensive and the offensive power of
+ships. The inability of industrious laboring men to gain any due share
+of the benefits of our progress in scientific knowledge is due, beyond
+everything else, to the expense of withdrawing great armies of men
+in the prime of life from productive labor, joined to the burden of
+feeding and clothing them and of keeping weapons and ammunition, ships,
+and fortifications in a state of readiness, of continually renewing
+stores of all kinds, of pensions, and of all the laboring men who must,
+besides making good the destruction caused by war, be withdrawn from
+productive labor and be supported by others that they may support the
+army.
+
+And what a horrible mockery is this when viewed in the light of either
+Christianity or advancing civilization! All the nations armed to the
+teeth and watching stealthily for some occasion to use their vast
+armaments for their own aggrandizement and for the injury of their
+neighbors are Christian nations, but their Christian governments do not
+exist for the good of the governed, still less for the good of humanity
+or civilization, but for the aggrandizement and greed and lust of the
+ruling classes.
+
+The devastation caused by the tyrants and conquerors of the middle
+ages and of antiquity has been reproduced in our times by the rush to
+obtain wealth. Even the lust of conquest, in order to obtain slaves
+and tribute and great estates, by means of which the ruling classes
+could live in boundless luxury, so characteristic of the earlier
+civilization, is reproduced in our time.
+
+Witness the recent conduct of the nations of Europe toward Crete and
+Greece, upholding the most terrible despotism in the world because each
+hopes for a favorable opportunity to obtain some advantage, leading
+ultimately to the largest share of the spoil.
+
+Witness the struggles in Africa and Asia, where millions of foreign
+people may be enslaved and bled for the benefit of their new rulers.
+
+The whole world, says Wallace, is but a gambling table. Just as
+gambling deteriorates and demoralizes the individual, so the greed
+for dominion demoralizes governments. The welfare of the people is
+little cared for, except so far as to make them submissive taxpayers,
+enabling the ruling and moneyed classes to extend their sway over new
+territories and to create well-paid places and exciting work for their
+sons and relatives.
+
+Hence, says Wallace, comes the force that ever urges on the increase
+of armaments and the extension of empire. Great vested interests
+are at stake, and ever-growing pressure is brought to bear upon the
+too-willing governments in the name of the greatness of the country,
+the extension of commerce, or the advance of civilization. This state
+of things is not progress, but retrogression. It will be held by the
+historian of the future to show that we of the nineteenth century were
+morally and socially unfit to possess the enormous powers for good and
+evil which the rapid advance of scientific discovery has given us,
+that our boasted civilization was in many respects a mere superficial
+veneer, and that our methods of government were not in accord with
+either Christianity or civilization.
+
+Comparing the conduct of these modern nations, who call themselves
+Christian and civilized, with that of the Spanish conquerors of
+the West Indies, Mexico, and Peru, and making some allowances for
+differences of race and public opinion, Wallace says there is not much
+to choose between them.
+
+Wealth and territory and native labor were the real objects in both
+cases, and if the Spaniards were more cruel by nature and more reckless
+in their methods the results were much the same. In both cases the
+country was conquered and thereafter occupied and governed by the
+conquerors frankly for their own ends, and with little regard for
+the feelings or the well-being of the conquered. If the Spaniards
+exterminated the natives of the West Indies, we, he says, have done the
+same thing in Tasmania and about the same in temperate Australia. Their
+belief that they were really serving God in converting the heathen,
+even at the point of the sword, was a genuine belief, shared by priests
+and conquerors alike--not a mere sham as ours is when we defend our
+conduct by the plea of "introducing the blessings of civilization."
+
+It is quite possible, says Wallace, that both the conquest of Mexico
+and Peru by the Spaniards and our conquest of South Africa may have
+been real steps in advance, essential to human progress, and helping on
+the future reign of true civilization and the well-being of the human
+race. But if so, we have been and are unconscious agents in hastening
+the "far-off divine event." We deserve no credit for it. Our aims have
+been for the most part sordid and selfish, and our rule has often
+been largely influenced and often entirely directed by the necessity
+of finding well-paid places for young men with influence, and also by
+the constant demands for fresh markets by the influential class of
+merchants and manufacturers.
+
+More general diffusion of the conviction that while all share the
+burdens of war, such good as comes from it is appropriated by the few,
+will no doubt do much to discourage wars; but we must ask whether there
+may not be another incentive to war which Wallace does not give due
+weight--whether love of fighting may not have something to do with wars.
+
+As we look backward over history we are forced to ask whether the greed
+and selfishness of the wealthy and influential and those who hope to
+gain are the only causes of war. We went to war with Spain because our
+people in general demanded war. If we have been carried further than
+we intended and are now fighting for objects which we did not foresee
+and may not approve, this is no more than history might have led us to
+expect. War with Spain was popular with nearly all our people a year
+ago, and, while wise counsels might have stemmed this popular tide,
+there can be no doubt that it existed, for the evil passions of the
+human race are the real cause of wars.
+
+The great problem of the twentieth century, as of all that have gone
+before, is the development of the wise and prudent self-restraint which
+represses natural passions and appetites for the sake of higher and
+better ends.
+
+
+
+
+SPIDER BITES AND "KISSING BUGS."[2]
+
+BY L. O. HOWARD,
+
+CHIEF OF THE DIVISION OF ENTOMOLOGY, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF
+AGRICULTURE.
+
+
+On several occasions during the past ten years, and especially at
+the Brooklyn meeting of the American Association for the Advancement
+of Science in 1894, the writer has endeavored to show that most of
+the newspaper stories of deaths from spider bite are either grossly
+exaggerated or based upon misinformation. He has failed to thoroughly
+substantiate a single case of death from a so-called spider bite,
+and has concluded that there is only one spider in the United States
+which is capable of inflicting a serious bite--viz., _Latrodectus
+mactans_, a species belonging to a genus of world-wide distribution,
+the other species of which have universally a bad reputation among the
+peoples whose country they inhabit. In spite of these conclusions, the
+accuracy of which has been tested with great care, there occur in the
+newspapers every year stories of spider bites of great seriousness,
+often resulting in death or the amputation of a limb. The details of
+negative evidence and of lack of positive evidence need not be entered
+upon here, except in so far as to state that in the great majority
+of these cases the spider supposed to have inflicted the bite is not
+even seen, while in almost no case is the spider seen to inflict the
+bite; and it is a well-known fact that there are practically no spiders
+in our more northern States which are able to pierce the human skin,
+except upon a portion of the body where the skin is especially delicate
+and which is seldom exposed. There arises, then, the probability that
+there are other insects capable of piercing tough skin, the results of
+whose bites may be more or less painful, the wounds being attributed
+to spiders on account of the universally bad reputation which these
+arthropods seem to have.
+
+[2] A paper read before Section F of the American Association for the
+Advancement of Science at the Columbus meeting in August, 1899.
+
+[Illustration: DIFFERENT STAGES OF CONORHINUS SANGUISUGUS. Twice
+natural size. (After Marlatt.)]
+
+These sentences formed the introduction to a paper read by the writer
+at a meeting of the Entomological Society of Washington, held June
+1st last. I went on to state that some of these insects are rather
+well known, as, for example, the blood-sucking cone-nose (_Conorhinus
+sanguisugus_) and the two-spotted corsairs (_Rasatus thoracicus_ and
+_R. biguttatus_), both of which occur, however, most numerously in the
+South and West, and then spoke of _Melanotestis picipes_, a species
+which had been especially called to my attention by Mr. Frank M.
+Jones, of Wilmington, Del., who submitted the report of the attending
+physician in a case of two punctures by this insect inflicted upon
+the thumb and forefinger of a middle-aged man in Delaware. I further
+reported upon occasional somewhat severe results from the bites[3] of
+the old _Reduvius personatus_, now placed in the genus _Opsicostes_,
+and stated that a smaller species, _Coriscus subcoleoptratus_, had
+bitten me rather severely under circumstances similar to some of those
+which have given rise in the past to spider-bite stories. In the
+course of the discussion which followed the reading of this paper, Mr.
+Schwarz stated that twice during the present spring he had been bitten
+rather severely by _Melanotestis picipes_ which had entered his room,
+probably attracted by light. He described it as the worst biter among
+heteropterous insects with which he had had any experience, and said
+he thought it was commoner than usual in Washington during the present
+year.
+
+[3] When the word "bite" is used in connection with these bugs, it must
+be remembered that it is really a puncture made with the sharp beak or
+proboscis (see illustration).
+
+No account of this meeting was published, but within a few weeks
+thereafter several persons suffering from swollen faces visited the
+Emergency Hospital in Washington and complained that they had been
+bitten by some insect while asleep; that they did not see the insect,
+and could not describe it. This happened during one of the temporary
+periods when newspaper men are most actively engaged in hunting for
+items. There was a dearth of news. These swollen faces offered an
+opportunity for a good story, and thus began the "kissing-bug" scare
+which has grown to such extraordinary proportions. I have received
+the following letter and clipping from Mr. J. F. McElhone, of the
+Washington Post, in reply to a request for information regarding the
+origin of this curious epidemic:
+
+"WASHINGTON, D. C., _August 14, 1899_.
+
+"_Dr. L. O. Howard, Cosmos Club, Washington, D. C._
+
+"DEAR SIR: Attached please find clipping from the Washington Post of
+June 20, 1899, being the first story that ever appeared in print, so
+far as I can learn, of the depredations of the _Melanotestis picipes_,
+better known now as the kissing bug. In my rounds as police reporter of
+the Post, I noticed, for two or three days before writing this story,
+that the register of the Emergency Hospital of this city contained
+unusually frequent notes of 'bug-bite' cases. Investigating, on the
+evening of June 19th I learned from the hospital physicians that a
+noticeable number of patients were applying daily for treatment for
+very red and extensive swellings, usually on the lips, and apparently
+the result of an insect bite. This led to the writing of the story
+attached.
+
+"Very truly yours, "James F. McElhone."
+
+[Illustration:
+
+The Washington Post.
+
+TUESDAY, JUNE 20, 1899.
+
+BITE OF A STRANGE BUG.
+
+Several Patients Have Appeared at the Hospitals Very Badly Poisoned.
+
+Lookout for the new bug. It is an insidious insect that bites without
+causing pain and escapes unnoticed. But afterward the place where it
+has bitten swells to ten times its normal size. The Emergency Hospital
+has had several victims of this insect as patients lately and the
+number is increasing. Application for treatment by other victims are
+being made at other hospitals, and the matter threatens to become
+something like a plague. None of those who have been bitten saw the
+insect whose sting proves so disastrous. One old negro went to sleep
+and woke up to find both his eyes nearly closed by the swelling from
+his nose and cheeks, where the insect had alighted. The lips seems to
+be the favorite point of attack.
+
+William Smith, a newspaper agent, of 327 Trumbull street, went to the
+Emergency last night with his upper lip swollen to many times its
+natural size. The symptoms are in every case the same, and there is
+indication of poisoning from an insect's bite. The matter is beginning
+to interest the physicians, and every patient who comes in with the now
+well-known marks is closely questioned as to the description of the
+insect. No one has yet been found who has seen it. ]
+
+It would be an interesting computation for one to figure out the amount
+of newspaper space which was filled in the succeeding two months by
+items and articles about the "kissing bug." Other Washington newspapers
+took the matter up. The New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore papers
+soon followed suit. The epidemic spread east to Boston and west to
+California. By "epidemic" is meant the _newspaper_ epidemic, for every
+insect bite where the biter was not at once recognized was attributed
+to the popular and somewhat mysterious creature which had been given
+such an attractive name, and there can be no doubt that some mosquito,
+flea, and bedbug bites which had by accident resulted in a greater than
+the usual severity were attributed to the prevailing osculatory insect.
+In Washington professional beggars seized the opportunity, and went
+around from door to door with bandaged faces and hands, complaining
+that they were poor men and had been thrown out of work by the results
+of "kissing-bug" stings! One beggar came to the writer's door and
+offered, in support of his plea, a card supposed to be signed by the
+head surgeon of the Emergency Hospital. In a small town in central
+New York a man arrested on the charge of swindling entered the plea
+that he was temporarily insane owing to the bite of the "kissing
+bug." Entomologists all through the East were also much overworked
+answering questions asked them about the mysterious creature. Men of
+local entomological reputations were applied to by newspaper reporters,
+by their friends, by people who knew them, in church, on the street,
+and under all conceivable circumstances. Editorials were written about
+it. Even the Scientific American published a two-column article on
+the subject; and, while no international complications have resulted
+as yet, the kissing bug, in its own way and in the short space of two
+months, produced almost as much of a scare as did the San José scale in
+its five years of Eastern excitement. Now, however, the newspapers have
+had their fun, the necessary amount of space has been filled, and the
+subject has assumed a castaneous hue, to Latinize the slang of a few
+years back.
+
+The experience has been a most interesting one. To the reader familiar
+with the old accounts of the hysterical craze of south Europe,
+based upon supposed tarantula bites, there can not fail to come the
+suggestion that we have had in miniature and in modernized form,
+aided largely by the newspapers, a hysterical craze of much the same
+character. From the medical and psychological point of view this aspect
+is interesting, and deserves investigation by competent persons.
+
+As an entomologist, however, the writer confines himself to the actual
+authors of the bites so far as he has been able to determine them. It
+seems undoubtedly true that while there has been a great cry there
+has been very little wool. It is undoubtedly true, also, that there
+have been a certain number of bites by heteropterous insects, some
+of which have resulted in considerable swelling. It seems true that
+_Melanotestis picipes_ and _Opsicostes personatus_ have been more
+numerous than usual this year, at least around Washington. They have
+been captured in a number of instances while biting people, and have
+been brought to the writer's office for determination in such a way
+that there can be no doubt about the accuracy of this statement. As
+the story went West, bites by _Conorhinus sanguisuga_ and _Rasatus
+thoracicus_ were without doubt termed "kissing-bug" bites. With regard
+to other cases, the writer has known of an instance where the mosquito
+bite upon the lip of a sleeping child produced a very considerable
+swelling. Therefore he argues that many of these reported cases may
+have been nothing more than mosquito bites. With nervous and excitable
+individuals the symptoms of any skin puncture become exaggerated not
+only in the mind of the individual but in their actual characteristics,
+and not only does this refer to cases of skin puncture but to certain
+skin eruptions, and to some of those early summer skin troubles which
+are known as strawberry rash, etc. It is in this aspect of the subject
+that the resemblance to tarantulism comes in, and this is the result of
+the hysterical wave, if it may be so termed.
+
+Six different heteropterous insects were mentioned in the early part
+of this article, and it will be appropriate to give each of them
+some little detailed consideration, taking the species of Eastern
+distribution first, since the scare had its origin in the East, and has
+there perhaps been more fully exploited.
+
+[Illustration: MELANOTESTIS ABDOMINALIS. Female at right; male at left,
+with enlarged beak at side. Twice natural size. (Original.)]
+
+[Illustration: HEAD AND PROBOSCIS OF CONORHINUS SANGUISUGUS. (After
+Marlatt.)]
+
+_Opsicostes personatus_, also known as _Reduvius personatus_, and which
+has been termed the "cannibal bug," is a European species introduced
+into this country at some unknown date, but possibly following close in
+the wake of the bedbug. In Europe this species haunts houses for the
+purpose of preying upon bedbugs. Riley, in his well-known article on
+Poisonous Insects, published in Wood's Reference Handbook of Medical
+Science, states that if a fly or another insect is offered to the
+cannibal bug it is first touched with the antennæ, a sudden spring
+follows, and at the same time the beak is thrust into the prey. The
+young specimens are covered with a glutinous substance, to which
+bits of dirt and dust adhere. They move deliberately, with a long
+pause between each step, the step being taken in a jerky manner. The
+distribution of the species, as given by Reuter in his Monograph of the
+Genus _Reduvius_, is Europe to the middle of Sweden, Caucasia, Asia
+Minor, Algeria, Madeira; North America, Canada, New York, Philadelphia,
+Indiana; Tasmania, Australia--from which it appears that the insect is
+already practically cosmopolitan, and in fact may almost be termed
+a household insect. The collections of the United States National
+Museum and of Messrs. Heidemann and Chittenden, of Washington, D. C.,
+indicate the following localities for this species: Locust Hill, Va.;
+Washington, D. C.; Baltimore, Md.; Ithaca, N. Y.; Cleveland, Ohio;
+Keokuk, Iowa.
+
+[Illustration: CORISCUS SUBCOLEOPTRATUS: _a_, wingless form; _b_,
+winged form; _c_, proboscis. All twice natural size. (Original.)]
+
+The bite of this species is said to be very painful, more so than that
+of a bee, and to be followed by numbness (Lintner). One of the cases
+brought to the writer's attention this summer was that of a Swedish
+servant girl, in which the insect was caught, where the sting was
+upon the neck, and was followed by considerable swelling. Le Conte,
+in describing it under the synonymical name _Reduvius pungens_, gives
+Georgia as the locality, and makes the following statement: "This
+species is remarkable for the intense pain caused by its bite. I do not
+know whether it ever willingly plunges its rostrum into any person, but
+when caught or unskillfully handled it always stings. In this case the
+pain is almost equal to that of the bite of a snake, and the swelling
+and irritation which result from it will sometimes last for a week. In
+very weak and irritable constitutions it may even prove fatal."[4]
+
+[4] Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia,
+vol. vii, p. 404, 1854-'55.
+
+The second Eastern species is _Melanotestis picipes_. This and the
+closely allied and possibly identical _M. abdominalis_ are not rare in
+the United States, and have been found all along the Atlantic States,
+in the West and South, and also in Mexico. They live underneath stones
+and logs, and run swiftly. Both sexes of _M. picipes_ in the adult
+are fully winged, but the female of _M. abdominalis_ is usually found
+in the short-winged condition. Prof. P. R. Uhler writes (in litt.):
+"_Melanotestis abdominalis_ is not rare in this section (Baltimore),
+but the winged female is a great rarity. At the present time I have not
+a specimen of the winged female in my collection. I have seen specimens
+from the South, in North Carolina and Florida, but I do not remember
+one from Maryland. I am satisfied that _M. picipes_ is distinct from
+_M. abdominalis_. I have not known the two species to unite sexually,
+but I have seen them both united to their proper consorts. Both species
+are sometimes found under the same flat stone or log, and they both
+hibernate in our valleys beneath stones and rubbish in loamy soils."
+Specimens in Washington collections show the following localities
+for _M. abdominalis_: Baltimore, Md.; Washington, D. C.; Wilmington,
+Del.; New Jersey; Long Island; Fort Bliss, Texas; Louisiana; and
+Keokuk, Iowa;, and for _M. picipes_, Washington, D. C.; Roslyn, Va.;
+Baltimore, Md.; Derby, Conn.; Long Island; a series labeled New Jersey;
+Wilmington, Del.; Keokuk, Iowa; Cleveland and Cincinnati, Ohio;
+Louisiana; Jackson, Miss.; Barton County, Mo.; Fort Bliss, Texas; San
+Antonio, Texas; Crescent City, Fla.; Holland, S. C.
+
+This insect has been mentioned several times in entomological
+literature. The first reference to its bite probably was made by
+Townend Glover in the Annual Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture
+for 1875 (page 130). In Maryland, he states, _M. picipes_ is found
+under stones, moss, logs of wood, etc., and is capable of inflicting a
+severe wound with its rostrum or piercer. In 1888 Dr. Lintner, in his
+Fourth Report as State Entomologist of New York (page 110), quotes from
+a correspondent in Natchez, Miss., concerning this insect: "I send a
+specimen of a fly not known to us here. A few days ago it punctured the
+finger of my wife, inflicting a painful sting. The swelling was rapid,
+and for several days the wound was quite annoying." Until recent years
+this insect has not been known to the writer as occurring in houses
+with any degree of frequency. In May, 1895, however, I received a
+specimen from an esteemed correspondent--Dr. J. M. Shaffer, of Keokuk,
+Iowa--together with a letter written on May 7th, in which the statement
+was made that four specimens flew into his window the night before. The
+insect, therefore, is attracted to light or is becoming attracted to
+light, is a night-flier, and enters houses through open windows. Among
+the several cases coming under the writer's observation of bites by
+this insect, one has been reported by the well-known entomologist Mr.
+Charles Dury, of Cincinnati, Ohio, in which this species (_M. picipes_)
+bit a man on the back of the hand, making a bad sore. In another case,
+where the insect was brought for our determination and proved to be
+this species, the bite was upon the cheek, and the swelling was said to
+be great, but with little pain. In a third case, occurring at Holland,
+S. C., the symptoms were more serious. The patient was bitten upon
+the end of the middle finger, and stated that the first paroxysm of
+pain was about like that resulting from a hornet or a bee sting, but
+almost immediately it grew ten times more painful, with a feeling of
+weakness followed by vomiting. The pain was felt to shoot up the arm to
+the under jaw, and the sickness lasted for a number of days. A fourth
+case, at Fort Bliss, Texas, is interesting as having occurred in bed.
+The patient was bitten on the hand, with very painful results and bad
+swelling.
+
+The third of the Eastern species, _Coriscus subcoleoptratus_, is said
+by Uhler to have a general distribution in the Northern States, and is
+like the species immediately preceding a native insect. There is no
+record of any bite by this species, and it is introduced here for the
+reason that it attracted the writer's attention crawling upon the walls
+of an earth closet in Greene County, New York, where on one occasion it
+bit him between the fingers. The pain was sharp, like the prick of a
+pin, but only a faint swelling followed, and no further inconvenience.
+The insect is mentioned, however, for the reason that, occurring in
+such situations, it is one of the forms which are liable to carry
+pathogenic bacteria.
+
+[Illustration: RASATUS BIGUTTATUS. Twice natural size. (Original.)]
+
+[Illustration: REDUVIUS (OPSICOSTES) PERSONATUS. Twice natural size.
+(Original.)]
+
+There remain for consideration the Southern and Western forms--_Rasatus
+thoracicus_ and _R. biguttatus_, and _Conorhinus sanguisugus_.
+
+The two-spotted corsair, as _Rasatus biguttatus_ is popularly termed,
+is said by Riley to be found frequently in houses in the Southern
+States, and to prey upon bedbugs. Lintner, referring to the fact that
+it preys upon bedbugs, says: "It evidently delights in human blood, but
+prefers taking it at second hand." Dr. A. Davidson, formerly of Los
+Angeles, Cal., in an important paper entitled So-called Spider Bites
+and their Treatment, published in the Therapeutic Gazette of February
+15, 1897, arrives at the conclusion that almost all of the so-called
+spider bites met with in southern California are produced by no spider
+at all, but by _Rasatus biguttatus_. The symptoms which he describes
+are as follows: "Next day the injured part shows a local cellulitis,
+with a central dark spot; around this spot there frequently appears
+a bullous vesicle about the size of a ten-cent piece, and filled with
+a dark grumous fluid; a small ulcer forms underneath the vesicle, the
+necrotic area being generally limited to the central part, while the
+surrounding tissues are more or less swollen and somewhat painful. In
+a few days, with rest and proper care, the swelling subsides, and in
+a week all traces of the cellulitis are usually gone. In some of the
+cases no vesicle forms at the point of injury, the formation probably
+depending on the constitutional vitality of the individual or the
+amount of poison introduced." The explanation of the severity of the
+wound suggested by Dr. Davidson, and in which the writer fully concurs
+with him, is not that the insect introduces any specific poison of
+its own, but that the poison introduced is probably accidental and
+contains the ordinary putrefactive germs which may adhere to its
+proboscis. Dr. Davidson's treatment was corrosive sublimate--1 to 500
+or 1 to 1,000--locally applied to the wound, keeping the necrotic part
+bathed in the solution. The results have in all cases been favorable.
+Uhler gives the distribution of _R. biguttatus_ as Arizona, Texas,
+Panama, Pará, Cuba, Louisiana, West Virginia, and California. After a
+careful study of the material in the United States National Museum,
+Mr. Heidemann has decided that the specimens of _Rasatus_ from the
+southeastern part of the country are in reality Say's _R. biguttatus_,
+while those from the Southwestern States belong to a distinct species
+answering more fully, with slight exceptions, to the description of
+Stal's _Rasatus thoracicus_. The writer has recently received a large
+series of _R. thoracicus_ from Mr. H. Brown, of Tucson, Arizona, and
+had a disagreeable experience with the same species in April, 1898, at
+San José de Guaymas, in the State of Sonora, Mexico. He had not seen
+the insect alive before, and was sitting at the supper table with his
+host--a ranchero of cosmopolitan language. One of the bugs, attracted
+by the light, flew in with a buzz and flopped down on the table. The
+writer's entomological instinct led him to reach out for it, and was
+warned by his host in the remarkable sentence comprising words derived
+from three distinct languages: "Guardez, guardez! Zat animalito sting
+like ze dev!" But it was too late; the writer had been stung on the
+forefinger, with painful results. Fortunately, however, the insect's
+beak must have been clean, and no great swelling or long inconvenience
+ensued.
+
+Perhaps the best known of any of the species mentioned in our list is
+the blood-sucking cone-nose (_Conorhinus sanguisugus_). This ferocious
+insect belongs to a genus which has several representatives in the
+United States, all, however, confined to the South or West. _C.
+rubro-fasciatus_ and _C. variegatus_, as well as _C. sanguisugus_,
+are given the general geographical distribution of "Southern States."
+_C. dimidiatus_ and _C. maculipennis_ are Mexican forms, while _C.
+gerstaeckeri_ occurs in the Western States. The more recently described
+species, _C. protractus_ Uhl., has been taken at Los Angeles, Cal.;
+Dragoon, Ariz.; and Salt Lake City, Utah. All of these insects are
+blood-suckers, and do not hesitate to attack animals. Le Conte, in his
+original description of _C. sanguisugus_,[5] adds a most significant
+paragraph or two which, as it has not been quoted of late, will be
+especially appropriate here: "This insect, equally with the former"
+(see above), "inflicts a most painful wound. It is remarkable also
+for sucking the blood of mammals, particularly of children. I have
+known its bite followed by very serious consequences, the patient not
+recovering from its effects for nearly a year. The many relations which
+we have of spider bites frequently proving fatal have no doubt arisen
+from the stings of these insects or others of the same genera. When
+the disease called spider bite is not an anthrax or carbuncle it is
+undoubtedly occasioned by the bite of an insect--by no means however,
+of a spider. Among the many species of _Araneidæ_ which we have in the
+United States I have never seen one capable of inflicting the slightest
+wound. Ignorant persons may easily mistake a _Cimex_ for a spider. I
+have known a physician who sent to me the fragments of a large ant,
+which he supposed was a spider, that came out of his grandchild's
+head." The fact that Le Conte was himself a physician, having graduated
+from the College of Physicians and Surgeons in 1846, thus having been
+nine years in practice at the time, renders this statement all the
+more significant. The life history and habits of _C. sanguisugus_ have
+been so well written up by my assistant, Mr. Marlatt, in Bulletin No.
+4, New Series, of the Division of Entomology, United States Department
+of Agriculture, that it is not necessary to enter upon them here.
+The point made by Marlatt--that the constant and uniform character
+of the symptoms in nearly all cases of bites by this insect indicate
+that there is a specific poison connected with the bite--deserves
+consideration, but there can be no doubt that the very serious results
+which sometimes follow the bite are due to the introduction of
+extraneous poison germs. The late Mr. J. B. Lembert, of Yosemite, Cal.,
+noticed particularly that the species of _Conorhinus_ occurring upon
+the Pacific coast is attracted by carrion. Professor Toumey, of Tucson,
+Arizona, shows how a woman broke out all over the body and limbs with
+red blotches and welts from a single sting on the shoulders. Specimens
+of _C. sanguisugus_ received in July, 1899, from Mayersville, Miss.,
+were accompanied by the statement--which is appropriate, in view of the
+fact that the newspapers have insisted that the "kissing bug" prefers
+the lip--that a friend of the writer was bitten on the lip, and that
+the effect was a burning pain, intense itching, and much swelling,
+lasting three or four days. The writer of the letter had been bitten
+upon the leg and arm, and his brother was bitten upon both feet and
+legs and on the arm, the symptoms being the same in all cases.
+
+[5] Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia,
+vol. vii, p. 404 1854-'55.
+
+More need hardly be said specifically concerning these biting bugs.
+The writer's conclusions are that a puncture by any one of them may
+be and frequently has been mistaken for a spider bite, and that
+nearly all reported spider-bite cases have had in reality this cause,
+that the so-called "kissing-bug" scare has been based upon certain
+undoubted cases of the bite of one or the other of them, but that other
+bites, including mosquitoes, with hysterical and nervous symptoms
+produced by the newspaper accounts, have aided in the general alarm.
+The case of Miss Larson, who died in August, 1898, as the result of
+a mosquito bite, at Mystic, Conn., is an instance which goes to show
+that no mysterious new insect need be looked for to explain occasional
+remarkable cases. One good result of the "kissing-bug" excitement will
+prove in the end to be that it will have relieved spiders from much
+unnecessary discredit.
+
+
+
+
+THE MOSQUITO THEORY OF MALARIA.[6]
+
+BY MAJOR RONALD ROSS.
+
+
+I have the honor to address you, on completion of my term of special
+duty for the investigation of malaria, on the subject of the practical
+results as regard the prevention of the disease which may be expected
+to arise from my researches; and I trust that this letter may be
+submitted to the Government if the director general thinks fit.
+
+[6] A report, published in Nature, from Major Ronald Ross to the
+Secretary to the Director General, Indian Medical Service, Simla. Dated
+Calcutta, February 16, 1899.
+
+It has been shown in my reports to you that the parasites of malaria
+pass a stage of their existence in certain species of mosquitoes, by
+the bites of which they are inoculated into the blood of healthy men
+and birds. These observations have solved the problem--previously
+thought insolvable--of the mode of life of these parasites in external
+Nature.
+
+My results have been accepted by Dr. Laveran, the discoverer of the
+parasites of malaria; by Dr. Manson, who elaborated the mosquito
+theory of malaria; by Dr. Nuttall, of the Hygienic Institute of
+Berlin, who has made a special study of the relations between insects
+and disease; and, I understand, by M. Metchnikoff, Director of the
+Laboratory of the Pasteur Institute in Paris. Lately, moreover, Dr. C.
+W. Daniels, of the Malaria Commission, who has been sent to study with
+me in Calcutta, has confirmed my observations in a special report to
+the Royal Society; while, lastly, Professor Grassi and Drs. Bignami
+and Bastianelli, of Rome, have been able, after receiving specimens
+and copies of my reports from me, to repeat my experiments in detail,
+and to follow two of the parasites of human malaria through all their
+stages in a species of mosquito called the _Anopheles claviger_.
+
+It may therefore be finally accepted as a fact that malaria is
+communicated by the bites of some species of mosquito; and, to judge
+from the general laws governing the development of parasitic animals,
+such as the parasites of malaria, this is very probably the only way in
+which infection is acquired, in which opinion several distinguished men
+of science concur with me.
+
+In considering this statement it is necessary to remember that it does
+not refer to the mere recurrences of fever to which people previously
+infected are often subject as the result of chill, fatigue, and so on.
+When I say that malaria is communicated by the bites of mosquitoes, I
+allude only to the original infection.
+
+It is also necessary to guard against assertions to the effect that
+malaria is prevalent where mosquitoes and gnats do not exist. In my
+experience, when the facts come to be inquired into, such assertions
+are found to be untrue. Scientific research has now yielded so absolute
+a proof of the mosquito theory of malaria that hearsay evidence opposed
+to it can no longer carry any weight.
+
+Hence it follows that, in order to eliminate malaria wholly or partly
+from a given locality, it is necessary only to exterminate the various
+species of insect which carry the infection. This will certainly
+remove the malaria to a large extent, and will almost certainly remove
+it altogether. It remains only to consider whether such a measure is
+practicable.
+
+Theoretically the extermination of mosquitoes is a very simple matter.
+These insects are always hatched from aquatic larvæ or grubs which can
+live only in small stagnant collections of water, such as pots and tubs
+of water, garden cisterns, wells, ditches and drains, small ponds,
+half-dried water courses, and temporary pools of rain-water. So far as
+I have yet observed, the larvæ are seldom to be found in larger bodies
+of water, such as tanks, rice fields, streams, and rivers and lakes,
+because in such places they are devoured by minnows and other small
+fish. Nor have I ever seen any evidence in favor of the popular view
+that they breed in damp grass, dead leaves, and so on.
+
+Hence, in order to get rid of these insects from a locality, it will
+suffice to empty out or drain away, or treat with certain chemicals,
+the small collections of water in which their larvæ must pass their
+existence.
+
+But the practicability of this will depend on
+circumstances--especially, I think, on the species of mosquito with
+which we wish to deal. In my experience, different species select
+different habitations for their larvæ. Thus the common "brindled
+mosquitoes" breed almost entirely in pots and tubs of water; the
+common "gray mosquitoes" only in cisterns, ditches, and drains; while
+the rarer "spotted-winged mosquitoes" seem to choose only shallow
+rain-water puddles and ponds too large to dry up under a week or more,
+and too small or too foul and stagnant for minnows.
+
+Hence the larvæ of the first two varieties are found in large numbers
+round almost all human dwellings in India; and, because their breeding
+grounds--namely, vessels of water, drains, and wells--are so numerous
+and are so frequently contained in private tenements, it will be almost
+impossible to exterminate them on a large scale.
+
+On the other hand, spotted-winged mosquitoes are generally much
+more rare than the other two varieties. They do not appear to breed
+in wells, cisterns, and vessels of water, and therefore have no
+special connection with human habitations. In fact, it is usually
+a matter of some difficulty to obtain their larvæ. Small pools of
+any permanence--such as they require--are not common in most parts
+of India, except during the rains, and then pools of this kind are
+generally full of minnows which make short work of any mosquito
+larvæ they may find. In other words, the breeding grounds of the
+spotted-winged varieties seem to be so isolated and small that I
+think it may be possible to exterminate this species under certain
+circumstances.
+
+The importance of these observations will be apparent when I add
+that hitherto the parasites of human malaria have been found only in
+spotted-winged mosquitoes--namely, in two species of them in India and
+in one species in Italy. As a result of very numerous experiments I
+think that the common brindled and gray mosquitoes are quite innocuous
+as regards human malaria--a fortunate circumstance for the human race
+in the tropics; and Professor Grassi seems to have come to the same
+conclusion as the result of his inquiries in Italy.
+
+But I wish to be understood as writing with all due caution on these
+points. Up to the present our knowledge, both as regards the habits
+of the various species of mosquito and as regards the capacity of each
+for carrying malaria, is not complete. All I can now say is that if
+my anticipations be realized--if it be found that the malaria-bearing
+species of mosquito multiply only in small isolated collections of
+water which can easily be dissipated--we shall possess a simple mode of
+eliminating malaria from certain localities.
+
+I limit this statement to certain localities only, because it is
+obvious that where the breeding pools are very numerous, as in
+water-logged country, or where the inhabitants are not sufficiently
+advanced to take the necessary precautions, we can scarcely expect the
+recent observations to be of much use--at least for some years to come.
+And this limitation must, I fear, exclude most of the rural areas in
+India.
+
+Where, however, the breeding pools are not very numerous, and where
+there is anything approaching a competent sanitary establishment, we
+may, I think, hope to reap the benefit of these discoveries. And this
+should apply to the most crowded areas, such as those of cities, towns
+and cantonments, and also to tea, coffee, and indigo estates, and
+perhaps to military camps.
+
+For instance, malaria causes an enormous amount of sickness among the
+poor in most Indian cities. Here the common species of mosquitoes breed
+in the precincts of almost all the houses, and can therefore scarcely
+be exterminated; but pools suitable for the spotted-winged varieties
+are comparatively scarce, being found only on vacant areas, ill-kept
+gardens, or beside roads in very exceptional positions where they can
+neither dry up quickly nor contain fish. Thus a single small puddle
+may supply the dangerous mosquitoes to several square miles containing
+a crowded population: if this be detected and drained off--which will
+generally cost only a very few rupees--we may expect malaria to vanish
+from that particular area.
+
+The same considerations will apply to military cantonments and estates
+under cultivation. In many such malaria causes the bulk of the
+sickness, and may often, I think, originate from two or three small
+puddles of a few square yards in size. Thus in a malarious part of
+the cantonment of Secunderabad I found the larvæ of spotted-winged
+mosquitoes only after a long search in a single little pool which could
+be filled up with a few cart-loads of town rubbish.
+
+In making these suggestions I do not wish to excite hopes which may
+ultimately prove to have been unfounded. We do not yet know all the
+dangerous species of mosquito, nor do we even possess an exhaustive
+knowledge of the haunts and habits of any one variety. I wish merely
+to indicate what, so far as I can see at present, may become a very
+simple means of eradicating malaria.
+
+One thing may be said for certain. Where previously we have been unable
+to point out the exact origin of the malaria in a locality, and have
+thought that it rises from the soil generally, we now hope for much
+more precise knowledge regarding its source; and it will be contrary to
+experience if human ingenuity does not finally succeed in turning such
+information to practical account.
+
+More than this, if the distinguishing characteristics of the
+malaria-bearing mosquitoes are sufficiently marked (if, for instance,
+they all have spotted wings), people forced to live or travel in
+malarious districts will ultimately come to recognize them and to take
+precautions against being bitten by them.
+
+Before practical results can be reasonably looked for, however, we must
+find precisely--
+
+(_a_) What species of Indian mosquitoes do and do not carry human
+malaria.
+
+(_b_) What are the habits of the dangerous varieties.
+
+I hope, therefore, that I may be permitted to urge the desirability of
+carrying out this research. It will no longer present any scientific
+difficulties, as only the methods already successfully adopted will be
+required. The results obtained will be quite unequivocal and definite.
+
+But the inquiry should be exhaustive. It will not suffice to
+distinguish merely one or two malaria-bearing species of mosquito in
+one or two localities; we should learn to know all of them in all parts
+of the country.
+
+The investigation will be abbreviated if the dangerous species be found
+to belong only to one class of mosquito, as I think is likely; and the
+researches which are now being energetically entered upon in Germany,
+Italy, America, and Africa will assist any which may be undertaken in
+India, though there is reason for thinking that the malaria-bearing
+species differ in various countries.
+
+As each species is detected it will be possible to attempt measures at
+once for its extermination in given localities as an experiment.
+
+I regret that, owing to my work connected with _kala-azar_, I have not
+been able to advance this branch of knowledge as much during my term
+of special duty as I had hoped to do; but I think that the solution of
+the malaria problem which has been obtained during this period will
+ultimately yield results of practical importance.
+
+
+
+
+FOOD POISONING.
+
+BY VICTOR C. VAUGHAN,
+
+PROFESSOR OF HYGIENE IN THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN.
+
+
+Within the past fifteen or twenty years cases of poisoning with foods
+of various kinds have apparently become quite numerous. This increase
+in the number of instances of this kind has been both apparent and
+real. In the first place, it is only within recent years that it has
+been recognized that foods ordinarily harmless may become most powerful
+poisons. In the second place, the more extensive use of preserved
+foods of various kinds has led to an actual increase in the number of
+outbreaks of food poisoning.
+
+The harmful effects of foods may be due to any of the following causes:
+
+1. Certain poisonous fungi may infect grains. This is the cause of
+epidemics of poisoning with ergotized bread, which formerly prevailed
+during certain seasons throughout the greater part of continental
+Europe, but which are now practically limited to southern Russia and
+Spain. In this country ergotism is practically unknown, except as a
+result of the criminal use of the drug ergot. However, a few herds of
+cattle in Kansas and Nebraska have been quite extensively affected with
+this disease.
+
+2. Plants and animals may feed upon substances that are not harmful
+to them, but which may seriously affect man on account of his greater
+susceptibility. It is a well-known fact that hogs may eat large
+quantities of arsenic or antimony without harm to themselves, and thus
+render their flesh unfit for food for man. It is believed that birds
+that feed upon the mountain laurel furnish a food poisonous to man.
+
+3. During periods of the physiological activity of certain glands
+in some of the lower animals the flesh becomes harmful to man. Some
+species of fish are poisonous during the spawning season.
+
+4. Both animal and vegetable foods may become infected with the
+specific germs of disease and serve as the carriers of the infection to
+man. Instances of the distribution of typhoid fever by the milkman are
+illustrations of this.
+
+5. Animals may be infected with specific diseases, which may be
+transmitted to man in the meat or milk. This is one of the means by
+which tuberculosis is spread.
+
+6. Certain nonspecific, poison-producing germs may find their way into
+foods of various kinds, and may by their growth produce chemical
+poisons either before or after the food has been eaten. This is the
+most common form of food poisoning known in this country.
+
+We will briefly discuss some foods most likely to prove harmful to man.
+
+MUSSEL POISONING.--It has long been known that this bivalve is
+occasionally poisonous. Three forms of mussel poisoning are recognized.
+The first, known as _Mytilotoxismus gastricus_, is accompanied by
+symptoms practically identical with those of cholera morbus. At first
+there is nausea, followed by vomiting, which may continue for hours.
+In severe cases the walls of the stomach are so seriously altered that
+the vomited matter contains considerable quantities of blood. Vomiting
+is usually accompanied by severe and painful purging. The heart may be
+markedly affected, and death may result from failure of this organ.
+Examination after death from this cause shows the stomach and small
+intestines to be highly inflamed.
+
+The second form of mussel poisoning is known as _Mytilotoxismus
+exanthematicus_ on account of visible changes in the skin. At first
+there is a sensation of heat, usually beginning in the eyelids, then
+spreading to the face, and finally extending over the whole body.
+This sensation is followed by an eruption, which is accompanied by
+intolerable itching. In severe cases the breathing becomes labored, the
+face grows livid, consciousness is lost, and death may result within
+two or three days.
+
+The most frequently observed form of mussel poisoning is that
+designated as _Mytilotoxismus paralyticus_. As early as 1827 Combe
+reported his observations upon thirty persons who had suffered from
+this kind of mussel poisoning. The first symptoms, as a rule, appeared
+within two hours after eating the poisonous food. Some suffered from
+nausea and vomiting, but these were not constant or lasting symptoms.
+All complained of a prickly feeling in the hands, heat and constriction
+of the throat, difficulty of swallowing and speaking, numbness about
+the mouth, gradually extending over the face and to the arms, with
+great debility of the limbs. Most of the sufferers were unable to
+stand; the action of the heart was feeble, and the face grew pale and
+expressed much anxiety. Two of the thirty cases terminated fatally.
+Post-mortem examination showed no abnormality.
+
+Many opinions have been expressed concerning the nature of harmful
+mussels. Until quite recently it was a common belief that certain
+species are constantly toxic. Virchow has attempted to describe the
+dangerous variety of mussels, stating that it has a brighter shell,
+sweeter, more penetrating, bouillonlike odor than the edible kind, and
+that the flesh of the poisonous mussel is yellow; the water in which
+they are boiled becomes bluish.
+
+However, this belief in a poisonous species is now admitted to be
+erroneous. At one time it was suggested that mussels became hurtful
+by absorbing the copper from the bottoms of vessels, but Christison
+made an analysis of the mussels that poisoned the men mentioned by
+Combe, with negative results, and also pointed out the fact that the
+symptoms were not those of poisoning with copper. Some have held that
+the ill effects were due wholly to idiosyncrasies in the consumers,
+but cats and dogs are affected in the same way as men are. It has also
+been believed that all mussels are poisonous during the period of
+reproduction. This theory is the basis of the popular superstition that
+shellfish should not be eaten during the months in the name of which
+the letter "r" does not occur. At one time this popular idea took the
+form of a legal enactment in France forbidding the sale of shellfish
+from May 1st to September 1st. This widespread idea has a grain of
+truth in it, inasmuch as decomposition is more likely to alter food
+injuriously during the summer months. However, poisoning with mussels
+may occur at any time of the year.
+
+It has been pretty well demonstrated that the first two forms of mussel
+poisoning mentioned above are due to putrefactive processes, while
+the paralytic manifestations seen in other cases are due to a poison
+isolated a few years ago by Brieger, and named by him mytilotoxin. Any
+mussel may acquire this poison when it lives in filthy water. Indeed,
+it has been shown experimentally that edible mussels may become harmful
+when left for fourteen days or longer in filthy water; while, on the
+other hand, poisonous mussels may become harmless if kept four weeks
+or longer in clear water. This is true not only of mussels, but of
+oysters as well. Some years ago, many cases of poisoning from oysters
+were reported at Havre. The oysters had been taken from a bed near the
+outlet of a drain from a public water closet. Both oysters and mussels
+may harbor the typhoid bacillus, and may act as carriers of this germ
+to man.
+
+There should be most stringent police regulations against the sale of
+all kinds of mollusks, and all fish as well, taken from filthy waters.
+Certainly one should avoid shellfish from impure waters, and it is not
+too much to insist that those offered for food should be washed in
+clean water. All forms of clam and oyster broth should be avoided when
+it has stood even for a few hours at summer heat. These preparations
+very quickly become infected with bacteria, which develop most potent
+poisons.
+
+FISH POISONING.--Some fish are supplied with poisonous glands, by means
+of which they secure their prey and protect themselves from their
+enemies. The "dragon weaver," or "sea weaver" (_Trachinus draco_),
+is one of the best known of these fish. There are numerous varieties
+widely distributed in salt waters. The poisonous spine is attached
+partly to the maxilla and partly to the gill cover at its base. This
+spine is connected with a poisonous gland; the spine itself is grooved
+and covered with a thin membrane, which converts the grooves into
+canals. When the point enters another animal its membrane is stripped
+back and the poison enters the wound. Men sometimes wound their feet
+with the barbs of this fish while bathing. It also occasionally happens
+that a fisherman pricks his fingers with one of these barbs. The most
+poisonous variety of this fish known is found in the Mediterranean Sea.
+Wounds produced by these animals sometimes cause death. In _Synanceia
+brachio_ there are in the dorsal fin thirteen barbs, each connected
+with two poison reservoirs. The secretion from these glands is clear,
+bluish in color, and acid in reaction, and when introduced beneath the
+skin causes local gangrene and, if in sufficient quantity, general
+paralysis. In _Plotosus lineatus_ there is a powerful barb in front of
+the ventral fin, and the poison is not discharged unless the end of
+the barb is broken. The most poisonous variety of this fish is found
+only in tropical waters. In _Scorpæna scrofa_ and other species of this
+family there are poison glands connected with the barbs in the dorsal
+and in some varieties in the caudal fin.
+
+A disease known as _kakke_ was a few years ago quite prevalent in
+Japan and other countries along the eastern coast of Asia. With
+the opening up of Japan to the civilized world the study of this
+disease by scientific methods was undertaken by the observant and
+intelligent natives who acquired their medical training in Europe and
+America. In Tokio the disease generally appears in May, reaches its
+greatest prevalence in August, and gradually disappears in September
+and October. The researches of Miura and others have fairly well
+demonstrated that this disease is due to the eating of fish belonging
+to the family of _Scombridæ_. There are other kinds of fish in
+Japanese waters that undoubtedly are poisonous. This is true of the
+_tetrodon_, of which, according to Remey, there are twelve species
+whose ovaries are poisonous. Dogs fed upon these organs soon suffered
+from salivation, vomiting, and convulsive muscular contractions. When
+some of the fluid obtained by rubbing the ovaries in a mortar was
+injected subcutaneously in dogs the symptoms were much more severe, and
+death resulted. Tahara states that he has isolated from the roe of the
+tetrodon two poisons, one of which is a crystalline base, while the
+other is a white, waxy body. From 1885 to 1892 inclusive, 933 cases of
+poisoning with this fish were reported in Tokio, with a mortality of
+seventy-two per cent.
+
+Fish poisoning is quite frequently observed in the West Indies, where
+the complex of symptoms is designated by the Spanish term _siguatera_.
+It is believed by the natives that the poisonous properties of the fish
+are due to the fact that they feed upon decomposing medusæ and corals.
+In certain localities it is stated that all fish caught off certain
+coral reefs are unfit for food. However, all statements concerning the
+origin and nature of the poison in these fish are mere assumptions,
+since no scientific work has been done. Whatever the source of the
+poison may be, it is quite powerful, and death not infrequently
+results. The symptoms are those of gastro-intestinal irritation
+followed by collapse.
+
+In Russia fish poisoning sometimes causes severe and widespread
+epidemics. The Government has offered a large reward for any one who
+will positively determine the cause of the fish being poisonous and
+suggest successful means of preventing these outbreaks. Schmidt, after
+studying several of these epidemics, states the following conclusions:
+
+(_a_) The harmful effects are not due to putrefactive processes. (_b_)
+Fish poisoning in Russia is always due to the eating of some member of
+the sturgeon tribe. (_c_) The ill effects are not due to the method of
+catching the fish, the use of salt, or to imperfections in the methods
+of preservation. (_d_) The deleterious substance is not uniformly
+distributed through the fish, but is confined to certain parts. (_e_)
+The poisonous portions are not distinguishable from the nonpoisonous,
+either macroscopically or microscopically. (_f_) When the fish is
+cooked it may be eaten without harm. (_g_) The poison is an animal
+alkaloid produced most probably by bacteria that cause an infectious
+disease in the fish during life.
+
+The conclusion reached by Schmidt is confirmed by the researches of
+Madame Sieber, who found a poisonous bacillus in fish which had caused
+an epidemic.
+
+In the United States fish poisoning is most frequently due to
+decomposition in canned fish. The most prominent symptoms are nausea,
+vomiting, and purging. Sometimes there is a scarlatinous rash, which
+may cover the whole body. The writer has studied two outbreaks of
+this kind of fish poisoning. In both instances canned salmon was the
+cause of the trouble. Although a discussion of the treatment of food
+poisoning is foreign to this paper, the writer must call attention to
+the danger in the administration of opiates in cases of poisoning with
+canned fish. Vomiting and purging are efforts on the part of Nature to
+remove the poison, and should be assisted by the stomach tube and by
+irrigation of the colon. In one of the cases seen by the writer large
+doses of morphine had been administered in order to check the vomiting
+and purging and to relieve the pain; in this case death resulted. The
+danger of arresting the elimination of the poison in all cases of food
+poisoning can not be too emphatically condemned.
+
+MEAT POISONING.--The diseases most frequently transmitted from the
+lower animals to man by the consumption of the flesh or milk of the
+former by the latter are tuberculosis, anthrax, symptomatic anthrax,
+pleuro-pneumonia, trichinosis, mucous diarrhoea, and actinomycosis.
+It hardly comes within the scope of this article to discuss in detail
+the transmission of these diseases from the lower animals to man.
+However, the writer must be allowed to offer a few opinions concerning
+some mooted questions pertaining to the consumption of the flesh
+of tuberculous animals. Some hold that it is sufficient to condemn
+the diseased part of the tuberculous cow, and that the remainder
+may be eaten with perfect safety. Others teach that "total seizure"
+and destruction of the entire carcass by the health authorities are
+desirable. Experiments consisting of the inoculation of guinea pigs
+with the meat and meat juices of tuberculous animals have given
+different results to several investigators. To one who has seen
+tuberculous animals slaughtered, these differences in opinion and in
+experimental results are easily explainable. The tuberculous invasion
+may be confined to a single gland, and this may occur in a portion
+of the carcass not ordinarily eaten; while, on the other hand, the
+invasion may be much more extensive and the muscles may be involved.
+The tuberculous portion may consist of hard nodules that do not break
+down and contaminate other tissues in the process of removal, but the
+writer has seen a tuberculous abscess in the liver holding nearly a
+pint of broken-down infected matter ruptured or cut in removing this
+organ, and its contents spread over the greater part of the carcass.
+This explains why one investigator succeeds in inducing tuberculosis
+in guinea pigs by introducing small bits of meat from a tuberculous
+cow into the abdominal cavity, while another equally skillful
+bacteriologist follows the same details and fails to get positive
+results. No one desires to eat any portion of a tuberculous animal, and
+the only safety lies in "total seizure" and destruction. That the milk
+from tuberculous cows, even when the udder is not involved, may contain
+the specific bacillus has been demonstrated experimentally. The writer
+has suggested that every one selling milk should be licensed, and the
+granting of a license should be dependent upon the application of the
+tuberculin test to every cow from which milk is sold. The frequency
+with which tuberculosis is transmitted to children through milk should
+justify this action.
+
+That a profuse diarrhoea may render the flesh of an animal unfit
+food for man was demonstrated by the cases studied by Gärtner. In this
+instance the cow was observed to have a profuse diarrhoea for two
+days before she was slaughtered. Both the raw and cooked meat from this
+animal poisoned the persons who ate it. Medical literature contains the
+records of many cases of meat poisoning due to the eating of the flesh
+of cows slaughtered while suffering from puerperal fever. It has been
+found that the flesh of animals dead of symptomatic anthrax may retain
+its infection after having been preserved in a dry state for ten years.
+
+One of the most frequently observed forms of meat poisoning is that
+due to the eating of decomposed sausage. Sausage poisoning, known
+as _botulismus_, is most common in parts of Germany. Germans who
+have brought to the United States their methods of preparing sausage
+occasionally suffer from this form of poisoning. The writer had
+occasion two years ago to investigate six cases of this kind, two
+of which proved fatal. The sausage meat had been placed in uncooked
+sections of the intestines and alternately frozen and thawed and
+then eaten raw. In this instance the meat was infected with a highly
+virulent bacillus, which resembled very closely the _Bacterium coli_.
+
+In England, Ballard has reported numerous epidemics of meat poisoning,
+in most of which the meat had become infected with some nonspecific,
+poison-producing germ. In 1894 the writer was called upon to
+investigate cases of poisoning due to the eating of pressed chicken.
+The chickens were killed Tuesday afternoon and left hanging in a market
+room at ordinary temperature until Wednesday forenoon, when they were
+drawn and carried to a restaurant and here left in a warm room until
+Thursday, when they were cooked (not thoroughly), pressed, and served
+at a banquet in which nearly two hundred men participated. All ate
+of the chicken, and were more or less seriously poisoned. The meat
+contained a slender bacillus, which was fatal to white rats, guinea
+pigs, dogs, and rabbits.
+
+Ermengem states that since 1867 there have been reported 112 epidemics
+of meat poisoning, in which 6,000 persons have been affected. In 103 of
+these outbreaks the meat came from diseased animals, while in only five
+was there any evidence that putrefactive changes in the meat had taken
+place. My experience convinces me that in this country meat poisoning
+frequently results from putrefactive changes.
+
+Instances of poisoning from the eating of canned meats have become
+quite common. Although it may be possible that in some instances the
+ill effects result from metallic poisoning, in a great majority of
+cases the poisonous substances are formed by putrefactive changes. In
+many cases it is probable that decomposition begins after the can has
+been opened by the consumer; in others the canning is imperfectly done,
+and putrefaction is far advanced before the food reaches the consumer.
+In still other instances the meat may have been taken from diseased
+animals, or it may have undergone putrefactive changes before the
+canning. It should always be remembered that canned meat is especially
+liable to putrefactive changes after the can has been opened, and when
+the contents of the open can are not consumed at once the remainder
+should be kept in a cold place or should be thrown away. People are
+especially careless on this point. While every one knows that fresh
+meat should be kept in a cold place during the summer, an open can of
+meat is often allowed to stand at summer temperature and its contents
+eaten hours after the can has been opened. This is not safe, and has
+caused several outbreaks of meat poisoning that have come under the
+observation of the writer.
+
+MILK POISONING.--In discussing this form of food poisoning we will
+exclude any consideration of the distribution of the specific
+infectious diseases through milk as the carrier of the infection,
+and will confine ourselves to that form of milk poisoning which is
+due to infection with nonspecific, poison-producing germs. Infants
+are highly susceptible to the action of the galactotoxicons (milk
+poisons). There can no longer be any doubt that these poisons are
+largely responsible for much of the infantile mortality which is
+alarmingly high in all parts of the world. It has been positively shown
+that the summer diarrhoea of infancy is due to milk poisoning. The
+diarrhoeas prevalent among infants during the summer months are not
+due to a specific germ, but there are many bacteria that grow rapidly
+in milk and form poisons which induce vomiting and purging, and may
+cause death. These diseases occur almost exclusively among children
+artificially fed. It is true that there are differences in chemical
+composition between the milk of woman and that of the cow, but these
+variations in percentage of proteids, fats, and carbohydrates are of
+less importance than the infection of milk with harmful bacteria. The
+child that takes its food exclusively from the breast of a healthy
+mother obtains a food that is free from poisonous bacteria, while the
+bottle-fed child may take into its body with its food a great number
+and variety of germs, some of which may be quite deadly in their
+effects. The diarrhoeas of infancy are practically confined to the
+hot months, because a high temperature is essential to the growth and
+wide distribution of the poison-producing bacteria. Furthermore, during
+the summer time these bacteria grow abundantly in all kinds of filth.
+Within recent years the medical profession has so urgently called
+attention to the danger of infected milk that there has been a great
+improvement in the care of this article of diet, but that there is yet
+room for more scientific and thorough work in this direction must be
+granted. The sterilization and Pasteurization of milk have doubtlessly
+saved the lives of many children, but every intelligent physician knows
+that even the most careful mother or nurse often fails to secure a milk
+that is altogether safe.
+
+It is true that milk often contains germs the spores of which
+are not destroyed by the ordinary methods of sterilization and
+Pasteurization. However, these germs are not the most dangerous ones
+found in milk. Moreover, every mother and nurse should remember
+that in the preparation of sterilized milk for the child it is not
+only necessary to heat the milk, but, after it has been heated to a
+temperature sufficiently high and sufficiently prolonged, the milk must
+subsequently be kept at a low temperature until the child is ready to
+take it, when it may be warmed. It should be borne in mind that the
+subsequent cooling of the milk and keeping it at a low temperature is a
+necessary feature in the preparation of it as a food for the infant.
+
+CHEESE POISONING.--Under this heading we shall include the ill effects
+that may follow the eating of not only cheese but other milk products,
+such as ice cream, cream custard, cream puffs, etc. Any poison formed
+in milk may exist in the various milk products, and it is impossible
+to draw any sharp line of distinction between milk poisoning and
+cheese poisoning. However, the distinction is greater than is at first
+apparent. Under the head of milk poisoning we have called especial
+attention to those substances formed in milk to which children are
+particularly susceptible, while in cheese and other milk products
+there are formed poisonous substances against which age does not give
+immunity. Since milk is practically the sole food during the first year
+or eighteen months of life, the effect of its poisons upon infants is
+of the greatest importance; on the other hand, milk products are seldom
+taken by the infant, but are frequent articles of diet in after life.
+
+In 1884 the writer succeeded in isolating from poisonous cheese a
+highly active basic substance, to which he gave the name _tyrotoxicon_.
+The symptoms produced by this poison are quite marked, but differ in
+degree according to the amount of the poison taken. At first there is
+dryness of the mouth, followed by constriction of the fauces, then
+nausea, vomiting, and purging. The first vomited matter consists of
+food, then it becomes watery and is frequently stained with blood. The
+stools are at first semisolid, and then are watery and serous. The
+heart is depressed, the pulse becomes weak and irregular, and in severe
+cases the face appears cyanotic. There may be dilatation of the pupil,
+but this is not seen in all. The most dangerous cases are those in
+which the vomiting is slight and soon ceases altogether, and the bowels
+are constipated from the beginning. Such cases as these require prompt
+and energetic treatment. The stomach and bowels should be thoroughly
+irrigated in order to remove the poison, and the action of the heart
+must be sustained.
+
+At one time the writer believed that tyrotoxicon was the active agent
+in all samples of poisonous cheese, but more extended experimentation
+has convinced him that this is not the case. Indeed, this poison is
+rarely found, while the number of poisons in harmful cheese is no doubt
+considerable. There are numerous poisonous albumins found in cheese
+and other milk products. While all of these are gastro-intestinal
+irritants, they differ considerably in other respects.
+
+In 1895 the writer and Perkins made a prolonged study of a bacillus
+found in cheese which had poisoned fifty people. Chemically the
+poison produced by this germ is distinguished from tyrotoxicon by
+the fact that it is not removed from alkaline solution with ether.
+Physiologically the new poison has a more pronounced effect on the
+heart, in which it resembles muscarin or neurin more closely than it
+does tyrotoxicon. Pathologically, the two poisons are unlike, inasmuch
+as the new poison induces marked congestion of the tissues about the
+point of injection when used upon animals hypodermically. Furthermore,
+the intestinal constrictions which are so uniformly observed in animals
+poisoned by tyrotoxicon was not once seen in our work with this new
+poison, although it was carefully looked for in all our experiments.
+
+In 1898 the writer, with McClymonds, examined samples of cheese from
+more than sixty manufacturers in this country and in Europe. In all
+samples of ordinary American green cheese poisonous germs were found in
+greater or less abundance. These germs resemble very closely the colon
+bacillus, and most likely their presence in the milk is to be accounted
+for by contamination with bits of fecal matter from the cow. It is more
+than probable that the manufacture of cheese is yet in its infancy,
+and we need some one to do for this industry what Pasteur did for the
+manufacture of beer. At present the flavor of a given cheese depends
+upon the bacteria and molds which accidentally get into it. The time
+will probably come when all milk used for the manufacture of cheese
+will be sterilized, and then selected molds and bacteria will be sown
+in it. In this way the flavor and value of a cheese will be determined
+with scientific accuracy, and will not be left to accident.
+
+CANNED FOODS.--As has been stated, the increased consumption of
+preserved foods is accountable for a great proportion of the cases
+of food poisoning. The preparation of canned foods involves the
+application of scientific principles, and since this work is done by
+men wholly ignorant of science it is quite remarkable that harmful
+effects do not manifest themselves more frequently than they do. Every
+can of food which is not thoroughly sterilized may become a source of
+danger to health and even to life. It may be of interest for us to
+study briefly the methods ordinarily resorted to in the preparation
+of canned foods. With most substances the food is cooked before being
+put into the can. This is especially true of meats of various kinds.
+Thorough cooking necessarily leads to the complete sterilization of
+the food; but after this, it must be transferred to the can, and the
+can must be properly closed. With the handling necessary in canning
+the food, germs are likely to be introduced. Moreover, it is possible
+that the preliminary cooking is not thoroughly done and complete
+sterilization is not reached. The empty can should be sterilized. If
+one wishes to understand the _modus operandi_ of canning foods, let him
+take up a round can of any fruit, vegetable, or meat and examine the
+bottom of the can, which is in reality the top during the process of
+canning and until the label is put on. The food is introduced through
+the circular opening in this end, now closed by a piece which can be
+seen to be soldered on. After the food has been introduced through this
+opening the can and contents are heated either in a water bath or by
+means of steam. The opening through which the food was introduced is
+now closed by a circular cap of suitable size, which is soldered in
+position.
+
+This cap has near its center a "prick-hole" through which the steam
+continues to escape. This "prick-hole" is then closed with solder, and
+the closed can again heated in the water bath or with steam. If the
+can "blows" (if the ends of the can become convex) during this last
+heating the "prick-hole" is again punctured and the heated air allowed
+to escape, after which the "prick-hole" is again closed. Cans thus
+prepared should be allowed to stand in a warm chamber for four or five
+days. If the contents have not been thoroughly sterilized gases will
+be evolved during this time, or the can will "blow" and the contents
+should be discarded. Unscrupulous manufacturers take cans which have
+"blown," prick them to allow the escape of the contained gases, and
+then resterilize the cans with their contents, close them again, and
+put them on the market. These "blowholes" may be made in either end of
+the can, or they may be made in the sides of the can, where they are
+subsequently covered with the label. Of course, it does not necessarily
+follow that if a can has "blown" and been subsequently resterilized its
+contents will prove poisonous, but it is not safe to eat the contents
+of such cans. Reputable manufacturers discard all "blown" cans.
+
+Nearly all canned jellies sold in this country are made from apples.
+The apples are boiled with a preparation sold under the trade
+name "tartarine." This consists of either dilute hydrochloric or
+sulphuric acid. Samples examined by the writer have invariably been
+found to consist of dilute hydrochloric acid. The jelly thus formed
+by the action of the dilute acid upon the apple is converted into
+quince, pear, pineapple, or any other fruit that the pleasure of the
+manufacturer may choose by the addition of artificial flavoring agents.
+There is no reason for believing that the jellies thus prepared are
+harmful to health.
+
+Canned fruits occasionally contain salicylic acid in some form. There
+has been considerable discussion among sanitarians as to whether or
+not the use of this preservative is admissible. Serious poisoning with
+canned fruits is very rare. However, there can be but little doubt that
+many minor digestive disturbances are caused by acids formed in these
+foods. There has been much apprehension concerning the possibility of
+poisoning resulting from the soluble salts of tin formed by the action
+of fruit acids upon the can. The writer believes that anxiety on this
+point is unnecessary, and he has failed to find any positive evidence
+of poisoning resulting from this cause.
+
+There are two kinds of condensed milk sold in cans. These are known as
+condensed milk "with" and "without" sugar. In the preparation of the
+first-mentioned kind a large amount of cane sugar is added to condensed
+milk, and this acting as a preservative renders the preparation and
+successful handling of this article of food comparatively easy. On
+the other hand, condensed milk to which sugar has not been added is
+very liable to decomposition, and great care must be used in its
+preparation. The writer has seen several cases of severe poisoning that
+have resulted from decomposed canned milk. Any of the galactotoxicons
+(milk poisons) may be formed in this milk. In these instances the cans
+were "blown," both ends being convex.
+
+One of the most important sanitary questions in which we are concerned
+to-day is that pertaining to the subject of canned meats. It is
+undoubtedly true that unscrupulous manufacturers are putting upon the
+market articles of this kind of food which no decent man knowingly
+would eat, and which are undoubtedly harmful to all.
+
+The knowledge gained by investigations in chemical and bacteriological
+science have enabled the unscrupulous to take putrid liver and other
+disgusting substances and present them in such a form that the most
+fastidious palate would not recognize their origin. In this way the
+flesh from diseased animals and that which has undergone putrefactive
+changes may be doctored up and sold as reputable articles of diet.
+The writer does not believe that this practice is largely resorted
+to in this country, but that questionable preservatives have been
+used to some extent has been amply demonstrated by the testimony of
+the manufacturers of these articles themselves, given before the
+Senate committee now investigating the question of food and food
+adulterations. It is certainly true that most of the adulterations
+used in our foods are not injurious to health, but are fraudulent in a
+pecuniary sense; but when the flesh of diseased animals and substances
+which have undergone putrefactive decomposition can be doctored up and
+preserved by the addition of such agents as formaldehyde, it is time
+that the public should demand some restrictive measures.
+
+
+
+
+WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY.
+
+BY PROF. JOHN TROWBRIDGE,
+
+DIRECTOR OF JEFFERSON PHYSICAL LABORATORY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY.
+
+
+I never visit the historical collection of physical apparatus in the
+physical laboratory of Harvard University without a sense of wonderment
+at the marvelous use that has been made of old and antiquated pieces
+of apparatus which were once considered electrical toys. There can
+be seen the first batteries, the model of dynamo machines, and the
+electric motor. Such a collection is in a way a Westminster Abbey--dead
+mechanisms born to new uses and a great future.
+
+There is one simple piece of apparatus in the collection, without which
+telephony and wireless telegraphy would be impossible. To my mind it
+is the most interesting skeleton there, and if physicists marked the
+resting places of their apparatus laid to apparent rest and desuetude,
+this merits the highest sounding and most suggestive inscription. It
+is called a transformer, and consists merely of two coils of wire
+placed near each other. One coil is adapted to receive an electric
+current; the other coil, entirely independent of the first, responds
+by sympathy, or what is called induction, across the space which
+separates the coils. Doubtless if man knew all the capabilities of this
+simple apparatus he might talk to China, or receive messages from the
+antipodes. He now, by means of it, analyzes the light of distant suns,
+and produces the singular X rays which enable him to see through the
+human body. By means of it he already communicates his thoughts between
+stations thousands of miles apart, and by means of its manifestations I
+hope to make this article on wireless telegraphy intelligible. My essay
+can be considered a panegyric of this buried form--a history of its new
+life and of its unbounded possibilities.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Disposition of batteries and coils at the
+sending station, showing the arrangement of the vertical wire and the
+spark gap.]
+
+For convenience, one of the coils of the transformer is placed inside
+the other, and the combination is called a Ruhmkorf coil. It is
+represented in the accompanying photograph (Fig. 1), with batteries
+attached to the inner coil, while the outer coil is connected to two
+balls, between which an electric spark jumps whenever the battery
+circuit is broken. In fact, any disturbance in the battery circuit--a
+weakening, a strengthening, or a break--provided that the changes are
+sudden, produces a corresponding change in the neighboring circuit. One
+coil thus responds to the other, in some mysterious way, across the
+interval of air which separates them. Usually the coils are placed very
+near to each other--in fact, one embraces the other, as shown in the
+photograph.
+
+The coils, however, if placed several miles apart, will still respond
+to each other if they are made sufficiently large, if they are properly
+placed, and if a powerful current is used to excite one coil. Thus,
+by simply varying the distance between the coils of wire we can send
+messages through the air between stations which are not connected
+with a wire. This method, however, does not constitute the system of
+wireless telegraphy of Marconi, which it is the object of this paper
+to describe. Marconi has succeeded in transmitting messages over forty
+miles between points not connected by wires, and he has accomplished
+this feat by merely slightly modifying the disposition of the coils,
+thus revealing a new possibility of the wondrous transformer. If the
+reader will compare the following diagram (Fig. 2) with the photograph
+(Fig. 1), he will see how simple the sending apparatus of Marconi is.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Diagram of the arrangement of wires and
+batteries at the receiving station.]
+
+S is a gap between the ends of one coil, across which an electric spark
+is produced whenever the current from the batteries B flowing through
+the coil C is broken by an arrangement at D. This break produces an
+electrical pulsation in the coil C', which travels up and down the
+wire W, which is elevated to a considerable height above the ground.
+This pulsation can not be seen by the eye. The wire does not move;
+it appears perfectly quiescent and dead, and seems only a wire and
+nothing more. At night, under favorable circumstances, one could see a
+luminosity on the wire, especially at the end, when messages are being
+transmitted, by a powerful battery B.
+
+It is very easy to detect the electric lines which radiate from every
+part of such a wire when a spark jumps between the terminals S of
+the coil. All that is necessary to do is to pass the wire through a
+sensitive film and to develop the film. The accompanying photograph
+(Fig. 3) was taken at the top of such a wire, by means of a very
+powerful apparatus at my command. When the photograph is examined
+with a microscope the arborescent electric lines radiating from the
+wire, like the rays of light from a star, exhibit a beautiful fernlike
+structure. These lines, however, are not chiefly instrumental in
+transmitting the electric pulse across space.
+
+There are other lines, called magnetic lines of force, which emanate
+from every portion of the vertical wire W just as ripples spread out
+on the surface of placid water when it is disturbed by the fall of a
+stone. These magnetic ripples travel in the ether of space, and when
+they embrace a neighboring wire or coil they produce similar ripples,
+which whirl about the distant wire and produce in some strange way an
+electrical current in the wire. These magnetic pulsations can travel
+great distances.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+FIG. 2_a_ represents a more complete electrical arrangement of the
+receiver circuit. The vertical wire, W', is connected to one wire of
+the coherer, L. The other wire of the coherer is led to the ground, G.
+The wires in the coherer, L, are separated by fine metallic particles.
+B represents a battery. E, an electro-magnet which attracts a piece of
+iron, A (armature), and closes a local battery, B, causing a click of
+the sounder (electro-magnet), S. The magnetic waves (Fig. 5) embracing
+the wire, W', cause a pulsation in this wire which produces an
+electrical disturbance in the coherer analogous to that shown in Fig.
+3, by means of which an electrical current is enabled to pass through
+the electro-magnet, E.]
+
+In the photographs of these magnetic whirls, Fig. 4 is the whirl
+produced in the circuit C' by the battery B (Fig. 2), while Fig. 5 is
+that produced by electrical sympathy, or as it is called induction,
+in a neighboring wire. These photographs were obtained by passing the
+circuits through the sensitive films, perpendicularly to the latter,
+and then sprinkling very fine iron filings on these surfaces and
+exposing them to the light. In order to obtain these photographs a
+very powerful electrical current excited the coil C (Fig. 2), and the
+neighboring circuit W' (Fig. 5) was placed very near the circuit W.
+
+When the receiving wire is at the distance of several miles from
+the sending wire it is impossible to detect by the above method the
+magnetic ripples or whirls. We can, however, detect the electrical
+currents which these magnetic lines of force cause in the receiving
+wire; and this leads me to speak of the discovery of a remarkable
+phenomenon which has made Marconi's system of wireless telegraphy
+possible. In order that an electrical current may flow through a mass
+of particles of a metal, a mass, for instance, of iron filings, it
+is necessary either to compress them or to cause a minute spark or
+electrical discharge between the particles. Now, it is supposed that
+the magnetic whirls, in embracing the distant receiving circuit, cause
+these minute sparks, and thus enable the electric current from the
+battery B to work a telegraphic sounder or bell M. The metallic filings
+are inclosed in a glass tube between wires which lead to the battery,
+and the arrangement is called a coherer. It can be made small and
+light. Fig. 6 is a representation in full size of one that has been
+found to be very sensitive. It consists of two silver wires with a few
+iron filings contained in a glass tube between the ends of the wires.
+It is necessary that this little tube should be constantly shaken up
+in order that after the electrical circuit is made the iron filings
+should return to their non-conducting condition, or should cease to
+cohere together, and should thus be ready to respond to the following
+signal. My colleague, Professor Sabine, has employed a very small
+electric motor to cause the glass tube to revolve, and thus to keep the
+filings in motion while signals are being received. Fig. 7 shows the
+arrangement of the receiving apparatus.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Photograph of the electric lines which emanate
+from the end of the wire at the sending station, and which are probably
+reproduced among the metallic filings of the coherer at the receiving
+station.]
+
+The coherer and the motor are shown between two batteries, one of
+which drives the motor while the other serves to work the bell or
+sounder when the electric wire excites the iron filings. In Fig. 2
+this receiving apparatus is shown diagrammatically. B is the battery
+which sends a current through the sounder M and the coherer N when the
+magnetic whirls coming from the sending wire W embrace the receiving
+wire W'.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Magnetic whirls about the sending wire.]
+
+The term wireless telegraphy is a misnomer, for without wires the
+method would not be possible. The phenomenon is merely an enlargement
+of one that we are fully conscious of in the case of telegraph and
+telephone circuits, which is termed electro-magnetic induction.
+Whenever an electric current suddenly flows or suddenly ceases to
+flow along a wire, electrical currents are caused by induction in
+neighboring wires. The receiver employed by Marconi is a delicate
+spark caused by this induction, which forms a bridge so that an
+electric current from the relay battery can pass and influence magnetic
+instruments.
+
+Many investigators had succeeded before Marconi in sending telegraphic
+messages several miles through the air or ether between two points
+not directly connected by wires. Marconi has extended the distance by
+employing a much higher electro-motive force at the sending station
+and using the feeble inductive effect at a distance to set in action a
+local battery.
+
+It is evident that wires are needed at the sending station from every
+point of which magnetic and electric waves are sent out, and wires at
+the receiving station which embrace, so to speak, these waves in the
+manner shown by our photographs. These waves produce minute sparks in
+the receiving instrument, which act like a suddenly drawn flood gate in
+allowing the current from a local battery to flow through the circuit
+in which the spark occurs, and thus produce a click on a telegraphic
+instrument.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Magnetic whirls about the receiving wire.]
+
+We have said that messages had been sent by what is called wireless
+telegraphy before Marconi made his experiments. These messages had
+also been sent by induction, signals on one wire being received by a
+parallel and distant wire. To Marconi is due the credit of greatly
+extending the method by using a vertical wire. The method of using the
+coherer to detect electric pulses is not due, however, to Marconi.
+It is usually attributed to Branly; it had been employed, however,
+by previous observers, among whom is Hughes, the inventor of the
+microphone, an instrument analogous in its action to that of the
+coherer. In the case of the microphone, the waves from the human voice
+shake up the particles of carbon in the microphone transmitter, and
+thus cause an electrical current to flow more easily through the minute
+contacts of the carbon particles.
+
+The action of the telephone transmitter, which also consists of minute
+conducting particles in which a battery terminals are immersed, and
+the analogous coherer is microscopic, and there are many theories to
+account for their changes of resistance to electrical currents. We can
+not, I believe, be far wrong in thinking that the electric force breaks
+down the insulating effect of the infinitely thin layers of air between
+the particles, and thus allows an electric current to flow. This action
+is doubtless of the nature of an electric spark. An electric spark,
+in the case of wireless telegraphy, produces magnetic and electric
+lines of force in space, these reach out and embrace the circuit
+containing the coherer, and produce in turn minute sparks. _Similia
+similibus_--one action perfectly corresponds to the other.
+
+The Marconi system, therefore, of what is called wireless telegraphy
+is not new in principle, but only new in practical application. It had
+been used to show the phenomena of electric waves in lecture rooms.
+Marconi extended it from distances of sixty to one hundred feet to
+fifty or sixty miles. He did this by lifting the sending-wire spark on
+a lofty pole and improving the sensitiveness of the metallic filings
+in the glass tube at the receiving station. He adopted a mechanical
+arrangement for continually tapping the coherer in order to break up
+the minute bridges formed by the cohering action, and thus to prepare
+the filings for the next magnetic pulse. The system of wireless
+telegraphy is emphatically a spark system strangely analogous to
+flash-light signaling, a system in which the human eye with its rods
+and cones in the retina acts as the coherer, and the nerve system, the
+local battery, making a signal or sensation in the brain.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--The coherer employed to receive the electric
+waves. (One and a third actual size.)]
+
+Let us examine the sending spark a little further. An electric spark
+is perhaps the most interesting phenomenon in electricity. What causes
+it--how does the air behave toward it--what is it that apparently flows
+through the air, sending out light and heat waves as well as magnetic
+and electric waves? If we could answer all these questions, we should
+know what electricity is. A critical study of the electric spark has
+not only its scientific but its practical side. We see the latter side
+evidenced by its employment in wireless telegraphy and in the X rays;
+for in the latter case we have an electric discharge in a tube from
+which the air is removed--a special case of an electric spark. In
+order to understand the capabilities of wireless telegraphy we must
+turn to the scientific study of the electric spark; for its practical
+employment resides largely in its strength, in its frequency in its
+position, and in its power to make the air a conductor for electricity.
+All these points are involved in wireless telegraphy. How, then, shall
+we study the electric spark? The eye sees only an instantaneous flash
+following a devious path. It can not tell in what direction a spark
+flies (a flash of lightning, for instance), or indeed whether it has
+a direction. There is probably no commoner fallacy mankind entertains
+than the belief that the direction of lightning, or any electric spark,
+can be ascertained by the eye--that is, the direction from the sky
+to the earth or from the earth to the sky. I have repeatedly tested
+numbers of students in regard to this question, employing sparks four
+to six feet in length, taking precautions in regard to the concealment
+of the directions in which I charged the poles of the charging
+batteries, and I have never found a consensus of opinion in regard to
+directions. The ordinary photograph, too, reveals no more than the eye
+can see--a brilliant, devious line or a flaming discharge.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Arrangement of batteries of motor (to disturb
+the coherer) and the sounder by which the messages are received.]
+
+A large storage battery forms the best means of studying electric
+sparks, for with it one can run the entire gamut of this
+phenomenon--from the flaming discharge which we see in the arc light
+on the street to the crackling spark we employ in wireless telegraphy,
+and the more powerful discharges of six or more feet in length which
+closely resemble lightning discharges. A critical study of this gamut
+throws considerable light on the problem of the possibility of secret
+wireless telegraphy--a problem which it is most important to solve if
+the system is to be made practical; for at present the message spreads
+out from the sending spark in great circular ripples in all directions,
+and may be received by any one.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Photograph of electrical pulses. The interval
+between the pulses is one millionth of a second.]
+
+Several methods enable us to transform electrical energy so as to
+obtain suitable quick and intense blows on the surrounding medium.
+Is it possible that there is some mysterious vibration in the spark
+which is instrumental in the effective transmission of electrical
+energy across space? If the spark should vibrate or oscillate to and
+fro faster than sixteen times a second the human eye could not detect
+such oscillations; for an impression remains on the eye one sixteenth
+of a second, and subsequent ones separated by intervals shorter than a
+sixteenth would mingle together and could not be separated. The only
+way to ascertain whether the spark is oscillatory, or whether it is
+not one spark, as it appears to the eye, but a number of to-and-fro
+impulses, is to photograph it by a rapidly revolving mirror. The
+principle is similar to that of the biograph or the vitoscope, in
+which the quick to-and-fro motions of the spark are received on a
+sensitive film, which is in rapid motion. One terminal of the spark
+gap, the positive terminal so called, is always brighter than the
+other. Hence, if the sensitive film is moved at right angles to the
+path of the discharge, we shall get a row of dots which are the images
+of the brighter terminal, and these dots occur alternately first
+on one terminal and then on the other, showing that the discharge
+oscillates--that is, leaps in one discharge (which seems but one to the
+eye) many times in a hundred thousandth of a second. In practice it is
+found better to make an image of the spark move across the sensitive
+film instead of moving the film. This is accomplished by the same
+method that a boy uses in flashing sunlight by means of a mirror. The
+faster the mirror moves the faster moves the image of the light. In
+this way a speed of a millionth of a second can be attained. In this
+case the distance between the dots on the film may be one tenth of
+an inch, sufficient to separate them to the eye. The photograph of
+electric sparks (Fig. 8) was taken in this manner. The distance between
+any two bright spots in the trail of the photographic images represents
+the time of the electric oscillation or the time of the magnetic pulse
+or wave which is sent out from the spark, and which will cause a
+distant circuit to respond by a similar oscillation.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Photograph of a pilot spark, which is the
+principal factor in the method of wireless telegraphy.]
+
+At present the shortest time that can, so to speak, be photographed
+in this manner is about one two-millionth of a second. This is the
+time of propagation of a magnetic wave over four hundred feet long.
+The waves used in wireless telegraphy are not more than four feet in
+length--about one hundredth the length of those we can photograph.
+The photographic method thus reveals a mechanism of the spark which
+is entirely hidden from the eye and will always be concealed from
+human sight. It reveals, however, a greater mystery which it seems
+incompetent to solve--the mystery of what is called the pilot spark,
+the first discharge which we see on our photograph (Fig. 9) stretching
+intact from terminal to terminal, having the prodigious velocity of one
+hundred and eighty thousand miles a second. None of our experimental
+devices suffice to penetrate the mystery of this discharge. It is this
+pilot spark which is chiefly instrumental in sending out the magnetic
+pulses or waves which are powerful enough to reach forty or fifty
+miles. The preponderating influence of this pilot spark--so called
+since it finds a way for the subsequent surgings or oscillations--is
+a bar to the efforts to make wireless telegraphy secret. We can see
+from the photograph how much greater its strength is than that of the
+subsequent discharges shown by the mere brightening of the terminals.
+A delicate coherer will immediately respond to the influence of this
+pilot spark, and the subsequent oscillations of this discharge will
+have little effect. How, then, can we effectively time a receiving
+circuit so that it will respond to only one sending station? We can not
+depend upon the oscillatory nature of the spark, or adopt, in other
+words, its rate of vibration and form a coherer with the same rate.
+
+It seems as if it would be necessary to invent some method of sending
+pilot sparks at a high and definite rate of vibration, and of employing
+coherers which will only respond to definite powerful rates of magnetic
+pulsation. Various attempts have been made to produce by mechanical
+means powerful electric surgings, but they have been unsuccessful. Both
+high electro-motive force and strength of current are needed. These can
+be obtained by the employment of a great number of storage cells. The
+discharge from a large number of these cells, however, is not suitable
+for the purpose of wireless telegraphy, although it may possess the
+qualifications of both high electrical pressure and strength of current.
+
+The only apparatus we have at command to produce quick blows on the
+ether is the Ruhmkorf coil. This coil, I have said, has been in all our
+physical cabinets for fifty years. It contained within itself the germ
+of the telephone transmitter and the method of wireless telegraphy,
+unrecognized until the present. In its elements it consists, as we have
+seen, of two electrical circuits, placed near each other, entirely
+unconnected. A battery is connected with one of these circuits, and
+any change in the strength of the electrical current gives a blow to
+the ether or medium between the two circuits. A quick stopping of the
+electrical current gives the strongest impulse to the ether, which
+is taken up by the neighboring circuit. For the past fifty years
+very little advance has been made in the method of giving strong
+electrical impulses to the medium of space. It is accomplished simply
+by a mechanical breaking of the connection to the battery, either by
+a revolving wheel with suitable projections, or by a vibrating point.
+All the various forms of mechanical breaks are inefficient. They do not
+give quick and uniform breaks. Latterly, hopes have been excited by the
+discovery of a chemical break, called the Weynelt interrupter, shown in
+Fig. 1. The electrical current in passing through a vessel of diluted
+sulphuric acid from a point of platinum to a disk of lead causes
+bubbles of gas which form a barrier to its passage which is suddenly
+broken down, and this action goes on at a high rate of speed, causing
+a torrent of sparks in the neighboring circuit. The medium between
+the two circuits is thereby submitted to rapid and comparatively
+powerful impulses. The discovery of this and similar chemical or
+molecular interruptions marks an era in the history of the electrical
+transformer, and the hopes of further progress by means of them is far
+greater than in the direction of mechanical interruptions.
+
+We are still, however, unable to generate sufficiently powerful and
+sufficiently well-timed electrical impulses to make wireless telegraphy
+of great and extended use. Can we not hope to strengthen the present
+feeble impulses in wireless telegraphy by some method of relaying or
+repeating? In the analogous subject of telephony many efforts have
+also been made to render the service secret, and to extend it to great
+distances by means of relays. These efforts have not been successful up
+to the present. We still have our neighbors' call bells, and we could
+listen to their messages if we were gossips. The telephone service
+has been extended to great distances--for instance, from Boston to
+Omaha--not by relays, but by strengthening the blows upon the medium
+between the transmitting circuit and the receiving one, just as we
+desire to do in what is called wireless telegraphy, the apparatus of
+which is almost identical in principle to that employed in telephony.
+The individual call in telephony is not a success for nearly the same
+reasons that exist in the case of wireless telegraphy. Perfectly
+definite and powerful rates of vibration can not be sent from point to
+point over wires to which only certain definite apparatus will respond.
+There are so many ways in which the energy of the electric current can
+be dissipated in passing over wires and through calling bells that the
+form of the waves and their strength becomes attenuated. The form of
+the electrical waves is better preserved in free space, where there
+are no wires or where there is no magnetic matter. The difficulty
+in obtaining individual calls in wireless telegraphy resides in the
+present impossibility of obtaining sufficiently rapid and powerful
+electrical impulses, and a receiver which will properly respond to a
+definite number of such impulses.
+
+The question of a relay seems as impossible of solution as it does in
+telephony. The character of speech depends upon numberless delicate
+inflections and harmonies. The form, for instance, of the wave
+transmitting the vowel _a_ must be preserved in order that the sound
+may be recognized. A relay in telephony acts very much like one's
+neighbor in the game called gossip, in which a sentence repeated more
+or less indistinctly, after passing from one person to another, becomes
+distorted and meaningless. No telephone relay has been invented which
+preserves the form of the first utterance, the vowel _a_ loses its
+delicate characteristics, and becomes simply a meaningless noise. It is
+maintained by some authorities that such a relay can not be invented,
+that it is impossible to preserve the delicate inflections of the
+human voice in passing from one circuit to another, even through an
+infinitesimal air gap or ether space. It is well, however, to reflect
+upon Hosea Bigelow's sapient advice "not to prophesy unless you know."
+It was maintained in the early days of the telephone that speech would
+lose so many characteristics in the process of transmission over wires
+and through magnetic apparatus that it would not be intelligible.
+It is certain that at present long-distance transmission of speech
+can only be accomplished by using more powerful transmitters, and by
+making the line of copper better fitted for the transmission--just as
+quick transportation from place to place has not been accomplished by
+quitting the earth and by flying through space, but by obtaining more
+powerful engines and by improving the roadbeds.
+
+The hopes of obtaining a relay for wireless telegraphy seem as small
+as they do in telephony. The present method is practically limited to
+distances of fifty or sixty miles--distances not much exceeding those
+which can be reached by a search-light in fair weather. Indeed, there
+is a close parallelism between the search-light and the spark used in
+Marconi's experiments: both send out waves which differ only in length.
+The waves of the search-light are about one forty-thousandth of an
+inch long, while the magnetic waves of the spark, invisible to the
+eye, are three to four feet--more than a million times longer than the
+light waves. These very long waves have this advantage over the short
+light waves: they are able to penetrate fog, and even sand hills and
+masonry. One can send messages into a building from a point outside. A
+prisoner could communicate with the outer world, a beleaguered garrison
+could send for help, a disabled light-ship could summon assistance, and
+possibly one steamer could inform another in a fog of its course.
+
+Wireless telegraphy is the nearest approach to telepathy that has
+been vouchsafed to our intelligence, and it serves to stimulate our
+imagination and to make us think that things greatly hoped for can be
+always reached, although not exactly in the way expected. The nerves
+of the whole world are, so to speak, being bound together, so that a
+touch in one country is transmitted instantly to a far-distant one. Why
+should we not in time speak through the earth to the antipodes? If the
+magnetic waves can pass through brick and stone walls and sand hills,
+why should we not direct, so to speak, our trumpet to the earth,
+instead of letting its utterances skim over the horizon? In regard
+to this suggestion, we know certainly one fact from our laboratory
+experiences: that these magnetic waves, meeting layers of electrically
+conducting matter, like layers of iron ore, would be reflected back,
+and would not penetrate. Thus a means may be discovered through the
+instrumentality of such waves of exploring the mysteries of the earth
+before success is attained in completely penetrating its mass.
+
+
+
+
+EMIGRANT DIAMONDS IN AMERICA.
+
+BY PROF. WILLIAM HERBERT HOBBS.
+
+
+To discover the origin of the diamond in Nature we must seek it in
+its ancestral home, where the rocky matrix gave it birth in the form
+characteristic of its species. In prosecuting our search we should very
+soon discover that, in common with other gem minerals, the diamond has
+been a great wanderer, for it is usually found far from its original
+home. The disintegrating forces of the atmosphere, by acting upon the
+rocky material in which the stones were imbedded, have loosed them from
+their natural setting, to be caught up by the streams, sorted from
+their disintegrated matrix, and transported far from the parent rock,
+to be at last set down upon some gravelly bed over which the force of
+the current is weakened. The mines of Brazil and the Urals, of India,
+Borneo, and the "river diggings" of South Africa either have been or
+are now in deposits of this character.
+
+The "dry diggings" of the Kimberley district, in South Africa, afford
+the unique locality in which the diamond has thus far been found in
+its original home, and all our knowledge of the genesis of the mineral
+has been derived from study of this locality. The mines are located
+in "pans," in which is found the "blue ground" now recognized as the
+disintegrated matrix of the diamond. These "pans" are known to be the
+"pipes," or "necks," of former volcanoes, now deeply dissected by the
+forces of the atmosphere--in fact, worn down if not to their roots, at
+least to their stumps. These remnants of the "pipes," through which
+the lava reached the surface, are surrounded in part by a black shale
+containing a large percentage of carbon, and this is believed to be the
+material out of which the diamonds have been formed. What appear to
+be modified fragments of the black shale inclosed within the "pipes"
+afford evidence that portions of the shale have been broken from the
+parent beds by the force of the ascending current of lava--a common
+enough accompaniment to volcanic action--and have been profoundly
+altered by the high temperature and the extreme hydrostatic pressure
+under which the mass must have been held. The most important feature
+of this alteration has been the recrystallization of the carbon of the
+shale into diamond.
+
+[Illustration: GLACIAL MAP OF THE GREAT LAKES REGION
+
+Driftless Areas. Older Drift. Newer Drift.
+
+Moraines. Glacial Striae. Track of Diamonds.
+
+
+Diamond Localities E. Eagle O. Oregon K. Kohlsville D. Dowagiac M.
+Milford. P. Plum Crk. B. Burlington.
+
+We are indebted to the University of Chicago Press for the above
+illustration.]
+
+[Illustration: Copyright, 1899, by George F. Kunz.
+
+FIVE VIEWS OF THE EAGLE DIAMOND (sixteen carats); enlarged about three
+diameters. (Owned by Tiffany and Company.)
+
+We are indebted to the courtesy of Mr. G. F. Kunz, of Tiffany and
+Company, for the illustrations of the Oregon and Eagle diamonds.]
+
+This apparent explanation of the genesis of the diamond finds strong
+support in the experiments of Moissan, who obtained artificial diamond
+by dissolving carbon in molten iron and immersing the mass in cold
+water until a firm surface crust had formed. The "chilled" mass was
+then removed, to allow its still molten core to solidify slowly. This
+it does with the development of enormous pressures, because the natural
+expansion of the iron on passing into the solid condition is resisted
+by the strong shell of "chilled" metal. The isolation of the diamond
+was then accomplished by dissolving the iron in acid.
+
+The prevailing form of the South African diamonds is that of a rounded
+crystal, with eight large and a number of minute faces--a form called
+by crystallographers a _modified octahedron_. Their shapes would be
+roughly simulated by the Pyramids of Egypt if they could be seen,
+combined with their reflected images, in a placid lake, or, better
+to meet the conditions of the country, in a desert mirage. It is a
+peculiar property of diamond crystals to have convexly rounded faces,
+so that the edges which separate the faces are not straight, but gently
+curving. Less frequently in the African mines, but commonly in some
+other regions, diamonds are bounded by four, twelve, twenty-four, or
+even forty-eight faces. These must not, of course, be confused with the
+faces of cut stones, which are the product of the lapidary's art.
+
+Geological conditions remarkably like those observed at the Kimberley
+mines have recently been discovered in Kentucky, with the difference
+that here the shales contain a much smaller percentage of carbon, which
+may be the reason that diamonds have not rewarded the diligent search
+that has been made for them.
+
+Though now found in the greatest abundance in South Africa and in
+Brazil, diamonds were formerly obtained from India, Borneo, and from
+the Ural Mountains of Russia. The great stones of history have, with
+hardly an exception, come from India, though in recent years a number
+of diamond monsters have been found in South Africa. One of these,
+the "Excelsior," weighed nine hundred and seventy carats, which is in
+excess even of the supposed weight of the "Great Mogul."
+
+[Illustration: Copyright, 1899, by George F. Kunz.
+
+FOUR VIEWS OF THE OREGON DIAMOND; enlarged about three diameters.
+(Owned by Tiffany and Company.)]
+
+Occasionally diamonds have come to light in other regions than those
+specified. The Piedmont plateau, at the southeastern base of the
+Appalachians, has produced, in the region between southern Virginia and
+Georgia, some ten or twelve diamonds, which have varied in weight from
+those of two or three carats to the "Dewey" diamond, which when found
+weighed over twenty-three carats.
+
+It is, however, in the territory about the Great Lakes that the
+greatest interest now centers, for in this region a very interesting
+problem of origin is being worked out. No less than seven diamonds,
+ranging in size from less than four to more than twenty-one carats, not
+to mention a number of smaller stones, have been recently found in the
+clays and gravels of this region, where their distribution was such
+as to indicate with a degree of approximation the location of their
+distant ancestral home.
+
+In order clearly to set forth the nature of this problem and the method
+of its solution it will be necessary, first, to plot upon a map of the
+lake region the locality at which each of the stones has been found,
+and, further, to enter upon the same map the data which geologists
+have gleaned regarding the work of the great ice cap of the Glacial
+period. During this period, not remote as geological time is reckoned,
+an ice mantle covered the entire northeastern portion of our continent,
+and on more than one occasion it invaded for considerable distances
+the territory of the United States. Such a map as has been described
+discloses an important fact which holds the clew for the detection of
+the ancestral home of these diamonds. Each year is bringing with it new
+evidence, and we may look forward hopefully to a full solution of the
+problem.
+
+In 1883 the "Eagle Stone" was brought to Milwaukee and sold for
+the nominal sum of one dollar. When it was submitted to competent
+examination the public learned that it was a diamond of sixteen carats'
+weight, and that it had been discovered seven years earlier in earth
+removed from a well-opening. Two events which were calculated to arouse
+local interest followed directly upon the discovery of the real nature
+of this gem, after which it passed out of the public notice. The woman
+who had parted with the gem for so inadequate a compensation brought
+suit against the jeweler to whom she had sold it, in order to recover
+its value. This curious litigation, which naturally aroused a great
+deal of interest, was finally carried to the Supreme Court of the State
+of Wisconsin, from which a decision was handed down in favor of the
+defendant, on the ground that he, no less than the plaintiff, had been
+ignorant of the value of the gem at the time of purchasing it. The
+other event was the "boom" of the town of Eagle as a diamond center,
+which, after the finding of two other diamonds with unmistakable marks
+of African origin upon them, ended as suddenly as it had begun, with
+the effect of temporarily discrediting, in the minds of geologists, the
+genuineness of the original "find."
+
+Ten years later a white diamond of a little less than four carats'
+weight came to light in a collection of pebbles found in Oregon,
+Wisconsin, and brought to the writer for examination. The stones had
+been found by a farmer's lad while playing in a clay bank near his
+home. The investigation of the subject which was thereupon made brought
+out the fact that a third diamond, and this the larges of all, had
+been discovered at Kohlsville, in the same State, in 1883, and was
+still in the possession of the family on whose property it had been
+found.
+
+As these stones were found in the deposits of "drift" which were left
+by the ice of the Glacial period, it was clear that they had been
+brought to their resting places by the ice itself. The map reveals
+the additional fact, and one of the greatest significance, that all
+these diamonds were found in the so-called "kettle moraine." This
+moraine or ridge was the dumping ground of the ice for its burden of
+bowlders, gravel, and clay at the time of its later invasion, and hence
+indicates the boundaries of the territory over which the ice mass was
+then extended. In view of the fact that two of the three stones found
+had remained in the hands of the farming population, without coming
+to the knowledge of the world, for periods of eleven and seven years
+respectively, it seems most probable that others have been found,
+though not identified as diamonds, and for this reason are doubtless
+still to be found in many cases in association with other local
+"curios" on the clock shelves of country farmhouses in the vicinity
+of the "kettle moraine." The writer felt warranted in predicting, in
+1894, that other diamonds would occasionally be brought to light in the
+"kettle moraine," though the great extent of this moraine left little
+room for hope that more than one or two would be found at any one point
+of it.
+
+[Illustration: THREE VIEWS OF THE SAUKVILLE DIAMOND (six carats);
+enlarged about three diameters. (Owned by Bunde and Upmeyer, Milwaukee.)
+
+We are indebted to the courtesy of Bunde and Upmeyer, of Milwaukee, for
+the illustrations showing the Burlington and Saukville diamonds.]
+
+In the time that has since elapsed diamonds have been found at the rate
+of about one a year, though not, so far as I am aware, in any case
+as the result of search. In Wisconsin have been found the Saukville
+diamond, a beautiful white stone of six carats' weight, and also the
+Burlington stone, having a weight of a little over two carats. The
+former had been for more than sixteen years in the possession of the
+finder before he learned of its value. In Michigan has been found the
+Dowagiac stone, of about eleven carats' weight, and only very recently
+a diamond weighing six carats and of exceptionally fine "water" has
+come to light at Milford, near Cincinnati. This augmentation of the
+number of localities, and the nearness of all to the "kettle moraines,"
+leaves little room for doubt that the diamonds were conveyed by the ice
+at the time of its later invasion of the country.
+
+Having, then, arrived at a satisfactory conclusion regarding not only
+the agent which conveyed the stones, but also respecting the period
+during which they were transported, it is pertinent to inquire by what
+paths they were brought to their adopted homes, and whether, if these
+may be definitely charted, it may not be possible to follow them in a
+direction the reverse of that taken by the diamonds themselves until we
+arrive at the point from which each diamond started upon its journey.
+If we succeed in this we shall learn whether they have a common home,
+or whether they were formed in regions more or less widely separated.
+From the great rarity of diamonds in Nature it would seem that the
+hypothesis of a common home is the more probable, and this view finds
+confirmation in the fact that certain marks of "consanguinity" have
+been observed upon the stones already found.
+
+[Illustration: FOUR VIEWS OF THE BURLINGTON DIAMOND (a little over two
+carats); enlarged about three diameters. (Owned by Bunde and Upmeyer,
+Milwaukee.)]
+
+Not only did the ice mantle register its advance in the great ridge
+of morainic material which we know as the "kettle moraine," but it
+has engraved upon the ledges of rock over which it has ridden, in a
+simple language of lines and grooves, the direction of its movement,
+after first having planed away the disintegrated portions of the rock
+to secure a smooth and lasting surface. As the same ledges have been
+overridden more than once, and at intervals widely separated, they
+are often found, palimpsestlike, with recent characters superimposed
+upon earlier, partly effaced, and nearly illegible ones. Many of
+the scattered leaves of this record have, however, been copied by
+geologists, and the autobiography of the ice is now read from maps
+which give the direction of its flow, and allow the motion of the ice
+as a whole, as well as that of each of its parts, to be satisfactorily
+studied. Recent studies by Canadian geologists have shown that one of
+the highest summits of the ice cap must have been located some distance
+west of Hudson Bay, and that another, the one which glaciated the lake
+region, was in Labrador, to the east of the same body of water. From
+these points the ice moved in spreading fans both northward toward the
+Arctic Ocean and southward toward the States, and always approached the
+margins at the moraines in a direction at right angles to their extent.
+Thus the rock material transported by the ice was spread out in a great
+fan, which constantly extended its boundaries as it advanced.
+
+The evidence from the Oregon, Eagle, and Kohlsville stones, which
+were located on the moraine of the Green Bay glacier, is that their
+home, in case they had a common one, is between the northeastern
+corner of the State of Wisconsin and the eastern summit of the ice
+mantle--a narrow strip of country of great extent, but yet a first
+approximation of the greatest value. If we assume, further, that the
+Saukville, Burlington, and Dowagiac stones, which were found on the
+moraine of the Lake Michigan glacier, have the same derivation, their
+common home may confidently be placed as far to the northeast as
+the wilderness beyond the Great Lakes, since the Green Bay and Lake
+Michigan glaciers coalesced in that region. The small stones found at
+Plum Creek, Wisconsin, and the Cincinnati stone, if the locations of
+their discovery be taken into consideration, still further circumscribe
+the diamond's home territory, since the lobes of the ice mass which
+transported them made a complete junction with the Green Bay and Lake
+Michigan lobes or glaciers considerably farther to the northward than
+the point of union of the latter glaciers themselves.
+
+[Illustration: THREE VIEWS OF A LEAD CAST OF THE MILFORD STONE (six
+carats); enlarged about three diameters.
+
+We are indebted to the courtesy of Prof. T. H. Norton, of the
+University of Cincinnati, for the above illustrations.]
+
+If, therefore, it is assumed that all the stones which have been found
+have a common origin, the conclusion is inevitable that the ancestral
+home must be in the wilderness of Canada between the points where the
+several tracks marking their migrations converge upon one another, and
+the former summit of the ice sheet. The broader the "fan" of their
+distribution, the nearer to the latter must the point be located.
+
+It is by no means improbable that when the barren territory about
+Hudson Bay is thoroughly explored a region for profitable diamond
+mining may be revealed, but in the meantime we may be sure that
+individual stones will occasionally be found in the new American homes
+into which they were imported long before the days of tariffs and ports
+of entry. Mother Nature, not content with lavishing upon our favored
+nation the boundless treasures locked up in her mountains, has robbed
+the territory of our Canadian cousins of the rich soils which she has
+unloaded upon our lake States, and of the diamonds with which she has
+sowed them.
+
+[Illustration: COMMON FORMS OF QUARTZ CRYSTALS.]
+
+[Illustration: COMMON FORMS OF DIAMONDS. The African stones most
+resemble the figure above at the left (octahedron). The Wisconsin
+stones most resemble the figure above at the right (dodecahedron).]
+
+The range of the present distribution of the diamonds, while perhaps
+not limited exclusively to the "kettle moraine," will, as the events
+have indicated, be in the main confined to it. This moraine, with
+its numerous subordinate ranges marking halting places in the final
+retreat of the ice, has now been located with sufficient accuracy by
+the geologists of the United States Geological Survey and others,
+approximately as entered upon the accompanying map. Within the
+territory of the United States the large number of observations of the
+rock scorings makes it clear that the ice of each lobe or glacier moved
+from the central portion toward the marginal moraines, which are here
+indicated by dotted bands. In the wilderness of Canada the observations
+have been rare, but the few data which have been gleaned are there
+represented by arrows pointed in the direction of ice movement.
+
+There is every encouragement for persons who reside in or near the
+marginal moraines to search in them for the scattered jewels, which
+may be easily identified and which have a large commercial as well as
+scientific value.
+
+The Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey is now interesting
+itself in the problem of the diamonds, and has undertaken the task of
+disseminating information bearing on the subject to the people who
+reside near the "kettle moraine." With the co-operation of a number of
+mineralogists who reside near this "diamond belt," it offers to make
+examination of the supposed gem stones which may be collected.
+
+The success of this undertaking will depend upon securing the
+co-operation of the people of the morainal belt. Wherever gravel
+ridges have there been opened in cuts it would be advisable to look
+for diamonds. Children in particular, because of their keen eyes and
+abundant leisure, should be encouraged to search for the clear stones.
+
+The serious defect in this plan is that it trusts to inexperienced
+persons to discover the buried diamonds which in the "rough" are
+probably unlike anything that they have ever seen. The first result of
+the search has been the collection of large numbers of quartz pebbles,
+which are everywhere present but which are entirely valueless. There
+are, however, some simple ways of distinguishing diamonds from quartz.
+
+Diamonds never appear in thoroughly rounded forms like ordinary
+pebbles, for they are too hard to be in the least degree worn by
+contact with their neighbors in the gravel bed. Diamonds always show,
+moreover, distinct forms of crystals, and these generally bear some
+resemblance to one of the forms figured. They are never in the least
+degree like crystals of quartz, which are, however, the ones most
+frequently confounded with them. Most of the Wisconsin diamonds have
+either twelve or forty-eight faces. Crystals of most minerals are
+bounded by plane surfaces--that is to say, their faces are flat--the
+diamond, however, is inclosed by distinctly curving surfaces.
+
+The one property of the diamond, however, which makes it easy of
+determination is its extraordinary hardness--greater than that of any
+other mineral. Put in simple language, the hardness of a substance
+may be described as its power to scratch other substances when drawn
+across them under pressure. To compare the hardness of two substances
+we should draw a sharp point of one across a surface of the other
+under a pressure of the fingers, and note whether a permanent scratch
+is left. The harder substances will always scratch the softer, and if
+both have the same hardness they may be made to mutually scratch each
+other. Since diamond, sapphire, and ruby are the only minerals which
+are harder than emery they are the only ones which, when drawn across a
+rough emery surface, will not receive a scratch. Any stone which will
+not take a scratch from emery is a gem stone and of sufficient interest
+to be referred to a competent mineralogist.
+
+The dissemination of information regarding the lake diamonds through
+the region of the moraine should serve the twofold purpose of
+encouraging search for the buried stones and of discovering diamonds
+in the little collections of "lucky stones" and local curios which
+accumulate on the clock shelves of country farmhouses. When it is
+considered that three of the largest diamonds thus far found in
+the region remained for periods of seven, eight, and sixteen years
+respectively in the hands of the farming population, it can hardly be
+doubted that many other diamonds have been found and preserved as local
+curiosities without their real nature being discovered.
+
+If diamonds should be discovered in the moraines of eastern Ohio, of
+western Pennsylvania, or of western New York, considerable light would
+thereby be thrown upon the problem of locating the ancestral home. More
+important than this, however, is the mapping of the Canadian wilderness
+to the southeastward and eastward of James Bay, in order to determine
+the direction of ice movement within the region, so that the _tracking_
+of the stones already found may be carried nearer their home. The
+Director of the Geological Survey of Canada is giving attention to this
+matter, and has also suggested that a study be made of the material
+found in association with the diamonds in the moraine, so that if
+possible its source may be discovered.
+
+With the discovery of new localities of these emigrant stones and the
+collection of data regarding the movement of the ice over Canadian
+territory, it will perhaps be possible the more accurately and
+definitely to circumscribe their home country, and as its boundaries
+are drawn closer and closer to pay this popular jewel a visit in its
+ancestral home, there to learn what we so much desire to know regarding
+its genesis and its life history.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+William Pengelly related, in one of his letters to his wife from the
+British Association, Oxford meeting, 1860, of Sedgwick's presidency
+of the Geological Section, that his opening address was "most
+characteristic, full of clever fun, most imperative that papers should
+be as brief as possible--about ten minutes, he thought--he himself
+amplifying marvelously." The next day Pengelly himself was about to
+read his paper, when "dear old Sedgwick wished it compressed. I replied
+that I would do what I could to please him, but did not know which to
+follow, his precept or example. The roar of laughter was deafening. Old
+Sedgwick took it capitally, and behaved much better in consequence."
+On the third day Pengelly went to committee, where, he says, "I found
+Sedgwick very cordial, took my address, and talks of paying me a
+visit."
+
+
+
+
+NEEDED IMPROVEMENTS IN THEATER SANITATION.
+
+BY WILLIAM PAUL GERHARD, C. E.,
+
+CONSULTING ENGINEER FOR SANITARY WORKS.
+
+
+Buildings for the representation of theatrical plays must fulfill
+three conditions: they must be (1) comfortable, (2) safe, and (3)
+healthful. The last requirement, of _healthfulness_, embraces the
+following conditions: plenty of pure air, freedom from draughts,
+moderate warming in winter, suitable cooling in summer, freedom at
+all times from dust, bad odors, and disease germs. In addition to the
+requirements for the theater audience, due regard should be paid to the
+comfort, healthfulness, and safety of the performers, stage hands, and
+mechanics, who are required to spend more hours in the stage part of
+the building than the playgoers.
+
+It is no exaggeration to state that in the majority of theater
+buildings disgracefully unsanitary conditions prevail. In the older
+existing buildings especially sanitation and ventilation are sadly
+neglected. The air of many theaters during a performance becomes
+overheated and stuffy, pre-eminently so in the case of theaters where
+illumination is effected by means of gaslights. At the end of a long
+performance the air is often almost unbearably foul, causing headache,
+nausea, and dizziness.
+
+In ill-ventilated theaters a chilly air often blows into the auditorium
+from the stage when the curtain is raised. This air movement is the
+cause of colds to many persons in the audience, and it is otherwise
+objectionable, for it carries with it noxious odors from the stage
+or under stage, and in gas-lighted theaters this air is laden with
+products of combustion from the footlights and other means of stage
+illumination.
+
+Attempts at ventilation are made by utilizing the heat due to the
+numerous flames of the central chandelier over the auditorium, to
+create an ascending draught, and thereby cause a removal of the
+contaminated air, but seldom is provision made for the introduction
+of fresh air from outdoors, hence the scheme of ventilation results
+in failure. In other buildings, openings for the introduction of pure
+air are provided under the seats or in the floor, but are often found
+stuffed up with paper because the audience suffered from draughts. The
+fear of draughts in a theater also leads to the closing of the few
+possibly available outside windows and doors. The plan of a theater
+building renders it almost impossible to provide outside windows,
+therefore "air flushing" during the day can not be practiced. In the
+case of the older theaters, which are located in the midst or rear of
+other buildings, the nature of the site precludes a good arrangement of
+the main fresh-air ducts for the auditorium.
+
+Absence of fresh air is not the only sanitary defect of theater
+buildings; there are many other defects and sources of air pollution.
+In the parts devoted to the audience, the carpeted floors become
+saturated with dirt and dust carried in by the playgoers, and with
+expectorations from careless or untidy persons which in a mixed theater
+audience are ever present. The dust likewise adheres to furniture,
+plush seats, hangings, and decorations, and intermingled with it are
+numerous minute floating organisms, and doubtless some germs of disease.
+
+Behind the curtain a general lack of cleanliness exists--untidy actors'
+toilet rooms, ill-drained cellars, defective sewerage, leaky drains,
+foul water closets, and overcrowded and poorly located dressing rooms
+into which no fresh air ever enters. The stage floor is covered with
+dust; this is stirred up by the frequent scene shifting or by the
+dancing of performers, and much of it is absorbed and retained by the
+canvas scenery.
+
+Under such conditions the state of health of both theater goers
+and performers is bound to suffer. Many persons can testify from
+personal experience to the ill effects incurred by spending a few
+hours in a crowded and unventilated theater; yet the very fact that
+the stay in such buildings is a brief one seems to render most people
+indifferent, and complaints are seldom uttered. It really rests with
+the theater-going public to enforce the much-needed improvements. As
+long as they will flock to a theater on account of some attractive play
+or "star actor," disregarding entirely the unsanitary condition of the
+building, so long will the present notoriously bad conditions remain.
+When the public does not call for reforms, theater managers and owners
+of playhouses will not, as a rule, trouble themselves about the matter.
+We have a right to demand theater buildings with less outward and
+inside gorgeousness, but in which the paramount subjects of comfort,
+safety, and health are diligently studied and generously provided
+for. Let the general public but once show a determined preference for
+sanitary conditions and surroundings in theaters and abandon visits to
+ill-kept theaters, and I venture to predict that the necessary reforms
+in sanitation will soon be introduced, at least in the better class
+of playhouses. In the cheaper theaters, concert and amusement halls,
+houses with "continuous" shows, variety theaters, etc., sanitation
+is even more urgently required, and may be readily enforced by a few
+visits and peremptory orders from the Health Board.
+
+When, a year ago, the writer, in a paper on Theater Sanitation
+presented at the annual meeting of the American Public Health
+Association, stated that "chemical analyses show the air in the dress
+circle and gallery of many a theater to be in the evening more foul
+than the air of street sewers," the statement was received by some of
+his critics with incredulity. Yet the fact is true of many theaters.
+Taking the amount of carbonic acid in the air as an indication of its
+contamination, and assuming that the organic vapors are in proportion
+to the amount of carbonic acid (not including the CO_{2} due to the
+products of illumination), we know that normal outdoor air contains
+from 0.03 to 0.04 parts of CO_{2} per 100 parts of air, while a few
+chemical analyses of the air in English theaters, quoted below, suffice
+to prove how large the contamination sometimes is:
+
+
+  Strand Theater, 10 P. M., gallery             0.101 parts CO_{2} per 100.
+  Surrey Theater, 10 P. M., boxes               0.111  "      "        "
+  Surrey Theater, 12 P. M., boxes               0.218  "      "        "
+  Olympia Theater, 11.30 P. M., boxes           0.082  "      "        "
+  Olympia Theater, 11.55 P. M.., boxes          0.101  "      "        "
+  Victoria Theater, 10 P. M., boxes             0.126  "      "        "
+  Haymarket Theater, 11.30 P. M., dress circle  0.076  "      "        "
+  City of London Theater, 11.15 P. M., pit      0.252  "      "        "
+  Standard Theater, 11 P. M., pit               0.320  "      "        "
+  Theater Royal, Manchester, pit                0.2734 "      "        "
+  Grand Theater, Leeds, pit                     0.150  "      "        "
+  Grand Theater, Leeds, upper circle            0.143  "      "        "
+  Grand Theater, balcony                        0.142  "      "        "
+  Prince's Theater, Manchester                  0.11-0.17     "        "
+
+  (Analyses made by Drs. Smith, Bernays, and De Chaumont.)
+
+
+Compare with these figures some analyses of the air of sewers. Dr.
+Russell, of Glasgow, found the air of a well-ventilated and flushed
+sewer to contain 0.051 vols. of CO_{2}. The late Prof. W. Ripley
+Nichols conducted many careful experiments on the amount of carbonic
+acid in the Boston sewers, and found the following averages, viz.,
+0.087, 0.082, 0.115, 0.107, 0.08, or much less than the above analyses
+of theater air showed. He states: "It appears from these examinations
+that the air even in a tide-locked sewer does not differ from the
+standard as much as many no doubt suppose."
+
+A comparison of the number of bacteria found in a cubic foot of air
+inside of a theater and in the street air would form a more convincing
+statement, but I have been unable to find published records of any
+such bacteriological tests. Nevertheless, we know that while the
+atmosphere contains some bacteria, the indoor air of crowded assembly
+halls, laden with floating dust, is particularly rich in living
+micro-organisms. This has been proved by Tyndall, Miquel, Frankland,
+and other scientists; and in this connection should be mentioned one
+point of much importance, ascertained quite recently, namely, that the
+air of sewers, contrary to expectation, is remarkably free from germs.
+An analysis of the air in the sewers under the Houses of Parliament,
+London, showed that the number of micro-organisms was much less than
+that in the atmosphere outside of the building.
+
+In recent years marked improvements in theater planning and equipment
+have been effected, and corresponding steps in advance have been
+made in matters relating to theater hygiene. It should therefore
+be understood that my remarks are intended to apply to the average
+theater, and in particular to the older buildings of this class. There
+are in large cities a few well-ventilated and hygienically improved
+theaters and opera houses, in which the requirements of sanitation
+are observed. Later on, when speaking more in detail of theater
+ventilation, instances of well-ventilated theaters will be mentioned.
+Nevertheless, the need of urgent and radical measures for comfort and
+health in the majority of theaters is obvious. Much is being done
+in our enlightened age to improve the sanitary condition of school
+buildings, jails and prisons, hospitals and dwelling houses. Why, I
+ask, should not our theaters receive some consideration?
+
+The efficient ventilation of a theater building is conceded to be an
+unusually difficult problem. In order to ventilate a theater properly,
+the causes of noxious odors arising from bad plumbing or defective
+drainage should be removed; outside fumes or vapors must not be
+permitted to enter the building either through doors or windows, or
+through the fresh-air duct of the heating apparatus. The substitution
+of electric lights in place of gas is a great help toward securing
+pure air. This being accomplished, a standard of purity of the air
+should be maintained by proper ventilation. This includes both the
+removal of the vitiated air and the introduction of pure air from
+outdoors and the consequent entire change of the air of a hall three
+or four times per hour. The fresh air brought into the building must
+be ample in volume; it should be free from contamination, dust and
+germs (particularly pathogenic microbes), and with this in view must in
+cities be first purified by filtering, spraying, or washing. It should
+be warmed in cold weather by passing over hot-water or steam-pipe
+stacks, and cooled in warm weather by means of ice or the brine of
+mechanical refrigerating machines. The air should be of a proper degree
+of humidity, and, what is most important of all, it should be admitted
+into the various parts of the theater imperceptibly, so as not to cause
+the sensation of draught; in other words, its velocity at the inlets
+must be very slight. The fresh air should enter the audience hall at
+numerous points so well and evenly distributed that the air will be
+equally diffused throughout the entire horizontal cross-section of the
+hall. The air indoors should have as nearly as possible the composition
+of air outdoors, an increase of the CO_{2} from 0.3 to 0.6 being the
+permissible limit. The vitiated air should be continuously removed by
+mechanical means, taking care, however, not to remove a larger volume
+of air than is introduced from outdoors.
+
+Regarding the amount of fresh outdoor air to be supplied to keep the
+inside atmosphere at anything like standard purity, authorities differ
+somewhat. The theoretical amount, 3,000 cubic feet per person per hour
+(50 cubic feet per minute), is made a requirement in the Boston theater
+law. In Austria, the law calls for 1,050 cubic feet. The regulations
+of the Prussian Minister of Public Works call for 700 cubic feet,
+Professor von Pettenkofer suggests an air supply per person of from
+1,410 to 1,675 cubic feet per hour (23 to 28 cubic feet per minute),
+General Morin calls for 1,200 to 1,500 cubic feet, and Dr. Billings, an
+American authority, requires 30 cubic feet per minute, or 1,800 cubic
+feet per hour. In the Vienna Opera House, which is described as one of
+the best-ventilated theaters in the world, the air supply is 15 cubic
+feet per person per minute. The Madison Square Theater, in New York, is
+stated to have an air supply of 25 cubic feet per person.
+
+In a moderately large theater, seating twelve hundred persons, the
+total hourly quantity of air to be supplied would, accordingly, amount
+to from 1,440,000 to 2,160,000 cubic feet. It is not an easy matter to
+arrange the fresh-air conduits of a size sufficient to furnish this
+volume of air; it is obviously costly to warm such a large quantity of
+air, and it is a still more difficult problem to introduce it without
+creating objectionable currents of air; and, finally, inasmuch as this
+air can not enter the auditorium unless a like amount of vitiated air
+is removed, the problem includes providing artificial means for the
+removal of large air volumes.
+
+Where gas illumination is used, each gas flame requires an additional
+air supply--from 140 to 280 cubic feet, according to General Morin.
+
+A slight consideration of the volumes of air which must be moved
+and removed in a theater to secure a complete change of air three
+or four times an hour, demonstrates the impossibility of securing
+satisfactory results by the so-called natural method of ventilation--i.
+e., the removal of air by means of flues with currents due either to
+the aspirating force of the wind or due to artificially increased
+temperature in the flues. It becomes necessary to adopt mechanical
+means of ventilation by using either exhaust fans or pressure blowers
+or both, these being driven either by steam engines or by electric
+motors. In the older theaters, which were lighted by gas, the heat of
+the flames could be utilized to a certain extent in creating ascending
+currents in outlet shafts, and this accomplished some air renewal. But
+nowadays the central chandelier is almost entirely dispensed with;
+glowing carbon lamps, fed by electric currents, replace the gas flames;
+hence mechanical ventilation seems all the more indicated.
+
+Two principal methods of theater ventilation may be arranged: in one
+the fresh air enters at or near the floor and rises upward to the
+ceiling, to be removed by suitable outlet flues; in this method the
+incoming air follows the naturally existing air currents; in the other
+method pure air enters at the top through perforated cornices or holes
+in the ceiling, and gradually descends, to be removed by outlets
+located at or near the floor line. The two systems are known as the
+"upward" and the "downward" systems; each of them has been successfully
+tried, each offers some advantages, and each has its advocates. In both
+systems separate means for supplying fresh air to the boxes, balconies,
+and galleries are required. Owing to the different opinions held by
+architects and engineers, the two systems have often been made the
+subject of inquiry by scientific and government commissions in France,
+England, Germany, and the United States.
+
+A French scientist, Darcet, was the first to suggest a scientific
+system of theater ventilation. He made use of the heat from the central
+chandelier for removing the foul air, and admitted the air through
+numerous openings in the floor and through inlets in the front of the
+boxes.
+
+Dr. Reid, an English specialist in ventilation, is generally regarded
+as the originator of the upward method in ventilation. He applied the
+same with some success to the ventilation of the Houses of Parliament
+in London. Here fresh air is drawn in from high towers, and is
+conducted to the basement, where it is sprayed and moistened. A part
+of the air is warmed by hot-water coils in a sub-basement, while part
+remains cold. The warm and the cold air are mixed in special mixing
+chambers. From here the tempered air goes to a chamber located directly
+under the floor of the auditorium, and passes into the hall at the
+floor level through numerous small holes in the floor. The air enters
+with low velocity, and to prevent unpleasant draughts the floor is
+covered in one hall with hair carpet and in the other with coarse hemp
+matting, both of which are cleaned every day. The removal of the foul
+air takes place at the ceiling, and is assisted by the heat from the
+gas flames.
+
+The French engineer Péclet, an authority on heating and ventilation,
+suggested a similar system of upward ventilation, but instead of
+allowing the foul air to pass out through the roof, he conducted it
+downward into an underground channel which had exhaust draught. Trélat,
+another French engineer, followed practically the same method.
+
+A large number of theaters are ventilated on the upward system. I will
+mention first the large Vienna Opera House, the ventilation of which
+was planned by Dr. Boehm. The auditorium holds about three thousand
+persons, and a fresh-air supply of about fifteen cubic feet per minute,
+or from nine hundred to one thousand cubic feet per hour, per person
+is provided. The fresh air is taken in from the gardens surrounding
+the theater and is conducted into the cellar, where it passes through
+a water spray, which removes the dust and cools the air in summer.
+A suction fan ten feet in diameter is provided, which blows the air
+through a conduit forty-five square feet in area into a series of three
+chambers located vertically over each other under the auditorium. The
+lowest of these chambers is the cold-air chamber; the middle one is the
+heating chamber and contains steam-heating stacks; the highest chamber
+is the mixing chamber. The air goes partly to the heating and partly
+to the mixing chamber; from this it enters the auditorium at the rate
+of one foot per second velocity through openings in the risers of the
+seats in the parquet, and also through vertical wall channels to the
+boxes and upper galleries. The total area of the fresh-air openings
+is 750 square feet. The foul air ascends, assisted by the heat of the
+central chandelier, and is collected into a large exhaust tube. The
+foul air from the gallery passes out through separate channels. In the
+roof over the auditorium there is a fan which expels the entire foul
+air. Telegraphic thermometers are placed in all parts of the house and
+communicate with the inspection room, where the engineer in charge of
+the ventilation controls and regulates the temperature.
+
+The Vienna Hofburg Theater was ventilated on the same system.
+
+The new Frankfort Opera House has a ventilation system modeled upon
+that of the Vienna Opera House, but with improvements in some details.
+The house has a capacity of two thousand people, and for each person
+fourteen hundred cubic feet of fresh air per hour are supplied. A fan
+about ten feet in diameter and making ninety to one hundred revolutions
+per minute brings in the fresh air from outdoors and drives it into
+chambers under the auditorium arranged very much like those at Vienna.
+The total quantity of fresh air supplied per hour is 2,800,000 cubic
+feet. The air enters the auditorium through gratings fixed above the
+floor level in the risers. The foul air is removed by outlets in the
+ceilings, which unite into a large vertical shaft below the cupola.
+An exhaust fan of ten feet diameter is placed in the cupola shaft,
+and is used for summer ventilation only. Every single box and stall
+is ventilated separately. The cost of the entire system was about one
+hundred and twenty-five thousand dollars; it requires a staff of two
+engineers, six assistant engineers, and a number of stokers.
+
+Among well-ventilated American theaters is the Madison Square Theater
+(now Hoyt's), in New York. Here the fresh air is taken down through a
+large vertical shaft on the side of the stage. There is a seven-foot
+suction fan in the basement which drives the air into a number of boxes
+with steam-heating stacks, from which smaller pipes lead to openings
+under each row of seats. The foul air escapes through openings in the
+ceiling and under the galleries. A fresh-air supply of 1,500 cubic feet
+per hour, or 25 cubic feet per minute, per person is provided.
+
+The Metropolitan Opera House is ventilated on the plenum system, and
+has an upward movement of air, the total air supply being 70,000 cubic
+feet per hour.
+
+In the Academy of Music, Baltimore, the fresh air is admitted mainly
+from the stage and the exits of foul air are in the ceiling at the
+auditorium.
+
+Other theaters ventilated by the upward method are the Dresden Royal
+Theater, the Lessing Theater in Berlin, the Opera House in Buda-Pesth,
+the new theater in Prague, the new Municipal Theater at Halle, and the
+Criterion Theatre in London.
+
+The French engineer General Arthur Morin is known as the principal
+advocate of the downward method of ventilation. This was at that
+time a radical departure from existing methods because it apparently
+conflicted with the well-known fact that heated air naturally rises.
+Much the same system was advocated by Dr. Tripier in a pamphlet
+published in 1864.[7] The earlier practical applications of this system
+to several French theaters did not prove as much of a success as
+anticipated, the failure being due probably to the gas illumination,
+the central chandelier, and the absence of mechanical means for
+inducing a downward movement of the air.
+
+[7] Dr. A. Tripier. Assainissement des Théâtres, Ventilation, Éclairage
+et Chauffage.
+
+In 1861 a French commission, of which General Morin was a member,
+proposed the reversing of the currents of air by admitting fresh air
+at both sides of the stage opening high up in the auditorium, and also
+through hollow floor channels for the balconies and boxes; in the
+gallery the openings for fresh air were located in the risers of the
+steppings. The air was exhausted by numerous openings under the seats
+in the parquet. This ventilating system was carried out at the Théâtre
+Lyrique, the Théâtre du Cirque, and the Théâtre de la Gaieté.
+
+Dr. Tripier ventilated a theater in 1858 with good success on a similar
+plan, but he introduced the air partly at the rear of the stage and
+partly in the tympanum in the auditorium. He removed the foul air
+at the floor level and separately in the rear of the boxes. He also
+exhausted the foul air from the upper galleries by special flues heated
+by the gas chandelier.
+
+The Grand Amphitheater of the Conservatory of Arts and Industries, in
+Paris, was ventilated by General Morin on the downward system. The
+openings in the ceiling for the admission of fresh air aggregated 120
+square feet, and the air entered with a velocity of only eighteen
+inches per second; the total air supply per hour was 630,000 cubic
+feet. The foul air was exhausted by openings in steps around the
+vertical walls, and the velocity of the outgoing air was about two and
+a half feet per second.
+
+The introduction of the electric light in place of gas gave a fresh
+impetus to the downward method of ventilation, and mechanical means
+also helped to dispel the former difficulties in securing a positive
+downward movement.
+
+The Chicago Auditorium is ventilated on this system, a part of the air
+entering from the rear of the stage, the other from the ceiling of the
+auditorium downward. This plan coincides with the proposition made in
+1846 by Morrill Wyman, though he admits that it can not be considered
+the most desirable method.
+
+A good example of the downward method is given by the New York Music
+Hall, which has a seating capacity of three thousand persons and
+standing room for one thousand more. Fresh air at any temperature
+desired is made to enter through perforations in or near the ceilings,
+the outlets being concealed by the decorations, and passes out through
+exhaust registers near the floor line, under the seats, through
+perforated risers in the terraced steps. About 10,000,000 cubic feet
+of air are supplied per hour, and the velocity of influx and efflux is
+one foot per second. The air supplied per person per hour is figured
+at 2,700 cubic feet, and the entire volume is changed from four and a
+half to five times per hour. The fresh air is taken in at roof level
+through a shaft of seventy square feet area. The air is heated by steam
+coils, and cooled in summer by ice. The mechanical plant comprises four
+blowers and three exhaust fans of six and seven feet in diameter.
+
+The downward method of ventilation was suggested in 1884 for the
+improvement of the ventilation of the Senate chamber and the chamber
+of the House of Representatives in the Capitol at Washington, but the
+system was not adopted by the Board of Engineers appointed to inquire
+into the methods.
+
+The downward method is also used in the Hall of the Trocadéro, Paris;
+in the old and also the new buildings for the German Parliament,
+Berlin; in the Chamber of Deputies, Paris; and others.
+
+Professor Fischer, a modern German authority on heating and
+ventilation, in a discussion of the relative advantages of the two
+methods, reaches the conclusion that both are practical and can be
+made to work successfully. For audience halls lighted by gaslights he
+considers the upward method as preferable.
+
+In arranging for the removal of foul air it is necessary, particularly
+in the downward system, to provide separate exhaust flues for the
+galleries and balconies. Unless this is provided for, the exhaled air
+of the occupants of the higher tiers would mingle with the descending
+current of pure air supplied to the occupants of the main auditorium
+floor.
+
+Mention should also be made of a proposition originating in Berlin
+to construct the roof of auditoriums domelike, by dividing it in
+the middle so that it can be partly opened by means of electric or
+hydraulic machinery; such a system would permit of keeping the ceiling
+open in summer time, thereby rendering the theater not only airy,
+but also free from the danger of smoke. A system based on similar
+principles is in actual use at the Madison Square Garden, in New York,
+where part of the roof consists of sliding skylights which in summer
+time can be made to open or close during the performance.
+
+From the point of view of safety in case of fire, which usually in
+a theater breaks out on the stage, it is without doubt best to have
+the air currents travel in a direction from the auditorium toward the
+stage roof. This has been successfully arranged in some of the later
+Vienna theaters, but from the point of view of good acoustics, it
+is better to have the air currents travel from the stage toward the
+auditorium. Obviously, it is a somewhat difficult matter to reconcile
+the conflicting requirements of safety from smoke and fire gases, good
+acoustics and perfect ventilation.
+
+The stage of a theater requires to be well ventilated, for often it
+becomes filled with smoke or gases due to firing of guns, colored
+lights, torches, representations of battles, etc. There should be in
+the roof over the stage large outlet flues, or sliding skylights,
+controlled from the stage for the removal of the smoke. These, in
+case of an outbreak of fire on the stage, become of vital importance
+in preventing the smoke and fire gases from being drawn into the
+auditorium and suffocating the persons in the gallery seats.
+
+Where the stage is lit with gaslights it is important to provide a
+separate downward ventilation for the footlights. This, I believe, was
+first successfully tried at the large Scala Theater, of Milan, Italy.
+
+The actors' and supers' dressing rooms, which are often overcrowded,
+require efficient ventilation, and other parts of the building, like
+the foyers and the toilet, retiring and smoking rooms, must not be
+overlooked.
+
+The entrance halls, vestibules, lobbies, staircases, and corridors
+do not need so much ventilation, but should be kept warm to prevent
+annoying draughts. They are usually heated by abundantly large direct
+steam or hot-water radiators, whereas the auditorium and foyers,
+and often the stage, are heated by indirect radiation. Owing to the
+fact that during a performance the temperature in the auditorium is
+quickly raised by contact of the warm fresh air with the bodies of
+persons (and by the numerous lights, when gas is used), the temperature
+of the incoming air should be only moderate. In the best modern
+theater-heating plants it is usual to gradually reduce the temperature
+of the air as it issues from the mixing chambers toward the end of the
+performance. Both the temperature and the hygrometric conditions of the
+air should be controlled by an efficient staff of intelligent heating
+engineers.
+
+But little need be said regarding theater lighting. Twice during the
+present century have the system and methods been changed. In the early
+part of the present century theaters were still lighted with tallow
+candles or with oil lamps. Next came what was at the time considered
+a wonderful improvement, namely, the introduction of gaslighting.
+The generation who can remember witnessing a theater performance by
+candle or lamp lights, and who experienced the excitement created
+when the first theater was lit up by gas, will soon have passed
+away. Scarcely twenty years ago the electric light was introduced,
+and there are to-day very few theaters which do not make use of this
+improved illuminant. It generates much less heat than gaslight, and
+vastly simplifies the problem of ventilation. The noxious products
+of combustion, incident to all other methods of illumination, are
+eliminated: no carbonic-acid gas is generated to render the air
+of audience halls irrespirable, and no oxygen is drawn to support
+combustion from the air introduced for breathing.
+
+It being now an established fact that the electric light increases the
+safety of human life in theaters and other places of amusement, its use
+is in many city or building ordinances made imperative--at least on
+the stage and in the main body of the auditorium. Stairs, corridors,
+entrances, etc., may, as a matter of precaution, be lighted by a
+different system, by means of either gas or auxiliary vegetable oil or
+candle lamps, protected by glass inclosures against smoke or draught,
+and provided with special inlet and outlet flues for air.
+
+Passing to other desirable internal improvements of theaters, I would
+mention first the floors of the auditorium. The covering of the floor
+by carpets is objectionable--in theaters more so even than in dwelling
+houses. Night after night the carpet comes in contact with thousands
+of feet, which necessarily bring in a good deal of street dirt and
+dust. The latter falls on the carpets and attaches to them, and as
+it is not feasible to take the carpets up except during the summer
+closing, a vast accumulation of dirt and organic matter results, some
+of the dirt falling through the crevices between the floor boards. Many
+theater-goers are not tidy in their habits regarding expectoration, and
+as there must be in every large audience some persons afflicted with
+tuberculosis, the danger is ever present of the germs of the disease
+drying on the carpet, and becoming again detached to float in the air
+which we are obliged to breathe in a theater.
+
+As a remedy I would propose abolishing carpets entirely, and using
+instead a floor covering of linoleum, or thin polished parquetry oak
+floors, varnished floors of hard wood, painted and stained floors,
+interlocked rubber-tile floors, or, at least for the aisles, encaustic
+or mosaic tiling. Between the rows of seats, as well as in the aisles,
+long rugs or mattings may be laid down loose, for these can be taken
+up without much trouble. They should be frequently shaken, beaten, and
+cleaned.
+
+Regarding the walls, ceilings, and cornices, the surfaces should be of
+a material which can be readily cleaned and which is non-absorbent.
+Stucco finish is unobjectionable, but should be kept flat, so as not to
+offer dust-catching projections. Oil painting of walls is preferable
+to a covering with rough wall papers, which hold large quantities
+of dust. The so-called "sanitary" or varnished wall papers have a
+smooth, non-absorbent, easily cleaned surface, and are therefore
+unobjectionable. All heavy decorations, draperies, and hangings in the
+boxes, and plush covers for railings, are to be avoided.
+
+The theater furniture should be of a material which does not catch or
+hold dust. Upholstered plush-covered chairs and seats retain a large
+amount of it, and are not readily cleaned. Leather-covered or other
+sanitary furniture, or rattan seats, would be a great improvement.
+
+In the stage building we often find four or five actors placed in
+one small, overheated, unventilated dressing room, located in the
+basement of the building, without outside windows, and fitted with
+three or four gas jets, for actors require a good light in "making
+up." More attention should be paid to the comfort and health of the
+players, more space and a better location should be given to their
+rooms. Every dressing room should have a window to the outer air, also
+a special ventilating flue. Properly trapped wash basins should be
+fitted up in each room. In the dressing rooms and in the corridors and
+stairs leading from them to the stage all draughts must be avoided,
+as the performers often become overheated from the excitement of the
+acting, and dancers in particular leave the heated stage bathed in
+perspiration. Sanitation, ventilation, and cleanliness are quite as
+necessary for this part of the stage building as for the auditorium and
+foyers.
+
+It will suffice to mention that defects in the drainage and sewerage
+of a theater building must be avoided. The well-known requirements
+of house drainage should be observed in theaters as much as in other
+public buildings.[8]
+
+[8] The reader will find the subject discussed and illustrated in the
+author's work, Sanitary Engineering of Buildings, vol. i, 1899.
+
+The removal of ashes, litter, sweepings, oily waste, and other refuse
+should be attended to with promptness and regularity. It is only by
+constant attention to properly carried out cleaning methods that such
+a building for the public can be kept in a proper sanitary condition.
+Floating air impurities, like dust and dirt, can not be removed or
+rendered innocuous by the most perfect ventilating scheme. Mingled with
+the dust floating in the auditorium or lodging in the stage scenery
+are numbers of bacteria or germs. Among the pathogenic germs will be
+those of tuberculosis, contained in the sputum discharged in coughing
+or expectorating. When this dries on the carpeted floor, the germs
+become readily detached, are inhaled by the playgoers, and thus become
+a prolific source of danger. It is for this reason principally that the
+processes of cleaning, sweeping, and dusting should in a theater be
+under intelligent management.
+
+To guard against the ever-present danger of infection by germs, the
+sanitary floor coverings recommended should be wiped every day with a
+moist rag or cloth. Carpeted floors should be covered with moist tea
+leaves or sawdust before sweeping to prevent the usual dust-raising.
+The common use of the feather duster is to be deprecated, for it only
+raises and scatters the dust, but it does not remove it. Dusting of
+the furniture should be done with a dampened dust cloth. The cleaning
+should include the hot-air registers, where a large amount of dust
+collects, which can only be removed by occasionally opening up the
+register faces and wiping out the pipe surfaces; also the baseboards
+and all cornice projections on which dust constantly settles. While
+dusting and sweeping, the windows should be opened; an occasional
+admission of sunlight, where practicable, would likewise be of the
+greatest benefit.
+
+The writer believes that a sanitary inspection of theater buildings
+should be instituted once a year when they are closed up in summer. He
+would also suggest that the granting of the annual license should be
+made dependent not only, as at present, upon the condition of safety
+of the building against fire and panic, but also upon its sanitary
+condition. In connection with the sanitary inspection, a thorough
+disinfection by sulphur, or better with formaldehyde gas, should be
+carried out by the health authorities. If necessary, the disinfection
+of the building should be repeated several times a year, particularly
+during general epidemics of influenza or pneumonia.
+
+Safety measures against outbreaks of fire, dangers from panic,
+accidents, etc., are in a certain sense also sanitary improvements, but
+can not be discussed here.[9]
+
+[9] See the author's work, Theater Fires and Panics, 1895.
+
+In order to anticipate captious criticisms, the writer would state
+that in this paper he has not attempted to set forth new theories, nor
+to advocate any special system of theater ventilation. His aim was
+to describe existing defects and to point out well-known remedies.
+The question of efficient theater sanitation belongs quite as much to
+the province of the sanitary engineer as to that of the architect.
+It is one of paramount importance--certainly more so than the purely
+architectural features of exterior and interior decoration.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+In presenting to the British Association the final report on the
+northwestern tribes of Canada, Professor Tylor observed that, while
+the work of the committee has materially advanced our knowledge of
+the tribes of British Columbia, the field of investigation is by no
+means exhausted. The languages are still known only in outlines. More
+detailed information on physical types may clear up several points
+that have remained obscure, and a fuller knowledge of the ethnology of
+the northern tribes seems desirable. Ethnological evidence has been
+collected bearing upon the history of the development of the area under
+consideration, but no archæological investigations, which would help
+materially in solving these problems, have been carried on.
+
+
+
+
+THE NEW FIELD BOTANY.
+
+BY BYRON D. HALSTED, Sc. D.,
+
+OF RUTGERS COLLEGE.
+
+
+There is something novel every day; were it not so this earth would
+grow monotonous to all, even as it does now to many, and chiefly
+because such do not have the opportunity or the desire to learn some
+new thing. Facts unknown before are constantly coming to the light, and
+principles are being deduced that serve as a stepping stone to other
+and broader fields of knowledge. So accustomed are we to this that
+even a new branch of science may dawn upon the horizon without causing
+a wonder in our minds. In this day of ologies the birth of a new one
+comes without the formal two-line notice in the daily press, just as
+old ones pass from view without tear or epitaph.
+
+_Phytoecology_ as a word is not long as scientific terms go, and the
+Greek that lies back of it barely suggests the meaning of the term, a
+fact not at all peculiar to the present instance. Of course, it has to
+do with plants, and is therefore a branch of botany.
+
+In one sense that which it stands for is not new, and, as usual, the
+word has come in the wake of the facts and principles it represents,
+and therefore becomes a convenient term for a branch of knowledge--a
+handle, so to say--by which that group of ideas may be held up for
+study and further growth. The word _ecology_ was first employed by
+Haeckel, a leading light in zoölogy in our day, to designate the
+environmental side of animal life.
+
+We will not concern ourselves with definitions, but discuss the field
+that the term is coined to cover, and leave the reader to formulate a
+short concise statement of its meaning.
+
+Within the last year a new botanical guide book for teachers has
+been published, of considerable originality and merit, in which
+the subject-matter is thrown into four groups, and one of these is
+Ecology. Another text-book for secondary schools is now before us in
+which ecology is the heading of one of the three parts into which the
+treatise is divided. The large output of the educational press at the
+present time along the line in hand suggests that the magazine press
+should sound the depths of the new branch of science that is pushing
+its way to the front, or being so pushed by its adherents, and echo the
+merits of it along the line.
+
+Botany in its stages of growth is interesting historically. It
+fascinated for a time one of the greatest minds in the modern school,
+and as a result we have the rich and fruitful history of the science
+as seen through eyes as great as Julius Sachs's, the master of botany
+during the last half century. From this work it can be gathered that
+early in the centuries since the Christian era botany was little more
+than herborizing--the collecting of specimens, and learning their gross
+parts, as size of stem and leaf and blossom.
+
+This branch of botany has been cultivated to the present day, and the
+result is the systematist, with all the refinements of species making
+and readjustment of genera and orders with the nicety of detail in
+specific descriptions that only a systematist can fully appreciate.
+
+Later on the study of function was begun, and along with it that of
+structure; for anatomy and physiology, by whatever terms they may be
+known, advance hand in hand, because inseparable. One worker may look
+more to the activities than another who toils with the structural
+relations and finds these problems enough for a lifetime.
+
+This botany of the dissecting table in contrast with that of the
+collector and his dried specimens grew apace, taking new leases of
+life at the uprising of new hypotheses, and long advances with the
+improvement of implements for work. It was natural that the cell and
+all that is made from it should invite the inspector to a field of
+intense interest, somewhat at the expense of the functions of the
+parts. In short, the field was open, the race was on, and it was a
+matter of self-restraint that a man did not enter and strive long and
+well for some anatomical prize. This branch of botany is still alive,
+and never more so than to-day, when cytology offers many attractive
+problems for the cytologist. What with his microtome that cuts his
+imbedded tissue into slices so thin that twenty-five hundred or more
+are needed to measure an inch in thickness, with his fixing solutions
+that kill instantly and hold each particle as if frozen in a cake of
+ice, and his stains and double stains that pick out the specks as the
+magnet draws iron filing from a bin of bran--with all these and a
+hundred more aids to the refinement of the art there is no wonder that
+the cell becomes a center of attraction, beyond the periphery of which
+the student can scarcely live. In our closing days of the century it
+may be known whether the blephroblasts arise antipodally, and whether
+they are a variation of the centrosomes or should be classed by
+themselves!
+
+One of the general views of phytoecology is that the forms of plants
+are modified to adapt them to the conditions under which they exist.
+Thus the size of a plant is greatly modified by the environment.
+Two grains of corn indistinguishable in themselves and borne by the
+same cob may be so situated that one grows into a stately stalk with
+the ear higher than a horse's head, while the other is a dwarf and
+unproductive. Below ground the conditions are many, and all subject
+to infinite variation. Thus, the soil may be deep or shallow, the
+particles small or large, the moisture abundant or scant, and the food
+elements close at hand or far to seek--all of which will have a marked
+influence upon the root system, its size, and form.
+
+Coming to the aërial portion, there are all the factors of weather and
+climate to work singly or in union to affect the above-ground structure
+of the plant. Temperature varies through wide ranges of heat and
+cold, scorching and freezing; while humidity or aridity, sunshine or
+cloudiness, prevailing winds or sudden tornadoes all have an influence
+in shaping the structure, developing the part, and fashioning the
+details of form of the aërial portions. Phytoecology deals with all
+these, and includes the consideration of that struggle for life that
+plants are constantly waging, for environment determines that the forms
+best suited to a given set of conditions will survive. This struggle
+has been going on since the vegetable life of the earth began, and as
+a result certain prevailing conditions have brought about groups of
+plants found as a rule only where these conditions prevail. As water
+is a leading factor in plant growth, a classification is made upon
+this basis into the plants of the arid regions called xerophytes. The
+opposite to desert vegetation is that of the fresh ponds and lakes,
+called hydrophytes. A third group, the halophytes, includes the
+vegetation of sea or land where there is an excess of various saline
+substances, the common salt being the leading one. The last group is
+the mesophytes, which include plants growing in conditions without the
+extremes accorded to the other three groups.
+
+This somewhat general classification of the conditions of the
+environment lends much of interest to that form of field botany now
+under consideration. As the grouping is made chiefly upon the aqueous
+conditions, it is fair to assume that plants are especially modified
+to accommodate themselves to this compound. Plants, for example,
+unless they are aquatics, need to use large quantities of water to
+carry on the vital functions. Thus the salts from the soil need to
+rise dissolved in the crude sap to the leaves, and in order that a
+sufficient current be kept up there is transpiration going on from
+all thin or soft exposed parts. The leaves are the chief organs where
+aqueous vapor is being given off, sometimes to the extent of tons of
+water upon an acre of area in a single day. This evaporation being
+largely surface action, it is possible for the plant to check this by
+reducing the surface, and the leaf is coiled or folded. Other plants
+have through the ages become adapted to the destructive actions of
+drought and a dry, hot atmosphere, and have only needle-shaped leaves
+or even no true ones at all, as many of the cacti in the desert lands
+of the Western plains.
+
+Again, the surface of the plant may become covered with a felt of fine
+hairs to prevent rapid evaporation, while other plants with ordinary
+foliage have the acquired power of moving the leaves so that they will
+expose their surfaces broadside to the sun, or contrariwise the edges
+only, as heat and light intensity determine.
+
+Phytoecology deals with all those adaptations of structure, and from
+which permit the plants to take advantage of the habits and wants of
+animals. If we are studying the vegetation of a bog, and note the
+adaptation of the hydrophytic plants, the chances are that attention
+will soon be called to colorations and structures that indicate a more
+complete and far-reaching adjustment than simply to the conditions of
+the wet, spongy bog. A plant may be met with having the leaves in the
+form of flasks or pitchers, and more or less filled with water. These
+strange leaves are conspicuously purplish, and this adds to their
+attractiveness. The upper portion may be variegated, resembling a
+flower and for the same purpose--namely, to attract insects that find
+within the pitchers a food which is sought at the risk of life. Many
+of the entrapped creatures never escape, and yield up their life for
+the support of that of the captor. Again, the mossy bog may glisten
+in the sun, and thousands of sundew plants with their pink leaves are
+growing upon the surface. Each leaf is covered with adhesive stalked
+glands, and insects lured to and caught by them are devoured by this
+insectivorous vegetation.
+
+In the pools in the same lowland there may be an abundance of the
+bladderwort, a floating plant with flowers upon long stalks that raise
+them into the air and sunshine. With the leaves reduced to a mere
+framework that bears innumerable bladders, water animals of small
+size are captured in vast numbers and provide a large part of the
+nourishment required by the highly specialized hydrophyte.
+
+These are but everyday instances of adaptation between plants and
+animals for the purpose of nutrition, the adjustment of form being
+more particularly upon the vegetative side. Zoölogists may be able to
+show, however, that certain species of animals are adapted to and quite
+dependent upon the carnivorous plants.
+
+An ecological problem has been worked out along the above line to a
+larger extent than generally supposed. If we should take the case of
+ants only in their relation to structural adaptations for them in
+plants, it would be seen that fully three thousand species of the
+latter make use of ants for purposes of protection. The large fighting
+ants of the tropics, when provided with nectar, food, and shelter,
+will inhabit plants to the partial exclusion of destructive insects
+and larger foraging animals. Interesting as all this is, it is not the
+time and place to go into the details of how the ant-fostering plants
+have their nectar glands upon stems or leaf, rich soft hairs in tufts
+for food, and homes provided in hollows and chambers. There is still a
+more intimate association of termites with some of the toadstool-like
+plants, where the ants foster the fungi and seem to understand some of
+the essentials of veritable gardening in miniature form.
+
+The most familiar branch of phytoecology, as it concerns adaptations
+for insect visitations, is that which relates to the production of
+seed. Floral structures, so wonderfully varied in form and color and
+withal attractive to every lover of the beautiful, are familiar to all,
+and it only needs to be said in passing that these infinite forms are
+for the same end--namely, the union of the seed germs, if they may be
+so styled, of different and often widely separated blossoms.
+
+Sweetness and beauty are not the invariable rule with insect-visited
+blossoms, for in the long ages that have elapsed during which these
+adaptations have come about some plants have established an unwritten
+agreement between beetles and bugs with unsavory tastes. Thus there are
+the "carrion flowers," so called because of their fetid odor, designed
+for the sense organs of carrion insects. The "stink-horn" fungi have
+their offensive spores distributed by a similar set of carrion carriers.
+
+Water and wind claim a share of the species, but here adaptation to
+the method of fertilization is as fully realized as when insects
+participate, and the uselessness of showy petals and fantastic forms is
+emphasized by their absence.
+
+Coming now to the fruits of plants, it is again seen that plants have
+adapted their offspring, the seed, to the surrounding conditions,
+not forgetting the wind, the waves, and the tastes and the exterior
+of passing animals. The breezes carry up and hurl along the light
+wing-possessed seeds, and the river and ocean bear these and many
+others onward to a distant land, while by grappling hooks many kinds
+cling to the hair of animals, or, provided with a pleasing pulp, are
+carried willingly by birds and other creatures. In short, the devices
+for seed dispersion are multitudinous, and they provide a large chapter
+in that branch of botany now styled phytoecology.
+
+How different is the old field botany from the new! Then there was the
+collector of plants and classifier of his finds, and an arranger of all
+he could get by exchange or otherwise. His success was measured by the
+size of his herbarium and his stock in trade as so many duplicates
+all taken in bloom, but the time of year, locality, and the various
+conditions of growth were all unknown.
+
+His implements for work were, first, a can or basket, a plant press,
+and a manual; and, secondly, a lot of paper, a paste pot, and some way
+of holding the mounts in packets or pigeonholes.
+
+The eyes grew keen as the hunter scoured the forest and field for some
+kind of plant he had not already possessed. There was a keen relish in
+discoveries, and it heightened into ecstasy when the specimen needed
+to be sent away for a name and was returned with his own Latinized and
+appended to that of the genus.
+
+This was all well and good so far as it went, but looked at from the
+present vantage ground there was not so much in it. However, his was an
+essential step to other things, as much so as that of the census taker.
+
+We need to know the species of plants our fair land possesses, and have
+them described and named. But when the nine hundred and ninety-nine
+are known, it is a waste of time to be continually hunting for the
+thousandth. Look for it, but let it be secondary to that of an actual
+study of the great majority already known. The older botany was a study
+of the dried plants in all those details that are laid down in the
+manuals. It lacked something of the true vitality that is inherent in a
+biological science, for often the life had gone out before the subject
+came up for study. To the phytoecologist it was somewhat as the shell
+without the meat, or the bird's nest of a previous year.
+
+Since those days of our forefathers there has come the minute anatomy
+of plants, followed closely by physiology; and now with the working
+knowledge of these two modern branches of botany the student has
+again taken to the field. He is making the wood-lot his laboratory,
+and the garden, so to say, his lecture room. He has a fair knowledge
+of systematic botany, but finds himself rearranging the families
+and genera to fit the facts determined by his ecological study. If
+two species of the same genus are widely separated in habitat, he
+is determining the factors that led to the separation. Why did one
+smart weed become a climber, another an upright herb, and a third a
+prostrate creeper, are questions that may not have entered the mind of
+the plant collector; but now the phytoecologist finds much interest in
+considering questions of this type. What are the differences between
+a species inhabiting the water and another of the same genus upon dry
+land, or what has led one group of the morning-glory family to become
+parasites and exist as the dodders upon other living plants?
+
+The older botanist held his subject under the best mental illumination
+of his time, but his physical light, that of a pine knot or a tallow
+dip, also contrasts strongly with that of the present gas jet and
+electric arc.
+
+The wonder should be that he saw so well, and all who follow him can
+not but feel grateful for the path he blazed through the dense forests
+of ignorance and the bridges he made over the streams of doubt in
+specific distinctions. It was a noble work, but it is nearly past in
+the older parts of our country; and while some of that school should
+linger to readjust their genera, make new combinations of species,
+and attempt to satisfy the claims of priority, the rank and file will
+largely leave systematic botany and the herborizing it embraces, and
+betake themselves to the open fields of phytoecology. It may be along
+the line of structural adaptations when we will have morphological
+phytoecology, or the adjustment of function to the environment when
+there will be physiological phytoecology. These two branches when
+combined to elucidate problems of relationship between the plant and
+its surroundings as involved in accommodation in its comprehensive
+sense there will be phytoecology with climate, geology, geography, or
+fossils as the leading feature, as the case may be.
+
+In the older botany the plant alone in itself was the subject of study.
+The newer botany takes the plant in its surroundings and all that its
+relationships to other plants may suggest as the subject for analysis.
+In the one case the plant was all and its place of growth accidental,
+a dried specimen from any unknown habitat was enough; but now the
+environment and the numerous lines of relationship that reach out from
+the living plant _in situ_ are the major subjects for study. The former
+was field botany because the field contained the plant, the latter is
+field botany in that the plant embraces in its study all else in the
+field in which it lives. The one had as its leading question, What is
+your name and where do you belong in my herbarium? while the other
+raises an endless list of queries, of which How came you here and when?
+Why these curious glands and this strange movement or mimicry? are but
+average samples. Every spot of color, bend of leaf, and shape of fruit
+raises a question.
+
+The collector of fifty years ago pulled up or cut off a portion of
+his plant for a specimen, and rarely measured, weighed, and counted
+anything about it. The phytoecologist to-day watches his subject as
+it grows, and if removed it is for the purpose of testing its vital
+functions under varying circumstances of moisture, heat, or sunlight,
+and exact recording instruments are a part of the equipment for the
+investigation.
+
+The underlying thought in the seashore school and the tropical
+laboratory in botany is this of getting nearer to the haunts of the
+living plant. Forestry schools that have for their class room the
+wooded mountains and the botanical gardens with their living herbaria
+are welcome steps toward the same end of phytoecology.
+
+In view of the above facts, and many more that might be mentioned did
+space permit, the writer has felt that the present incomplete and
+faulty presentation of the subject of the newer botany should be placed
+before the great reading public through the medium of a journal that
+has as its watchword Progress in Education.
+
+
+
+
+DO ANIMALS REASON?
+
+BY THE REV. EGERTON R. YOUNG.
+
+
+This interesting subject has been ably handled from the negative side
+by Edward Thorndike, Ph. D., in the August number of the Popular
+Science Monthly. Dr. Thorndike, with all his skill in treating this
+very interesting subject, seems to have forgotten one very important
+point. His expectation has not only been higher than any fair claim of
+an animal's reasoning power, but he has overlooked the fact that there
+are different ways of reasoning. Men of different races and those of
+little intelligence can be placed in new environments and be asked to
+perform things which, while utterly impossible to them, are simple and
+crude to those of higher intelligence and who have all their days been
+accustomed to high mental exercise. If such difference exists between
+the highest and most intelligent of the human race and the degraded
+and uncultured, vastly greater is the gulf that separates the lowest
+stratum of humanity from the most intelligent of the brute creation.
+The fair way to test the intelligence of the so-called lower orders
+of men is to go to their native lands and study them in their own
+environments and in possession of the equipments of life to which they
+have been accustomed. The same is true of the brute creation. Only
+the highest results can be expected from congenial environments. To
+pass final judgment upon the animal kingdom, having for data only the
+results of the doctor's experiments, seems to us manifestly unfair.
+He takes a few cats and dogs and submits them to environments which
+are altogether foreign to them, and then expects feats of mind from
+them which would be far greater than the mastering of the reason why
+two and two make four is to the stupidest child of man. As the doctor
+has been permitted to tell the results of his experiments, may I claim
+a similar privilege? While I did not use dogs merely to test their
+intelligence--my business demanding of myself and them the fullest use
+of all our energies and all the intelligence, be it more or less, that
+was possessed by man or beast--I had the privilege of seeing in my dogs
+actions that were, at least to me, convincing that they possessed the
+rudiments of reasoning powers, and, in the more intelligent, that which
+will be utterly inexplicable if it is not the product of reasoning
+faculties.
+
+For a number of years I was a resident missionary in the Hudson Bay
+Territories, where, in the prosecution of my work, I kept a large
+number of dogs of various breeds. With these dogs I traveled several
+thousands of miles every winter over an area larger than the State of
+New York. In summer I used them to plow my garden and fields. They
+dragged home our fish from the distant fisheries, and the wood from the
+forests for our numerous fires. They cuddled around me on the edges of
+my heavy fur robes in wintry camps, where we often slept out in a hole
+dug in the snow, the temperature ranging from 30° to 60° below zero.
+When blizzard storms raged so terribly that even the most experienced
+Indian guides were bewildered, and knew not north from south or east
+from west, our sole reliance was on our dogs, and with an intelligence
+and an endurance that ever won our admiration they succeeded in
+bringing us to our desired destination.
+
+It is conceded at the outset that these dogs of whom I write were the
+result of careful selection. There are dogs and dogs, as there are
+men and men. They were not picked up in the street at random. I would
+no more keep in my personal service a mere average mongrel dog than I
+would the second time hire for one of my long trips a sulky Indian. As
+there are some people, good in many ways, who can not master a foreign
+tongue, so there are many dogs that never rise above the one gift of
+animal instinct. With such I too have struggled, and long and patiently
+labored, and if of them only I were writing I would unhesitatingly say
+that of them I never saw any act which ever seemed to show reasoning
+powers. But there are other dogs than these, and of them I here would
+write and give my reason why I firmly believe that in a marked degree
+some of them possessed the powers of reasoning.
+
+Two of my favorite dogs I called Jack and Cuffy. Jack was a great black
+St. Bernard, weighing nearly two hundred pounds. Cuffy was a pure
+Newfoundland, with very black curly hair. These two dogs were the gift
+of the late Senator Sanford. With other fine dogs of the same breeds,
+they soon supplanted the Eskimo and mongrels that had been previously
+used for years about the place.
+
+[Illustration: JACK AND HIS MASTER.]
+
+I had so much work to do in my very extensive field that I required to
+have at least four trains always fit for service. This meant that,
+counting puppies and all, there would be about the premises from twenty
+to thirty dogs. However, as the lakes and rivers there swarmed with
+fish, which was their only food, we kept the pack up to a state of
+efficiency at but little expense. Jack and Cuffy were the only two dogs
+that were allowed the full liberty of the house. They were welcome in
+every room. Our doors were furnished with the ordinary thumb latches.
+These latches at first bothered both dogs. All that was needed on our
+part was to show them how they worked, and from that day on for years
+they both entered the rooms as they desired without any trouble, if
+the doors opened from them. There was a decided difference, however,
+in opening a door if it opened toward them. Cuffy was never able to
+do it. With Jack it was about as easily done as it was by the Indian
+servant girl. Quickly and deftly would he shove up the exposed latch
+and the curved part of the thumb piece and draw it toward him. If the
+door did not easily open, the claws in the other fore paw speedily
+and cleverly did the work. The favorite resting place of these two
+magnificent dogs was on some fur rugs on my study floor. Several times
+have we witnessed the following action in Cuffy, who was of a much more
+restless temperament than Jack: When she wanted to leave the study she
+would invariably first go to the door and try it. If it were in the
+slightest degree ajar she could easily draw it toward her and thus
+open it. If, on the contrary, it were latched, she would at once march
+over to Jack, and, taking him by an ear with her teeth, would lead him
+over to the door, which he at once opened for her. If reason is that
+power by which we "are enabled to combine means for the attainment of
+particular ends," I fail to understand the meaning of words if it were
+not displayed in these instances.
+
+Both Jack and Cuffy were, as is characteristic of such dogs, very fond
+of the water, and in our short, brilliant summers would frequently
+disport themselves in the beautiful little lake, the shores of which
+were close to our home. Cuffy, as a Newfoundland dog, generally
+preferred to continue her sports in the waves some time after Jack had
+finished his bath. As they were inseparable companions, Jack was too
+loyal to retire to the house until Cuffy was ready to accompany him.
+As she was sometimes whimsical and dilatory, she seemed frequently to
+try his patience. It was, however, always interesting to observe his
+deference to her. To understand thoroughly what we are going to relate
+in proof of our argument it is necessary to state that the rocky shore
+in front of our home was at this particular place like a wedge, the
+thickest part in front, rising up about a dozen feet or so abruptly
+from the water. Then to the east the shore gradually sloped down into
+a little sandy cove. When Jack had finished his bath he always swam
+to this sandy beach, and at once, as he shook his great body, came
+gamboling along the rocks, joyously barking to his companion still in
+the waters. When Cuffy had finished her watery sports, if Jack were
+still on the rocks, instead of swimming to the sandy cove and there
+landing she would start directly for the place where Jack was awaiting
+her. If it were at a spot where she could not alone struggle up, Jack,
+firmly bracing himself, would reach down to her and then, catching hold
+of the back of her neck, would help her up the slippery rocks. If it
+were at a spot where he could not possibly reach her, he would, after
+several attempts, all the time furiously barking as though expressing
+his anxiety and solicitude, rush off to a spot where some old oars,
+paddles, and sticks of various kinds were piled. There he searched
+until he secured one that suited his purpose. With this in his mouth,
+he hurried back to the spot where Cuffy was still in the water at the
+base of the steep rocks. Here he would work the stick around until he
+was able to let one end down within reach of his exacting companion in
+the water. Seizing it in her teeth and with the powerful Jack pulling
+at the other end she was soon able to work her way up the rough but
+almost perpendicular rocks. This prompt action, often repeated on
+the part of Jack, looked very much like "the specious appearance of
+reasoning." It was a remarkable coincidence that if Jack were called
+away, Cuffy at once swam to the sandy beach and there came ashore.
+
+Jack never had any special love for the Indians, although we were then
+living among them. He was, however, too well instructed ever to injure
+or even growl at any of them. The changing of Indian servant girls in
+the kitchen was always a matter of perplexity to him. He was suspicious
+of these strange Indians coming in and so familiarly handling the
+various utensils of their work. Not daring to injure them, it was
+amusing to watch him in his various schemes to tease them. If one of
+them seemed especially anxious to keep the doors shut, Jack took the
+greatest delight in frequently opening them. This he took care only
+to do when no member of the family was around. These tricks he would
+continue to do until formal complaints were lodged against him. One
+good scolding was sufficient to deter him from thus teasing that girl,
+but he would soon begin to try it with others.
+
+One summer we had a fat, good-natured servant girl whom we called
+Mary. Soon after she was installed in her place Jack began, as usual,
+to try to annoy her, but found it to be a more difficult job than it
+had been with some of her predecessors. She treated him with complete
+indifference, and was not in the least afraid of him, big as he was.
+This seemed to very much humiliate him, as most of the other girls had
+so stood in awe of the gigantic fellow that they had about given way to
+him in everything. Mary, however, did nothing of the kind. She would
+shout, "Get out of my way!" as quickly to "his mightiness" as she would
+to the smallest dog on the place. This very much offended Jack, but he
+had been so well trained, even regarding the servants, that he dare not
+retaliate even with a growl. Mary, however, had one weakness, and after
+a time Jack found it out. Her mistress observing that this girl, who
+had been transferred from a floorless wigwam into a civilized kitchen,
+was at first careless about keeping the floor as clean as it should be,
+had, by the promise of some desired gift in addition to her wages, so
+fired her zeal that it seemed as though every hour that could be saved
+from her other necessary duties was spent in scrubbing that kitchen
+floor. Mary was never difficult to find, as was often the case with
+other Indian girls; if missed from other duties, she was always found
+scrubbing her kitchen.
+
+In some way or other--how we do not profess to know--Jack discovered
+this, which had become to us a source of amusement, and here he
+succeeded in annoying her, where in many other ways which he had tried
+he had only been humiliated and disgraced. He would, when the floor
+had just been scrubbed, march in and walk over it with his feet made
+as dirty as tramping in the worst places outside could make them. At
+other times he would plunge into the lake, and instead of, as usual,
+thoroughly shaking himself dry on the rocks, would wait until he had
+marched in upon Mary's spotless floor. At other times, when Jack
+noticed that Mary was about to begin scrubbing her floor he would
+deliberately stretch himself out in a prominent place on it, and
+doggedly resist, yet without any growling or biting, any attempt on her
+part to get him to move. In vain would she coax or scold or threaten.
+Once or twice, by some clever stratagem, such as pretending to feed
+the other dogs outside or getting them excited and furiously barking,
+as though a bear or some other animal were being attacked, did she
+succeed in getting him out. But soon he found her out, and then he paid
+not the slightest attention to any of these things. Once when she had
+him outside she securely fastened the door to keep him out until her
+scrubbing would be done. Furiously did Jack rattle at the latch, but
+the door was otherwise so secured that he could not open it. Getting
+discouraged in his efforts to open the door in the usual way, he went
+to the woodpile and seizing a large billet in his mouth he came and so
+pounded the door with it that Mary, seeing that there was great danger
+of the panel being broken in, was obliged to open the door and let in
+the dog. Jack proudly marched in to the kitchen with the stick of wood
+in his mouth. This he carried to the wood box, and, when he had placed
+it there, he coolly stretched himself out on the floor where he would
+be the biggest nuisance.
+
+Seeing Jack under such circumstances on her kitchen floor, poor Mary
+could stand it no longer, and so she came marching in to my study, and
+in vigorous picturesque language in her native Cree described Jack's
+various tricks and schemes to annoy her and thus hinder her in her
+work. She ended up by the declaration that she was sure the _meechee
+munedoo_ (the devil) was in that dog. While not fully accepting the
+last statement, we felt that the time had come to interfere, and
+that Jack must be reproved and stopped. In doing this we utilized
+Jack's love for our little ones, especially for Eddie, the little
+four-year-old boy. His obedience as well as loyalty to that child was
+marvelous and beautiful. The slightest wish of the lad was law to Jack.
+
+As soon as Mary had finished her emphatic complaints, I turned to
+Eddie, who with his little sister had been busily playing with some
+blocks on the floor, and said:
+
+"Eddie, go and tell that naughty Jack that he must stop teasing Mary.
+Tell him his place is not in the kitchen, and that he must keep out of
+it."
+
+Eddie had listened to Mary's story, and, although he generally sturdily
+defended Jack's various actions, yet here he saw that the dog was in
+the wrong, and so he gallantly came to her rescue. Away with Mary he
+went, while the rest of us, now much interested, followed in the rear
+to see how the thing would turn out. As Eddie and Mary passed through
+the dining room we remained in that room, while they went on into the
+adjoining kitchen, leaving the door open, so that it was possible for
+us to distinctly hear every word that was uttered. Eddie at once strode
+up to the spot where Jack was stretched upon the floor. Seizing him by
+one of his ears, and addressing him as with the authority of a despot,
+the little lad said:
+
+"I am ashamed of you, Jack. You naughty dog, teasing Mary like this!
+So you won't let her wash her kitchen. Get up and come with me, you
+naughty dog!" saying which the child tugged away at the ear of the dog.
+Jack promptly obeyed, and as they came marching through the dining room
+on their way to the study it was indeed wonderful to see that little
+child, whose beautiful curly head was not much higher than that of the
+great, powerful dog, yet so completely the master. Jack was led into
+the study and over to the great wolf-robe mat where he generally slept.
+As he promptly obeyed the child's command to lie down upon it, he
+received from him his final orders:
+
+"Now, Jack, you keep out of the kitchen"; and to a remarkable degree
+from that time on that order was obeyed.
+
+We have referred to the fact that Jack placed the billet of wood in the
+wood box when it had served his purpose in compelling Mary to open the
+door. Carrying in wood was one of his accomplishments. Living in that
+cold land, where we depended entirely on wood for our fuel, we required
+a large quantity of it. It was cut in the forests, sometimes several
+miles from the house. During the winters it was dragged home by the
+dogs. Here it was cut into the proper lengths for the stoves and piled
+up in the yard. When required, it was carried into the kitchen and
+piled up in a large wood box. This work was generally done by Indian
+men. When none were at hand the Indian girls had to do the work, but
+it was far from being enjoyed by them, especially in the bitter cold
+weather. It was suggested one day that Jack could be utilized for this
+work. With but little instruction and trouble he was induced to accept
+of the situation, and so after that the cry, "Jack, the wood box is
+empty!" would set him industriously to work at refilling it.
+
+To us, among many other instances of dog reasoning that came under
+our notice as the years rolled on, was one on the part of a large,
+powerful dog we called Cæsar. It occurred in the spring of the year,
+when the snow had melted on the land, and so, with the first rains, was
+swelling the rivers and creeks very considerably. On the lake before us
+the ice was still a great solid mass, several feet in thickness. Near
+our home was a now rapid stream that, rushing down into the lake, had
+cut a delta of open water in the ice at its mouth. In this open place
+Papanekis, one of my Indians, had placed a gill net for the purpose of
+catching fish. Living, as he did, all winter principally upon the fish
+caught the previous October or November and kept frozen for several
+months hung up in the open air, we were naturally pleased to get the
+fresh ones out of the water in the spring. Papanekis had so arranged
+his net, by fastening a couple of ropes about sixty feet long, one at
+each end, that when it was securely fastened at each side of the stream
+it was carried out into this open deltalike space by the force of the
+current, and there hung like the capital letter U. Its upper side was
+kept in position by light-wooded floats, while medium-sized stones, as
+sinkers, steadied it below.
+
+Every morning Papanekis would take a basket and, being followed by
+all the dogs of the kennels, would visit his net. Placed as we have
+described, he required no canoe or boat in order to overhaul it and
+take from it the fish there caught. All he had to do was to seize hold
+of the rope at the end fastened on the shore and draw it toward him. As
+he kept pulling it in, the deep bend in it gradually straightened out
+until the net was reached. His work was now to secure the fish as he
+gradually drew in the net and coiled it at his feet. The width of the
+opening in the water being about sixty feet, the result was that when
+he had in this way overhauled his net he had about reached the end of
+the rope attached to the other side. When all the fish in the net were
+secured, all Papanekis had to do to reset the net was to throw some
+of it out in the right position in the stream. Here the force of the
+running waters acting upon it soon carried the whole net down into the
+open place as far as the two ropes fastened on the shores would admit.
+Papanekis, after placing the best fish in his basket for consumption
+in the mission house and for his own family, divided what was left
+among the eager dogs that had accompanied him. This work went on for
+several days, and the supply of fish continued to increase, much to our
+satisfaction.
+
+One day Papanekis came into my study in a state of great perturbation.
+He was generally such a quiet, stoical sort of an Indian that I was at
+once attracted by his mental disquietude. On asking the reason why he
+was so troubled, he at once blurted out, "Master, there is some strange
+animal visiting our net!"
+
+In answer to my request for particulars, he replied that for some
+mornings past when he went to visit it he found, entangled in the
+meshes, several heads of whitefish. Yet the net was always in its right
+position in the water. On my suggesting that perhaps otters, fishers,
+minks, or other fish-eating animals might have done the work, he most
+emphatically declared that he knew the habits of all these and all
+other animals living on fish, and it was utterly impossible for any of
+them to have thus done this work. The mystery continuing for several
+following mornings, Papanekis became frightened and asked me to get
+some other fisherman in his place, as he was afraid longer to visit the
+net. He had talked the matter over with some other Indians, and they
+had come to the conclusion that either a _windegoo_ was at the bottom
+of it or the _meechee munedoo_ (the devil). I laughed at his fears,
+and told him I would help him to try and find out who or what it was
+that was giving us this trouble. I went with him to the place, where we
+carefully examined both sides of the stream for evidences of the clever
+thief. There was nothing suspicious, and the only tracks visible were
+those of his own and of the many dogs that followed him to be fed each
+morning. About two or three hundred yards north of the spot where he
+overhauled the net there rose a small abrupt hill, densely covered with
+spruce and balsam trees. On visiting it we found that a person there
+securely hid from observation could with care easily overlook the whole
+locality.
+
+At my suggestion, Papanekis with his axe there arranged a sort of a
+nest or lookout spot. Orders were then given that he and another Indian
+man should, before daybreak on the next morning, make a long detour
+and cautiously reach that spot from the rear, and there carefully
+conceal themselves. This they succeeded in doing, and there, in perfect
+stillness, they waited for the morning. As soon as it was possible to
+see anything they were on the alert. For some time they watched in
+vain. They eagerly scanned every point of vision, and for a time could
+observe nothing unusual.
+
+"Hush!" said one; "see that dog!"
+
+It was Cæsar, cautiously skulking along the trail. He would frequently
+stop and sniff the air. Fortunately for the Indian watchers, the wind
+was blowing toward them, and so the dog did not catch their scent. On
+he came, in a quiet yet swift gait, until he reached the spot where
+Papanekis stood when he pulled in the net. He gave one searching glance
+in every direction, and then he set to work. Seizing the rope in his
+teeth, Cæsar strongly pulled upon it, while he rapidly backed up some
+distance on the trail. Then, walking on the rope to the water's edge as
+it lay on the ground, to keep the pressure of the current from dragging
+it in, he again took a fresh grip upon it and repeated the process.
+This he did until the sixty feet of rope were hauled in, and the end
+of the net was reached to which it was attached. The net he now hauled
+in little by little, keeping his feet firmly on it to securely hold
+it down. As he drew it up, several varieties of inferior fish, such
+as suckers or mullets, pike or jackfish, were at first observed. To
+them Cæsar paid no attention. He was after the delicious whitefish,
+which dogs as well as human beings prefer to those of other kinds.
+When he had perhaps hauled twenty feet of the net, his cleverness was
+rewarded by the sight of a fine whitefish. Still holding the net with
+its struggling captives securely down with his feet, he began to devour
+this whitefish, which was so much more dainty than the coarser fish
+generally thrown to him. Papanekis and his comrade had seen enough. The
+mysterious culprit was detected in the act, and so with a "Whoop!" they
+rushed down upon him. Caught in the very act, Cæsar had to submit to a
+thrashing that ever after deterred him from again trying that cunning
+trick.
+
+Who can read this story, which I give exactly as it occurred, without
+having to admit that here Cæsar "combined means for the attainment of
+particular ends"? On the previous visits which he made to the net the
+rapid current of the stream, working against the greater part of it
+in the water, soon carried it back again into its place ere Papanekis
+arrived later in the morning. The result was that Cæsar's cleverness
+was undetected for some time, even by these most observant Indians.
+
+Many other equally clever instances convince me, and those who with
+me witnessed them, of the possession, in of course a limited degree,
+of reasoning powers. Scores of my dogs never seemed to reveal them,
+perhaps because no special opportunities were presented for their
+exhibition. They were just ordinary dogs, trained to the work of
+hauling their loads. When night came, if their feet were sore they
+had dog sense enough to come to their master and, throwing themselves
+on their backs, would stick up their feet and whine and howl until
+the warm duffle shoes were put on. Some of the skulking ones had wit
+enough, when they did not want to be caught, in the gloom of the early
+morning, while the stars were still shining, if they were white, to
+cuddle down, still and quiet, in the beautiful snow; while the darker
+ones would slink away into the gloom of the dense balsams, where they
+seemed to know that it would be difficult for them to be seen. Some of
+them had wit enough when traveling up steep places with heavy loads,
+where their progress was slow, to seize hold of small firm bushes in
+their teeth to help them up or to keep them from slipping back. Some
+of them knew how to shirk their work. Cæsar, of whom we have already
+spoken, at times was one of this class. They could pretend, by their
+panting and tugging at their collars, that they were dragging more
+than any other dogs in the train, while at the same time they were not
+pulling a pound!
+
+Of cats I do not write. I am no lover of them, and therefore am
+incompetent to write about them. This lack of love for them is, I
+presume, from the fact that when a boy I was the proud owner of some
+very beautiful rabbits, upon which the cats of the neighborhood used to
+make disastrous raids. So great was my boyish indignation then that the
+dislike to them created has in a measure continued to this day, and I
+have not as yet begun to cultivate their intimate acquaintance.
+
+But of dogs I have ever been a lover and a friend. I never saw one, not
+mad, of which I was afraid, and I never saw one with which I could not
+speedily make friends. Love was the constraining motive principally
+used in breaking my dogs in to their work in the trains. No whip was
+ever used upon Jack or Cuffy while they were learning their tasks.
+Some dogs had to be punished more or less. Some stubborn dogs at once
+surrendered and gave no more trouble when a favorite female dog was
+harnessed up in a train and sent on ahead. This affection in the dog
+for his mate was a powerful lever in the hands of his master, and,
+using it as an incentive, we have seen things performed as remarkable
+as any we have here recorded.
+
+From what I have written it will be seen that I have had unusual
+facilities for studying the habits and possibilities of dogs. I was
+not under the necessity of gathering up a lot of mongrels at random
+in the streets, and then, in order to see instances of their sagacity
+and the exercise of their highest reasoning powers, to keep them until
+they were "practically utterly hungry," and then imprison them in a
+box a good deal less than four feet square, and then say to them, "Now,
+you poor, frightened, half-starved creatures, show us what reasoning
+powers you possess." About as well throw some benighted Africans into
+a slave ship and order them to make a telephone or a phonograph! My
+comparison is not too strong, considering the immense distance there is
+between the human race and the brute creation. And so it must be, in
+the bringing to light of the powers of memory and the clear exhibition
+of the reasoning powers, few though they be, that the tests are not
+conclusive unless made under the most favorable environment, upon dogs
+of the highest intelligence, and in the most congenial and sympathetic
+manner.
+
+Testing this most interesting question in this manner, my decided
+convictions are that animals do reason.
+
+
+
+
+SKETCH OF GEORGE M. STERNBERG.
+
+
+No man among Americans has studied the micro-organisms with more profit
+or has contributed more to our knowledge of the nature of infection,
+particularly of that of yellow fever, than Dr. GEORGE M. STERNBERG, of
+the United States Army. His merits are freely recognized abroad, and
+he ranks there, as well as at home, among the leading bacteriologists
+of the age. He was born at Hartwick Seminary, an institution of the
+Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (General Synod), Otsego, N. Y.,
+June 8, 1838. His father, the Rev. Levi Sternberg, D. D., a graduate of
+Union College, a Lutheran minister, and for many years principal of the
+seminary and a director of it, was descended from German ancestors who
+came to this country in 1703 and settled in Schoharie County, New York.
+The younger Sternberg received his academical training at the seminary,
+after which, intending to study medicine, he undertook a school at New
+Germantown, N. J., as a means of earning a part of the money required
+to defray the cost of his instruction in that science. The record of
+his school was one of quiet sessions, thoroughness, and popularity of
+the teacher, and his departure was an occasion of regret among his
+patrons.
+
+When nineteen years old, young Sternberg began his medical studies
+with Dr. Horace Lathrop, in Cooperstown, N. Y. Afterward he attended
+the courses of the College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York,
+and was graduated thence in the class of 1860. Before he had fairly
+settled in practice the civil war began, and the attention of all
+young Americans was directed toward the military service. Among these
+was young Dr. Sternberg, who, having passed the examination, was
+appointed assistant surgeon May 28, 1861, and was attached to the
+command of General Sykes, Army of the Potomac. He was engaged in the
+battle of Bull Run, where, voluntarily remaining on the field with
+the wounded, he was taken prisoner, but was paroled to continue his
+humane work. On the expiration of his parole he made his way through
+the lines and reported at Washington for duty July 30, 1861--"weary,
+footsore, and worn." Of his conduct in later campaigns of the Army of
+the Potomac, General Sykes, in his official reports of the battles of
+Gaines Mill, Turkey Ridge, and Malvern Hill, said that "Dr. Sternberg
+added largely to the reputation already acquired on the disastrous
+field of Bull Run." He remained with General Sykes's command till
+August, 1862; was then assigned to hospital duty at Portsmouth Grove,
+R. I., till November, 1862; was afterward attached to General Banks's
+expedition as assistant to the medical director in the Department
+of the Gulf till January, 1864; was in the office of the medical
+director, Columbus, Ohio, and in charge of the United States General
+Hospital at Cleveland, Ohio, till July, 1865. Since the civil war he
+has been assigned successively to Jefferson Barracks, Mo.; Fort Harker
+and Fort Riley, Kansas; in the field in the Indian campaign, 1868
+to 1870; Forts Columbus and Hamilton, New York Harbor; Fort Warren,
+Boston Harbor; Department of the Gulf and New Orleans; Fort Barrancas,
+Fla.; Department of the Columbia; Department Headquarters; Fort Walla
+Walla, Washington Territory; California; and Eastern stations. He was
+promoted to be captain and assistant surgeon in 1866, major and surgeon
+in 1875, lieutenant colonel and deputy surgeon general in 1891, and
+brigadier general and surgeon general in 1893. He has also received the
+brevets of captain and major in the United States Army "for faithful
+and meritorious services during the war," and of lieutenant colonel
+"for gallant service in performance of his professional duty under fire
+in action against Indians at Clearwater, Idaho, July 12, 1877." In
+the discharge of his duties at his various posts Dr. Sternberg had to
+deal with a cholera epidemic in Kansas in 1867, with a "yellow-fever
+epidemic" in New York Harbor in 1871, and with epidemics of yellow
+fever at Fort Barrancas, Fla., in 1873 and 1875. He served under
+special detail as member and secretary of the Havana Yellow-Fever
+Commission of the National Board of Health, 1879 to 1881; as a delegate
+from the United States under special instructions of the Secretary of
+State to the International Sanitary Conference at Rome in 1885; as a
+commissioner, under the act of Congress of March 3, 1887, to make
+investigations in Brazil, Mexico, and Cuba relating to the etiology and
+prevention of yellow fever; by special request of the health officer of
+the port of New York and the advisory committee of the New York Chamber
+of Commerce as consulting bacteriologist to the health officer of the
+port of New York in 1892; and he was a delegate to the International
+Medical Congress in Moscow in 1897.
+
+Dr. Sternberg has contributed largely to the literature of scientific
+medicine from the results of his observations and experiments which he
+has made in these various spheres of duty.
+
+His most fruitful researches have been made in the field of
+bacteriology and infectious diseases. He has enjoyed the rare advantage
+in pursuing these studies of having the material for his experiments
+close at hand in the course of his regular work, and of watching, we
+might say habitually, the progress of such diseases as yellow fever
+as it normally went on in the course of Nature. Of the quality of his
+bacteriological work, the writer of a biography in Red Cross Notes,
+reprinted in the North American Medical Review, goes so far as to say
+that "when the overzeal of enthusiasts shall have passed away, and the
+story of bacteriology in the nineteenth century is written up, it will
+probably be found that the chief who brought light out of darkness
+was George M. Sternberg. He was noted not so much for his brilliant
+discoveries, but rather for his exact methods of investigation, for
+his clear statements of the results of experimental data, for his
+enormous labors toward the perfection and simplification of technique,
+and finally for his services in the practical application of the
+truths taught by the science. His early labors in bacteriology were
+made with apparatus and under conditions that were crude enough." His
+work in this department is certainly among the most important that
+has been done. Its value has been freely acknowledged everywhere, it
+has given him a world-wide fame, and it has added to the credit of
+American science. The reviewer in Nature (June 22, 1893) of his Manual
+of Bacteriology, which was published in 1892, while a little disposed
+to criticise the fullness and large size of the book, describes it as
+"the latest, the largest, and, let us add, the most complete manual
+of bacteriology which has yet appeared in the English language. The
+volume combines in itself not only an account of such facts as are
+already established in the science from a morphological, chemical,
+and pathological point of view, discussions on such abstruse subjects
+as susceptibility and immunity, and also full details of the means by
+which these results have been obtained, and practical directions for
+the carrying on of laboratory work." This was not the first of Dr.
+Sternberg's works in bacteriological research. It was preceded by a
+work on Bacteria, of 498 pages, including 152 pages translated from
+the work of Dr. Antoine Magnin (1884); Malaria and Malarial Diseases,
+and Photomicrographs and How to make Them. The manual is at once a
+book for reference, a text-book for students, and a handbook for the
+laboratory. Its four parts include brief notices of the history of
+the subject, classification, morphology, and an account of methods
+and practical laboratory work--"all clear and concise"; the biology
+and chemistry of bacteria, disinfection, and antiseptics; a detailed
+account of pathogenic bacteria, their modes of action, the way they
+may gain access to the system, susceptibility and immunity, to which
+Dr. Sternberg's own contributions have been not the least important;
+and saprophytic bacteria in water, in the soil, in or on the human
+body, and in food, the whole number of saprophytes described being
+three hundred and thirty-one. "The merit of a work of this kind,"
+Nature says, "depends not less on the number of species described than
+on the clearness and accuracy of the descriptions, and Dr. Sternberg
+has spared no pains to make these as complete as possible." The
+bibliography in this work fills more than a hundred pages, and contains
+2,582 references. A later book on a kindred subject is Immunity,
+Protective Inoculations, and Serum Therapy (1895). Dr. Sternberg has
+also published a Text-Book of Bacteriology.
+
+Bearing upon yellow fever are the Report upon the Prevention of Yellow
+Fever by Inoculation, submitted in March, 1888; Report upon the
+Prevention of Yellow Fever, illustrated by photomicrographs and cuts,
+1890; and Examination of the Blood in Yellow Fever (experiments upon
+animals, etc.), in the Preliminary Report of the Havana Yellow-Fever
+Commission, 1879. Other publications in the list of one hundred and
+thirty-one titles of Dr. Sternberg's works, and mostly consisting
+of shorter articles, relate to Disinfectants and their Value, the
+Etiology of Malarial Fevers, Septicæmia, the Germicide Value of
+Therapeutic Agents, the Etiology of Croupous Pneumonia, the Bacillus
+of Typhoid Fever, the Thermal Death Point of Pathogenic Organisms,
+the Practical Results of Bacteriological Researches, the Cholera
+Spirillum, Disinfection at Quarantine Stations, the Infectious Agent
+of Smallpox, official reports as Surgeon General of the United States
+Army, addresses and reports at the meetings of the American Public
+Health Association, and an address to the members of the Pan-American
+Congress. One paper is recorded quite outside of the domain of microbes
+and fevers, to show what the author might have done if he had allowed
+his attention to be diverted from his special absorbing field of work.
+It is upon the Indian Burial Mounds and Shell Heaps near Pensacola, Fla.
+
+The medical and scientific societies of which Dr. Sternberg is a
+member include the American Public Health Association, of which he is
+also an ex-president (1886); the American Association of Physicians;
+the American Physiological Society; the American Microscopical
+Society, of which he is a vice-president; the American Association
+for the Advancement of Science, of which he is a Fellow; the New
+York Academy of Medicine (a Fellow); and the Association of Military
+Surgeons of the United States (president in 1896). He is a Fellow
+of the Royal Microscopical Society of London; an honorary member
+of the Epidemiological Society of London, of the Royal Academy of
+Medicine of Rome, of the Academy of Medicine of Rio de Janeiro, of
+the American Academy of Medicine, of the French Society of Hygiene,
+etc.; was President of the Section on Military Medicine and Surgery of
+the Pan-American Congress; was a Fellow by courtesy in Johns Hopkins
+University, 1885 to 1890; was President of the Biological Society
+of Washington in 1896, and of the American Medical Association in
+1897; and has been designated Honorary President of the Thirteenth
+International Medical Congress, which is to meet in Paris in 1900. He
+received the degree of LL. D. from the University of Michigan in 1894,
+and from Brown University in 1897.
+
+Dr. Sternberg's view of the right professional standard of the
+physician is well expressed in the sentiment, "To maintain our
+standing in the estimation of the educated classes we must not rely
+upon our diplomas or upon our membership in medical societies. Work
+and worth are what count." He does not appear to be attached to any
+particular school, but, as his Red Cross Notes biographer says, "has
+placed himself in the crowd 'who have been moving forward upon the
+substantial basis of scientific research, and who, if characterized by
+any distinctive name, should be called _the New School of Scientific
+Medicine_.' He holds that if our practice was in accordance with our
+knowledge many diseases would disappear; he sees no room for creeds
+or patents in medicine. He is willing to acknowledge the right to
+prescribe either a bread pill or a leaden bullet. But if a patient
+dies from diphtheria because of a failure to administer a proper
+remedy, or if infection follows from dirty fingers or instruments,
+if a practitioner carelessly or ignorantly transfers infection, he
+believes he is not fit to practice medicine.... He rejects every theory
+or dictum that has not been clearly demonstrated to him as an absolute
+truth."
+
+While he is described as without assumption, Dr. Sternberg is
+represented as being evidently in his headquarters as surgeon general
+in every sense the head of the service, the chief whose will governs
+all. Modest and unassuming, he is described as being most exacting, a
+man of command, of thorough execution, a general whose eyes comprehend
+every detail, and who has studied the personality of every member
+of his corps. He is always busy, but seemingly never in a hurry;
+systematic, accepting no man's dictum, and taking nothing as an
+established fact till he has personal experimental evidence of its
+truth. He looks into every detail, and takes equal care of the health
+of the general in chief and of the private.
+
+His addresses are carefully prepared, based on facts he has
+himself determined, made in language so plain that they will not
+be misunderstood, free from sentiment, and delivered in an easy
+conversational style, and his writings are "pen pictures of his results
+in the laboratory and clinic room."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The thirty-first year of the Peabody Museum of American Archæology
+and Ethnology was signalized by the transfer of its property to
+the corporation of Harvard College, whereby simplicity and greater
+permanence have been given to its management. The four courses of
+instruction in the museum were attended by sixteen students, and
+these, with others, make twenty-one persons, besides the curator, who
+are engaged in study or special research in subjects included under
+the term anthropology. Special attention is given by explorers in
+the service of the museum to the investigation of the antiquities of
+Yucatan and Central America, of which its publications on Copan, the
+caves of Loltun, and Labná, have been noticed in the Monthly. These
+explorations have been continued when and where circumstances made it
+feasible. Among the gifts acknowledged in the report of the museum are
+two hundred facsimile copies of the Aztec Codex Vaticanus, from the
+Duke of Loubat, an original Mexican manuscript of 1531, on agave paper,
+from the Mary Hemenway estate; the extensive private archæological
+collection of Mr. George W. Hammond; articles from Georgia mounds,
+from Clarence B. Moore, and other gifts of perhaps less magnitude but
+equal interest. Mr. Andrew Gibb, of Edinburgh, has given five pieces
+of rudely made pottery from the Hebrides, which were made several
+years ago by a woman who is thought to have been the last one to make
+pottery according to the ancient method of shaping the clay with the
+hands, and without the use of any form of potter's wheel. Miss Maria
+Whitney, sister of the late Prof. J. D. Whitney, has presented the
+"Calaveras skull" and the articles found with it, and all the original
+documents relating to its discovery and history. Miss Phebe Ferris,
+of Madisonville, Ohio, has bequeathed to the museum about twenty-five
+acres of land, on which is situated the ancient mound where Dr. Metz
+and Curator Putnam have investigated for several years, and whence a
+considerable collection has been obtained. Miss Ferris expressed the
+desire that the museum continue the explorations, and after completing
+convert the tract into a public park. Mr. W. B. Nicker has explored
+some virgin mounds near Galena, Ill., and a rock shelter and stone
+grave near Portage, Ill. The library of the museum now contains 1,838
+volumes and 2,479 pamphlets on anthropology.
+
+
+
+
+Correspondence.
+
+
+DO ANIMALS REASON?
+
+_Editor Popular Science Monthly:_
+
+DEAR SIR: In connection with the discussion of the interesting subject
+Do Animals Reason? permit me to relate the following incident in
+support of the affirmative side of the question:
+
+Some years ago, before the establishment of the National Zoölogical
+Park in this city, Dr. Frank Baker, the curator, kept a small nucleus
+of animals in the rear of the National Museum; among this collection
+were several monkeys. On a hot summer day, as I was passing the monkey
+cage I handed to one of the monkeys a large piece of fresh molasses
+taffy. The animal at once carried it to his mouth and commenced to bite
+it. The candy was somewhat soft, and stuck to the monkey's paws. He
+looked at his paws, licked them with his tongue, and then turned his
+head from side to side looking about the cage. Then, taking the candy
+in his mouth, he sprang to the farther end of the cage and picked up
+a wad of brown paper. This ball of paper he carefully unfolded, and,
+laying it down on the floor of the cage, carefully smoothed out the
+folds of the paper with both paws. After he had smoothed it out to his
+satisfaction, he took the piece of taffy from his mouth and laid it in
+the center of the piece of paper and folded the paper over the candy,
+leaving a part of it exposed. He then sat back on his haunches and ate
+the candy, first wiping one paw and then the other on his hip, just as
+any boy or man might do.
+
+If that monkey did not show reason, what would you call it?
+
+Yours etc., H. O. HALL, _Library Surgeon General's Office, United
+States Army._ WASHINGTON, D. C., _October 2, 1899_.
+
+
+
+
+Editor's Table.
+
+_HOME BURDENS._
+
+
+The doctrine has gone abroad, suggested by the most popular poet of
+the day, that "white men" have the duty laid upon them of scouring the
+dark places of the earth for burdens to take up. Through a large part
+of this nation the idea has run like wildfire, infecting not a few
+who themselves are in no small degree burdens to the community that
+shelters them. The rowdier element of the population everywhere is
+strongly in favor of the new doctrine, which to their minds is chiefly
+illustrated by the shooting of Filipinos. We do not say that thousands
+of very respectable citizens are not in favor of it also; we only note
+that they are strongly supported by a class whose adhesion adds no
+strength to their cause.
+
+It is almost needless to remark that a very few years ago we were
+not in the way of thinking that the civilized nations of the earth,
+which had sliced up Asia and Africa in the interest of their trade,
+had done so in the performance of a solemn duty. The formula "the
+white man's burden" had not been invented then, and some of us used to
+think that there was more of the filibustering spirit than of a high
+humanitarianism in these raids upon barbarous races. Possibly we did
+less than justice to some of the countries concerned, notably Great
+Britain, which, having a teeming population in very narrow confines,
+and being of old accustomed to adventures by sea, had naturally been
+led to extend her influence and create outlets for her trade in distant
+parts of the earth. Be this as it may, we seemed to have our own work
+cut out for us at home. We had the breadth of a continent under our
+feet, rich in the products of every latitude; we had unlimited room for
+expansion and development; we had unlimited confidence in the destinies
+that awaited us as a nation, if only we applied ourselves earnestly
+to the improvement of the heritage which, in the order of Providence,
+had become ours. We thanked Heaven that we were not as other nations,
+which, insufficiently provided with home blessings, were tempted to put
+forth their hands and--steal, or something like it, in heathen lands.
+
+Well, we have changed all that: we give our sympathy to the nations
+of the Old World in their forays on the heathen, and are vigorously
+tackling "the white man's burden" according to the revised version.
+It is unfortunate and quite unpleasant that this should involve
+shooting down people who are only asking what our ancestors asked and
+obtained--the right of self-government in the land they occupy. Still,
+we must do it if we want to keep up with the procession we have joined.
+Smoking tobacco is not pleasant to the youth of fifteen or sixteen who
+has determined to line up with his elders in that manly accomplishment.
+He has many a sick stomach, many a flutter of the heart, before he
+breaks himself into it; but, of course, he perseveres--has he not taken
+up the white boy's burden? So we. Who, outside of that rowdy element to
+which we have referred, has not been, whether he has confessed it or
+not, sick at heart at the thought of the innocent blood we have shed
+and of the blood of our kindred that we have shed in order to shed that
+blood? Still, spite of all misgivings and qualms, we hold our course,
+Kipling leading on, and the colonel of the Rough Riders assuring us
+that it is all right.
+
+Revised versions are not always the best versions; and for our own
+part we prefer to think that the true "white man's burden" is that
+which lies at his own door, and not that which he has to compass land
+and sea to come in sight of. We have in this land the burden of a not
+inconsiderable tramp and hoodlum population. This is a burden of which
+we can never very long lose sight; it is more or less before us every
+day. It is a burden in a material sense, and it is a burden in what
+we may call a spiritual sense. It impairs the satisfaction we derive
+from our own citizenship, and it lies like a weight on the social
+conscience. It is the opprobrium alike of our educational system and
+of our administration of the law. How far would the national treasure
+and individual energy which we have expended in failing to subdue
+the Filipino "rebels" have gone--if wisely applied--in subduing the
+rebel elements in our own population, and rescuing from degradation
+those whom our public schools have failed to civilize? Shall the reply
+be that we can not interfere with individual liberty? It would be
+a strange reply to come from people who send soldiers ten thousand
+miles away for the express purpose of interfering with liberty as the
+American nation has always hitherto understood that term; but, in
+point of fact, there is no question of interfering with any liberty
+that ought to be respected. It is a question of the protection of
+public morals, of public decency, and of the rights of property. It is
+a question of the rescue of human beings--our fellow-citizens--from
+ignorance, vice, and wretchedness. It is a question of making us as
+a nation right with ourselves, and making citizenship under our flag
+something to be prized by every one entitled to claim it.
+
+It is not in the cities only that undesirable elements cluster. The
+editor of a lively little periodical, in which many true things are
+said with great force--The Philistine--has lately declared that his own
+village, despite the refining influences radiated from the "Roycroft
+Shop," could furnish a band of hoodlum youths that could give points in
+every form of vile behavior to any equal number gathered from a great
+city. He hints that New England villages may be a trifle better, but
+that the farther Western States are decidedly worse. It is precisely
+in New England, however, that a bitter cry on this very subject of
+hoodlumism has lately been raised. What are we to do about it?
+
+Manifestly the hoodlum or incipient tramp is one of two things: either
+he is a person whom a suitable education might have turned into some
+decent and honest way of earning a living, or he is a person upon whom,
+owing to congenital defect, all educational effort would have been
+thrown away. In either case social duty seems plain. If education would
+have done the work, society--seeing that it has taken the business of
+public education in hand--should have supplied the education required
+for the purpose, even though the amount of money available for waging
+war in the Philippines had been slightly reduced. If the case is one
+in which no educational effort is of avail, then, as the old Roman
+formula ran, "Let the magistrates see that the republic takes no harm."
+Before, therefore, our minds can be easy on this hoodlum question,
+we must satisfy ourselves thoroughly that our modes of education are
+not, positively or negatively, adapted to making the hoodlum variety
+of character. The hoodlum, it is safe to say, is an individual in whom
+no intellectual interest has ever been awakened, in whom no special
+capacity has ever been created. His moral nature has never been taught
+to respond to any high or even respectable principle of conduct. If
+there is any glory in earth or heaven, any beauty or harmony in the
+operations of natural law, any poetry or pathos or dignity in human
+life, anything to stir the soul in the records of human achievement,
+to all such things he is wholly insensible. Ought this to be so in
+the case of any human being, not absolutely abnormal, whom the state
+has undertaken to educate? If, as a community, we put our hands to
+the educational plow, and so far not only relieve parents of a large
+portion of their sense of responsibility, but actually suppress the
+voluntary agencies that would otherwise undertake educational work,
+surely we should see to it that our education educates. Direct moral
+instruction in the schools is not likely to be of any great avail
+unless, by other and indirect means, the mind is prepared to receive
+it. What is needed is to awaken a sense of capacity and power, to give
+to each individual some trained faculty and some direct and, as far as
+it goes, scientific cognizance of things. Does any one suppose that
+a youth who had gone through a judicious course of manual training,
+or one who had become interested in any such subject as botany,
+chemistry, or agriculture, or who even had an intelligent insight
+into the elementary laws of mechanics, could develop into a hoodlum?
+On the other hand, there is no difficulty in imagining that such a
+development might take place in a youth who had simply been plied
+with spelling-book, grammar, and arithmetic. Even what seem the most
+interesting reading lessons fall dead upon minds that have no hold upon
+the reality of things, and no sense of the distinctions which the most
+elementary study of Nature forces on the attention.
+
+But, as we have admitted, there may be cases where the nature of the
+individual is such as to repel all effort for its improvement. Here
+the law must step in, and secure the community against the dangers to
+which the existence of such individuals exposes it. There is a certain
+element in the population which wishes to live, and is determined
+to live, on a level altogether below anything that can be called
+civilization. Those who compose it are nomadic and predatory in their
+habits, and occasionally give way to acts of fearful criminality. It is
+foolish not to recognize the fact, and take the measures that may be
+necessary for the isolation of this element. To devise and execute such
+measures is a burden a thousand times better worth taking up than the
+burden of imposing our yoke upon the Philippine Islands and crushing
+out a movement toward liberty quite as respectable, to all outward
+appearance, as that to which we have reared monuments at Bunker Hill
+and elsewhere. The fact is, the work before us at home is immense;
+and it is work which we might attack, not only without qualms of
+conscience, but with the conviction that every unit of labor devoted to
+it was being directed toward the highest interests not of the present
+generation only, but of generations yet unborn. The "white man," we
+trust, will some day see it; but meanwhile valuable time is being
+lost, and the national conscience is being lowered by the assumption
+of burdens that are _not_ ours, whatever Mr. Kipling may have said
+or sung, or whatever Governor Roosevelt may assert on his word as a
+soldier.
+
+
+_SPECIALIZATION._
+
+That division of labor is as necessary in the pursuit of science as
+in the world of industry no one would think of disputing; but that,
+like division of labor elsewhere, it has its drawbacks and dangers is
+equally obvious. When the latter truth is insisted on by those who
+are not recognized as experts, the experts are apt to be somewhat
+contemptuous in resenting such interference, as they consider it.
+An expert himself has, however, taken up the parable, and his words
+merit attention. We refer to an address delivered by Prof. J. Arthur
+Thompson, at the University of Aberdeen, upon entering on his duties
+as Regius Professor of Natural History, a post to which he was lately
+appointed. "We need to be reminded," he said, "amid the undoubted and
+surely legitimate fascinations of dissection and osteology, of section
+cutting and histology, of physiological chemistry and physiological
+physics, of embryology and fossil hunting, and the like, that the chief
+end of our study is a better understanding of living creatures in their
+natural surroundings." He could see no reason, he went on to say, for
+adding aimlessly to the overwhelming mass of detail already accumulated
+in these and other fields of research. The aim of our efforts should
+rather be to grasp the chief laws of growth and structure, and to rise
+to a true conception of the meaning of organization.
+
+The tendency to over-specialization is manifest everywhere; it may be
+traced in physics and chemistry, in mathematics, in archæology, and in
+philology, as well as in biology. We can not help thinking that there
+is a certain narcotic influence arising from the steady accumulation
+of minute facts, so that what was in the first place, and in its early
+stages, an invigorating pursuit becomes not only an absorbing, but
+more or less a benumbing passion. We are accustomed to profess great
+admiration for Browning's Grammarian, who--
+
+"Gave us the doctrine of the enclitic _De_ Dead from the waist down,"
+
+but really we don't feel quite sure that the cause for which the old
+gentleman struggled was quite worthy of such desperate heroism. The
+world could have got along fairly well for a while with an imperfect
+knowledge of the subtle ways of the "enclitic _De_," and indeed a large
+portion of the world has neither concerned itself with the subject nor
+felt the worse for not having done so.
+
+What we fear is that some people are "dead from the waist down," or
+even from higher up, without being aware of it, and all on account of
+a furious passion for "enclitic de's" or their equivalent in other
+lines of study. Gentlemen, it is not worth while! You can not all hope
+to be buried on mountain tops like the grammarian, for there are not
+peaks enough for all of you, and any way what good would it do you?
+There is need of specialization, of course; we began by saying that the
+drift of our remarks is simply this, that he who would go into minute
+specializing should be careful to lay in at the outset a good stock of
+common sense, a liberal dose (if he can get it) of humor, and _quantum
+suff_. of humanity. Thus provided he can go ahead.
+
+
+
+
+Scientific Literature.
+
+SPECIAL BOOKS.
+
+
+The comparison between the United States in 1790 and Australia in 1891,
+with which Mr. _A. F. Weber_ opens his essay on _The Growth of Cities
+in the Nineteenth Century_[10] well illustrates how the tendency of
+population toward agglomeration in cities is one of the most striking
+social phenomena of the present age. Both countries were in nearly
+a corresponding state of development at the time of bringing them
+into the comparison. The population of the United States in 1790 was
+3,929,214; that of Australia in 1891 was 3,809,895; while 3.14 per cent
+of the people of the United States were then living in cities of ten
+thousand or more inhabitants, 33.20 per cent of the Australians are
+now living in such cities. Similar conditions or the tendency toward
+them are evident in nearly every country of the world. What are the
+forces that have produced the shifting of population thus indicated;
+what the economic, moral, political, and social consequences of it; and
+what is to be the attitude of the publicist, the statesman, and the
+teacher toward the movement, are questions which Mr. Weber undertakes
+to discuss. The subject is a very complicated and intricate one, with
+no end of puzzles in it for the careless student, and requiring to be
+viewed in innumerable shifting lights, showing the case in changing
+aspects; for in the discussion lessons are drawn by the author from
+every country in the family of nations. Natural causes--variations in
+climate, soil, earth formation, political institutions, etc.--partly
+explain the distribution of population, but only partly. It sometimes
+contradicts what would be deduced from them. Increase and improvement
+in facilities for communication help the expansion of commercial
+and industrial centers, but also contribute to the scattering of
+population over wider areas. The most potent factors in attracting
+people to the cities were, in former times, the commercial facilities
+they afforded, with opportunities to obtain employment in trade, and
+are now the opportunities for employment in trade and in manufacturing
+industries. The cities, however, do not grow merely by accretions
+from the outside, but they also enjoy a new element of natural growth
+within themselves in the greater certainty of living and longer
+duration of life brought about by improved management and ease of
+living in them, especially by improved sanitation, and it is only
+in the nineteenth century that any considerable number of cities
+have had a regular surplus of births over deaths. Migration cityward
+is not an economic phenomenon peculiar to the nineteenth century,
+but is shown by the study of the social statistics and the bills of
+mortality of the past to have been always a factor important enough
+to be a subject of special remark. It is, however, a very lively one
+now, and "in the immediate future we may expect to see a continuation
+of the centralizing movement; while many manufacturers are locating
+their factories in the small cities and towns, there are other
+industries that prosper most in the great cities. Commerce, moreover,
+emphatically favors the great centers rather than the small or
+intermediate centers." In examining the structure of city populations,
+a preponderance of the female sex appears, and is explained by the
+accentuated liability of men over women in cities to death from
+dangers of occupation, vice, crime, and excesses of all kinds. There
+are also present in the urban population a relatively larger number
+of persons in the active period of life, whence an easier and more
+animated career, more energy and enterprise, more radicalism and less
+conservatism, and more vice, crime, and impulsiveness generally may be
+expected. Of foreign immigrants, the least desirable class are most
+prone to remain in the great cities; and with the decline of railway
+building and the complete occupation of the public lands the author
+expects that immigrants in the future will disperse less readily than
+in the past, but in the never-tiring energy of American enterprise
+this may not prove to be the case. As to occupation, the growth of
+cities is found to favor the development of a body of artisans and
+factory workmen, as against the undertaker and employer, and "that
+the class of day laborers is relatively small in the cities is reason
+for rejoicing." It is found "emphatically true that the growth of
+cities not only increases a nation's economic power and energy, but
+quickens the national pulse.... A progressive and dynamic civilization
+implies the good and bad alike. The cities, as the foci of progress,
+inevitably contain both." The development of suburban life, stimulated
+by the railroad and the trolley, and the transference of manufacturing
+industries to the suburbs, are regarded as factors of great promise
+for the amelioration of the recognized evils of city life and for the
+solution of some of the difficulties it offers and the promotion of its
+best results.
+
+[10] The Growth of Cities in the Nineteenth Century. A Study in
+Statistics. By Adna Ferrln Weber. (Columbia University Studies In
+History, Economics, and Public Law.) New York: Published for Columbia
+University by the Macmillan Company. Pp. 495. Price, $3.50.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+DR. _James K. Crook_, author of _The Mineral Waters of the United
+States and their Therapeutic Uses_,[11] accepts it as proved by
+centuries of experience that in certain disorders the intelligent
+use of mineral waters is a more potent curative agency than drugs.
+He believes that Americans have within their own borders the close
+counterparts of the best foreign springs, and that in charms of scenery
+and surroundings, salubrity of climate and facilities for comfort, many
+of our spas will compare as resorts with the most highly developed
+ones of Europe. The purpose of the present volume is to set forth
+the qualities and attractions of American springs, of which we have
+a large number and variety, and the author has aimed to present the
+most complete and advanced work on the subject yet prepared. To make
+it so, he has carefully examined all the available literature on the
+subject, has addressed letters of inquiry to proprietors and other
+persons cognizant of spring resorts and commercial springs, and has
+made personal visits. While a considerable number of the 2,822 springs
+enumerated by Dr. A. C. Peale in his report to the United States
+Geological Survey have dropped out through non-use or non-development,
+more than two hundred mineral-spring localities are here described for
+the first time in a book of this kind. Every known variety of mineral
+water is represented. The subject is introduced by chapters on what
+might be called the science of mineral waters and their therapeutic
+uses, including the definition, the origin of mineral waters, and the
+sources whence they are mineralized; the classification, the discussion
+of their value, and mode of action; their solid and gaseous components;
+their therapeutics or applications to different disorders; and baths
+and douches and their medicinal uses. The springs are then described
+severally by States. The treatise on potable waters in the appendix is
+brief, but contains much.
+
+[11] Mineral Waters of the United States and their Therapeutic Uses,
+with an Account of the Various Mineral Spring Localities, their
+Advantages as Health Resorts, Means of Access, etc.; to which is
+added an Appendix on Potable Waters. By James K. Crook. New York and
+Philadelphia: Lea Brothers & Co. Pp. 588. Price, $3.50.
+
+
+
+
+GENERAL NOTICES.
+
+
+In _Every-Day Butterflies_[12] Mr. _Scudder_ relates the story of the
+very commonest butterflies--"those which every rambler at all observant
+sees about him at one time or another, inciting his curiosity or
+pleasing his eye." The sequence of the stories is mainly the order of
+appearance of the different subjects treated--which the author compares
+to the flowers in that each kind has its own season for appearing in
+perfect bloom, both together variegating the landscape in the open
+season of the year. This order of description is modified occasionally
+by the substitution of a later appearance for the first, when the
+butterfly is double or triple brooded. As illustrations are furnished
+of each butterfly discussed, it is not necessary that the descriptions
+should be long and minute, hence they are given in brief and general
+terms. But it must be remembered that the describer is a thorough
+master of his subject, and also a master in writing the English
+language, so that nothing will be found lacking in his descriptions.
+They are literature as well as butterfly history. Of the illustrations,
+all of which are good, a considerable number are in colors.
+
+[12] Every-Day Butterflies. A Group of Biographies. By Samuel Hubbard
+Scudder. Boston and New York: Houghton, Mifflin & Co. Pp. 386. Price.
+$2.
+
+
+Dr. _M. E. Gellé's_ _L'Audition et ses Organes_[13] (The Hearing and its
+Organs) is a full, not over-elaborate treatise on the subject, in which
+prominence is given to the physiological side. The first part treats of
+the excitant of the sense of hearing--sonorous vibrations--including
+the vibrations themselves, the length of the vibratory phenomena, the
+intensity of sound, range of audition, tone, and timbre of sounds. The
+second chapter relates to the organs of hearing, both the peripheric
+organs and the acoustic centers, the anatomy of which is described in
+detail, with excellent and ample illustrations. The third chapter is
+devoted to the sensation of hearing under its various aspects--the
+time required for perception, "hearing in school," the influence of
+habit and attention, orientation of the sound, bilateral sensations,
+effects on the nervous centers, etc., hearing of musical sounds,
+oscillations and aberrations of hearing, auditive memory, obsessions,
+hallucinations of the ear, and colored audition.
+
+[13] L'Audition et ses Organes. By Dr. M. E. Gellé. Paris: Félix Alcan
+(Bibliothèque Scientifique). Pp. 326. Price, six francs.
+
+Prof. _Andrew C. McLaughlin's History of the American Nation_[14] has
+many features to recommend it. It aims to trace the main outlines of
+national development, and to show how the American people came to be
+what they are. These outlines involve the struggle of European powers
+for supremacy in the New World, the victory of England, the growth
+of the English colonies and their steady progress in strength and
+self-reliance till they achieved their independence, the development
+of the American idea of government, its extension across the continent
+and its influence abroad--all achieved in the midst of stirring
+events, social, political, and moral, at the cost sometimes of wars,
+and accompanied by marvelous growth in material prosperity and
+political power. All this the author sets forth, trying to preserve
+the balance of the factors, in a pleasing, easy style. Especial
+attention is paid to political facts, to the rise of parties, to the
+development of governmental machinery, and to questions of government
+and administration. In industrial history those events have been
+selected for mention which seem to have had the most marked effect
+on the progress and make-up of the nation. It is to be desired that
+more attention had been given to social aspects and changes in which
+the development has not been less marked and stirring than in the
+other departments of our history. Indeed, the field for research and
+exposition here is extremely wide and almost infinitely varied, and
+it has hardly yet begun to be worked, and with any fullness only for
+special regions. When he comes to recent events, Professor McLaughlin
+naturally speaks with caution and in rather general terms. It seems
+to us, however, that in the matter of the war with Spain, without
+violating any of the proprieties, he might have given more emphasis
+to the anxious efforts of that country to comply with the demands of
+the administration for the institution of reforms in Cuba; and, in the
+interest of historical truth, he ought not to have left unmentioned the
+very important fact that the Spanish Government offered to refer the
+questions growing out of the blowing up of the Maine to arbitration
+and abide by the result, and our Government made no answer to the
+proposition.
+
+[14] A History of the American Nation. By Andrew C. McLaughlin. New
+York: D. Appleton and Company. Pp. 587. Price, $1.40.
+
+
+Mr. _W. W. Campbell's Elements of Practical Astronomy_[15] is an
+evolution. It grew out of the lessons of his experience in teaching
+rather large classes in astronomy in the University of Michigan, by
+which he was led to the conclusion that the extensive treatises on the
+subject could not be used satisfactorily except in special cases. Brief
+lecture notes were employed in preference. These were written out and
+printed for use in the author's classes. The first edition of the book
+made from them was used in several colleges and universities having
+astronomical departments of high character. The work now appears,
+slightly enlarged, in a second edition. In the present greatly extended
+field of practical astronomy numerous special problems arise, which
+require prolonged efforts on the part of professional astronomers.
+While for the discussion of the methods employed in solving such
+problems the reader is referred to special treatises and journals,
+these methods are all developed from the _elements_ of astronomy and
+the related sciences, of which it is intended that this book shall
+contain the elements of practical astronomy, with numerous references
+to the problems first requiring solution. The author believes that the
+methods of observing employed are illustrations of the best modern
+practice.
+
+[15] The Elements of Practical Astronomy. By W. W. Campbell. Second
+edition, revised and enlarged. New York: The Macmillan Company. Pp.
+264. Price, $2.
+
+
+In _The Characters of Crystals_[16] Prof. _Alfred J. Moses_ has
+attempted to describe, simply and concisely, the methods and apparatus
+used in studying the physical characters of crystals, and to record
+and explain the observed phenomena without complex mathematical
+discussions. The first part of the book relates to the geometrical
+characteristics of crystals, or the relations and determination of
+their forms, including the spherical projection, the thirty-two classes
+of forms, the measurement of crystal angles, and crystal projection
+or drawing. The optical characters and their determination are the
+subject of the second part. In the third part the thermal, magnetic,
+and electrical characters and the characters dependent upon electricity
+(elastic and permanent deformations) are treated of. A suggested
+outline of a course in physical crystallography is added, which
+includes preliminary experiments with the systematic examination of the
+crystals of any substance, and corresponds with the graduate course
+in physical crystallography given in Columbia University. The book is
+intended to be useful to organic chemists, geologists, mineralogists,
+and others interested in the study of crystals. The treatment is
+necessarily technical.
+
+[16] The Characters of Crystals. An Introduction to Physical
+Crystallography. By Alfred J. Moses. New York: D. Van Nostrand Company.
+Pp. 211. Price, $2.
+
+
+A book describing the _Practical Methods of identifying Minerals in
+Rock Sections with the Microscope_[17] has been prepared by Mr. _L.
+McI. Luquer_ to ease the path of the student inexperienced in optical
+mineralogy by putting before him only those facts which are absolutely
+necessary for the proper recognition and identification of the minerals
+in thin sections. The microscopic and optical characters of the
+minerals are recorded in the order in which they would be observed with
+a petrographical microscope; when the sections are opaque, attention
+is called to the fact, and the characters are recorded as seen with
+incident light. The order of Rosenbusch, which is based on the symmetry
+of the crystalline form, is followed, with a few exceptions made
+for convenience. In an introductory chapter a practical elementary
+knowledge of optics as applied to optical mineralogy is attempted to
+be given, without going into an elaborate discussion of the subject.
+The petrographical microscope is described in detail. The application
+of it to the investigation of mineral characteristics is set forth in
+general and as to particular minerals. The preparation of sections and
+practical operations are described, and an optical scheme is appended,
+with the minerals grouped according to their common optical characters.
+
+[17] Minerals in Rock Sections; the Practical Method of identifying
+Minerals in Rock Sections with the Microscope. Especially arranged for
+Students in Scientific Schools. By Lea McIlvaine Luquer. New York: D.
+Van Nostrand Company. Pp. 117.
+
+
+Mr. _Herbert C. Whitaker's_ _Elements of Trigonometry_[18] is concise
+and of very convenient size for use. The introduction and the first
+five of the seven chapters have been prepared for the use of beginners.
+The other two chapters concern the properties of triangles and
+spherical triangles; an appendix presents the theory of logarithms;
+and a second appendix, treating of goniometry, complex quantities,
+and complex functions, has been added for students intending to take
+up work in higher departments of mathematics. For assisting a clearer
+understanding of the several processes, the author has sought to
+associate closely with every equation a definite meaning with reference
+to a diagram. Other characteristics of the book are the practical
+applications to mechanics, surveying, and other everyday problems;
+its many references to astronomical problems, and the constant use of
+geometry as a starting point and standard.
+
+[18] Elements of Trigonometry, with Tables. By Herbert C. Whitaker.
+Philadelphia: Eldredge & Brother. Pp. 200.
+
+
+A model in suggestions for elementary teaching is offered in
+_California Plants in their Homes_,[19] by _Alice Merritt Davidson_,
+formerly of the State Normal School, California. The book consists
+of two parts, a botanical reader for children and a supplement for
+the use of teachers, both divisions being also published in separate
+volumes. It is well illustrated, provided with an index and an outline
+of lessons adapted to different grades. The treatment of each theme is
+fresh, and the grouping novel, as is indicated by the chapter headings:
+Some Plants that lead Easy Lives, Plants that know how to meet Hard
+Times, Plants that do not make their own Living, Plants with Mechanical
+Genius. Although specially designed for the study of the flora of
+southern California, embodying the results of ten years' observation by
+the author, it may be recommended to science teachers in any locality
+as an excellent guide. The pupil in this vicinity will have to forego
+personal inspection of the shooting-star and mariposa lily, while he
+finds the century plant, yuccas, and cacti domiciled in the greenhouse.
+In addition to these, however, attention is directed to a sufficient
+number of familiar flowers, trees, ferns, and fungi for profitable
+study, and the young novice in botany can scarcely make a better
+beginning than in company with this skillful instructor.
+
+[19] California Plants in their Homes. By Alice Merritt Davidson. Los
+Angeles, Cal.: B .R. Baumgardt & Co. Pp. 215-133.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Prof. _John M. Coulter's Plant Relations_[20] is one of two parts of a
+system of teaching botany proposed by the author. Each of the two books
+is to represent the work of half a year, but each is to be independent
+of the other, and they may be used in either order. The two books
+relate respectively, as a whole, to ecology, or the life relations of
+surroundings of plants, and to their morphology. The present volume
+concerns the ecology. While it may be to the disadvantage of presenting
+ecology first, that it conveys no knowledge of plant structures and
+plant groups, this disadvantage is compensated for, in the author's
+view, by the facts that the study of the most evident life relations
+gives a proper conception of the place of plants in Nature; that it
+offers a view of the plant kingdom of the most permanent value to those
+who can give but a half year to botany; and that it demands little or
+no use of the compound microscope, an instrument ill adapted to first
+contacts with Nature. The book is intended to present a connected,
+readable account of some of the fundamental facts of botany, and also
+to serve as a supplement to the three far more important factors
+of the teacher, who must amplify and suggest at every point; the
+laboratory, which must bring the pupil face to face with plants and
+their structure; and field work, which must relate the facts observed
+in the laboratory to their actual place in Nature, and must bring new
+facts to notice which can be observed nowhere else. Taking the results
+obtained from these three factors, the book seeks to organize them, and
+to suggest explanations, through a clear, untechnical, compact text and
+appropriate and excellent illustrations.
+
+[20] Plant Relations. A First Book of Botany. By John M. Coulter. New
+York: D. Appleton and Company. (Twentieth Century Text Books.) Pp. 264.
+Price, $1.10.
+
+
+The title of _The Wilderness of Worlds_[21] was suggested to the author
+by the contemplation of a wilderness of trees, in which those near him
+are very large, while in the distance they seem successively smaller,
+and gradually fade away till the limit of vision is reached. So of the
+wilderness of worlds in space, with its innumerable stars of gradually
+diminishing degrees of visibility--worlds "of all ages like the trees,
+and the great deep of space is covered with their dust, and pulsating
+with the potency of new births." The body of the book is a review of
+the history of the universe and all that is of it, in the light of
+the theory of evolution, beginning with the entities of space, time,
+matter, force, and motion, and the processes of development from the
+nebulæ as they are indicated by the most recent and best verified
+researches, and terminating with the ultimate extinction of life and
+the end of the planet. In the chapter entitled A Vision of Peace the
+author confronts religion and science. He regards the whole subject
+from the freethinker's point of view, with a denial of all agency of
+the supernatural.
+
+[21] The Wilderness of Worlds. A Popular Sketch of the Evolution of
+Matter from Nebula to Man and Return. The Life-Orbit of a Star. By
+George W. Morehouse. New York: Peter Eckler. Pp. 246. Price, $1.
+
+
+In a volume entitled _The Living Organism_[22] Mr. _Alfred Earl_ has
+endeavored to make a philosophical introduction to the study of
+biology. The closing paragraph of his preface is of interest as showing
+his views regarding vitalism: "The object of the book will be attained
+if it succeeds, although it may be chiefly by negative criticism, in
+directing attention to the important truth that, though chemical and
+physical changes enter largely into the composition of vital activity,
+there is much in the living organism that is outside the range of these
+operations." The first three chapters discuss general conceptions,
+and are chiefly psychology. A discussion of the structures accessory
+to alimentation in man and the higher animals occupies Chapters IV
+and V. The Object of Classification, Certain General Statements
+concerning Organisms, A Description of the Organism as related to
+its Surroundings, The Material Basis of Life, The Organism as a
+Chemical Aggregate and as a Center for the Transformation of Energy,
+Certain Aspects of Form and Development, The Meaning of Sensation,
+and, finally, Some of the Problems presented by the Organism, are
+the remaining chapter headings. The volume contains many interesting
+suggestions, and might perhaps most appropriately be described as a
+Theoretical Biology.
+
+[22] The Living Organism. By Alfred Earl, M. A. New York: The Macmillan
+Company. Pp. 271. Price, $1.75.
+
+
+"_Stars and Telescopes_,"[23] Professor _Todd_ says, "is intended
+to meet an American demand for a plain, unrhetorical statement of
+the astronomy of to-day." We might state the purpose to be to bring
+astronomy and all that pertains to it up to date. It is hard to do
+this, for the author has been obliged to put what was then the latest
+discovery, made while the book was going through the press, in a
+footnote at the end of the preface. The information embodied in the
+volume is comprehensive, and is conveyed in a very intelligible style.
+The treatise begins with a running commentary or historical outline
+of astronomical discovery, with a rigid exclusion of all detail. The
+account of the earth and moon is followed by chapters on the Calendar
+and the Astronomical Relations of Light. The other members of the
+solar system are described and their relations reviewed, and then the
+comets and the stars. Closely associated with these subjects are the
+men who have contributed to knowledge respecting them, and consequently
+the names of the great discoverers and others who have helped in the
+advancement of astronomy are introduced in immediate connection with
+their work, in brief sketches and often with their portraits. Much
+importance is attributed by Professor Todd to the instruments with
+which astronomical discovery is carried on, and the book may be said to
+culminate in an account of the famous instruments, their construction,
+mounting, and use. The devisers of these instruments are entitled to
+more credit than the unthinking are always inclined to give them, for
+the value of an observation depends on the accuracy of the instrument
+as well as on the skill of the observer, and the skill which makes
+the instrument accurate is not to be underrated. So the makers of
+the instruments are given their place. Then the recent and improved
+processes have to be considered, and, altogether, Professor Todd has
+found material for a full and somewhat novel book, and has used it to
+good advantage.
+
+[23] Stars and Telescopes A Handbook of Popular Astronomy. Boston:
+Little, Brown & Co. Pp. 419. Price, $2.
+
+
+_Some Observations on the Fundamental Principles of Nature_ is the
+title of an essay by _Henry Witt_, which, though very brief, takes
+the world of matter, mind, and society within its scope. One of the
+features of the treatment is that instead of the present theory of
+an order of things resulting from the condensation of more rarefied
+matter, one of the organization of converging waves of infinitesimal
+atoms filling all space is substituted. With this point prominently
+in view, the various factors and properties of the material
+universe--biology, psychology, sociology, ethics, and the future--are
+treated of.
+
+
+Among the later monographs published by the Field Columbian Museum,
+Chicago, is a paper in the Geological Series (No. 3) on _The Ores of
+Colombia, from Mines in Operation in 1892_, by _H. W. Nichols_. It
+describes the collection prepared for the Columbian Exposition by F.
+Pereira Gamba and afterward given to the museum--a collection which
+merits attention for the light it throws upon the nature and mode of
+occurrence of the ores of one of the most important gold-producing
+countries of the world, and also because it approaches more nearly
+than is usual the ideal of what a collection in economic geology
+should be. Other publications in the museum's Geological Series are
+_The Mylagauldæ, an Extinct Family of Sciuromorph Rodents_ (No. 4),
+by _E. S. Riggs_, describing some squirrel-like animals from the
+Deep River beds, near White Sulphur Springs, Montana; _A Fossil Egg
+from South Dakota_ (No. 5), by _O. C. Farrington_, relative to the
+egg of an anatine bird from the early Miocene; and _Contributions to
+the Paleontology of the Upper Cretaceous Series_ (No. 6), by _W. N.
+Logan_, in which seven species of _Scaphites_, _Ostrea_, _Gasteropoda_,
+and corals are described. In the Zoölogical Series, _Preliminary
+Descriptions of New Rodents from the Olympic Mountains_ (of Washington)
+(No. 11), by _D. G. Elliot_, relates to six species; _Notes on a
+Collection of Cold-blooded Vertebrates from the Olympic Mountains_ (No.
+12), by _S. E. Meek_, to six trout and three other fish, four amphibia,
+and three reptiles; and a _Catalogue of Mammals from the Olympic
+Mountains, Washington_, with descriptions of new species (No. 13), by
+_D. G. Elliot_, includes a number of species of rodents, lynx, bear,
+and deer.
+
+
+_Some Notes on Chemical Jurisprudence_ is the title given by _Harwood
+Huntington_ (260 West Broadway, New York; 25 cents) to a brief digest
+of patent-law cases involving chemistry. The notes are designed to be
+of use to chemists intending to take out patents by presenting some
+of the difficulties attendant upon drawing up a patent strong enough
+to stand a lawsuit, and by explaining some points of law bearing on
+the subject. In most, if not all, cases where the chemist has devised
+a new method or application it is best, the author holds, to take out
+a patent for self-protection, else the inventor may find his device
+stolen from him and patented against him.
+
+
+A cave or fissure in the Cambrian limestone of Port Kennedy, Montgomery
+County, Pa., exposed by quarrymen the year before, was brought to the
+knowledge of geologists by Mr. Charles M. Wheatley in 1871, when the
+fossils obtained from it were determined by Prof. E. D. Cope as of
+thirty-four species. Attention was again called to the paleontological
+interest of the locality by President Dixon, of the Academy of Natural
+Sciences of Philadelphia, in 1894. The fissure was examined again by
+Dr. Dixon and others, and was more thoroughly explored by Mr. Henry C.
+Mercer. Mr. Mercer published a preliminary account of the work, which
+was followed by the successive studies of the material by Professor
+Cope preliminary to a complete and illustrated report to be made after
+a full investigation of all accessible material. Professor Cope did not
+live to publish this full report, which was his last work, prepared
+during the suffering of his final illness. It is now published, just
+as the author left it, as _Vertebrate Remains from the Port Kennedy
+Deposit_, from the Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of
+Philadelphia. Four plates of illustrations, photographed from the
+remains, accompany the text.
+
+
+The machinery of Mr. _Fred A. Lucas's_ story of _The Hermit
+Naturalist_ reminds us of that of the old classical French romances,
+like Télémaque, and the somewhat artificial, formal diction is not
+dissimilar. An accident brings the author into acquaintance and
+eventual intimacy with an old Sicilian naturalist, who, migrating to
+this country, has established a home, away from the world's life, on
+an island in the Delaware River. The two find a congenial subject of
+conversation in themes of natural history, and the bulk of the book is
+in effect a running discourse by the old Sicilian on snakes and their
+habits--a valuable and interesting lesson. The hermit has a romance,
+involving the loss of his motherless daughter, stolen by brigands and
+brought to America, his long search for her and resignation of hope,
+and her ultimate discovery and restoration to him. The book is of easy
+reading, both as to its natural history and the romance.
+
+
+We have two papers before us on the question of expansion. One is an
+address delivered by John Barrett, late United States Minister to
+Siam, before the Shanghai General Chamber of Commerce, and previous
+to the beginning of the attempt to subjugate the islands, on _The
+Philippine Islands and American Interests in the Far East_. This
+address has, we believe, been since followed by others, and in all
+Mr. Barrett favors the acquisition of the Philippine Islands on the
+grounds, among others, of commercial interests and the capacity of the
+Filipinos for development in further civilization and self-government;
+but his arguments, in the present aspect of the Philippine question,
+seem to us to bear quite as decidedly in the opposite direction. He
+gives the following picture of Aguinaldo and the Filipino government:
+"He (Aguinaldo) captured all Spanish garrisons on the island of
+Luzon outside of Manila, so that when the Americans were ready to
+proceed against the city they were not delayed and troubled with a
+country campaign. Moreover, he has organized a government which has
+practically been administering the affairs of the great island since
+the American occupation of Manila, and which is certainly better
+than the former administration; he has a properly formed Cabinet and
+Congress, the members of which, in appearance and manners, would
+compare favorably with Japanese statesmen. He has among his advisers
+men of ability as international lawyers, while his supporters include
+most of the prominent educated and wealthy natives, all of which prove
+possibilities of self-government that we must consider." This pamphlet
+is published at Hong Kong. The other paper is an address delivered
+before the New York State Bar Association, by _Charles A. Gardiner_, on
+_Our Right to acquire and hold Foreign Territory_, and is published by
+G. P. Putnam's Sons in the Questions of the Day Series. Mr. Gardiner
+holds and expresses the broadest views of the constitutional power
+of our Government to commit the acts named, and to exercise all the
+attributes incidental to the possession of acquired territory, but he
+thinks that we need a great deal of legal advice in the matter.
+
+
+A pamphlet, _Anti-Imperialism_, by _Morrison L. Swift_, published by
+the Public Ownership Review, Los Angeles, Cal., covers the subject of
+English and American aggression in three chapters--Imperialism to bless
+the Conquered, Imperialism for the Sake of Mankind, and Our Crime in
+the Philippines. Mr. Swift is very earnest in respect to some of the
+subjects touched upon in his essays, and some persons may object that
+he is more forcible--even to excess--than polite in his denunciations.
+To such he may perhaps reply that there are things which language does
+not afford words too strong to characterize fitly.
+
+
+Among the papers read at the Fourth International Catholic Scientific
+Congress, held at Fribourg, Switzerland, in August, 1897, was one by
+_William J. D. Croke_ on _Architecture, Painting, and Printing at
+Subiaco_ as represented in the Abbey at Subiaco. The author regards the
+features of the three arts represented in this place as evidence that
+the record of the activity of the foundation constitutes a real chapter
+in the history of progress in general and of culture in particular.
+
+
+
+
+PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.
+
+
+Benson, E. F. Mammon & Co. New York: D. Appleton and Company. Pp. 360.
+$1.50.
+
+Buckley, James A. Extemporaneous Oratory. For Professional and Amateur
+Speakers. New York: Eaton & Mains. Pp. 480. $1.50.
+
+Canada, Dominion of, Experimental Farms: Reports for 1897. Pp. 449;
+Reports for 1898. Pp. 429.
+
+Conn, H. W. The Story of Germ Life. (Library of Useful Stories.) New
+York: D. Appleton and Company. Pp. 199. 40 cents.
+
+Dana, Edward S. First Appendix to the Sixth Edition of Dana's
+Mineralogy. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Pp. 75. $1.
+
+Franklin Institute, The Drawing School, also School of Elementary
+Mathematics: Announcements. Pp. 4 each.
+
+Ganong, William F. The Teaching Botanist. New York: The Macmillan
+Company. Pp. 270. $1.10.
+
+Getman, F. H. The Elements of Blowpipe Analysis. New York: The
+Macmillan Company. Pp. 77. 60 cents.
+
+Halliday, H. M. An Essay on the Common Origin of Light, Heat, and
+Electricity. Washington, D. C. Pp. 46.
+
+Hardin, Willett L. The Rise and Development of the Liquefaction of
+Gases. New York: The Macmillan Company. Pp. 250. $1.10.
+
+Hillegas, Howard C. Oom Paul's People. A Narrative of the British-Boer
+Troubles in South Africa, with a History of the Boers, the Country, and
+its Institutions. New York: D. Appleton and Company. Pp. 308. $1.50.
+
+Ireland, Alleyne. Tropical Colonization. An Introduction to the Study
+of the Subject. New York: The Macmillan Company. $2.
+
+Kingsley, J. S. Text-Book of Elementary Zoölogy. New York: Henry Holt &
+Co. Pp. 439.
+
+Knerr, E. B. Relativity in Science. Silico-Barite Nodules from near
+Salina. Concretions. (Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science.)
+Pp. 24.
+
+Krõmskõp, Color Photography. Philadelphia: Ives Krõmskõp. Pp. 24.
+
+Liquid-Air Power and Automobile Company. Prospectus. Pp. 16.
+
+MacBride, Thomas A. The North American Slime Molds. Being a List of
+Species of Myxomycetes hitherto described from North America, Including
+Central America. New York: The Macmillan Company. Pp. 231, with 18
+plates. $2.25.
+
+Meyer, A. B. The Distribution of the Negritos in the Philippine Islands
+and Elsewhere. Dresden (Saxony): Stengel & Co. Pp. 92.
+
+Nicholson, H. H., and Avery, Samuel. Laboratory Exercises with Outlines
+for the Study of Chemistry, to accompany any Elementary Text. New York:
+Henry Holt & Co. Pp. 134. 60 cents.
+
+Scharff, R. P. The History of the European Fauna. New York: Imported by
+Charles Scribner's Sons. Pp. 354. $1.50.
+
+Schleicher, Charles, and Schull, Duren. Rhenish Prussia. Samples of
+Special Filtering Papers. New York: Eimer & Amend, agents.
+
+Sharpe, Benjamin F. An Advance in Measuring and Photographing Sounds.
+United States Weather Bureau. Pp. 18, with plates.
+
+Shinn, Milicent W. Notes on the Development of a Child. Parts III and
+IV. (University of California Studies.) Pp. 224.
+
+Shoemaker, M. M. Quaint Corners of Ancient Empires, Southern India,
+Burmah, and Manila. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. Pp. 212.
+
+Smith, Orlando J. A Short View of Great Questions. New York: The
+Brandur Company, 220 Broadway. Pp. 75.
+
+Smith, Walter. Methods of Knowledge. An Essay in Epistemology. New
+York: The Macmillan Company. Pp. 340. $1.25.
+
+Southern, The, Magazine. Monthly. Vol. I, No. 1. August, 1899. Pp. 203.
+10 cents. $1 a year.
+
+Suter, William N. Handbook of Optics. New York: The Macmillan Company.
+Pp. 209. $1.
+
+Tarde, G. Social Laws. An Outline of Sociology. With a Preface by James
+Mark Baldwin. New York: The Macmillan Company. Pp. 213. $1.25.
+
+Uline, Edwin B. Higinbothamia. A New Genus, and other New Dioscoreaceæ,
+New Amaranthaceæ. (Field Columbian Museum, Chicago Botanical Series.)
+Pp. 12.
+
+Underwood, Lucien M. Molds, Mildews, and Mushrooms. New York: Henry
+Holt & Co. Pp. 227, with 9 plates. $1.50.
+
+United States Civil-Service Commission. Fifteenth Report, July 1, 1897,
+to June 30, 1898. Pp. 736. Washington.
+
+
+
+
+Fragments of Science.
+
+
+The Dover Meeting of the British Association.--While the attendance
+on the meeting of the British Association at Dover was not large--the
+whole number of members being 1,403, of whom 127 were ladies--the
+occasion was in other respects eventful and one of marked interest. The
+papers read were, as a rule, of excellent quality, and the interchange
+of visits with the French Association was a novel feature that might
+bear many repetitions. The president, Sir Michael Foster, presented, in
+his inaugural address, a picture of the state of science one hundred
+years ago, illustrating it by portraying the conditions to which a
+body like the association meeting then at Dover would have found
+itself subject, and suggesting the topics it would have discussed.
+The period referred to was, however, that of the beginning of the
+present progress, and, after remarking on what had been accomplished
+in the interval, the speaker drew a very hopeful foreview for the
+future. Besides the intellectual triumphs of science, its strengthening
+discipline, its relation to politics, and the "international
+brotherhood of science" were brought under notice in the address. In
+his address as president of the Physical Section, Prof. J. H. Poynting
+showed how physicists are tending toward a general agreement as to
+the nature of the laws in which they embody their discoveries, of the
+explanations they give, and of the hypotheses they make, and, having
+considered what the form and terms of this agreement should be, passed
+to a discussion of the limitations of physical science. The subject of
+Dr. Horace T. Brown's Chemical Section address was The Assimilation
+of Carbon by the Higher Plants. Sir William H. White, president of
+the Section of Mechanical Science, spoke on Steam Navigation at High
+Speeds. President Adam Sedgwick addressed the Zoölogical Section on
+Variation and some Phenomena connected with Reproduction and Sex; Sir
+John Murray, the Geographical Section on The Ocean Floor; and Mr. J.
+N. Langley, the Physiological Section on the general relations of
+the motor nerves to the several tissues of the body, especially of
+those which run to tissues over which we have little or no control.
+The president of the Anthropological Section, Mr. C. H. Read, of the
+British Museum, spoke of the preservation and proper exploration of
+the prehistoric antiquities of the country, and offered a plan for
+increasing the amount of work done in anthropological investigation
+by the use of Government aid. A peculiar distinction attaches to
+this meeting through its reception and entertainment of the French
+Association, and the subsequent return of the courtesy by the latter
+body at Boulogne. About three hundred of the French Associationists,
+among whom were many ladies, came over, on the Saturday of the meeting,
+under the lead of their president, M. Brouardel, and accompanied by a
+number of men of science from Belgium. They were met at the pier by the
+officers of the British Association, and were escorted to the place
+of meeting and to the sectional meetings toward which their several
+tastes directed them. The geological address of Sir Archibald Geikie
+on Geological Time had been appointed for this day out of courtesy to
+the French geologists, and in order that they might have an opportunity
+of hearing one of the great lights of British science. Among the
+listeners who sat upon the platform were M. Gosselet, president of
+the French Geological Society; M. Kemna, president of the Belgian
+Geological Society; and M. Rénard, of Ghent. Public evening lectures
+were delivered on the Centenary of the Electric Current, by Prof. J.
+A. Fleming, and (in French) on Nervous Vibration, by Prof. Charles
+Richet. Sir William Turner was appointed president for the Bradford
+meeting of the association (1900). The visit of the French Association
+was returned on September 22d, when the president, officers, and about
+three hundred members went to Boulogne. They were welcomed by the mayor
+of the city, the prefect of the department, and a representative of
+the French Government; were feasted by the municipality of Boulogne;
+were entertained by the members of the French Association; and special
+commemorative medals were presented by the French Association to the
+two presidents. The British visitors also witnessed the inauguration of
+a tablet in memory of Dr. Duchesne, and of a plaque commemorative of
+Thomas Campbell, the poet, who died in Boulogne.
+
+
+Artificial India Rubber.--A recent issue of the Kew Gardens Bulletin
+contains an interesting article on Dr. Tilden's artificial production
+of India rubber. India rubber, or caoutchouc, is chemically a
+hydrocarbon, but its molecular constitution is unknown. When decomposed
+by heat it is broken up into simpler hydrocarbons, among which is a
+substance called isoprene, a volatile liquid boiling at about 36° C.
+Its molecular formula is C_{5}H_{8}. Dr. Tilden obtained this same
+substance (isoprene) from oil of turpentine and other terpenes by the
+action of moderate heat, and then by treating the isoprene with strong
+acids succeeded, by means of a very slow reaction, in converting a
+small portion of it into a tough elastic solid, which seems to be
+identical in properties with true India rubber. This artificial rubber,
+like the natural, seems to consist of two substances, one of which is
+more soluble in benzene and carbon bisulphide than the other. It unites
+with sulphur in the same way as ordinary rubber, forming a tough,
+elastic compound. In a recent letter Professor Tilden says: "As you may
+imagine, I have tried everything I can think of as likely to promote
+this change, but without success. The polymerization proceeds _very_
+slowly, occupying, according to my experience, several years, and all
+attempts to hurry it result in the production not of rubber, but of
+'colophene,' a thick, sticky oil quite useless for all purposes to
+which rubber is applied."
+
+
+Dangers of High Altitudes for Elderly People.--"The public, and
+sometimes the inexperienced physician--inexperienced not in general
+therapeutics but in the physiological effects of altitude on a weak
+heart," says Dr. Findlater Zangger in the Lancet, "make light of
+a danger they can not understand. But if an altitude of from four
+thousand to five thousand feet above the sea level puts a certain
+amount of strain on a normal heart and by a rise of the blood-pressure
+indirectly also on the small peripheral arteries, must not this
+action be multiplied in the case of a heart suffering from even an
+early stage of myocarditis or in the case of arteries with thickened
+or even calcified walls? It is especially the rapidity of the change
+from one altitude to another, with differences of from three thousand
+to four thousand feet, which must be considered. There is a call
+made on the contractibility of the small arteries on the one hand,
+and on the amount of muscular force of the heart on the other hand,
+and if the structures in question can not respond to this call,
+rupture of an artery or dilatation of the heart may ensue. In the
+case of a normal condition of the circulatory organs little harm is
+done beyond some transient discomfort, such as dizziness, buzzing in
+the ears, palpitation, general _malaise_, and this often only in the
+case of people totally unaccustomed to high altitudes. For such it is
+desirable to take the high altitude by degrees in two or three stages,
+say first stage 1,500 feet, second stage from 2,500 to 3,000 feet,
+and third stage from 4,000 to 6,000 feet, with a stay of one or two
+days at the intermediate places. The stay at the health resort will
+be shortened, it is true, but the patient will derive more benefit.
+On the return journey one short stay at one intermediate place will
+suffice. Even a fairly strong heart will not stand an overstrain in
+the first days spent at a high altitude. A Dutch lady, about forty
+years of age, who had spent a lifetime in the lowlands, came directly
+up to Adelboden (altitude, 4,600 feet). After two days she went on an
+excursion with a party up to an Alp 7,000 feet high, making the ascent
+quite slowly in four hours. Sudden heart syncope ensued, which lasted
+the best part of an hour, though I chanced to be near and could give
+assistance, which was urgently needed. The patient recovered, but
+derived no benefit from a fortnight's stay, and had to return to the
+low ground the worse for her trip and her inconsiderate enterprise.
+Rapid ascents to a high altitude are very injurious to patients with
+arterio-sclerosis, and the mountain railways up to seven thousand and
+ten thousand feet are positively dangerous to an unsuspecting public,
+for many persons between the ages of fifty-five and seventy years
+consider themselves to be hale and healthy, and are quite unconscious
+of having advanced arterio-sclerosis and perchance contracted kidney.
+An American gentleman, aged fifty-eight years, was under my care for
+slight symptoms of angina pectoris, pointing to sclerosis of the
+coronary arteries. A two-months' course of treatment at Zurich with
+massage, baths, and proper exercise and diet did away with all the
+symptoms. I saw him by chance some months later. 'My son is going to
+St. Moritz (six thousand feet) for the summer,' said he; 'may I go with
+him?' 'Most certainly not,' was my answer. The patient then consulted
+a professor, who allowed him to go. Circumstances, however, took him
+for the summer to Sachseln, which is situated at an altitude of only
+two thousand feet, and he spent a good summer. But he must needs go up
+the Pilatus by rail (seven thousand feet), relying on the professor's
+permission, and the result was disastrous, for he almost died from a
+violent attack of angina pectoris on the night of his return from the
+Pilatus, and vowed on his return to Zurich to keep under three thousand
+feet in future. I may here mention that bad results in the shape of
+heart collapse, angina pectoris, cardiac asthma, and last, not least,
+apoplexy, often occur only on the return to the lowlands."
+
+
+The Parliamentary Amenities Committee.--Under the above rather
+misleading title there was formed last year, in the English Parliament,
+a committee for the purpose of promoting concerted action in the
+preservation and protection of landmarks of general public interest,
+historic buildings, famous battlefields, and portions of landscape of
+unusual scenic beauty or geological conformation, and also for the
+protection from entire extinction of the various animals and even
+plants which the spread of civilization is gradually pushing to the
+wall. In reality, it is an official society for the preservation of
+those things among the works of past man and Nature which, owing to
+their lack of direct money value, are in danger of destruction in
+this intensely commercial age. Despite the comparative newness of the
+American civilization, there are already many relics belonging to the
+history of our republic whose preservation is very desirable, as well
+as very doubtful, if some such public-spirited committee does not
+take the matter in hand; and, as regards the remains of the original
+Americans, in which the country abounds, the necessity is still more
+immediate. The official care of Nature's own curiosities is equally
+needed, as witness the way in which the Hudson River palisades are
+being mutilated, and the constant raids upon our city parks for
+speedways, parade grounds, etc. The great value of a parliamentary or
+congressional committee of this sort lies in the fact that its opinions
+are not only based upon expert knowledge, but that they can be to an
+extent enforced; whereas such a body of men with no official position
+may go on making suggestions and protesting, as have numerous such
+bodies for years, without producing any practical results. The matter
+is, with us perhaps, one of more importance to future generations; but
+as all Nature seems ordered primarily with reference to the future
+welfare of the race, rather than for the comfort of its present
+members, the necessity for such an official body, whose specific
+business should be to look after the preservation of objects of
+historical interest to the succeeding centuries, ought to be inculcated
+in us as a part of the general evolutionary scheme.
+
+
+Physical Measurements of Asylum Children.--Dr. Ales Hrdlicka has
+published an account of anthropological investigations and measurements
+which he has made upon one thousand white and colored children in
+the New York Juvenile Asylum and one hundred colored children in
+the Colored Orphan Asylum, for information about the physical state
+of the children who are admitted and kept in juvenile asylums, and
+particularly to learn whether there is anything physically abnormal
+about them. Some abnormality in the social or moral condition of such
+children being assumed, if they are also physically inferior to other
+children, they would have to be considered generally handicapped in the
+struggle for life; but if they do not differ greatly in strength and
+constitution from the average ordinary children, then their state would
+be much more hopeful. Among general facts concerning the condition of
+the children in the Juvenile Asylum, Dr. Hrdlicka learned that when
+admitted to the institution they are almost always in some way morally
+and physically inferior to healthy children from good social classes
+at large--the result, usually, of neglect or improper nutrition or
+both. Within a month, or even a week, decided changes for the better
+are observed, and after their admission the individuals of the same sex
+and age seem gradually, while preserving the fundamental differences
+of their nature, to show less of their former diversity and grow more
+alike. In learning, the newcomers are more or less retarded when put
+into the school, but in a great majority of cases they begin to acquire
+rapidly, and the child usually reaches the average standing of the
+class. Inveterate backwardness in learning is rare. Physically, about
+one seventh of all the inmates of the asylum were without a blemish
+on their bodies--a proportion which will not seem small to persons
+well versed in analyses of the kind. The differences in the physical
+standing of the boys and the girls were not so great or so general as
+to permit building a hypothesis upon them, though the girls came out a
+little the better. The colored boys seemed to be physically somewhat
+inferior to the white ones, but the number of them was not large enough
+to justify a conclusion. Of the children not found perfect, two hundred
+presented only a single abnormality, and this usually so small as
+hardly to justify excluding them from the class of perfect. Regarding
+as decidedly abnormal only those in whom one half the parts of the body
+showed defects, the number was eighty-seven. "Should we, for the sake
+of illustration, express the physical condition of the children by such
+terms as fine, medium, and bad, the fine and bad would embrace in all
+192 individuals, while 808 would remain as medium." All the classes
+of abnormalities--congenital, pathological, and acquired--seemed more
+numerous in the boys than in the girls. The colored children showed
+fewer inborn abnormalities than the white, but more pathological and
+acquired. No child was found who could be termed a thorough physical
+degenerate, and the author concludes that the majority of the class of
+children dealt with are physically fairly average individuals.
+
+
+Busy Birds.--A close observation of a day's work of busy activity, of
+a day's work of the chipping sparrow hunting and catching insects to
+feed its young, is recorded by Clarence M. Weed in a Bulletin of the
+New Hampshire College Agricultural Experiment Station. Mr. Weed began
+his watch before full daylight in the morning, ten minutes before the
+bird got off from its nest, and continued it till after dark. During
+the busy day Mr. Weed says, in his summary, the parent birds made
+almost two hundred visits to the nest, bringing food nearly every time,
+though some of the trips seem to have been made to furnish grit for the
+grinding of the food. There was no long interval when they were not at
+work, the longest period between visits being twenty-seven minutes.
+Soft-bodied caterpillars were the most abundant elements of the food,
+but crickets and crane flies were also seen, and doubtless a great
+variety of insects were taken, but precise determination of the quality
+of most of the food brought was of course impossible. The observations
+were undertaken especially to learn the regularity of the feeding
+habits of the adult birds. The chipping sparrow is one of the most
+abundant and familiar of our birds. It seeks its nesting site in the
+vicinity of houses, and spends most of its time searching for insects
+in grass lands or cultivated fields and gardens. In New England two
+broods are usually reared each season. That the young keep the parents
+busy catching insects and related creatures for their food is shown by
+the minute record which the author publishes in his paper. The bird
+deserves all the protection and encouragement that can be given it.
+
+
+Park-making among the Sand Dunes.--For the creation of Golden Gate Park
+the park-makers of San Francisco had a series of sand hills, "hills on
+hills, all of sand-dune formation." The city obtained a strip of land
+lying between the bay and the ocean, yet close enough to the center of
+population to be cheaply and easily reached from all parts of the town.
+Work was begun in 1869, and has been prosecuted steadily since, with
+increasing appropriations, and the results are a credit to the city,
+Golden Gate Park, Mr. Frank H. Lamb says in his account of it in The
+Forester, having a charm that distinguishes it from other city parks.
+It has a present area of 1,040 acres, of which 300 acres have been
+sufficiently reclaimed to be planted with coniferous trees." It is this
+portion of the park which the visitor sees as one of the sights of the
+Golden Gate." As he rides through the park out toward the Cliff House
+and Sutro Heights by the Sea," he sees still great stretches of sand,
+some loose, some still held in place by the long stems and rhizomes of
+the sand grass (_Arundo arenaria_). This is the preparatory stage in
+park-making. The method in brief is as follows: The shifting sand is
+seeded with _Arundo arenaria_, and this is allowed to grow two years,
+when the ground is sufficiently held in place to begin the second
+stage of reclamation, which consists in planting arboreal species,
+generally the Monterey pine (_Pinus insignis_) and the Monterey cypress
+(_Cupressus macrocarpus_); with these are also planted the smaller
+_Leptospermum lævigatum_ and _Acacia latifolia_. These species in
+two or more years complete the reclamation, and then attention is
+directed to making up all losses of plants and encouraging growth as
+much as possible." The entire cost of reclamation by these methods is
+represented not to average more than fifty dollars per acre.
+
+
+A Fossiliferous Formation below the Cambrian.--Mr. George F. Matthew
+said, in a communication to the New York Academy of Sciences, that he
+had been aware for several years of the existence of fauna in the rocks
+below those containing _Paradoxides_ and Protolenus in New Brunswick,
+eastern Canada, but that the remains of the higher types of organisms
+found in those rocks were so poorly preserved and fragmentary that
+they gave a very imperfect knowledge of their nature. Only the casts
+of _Hyolithidæ_, the mold of an obolus, a ribbed shell, and parts of
+what appeared to be the arms and bodies of crinoids were known, to
+assure us that there had been living forms in the seas of that early
+time other than Protozoa and burrowing worms. These objects were found
+in the upper division of a series of rocks immediately subjacent
+to the Cambrian strata containing _Protolenus_, etc. As a decided
+physical break was discovered between the strata containing them and
+those having _Protolenus_, the underlying series was thought worthy
+of a distinctive name, and was called Etchemenian, after a tribe of
+aborigines that once inhabited the region. In most countries the
+basement of the Paleozoic sediments seems almost devoid of organic
+remains. Only unsatisfactory results have followed the search for them
+in Europe, and America did not seem to promise a much better return.
+Nevertheless, the indications of a fauna obtained in the maritime
+provinces of Canada seemed to afford a hope that somewhere "these
+basement beds of the Paleozoic might yield remains in a better state
+of preservation." The author, therefore, in the summer of 1898, made
+a visit to a part of Newfoundland where a clear section of sediments
+had been found below the horizons of _Paradoxides_ and _Agraulos
+strenuus_. These formations were examined at Manuel's Brook and Smith's
+Sound. In the beds defined as Etchemenian no trilobites were found,
+though other classes of animals, such as gastropods, brachiopods, and
+lamellibranchs, occur, with which trilobites elsewhere are usually
+associated in the Cambrian and later geological systems. The absence,
+or possibly the rarity of the trilobites appears to have special
+significance in view of their prominence among Cambrian fossils. The
+uniformity of conditions attending the depositions of the Etchemenian
+terrane throughout the Atlantic coast province of the Cambrian is
+spoken of as surprising and as pointing to a quiescent period of long
+continuance, during which the _Hyolithidæ_ and _Capulidæ_ developed
+so as to become the dominant types of the animal world, while the
+brachiopods, the lamellibranchs, and the other gastropods still were
+puny and insignificant. Mr. Matthew last year examined the red shales
+at Braintree, Mass., and was informed by Prof. W. O. Crosby that
+they included many of the types specified as characteristic of the
+Etchemenian fauna, and that no trilobites had with certainty been
+obtained from them. The conditions of their deposition closely resemble
+those of the Etchemenian of Newfoundland.
+
+
+The Paris Exposition, 1900, and Congresses.--The grounds of the Paris
+Exposition of 1900 extend from the southwest angle of the Place de la
+Concorde along both banks of the Seine, nearly a mile and a half, to
+the Avenue de Suffren, which forms the western boundary of the Champ de
+Mars. The principal exhibition spaces are the Park of the Art palaces
+and the Esplanade des Invalides at the east, and the Champ de Mars and
+the Trocadéro at the west. Many entrances and exits will be provided,
+but the principal and most imposing one will be erected at the Place
+de la Concorde, in the form of a triumphal arch. Railways will be
+provided to bring visitors from the city to the grounds, and another
+railway will make their entire circuit. The total surface occupied by
+the exposition grounds is three hundred and thirty-six acres, while
+that of the exposition of 1889 was two hundred and forty acres. Another
+area has been secured in the Park of Vincennes for the exhibition of
+athletic games, sports, etc. The displays will be installed for the
+most part by groups instead of nations. The International Congress of
+Prehistoric Anthropology and Archæology will be held in connection
+with the exposition, August 20th to August 25th. The arrangements for
+it are under the charge of a committee that includes the masters and
+leading representatives of the science in France, of which M. le Dr.
+Verneau, 148 Rue Broca, Paris, is secretary general. A congress of
+persons interested in aërial navigation will be held in the Observatory
+of Meudon, the director of which, M. Janssen, is president of the
+Organizing Committee. Correspondence respecting this congress should be
+addressed to the secretary general, M. Triboulet, Director de Journal
+l'Aeronaute, 10 Rue de la Pepinière, Paris.
+
+
+English Plant Names.--Common English and American names of plants
+are treated by Britton and Brown, in their Illustrated Flora of the
+Northern United States, Canada, and the British possessions, as full of
+interest from their origin, history, and significance. As observed in
+Britton and Holland's Dictionary, "they are derived from a variety of
+languages, often carrying us back to the early days of our country's
+history and to the various peoples who, as conquerors or colonists,
+have landed on our shores and left an impress on our language. Many of
+these Old-World words are full of poetical association, speaking to
+us of the thoughts and feelings of the Old-World people who invented
+them; others tell of the ancient mythology of our ancestors, of strange
+old mediæval usages, and of superstitions now almost forgotten."
+Most of these names, Britton and Brown continue in the preface to
+the third volume of their work, suggest their own explanation. "The
+greater number are either derived from the supposed uses, qualities,
+or properties of the plants; many refer to their habitat, appearance,
+or resemblance, real or fancied, to other things; others come from
+poetical suggestion, affection, or association with saints or persons.
+Many are very graphic, as the Western name prairie fire (_Castillea
+coccinea_); many are quaint or humorous, as cling rascal (_Galium
+sparine_) or wait-a-bit (_Smilax rotundifolia_); and in some the
+corruptions are amusing, as Aunt Jerichos (New England) for _Angelica_.
+The words horse, ox, dog, bull, snake, toad, are often used to denote
+size, coarseness, worthlessness, or aversion. Devil or devil's is used
+as a prefix for upward of forty of our plants, mostly expressive of
+dislike or of some traditional resemblance or association. A number
+of names have been contributed by the Indians, such as chinquapin,
+wicopy, pipsissewa, wankapin, etc., while the term Indian, evidently
+a favorite, is applied as a descriptive prefix to upward of eighty
+different plants." There should be no antagonism in the use of
+scientific and popular names, since their purposes are quite different.
+The scientific names are necessary to students for accuracy, "but the
+vernacular names are a part of the development of the language of
+each people. Though these names are sometimes indicative of specific
+characters and hence scientifically valuable, they are for the most
+part not at all scientific, but utilitarian, emotional, or picturesque.
+As such they are invaluable not for science, but for the common
+intelligence and the appreciation and enjoyment of the plant world."
+
+
+Educated Colored Labor.--In a paper published in connection with the
+Proceedings of the Trustees of the John F. Slater Fund, Mr. Booker
+T. Washington describes his efforts, made at the suggestion of the
+trustees, to bring the work done at the Tuskegee school to the
+knowledge of the white people of the South, and their success. Mr.
+Carver, instructor in agriculture, went before the Alabama Legislature
+and gave an exhibition of his methods and results before the Committee
+on Agriculture. The displays of butter and other farm products proved
+so interesting that many members of the Legislature and other citizens
+inspected the exhibit, and all expressed their gratification. A full
+description of the work in agriculture was published in the Southern
+papers: "The result is that the white people are constantly applying
+to us for persons to take charge of farms, dairies, etc., and in many
+ways showing that their interest in our work is growing in proportion
+as they see the value of it." A visit made by the President of the
+United States gave an opportunity of assembling within the institution
+five members of the Cabinet with their families, the Governor of
+Alabama, both branches of the Alabama Legislature, and thousands of
+white and colored people from all parts of the South. "The occasion
+was most helpful in bringing together the two sections of our country
+and the two races. No people in any part of the world could have acted
+more generously and shown a deeper interest in this school than did
+the white people of Tuskegee and Macon County during the visit of the
+President."
+
+
+Geology of Columbus, Ohio.--In his paper, read at the meeting of the
+American Association, on the geology of Ohio, Dr. Orton spoke of the
+construction of glacial drifts as found in central Ohio and the source
+of the material of the drift, showing that the bowlder clay is largely
+derived from the comminution of black slake, the remnants of which
+appear in North Columbus. He spoke also of the bowlders scattered over
+the surface of the region about Columbus, the parent rocks of which
+may be traced to the shores of the northern lakes, and of Jasper's
+conglomerate, picturesque fragments of which may be found throughout
+central Ohio. Some of these bowlders are known to have come from
+Lake Ontario. Bowlders of native copper also occur, one of which was
+found eight feet below the surface in excavations carried on for the
+foundations of the asylum west of the Scioto.
+
+
+Civilized and Savage.--Professor Semon, in his book In the Australian
+Bush, characterizes the treatment of the natives by the settlers
+as constituting, on the whole, one of the darkest chapters in the
+colonization of Australia. "Everywhere and always we find the same
+process: the whites arrive and settle in the hunting grounds of
+the blacks, who have frequented them since the remotest time. They
+raise paddocks, which the blacks are forbidden to enter. They breed
+cattle, which the blacks are not allowed to approach. Then it happens
+that these stupid savages do not know how to distinguish between a
+marsupial and a placental animal, and spear a calf or a cow instead
+of a kangaroo, and the white man takes revenge for this misdeed by
+systematically killing all the blacks that come before his gun. This,
+again, the natives take amiss, and throw a spear into his back when he
+rides through the bush, or invade his house when he is absent, killing
+his family and servants. Then arrive the 'native police,' a troop of
+blacks from another district, headed by a white officer. They know the
+tricks of their race, and take a special pleasure in hunting down their
+own countrymen, and they avenge the farmer's dead by killing all the
+blacks in the neighborhood, sometimes also their women and children.
+This is the almost typical progress of colonization, and even though
+such things are abolished in the southeastern colonies and in southeast
+and central Queensland, they are by no means unheard of in the north
+and west."
+
+
+
+
+MINOR PARAGRAPHS.
+
+
+In a brood of five nestling sparrow-hawks, which he had the opportunity
+of studying alive and dead, Dr. R. W. Shufeldt remarked that the
+largest and therefore oldest bird was nearly double the size of the
+youngest or smallest one, while the three others were graduated down
+from the largest to the smallest in almost exact proportions." It was
+evident, then, that the female had laid the eggs at regular intervals,
+and very likely three or four days apart, and that incubation commenced
+immediately after the first egg was deposited. What is more worthy
+of note, however, is the fact that the sexes of these nestlings
+alternated, the oldest bird being a male, the next a female, followed
+by another male, and so on, the last or youngest one of all five being
+a male. This last had a plumage of pure white down, with the pin
+feathers of the primaries and secondaries of the wings, as well as the
+rectrices of the tail, just beginning to open at their extremities.
+From this stage gradual development of the plumage is exhibited
+throughout the series, the entire plumage of the males and females
+being very different and distinctive." If it be true, as is possibly
+indicated, that the sexes alternate in broods of young sparrow-hawks as
+a regular thing, the author has no explanation for the fact, and has
+never heard of any being offered.
+
+
+Architecture and Building gives the following interesting facts
+regarding the building trades in Chicago: "Reports from Chicago are
+that labor in building lines is scarce. The scarcity of men is giving
+the building trades council trouble to meet the requirements of
+contractors. It is said that half a dozen jobs that are ready to go
+ahead are at a standstill because men can not be had, particularly
+iron workers and laborers--the employees first to be employed in
+the construction of the modern building. It is also said that wages
+have never been better in the building line. The following is the
+schedule of wages, based on an eight-hour day: Carpenters, $3.40;
+electricians, $3.75; bridge and structural iron workers, $3.60; tin and
+sheet-iron workers, $3.20; plumbers, $4; steam fitters, $3.75; elevator
+constructors, $3; hoisting engineers, $4; derrick men, $2; gas-fitters,
+$3.75; plasterers, $4; marble cutters, $3.50; gravel roofers, $2.80;
+boiler-makers, $2.40; stone sawyers and rubbers, $3; marble enamel
+glassworkers' helpers, $2.25; slate and tile roofers, $3.80; marble
+setters' helpers, $2; steam-fitters' helpers, $2; stone cutters, $4;
+stone carvers, $5; bricklayers, $4; painters, $3; hod carriers and
+building laborers, $2; plasterers' hod carriers, $2.40; mosaic and
+encaustic tile layers, $4; helpers, $2.40."
+
+
+In presenting the fourth part of his memoir on The Tertiary Fauna
+of Florida (Transactions of the Wagner Free Institute of Science,
+Philadelphia), Mr. William Healey Dall observes that the interest
+aroused in the explorations of Florida by the Wagner Institute and its
+friends and by the United States Geological Survey has resulted in
+bringing in a constantly increasing mass of material. The existence of
+Upper Oligocene beds in western Florida containing hundreds of species,
+many of which were new, added two populous faunas to the Tertiary
+series. It having been found that a number of the species belonging to
+these beds had been described from the Antillean tertiaries, it became
+necessary, in order to put the work on a sound foundation, besides the
+review of the species known to occur in the United States, to extend
+the revision to the tertiaries of the West Indies. It is believed that
+the results will be beneficial in clearing the way for subsequent
+students and putting the nomenclature on a more permanent and reliable
+basis.
+
+
+The numerical system of the natives of Murray Island, Torres Strait, is
+described by the Rev. A. E. Hunt, in the Journal of the Anthropological
+Society, as based on two numbers--_netat_, one, and _neis_, two. The
+numbers above two are expressed by composition--_neis-netat_, three;
+_neis i neis_, or two and two, four. Numbers above four are associated
+with parts of the body, beginning with the little and other fingers
+of the left hand, and going on to the wrist, elbow, armpit, shoulder,
+etc., on the left side and going down on the right side, to 21; and the
+toes give ten numbers more, to 31. Larger numbers are simply "many."
+
+
+President William Orton, of the American Association, in his address at
+the welcoming meeting, showed, in the light of the facts recorded in
+Alfred R. Wallace's book on The Wonderful Century, that the scientific
+achievements of the present century exceed all those of the past
+combined. He then turned to the purpose of the American Association to
+labor for the discovery of new truth, and said: "It is possible that
+we could make ourselves more interesting to the general public if we
+occasionally foreswore our loyalty to our name and spent a portion of
+our time in restating established truths. Our contributions to the
+advancement of science are often fragmentary and devoid of special
+interest to the outside world. But every one of them has a place in
+the great temple of knowledge, and the wise master builders, some of
+whom appear in every generation, will find them all and use them all at
+last, and then only will their true value come to light."
+
+
+NOTES.
+
+The number of broods of seventeen-year and thirteen-year locusts has
+become embarrassing to those who seek to distinguish them, and the
+trouble is complicated by the various designations different authors
+have given them. The usual method is to give the brood a number in a
+series, written with a Roman numeral. Mr. C. L. Marlatt proposes a
+regular and uniform nomenclature, giving the first seventeen numbers to
+the seventeen-year broods, beginning with that of 1893 as number I, and
+the next thirteen numbers (XVIII to XXX) to the thirteen-year broods,
+beginning with the brood of 1842 and 1855 as number XVIII.
+
+
+Experimenting on the adaptability of carbonic acid to the inflation of
+pneumatic tires, M. d'Arsonval, of Paris, has found that the gas acts
+upon India rubber, and, swelling its volume out enormously, reduces it
+to a condition like that following maceration in petroleum. On exposure
+to the air the carbonic acid passes away and the India rubber returns
+to its normal condition. Carbonic acid, therefore, does not seem well
+adapted to use in inflation. Oxygen is likewise not adapted, because it
+permeates the India rubber and oxidizes it, but nitrogen is quite inert
+and answers the purpose admirably.
+
+
+Mr. Gifford Pinchot, Forester of the Department of Agriculture, has
+announced that a few well-qualified persons will be received in the
+Division of Forestry as student-assistants. They will be assigned to
+practical field work, and will be allowed their expenses and three
+hundred dollars a year. They are expected to possess, when they come,
+a certain degree of knowledge, which is defined in Mr. Pinchot's
+announcement, of botany, geology, and other sciences, with good general
+attainments.
+
+
+In a communication made to the general meeting of the French Automobile
+Club, in May, the Baron de Zeylen enumerates 600 manufacturers in
+France who have produced 5,250 motor-carriages and about 10,000
+motor-cycles; 110 makers in England, 80 in Germany, 60 in the United
+States, 55 in Belgium, 25 in Switzerland, and about 30 in the other
+states of Europe. The manufacture outside of France does not appear
+to be on a large scale, for only three hundred carriages are credited
+to other countries, and half of these to Belgium. The United States,
+however, promises to give a good account of itself next time.
+
+
+Mine No. 8 of the Sunday Creek Coal Company, to which the American
+Association made its Saturday excursion from Columbus, Ohio, has
+recently been equipped with electric power, which is obtained by
+utilizing the waste gas from the oil wells in the vicinity. This, the
+Ohio State Journal says, is the first mine in the State to make use of
+this natural power.
+
+
+In a bulletin relating to a "dilution cream separator" which is now
+marketed among farmers, the Purdue University Agricultural Experiment
+Station refers to the results of experiments made several years ago as
+showing that an increased loss of fat occurs in skim milk when dilution
+is practiced, that the loss is greater with cold than with warm water,
+and that the value of the skim milk for feeding is impaired when it
+is diluted. Similar results have been obtained at other experiment
+stations. The results claimed to be realized with the separators can be
+obtained by diluting the milk in a comparatively inexpensive round can.
+
+
+To our death list of men known in science we have to add the names
+of John Cordreaux, an English ornithologist, who was eminent as a
+student, for thirty-six years, of bird migrations, and was secretary
+of the British Association's committee on that subject, at Great
+Cotes House, Lincolnshire, England, August 1st, in his sixty-ninth
+year; he was author of a book on the Birds of the Humber District,
+and of numerous contributions to The Zoölogist and The Ibis; Gaston
+Tissandier, founder, and editor for more than twenty years, of the
+French scientific journal _La Nature_, at Paris, August 30th, in
+his fifty-seventh year; besides his devotion to his journal, he was
+greatly interested in aërial navigation, to which he devoted much
+time and means in experiments, and was a versatile author of popular
+books touching various departments of science; Judge Charles P. Daly,
+of New York, who, as president for thirty-six years of the American
+Geographical Society, contributed very largely to the encouragement
+and progress of geographical study in the United States, September
+19th, in his eighty-fourth year; he was an honorary member of the Royal
+Geographical Society of London, of the Berlin Geographical Society,
+and of the Imperial Geographical Society of Russia; he was a judge of
+the Court of Common Pleas of New York from 1844 to 1858, and after
+that chief justice of the same court continuously for twenty-seven
+years, and was besides, a publicist of high reputation, whose opinion
+and advice were sought by men charged with responsibility concerning
+them on many important State and national questions; Henri Lévègne de
+Vilmorin, first vice-president of the Paris School of Horticulture;
+O. G. Jones, Physics Master of the City of London School, from an
+accident on the Dent Blanche, Alps, August 30th; Ambrose A. P. Stewart,
+formerly instructor in chemistry in the Lawrence Scientific School, and
+afterward Professor of Chemistry in the Pennsylvania State College and
+in the University of Illinois, at Lincoln, Neb., September 13th; Dr.
+Charles Fayette Taylor, founder of the New York Orthopedic Dispensary,
+and author of articles in the Popular Science Monthly on Bodily
+Conditions as related to Mental States (vol. xv), Gofio, Food, and
+Physique (vol. xxxi), and Climate and Health (vol. xlvii), and of books
+relating to his special vocation, died in Los Angeles, Cal., January
+25th, in his seventy-second year.
+
+
+Efforts are making for the formation of a Soppitt Memorial Library of
+Mycological Literature, to be presented to the Yorkshire (England)
+Naturalists' Union as a memorial of the services rendered to
+mycological science and to Yorkshire natural history generally, by the
+late Mr. H. T. Soppitt.
+
+
+The United States Department of Agriculture has published, for general
+information and in order to develop a wider interest in the subject,
+the History and Present Status of Instruction in Cooking in the
+Public Schools of New York City, by Mrs. Louise E. Hogan, to which an
+introduction is furnished by A. C. True, Ph. D.
+
+
+The United States Weather Bureau publishes a paper On Lightning and
+Electricity in the Air, by Alexander G. McAdie, representing the
+present knowledge on the subject, and, as supplementary to it or
+forming a second part, Loss of Life and Property by Electricity, by
+Alfred J. Henry.
+
+
+A gift of one thousand dollars has been made to the research fund of
+the American Association for the Advancement of Science by Mr. Emerson
+McMillin, of New York.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Appletons' Popular Science Monthly,
+November 1899, by Various
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44725 ***
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+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of Appleton's Popular Science Monthly, Vol. 56. November, 1899, by Various.
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+<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44725 ***</div>
+
+<p class="center">
+Established by Edward L. Youmans</p>
+
+<h1>APPLETONS'<br />
+POPULAR SCIENCE<br />
+MONTHLY</h1>
+
+<p class="center space-above spaced">EDITED BY<br />
+<big>WILLIAM JAY YOUMANS</big></p>
+
+<p class="center space-above spaced">VOL. LIV<br />
+
+NOVEMBER, 1899, TO APRIL, 1900</p>
+
+<p class="center space-above">NEW YORK<br />
+D. APPLETON AND COMPANY<br />
+1900
+</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+
+<p class="center">
+<span class="smcap">Copyright, 1900,<br />
+By</span> D. APPLETON AND COMPANY.<br />
+</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 363px;">
+<img src="images/004.jpg" width="363" height="500" alt="GEORGE M. STERNBERG" />
+<div class="caption">GEORGE M. STERNBERG.</div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h2>CONTENTS.</h2>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tdl"><a href="#THE_REAL_PROBLEMS_OF_DEMOCRACY">The Real Problems of_Democracy.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl"><a href="#AN_ENGLISH_UNIVERSITY">An English University.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl"><a href="#THE_WONDERFUL_CENTURY1">The Wonderful Century.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl"><a href="#SPIDER_BITES_AND_KISSING_BUGS2">Spider Bites and "Kissing Bugs."</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl"><a href="#THE_MOSQUITO_THEORY_OF_MALARIA6">The Mosquito Theory of Malaria.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl"><a href="#FOOD_POISONING">Food Poisoning.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl"><a href="#WIRELESS_TELEGRAPHY">Wireless Telegraphy.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl"><a href="#EMIGRANT_DIAMONDS_IN_AMERICA">Emigrant Diamonds in America.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl"><a href="#NEEDED_IMPROVEMENTS_IN_THEATER_SANITATION">Needed Improvements in Theater Sanitation.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl"><a href="#THE_NEW_FIELD_BOTANY">The New Field Botany.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl"><a href="#DO_ANIMALS_REASON">Do Animals Reason?</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl"><a href="#SKETCH_OF_GEORGE_M_STERNBERG">Sketch of George M. Sternberg.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl"><a href="#Correspondence">Correspondence.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl"><a href="#Editors_Table">Editor's Table.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl"><a href="#Scientific_Literature">Scientific Literature.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl"><a href="#GENERAL_NOTICES">General Notices.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl"><a href="#PUBLICATIONS_RECEIVED">Publications Received.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl"><a href="#Fragments_of_Science">Fragments of Science.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdl"><a href="#MINOR_PARAGRAPHS">Minor Paragraphs.</a></td></tr>
+
+</table></div>
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+
+  <h2>APPLETONS'<br />
+  POPULAR SCIENCE<br />
+  MONTHLY.</h2>
+<hr class="short" />
+
+  <p class="ph3">NOVEMBER, 1899.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="short" />
+
+
+<p class="ph2"><a name="THE_REAL_PROBLEMS_OF_DEMOCRACY" id="THE_REAL_PROBLEMS_OF_DEMOCRACY">THE REAL PROBLEMS OF DEMOCRACY.</a></p>
+
+<p class="ph4"><span class="smcap">By FRANKLIN SMITH.</span></p>
+
+
+<p>Much has been written of late about "the real problems of democracy."
+According to some "thinkers," they consist of the invention of
+ingenious devices to prevent caucus frauds and the purchase of votes,
+to check the passage of special laws as well as too many laws, and
+to infuse into decent people an ardent desire to participate in
+the wrangles of politics. According to others, they consist of the
+invention of equally ingenious devices to compel corporations to manage
+their business in accordance with Christian principles, to transform
+the so-called natural monopolies into either State or municipal
+monopolies, and to effect, by means of the power of taxation, a more
+equitable distribution of wealth. According to still others, they
+consist of the invention of no less ingenious devices to force people
+to be temperate, to observe humanity toward children and animals, and
+to read and study what will make them model citizens. It is innocently
+and touchingly believed that with the solution of these problems, by
+the application of the authority that society has over the individual,
+"the social conscience" will be awakened. But such a belief can not
+be realized. It has its origin in a conception of democracy that has
+no foundation either in history or science. What are supposed to be
+the real problems of democracy are only the problems of despotism&mdash;the
+problems to which every tyrant from time immemorial has addressed
+himself, to the moral and industrial ruin of his subjects.</p>
+
+<p>If democracy be conceived not as a form of political government under
+the <i>régime</i> of universal suffrage, but as a condition of freedom under
+moral control, permitting every man to do as he likes, so long as he
+does not trench upon the equal right of every other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span> man, deliverance
+from the sophistries and absurdities of current social and political
+discussion becomes easy and inevitable. Its real problems cease to
+be an endless succession of political devices that stimulate cunning
+and evasion, and countless encroachments upon individual freedom that
+stir up contention and ill feeling. Instead of being innumerable and
+complex, defying the solvent power of the greatest intellects and the
+efforts of the most enthusiastic philanthropists, they become few and
+simple. While their proper solution is beset with difficulties, these
+difficulties are not as hopeless as the framing of a statute to produce
+a growth of virtue in a depraved heart. Indeed, no such task has ever
+been accomplished, and every effort in that direction has been worse
+than futile. It has encouraged the growth of all the savage traits that
+ages of conflict have stamped so profoundly in the nervous system of
+the race. But let it be understood that the real problems of democracy
+are the problems of self-support and self-control, the problems that
+appeared with the appearance of human life, and that their sole
+solution is to be found in the application of precisely the same
+methods with which Nature disciplines the meanest of her creatures,
+then we may expect a measure of success from the efforts of social
+and political reformers; for freedom of thought and action, coupled
+with the punishment that comes from a failure to comply with the laws
+of life and the conditions of existence, creates an internal control
+far more potent than any law. It impels men to depend upon their own
+efforts to gain a livelihood; it inspires them with a respect for the
+right of others to do the same.</p>
+
+<p>Simple and commonplace as the traits of self-support and self-control
+may seem, they are of transcendent importance. Every other trait sinks
+into insignificance. The society whose members have learned to care for
+themselves and to control themselves has no further moral or economic
+conquests to make. It will be in the happy condition dreamed of by all
+poets, philosophers, and philanthropists. There will be no destitution,
+for each person, being able to maintain himself and his family, will
+have no occasion, except in a case of a sudden and an unforeseen
+misfortune, to look to his friends and neighbors for aid. But in thus
+maintaining himself&mdash;that is, in pursuing the occupation best adapted
+to his ability and most congenial to his taste&mdash;he will contribute
+in the largest degree to the happiness of the other members of the
+community. While they are pursuing the occupations best adapted to
+their ability and most congenial to their tastes, they will be able to
+obtain from him, as he will be able to obtain from them, those things
+that both need to supplement the products of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span> their own industry. Since
+each will be left in full possession of all the fruits of his own toil,
+he will be at liberty to make just such use of them as will contribute
+most to his happiness, thus permitting the realization, in the only
+practicable way, of Bentham's principle of "the greatest happiness
+of the greatest number." Since all of them will be free to make such
+contracts as they believe will be most advantageous to them, exchanging
+what they are willing to part with for what some one else is willing
+to give in return, there will prevail the only equitable distribution
+of the returns from labor and capital. No one will receive more and no
+one less than he is entitled to. Thus will benefit be in proportion to
+merit, and the most scrupulous justice be satisfied.</p>
+
+<p>But this <i>régime</i> of equity in the distribution of property implies, as
+I have already said, the possession of a high degree of self-control.
+Not only must all persons have such a keen sense of their own rights
+as will never permit them to submit to infringement, but they must
+have such a keen sense of the rights of others that they will not be
+guilty themselves of infringement. Not only will they refrain from the
+commission of those acts of aggression whose ill effects are immediate
+and obvious; they will refrain from those acts whose ill effects are
+remote and obscure. Although they will not, for example, deceive or
+steal or commit personal assaults, they will not urge the adoption of
+a policy that will injure the unknown members of other communities,
+like the Welsh tin-plate makers and the Vienna pearl-button makers that
+the McKinley Bill deprived of employment. Realizing the vice of the
+plea of the opponents of international copyright that cheap literature
+for a people is better than scrupulous honesty, they will not refuse
+to foreign authors the same protection to property that they demand.
+They will not, finally, allow themselves to take by compulsion or by
+persuasion the property of neighbors to be used to alleviate suffering
+or to disseminate knowledge in a way to weaken the moral and physical
+strength of their fellows. But the possession of a sense of justice
+so scrupulous assumes the possession of a fellow-feeling so vivid
+that it will allow no man to refuse all needful aid to the victims of
+misfortune. As suffering to others will mean suffering to himself,
+he will be as powerfully moved to go to their rescue as he would to
+protect himself against the same misfortune. Indeed, he will be moved,
+as all others will be moved, to undertake without compulsion all the
+benevolent work, be it charitable or educational, that may be necessary
+to aid those persons less fortunate than himself to obtain the greatest
+possible satisfaction out of life.</p>
+
+<p>But the methods of social reform now in greatest vogue do<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span> not
+contribute to the realization of any such millennium. They are a
+flagrant violation of the laws of life and the conditions of existence.
+They make difficult, if not impossible, the establishment of the moral
+government of a democracy that insures every man and woman not only
+freedom but also sustentation and protection. In disregard of the
+principles of biology, which demand that benefit shall be in proportion
+to merit, the feeble members of society are fostered at the expense
+of the strong. Setting at defiance the principles of psychology,
+which insist upon the cultivation of the clearest perception of the
+inseparable relation of cause and effect and the equally inseparable
+relation of aggression and punishment, honest people are turned into
+thieves and murderers, and thieves and murderers are taught to believe
+that no retribution awaits the commission of the foulest crime.
+Scornful of the principles of sociology, which teach in the plainest
+way that the institutions of feudalism are the products of war and can
+serve no other purpose than the promotion of aggression, a deliberate
+effort, born of the astonishing belief that they can be transformed
+into the agencies of progress, is made in time of peace to restore them
+to life.</p>
+
+<p>To the American Philistine nothing is more indicative of the marvelous
+moral superiority of this age and country than the rapid increase
+in the public expenditures for enterprises "to benefit the people."
+Particularly enamored is he of the showy statistics of hospitals,
+asylums, reformatories, and other so-called charitable institutions
+supported by public taxation. "How unselfish we are!" he exclaims,
+swelling with pride as he points to them. "In what other age or in what
+other country has so much been done for the poor and unfortunate?"
+Naught shall ever be said by me against the desire to help others.
+The fellow-feeling that thrives upon the aid rendered to the sick and
+destitute I believe to be the most precious gift of civilization.
+Upon its growth depends the further moral advancement of the race. As
+I have already intimated, only as human beings are able to represent
+to themselves vividly the sufferings of others will they be moved to
+desist from the conduct that contributes to those sufferings. But the
+system of public charity that prevails in this country is not charity
+at all; it is a system of forcible public largesses, as odious and
+demoralizing as the one that contributed so powerfully to the downfall
+of Athens and Rome. By it money is extorted from the taxpayer with as
+little justification as the crime of the highwayman, and expended by
+politicians with as little love as he of their fellows. What is the
+result? Precisely what might be expected. He is infuriated because of
+the growing burden of his taxes.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span> Instead of being made more humane and
+sympathetic with every dollar he gives under compulsion to the poor and
+suffering, he becomes more hard-hearted and bitter toward his fellows.
+The notion that society, as organized at present, is reducing him to
+poverty and degradation takes possession of him. He becomes an agitator
+for violent reforms that will only render his condition worse. At the
+same time the people he aids come to regard him simply as a person
+under obligations to care for them. They feel no more gratitude toward
+him than the wolf toward the victim of its hunger and ferocity.</p>
+
+<p>Akin to public charity are all those public enterprises undertaken to
+ameliorate the condition of the poor&mdash;parks, model tenement houses, art
+galleries, free concerts, free baths, and relief works of all kinds. To
+these I must add all those Federal, State, and municipal enterprises,
+such as the post office with the proposed savings attachment, a State
+system of highways and waterways, municipal water, gas and electric
+works, etc., that are supposed to be of inestimable advantage to the
+same worthy class. These likewise fill the heart of the American
+Philistine with immense satisfaction. Although he finds, by his study
+of pleasing romances on municipal government in Europe, that we have
+yet to take some further steps before we fall as completely as the
+inhabitants of Paris and Berlin into the hands of municipal despotism,
+he is convinced that we have made gratifying headway, and that the
+outlook for complete subjection to that despotism is encouraging. But
+it should be remembered that splendid public libraries and public
+baths, and extensive and expensive systems of highways and municipal
+improvements, built under a modified form of the old <i>corvée</i>, are
+no measure of the fellow-feeling and enlightenment of a community.
+On the contrary, they indicate a pitiful incapacity to appreciate
+the rights of others, and are, therefore, a measure rather of the
+low degree of civilization. It should be remembered also, especially
+by the impoverished victims of the delusions of the legislative
+philanthropist, that there is no expenditure that yields a smaller
+return in the long run than public expenditure; that however honest the
+belief that public officials will do their duty as conscientiously and
+efficiently as private individuals, history has yet to record the fact
+of any bureaucracy; that however profound the conviction that the cost
+of these "public blessings" comes out of the pockets of the rich and is
+on that account particularly justifiable, it comes largely out of the
+pockets of the poor; and that by the amount abstracted from the income
+of labor and capital by that amount is the sum divided between labor
+and capital reduced.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>"But," interposes the optimist, "have the Americans not their great
+public-school system, unrivaled in the world, to check and finally
+to end the evils that appear thus far to be inseparably connected
+with popular government? Is there any truth more firmly established
+than that it is the bulwark of American institutions, and that if we
+maintain it as it should be maintained they will be able to weather any
+storm that may threaten?" Precisely the same argument has been urged
+time out of mind in behalf of an ecclesiastical system supported at
+the expense of the taxpayer. Good men without number have believed,
+and have fought to maintain their belief, that only by the continuance
+of this form of aggression could society be saved from corruption and
+barbarism. Even in England to-day, where freedom and civilization
+have made their most brilliant conquests, this absurd contention
+is made to bolster up the rotten and tottering union of Church and
+state, and to justify the seizure of the property of taxpayers to
+support a particular form of ecclesiastical instruction. But no fact
+of history has received demonstrations more numerous and conclusive
+than that such instruction, whether Protestant or Catholic, Buddhist
+or Mohammedan, in the presence of the demoralizing forces of militant
+activities, is as impotent as the revolutions of the prayer wheel of
+a pious Hindu. To whatever country or people or age we may turn, we
+find that the spirit of the warrior tramples the spirit of the saint
+in the dust. Despite the lofty teachings of Socrates and Plato, the
+Athenians degenerated until the name of the Greek became synonymous
+with that of the blackest knave. With the noble examples and precepts
+of the Stoics in constant view, the Romans became beastlier than any
+beast. All through the middle ages and down to the present century
+the armies of ecclesiastics, the vast libraries of theology, and the
+myriads of homilies and prayers were impotent to prevent the social
+degradation that inundated the world with the outbreak of every great
+conflict. Take, for example, a page from the history of Spain. At the
+time of Philip II, who tried to make his people as rigid as monks, that
+country had no rival in its fanatical devotion to the Church, or its
+slavish observance of the forms of religion. Yet its moral as well as
+its intellectual and industrial life was sinking to the lowest level.
+Official corruption was rampant. The most shameless sexual laxity
+pervaded all ranks. The name of Spanish women, who had "in previous
+times been modest, almost austere and Oriental in their deportment,"
+became a byword and a reproach throughout the world. "The ladies are
+naturally shameless," says Camille Borghese, the Pope's delegate
+to Madrid in 1593, "and even in the streets go up and address men
+unknown to them, looking upon it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span> as a kind of heresy to be properly
+introduced. They admit all sorts of men to their conversation, and
+are not in the least scandalized at the most improper proposals being
+made to them." To see how ecclesiastics themselves fall a prey to the
+ethics of militant activities, becoming as heartless and debauched as
+any other class, take a page from Italian history at the time of Pope
+Alexander VI. "Crimes grosser than Scythian," says a pious Catholic who
+visited Rome, "acts of treachery worse than Carthaginian, are committed
+without disguise in the Vatican itself under the eyes of the Pope.
+There are rapines, murders, incests, debaucheries, cruelties exceeding
+those of the Neros and Caligulas." Similar pages from the history of
+every other country in Europe given up to war, including Protestant
+England, might be quoted.</p>
+
+<p>But what is true of ecclesiastical effort in the presence of militant
+activities is true of pedagogic effort in the presence of political
+activities. For more than half a century the public-school system
+in its existing form has been in full and energetic operation. The
+money devoted to it every year now reaches the enormous total of one
+hundred and eighty million dollars. Simultaneously an unprecedented
+extension of secondary education has occurred. Since the war, colleges
+and universities, supported in whole or in part at the public expense,
+have been established in more than half of the States and Territories
+of the Union. To these must be added the phenomenal growth of normal
+schools, high schools, and academies, and of the equipment of the
+educational institutions already in existence. Yet, as a result, are
+the American people more moral than they were half a century ago? Have
+American institutions&mdash;that is, the institutions based upon the freedom
+of the individual&mdash;been made more secure? I venture to answer both
+questions with an emphatic negative. The construction and operation
+of the greatest machine of pedagogy recorded in history has been
+absolutely impotent to stem the rising tide of political corruption
+and social degeneration. If there are skeptics that doubt the truth
+of this indictment let them study the criminal history of the day
+that records the annual commission of more than six thousand suicides
+and more than ten thousand homicides, and the embezzlement of more
+than eleven million dollars. Let them study the lying pleas of the
+commercial interests of the country that demand protection against "the
+pauper labor of Europe," and thus commit a shameless aggression upon
+the pauper labor of America. Let them study the records of the deeds
+of intolerance and violence committed upon workingmen that refuse to
+exchange their personal liberty for membership of a despotic labor
+organization. Let them study the columns of the newspapers, crowded
+with records of crime,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span> salacious stories, and ignorant comment on
+current questions and events that appeal to a population as unlettered
+and base as themselves. Let them study, finally, the appalling
+indictment of American political life, in a State where the native
+blood still runs pure in the veins of the majority of the inhabitants,
+that Mr. John Wanamaker framed in a great speech at the opening of
+his memorable campaign in Lancaster against the most powerful and
+most corrupt despotism that can be found outside of Russia or Turkey.
+"In the fourth century of Rome, in the time of Emperor Theodosius,
+Hellebichus was master of the forces," he said, endeavoring to describe
+a condition of affairs that exists in a similar degree in every State
+in the Union, "and Cæsarius was count of the offices. In the nineteenth
+century, M. S. Quay is count of the offices, and W. A. Andrews, Prince
+of Lexow, is master of forces in Pennsylvania, and we have to come
+through the iron age and the silver age to the worst of all ages&mdash;the
+degraded, evil age of conscienceless, debauched politics.... Profligacy
+and extravagance and boss rule everywhere oppress the people. By the
+multiplication of indictments your district attorney has multiplied
+his fees far beyond the joint salaries of both your judges. The
+administration of justice before the magistrates has degenerated
+into organized raids on the county treasury.... Voters are corruptly
+influenced or forcibly coerced to do the bidding of the bosses, and
+thus force the fetters of political vassalage on the freemen of the
+old guard. School directors, supervisors, and magistrates, and the
+whole machinery of local government, are involved and dominated by this
+accursed system."</p>
+
+<p>But Mr. Wanamaker might have added that the whole social and industrial
+life of the country is involved and dominated by the same system. It
+is a well-established law of social science that the evil effects
+of a dominant activity are not confined to the persons engaged
+in it. Like a contagion, they spread to every part of the social
+organization, and poison the life farthest removed from their origin.
+Yet the public-school system, so impotent to save us from social and
+political degradation and still such an object of unbounded pride and
+adulation, is, as Mr. Wanamaker, all unconscious of the implication of
+his scathing criticism, points out in so many words, an integral part
+of the vast and complex machinery that political despotism has seized
+upon to plunder and enslave the American people. As in the case of
+every other extension of the duties of government beyond the limits
+of the preservation of order and the enforcement of justice, it is an
+aggression upon the rights of the individual, and, as in the case of
+every other aggression, contributes powerfully to the decay of national
+character<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> and free institutions. It adds thousands upon thousands to
+the constantly growing army of tax eaters that are impoverishing the
+people still striving against heavy odds to gain an honest livelihood.
+It places in the hands of the political despots now ruling the country,
+without the responsibility that the most odious monarchs have to bear,
+a revenue and an army of mercenaries that make more and more difficult
+emancipation from their shackles. It is doing more than anything else
+except the post-office department to teach people that there is no
+connection between merit and benefit; that they have the right to look
+to the State rather than to themselves for maintenance; that they
+are under no obligations to see that they do not take from others,
+in the form of salaries not earned nor intended to be earned, what
+does not belong to them. In the face of this wholesale destruction of
+fellow-feeling such as occurred in France under the old <i>régime</i> and is
+occurring to-day in Italy and Spain, and the inculcation of the ethics
+of militant activities, such as may be observed in these countries as
+well as elsewhere in Europe, is it any wonder that the mind-stuffing
+that goes on in the public schools has no more effect upon the morals
+of the American people than the creeds and prayers of the mediæval
+ecclesiastics that joined in wars and the spoliation of oppressed
+populations throughout Europe?</p>
+
+<p>Since the path that all people under popular government as well
+as under forms more despotic are pursuing so energetically and
+hopefully leads to the certain destruction of the foundations of
+civilization, what is the path that social science points out? What
+must they do to prevent the extinction of the priceless acquisition
+of fellow-feeling, now vanishing so rapidly before the most unselfish
+efforts to promote it? The supposition is that the social teachings
+of the philosophy of evolution have no answer to these questions.
+Believing that they inculcate the hideous <i>laissez-faire</i> doctrine of
+"each for himself and the devil take the hindmost," so characteristic
+of human relations among all classes of people in this country, the
+victims of this supposition have repudiated them. But I propose to
+show that they are the only teachings that give the slightest promise
+of social amelioration. Although they are ignorantly stigmatized as
+individualistic, and therefore necessarily selfish and inconsiderate
+of the welfare of others, they are in reality socialistic in the best
+sense of the word&mdash;that is, they enjoin voluntary, not coercive,
+co-operation, and insure the noblest humanity and the most perfect
+civilization, moral as well as material, that can be attained.</p>
+
+<p>Why a society organized upon the individualistic instead of the
+socialistic basis will realize every achievement admits of easy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span>
+explanation. A man dependent upon himself is forced by the struggle
+for existence to exercise every faculty he possesses or can possibly
+develop to save himself and his progeny from extinction. Under
+such pitiless and irresistible pressure he acquires the highest
+physical and intellectual strength. Thus equipped with weapons
+absolutely indispensable in any state of society, whether civilized
+or uncivilized, he is prepared for the conquest of the world. He
+gains also the physical and moral courage needful to cope with the
+difficulties that terrify and paralyze the people that have not been
+subjected to the same rigid discipline. Energetic and self-reliant, he
+assails them with no thought of failure. If, however, he meets with
+reverses, he renews the attack, and repeats it until success finally
+comes to reward his efforts. Such prolonged struggles give steadiness
+and solidity to his character that do not permit him to abandon himself
+to trifles or to yield easily, if at all, to excitement and panic. He
+never falls a victim to Reigns of Terror. The more trying the times,
+the more self-possessed, clear-headed, and capable of grappling with
+the situation he becomes, and soon rises superior to it. With every
+triumph over difficulties there never fails to come the joy that
+more than balances the pain and suffering endured. But the pain and
+suffering are as precious as the joy of triumph. Indelibly registered
+in the nervous system, they enable their victim to feel as others feel
+passing through the same experience, and this fellow-feeling prompts
+him to render them the assistance they may need. In this way be becomes
+a philanthropist. Possessed of the abundant means that the success of
+his enterprises has placed in his hands, he is in a position to help
+them to a degree not within the reach nor the desires of the member of
+the society organized upon the socialistic basis.</p>
+
+<p>In the briefest appeal to history may be found the amplest support
+for these deductions from the principles of social science. Wherever
+the individual has been given the largest freedom to do whatever he
+pleases, as long as he does not trench upon the equal freedom of
+others, there we witness all those achievements and discover all
+those traits that indicate an advanced state of social progress.
+The people are the most energetic, the most resourceful, the most
+prosperous, the most considerate and humane, the most anxious, and the
+most competent to care for their less fortunate fellows. On the other
+hand, wherever the individual has been most repressed, deterred by
+custom or legislation from making the most of himself in every way,
+there are to be observed social immobility or retrogression and all
+the hateful traits that belong to barbarians. The people are inert,
+slavish, cruel, and superstitious. In the ancient world one type
+of society is represented by the Egyptians<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> and Assyrians, and the
+other by the Greeks and Romans. In the modern world all the Oriental
+peoples, particularly the Hindus and Chinese, represent the former, and
+the Occidental peoples, particularly the Anglo-Saxons, represent the
+latter. So superior, in fact, are the Anglo-Saxons because of their
+observance of the sacred and fruitful principle of individual freedom
+that they control the most desirable parts of the earth's surface. If
+not checked by the practice of a philosophy that has destroyed all
+the great peoples of antiquity and paralyzed their competitors in the
+establishment of colonies in the New as well as the Old World, there is
+no reason to doubt that the time will eventually come when, like the
+Romans, there will be no other rule than theirs in all the choicest
+parts of the globe.</p>
+
+<p>It is the immense material superiority of the Anglo-Saxon peoples
+over all other nations that first arrests attention. No people in
+Europe possess the capital or conduct the enterprises that the
+English and Americans do. They have more railroads, more steamships,
+more factories, more foundries, more warehouses, more of everything
+that requires wealth and energy than their rivals. Though the fact
+evokes the sneers of the Ruskins and Carlyles, these enterprises are
+the indispensable agents of civilization. They have done more for
+civilization, for the union of distant peoples, and the development of
+fellow-feeling&mdash;for all that makes life worth living&mdash;than all the art,
+literature, and theology ever produced. Without industry and commerce,
+which these devotees of "the higher life" never weary of deprecating,
+how would the inhabitants of the Italian republics have achieved the
+intellectual and artistic conquests that make them the admiration of
+every historian? The Stones of Venice could not have been written. The
+artists could not have lived that enabled Vassari to hand his name
+down to posterity. The new learning would have been a flower planted
+in a barren soil, and even before it had come to bud it would have
+fallen withered. May we not, therefore, expect that in like manner the
+wealth and freedom of the Anglo-Saxon race will bring forth fruits
+that shall not evoke scorn and contempt? Already their achievements
+in every field except painting, sculpture, and architecture eclipse
+those of their rivals. Not excepting the literature of the Greeks,
+is any so rich, varied, powerful, and voluminous as theirs? If they
+have no Cæsar or Napoleon, they have a long list of men that have been
+of infinitely greater use to civilization than those two products of
+militant barbarism. If judged by practical results, they are without
+rivals in the work of education. By their inventions and their
+applications of the discoveries of science they have distanced all
+competitors in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> race for industrial and commercial supremacy. In
+the work of philanthropy no people has done as much as they. The volume
+of their personal effort and pecuniary contributions to ameliorate
+the condition of the poor and unfortunate are without parallel in the
+annals of charity. Yet Professor Ely, echoing the opinion of Charles
+Booth and other misguided philanthropists, has the assurance to tell us
+that "individualism has broken down." It is the social philosophy that
+they are trying to thrust upon the world again that stands hopelessly
+condemned before the remorseless tribunal of universal experience.</p>
+
+<p>In the light thus obtained from science and history, the duty of the
+American people toward the current social and political philosophy
+and all the quack measures it proposes for the amelioration of the
+condition of the unfortunate becomes clear and urgent. It is to
+pursue without equivocation or deviation the policy of larger and
+larger freedom for the individual that has given the Anglo-Saxon his
+superiority and present dominance in the world. To this end they should
+oppose with all possible vigor every proposed extension of the duty
+of the state that does not look to the preservation of order and the
+enforcement of justice. Regarding it as an onslaught of the forces of
+barbarism, they should make no compromise with it; they should fight it
+until freedom has triumphed. The next duty is to conquer the freedom
+they still lack. Here the battle must be for the suppression of the
+system of protective tariffs, for the transfer to private enterprise
+and beneficence, the duties of the post office, the public schools, and
+all public charities, for the repeal of all laws in regulation of trade
+and industry as well as those in regulation of habits and morals. As
+an inspiration it should be remembered that the struggle is not only
+for freedom but for honesty. For the truth can not be too loudly or
+too often proclaimed that every law taking a dollar from a man without
+his consent, or regulating his conduct not in accordance with his own
+notions, but in accordance with those of his neighbors, contributes to
+the education of a people in idleness and crime. The next duty is to
+encourage on every hand an appeal to voluntary effort to accomplish
+all tasks too great for the strength of the individual. Whether those
+tasks be moral, industrial, or educational, voluntary co-operation
+alone should assume them and carry them to a successful issue. The
+government should have no more to do with them than it has to do with
+the cultivation of wheat or the management of Sunday schools or the
+suppression of backbiting. The last and final duty should be to cheapen
+and, as fast as possible, to establish gratuitous justice. With the
+great diminution of crime that would result from the observance of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span>
+duties already mentioned there would be much less occasion than now
+to appeal to the courts. But, whenever the occasion arises, it should
+involve no cost to the person that feels that his rights have been
+invaded.</p>
+
+<p>Thus will be solved indirectly all the problems of democracy that
+social and political reformers seek in vain to solve directly. With the
+diminution of the duties of the state to the preservation of order and
+the enforcement of justice will be effected a reform as important and
+far reaching as the suppression of chronic warfare. When politicians
+are deprived of the immense plunder now involved in political warfare,
+it will not be necessary to devise futile plans for caucus reform, or
+ballot reform, or convention reform, or charter reform, or legislative
+reform. Having no more incentive to engage in their nefarious business
+than the smugglers that the abolition of the infamous tariff laws
+banished from Europe, they will disappear among the crowd of honest
+toilers. The suppression of the robberies of the tax collectors and
+tax eaters, who have become so vast an army in the United States,
+will effect also a solution of all labor problems. A society that
+permits every toiler to work for whomsoever he pleases and for whatever
+he pleases, protecting him in the full enjoyment of all the fruits
+of his labor, has done for him everything that can be done. It has
+taught him self-support and self-control. In thus guaranteeing him
+freedom of contract and putting an end to the plunder of a bureaucracy
+and privileged classes of private individuals, the beneficiaries of
+special legislation, it has effected the only equitable distribution
+of property possible. At the same time it has accomplished a vastly
+greater work. As I have shown, the indispensable condition of success
+of all movements for moral reform is the suppression not only of
+militant strife, but of political strife. While they prevail, all
+ecclesiastical and pedagogic efforts to better the condition of society
+must fail. Despite lectures, despite sermons and prayers, despite also
+literature and art, the ethics controlling the conduct of men and women
+will be those of war. But with the abolition of both forms of militant
+strife it becomes an easy task to teach the ethics of peace, and to
+establish a state of society that requires no other government than
+that of conscience. All the forces of industrialism contribute to the
+work and insure its success.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>"This thirst for shooting every rare or unwonted kind of bird,"
+says the author of an article in the London Saturday Review, "is
+accountable for the disappearance of many interesting forms of life in
+the British Islands."</p></blockquote>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<p class="ph2"><a name="AN_ENGLISH_UNIVERSITY" id="AN_ENGLISH_UNIVERSITY">AN ENGLISH UNIVERSITY.</a></p>
+
+<p class="ph4"><span class="smcap">By HERBERT STOTESBURY.</span></p>
+
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 280px;">
+<img src="images/illo_018.jpg" width="280" height="400" alt="Michael Foster" />
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Michael Foster</span>, K. C. B., M. A., F. R. S.,
+Trinity. Professor of Physiology.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Most minds in America, as in England, if they think about the
+subject at all, impute to the two ancient centers of Anglo-Saxon
+learning&mdash;Oxford and Cambridge&mdash;an unquestionable supremacy. A halo
+of greatness surrounds these august institutions, none the less real
+because to the American mind, at least, it is vague. Half the books
+students at other institutions require in their various courses have
+the names of eminent Cambridge or Oxford men upon the fly leaf.
+Michael Foster's Physiology, Sidgwick's Methods of Ethics, and Bryce's
+American Commonwealth are recognized text-books wherever the subjects
+of which they treat are studied; while Sir G. G. Stokes, Jebb, Lord
+Acton, Caird, Max Müller, and Ray Lankester are as well known to
+students of Leland Stanford or Princeton as they are to Englishmen.
+One can scarcely read a work on English literature or open an English
+novel which does not make some reference to one or other of the great
+universities or their colleges, inseparably associated as they are
+with English life and history, past and present. Our oldest college
+owes its existence to John Harvard, of Emmanuel, Cambridge, and the
+name of the mother university still clings to her transatlantic
+offspring. The English institutions have become firmly associated in
+the vulgar mind with all that is dignified, venerable, and thorough in
+learning, but, beyond a vague sentiment of admiration, little adequate
+knowledge on the subject is abroad. American or German universities are
+organizations not very difficult to comprehend, and a vague knowledge
+of them is perhaps sufficient. The understanding, however, of those
+complicated academic communities, Oxford and Cambridge, is a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> matter of
+intimate experience. They differ widely from their sister institutions
+in other countries, and in attempting to give some conception of
+their peculiarities the writer proposes to restrict himself chiefly
+to Cambridge, because there are not very many striking differences
+between the latter and Oxford, and because the scientific supremacy
+of Cambridge is sufficiently established to render her an object of
+greater interest to the readers of the Science Monthly.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 280px;">
+<img src="images/illo_019.jpg" width="280" height="400" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">The Right Hon. <span class="smcap">Lord Acton</span>, M. A., LL. D.,
+Trinity. Professor of Modern History.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>First of all, it must be borne in mind that throughout most of their
+history these institutions have been closely related, not to the body
+of the people, but to the aristocracy. This was not so much the case
+at first, before the university became an aggregate of colleges. Then
+a rather poor and humble class were enabled, through the small expense
+involved, to acquire the rudiments of an education, and even to become
+proficient in the scholastic dialectic. But ere long, and with the
+gradual endowment of different colleges, the expenses of a student
+became much greater, and, save where scholarships could be obtained,
+it required some affluence before parents could afford to give their
+sons an academic training. Hence, the more fortunate or aristocratic
+classes came in time to contribute the large majority of the student
+body. Those whose intellectual attainments were so unusual as to
+constitute ways and means have never been debarred, but impecunious
+mediocrity had and still has little place or opportunity. It is well to
+remember, in addition, that the Church fostered these universities in
+their infancy, that it deserves unqualified credit for having nursed
+them through their early months, and that it continues to have some
+considerable influence over the modern institutions. Finally, the
+growth of Cambridge and Oxford has largely been occasioned by lack of
+rivals in their own class. In this branch or that, other institutions
+have become deservedly famous. Edinburgh has a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> high reputation in
+moral science; Manchester is renowned for her physics, chemistry,
+and engineering; and London for her medical schools. But Oxford and
+Cambridge are strong in many branches. Financially powerful, they are
+able to attract the majority of promising and eminent men, whence has
+resulted that remarkable <i>coterie</i> of unrivaled intellects through whom
+the above-named universities are chiefly known to the outer and foreign
+world. This characteristic has its opposite illustrated in the United
+States, where the tendency is centrifugal, no one or two universities
+or colleges having advantages so decided as inevitably to attract most
+of the best minds, and where, in consequence, the best minds are found
+scattered from California to Harvard and Pennsylvania.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 279px;">
+<img src="images/illo_020.jpg" width="279" height="400" alt="J. J. Thomson" />
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">J. J. Thomson</span>, M. A., F. R. S., Trinity.
+Professor of Experimental Physics.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The characteristic peculiar to Cambridge and Oxford, and which
+distinguishes them not only from American but also from all other
+universities in England and elsewhere, is the college system. Thus
+Cambridge is a collection of eighteen colleges which, though nominally
+united to form one institution, are really distinct, inasmuch as
+each is a separate community with its own buildings and grounds, its
+own resident students, its own lecturers, and Fellows&mdash;a community
+which is supported by its own moneys without aid from the university
+exchequer, and which in most matters legislates for itself. The
+system is not unlike the American Union on a small scale, with its
+cluster of governments and their relation to a supreme center. The
+advantages of this scheme might theoretically be very great. With
+each college handsomely endowed and, though managing its own affairs,
+entering freely, in addition, into those relations of reciprocity
+which make for the good of the whole, one can readily imagine an
+ideal academic commonwealth. And while the present condition of the
+university can scarcely be said to approximate very closely to such
+an academic Utopia, it yet derives from its<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> constitution numerous
+obvious advantages which universities otherwise constituted would and
+do undoubtedly lack. The chief evils besetting the university are
+perhaps more adventitious than inherent; they are largely financial,
+and arise from carrying the system of college individualism too far. A
+description of the college and university organization may make this
+apparent. By its endowment a college must support a certain number
+of Fellows and scholars. The latter form a temporary body, while the
+former are more or less permanent, and therefore upon them devolves the
+management of the college. Business is usually done by a council chosen
+from the Fellows, and the election of new Fellows to fill vacancies is
+made by this select body. The head of a college is known as the master;
+he is elected by the Fellows save in one or two cases, where his
+appointment rests with the crown or with certain wealthy individuals.
+He lives in the college lodge especially built for him, draws a salary
+large in proportion to the wealth of his college, and exerts an
+influence corresponding to his intelligence.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 266px;">
+<img src="images/illo_021.jpg" width="266" height="400" alt="G. H. Darwin" />
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">G. H. Darwin</span>, M. A., F. R. S., Trinity. Plumian
+Professor of Astronomy.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Fellows are in most cases chosen from those men who have achieved
+the greatest success in an honor course. At Cambridge College
+individualism has progressed so far that the Fellows of, say, Magdalen
+must be Magdalen men, the students of Queens', St Catherine's, or any
+other being ineligible save for their own fellowships. Oxford obtains
+perhaps better men on the whole by throwing open the fellowships of
+each particular college to the graduates of all, thus producing a
+wider competition. A fellowship until recently was tenable for life,
+but it has been reduced to about six years, the Fellows as a whole,
+however, retaining the power to extend the period of possession. And,
+further, the holding of a college office for fifteen years in general
+qualifies for the holding of a fellow<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span>ship for life, and for a pension
+as lecturer or tutor. Thus a man is able to devote himself to research
+with little fear that at the latter end of his career he will lack the
+means of support. It is perhaps not too much to say that the offices of
+college dean, tutor, and lecturer are more perquisites than anything
+else. They are meant to keep and attract men of ability and parts.
+However, their existence reacts upon the student body by augmenting
+the expenses of the latter out of proportion to the benefits to be
+obtained. For instance, instead of utilizing one set of lecturers for
+one class of subjects, which all students could attend for a small fee,
+each of the larger colleges, at any rate, pays special lecturers, drawn
+from its own Fellows, to speak upon the same subjects each to a mere
+handful of men from their own college only. The tutor is another luxury
+inherited from the middle ages and therefore retained, and one for
+which the students have to pay dearly. The chief business of the tutor
+is not to teach, but to "look after" a certain number of students who
+are theoretically relegated to his charge. He looks up their lodgings
+for them, pays their bills at the end of the term, gets them out of
+scrapes, and draws a large salary. The tutorships seem to the writer
+to be a good illustration of how an office necessary to one period
+persists after that for which it was instituted has ceased to exist.
+When the students of Oxford and Cambridge were many of them thirteen
+and fourteen years of age, as in the fourteenth century, nurses were
+doubtless necessary, but they are still retained when the greater
+maturity of the students renders them not only unnecessary but at times
+even an impertinence.</p>
+
+<p>The dean is not, as with us, the head of a department; his functions
+are not so many, his tasks far less onerous. It is before a college
+dean that students are "hauled" for such offenses as irregularity at
+chapel, returning to the college after 12 <span class="smcap">P. M.</span>, smoking in
+college precincts, bringing dogs into the college grounds, and other
+villainous offenses against regulations. A dean must also attend
+chapel. Some colleges require two deans to struggle through these
+complicated and laborious duties, though some possessing only a few
+dozen students succeed in getting along with one.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 283px;">
+<img src="images/illo_023.jpg" width="283" height="400" alt="R. C. Jebb" />
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">R. C. Jebb</span>, Litt. D., M. P., Trinity. Regius
+Professor of Greek.</div>
+</div>
+<p>The line of demarcation between the university and the colleges is
+very distinct. The legislative influence of the former extends over a
+comparatively restricted field. All professorial chairs and certain
+lectureships belong to and are paid by the university; the latter
+has the arranging of the curricula, the care of the laboratories,
+the disposition of certain noncollegiate scholarships; but, broadly
+speaking, its two functions are the examination of all students and the
+conferring of degrees. The supreme legislative body<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> is the senate,
+and it is composed of all masters of arts, doctors, and bachelors
+of divinity whose names still remain on the university books&mdash;that
+is, who continue to pay certain fees into the university treasury.
+In addition to the legislative body there is an executive head or
+council of nineteen, including the chancellor&mdash;at present the Duke of
+Devonshire&mdash;and the vice-chancellor. Both these bodies must govern
+according to the statutes, no alteration in which can be effected
+without recourse being had to Parliament. The senate is a peculiar
+body, and on occasions becomes somewhat unwieldy. It consists at
+present of some 6,800 members, of whom only 452 are in residence at
+Cambridge. Upon ordinary occasions only these 452 vote upon questions
+proposed by the council; but on occasions of great moment, as when
+the question of granting university degrees to women came up, some
+thousands or more of the nonresident members, who in many cases have
+lost touch with the modern university and modern systems of education,
+swarm to their alma mater, annihilate the champions of reform, and are
+hailed by their brethren as the saviors of their university.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 278px;">
+<img src="images/illo_024.jpg" width="278" height="400" alt="Henry Sidgwick" />
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Henry Sidgwick</span>, Litt. D., Trinity. Knightbridge
+Professor of Moral Philosophy.</div>
+</div>
+<p>The university's exchequer is supplied partly by its endowment, but
+chiefly by an assessment on the college incomes, a capitation tax on
+all undergraduates, and the fees attending matriculation, examinations,
+and the granting of degrees. The examinations are numerous. Every
+student on entering is required to pass, or to claim exemption from,
+an entrance examination. In either case he pays £3 to the university,
+and upon admission to any honor course or "tripos" to qualify for
+the degree of Bachelor of Arts £3 more is exacted. The income of the
+university from these examination fees alone amounts to £9,400 per
+annum, £4,600 of which goes to pay the examiners. In America this is
+supposed to be a part of the professor's or instructor's duty, no
+additional<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> remuneration is allowed, and hence it does not become
+necessary to make an additional tax upon the students' resources. The
+conferring of degrees is also made a very profitable affair. Each
+candidate for the degree of B. A. pays out £7 to the voracious 'varsity
+chest, and upon proceeding to the M. A. a further contribution of £12
+is requested. In this way the university makes about £12,000 a year,
+and, as though this was not sufficient, she requires a matriculation
+fee of £5 for every student who becomes a member. By this means another
+annual £5,000 is obtained. It must be remembered that these fees are
+entirely separate from the college fees. When the £5 matriculation for
+the latter is taken into consideration and the £8 a term (at Trinity)
+for lectures, two thirds of which the student does not attend, when it
+is understood that all this and more does not include living expenses,
+which are by no means slight, and that there are three terms instead of
+two, as with us, it will be obvious that Cambridge adheres very closely
+to the rule that to them only who have wealth shall her refining
+influence be given. That the greatest universities in existence should
+render it almost totally impossible for aught but the rich to obtain
+the advantages of their unusual educational facilities jars with that
+idea of democracy of learning which an American training is apt to
+foster. But, as we shall point out later, an aristocracy of learning
+may also have its uses.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 289px;">
+<img src="images/illo_025.jpg" width="289" height="400" alt="Donald MacAlister" />
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Donald MacAlister</span>, M. A., M. D., St. Johns.
+Linacre Lecturer of Physics.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>With all the revenues the university collects from colleges and
+students, amounting in all to about £65,000, Cambridge still finds
+herself poor. Some of the colleges, notably King's and Trinity,
+are extremely wealthy, but the university remains, if not exactly
+impecunious, at least on the ragged edge of financial difficulties.
+The various regius and other professorships, inadequately endowed by
+the munificence of the crown and of individuals, have each to be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span>
+augmented from the university chest. The continual repairing of the old
+laboratories and scientific apparatus, the salaries to lecturers, to
+proctors, bedells, and other officers, cause a continual drain on the
+exchequer, which, with the rapidly growing need for larger laboratories
+and newer apparatus, has finally resulted in an appeal to the country
+for the sum of half a million pounds.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>It has been seen that the drains on a student's pocket are very
+considerable at Cambridge, owing to the number of perquisites showered
+by the colleges on their Fellows, and it may appear that this state
+of things is unjust and wrong. At present Oxford and Cambridge are
+practically within the reach of only the moneyed population. According,
+however, to a plausible and frequently repeated theory, it is not the
+function of these universities to meet the educational needs of the
+mediocre poor. The writer's critical attitude toward the financial
+system in vogue at Cambridge is a proper one, only on the assumption
+that a maximum of education to all classes alike at a minimum of
+expense is the final cause and desideratum of a university's existence.
+But if one assumes that Oxford and Cambridge exist for a different
+purpose, that the chief end they propose to themselves is individual
+research, and the advancement, not the promulgation, of learning, it
+must be admitted that their system has little that is reprehensible.
+According to this standpoint the students only exist by courtesy of
+the dons (a name for the Fellows), who have a perfect right to impose
+upon the students, in return for the condescension which is shown them,
+what terms they see fit. And they argue that this view is the historic
+one. The colleges were originally endowed solely for the benefit of
+a certain limited number of Fellows and scholars. The undergraduate
+body, as it at present exists, is a later growth, whose eventual
+existence and the importance of which to the university was probably
+not anticipated by the college founders. Starting<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> with this, the
+defenders of the present <i>régime</i> would point out, in addition, that
+there are other English institutions where the poorer classes may be
+educated, that Cambridge and Oxford are not only not bound to take upon
+themselves this task, but that they actually subserve a higher purpose
+and one just as necessary to the development of English science and
+letters and to the education of the English intellect by specializing
+in another direction. The good of a philosopher's lifelong reflections,
+they would say, is not always manifest, but the teachers who instruct
+the nation's youth are themselves dependent for rational standpoints
+upon the labor of the greater teacher, and they act as the instruments
+of communication between the most learned and the unlettered. So Oxford
+and Cambridge are the sources from whose fountains of wisdom and
+culture flow streams supplying all the academic mills of Britain, which
+in their turn are enabled to feed the inhabitants. It would be absurd,
+they maintain, to insist that the streams and the mills could equally
+well fulfill the same functions. Cambridge and Oxford instruct just so
+far as so doing is compatible with what for them is the main end&mdash;the
+furthering of various kinds of research and the offering of all sorts
+of inducements in order to keep and attract the interested attention of
+classical butterflies and scientific worms. How well they succeed in
+this noble ambition is known throughout the civilized world.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. G. H. Darwin, a son of Charles Darwin, has recently had occasion
+to mention the enormous scientific output of Cambridge University.
+After saying that the Royal Society is the Academy of Sciences in
+England, and that in its publications appear accounts of all the
+most important scientific discoveries in England and most of those
+in Scotland, Ireland, and other parts of Europe, he goes on to state
+that he examined the Transactions of this society for three years and
+discovered that out of the 5,480 pages published in that time 2,418
+were contributed by Cambridge men and 1,324 by residents.</p>
+
+<p>In view of these facts, and despite the shortcomings of this university
+as a teaching institution, it is to be hoped that private generosity
+will answer her appeal for financial assistance. Her laboratories are
+a mine of research, and it is in them and in the men who conduct them
+that Cambridge is perhaps most to be admired.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 287px;">
+<img src="images/illo_027.jpg" width="287" height="400" alt="Sir G. G. Stokes" />
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Sir G. G. Stokes</span>, Bart., M. A., LL. D., Sc. D.,
+F. R. S., Pembroke. Lucasian Professor of Mathematics.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Cavendish Laboratory of Physics, where Clerk-Maxwell and afterward
+Lord Rayleigh taught, and which is at present in the hand of their
+able successor, J. J. Thomson, is a building of considerable size
+and admirably fitted out, but the rapidly increasing number of young
+physicists who are being allured by the working facilities of the
+place, and by the fame of Professor Thomson, is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> rendering even this
+splendidly equipped hall of science inadequate. The physiological
+laboratories are many, they are completely furnished with appliances,
+and a large number of students are there trained annually under the
+supervision of one of England's most eminent living scientists,
+Michael Foster, and his scarcely less able associates&mdash;Langley, Hardy,
+and Gaskell. Chemistry, zoölogy, botany, anatomy, and geology have
+each their well-appointed halls and masterly exponents. The names
+MacAlister, Liveing, Dewar, Newton, Sedgwick, Marshall Ward, and Hughes
+are not easily matched in any other one institution. Indeed, it is
+when one stops to consider the intellects at Cambridge that it becomes
+a dangerous matter to institute comparisons, and to say that this
+discipline or that is most rich in eminent interpreters. In science,
+at any rate, and in all branches of science, Cambridge stands alone.
+Not even Oxford can be considered for a moment as in the same class
+with her. And of all the sciences it is undoubtedly in mathematics
+and astronomy that the supremacy of Cambridge is most pronounced. The
+names of Profs. Sir G. G. Stokes and Sir R. S. Ball will be familiar to
+every reader, while those of Profs. Forsythe and G. H. Darwin and Mr.
+Baker will be familiar to all mathematicians. In classics Cambridge,
+while not possessing a similar monopoly of almost all the talent,
+still holds her own even with Oxford. Professors Jebb, Mayor, and
+Ridgeway, and Drs. Verrall, Jackson, and Frazer constitute a group of
+men second to none in the subjects of which they treat. Professor Jebb
+is also one of the university's two representatives in Parliament.
+In philosophy Cambridge has two men, Henry Sidgwick and James Ward,
+the former of whom is perhaps by common consent the first living
+authority on moral science, while the latter ranks among the first of
+living psychologists. These men, while representing very different
+philosophical standpoints,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> unite in opposition not only to the
+Hegelian movement, which, led by Caird and Bradley of Oxford, Seth and
+Stirling of Edinburgh, threatens the invasion of England, but also to
+the Spencerian philosophy. The latter system has not many adherents at
+either university, but the writer has been told by Professor Sully that
+the ascendency of the neo-Hegelian and other systems is by no means
+so pronounced elsewhere in England. The Spencerian biology, on the
+contrary, has been largely defended at Cambridge, while Weismannism,
+for the most part, is repudiated there and at Oxford.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 286px;">
+<img src="images/illo_028.jpg" width="286" height="400" alt="James Ward" />
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">James Ward</span>, Sc. D., Trinity. Professor of
+Mental Philosophy and Logic.</div>
+</div>
+<p>The teaching at Cambridge, as at all universities, is of many grades.
+In many subjects the lectures are not meant to give a student
+sufficient material to get him through an examination, and a "coach"
+becomes requisite, or at any rate is employed. This system of coaching
+has attained large dimensions; its results are often good, but it
+means an additional expense and seems an incentive to laziness, making
+it unnecessary for a student to exert his own mental aggressiveness
+or powers of application as he who fights his own battles must do.
+The Socratic form of instruction, producing a more intimate and
+unrestricted relation between instructor and student, and which is
+largely in operation in the States, is little practiced in England.
+In science the methods of instruction at Cambridge are ideal. That
+practical acquaintance with the facts of Nature which Huxley and
+Tyndall taught is the only true means of knowing Nature, is the key
+according to which all biological and physical instruction at these
+institutions is conducted.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>In the last half dozen years two radical steps have been taken by both
+Oxford and Cambridge&mdash;steps leading, to many respectable minds, in
+diametrically opposite directions. The step backward (in the writer's
+view) occurred when the universities, after much excitement, defeated
+with slaughter the proposition grant<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span>ing university degrees to women.
+It was simply proposed that the students of Newnham and Girton, who
+should successfully compete with male students in an honor course,
+should have an equal right with the latter to receive the usual degrees
+from their alma mater. After industrious inquiry among those who were
+foremost in supporting and opposing this movement the writer has
+unearthed no objection of weight against the change. "If the women
+were granted degrees they would have votes in the senate," and "It
+never has been done"&mdash;these are the two reasons most persistently
+urged in defense of the conservative view; while justice and utility
+alike appear to be for once, at any rate, unequivocally on the side
+of the women. Prejudice defeated progress, and students celebrated
+the auspicious occasion with bonfires. The step forward was taken
+when the universities and their colleges decided to throw open their
+gates to the graduates of other universities in England, America, and
+elsewhere for the purpose of advanced study. But here, as in other
+things, Cambridge leads the way, and Oxford follows falteringly. The
+advanced students at Cambridge are treated like Cambridge men, they
+have the status of Bachelors of Arts, and possess in most respects
+the advantages, such as they are, of the latter; while at Oxford the
+advanced students are a restricted class, with restricted advantages,
+and their relation to the university is not that of the other
+students. In Cambridge the movement which has resulted in the present
+admirable condition of affairs was largely brought about by the zeal
+and enterprise of Dr. Donald MacAlister, of St. John's College, the
+University Lecturer in Therapeutics, a man of wide sympathies and
+ability, and whose name is closely associated with this university's
+metamorphosis into a more modern institution.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p class="ph2"><a name="THE_WONDERFUL_CENTURY1" id="THE_WONDERFUL_CENTURY1"></a>THE WONDERFUL CENTURY.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
+
+<p class="ph4">A REVIEW BY W. K. BROOKS,</p>
+
+<p class="center">PROFESSOR OF ZOÖLOGY IN THE JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY.</p>
+
+
+<p>Every naturalist has in his heart a warm affection for the author of
+the Malay Archipelago, and is glad to acknowledge with gratitude his
+debt to this great explorer and thinker and teacher who gave us the law
+of natural selection independently of Darwin. When the history of our
+century is written, the foremost place among those who have guided the
+thought of their generation and opened new fields for discovery will
+assuredly be given to Wallace and Darwin.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Few of the great men who have helped to make our century memorable
+in the history of thought are witnesses of its end, and all who have
+profited by the labors of Wallace will rejoice that he has been
+permitted to stand on the threshold of a new century, and, reviewing
+the past, to give us his impressions of the wonderful century.</p>
+
+<p>We men of the nineteenth century, he says, have not been slow to praise
+it. The wise and the foolish, the learned and the unlearned, the poet
+and the pressman, the rich and the poor, alike swell the chorus of
+admiration for the marvelous inventions and discoveries of our own age,
+and especially for those innumerable applications of science which now
+form part of our daily life, and which remind us every hour of our
+immense superiority over our comparatively ignorant forefathers.</p>
+
+<p>Our century, he tells us, has been characterized by a marvelous and
+altogether unprecedented progress in the knowledge of the universe and
+of its complex forces, and also in the application of that knowledge
+to an infinite variety of purposes calculated, if properly utilized,
+to supply all the wants of every human being and to add greatly to the
+comforts, the enjoyments, and the refinements of life. The bounds of
+human knowledge have been so far extended that new vistas have opened
+to us in nearly all directions where it had been thought that we could
+never penetrate, and the more we learn the more we seem capable of
+learning in the ever-widening expanse of the universe. It may, he
+says, be truly said of the men of science that they have become as
+gods knowing good and evil, since they have been able not only to
+utilize the most recondite powers of Nature in their service, but have
+in many cases been able to discover the sources of much of the evil
+that afflicts humanity, to abolish pain, to lengthen life, and to add
+immensely to the intellectual as well as the physical enjoyments of our
+race.</p>
+
+<p>In order to get any adequate measure for comparison with the nineteenth
+century we must take not any preceding century, but the whole preceding
+epoch of human history. We must take into consideration not only the
+changes effected in science, in the arts, in the possibilities of
+human intercourse, and in the extension of our knowledge both of the
+earth and of the whole visible universe, but the means our century has
+furnished for future advancement.</p>
+
+<p>Our author, who has borne such a distinguished part in the intellectual
+progress of our century, shows clearly that in means for the discovery
+of truth, for the extension of our control over Nature, and for the
+alleviation of the ills that beset mankind, the inheritance of the
+twentieth century from the nineteenth will be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> greater than our own
+inheritance from all the centuries that have gone before.</p>
+
+<p>Some may regret that, while only one third of Wallace's book is
+devoted to the successes of the wonderful century, the author finds
+the remaining two thirds none too much for the enumeration of some of
+its most notable failures; but it is natural for one who has borne his
+own distinguished part in all this marvelous progress to ask where the
+century has fallen short of the enthusiastic hopes of its leaders, what
+that it might have done it has failed to do, and what lies ready at
+the hand of the workers who will begin the new century with this rich
+inheritance of new thoughts, new methods, and new resources.</p>
+
+<p>The more we realize the vast possibilities of human welfare which
+science has given us the more, he says, must we recognize our total
+failure to make any adequate use of them.</p>
+
+<p>Along with this continuous progress in science, in the arts, and in
+wealth-production, which has dazzled our imaginations to such an extent
+that we can hardly admit the possibility of any serious evils having
+accompanied or been caused by it, there has, he says, been many serious
+failures&mdash;intellectual, social, and moral. Some of our great thinkers,
+he says, have been so impressed by the terrible nature of these
+failures that they have doubted whether the final result of the work
+of the century has any balance of good over evil, of happiness over
+misery, for mankind at large.</p>
+
+<p>Wallace is no pessimist, but one who believes that the first step in
+retrieving our failures is to perceive clearly where we have failed,
+for he says there can be no doubt of the magnitude of the evils that
+have grown up or persisted in the midst of all our triumphs over
+natural forces and our unprecedented growth in wealth and luxury, and
+he holds it not the least important part of his work to call attention
+to some of these failures.</p>
+
+<p>With ample knowledge of the sources of health, we allow and even
+compel the bulk of our population to live and work under conditions
+which greatly shorten life. In our mad race for wealth we have made
+gold more sacred than human life; we have made life so hard for many
+that suicide and insanity and crime are alike increasing. The struggle
+for wealth has been accompanied by a reckless destruction of the
+stored-up products of Nature, which is even more deplorable because
+irretrievable. Not only have forest growths of many hundred years been
+cleared away, often with disastrous consequences, but the whole of
+the mineral treasures of the earth's surface, the slow productions of
+long-past eras of time and geological change, have been and are still
+being exhausted with reckless disregard of our duties to posterity and
+solely in the in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span>terest of landlords and capitalists. With all our
+labor-saving machinery and all our command over the forces of Nature,
+the struggle for existence has become more fierce than ever before,
+and year by year an ever-increasing proportion of our people sink into
+paupers' graves.</p>
+
+<p>When the brightness of future ages shall have dimmed the glamour of our
+material progress he says that the judgment of history will surely be
+that our ethical standard was low and that we were unworthy to possess
+the great and beneficent powers that science had placed in our hands,
+for, instead of devoting the highest powers of our greatest men to
+remedy these evils, we see the governments of the most advanced nations
+arming their people to the teeth and expending most of the wealth and
+all the resources of their science in preparation for the destruction
+of life, of property, and of happiness.</p>
+
+<p>He reminds us that the first International Exhibition, in 1851,
+fostered the hope that men would soon perceive that peace and
+commercial intercourse are essential to national well-being. Poets and
+statesmen joined in hailing the dawn of an era of peaceful industry,
+and exposition following exposition taught the nations how much they
+have to learn from each other and how much to give to each other for
+the benefit and happiness of all.</p>
+
+<p>Dueling, which had long prevailed, in spite of its absurdity and
+harmfulness, as a means of settling disputes, was practically abolished
+by the general diffusion of a spirit of intolerance of private war; and
+as the same public opinion which condemns it should, if consistent,
+also condemn war between nations, many thought they perceived the dawn
+of a wiser policy between nations.</p>
+
+<p>Yet so far are we from progress toward its abolition that the latter
+half of the century has witnessed not the decay, but a revival of the
+war spirit, and at its end we find all nations loaded with the burden
+of increasing armies and navies.</p>
+
+<p>The armies are continually being equipped with new and more deadly
+weapons at a cost which strains the resources of even the most wealthy
+nations and impoverishes the mass of the people by increasing burdens
+of debt and taxation, and all this as a means of settling disputes
+which have no sufficient cause and no relation whatever to the
+well-being of the communities which engage in them.</p>
+
+<p>The evils of war do not cease with the awful loss of life and
+destruction of property which are their immediate results, since they
+form the excuse for inordinate increase of armaments&mdash;an increase
+which has been intensified by the application to war purposes of those
+mechanical inventions and scientific discoveries which,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> properly used,
+should bring peace and plenty to all, but which when seized upon by the
+spirit of militarism directly lead to enmity among nations and to the
+misery of the people.</p>
+
+<p>The first steps in this military development were the adoption of a new
+rifle by the Prussian army in 1846, the application of steam to ships
+of war in 1840, and the use of armor for battle ships in 1859. The
+remainder of the century has witnessed a mad race between the nations
+to increase the death-dealing power of their weapons and to add to
+the number and efficiency of their armies, while all the resources of
+modern science have been utilized in order to add to the destructive
+power of cannon and both the defensive and the offensive power of
+ships. The inability of industrious laboring men to gain any due share
+of the benefits of our progress in scientific knowledge is due, beyond
+everything else, to the expense of withdrawing great armies of men
+in the prime of life from productive labor, joined to the burden of
+feeding and clothing them and of keeping weapons and ammunition, ships,
+and fortifications in a state of readiness, of continually renewing
+stores of all kinds, of pensions, and of all the laboring men who must,
+besides making good the destruction caused by war, be withdrawn from
+productive labor and be supported by others that they may support the
+army.</p>
+
+<p>And what a horrible mockery is this when viewed in the light of either
+Christianity or advancing civilization! All the nations armed to the
+teeth and watching stealthily for some occasion to use their vast
+armaments for their own aggrandizement and for the injury of their
+neighbors are Christian nations, but their Christian governments do not
+exist for the good of the governed, still less for the good of humanity
+or civilization, but for the aggrandizement and greed and lust of the
+ruling classes.</p>
+
+<p>The devastation caused by the tyrants and conquerors of the middle
+ages and of antiquity has been reproduced in our times by the rush to
+obtain wealth. Even the lust of conquest, in order to obtain slaves
+and tribute and great estates, by means of which the ruling classes
+could live in boundless luxury, so characteristic of the earlier
+civilization, is reproduced in our time.</p>
+
+<p>Witness the recent conduct of the nations of Europe toward Crete and
+Greece, upholding the most terrible despotism in the world because each
+hopes for a favorable opportunity to obtain some advantage, leading
+ultimately to the largest share of the spoil.</p>
+
+<p>Witness the struggles in Africa and Asia, where millions of foreign
+people may be enslaved and bled for the benefit of their new rulers.</p>
+
+<p>The whole world, says Wallace, is but a gambling table. Just<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> as
+gambling deteriorates and demoralizes the individual, so the greed
+for dominion demoralizes governments. The welfare of the people is
+little cared for, except so far as to make them submissive taxpayers,
+enabling the ruling and moneyed classes to extend their sway over new
+territories and to create well-paid places and exciting work for their
+sons and relatives.</p>
+
+<p>Hence, says Wallace, comes the force that ever urges on the increase
+of armaments and the extension of empire. Great vested interests
+are at stake, and ever-growing pressure is brought to bear upon the
+too-willing governments in the name of the greatness of the country,
+the extension of commerce, or the advance of civilization. This state
+of things is not progress, but retrogression. It will be held by the
+historian of the future to show that we of the nineteenth century were
+morally and socially unfit to possess the enormous powers for good and
+evil which the rapid advance of scientific discovery has given us,
+that our boasted civilization was in many respects a mere superficial
+veneer, and that our methods of government were not in accord with
+either Christianity or civilization.</p>
+
+<p>Comparing the conduct of these modern nations, who call themselves
+Christian and civilized, with that of the Spanish conquerors of
+the West Indies, Mexico, and Peru, and making some allowances for
+differences of race and public opinion, Wallace says there is not much
+to choose between them.</p>
+
+<p>Wealth and territory and native labor were the real objects in both
+cases, and if the Spaniards were more cruel by nature and more reckless
+in their methods the results were much the same. In both cases the
+country was conquered and thereafter occupied and governed by the
+conquerors frankly for their own ends, and with little regard for
+the feelings or the well-being of the conquered. If the Spaniards
+exterminated the natives of the West Indies, we, he says, have done the
+same thing in Tasmania and about the same in temperate Australia. Their
+belief that they were really serving God in converting the heathen,
+even at the point of the sword, was a genuine belief, shared by priests
+and conquerors alike&mdash;not a mere sham as ours is when we defend our
+conduct by the plea of "introducing the blessings of civilization."</p>
+
+<p>It is quite possible, says Wallace, that both the conquest of Mexico
+and Peru by the Spaniards and our conquest of South Africa may have
+been real steps in advance, essential to human progress, and helping on
+the future reign of true civilization and the well-being of the human
+race. But if so, we have been and are unconscious agents in hastening
+the "far-off divine event." We deserve no credit for it. Our aims have
+been for the most part<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> sordid and selfish, and our rule has often
+been largely influenced and often entirely directed by the necessity
+of finding well-paid places for young men with influence, and also by
+the constant demands for fresh markets by the influential class of
+merchants and manufacturers.</p>
+
+<p>More general diffusion of the conviction that while all share the
+burdens of war, such good as comes from it is appropriated by the few,
+will no doubt do much to discourage wars; but we must ask whether there
+may not be another incentive to war which Wallace does not give due
+weight&mdash;whether love of fighting may not have something to do with wars.</p>
+
+<p>As we look backward over history we are forced to ask whether the greed
+and selfishness of the wealthy and influential and those who hope to
+gain are the only causes of war. We went to war with Spain because our
+people in general demanded war. If we have been carried further than
+we intended and are now fighting for objects which we did not foresee
+and may not approve, this is no more than history might have led us to
+expect. War with Spain was popular with nearly all our people a year
+ago, and, while wise counsels might have stemmed this popular tide,
+there can be no doubt that it existed, for the evil passions of the
+human race are the real cause of wars.</p>
+
+<p>The great problem of the twentieth century, as of all that have gone
+before, is the development of the wise and prudent self-restraint which
+represses natural passions and appetites for the sake of higher and
+better ends.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p class="ph2"><a name="SPIDER_BITES_AND_KISSING_BUGS2" id="SPIDER_BITES_AND_KISSING_BUGS2">SPIDER BITES AND "KISSING BUGS."</a><a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
+
+<p class="ph4"><span class="smcap">By L. O. HOWARD</span>,</p>
+
+<p class="center">CHIEF OF THE DIVISION OF ENTOMOLOGY, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF
+AGRICULTURE.</p>
+
+
+<p>On several occasions during the past ten years, and especially at
+the Brooklyn meeting of the American Association for the Advancement
+of Science in 1894, the writer has endeavored to show that most of
+the newspaper stories of deaths from spider bite are either grossly
+exaggerated or based upon misinformation. He has failed to thoroughly
+substantiate a single case of death from a so-called spider bite,
+and has concluded that there is only one spider in the United States
+which is capable of inflicting a serious bite&mdash;viz., <i>Latrodectus
+mactans</i>, a species belonging to a genus of world-wide distribution,
+the other species of which have universally a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> bad reputation among the
+peoples whose country they inhabit. In spite of these conclusions, the
+accuracy of which has been tested with great care, there occur in the
+newspapers every year stories of spider bites of great seriousness,
+often resulting in death or the amputation of a limb. The details of
+negative evidence and of lack of positive evidence need not be entered
+upon here, except in so far as to state that in the great majority
+of these cases the spider supposed to have inflicted the bite is not
+even seen, while in almost no case is the spider seen to inflict the
+bite; and it is a well-known fact that there are practically no spiders
+in our more northern States which are able to pierce the human skin,
+except upon a portion of the body where the skin is especially delicate
+and which is seldom exposed. There arises, then, the probability that
+there are other insects capable of piercing tough skin, the results of
+whose bites may be more or less painful, the wounds being attributed
+to spiders on account of the universally bad reputation which these
+arthropods seem to have.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 578px;">
+<img src="images/illo_036.jpg" width="578" height="600" alt="Different Stages of Conorhinus sanguisugus" />
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Different Stages of Conorhinus sanguisugus.</span>
+Twice natural size. (After Marlatt.)</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>These sentences formed the introduction to a paper read by the writer
+at a meeting of the Entomological Society of Washington, held June
+1st last. I went on to state that some of these insects are rather
+well known, as, for example, the blood-sucking cone-nose (<i>Conorhinus
+sanguisugus</i>) and the two-spotted corsairs<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> (<i>Rasatus thoracicus</i> and
+<i>R. biguttatus</i>), both of which occur, however, most numerously in the
+South and West, and then spoke of <i>Melanotestis picipes</i>, a species
+which had been especially called to my attention by Mr. Frank M.
+Jones, of Wilmington, Del., who submitted the report of the attending
+physician in a case of two punctures by this insect inflicted upon
+the thumb and forefinger of a middle-aged man in Delaware. I further
+reported upon occasional somewhat severe results from the bites<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> of
+the old <i>Reduvius personatus</i>, now placed in the genus <i>Opsicostes</i>,
+and stated that a smaller species, <i>Coriscus subcoleoptratus</i>, had
+bitten me rather severely under circumstances similar to some of those
+which have given rise in the past to spider-bite stories. In the
+course of the discussion which followed the reading of this paper, Mr.
+Schwarz stated that twice during the present spring he had been bitten
+rather severely by <i>Melanotestis picipes</i> which had entered his room,
+probably attracted by light. He described it as the worst biter among
+heteropterous insects with which he had had any experience, and said
+he thought it was commoner than usual in Washington during the present
+year.</p>
+
+<p>No account of this meeting was published, but within a few weeks
+thereafter several persons suffering from swollen faces visited the
+Emergency Hospital in Washington and complained that they had been
+bitten by some insect while asleep; that they did not see the insect,
+and could not describe it. This happened during one of the temporary
+periods when newspaper men are most actively engaged in hunting for
+items. There was a dearth of news. These swollen faces offered an
+opportunity for a good story, and thus began the "kissing-bug" scare
+which has grown to such extraordinary proportions. I have received
+the following letter and clipping from Mr. J. F. McElhone, of the
+Washington Post, in reply to a request for information regarding the
+origin of this curious epidemic:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="author">
+
+"<span class="smcap">Washington, D. C.</span>, <i>August 14, 1899</i>.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="i2">"<i>Dr. L. O. Howard, Cosmos Club, Washington, D. C.</i></span>
+</p>
+
+<p>"<span class="smcap">Dear Sir</span>: Attached please find clipping from the Washington
+Post of June 20, 1899, being the first story that ever appeared in
+print, so far as I can learn, of the depredations of the <i>Melanotestis
+picipes</i>, better known now as the kissing bug. In my rounds as
+police reporter of the Post, I noticed, for two or three days before
+writing this story, that the register of the Emergency Hospital of
+this city contained unusually frequent notes of 'bug-bite'<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> cases.
+Investigating, on the evening of June 19th I learned from the hospital
+physicians that a noticeable number of patients were applying daily
+for treatment for very red and extensive swellings, usually on the
+lips, and apparently the result of an insect bite. This led to the
+writing of the story attached.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+"Very truly yours,<br />
+<span class="i6">"James F. McElhone."</span>
+</p></blockquote>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 445px;">
+
+<img src="images/illo_038.jpg" width="242" height="500" alt="The Washington Post" />
+
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="ph3">The Washington Post.</p>
+
+<p class="center">TUESDAY, JUNE 20, 1899.</p>
+
+<p class="ph4">BITE OF A STRANGE BUG.</p>
+
+<p class="center">Several Patients Have Appeared at the Hospitals Very Badly Poisoned.</p>
+
+<p>Lookout for the new bug. It is an insidious insect that bites without
+causing pain and escapes unnoticed. But afterward the place where it
+has bitten swells to ten times its normal size. The Emergency Hospital
+has had several victims of this insect as patients lately and the
+number is increasing. Application for treatment by other victims are
+being made at other hospitals, and the matter threatens to become
+something like a plague. None of those who have been bitten saw the
+insect whose sting proves so disastrous. One old negro went to sleep
+and woke up to find both his eyes nearly closed by the swelling from
+his nose and cheeks, where the insect had alighted. The lips seems to
+be the favorite point of attack.</p>
+
+<p>William Smith, a newspaper agent, of 327 Trumbull street, went to the
+Emergency last night with his upper lip swollen to many times its
+natural size. The symptoms are in every case the same, and there is
+indication of poisoning from an insect's bite. The matter is beginning
+to interest the physicians, and every patient who comes in with the
+now well-known marks is closely questioned as to the description of
+the insect. No one has yet been found who has seen it.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+</div>
+
+
+<p>It would be an interesting computation for one to figure out the amount
+of newspaper space which was filled in the succeeding two months by
+items and articles about the "kissing bug." Other Washington newspapers
+took the matter up. The New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore papers
+soon followed suit. The epidemic spread east to Boston and west to
+California. By "epidemic" is meant the <i>newspaper</i> epidemic, for every
+insect bite where the biter was not at once recognized was attributed
+to the popular and somewhat mysterious creature which had been given
+such an attractive name, and there can be no doubt that some mosquito,
+flea, and bedbug bites which had by accident resulted in a greater than
+the usual severity were attributed to the prevailing osculatory insect.
+In Washington professional beggars seized the opportunity, and went
+around from door to door with bandaged faces and hands, complaining
+that they were poor men and had been thrown out of work by the results
+of "kissing-bug" stings! One beggar came to the writer's door and
+offered, in support of his plea, a card supposed to be signed by the
+head surgeon of the Emergency Hospital. In a small town in central
+New York a man arrested on the charge of swindling entered the plea
+that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> he was temporarily insane owing to the bite of the "kissing
+bug." Entomologists all through the East were also much overworked
+answering questions asked them about the mysterious creature. Men of
+local entomological reputations were applied to by newspaper reporters,
+by their friends, by people who knew them, in church, on the street,
+and under all conceivable circumstances. Editorials were written about
+it. Even the Scientific American published a two-column article on
+the subject; and, while no international complications have resulted
+as yet, the kissing bug, in its own way and in the short space of two
+months, produced almost as much of a scare as did the San José scale in
+its five years of Eastern excitement. Now, however, the newspapers have
+had their fun, the necessary amount of space has been filled, and the
+subject has assumed a castaneous hue, to Latinize the slang of a few
+years back.</p>
+
+<p>The experience has been a most interesting one. To the reader familiar
+with the old accounts of the hysterical craze of south Europe,
+based upon supposed tarantula bites, there can not fail to come the
+suggestion that we have had in miniature and in modernized form,
+aided largely by the newspapers, a hysterical craze of much the same
+character. From the medical and psychological point of view this aspect
+is interesting, and deserves investigation by competent persons.</p>
+
+<p>As an entomologist, however, the writer confines himself to the actual
+authors of the bites so far as he has been able to determine them. It
+seems undoubtedly true that while there has been a great cry there
+has been very little wool. It is undoubtedly true, also, that there
+have been a certain number of bites by heteropterous insects, some
+of which have resulted in considerable swelling. It seems true that
+<i>Melanotestis picipes</i> and <i>Opsicostes personatus</i> have been more
+numerous than usual this year, at least around Washington. They have
+been captured in a number of instances while biting people, and have
+been brought to the writer's office for determination in such a way
+that there can be no doubt about the accuracy of this statement. As
+the story went West, bites by <i>Conorhinus sanguisuga</i> and <i>Rasatus
+thoracicus</i> were without doubt termed "kissing-bug" bites. With regard
+to other cases, the writer has known of an instance where the mosquito
+bite upon the lip of a sleeping child produced a very considerable
+swelling. Therefore he argues that many of these reported cases may
+have been nothing more than mosquito bites. With nervous and excitable
+individuals the symptoms of any skin puncture become exaggerated not
+only in the mind of the individual but in their actual characteristics,
+and not only does this refer to cases of skin<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> puncture but to certain
+skin eruptions, and to some of those early summer skin troubles which
+are known as strawberry rash, etc. It is in this aspect of the subject
+that the resemblance to tarantulism comes in, and this is the result of
+the hysterical wave, if it may be so termed.</p>
+
+<p>Six different heteropterous insects were mentioned in the early part
+of this article, and it will be appropriate to give each of them
+some little detailed consideration, taking the species of Eastern
+distribution first, since the scare had its origin in the East, and has
+there perhaps been more fully exploited.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;">
+<img src="images/illo_040.jpg" width="800" height="373" alt="Melanotestis abdominalis" />
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Melanotestis abdominalis.</span> Female at right; male
+at left, with enlarged beak at side. Twice natural size. (Original.)</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 440px;">
+<img src="images/illo_041.jpg" width="440" height="242" alt="Head and Proboscis of Conorhinus sanguisugus" />
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Head and Proboscis of Conorhinus sanguisugus.</span>
+(After Marlatt.)</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Opsicostes personatus</i>, also known as <i>Reduvius personatus</i>, and which
+has been termed the "cannibal bug," is a European species introduced
+into this country at some unknown date, but possibly following close in
+the wake of the bedbug. In Europe this species haunts houses for the
+purpose of preying upon bedbugs. Riley, in his well-known article on
+Poisonous Insects, published in Wood's Reference Handbook of Medical
+Science, states that if a fly or another insect is offered to the
+cannibal bug it is first touched with the antennæ, a sudden spring
+follows, and at the same time the beak is thrust into the prey. The
+young specimens are covered with a glutinous substance, to which
+bits of dirt and dust adhere. They move deliberately, with a long
+pause between each step, the step being taken in a jerky manner. The
+distribution of the species, as given by Reuter in his Monograph of the
+Genus <i>Reduvius</i>, is Europe to the middle of Sweden, Caucasia, Asia
+Minor, Algeria, Madeira; North America, Canada, New York, Philadelphia,
+Indiana; Tasmania, Australia&mdash;from which it appears that the insect is
+already practically cosmopolitan, and in fact may almost be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> termed
+a household insect. The collections of the United States National
+Museum and of Messrs. Heidemann and Chittenden, of Washington, D. C.,
+indicate the following localities for this species: Locust Hill, Va.;
+Washington, D. C.; Baltimore, Md.; Ithaca, N. Y.; Cleveland, Ohio;
+Keokuk, Iowa.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>The bite of this species is said to be very painful, more so than that
+of a bee, and to be followed by numbness (Lintner). One of the cases
+brought to the writer's attention this summer was that of a Swedish
+servant girl, in which the insect was caught, where the sting was
+upon the neck, and was followed by considerable swelling. Le Conte,
+in describing it under the synonymical name <i>Reduvius pungens</i>, gives
+Georgia as the locality, and makes the following statement: "This
+species is remarkable for the intense pain caused by its bite. I do not
+know whether it ever willingly plunges its rostrum into any person, but
+when caught or unskillfully handled it always stings. In this case the
+pain is almost equal to that of the bite of a snake, and the swelling
+and irritation which result from it will sometimes last for a week. In
+very weak and irritable constitutions it may even prove fatal."<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 440px;">
+<img src="images/illo_041.jpg" width="440" height="242" alt="Coriscus subcoleoptratus" />
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Coriscus subcoleoptratus</span>: <i>a</i>, wingless form;
+<i>b</i>, winged form; <i>c</i>, proboscis. All twice natural size. (Original.)</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The second Eastern species is <i>Melanotestis picipes</i>. This and the
+closely allied and possibly identical <i>M. abdominalis</i> are not rare in
+the United States, and have been found all along the Atlantic States,
+in the West and South, and also in Mexico. They live underneath stones
+and logs, and run swiftly. Both sexes of <i>M. picipes</i> in the adult
+are fully winged, but the female of <i>M. abdominalis</i> is usually found
+in the short-winged condition. Prof. P. R. Uhler writes (in litt.):
+"<i>Melanotestis abdominalis</i> is not rare in this section (Baltimore),
+but the winged female is a great rarity. At the present time I have not
+a specimen of the winged female in my collection. I have seen specimens
+from the South, in North Carolina and Florida, but I do not remember
+one from Maryland. I am satisfied that <i>M. picipes</i> is distinct from
+<i>M. abdominalis</i>. I have not known the two species to unite sexually,
+but I have seen them both united to their proper consorts. Both species
+are sometimes found under the same flat stone or log, and they both
+hiber<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span>nate in our valleys beneath stones and rubbish in loamy soils."
+Specimens in Washington collections show the following localities
+for <i>M. abdominalis</i>: Baltimore, Md.; Washington, D. C.; Wilmington,
+Del.; New Jersey; Long Island; Fort Bliss, Texas; Louisiana; and
+Keokuk, Iowa;, and for <i>M. picipes</i>, Washington, D. C.; Roslyn, Va.;
+Baltimore, Md.; Derby, Conn.; Long Island; a series labeled New Jersey;
+Wilmington, Del.; Keokuk, Iowa; Cleveland and Cincinnati, Ohio;
+Louisiana; Jackson, Miss.; Barton County, Mo.; Fort Bliss, Texas; San
+Antonio, Texas; Crescent City, Fla.; Holland, S. C.</p>
+
+<p>This insect has been mentioned several times in entomological
+literature. The first reference to its bite probably was made by
+Townend Glover in the Annual Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture
+for 1875 (page 130). In Maryland, he states, <i>M. picipes</i> is found
+under stones, moss, logs of wood, etc., and is capable of inflicting a
+severe wound with its rostrum or piercer. In 1888 Dr. Lintner, in his
+Fourth Report as State Entomologist of New York (page 110), quotes from
+a correspondent in Natchez, Miss., concerning this insect: "I send a
+specimen of a fly not known to us here. A few days ago it punctured the
+finger of my wife, inflicting a painful sting. The swelling was rapid,
+and for several days the wound was quite annoying." Until recent years
+this insect has not been known to the writer as occurring in houses
+with any degree of frequency. In May, 1895, however, I received a
+specimen from an esteemed correspondent&mdash;Dr. J. M. Shaffer, of Keokuk,
+Iowa&mdash;together with a letter written on May 7th, in which the statement
+was made that four specimens flew into his window the night before. The
+insect, therefore, is attracted to light or is becoming attracted to
+light, is a night-flier, and enters houses through open windows. Among
+the several cases coming under the writer's observation of bites by
+this insect, one has been reported by the well-known entomologist Mr.
+Charles Dury, of Cincinnati, Ohio, in which this species (<i>M. picipes</i>)
+bit a man on the back of the hand, making a bad sore. In another case,
+where the insect was brought for our determination and proved to be
+this species, the bite was upon the cheek, and the swelling was said to
+be great, but with little pain. In a third case, occurring at Holland,
+S. C., the symptoms were more serious. The patient was bitten upon
+the end of the middle finger, and stated that the first paroxysm of
+pain was about like that resulting from a hornet or a bee sting, but
+almost immediately it grew ten times more painful, with a feeling of
+weakness followed by vomiting. The pain was felt to shoot up the arm to
+the under jaw, and the sickness lasted for a number of days. A fourth
+case, at Fort Bliss,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span> Texas, is interesting as having occurred in bed.
+The patient was bitten on the hand, with very painful results and bad
+swelling.</p>
+
+<p>The third of the Eastern species, <i>Coriscus subcoleoptratus</i>, is said
+by Uhler to have a general distribution in the Northern States, and is
+like the species immediately preceding a native insect. There is no
+record of any bite by this species, and it is introduced here for the
+reason that it attracted the writer's attention crawling upon the walls
+of an earth closet in Greene County, New York, where on one occasion it
+bit him between the fingers. The pain was sharp, like the prick of a
+pin, but only a faint swelling followed, and no further inconvenience.
+The insect is mentioned, however, for the reason that, occurring in
+such situations, it is one of the forms which are liable to carry
+pathogenic bacteria.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/illo_043.jpg" width="600" height="344" alt="Rasatus biguttatus" />
+</div>
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Rasatus biguttatus">
+<tr><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Rasatus biguttatus.</span></td><td class="tdr"><span class="smcap">Reduvius (Opsicostes) personatus.</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdc">Twice natural size. (Original.)</td><td class="tdc">Twice natural
+size. (Original.)</td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p>There remain for consideration the Southern and Western forms&mdash;<i>Rasatus
+thoracicus</i> and <i>R. biguttatus</i>, and <i>Conorhinus sanguisugus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The two-spotted corsair, as <i>Rasatus biguttatus</i> is popularly termed,
+is said by Riley to be found frequently in houses in the Southern
+States, and to prey upon bedbugs. Lintner, referring to the fact that
+it preys upon bedbugs, says: "It evidently delights in human blood, but
+prefers taking it at second hand." Dr. A. Davidson, formerly of Los
+Angeles, Cal., in an important paper entitled So-called Spider Bites
+and their Treatment, published in the Therapeutic Gazette of February
+15, 1897, arrives at the conclusion that almost all of the so-called
+spider bites met with in southern California are produced by no spider
+at all, but by <i>Rasatus biguttatus</i>. The symptoms which he describes
+are as follows: "Next day the injured part shows a local cellulitis,
+with a central<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> dark spot; around this spot there frequently appears
+a bullous vesicle about the size of a ten-cent piece, and filled with
+a dark grumous fluid; a small ulcer forms underneath the vesicle, the
+necrotic area being generally limited to the central part, while the
+surrounding tissues are more or less swollen and somewhat painful. In
+a few days, with rest and proper care, the swelling subsides, and in
+a week all traces of the cellulitis are usually gone. In some of the
+cases no vesicle forms at the point of injury, the formation probably
+depending on the constitutional vitality of the individual or the
+amount of poison introduced." The explanation of the severity of the
+wound suggested by Dr. Davidson, and in which the writer fully concurs
+with him, is not that the insect introduces any specific poison of
+its own, but that the poison introduced is probably accidental and
+contains the ordinary putrefactive germs which may adhere to its
+proboscis. Dr. Davidson's treatment was corrosive sublimate&mdash;1 to 500
+or 1 to 1,000&mdash;locally applied to the wound, keeping the necrotic part
+bathed in the solution. The results have in all cases been favorable.
+Uhler gives the distribution of <i>R. biguttatus</i> as Arizona, Texas,
+Panama, Pará, Cuba, Louisiana, West Virginia, and California. After a
+careful study of the material in the United States National Museum,
+Mr. Heidemann has decided that the specimens of <i>Rasatus</i> from the
+southeastern part of the country are in reality Say's <i>R. biguttatus</i>,
+while those from the Southwestern States belong to a distinct species
+answering more fully, with slight exceptions, to the description of
+Stal's <i>Rasatus thoracicus</i>. The writer has recently received a large
+series of <i>R. thoracicus</i> from Mr. H. Brown, of Tucson, Arizona, and
+had a disagreeable experience with the same species in April, 1898, at
+San José de Guaymas, in the State of Sonora, Mexico. He had not seen
+the insect alive before, and was sitting at the supper table with his
+host&mdash;a ranchero of cosmopolitan language. One of the bugs, attracted
+by the light, flew in with a buzz and flopped down on the table. The
+writer's entomological instinct led him to reach out for it, and was
+warned by his host in the remarkable sentence comprising words derived
+from three distinct languages: "Guardez, guardez! Zat animalito sting
+like ze dev!" But it was too late; the writer had been stung on the
+forefinger, with painful results. Fortunately, however, the insect's
+beak must have been clean, and no great swelling or long inconvenience
+ensued.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps the best known of any of the species mentioned in our list is
+the blood-sucking cone-nose (<i>Conorhinus sanguisugus</i>). This ferocious
+insect belongs to a genus which has several representatives in the
+United States, all, however, confined to the South or West. <i>C.
+rubro-fasciatus</i> and <i>C. variegatus</i>, as well as <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span><i>C. sanguisugus</i>,
+are given the general geographical distribution of "Southern States."
+<i>C. dimidiatus</i> and <i>C. maculipennis</i> are Mexican forms, while <i>C.
+gerstaeckeri</i> occurs in the Western States. The more recently described
+species, <i>C. protractus</i> Uhl., has been taken at Los Angeles, Cal.;
+Dragoon, Ariz.; and Salt Lake City, Utah. All of these insects are
+blood-suckers, and do not hesitate to attack animals. Le Conte, in his
+original description of <i>C. sanguisugus</i>,<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> adds a most significant
+paragraph or two which, as it has not been quoted of late, will be
+especially appropriate here: "This insect, equally with the former"
+(see above), "inflicts a most painful wound. It is remarkable also
+for sucking the blood of mammals, particularly of children. I have
+known its bite followed by very serious consequences, the patient not
+recovering from its effects for nearly a year. The many relations which
+we have of spider bites frequently proving fatal have no doubt arisen
+from the stings of these insects or others of the same genera. When
+the disease called spider bite is not an anthrax or carbuncle it is
+undoubtedly occasioned by the bite of an insect&mdash;by no means however,
+of a spider. Among the many species of <i>Araneidæ</i> which we have in the
+United States I have never seen one capable of inflicting the slightest
+wound. Ignorant persons may easily mistake a <i>Cimex</i> for a spider. I
+have known a physician who sent to me the fragments of a large ant,
+which he supposed was a spider, that came out of his grandchild's
+head." The fact that Le Conte was himself a physician, having graduated
+from the College of Physicians and Surgeons in 1846, thus having been
+nine years in practice at the time, renders this statement all the
+more significant. The life history and habits of <i>C. sanguisugus</i> have
+been so well written up by my assistant, Mr. Marlatt, in Bulletin No.
+4, New Series, of the Division of Entomology, United States Department
+of Agriculture, that it is not necessary to enter upon them here.
+The point made by Marlatt&mdash;that the constant and uniform character
+of the symptoms in nearly all cases of bites by this insect indicate
+that there is a specific poison connected with the bite&mdash;deserves
+consideration, but there can be no doubt that the very serious results
+which sometimes follow the bite are due to the introduction of
+extraneous poison germs. The late Mr. J. B. Lembert, of Yosemite, Cal.,
+noticed particularly that the species of <i>Conorhinus</i> occurring upon
+the Pacific coast is attracted by carrion. Professor Toumey, of Tucson,
+Arizona, shows how a woman broke out all over the body and limbs with
+red blotches and welts from a single sting on the shoulders. Specimens
+of <i>C. sanguisugus</i> re<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span>ceived in July, 1899, from Mayersville, Miss.,
+were accompanied by the statement&mdash;which is appropriate, in view of the
+fact that the newspapers have insisted that the "kissing bug" prefers
+the lip&mdash;that a friend of the writer was bitten on the lip, and that
+the effect was a burning pain, intense itching, and much swelling,
+lasting three or four days. The writer of the letter had been bitten
+upon the leg and arm, and his brother was bitten upon both feet and
+legs and on the arm, the symptoms being the same in all cases.</p>
+
+<p>More need hardly be said specifically concerning these biting bugs.
+The writer's conclusions are that a puncture by any one of them may
+be and frequently has been mistaken for a spider bite, and that
+nearly all reported spider-bite cases have had in reality this cause,
+that the so-called "kissing-bug" scare has been based upon certain
+undoubted cases of the bite of one or the other of them, but that other
+bites, including mosquitoes, with hysterical and nervous symptoms
+produced by the newspaper accounts, have aided in the general alarm.
+The case of Miss Larson, who died in August, 1898, as the result of
+a mosquito bite, at Mystic, Conn., is an instance which goes to show
+that no mysterious new insect need be looked for to explain occasional
+remarkable cases. One good result of the "kissing-bug" excitement will
+prove in the end to be that it will have relieved spiders from much
+unnecessary discredit.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p class="ph2"><a name="THE_MOSQUITO_THEORY_OF_MALARIA6" id="THE_MOSQUITO_THEORY_OF_MALARIA6"></a>THE MOSQUITO THEORY OF MALARIA.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p>
+
+<p class="ph4"><span class="smcap">By Major RONALD ROSS.</span></p>
+
+<p>I have the honor to address you, on completion of my term of special
+duty for the investigation of malaria, on the subject of the practical
+results as regard the prevention of the disease which may be expected
+to arise from my researches; and I trust that this letter may be
+submitted to the Government if the director general thinks fit.</p>
+
+<p>It has been shown in my reports to you that the parasites of malaria
+pass a stage of their existence in certain species of mosquitoes, by
+the bites of which they are inoculated into the blood of healthy men
+and birds. These observations have solved the problem&mdash;previously
+thought insolvable&mdash;of the mode of life of these parasites in external
+Nature.</p>
+
+<p>My results have been accepted by Dr. Laveran, the discoverer of the
+parasites of malaria; by Dr. Manson, who elaborated the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> mosquito
+theory of malaria; by Dr. Nuttall, of the Hygienic Institute of
+Berlin, who has made a special study of the relations between insects
+and disease; and, I understand, by M. Metchnikoff, Director of the
+Laboratory of the Pasteur Institute in Paris. Lately, moreover, Dr. C.
+W. Daniels, of the Malaria Commission, who has been sent to study with
+me in Calcutta, has confirmed my observations in a special report to
+the Royal Society; while, lastly, Professor Grassi and Drs. Bignami
+and Bastianelli, of Rome, have been able, after receiving specimens
+and copies of my reports from me, to repeat my experiments in detail,
+and to follow two of the parasites of human malaria through all their
+stages in a species of mosquito called the <i>Anopheles claviger</i>.</p>
+
+<p>It may therefore be finally accepted as a fact that malaria is
+communicated by the bites of some species of mosquito; and, to judge
+from the general laws governing the development of parasitic animals,
+such as the parasites of malaria, this is very probably the only way in
+which infection is acquired, in which opinion several distinguished men
+of science concur with me.</p>
+
+<p>In considering this statement it is necessary to remember that it does
+not refer to the mere recurrences of fever to which people previously
+infected are often subject as the result of chill, fatigue, and so on.
+When I say that malaria is communicated by the bites of mosquitoes, I
+allude only to the original infection.</p>
+
+<p>It is also necessary to guard against assertions to the effect that
+malaria is prevalent where mosquitoes and gnats do not exist. In my
+experience, when the facts come to be inquired into, such assertions
+are found to be untrue. Scientific research has now yielded so absolute
+a proof of the mosquito theory of malaria that hearsay evidence opposed
+to it can no longer carry any weight.</p>
+
+<p>Hence it follows that, in order to eliminate malaria wholly or partly
+from a given locality, it is necessary only to exterminate the various
+species of insect which carry the infection. This will certainly
+remove the malaria to a large extent, and will almost certainly remove
+it altogether. It remains only to consider whether such a measure is
+practicable.</p>
+
+<p>Theoretically the extermination of mosquitoes is a very simple matter.
+These insects are always hatched from aquatic larvæ or grubs which can
+live only in small stagnant collections of water, such as pots and tubs
+of water, garden cisterns, wells, ditches and drains, small ponds,
+half-dried water courses, and temporary pools of rain-water. So far as
+I have yet observed, the larvæ are seldom to be found in larger bodies
+of water, such as tanks, rice fields, streams, and rivers and lakes,
+because in such places they are devoured by minnows and other small
+fish. Nor have I ever seen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span> any evidence in favor of the popular view
+that they breed in damp grass, dead leaves, and so on.</p>
+
+<p>Hence, in order to get rid of these insects from a locality, it will
+suffice to empty out or drain away, or treat with certain chemicals,
+the small collections of water in which their larvæ must pass their
+existence.</p>
+
+<p>But the practicability of this will depend on
+circumstances&mdash;especially, I think, on the species of mosquito with
+which we wish to deal. In my experience, different species select
+different habitations for their larvæ. Thus the common "brindled
+mosquitoes" breed almost entirely in pots and tubs of water; the
+common "gray mosquitoes" only in cisterns, ditches, and drains; while
+the rarer "spotted-winged mosquitoes" seem to choose only shallow
+rain-water puddles and ponds too large to dry up under a week or more,
+and too small or too foul and stagnant for minnows.</p>
+
+<p>Hence the larvæ of the first two varieties are found in large numbers
+round almost all human dwellings in India; and, because their breeding
+grounds&mdash;namely, vessels of water, drains, and wells&mdash;are so numerous
+and are so frequently contained in private tenements, it will be almost
+impossible to exterminate them on a large scale.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, spotted-winged mosquitoes are generally much
+more rare than the other two varieties. They do not appear to breed
+in wells, cisterns, and vessels of water, and therefore have no
+special connection with human habitations. In fact, it is usually
+a matter of some difficulty to obtain their larvæ. Small pools of
+any permanence&mdash;such as they require&mdash;are not common in most parts
+of India, except during the rains, and then pools of this kind are
+generally full of minnows which make short work of any mosquito
+larvæ they may find. In other words, the breeding grounds of the
+spotted-winged varieties seem to be so isolated and small that I
+think it may be possible to exterminate this species under certain
+circumstances.</p>
+
+<p>The importance of these observations will be apparent when I add
+that hitherto the parasites of human malaria have been found only in
+spotted-winged mosquitoes&mdash;namely, in two species of them in India and
+in one species in Italy. As a result of very numerous experiments I
+think that the common brindled and gray mosquitoes are quite innocuous
+as regards human malaria&mdash;a fortunate circumstance for the human race
+in the tropics; and Professor Grassi seems to have come to the same
+conclusion as the result of his inquiries in Italy.</p>
+
+<p>But I wish to be understood as writing with all due caution on these
+points. Up to the present our knowledge, both as regards<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> the habits
+of the various species of mosquito and as regards the capacity of each
+for carrying malaria, is not complete. All I can now say is that if
+my anticipations be realized&mdash;if it be found that the malaria-bearing
+species of mosquito multiply only in small isolated collections of
+water which can easily be dissipated&mdash;we shall possess a simple mode of
+eliminating malaria from certain localities.</p>
+
+<p>I limit this statement to certain localities only, because it is
+obvious that where the breeding pools are very numerous, as in
+water-logged country, or where the inhabitants are not sufficiently
+advanced to take the necessary precautions, we can scarcely expect the
+recent observations to be of much use&mdash;at least for some years to come.
+And this limitation must, I fear, exclude most of the rural areas in
+India.</p>
+
+<p>Where, however, the breeding pools are not very numerous, and where
+there is anything approaching a competent sanitary establishment, we
+may, I think, hope to reap the benefit of these discoveries. And this
+should apply to the most crowded areas, such as those of cities, towns
+and cantonments, and also to tea, coffee, and indigo estates, and
+perhaps to military camps.</p>
+
+<p>For instance, malaria causes an enormous amount of sickness among the
+poor in most Indian cities. Here the common species of mosquitoes breed
+in the precincts of almost all the houses, and can therefore scarcely
+be exterminated; but pools suitable for the spotted-winged varieties
+are comparatively scarce, being found only on vacant areas, ill-kept
+gardens, or beside roads in very exceptional positions where they can
+neither dry up quickly nor contain fish. Thus a single small puddle
+may supply the dangerous mosquitoes to several square miles containing
+a crowded population: if this be detected and drained off&mdash;which will
+generally cost only a very few rupees&mdash;we may expect malaria to vanish
+from that particular area.</p>
+
+<p>The same considerations will apply to military cantonments and estates
+under cultivation. In many such malaria causes the bulk of the
+sickness, and may often, I think, originate from two or three small
+puddles of a few square yards in size. Thus in a malarious part of
+the cantonment of Secunderabad I found the larvæ of spotted-winged
+mosquitoes only after a long search in a single little pool which could
+be filled up with a few cart-loads of town rubbish.</p>
+
+<p>In making these suggestions I do not wish to excite hopes which may
+ultimately prove to have been unfounded. We do not yet know all the
+dangerous species of mosquito, nor do we even possess an exhaustive
+knowledge of the haunts and habits of any one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> variety. I wish merely
+to indicate what, so far as I can see at present, may become a very
+simple means of eradicating malaria.</p>
+
+<p>One thing may be said for certain. Where previously we have been unable
+to point out the exact origin of the malaria in a locality, and have
+thought that it rises from the soil generally, we now hope for much
+more precise knowledge regarding its source; and it will be contrary to
+experience if human ingenuity does not finally succeed in turning such
+information to practical account.</p>
+
+<p>More than this, if the distinguishing characteristics of the
+malaria-bearing mosquitoes are sufficiently marked (if, for instance,
+they all have spotted wings), people forced to live or travel in
+malarious districts will ultimately come to recognize them and to take
+precautions against being bitten by them.</p>
+
+<p>Before practical results can be reasonably looked for, however, we must
+find precisely&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) What species of Indian mosquitoes do and do not carry human
+malaria.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) What are the habits of the dangerous varieties.</p>
+
+<p>I hope, therefore, that I may be permitted to urge the desirability of
+carrying out this research. It will no longer present any scientific
+difficulties, as only the methods already successfully adopted will be
+required. The results obtained will be quite unequivocal and definite.</p>
+
+<p>But the inquiry should be exhaustive. It will not suffice to
+distinguish merely one or two malaria-bearing species of mosquito in
+one or two localities; we should learn to know all of them in all parts
+of the country.</p>
+
+<p>The investigation will be abbreviated if the dangerous species be found
+to belong only to one class of mosquito, as I think is likely; and the
+researches which are now being energetically entered upon in Germany,
+Italy, America, and Africa will assist any which may be undertaken in
+India, though there is reason for thinking that the malaria-bearing
+species differ in various countries.</p>
+
+<p>As each species is detected it will be possible to attempt measures at
+once for its extermination in given localities as an experiment.</p>
+
+<p>I regret that, owing to my work connected with <i>kala-azar</i>, I have not
+been able to advance this branch of knowledge as much during my term
+of special duty as I had hoped to do; but I think that the solution of
+the malaria problem which has been obtained during this period will
+ultimately yield results of practical importance.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<p class="ph2"><a name="FOOD_POISONING" id="FOOD_POISONING">FOOD POISONING.</a></p>
+
+<p class="ph4"><span class="smcap">By VICTOR C. VAUGHAN</span>,</p>
+
+<p class="center">PROFESSOR OF HYGIENE IN THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN.</p>
+
+
+<p>Within the past fifteen or twenty years cases of poisoning with foods
+of various kinds have apparently become quite numerous. This increase
+in the number of instances of this kind has been both apparent and
+real. In the first place, it is only within recent years that it has
+been recognized that foods ordinarily harmless may become most powerful
+poisons. In the second place, the more extensive use of preserved
+foods of various kinds has led to an actual increase in the number of
+outbreaks of food poisoning.</p>
+
+<p>The harmful effects of foods may be due to any of the following causes:</p>
+
+<p>1. Certain poisonous fungi may infect grains. This is the cause of
+epidemics of poisoning with ergotized bread, which formerly prevailed
+during certain seasons throughout the greater part of continental
+Europe, but which are now practically limited to southern Russia and
+Spain. In this country ergotism is practically unknown, except as a
+result of the criminal use of the drug ergot. However, a few herds of
+cattle in Kansas and Nebraska have been quite extensively affected with
+this disease.</p>
+
+<p>2. Plants and animals may feed upon substances that are not harmful
+to them, but which may seriously affect man on account of his greater
+susceptibility. It is a well-known fact that hogs may eat large
+quantities of arsenic or antimony without harm to themselves, and thus
+render their flesh unfit for food for man. It is believed that birds
+that feed upon the mountain laurel furnish a food poisonous to man.</p>
+
+<p>3. During periods of the physiological activity of certain glands
+in some of the lower animals the flesh becomes harmful to man. Some
+species of fish are poisonous during the spawning season.</p>
+
+<p>4. Both animal and vegetable foods may become infected with the
+specific germs of disease and serve as the carriers of the infection to
+man. Instances of the distribution of typhoid fever by the milkman are
+illustrations of this.</p>
+
+<p>5. Animals may be infected with specific diseases, which may be
+transmitted to man in the meat or milk. This is one of the means by
+which tuberculosis is spread.</p>
+
+<p>6. Certain nonspecific, poison-producing germs may find their way into
+foods of various kinds, and may by their growth produce<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> chemical
+poisons either before or after the food has been eaten. This is the
+most common form of food poisoning known in this country.</p>
+
+<p>We will briefly discuss some foods most likely to prove harmful to man.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Mussel Poisoning.</span>&mdash;It has long been known that this bivalve is
+occasionally poisonous. Three forms of mussel poisoning are recognized.
+The first, known as <i>Mytilotoxismus gastricus</i>, is accompanied by
+symptoms practically identical with those of cholera morbus. At first
+there is nausea, followed by vomiting, which may continue for hours.
+In severe cases the walls of the stomach are so seriously altered that
+the vomited matter contains considerable quantities of blood. Vomiting
+is usually accompanied by severe and painful purging. The heart may be
+markedly affected, and death may result from failure of this organ.
+Examination after death from this cause shows the stomach and small
+intestines to be highly inflamed.</p>
+
+<p>The second form of mussel poisoning is known as <i>Mytilotoxismus
+exanthematicus</i> on account of visible changes in the skin. At first
+there is a sensation of heat, usually beginning in the eyelids, then
+spreading to the face, and finally extending over the whole body.
+This sensation is followed by an eruption, which is accompanied by
+intolerable itching. In severe cases the breathing becomes labored, the
+face grows livid, consciousness is lost, and death may result within
+two or three days.</p>
+
+<p>The most frequently observed form of mussel poisoning is that
+designated as <i>Mytilotoxismus paralyticus</i>. As early as 1827 Combe
+reported his observations upon thirty persons who had suffered from
+this kind of mussel poisoning. The first symptoms, as a rule, appeared
+within two hours after eating the poisonous food. Some suffered from
+nausea and vomiting, but these were not constant or lasting symptoms.
+All complained of a prickly feeling in the hands, heat and constriction
+of the throat, difficulty of swallowing and speaking, numbness about
+the mouth, gradually extending over the face and to the arms, with
+great debility of the limbs. Most of the sufferers were unable to
+stand; the action of the heart was feeble, and the face grew pale and
+expressed much anxiety. Two of the thirty cases terminated fatally.
+Post-mortem examination showed no abnormality.</p>
+
+<p>Many opinions have been expressed concerning the nature of harmful
+mussels. Until quite recently it was a common belief that certain
+species are constantly toxic. Virchow has attempted to describe the
+dangerous variety of mussels, stating that it has a brighter shell,
+sweeter, more penetrating, bouillonlike odor than<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> the edible kind, and
+that the flesh of the poisonous mussel is yellow; the water in which
+they are boiled becomes bluish.</p>
+
+<p>However, this belief in a poisonous species is now admitted to be
+erroneous. At one time it was suggested that mussels became hurtful
+by absorbing the copper from the bottoms of vessels, but Christison
+made an analysis of the mussels that poisoned the men mentioned by
+Combe, with negative results, and also pointed out the fact that the
+symptoms were not those of poisoning with copper. Some have held that
+the ill effects were due wholly to idiosyncrasies in the consumers,
+but cats and dogs are affected in the same way as men are. It has also
+been believed that all mussels are poisonous during the period of
+reproduction. This theory is the basis of the popular superstition that
+shellfish should not be eaten during the months in the name of which
+the letter "r" does not occur. At one time this popular idea took the
+form of a legal enactment in France forbidding the sale of shellfish
+from May 1st to September 1st. This widespread idea has a grain of
+truth in it, inasmuch as decomposition is more likely to alter food
+injuriously during the summer months. However, poisoning with mussels
+may occur at any time of the year.</p>
+
+<p>It has been pretty well demonstrated that the first two forms of mussel
+poisoning mentioned above are due to putrefactive processes, while
+the paralytic manifestations seen in other cases are due to a poison
+isolated a few years ago by Brieger, and named by him mytilotoxin. Any
+mussel may acquire this poison when it lives in filthy water. Indeed,
+it has been shown experimentally that edible mussels may become harmful
+when left for fourteen days or longer in filthy water; while, on the
+other hand, poisonous mussels may become harmless if kept four weeks
+or longer in clear water. This is true not only of mussels, but of
+oysters as well. Some years ago, many cases of poisoning from oysters
+were reported at Havre. The oysters had been taken from a bed near the
+outlet of a drain from a public water closet. Both oysters and mussels
+may harbor the typhoid bacillus, and may act as carriers of this germ
+to man.</p>
+
+<p>There should be most stringent police regulations against the sale of
+all kinds of mollusks, and all fish as well, taken from filthy waters.
+Certainly one should avoid shellfish from impure waters, and it is not
+too much to insist that those offered for food should be washed in
+clean water. All forms of clam and oyster broth should be avoided when
+it has stood even for a few hours at summer heat. These preparations
+very quickly become infected with bacteria, which develop most potent
+poisons.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Fish Poisoning.</span>&mdash;Some fish are supplied with poisonous glands,
+by means of which they secure their prey and protect themselves from
+their enemies. The "dragon weaver," or "sea weaver" (<i>Trachinus
+draco</i>), is one of the best known of these fish. There are numerous
+varieties widely distributed in salt waters. The poisonous spine
+is attached partly to the maxilla and partly to the gill cover at
+its base. This spine is connected with a poisonous gland; the spine
+itself is grooved and covered with a thin membrane, which converts the
+grooves into canals. When the point enters another animal its membrane
+is stripped back and the poison enters the wound. Men sometimes
+wound their feet with the barbs of this fish while bathing. It also
+occasionally happens that a fisherman pricks his fingers with one of
+these barbs. The most poisonous variety of this fish known is found in
+the Mediterranean Sea. Wounds produced by these animals sometimes cause
+death. In <i>Synanceia brachio</i> there are in the dorsal fin thirteen
+barbs, each connected with two poison reservoirs. The secretion from
+these glands is clear, bluish in color, and acid in reaction, and when
+introduced beneath the skin causes local gangrene and, if in sufficient
+quantity, general paralysis. In <i>Plotosus lineatus</i> there is a powerful
+barb in front of the ventral fin, and the poison is not discharged
+unless the end of the barb is broken. The most poisonous variety of
+this fish is found only in tropical waters. In <i>Scorpæna scrofa</i> and
+other species of this family there are poison glands connected with the
+barbs in the dorsal and in some varieties in the caudal fin.</p>
+
+<p>A disease known as <i>kakke</i> was a few years ago quite prevalent in
+Japan and other countries along the eastern coast of Asia. With
+the opening up of Japan to the civilized world the study of this
+disease by scientific methods was undertaken by the observant and
+intelligent natives who acquired their medical training in Europe and
+America. In Tokio the disease generally appears in May, reaches its
+greatest prevalence in August, and gradually disappears in September
+and October. The researches of Miura and others have fairly well
+demonstrated that this disease is due to the eating of fish belonging
+to the family of <i>Scombridæ</i>. There are other kinds of fish in
+Japanese waters that undoubtedly are poisonous. This is true of the
+<i>tetrodon</i>, of which, according to Remey, there are twelve species
+whose ovaries are poisonous. Dogs fed upon these organs soon suffered
+from salivation, vomiting, and convulsive muscular contractions. When
+some of the fluid obtained by rubbing the ovaries in a mortar was
+injected subcutaneously in dogs the symptoms were much more severe, and
+death resulted. Tahara states that he has isolated from the roe of the
+tetrodon two poisons, one of which is a crystalline base, while the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span>
+other is a white, waxy body. From 1885 to 1892 inclusive, 933 cases of
+poisoning with this fish were reported in Tokio, with a mortality of
+seventy-two per cent.</p>
+
+<p>Fish poisoning is quite frequently observed in the West Indies, where
+the complex of symptoms is designated by the Spanish term <i>siguatera</i>.
+It is believed by the natives that the poisonous properties of the fish
+are due to the fact that they feed upon decomposing medusæ and corals.
+In certain localities it is stated that all fish caught off certain
+coral reefs are unfit for food. However, all statements concerning the
+origin and nature of the poison in these fish are mere assumptions,
+since no scientific work has been done. Whatever the source of the
+poison may be, it is quite powerful, and death not infrequently
+results. The symptoms are those of gastro-intestinal irritation
+followed by collapse.</p>
+
+<p>In Russia fish poisoning sometimes causes severe and widespread
+epidemics. The Government has offered a large reward for any one who
+will positively determine the cause of the fish being poisonous and
+suggest successful means of preventing these outbreaks. Schmidt, after
+studying several of these epidemics, states the following conclusions:</p>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) The harmful effects are not due to putrefactive processes. (<i>b</i>)
+Fish poisoning in Russia is always due to the eating of some member of
+the sturgeon tribe. (<i>c</i>) The ill effects are not due to the method of
+catching the fish, the use of salt, or to imperfections in the methods
+of preservation. (<i>d</i>) The deleterious substance is not uniformly
+distributed through the fish, but is confined to certain parts. (<i>e</i>)
+The poisonous portions are not distinguishable from the nonpoisonous,
+either macroscopically or microscopically. (<i>f</i>) When the fish is
+cooked it may be eaten without harm. (<i>g</i>) The poison is an animal
+alkaloid produced most probably by bacteria that cause an infectious
+disease in the fish during life.</p>
+
+<p>The conclusion reached by Schmidt is confirmed by the researches of
+Madame Sieber, who found a poisonous bacillus in fish which had caused
+an epidemic.</p>
+
+<p>In the United States fish poisoning is most frequently due to
+decomposition in canned fish. The most prominent symptoms are nausea,
+vomiting, and purging. Sometimes there is a scarlatinous rash, which
+may cover the whole body. The writer has studied two outbreaks of
+this kind of fish poisoning. In both instances canned salmon was the
+cause of the trouble. Although a discussion of the treatment of food
+poisoning is foreign to this paper, the writer must call attention to
+the danger in the administration of opiates in cases of poisoning with
+canned fish. Vomiting and purging are efforts on the part of Nature to
+remove the poison, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> should be assisted by the stomach tube and by
+irrigation of the colon. In one of the cases seen by the writer large
+doses of morphine had been administered in order to check the vomiting
+and purging and to relieve the pain; in this case death resulted. The
+danger of arresting the elimination of the poison in all cases of food
+poisoning can not be too emphatically condemned.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Meat Poisoning.</span>&mdash;The diseases most frequently transmitted
+from the lower animals to man by the consumption of the flesh or milk
+of the former by the latter are tuberculosis, anthrax, symptomatic
+anthrax, pleuro-pneumonia, trichinosis, mucous diarrh&oelig;a, and
+actinomycosis. It hardly comes within the scope of this article
+to discuss in detail the transmission of these diseases from the
+lower animals to man. However, the writer must be allowed to offer
+a few opinions concerning some mooted questions pertaining to the
+consumption of the flesh of tuberculous animals. Some hold that it is
+sufficient to condemn the diseased part of the tuberculous cow, and
+that the remainder may be eaten with perfect safety. Others teach that
+"total seizure" and destruction of the entire carcass by the health
+authorities are desirable. Experiments consisting of the inoculation of
+guinea pigs with the meat and meat juices of tuberculous animals have
+given different results to several investigators. To one who has seen
+tuberculous animals slaughtered, these differences in opinion and in
+experimental results are easily explainable. The tuberculous invasion
+may be confined to a single gland, and this may occur in a portion
+of the carcass not ordinarily eaten; while, on the other hand, the
+invasion may be much more extensive and the muscles may be involved.
+The tuberculous portion may consist of hard nodules that do not break
+down and contaminate other tissues in the process of removal, but the
+writer has seen a tuberculous abscess in the liver holding nearly a
+pint of broken-down infected matter ruptured or cut in removing this
+organ, and its contents spread over the greater part of the carcass.
+This explains why one investigator succeeds in inducing tuberculosis
+in guinea pigs by introducing small bits of meat from a tuberculous
+cow into the abdominal cavity, while another equally skillful
+bacteriologist follows the same details and fails to get positive
+results. No one desires to eat any portion of a tuberculous animal, and
+the only safety lies in "total seizure" and destruction. That the milk
+from tuberculous cows, even when the udder is not involved, may contain
+the specific bacillus has been demonstrated experimentally. The writer
+has suggested that every one selling milk should be licensed, and the
+granting of a license should be dependent upon the application of the
+tuberculin test to every cow from which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> milk is sold. The frequency
+with which tuberculosis is transmitted to children through milk should
+justify this action.</p>
+
+<p>That a profuse diarrh&oelig;a may render the flesh of an animal unfit
+food for man was demonstrated by the cases studied by Gärtner. In this
+instance the cow was observed to have a profuse diarrh&oelig;a for two
+days before she was slaughtered. Both the raw and cooked meat from this
+animal poisoned the persons who ate it. Medical literature contains the
+records of many cases of meat poisoning due to the eating of the flesh
+of cows slaughtered while suffering from puerperal fever. It has been
+found that the flesh of animals dead of symptomatic anthrax may retain
+its infection after having been preserved in a dry state for ten years.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most frequently observed forms of meat poisoning is that
+due to the eating of decomposed sausage. Sausage poisoning, known
+as <i>botulismus</i>, is most common in parts of Germany. Germans who
+have brought to the United States their methods of preparing sausage
+occasionally suffer from this form of poisoning. The writer had
+occasion two years ago to investigate six cases of this kind, two
+of which proved fatal. The sausage meat had been placed in uncooked
+sections of the intestines and alternately frozen and thawed and
+then eaten raw. In this instance the meat was infected with a highly
+virulent bacillus, which resembled very closely the <i>Bacterium coli</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In England, Ballard has reported numerous epidemics of meat poisoning,
+in most of which the meat had become infected with some nonspecific,
+poison-producing germ. In 1894 the writer was called upon to
+investigate cases of poisoning due to the eating of pressed chicken.
+The chickens were killed Tuesday afternoon and left hanging in a market
+room at ordinary temperature until Wednesday forenoon, when they were
+drawn and carried to a restaurant and here left in a warm room until
+Thursday, when they were cooked (not thoroughly), pressed, and served
+at a banquet in which nearly two hundred men participated. All ate
+of the chicken, and were more or less seriously poisoned. The meat
+contained a slender bacillus, which was fatal to white rats, guinea
+pigs, dogs, and rabbits.</p>
+
+<p>Ermengem states that since 1867 there have been reported 112 epidemics
+of meat poisoning, in which 6,000 persons have been affected. In 103 of
+these outbreaks the meat came from diseased animals, while in only five
+was there any evidence that putrefactive changes in the meat had taken
+place. My experience convinces me that in this country meat poisoning
+frequently results from putrefactive changes.</p>
+
+<p>Instances of poisoning from the eating of canned meats have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> become
+quite common. Although it may be possible that in some instances the
+ill effects result from metallic poisoning, in a great majority of
+cases the poisonous substances are formed by putrefactive changes. In
+many cases it is probable that decomposition begins after the can has
+been opened by the consumer; in others the canning is imperfectly done,
+and putrefaction is far advanced before the food reaches the consumer.
+In still other instances the meat may have been taken from diseased
+animals, or it may have undergone putrefactive changes before the
+canning. It should always be remembered that canned meat is especially
+liable to putrefactive changes after the can has been opened, and when
+the contents of the open can are not consumed at once the remainder
+should be kept in a cold place or should be thrown away. People are
+especially careless on this point. While every one knows that fresh
+meat should be kept in a cold place during the summer, an open can of
+meat is often allowed to stand at summer temperature and its contents
+eaten hours after the can has been opened. This is not safe, and has
+caused several outbreaks of meat poisoning that have come under the
+observation of the writer.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Milk Poisoning.</span>&mdash;In discussing this form of food poisoning
+we will exclude any consideration of the distribution of the specific
+infectious diseases through milk as the carrier of the infection,
+and will confine ourselves to that form of milk poisoning which is
+due to infection with nonspecific, poison-producing germs. Infants
+are highly susceptible to the action of the galactotoxicons (milk
+poisons). There can no longer be any doubt that these poisons are
+largely responsible for much of the infantile mortality which is
+alarmingly high in all parts of the world. It has been positively shown
+that the summer diarrh&oelig;a of infancy is due to milk poisoning. The
+diarrh&oelig;as prevalent among infants during the summer months are not
+due to a specific germ, but there are many bacteria that grow rapidly
+in milk and form poisons which induce vomiting and purging, and may
+cause death. These diseases occur almost exclusively among children
+artificially fed. It is true that there are differences in chemical
+composition between the milk of woman and that of the cow, but these
+variations in percentage of proteids, fats, and carbohydrates are of
+less importance than the infection of milk with harmful bacteria. The
+child that takes its food exclusively from the breast of a healthy
+mother obtains a food that is free from poisonous bacteria, while the
+bottle-fed child may take into its body with its food a great number
+and variety of germs, some of which may be quite deadly in their
+effects. The diarrh&oelig;as of infancy are practically confined to the
+hot months, because a high temperature is essential to the growth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> and
+wide distribution of the poison-producing bacteria. Furthermore, during
+the summer time these bacteria grow abundantly in all kinds of filth.
+Within recent years the medical profession has so urgently called
+attention to the danger of infected milk that there has been a great
+improvement in the care of this article of diet, but that there is yet
+room for more scientific and thorough work in this direction must be
+granted. The sterilization and Pasteurization of milk have doubtlessly
+saved the lives of many children, but every intelligent physician knows
+that even the most careful mother or nurse often fails to secure a milk
+that is altogether safe.</p>
+
+<p>It is true that milk often contains germs the spores of which
+are not destroyed by the ordinary methods of sterilization and
+Pasteurization. However, these germs are not the most dangerous ones
+found in milk. Moreover, every mother and nurse should remember
+that in the preparation of sterilized milk for the child it is not
+only necessary to heat the milk, but, after it has been heated to a
+temperature sufficiently high and sufficiently prolonged, the milk must
+subsequently be kept at a low temperature until the child is ready to
+take it, when it may be warmed. It should be borne in mind that the
+subsequent cooling of the milk and keeping it at a low temperature is a
+necessary feature in the preparation of it as a food for the infant.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cheese Poisoning.</span>&mdash;Under this heading we shall include the
+ill effects that may follow the eating of not only cheese but other
+milk products, such as ice cream, cream custard, cream puffs, etc. Any
+poison formed in milk may exist in the various milk products, and it is
+impossible to draw any sharp line of distinction between milk poisoning
+and cheese poisoning. However, the distinction is greater than is
+at first apparent. Under the head of milk poisoning we have called
+especial attention to those substances formed in milk to which children
+are particularly susceptible, while in cheese and other milk products
+there are formed poisonous substances against which age does not give
+immunity. Since milk is practically the sole food during the first year
+or eighteen months of life, the effect of its poisons upon infants is
+of the greatest importance; on the other hand, milk products are seldom
+taken by the infant, but are frequent articles of diet in after life.</p>
+
+<p>In 1884 the writer succeeded in isolating from poisonous cheese a
+highly active basic substance, to which he gave the name <i>tyrotoxicon</i>.
+The symptoms produced by this poison are quite marked, but differ in
+degree according to the amount of the poison taken. At first there is
+dryness of the mouth, followed by constriction of the fauces, then
+nausea, vomiting, and purging. The first vomited<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> matter consists of
+food, then it becomes watery and is frequently stained with blood. The
+stools are at first semisolid, and then are watery and serous. The
+heart is depressed, the pulse becomes weak and irregular, and in severe
+cases the face appears cyanotic. There may be dilatation of the pupil,
+but this is not seen in all. The most dangerous cases are those in
+which the vomiting is slight and soon ceases altogether, and the bowels
+are constipated from the beginning. Such cases as these require prompt
+and energetic treatment. The stomach and bowels should be thoroughly
+irrigated in order to remove the poison, and the action of the heart
+must be sustained.</p>
+
+<p>At one time the writer believed that tyrotoxicon was the active agent
+in all samples of poisonous cheese, but more extended experimentation
+has convinced him that this is not the case. Indeed, this poison is
+rarely found, while the number of poisons in harmful cheese is no doubt
+considerable. There are numerous poisonous albumins found in cheese
+and other milk products. While all of these are gastro-intestinal
+irritants, they differ considerably in other respects.</p>
+
+<p>In 1895 the writer and Perkins made a prolonged study of a bacillus
+found in cheese which had poisoned fifty people. Chemically the
+poison produced by this germ is distinguished from tyrotoxicon by
+the fact that it is not removed from alkaline solution with ether.
+Physiologically the new poison has a more pronounced effect on the
+heart, in which it resembles muscarin or neurin more closely than it
+does tyrotoxicon. Pathologically, the two poisons are unlike, inasmuch
+as the new poison induces marked congestion of the tissues about the
+point of injection when used upon animals hypodermically. Furthermore,
+the intestinal constrictions which are so uniformly observed in animals
+poisoned by tyrotoxicon was not once seen in our work with this new
+poison, although it was carefully looked for in all our experiments.</p>
+
+<p>In 1898 the writer, with McClymonds, examined samples of cheese from
+more than sixty manufacturers in this country and in Europe. In all
+samples of ordinary American green cheese poisonous germs were found in
+greater or less abundance. These germs resemble very closely the colon
+bacillus, and most likely their presence in the milk is to be accounted
+for by contamination with bits of fecal matter from the cow. It is more
+than probable that the manufacture of cheese is yet in its infancy,
+and we need some one to do for this industry what Pasteur did for the
+manufacture of beer. At present the flavor of a given cheese depends
+upon the bacteria and molds which accidentally get into it. The time
+will probably come when all milk used for the manufacture of cheese<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>
+will be sterilized, and then selected molds and bacteria will be sown
+in it. In this way the flavor and value of a cheese will be determined
+with scientific accuracy, and will not be left to accident.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Canned Foods.</span>&mdash;As has been stated, the increased consumption
+of preserved foods is accountable for a great proportion of the cases
+of food poisoning. The preparation of canned foods involves the
+application of scientific principles, and since this work is done by
+men wholly ignorant of science it is quite remarkable that harmful
+effects do not manifest themselves more frequently than they do. Every
+can of food which is not thoroughly sterilized may become a source of
+danger to health and even to life. It may be of interest for us to
+study briefly the methods ordinarily resorted to in the preparation
+of canned foods. With most substances the food is cooked before being
+put into the can. This is especially true of meats of various kinds.
+Thorough cooking necessarily leads to the complete sterilization of
+the food; but after this, it must be transferred to the can, and the
+can must be properly closed. With the handling necessary in canning
+the food, germs are likely to be introduced. Moreover, it is possible
+that the preliminary cooking is not thoroughly done and complete
+sterilization is not reached. The empty can should be sterilized. If
+one wishes to understand the <i>modus operandi</i> of canning foods, let him
+take up a round can of any fruit, vegetable, or meat and examine the
+bottom of the can, which is in reality the top during the process of
+canning and until the label is put on. The food is introduced through
+the circular opening in this end, now closed by a piece which can be
+seen to be soldered on. After the food has been introduced through this
+opening the can and contents are heated either in a water bath or by
+means of steam. The opening through which the food was introduced is
+now closed by a circular cap of suitable size, which is soldered in
+position.</p>
+
+<p>This cap has near its center a "prick-hole" through which the steam
+continues to escape. This "prick-hole" is then closed with solder, and
+the closed can again heated in the water bath or with steam. If the
+can "blows" (if the ends of the can become convex) during this last
+heating the "prick-hole" is again punctured and the heated air allowed
+to escape, after which the "prick-hole" is again closed. Cans thus
+prepared should be allowed to stand in a warm chamber for four or five
+days. If the contents have not been thoroughly sterilized gases will
+be evolved during this time, or the can will "blow" and the contents
+should be discarded. Unscrupulous manufacturers take cans which have
+"blown," prick them to allow the escape of the contained gases, and
+then resterilize the cans with their contents, close them again, and
+put them<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> on the market. These "blowholes" may be made in either end of
+the can, or they may be made in the sides of the can, where they are
+subsequently covered with the label. Of course, it does not necessarily
+follow that if a can has "blown" and been subsequently resterilized its
+contents will prove poisonous, but it is not safe to eat the contents
+of such cans. Reputable manufacturers discard all "blown" cans.</p>
+
+<p>Nearly all canned jellies sold in this country are made from apples.
+The apples are boiled with a preparation sold under the trade
+name "tartarine." This consists of either dilute hydrochloric or
+sulphuric acid. Samples examined by the writer have invariably been
+found to consist of dilute hydrochloric acid. The jelly thus formed
+by the action of the dilute acid upon the apple is converted into
+quince, pear, pineapple, or any other fruit that the pleasure of the
+manufacturer may choose by the addition of artificial flavoring agents.
+There is no reason for believing that the jellies thus prepared are
+harmful to health.</p>
+
+<p>Canned fruits occasionally contain salicylic acid in some form. There
+has been considerable discussion among sanitarians as to whether or
+not the use of this preservative is admissible. Serious poisoning with
+canned fruits is very rare. However, there can be but little doubt that
+many minor digestive disturbances are caused by acids formed in these
+foods. There has been much apprehension concerning the possibility of
+poisoning resulting from the soluble salts of tin formed by the action
+of fruit acids upon the can. The writer believes that anxiety on this
+point is unnecessary, and he has failed to find any positive evidence
+of poisoning resulting from this cause.</p>
+
+<p>There are two kinds of condensed milk sold in cans. These are known as
+condensed milk "with" and "without" sugar. In the preparation of the
+first-mentioned kind a large amount of cane sugar is added to condensed
+milk, and this acting as a preservative renders the preparation and
+successful handling of this article of food comparatively easy. On
+the other hand, condensed milk to which sugar has not been added is
+very liable to decomposition, and great care must be used in its
+preparation. The writer has seen several cases of severe poisoning that
+have resulted from decomposed canned milk. Any of the galactotoxicons
+(milk poisons) may be formed in this milk. In these instances the cans
+were "blown," both ends being convex.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most important sanitary questions in which we are concerned
+to-day is that pertaining to the subject of canned meats. It is
+undoubtedly true that unscrupulous manufacturers are putting upon the
+market articles of this kind of food which no decent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> man knowingly
+would eat, and which are undoubtedly harmful to all.</p>
+
+<p>The knowledge gained by investigations in chemical and bacteriological
+science have enabled the unscrupulous to take putrid liver and other
+disgusting substances and present them in such a form that the most
+fastidious palate would not recognize their origin. In this way the
+flesh from diseased animals and that which has undergone putrefactive
+changes may be doctored up and sold as reputable articles of diet.
+The writer does not believe that this practice is largely resorted
+to in this country, but that questionable preservatives have been
+used to some extent has been amply demonstrated by the testimony of
+the manufacturers of these articles themselves, given before the
+Senate committee now investigating the question of food and food
+adulterations. It is certainly true that most of the adulterations
+used in our foods are not injurious to health, but are fraudulent in a
+pecuniary sense; but when the flesh of diseased animals and substances
+which have undergone putrefactive decomposition can be doctored up and
+preserved by the addition of such agents as formaldehyde, it is time
+that the public should demand some restrictive measures.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p class="ph2"><a name="WIRELESS_TELEGRAPHY" id="WIRELESS_TELEGRAPHY">WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY.</a></p>
+
+<p class="ph4"><span class="smcap">By Prof. JOHN TROWBRIDGE</span>,</p>
+
+<p class="center">DIRECTOR OF JEFFERSON PHYSICAL LABORATORY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY.</p>
+
+
+<p>I never visit the historical collection of physical apparatus in the
+physical laboratory of Harvard University without a sense of wonderment
+at the marvelous use that has been made of old and antiquated pieces
+of apparatus which were once considered electrical toys. There can
+be seen the first batteries, the model of dynamo machines, and the
+electric motor. Such a collection is in a way a Westminster Abbey&mdash;dead
+mechanisms born to new uses and a great future.</p>
+
+<p>There is one simple piece of apparatus in the collection, without which
+telephony and wireless telegraphy would be impossible. To my mind it
+is the most interesting skeleton there, and if physicists marked the
+resting places of their apparatus laid to apparent rest and desuetude,
+this merits the highest sounding and most suggestive inscription. It
+is called a transformer, and consists merely of two coils of wire
+placed near each other. One coil is adapted to receive an electric
+current; the other coil, entirely independent of the first, responds
+by sympathy, or what is called induction,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> across the space which
+separates the coils. Doubtless if man knew all the capabilities of this
+simple apparatus he might talk to China, or receive messages from the
+antipodes. He now, by means of it, analyzes the light of distant suns,
+and produces the singular X rays which enable him to see through the
+human body. By means of it he already communicates his thoughts between
+stations thousands of miles apart, and by means of its manifestations I
+hope to make this article on wireless telegraphy intelligible. My essay
+can be considered a panegyric of this buried form&mdash;a history of its new
+life and of its unbounded possibilities.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;">
+<img src="images/illo_064.jpg" width="700" height="501" alt="Disposition of batteries" />
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Disposition of batteries and coils at
+the sending station, showing the arrangement of the vertical wire and
+the spark gap.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>For convenience, one of the coils of the transformer is placed inside
+the other, and the combination is called a Ruhmkorf coil. It is
+represented in the accompanying photograph (Fig. 1), with batteries
+attached to the inner coil, while the outer coil is connected to two
+balls, between which an electric spark jumps whenever the battery
+circuit is broken. In fact, any disturbance in the battery circuit&mdash;a
+weakening, a strengthening, or a break&mdash;provided that the changes are
+sudden, produces a corresponding change in the neighboring circuit. One
+coil thus responds to the other, in some mysterious way, across the
+interval of air which separates them. Usually the coils are placed very
+near to each other&mdash;in fact, one embraces the other, as shown in the
+photograph.</p>
+
+<p>The coils, however, if placed several miles apart, will still re<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span>spond
+to each other if they are made sufficiently large, if they are properly
+placed, and if a powerful current is used to excite one coil. Thus,
+by simply varying the distance between the coils of wire we can send
+messages through the air between stations which are not connected
+with a wire. This method, however, does not constitute the system of
+wireless telegraphy of Marconi, which it is the object of this paper
+to describe. Marconi has succeeded in transmitting messages over forty
+miles between points not connected by wires, and he has accomplished
+this feat by merely slightly modifying the disposition of the coils,
+thus revealing a new possibility of the wondrous transformer. If the
+reader will compare the following diagram (Fig. 2) with the photograph
+(Fig. 1), he will see how simple the sending apparatus of Marconi is.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/illo_065.jpg" width="600" height="561" alt="Diagram of the arrangement of wires" />
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Diagram of the arrangement of wires
+and batteries at the receiving station.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>S is a gap between the ends of one coil, across which an electric spark
+is produced whenever the current from the batteries B flowing through
+the coil C is broken by an arrangement at D. This break produces an
+electrical pulsation in the coil C', which travels up and down the
+wire W, which is elevated to a considerable height above the ground.
+This pulsation can not be seen by the eye. The wire does not move;
+it appears perfectly quiescent and dead, and seems only a wire and
+nothing more. At night, under favorable circumstances, one could see a
+luminosity on the wire, especially at the end, when messages are being
+transmitted, by a powerful battery B.</p>
+
+<p>It is very easy to detect the electric lines which radiate from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> every
+part of such a wire when a spark jumps between the terminals S of
+the coil. All that is necessary to do is to pass the wire through a
+sensitive film and to develop the film. The accompanying photograph
+(Fig. 3) was taken at the top of such a wire, by means of a very
+powerful apparatus at my command. When the photograph is examined
+with a microscope the arborescent electric lines radiating from the
+wire, like the rays of light from a star, exhibit a beautiful fernlike
+structure. These lines, however, are not chiefly instrumental in
+transmitting the electric pulse across space.</p>
+
+<p>There are other lines, called magnetic lines of force, which emanate
+from every portion of the vertical wire W just as ripples spread out
+on the surface of placid water when it is disturbed by the fall of a
+stone. These magnetic ripples travel in the ether of space, and when
+they embrace a neighboring wire or coil they produce similar ripples,
+which whirl about the distant wire and produce in some strange way an
+electrical current in the wire. These magnetic pulsations can travel
+great distances.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 334px;">
+<img src="images/illo_066.jpg" width="334" height="500" alt="" />
+<p class="ph4"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 2<i>a</i> represents a more complete electrical arrangement
+of the receiver circuit. The vertical wire, W', is connected to one
+wire of the coherer, L. The other wire of the coherer is led to the
+ground, G. The wires in the coherer, L, are separated by fine metallic
+particles. B represents a battery. E, an electro-magnet which attracts
+a piece of iron, A (armature), and closes a local battery, B, causing a
+click of the sounder (electro-magnet), S. The magnetic waves (Fig. 5)
+embracing the wire, W', cause a pulsation in this wire which produces
+an electrical disturbance in the coherer analogous to that shown in
+Fig. 3, by means of which an electrical current is enabled to pass
+through the electro-magnet, E.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>In the photographs of these magnetic whirls, Fig. 4 is the whirl
+produced in the circuit C' by the battery B (Fig. 2), while Fig. 5 is
+that produced by electrical sympathy, or as it is called induction,
+in a neighboring wire. These photographs were obtained by passing the
+circuits through the sensitive films, perpendicularly to the latter,
+and then sprinkling very fine iron filings on these surfaces and
+exposing them to the light. In order to obtain these photographs a
+very powerful electrical current excited the coil C (Fig. 2), and the
+neighboring circuit W' (Fig. 5) was placed very near the circuit W.</p>
+
+<p>When the receiving wire is at the distance of several miles from
+the sending wire it is impossible to detect by the above method the
+magnetic ripples or whirls. We can, however, detect the electrical
+currents which these magnetic lines of force cause in the receiving
+wire; and this leads me to speak of the discovery<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span> of a remarkable
+phenomenon which has made Marconi's system of wireless telegraphy
+possible. In order that an electrical current may flow through a mass
+of particles of a metal, a mass, for instance, of iron filings, it
+is necessary either to compress them or to cause a minute spark or
+electrical discharge between the particles. Now, it is supposed that
+the magnetic whirls, in embracing the distant receiving circuit, cause
+these minute sparks, and thus enable the electric current from the
+battery B to work a telegraphic sounder or bell M. The metallic filings
+are inclosed in a glass tube between wires which lead to the battery,
+and the arrangement is called a coherer. It can be made small and
+light. Fig. 6 is a representation in full size of one that has been
+found to be very sensitive. It consists of two silver wires with a few
+iron filings contained in a glass tube between the ends of the wires.
+It is necessary that this little tube should be constantly shaken up
+in order that after the electrical circuit is made the iron filings
+should return to their non-conducting condition, or should cease to
+cohere together, and should thus be ready to respond to the following
+signal. My colleague, Professor Sabine, has employed a very small
+electric motor to cause the glass tube to revolve, and thus to keep the
+filings in motion while signals are being received. Fig. 7 shows the
+arrangement of the receiving apparatus.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/illo_067.jpg" width="500" height="324" alt="Photograph of the electric lines" />
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;Photograph of the electric lines which
+emanate from the end of the wire at the sending station, and which are
+probably reproduced among the metallic filings of the coherer at the
+receiving station.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The coherer and the motor are shown between two batteries, one of
+which drives the motor while the other serves to work the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> bell or
+sounder when the electric wire excites the iron filings. In Fig. 2
+this receiving apparatus is shown diagrammatically. B is the battery
+which sends a current through the sounder M and the coherer N when the
+magnetic whirls coming from the sending wire W embrace the receiving
+wire W'.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>The term wireless telegraphy is a misnomer, for without wires the
+method would not be possible. The phenomenon is merely an enlargement
+of one that we are fully conscious of in the case of telegraph and
+telephone circuits, which is termed electro-magnetic induction.
+Whenever an electric current suddenly flows or suddenly ceases to
+flow along a wire, electrical currents are caused by induction in
+neighboring wires. The receiver employed by Marconi is a delicate
+spark caused by this induction, which forms a bridge so that an
+electric current from the relay battery can pass and influence magnetic
+instruments.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/illo_068.jpg" width="500" height="398" alt="Magnetic whirls" />
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span>&mdash;Magnetic whirls about the sending
+wire.</div>
+</div>
+<p>Many investigators had succeeded before Marconi in sending telegraphic
+messages several miles through the air or ether between two points
+not directly connected by wires. Marconi has extended the distance by
+employing a much higher electro-motive force at the sending station
+and using the feeble inductive effect at a distance to set in action a
+local battery.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It is evident that wires are needed at the sending station from every
+point of which magnetic and electric waves are sent out, and wires at
+the receiving station which embrace, so to speak, these waves in the
+manner shown by our photographs. These waves produce minute sparks in
+the receiving instrument, which act like a suddenly drawn flood gate in
+allowing the current from a local battery to flow through the circuit
+in which the spark occurs, and thus produce a click on a telegraphic
+instrument.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>We have said that messages had been sent by what is called wireless
+telegraphy before Marconi made his experiments. These messages had
+also been sent by induction, signals on one wire being received by a
+parallel and distant wire. To Marconi is due the credit of greatly
+extending the method by using a vertical wire. The method of using the
+coherer to detect electric pulses is not due, however, to Marconi.
+It is usually attributed to Branly; it had been employed, however,
+by previous observers, among whom is Hughes, the inventor of the
+microphone, an instrument analogous in its action to that of the
+coherer. In the case of the microphone, the waves from the human voice
+shake up the particles of carbon in the microphone transmitter, and
+thus cause an electrical current to flow more easily through the minute
+contacts of the carbon particles.</p>
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/illo_069.jpg" width="500" height="402" alt="Magnetic whirls" />
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span>&mdash;Magnetic whirls about the receiving
+wire.</div>
+</div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><br />The action of the telephone transmitter, which also consists of minute
+conducting particles in which a battery terminals are immersed, and
+the analogous coherer is microscopic, and there are many theories to
+account for their changes of resistance to electrical currents. We can
+not, I believe, be far wrong in thinking that the electric force breaks
+down the insulating effect of the infinitely thin layers of air between
+the particles, and thus allows an electric current to flow. This action
+is doubtless of the nature of an electric spark. An electric spark,
+in the case of wireless telegraphy, produces magnetic and electric
+lines of force in space, these reach out and embrace the circuit
+containing the coherer, and produce in turn minute sparks. <i>Similia
+similibus</i>&mdash;one action perfectly corresponds to the other.</p>
+
+<p>The Marconi system, therefore, of what is called wireless telegraphy
+is not new in principle, but only new in practical application. It had
+been used to show the phenomena of electric waves in lecture rooms.
+Marconi extended it from distances of sixty to one hundred feet to
+fifty or sixty miles. He did this by lifting the sending-wire spark on
+a lofty pole and improving the sensitiveness of the metallic filings
+in the glass tube at the receiving station. He adopted a mechanical
+arrangement for continually tapping the coherer in order to break up
+the minute bridges formed by the cohering action, and thus to prepare
+the filings for the next magnetic pulse. The system of wireless
+telegraphy is emphatically a spark system strangely analogous to
+flash-light signaling, a system in which the human eye with its rods
+and cones in the retina acts as the coherer, and the nerve system, the
+local battery, making a signal or sensation in the brain.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/illo_070.jpg" width="600" height="61" alt="The coherer employed" />
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span>&mdash;The coherer employed to receive the
+electric waves. (One and a third actual size.)</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Let us examine the sending spark a little further. An electric spark
+is perhaps the most interesting phenomenon in electricity. What causes
+it&mdash;how does the air behave toward it&mdash;what is it that apparently flows
+through the air, sending out light and heat waves as well as magnetic
+and electric waves? If we could answer all these questions, we should
+know what electricity is. A critical study of the electric spark has
+not only its scientific but its practical side. We see the latter side
+evidenced by its employment in wireless telegraphy and in the X rays;
+for in the latter case we have an electric discharge in a tube from
+which the air is removed&mdash;a special case of an electric spark. In<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span>
+order to understand the capabilities of wireless telegraphy we must
+turn to the scientific study of the electric spark; for its practical
+employment resides largely in its strength, in its frequency in its
+position, and in its power to make the air a conductor for electricity.
+All these points are involved in wireless telegraphy. How, then, shall
+we study the electric spark? The eye sees only an instantaneous flash
+following a devious path. It can not tell in what direction a spark
+flies (a flash of lightning, for instance), or indeed whether it has
+a direction. There is probably no commoner fallacy mankind entertains
+than the belief that the direction of lightning, or any electric spark,
+can be ascertained by the eye&mdash;that is, the direction from the sky
+to the earth or from the earth to the sky. I have repeatedly tested
+numbers of students in regard to this question, employing sparks four
+to six feet in length, taking precautions in regard to the concealment
+of the directions in which I charged the poles of the charging
+batteries, and I have never found a consensus of opinion in regard to
+directions. The ordinary photograph, too, reveals no more than the eye
+can see&mdash;a brilliant, devious line or a flaming discharge.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/illo_071.jpg" width="600" height="371" alt="Arrangement of batteries" />
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span>&mdash;Arrangement of batteries of motor
+(to disturb the coherer) and the sounder by which the messages are
+received.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>A large storage battery forms the best means of studying electric
+sparks, for with it one can run the entire gamut of this
+phenomenon&mdash;from the flaming discharge which we see in the arc light
+on the street to the crackling spark we employ in wireless telegraphy,
+and the more powerful discharges of six or more feet in length which
+closely resemble lightning discharges. A critical study of this gamut
+throws considerable light on the problem of the possibility<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> of secret
+wireless telegraphy&mdash;a problem which it is most important to solve if
+the system is to be made practical; for at present the message spreads
+out from the sending spark in great circular ripples in all directions,
+and may be received by any one.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/illo_072.jpg" width="500" height="250" alt="Photograph of electrical pulses." />
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span>&mdash;Photograph of electrical pulses. The
+interval between the pulses is one millionth of a second.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Several methods enable us to transform electrical energy so as to
+obtain suitable quick and intense blows on the surrounding medium.
+Is it possible that there is some mysterious vibration in the spark
+which is instrumental in the effective transmission of electrical
+energy across space? If the spark should vibrate or oscillate to and
+fro faster than sixteen times a second the human eye could not detect
+such oscillations; for an impression remains on the eye one sixteenth
+of a second, and subsequent ones separated by intervals shorter than a
+sixteenth would mingle together and could not be separated. The only
+way to ascertain whether the spark is oscillatory, or whether it is
+not one spark, as it appears to the eye, but a number of to-and-fro
+impulses, is to photograph it by a rapidly revolving mirror. The
+principle is similar to that of the biograph or the vitoscope, in
+which the quick to-and-fro motions of the spark are received on a
+sensitive film, which is in rapid motion. One terminal of the spark
+gap, the positive terminal so called, is always brighter than the
+other. Hence, if the sensitive film is moved at right angles to the
+path of the discharge, we shall get a row of dots which are the images
+of the brighter terminal, and these dots occur alternately first
+on one terminal and then on the other, showing that the discharge
+oscillates&mdash;that is, leaps in one discharge (which seems but one to the
+eye) many times in a hundred thousandth of a second. In practice it is
+found better to make an image of the spark move across the sensitive
+film instead of moving the film. This is accomplished by the same
+method that a boy uses in flashing sunlight by means of a mirror. The
+faster the mirror<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> moves the faster moves the image of the light. In
+this way a speed of a millionth of a second can be attained. In this
+case the distance between the dots on the film may be one tenth of
+an inch, sufficient to separate them to the eye. The photograph of
+electric sparks (Fig. 8) was taken in this manner. The distance between
+any two bright spots in the trail of the photographic images represents
+the time of the electric oscillation or the time of the magnetic pulse
+or wave which is sent out from the spark, and which will cause a
+distant circuit to respond by a similar oscillation.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/illo_073.jpg" width="500" height="311" alt="Photograph of a pilot spark" />
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span>&mdash;Photograph of a pilot spark, which is
+the principal factor in the method of wireless telegraphy.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>At present the shortest time that can, so to speak, be photographed
+in this manner is about one two-millionth of a second. This is the
+time of propagation of a magnetic wave over four hundred feet long.
+The waves used in wireless telegraphy are not more than four feet in
+length&mdash;about one hundredth the length of those we can photograph.
+The photographic method thus reveals a mechanism of the spark which
+is entirely hidden from the eye and will always be concealed from
+human sight. It reveals, however, a greater mystery which it seems
+incompetent to solve&mdash;the mystery of what is called the pilot spark,
+the first discharge which we see on our photograph (Fig. 9) stretching
+intact from terminal to terminal, having the prodigious velocity of one
+hundred and eighty thousand miles a second. None of our experimental
+devices suffice to penetrate the mystery of this discharge. It is this
+pilot spark which is chiefly instrumental in sending out the magnetic
+pulses or waves which are powerful enough to reach forty or fifty
+miles. The preponderating influence of this pilot spark&mdash;so called
+since it finds a way for the subsequent surgings<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> or oscillations&mdash;is
+a bar to the efforts to make wireless telegraphy secret. We can see
+from the photograph how much greater its strength is than that of the
+subsequent discharges shown by the mere brightening of the terminals.
+A delicate coherer will immediately respond to the influence of this
+pilot spark, and the subsequent oscillations of this discharge will
+have little effect. How, then, can we effectively time a receiving
+circuit so that it will respond to only one sending station? We can not
+depend upon the oscillatory nature of the spark, or adopt, in other
+words, its rate of vibration and form a coherer with the same rate.</p>
+
+<p>It seems as if it would be necessary to invent some method of sending
+pilot sparks at a high and definite rate of vibration, and of employing
+coherers which will only respond to definite powerful rates of magnetic
+pulsation. Various attempts have been made to produce by mechanical
+means powerful electric surgings, but they have been unsuccessful. Both
+high electro-motive force and strength of current are needed. These can
+be obtained by the employment of a great number of storage cells. The
+discharge from a large number of these cells, however, is not suitable
+for the purpose of wireless telegraphy, although it may possess the
+qualifications of both high electrical pressure and strength of current.</p>
+
+<p>The only apparatus we have at command to produce quick blows on the
+ether is the Ruhmkorf coil. This coil, I have said, has been in all our
+physical cabinets for fifty years. It contained within itself the germ
+of the telephone transmitter and the method of wireless telegraphy,
+unrecognized until the present. In its elements it consists, as we have
+seen, of two electrical circuits, placed near each other, entirely
+unconnected. A battery is connected with one of these circuits, and
+any change in the strength of the electrical current gives a blow to
+the ether or medium between the two circuits. A quick stopping of the
+electrical current gives the strongest impulse to the ether, which
+is taken up by the neighboring circuit. For the past fifty years
+very little advance has been made in the method of giving strong
+electrical impulses to the medium of space. It is accomplished simply
+by a mechanical breaking of the connection to the battery, either by
+a revolving wheel with suitable projections, or by a vibrating point.
+All the various forms of mechanical breaks are inefficient. They do not
+give quick and uniform breaks. Latterly, hopes have been excited by the
+discovery of a chemical break, called the Weynelt interrupter, shown in
+Fig. 1. The electrical current in passing through a vessel of diluted
+sulphuric acid from a point of platinum to a disk of lead causes
+bubbles of gas which form a barrier to its passage which is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span> suddenly
+broken down, and this action goes on at a high rate of speed, causing
+a torrent of sparks in the neighboring circuit. The medium between
+the two circuits is thereby submitted to rapid and comparatively
+powerful impulses. The discovery of this and similar chemical or
+molecular interruptions marks an era in the history of the electrical
+transformer, and the hopes of further progress by means of them is far
+greater than in the direction of mechanical interruptions.</p>
+
+<p>We are still, however, unable to generate sufficiently powerful and
+sufficiently well-timed electrical impulses to make wireless telegraphy
+of great and extended use. Can we not hope to strengthen the present
+feeble impulses in wireless telegraphy by some method of relaying or
+repeating? In the analogous subject of telephony many efforts have
+also been made to render the service secret, and to extend it to great
+distances by means of relays. These efforts have not been successful up
+to the present. We still have our neighbors' call bells, and we could
+listen to their messages if we were gossips. The telephone service
+has been extended to great distances&mdash;for instance, from Boston to
+Omaha&mdash;not by relays, but by strengthening the blows upon the medium
+between the transmitting circuit and the receiving one, just as we
+desire to do in what is called wireless telegraphy, the apparatus of
+which is almost identical in principle to that employed in telephony.
+The individual call in telephony is not a success for nearly the same
+reasons that exist in the case of wireless telegraphy. Perfectly
+definite and powerful rates of vibration can not be sent from point to
+point over wires to which only certain definite apparatus will respond.
+There are so many ways in which the energy of the electric current can
+be dissipated in passing over wires and through calling bells that the
+form of the waves and their strength becomes attenuated. The form of
+the electrical waves is better preserved in free space, where there
+are no wires or where there is no magnetic matter. The difficulty
+in obtaining individual calls in wireless telegraphy resides in the
+present impossibility of obtaining sufficiently rapid and powerful
+electrical impulses, and a receiver which will properly respond to a
+definite number of such impulses.</p>
+
+<p>The question of a relay seems as impossible of solution as it does in
+telephony. The character of speech depends upon numberless delicate
+inflections and harmonies. The form, for instance, of the wave
+transmitting the vowel <i>a</i> must be preserved in order that the sound
+may be recognized. A relay in telephony acts very much like one's
+neighbor in the game called gossip, in which a sentence repeated more
+or less indistinctly, after passing from one person to another, becomes
+distorted and meaningless. No<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> telephone relay has been invented which
+preserves the form of the first utterance, the vowel <i>a</i> loses its
+delicate characteristics, and becomes simply a meaningless noise. It is
+maintained by some authorities that such a relay can not be invented,
+that it is impossible to preserve the delicate inflections of the
+human voice in passing from one circuit to another, even through an
+infinitesimal air gap or ether space. It is well, however, to reflect
+upon Hosea Bigelow's sapient advice "not to prophesy unless you know."
+It was maintained in the early days of the telephone that speech would
+lose so many characteristics in the process of transmission over wires
+and through magnetic apparatus that it would not be intelligible.
+It is certain that at present long-distance transmission of speech
+can only be accomplished by using more powerful transmitters, and by
+making the line of copper better fitted for the transmission&mdash;just as
+quick transportation from place to place has not been accomplished by
+quitting the earth and by flying through space, but by obtaining more
+powerful engines and by improving the roadbeds.</p>
+
+<p>The hopes of obtaining a relay for wireless telegraphy seem as small
+as they do in telephony. The present method is practically limited to
+distances of fifty or sixty miles&mdash;distances not much exceeding those
+which can be reached by a search-light in fair weather. Indeed, there
+is a close parallelism between the search-light and the spark used in
+Marconi's experiments: both send out waves which differ only in length.
+The waves of the search-light are about one forty-thousandth of an
+inch long, while the magnetic waves of the spark, invisible to the
+eye, are three to four feet&mdash;more than a million times longer than the
+light waves. These very long waves have this advantage over the short
+light waves: they are able to penetrate fog, and even sand hills and
+masonry. One can send messages into a building from a point outside. A
+prisoner could communicate with the outer world, a beleaguered garrison
+could send for help, a disabled light-ship could summon assistance, and
+possibly one steamer could inform another in a fog of its course.</p>
+
+<p>Wireless telegraphy is the nearest approach to telepathy that has
+been vouchsafed to our intelligence, and it serves to stimulate our
+imagination and to make us think that things greatly hoped for can be
+always reached, although not exactly in the way expected. The nerves
+of the whole world are, so to speak, being bound together, so that a
+touch in one country is transmitted instantly to a far-distant one. Why
+should we not in time speak through the earth to the antipodes? If the
+magnetic waves can pass through brick and stone walls and sand hills,
+why should we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> not direct, so to speak, our trumpet to the earth,
+instead of letting its utterances skim over the horizon? In regard
+to this suggestion, we know certainly one fact from our laboratory
+experiences: that these magnetic waves, meeting layers of electrically
+conducting matter, like layers of iron ore, would be reflected back,
+and would not penetrate. Thus a means may be discovered through the
+instrumentality of such waves of exploring the mysteries of the earth
+before success is attained in completely penetrating its mass.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p class="ph2"><a name="EMIGRANT_DIAMONDS_IN_AMERICA" id="EMIGRANT_DIAMONDS_IN_AMERICA">EMIGRANT DIAMONDS IN AMERICA.</a></p>
+
+<p class="ph4"><span class="smcap">By Prof.</span> WILLIAM HERBERT HOBBS.</p>
+
+
+<p>To discover the origin of the diamond in Nature we must seek it in
+its ancestral home, where the rocky matrix gave it birth in the form
+characteristic of its species. In prosecuting our search we should very
+soon discover that, in common with other gem minerals, the diamond has
+been a great wanderer, for it is usually found far from its original
+home. The disintegrating forces of the atmosphere, by acting upon the
+rocky material in which the stones were imbedded, have loosed them from
+their natural setting, to be caught up by the streams, sorted from
+their disintegrated matrix, and transported far from the parent rock,
+to be at last set down upon some gravelly bed over which the force of
+the current is weakened. The mines of Brazil and the Urals, of India,
+Borneo, and the "river diggings" of South Africa either have been or
+are now in deposits of this character.</p>
+
+<p>The "dry diggings" of the Kimberley district, in South Africa, afford
+the unique locality in which the diamond has thus far been found in
+its original home, and all our knowledge of the genesis of the mineral
+has been derived from study of this locality. The mines are located
+in "pans," in which is found the "blue ground" now recognized as the
+disintegrated matrix of the diamond. These "pans" are known to be the
+"pipes," or "necks," of former volcanoes, now deeply dissected by the
+forces of the atmosphere&mdash;in fact, worn down if not to their roots, at
+least to their stumps. These remnants of the "pipes," through which
+the lava reached the surface, are surrounded in part by a black shale
+containing a large percentage of carbon, and this is believed to be the
+material out of which the diamonds have been formed. What appear to
+be modified fragments of the black shale inclosed within the "pipes"
+afford evidence that portions of the shale have been broken from the
+parent beds by the force of the ascending current of lava&mdash;a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> common
+enough accompaniment to volcanic action&mdash;and have been profoundly
+altered by the high temperature and the extreme hydrostatic pressure
+under which the mass must have been held. The most important feature
+of this alteration has been the recrystallization of the carbon of the
+shale into diamond.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 537px;">
+<a href="images/illo_078full.jpg">
+
+<img src="images/illo_078.jpg" width="537" height="800" alt="GLACIAL MAP OF THE GREAT LAKES REGION" /></a>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class="ph4">GLACIAL MAP OF THE GREAT LAKES REGION</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tdc">shaded<br /></td><td class="tdc">////////</td><td class="tdc">clear</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdc">Driftless Areas.</td><td class="tdc">Older Drift.</td><td class="tdc">Newer Drift.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdc">Moraines.</td><td class="tdc">Glacial Striae.</td><td class="tdc">Track of Diamonds.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc">Diamond Localities.</td><td class="tdc">E. Eagle.</td><td class="tdc">O. Oregon.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class="center">K. Kohlsville D. Dowagiac M. Milford. P. Plum Crk. B. Burlington.</p>
+
+<p class="center">We are indebted to the University of Chicago Press for the above
+illustration.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/illo_079.jpg" width="600" height="432" alt="" />
+
+
+<p>Copyright, 1899, by George F. Kunz.</p>
+
+
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Five Views of the Eagle Diamond</span> (sixteen carats); enlarged
+about three diameters.<br /> (Owned by Tiffany and Company.)</div>
+
+<p class="center">We are indebted to the courtesy of Mr. G. F. Kunz, of Tiffany and
+Company, for the illustrations of the Oregon and Eagle diamonds.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>This apparent explanation of the genesis of the diamond finds strong
+support in the experiments of Moissan, who obtained artificial diamond
+by dissolving carbon in molten iron and immersing the mass in cold
+water until a firm surface crust had formed. The "chilled" mass was
+then removed, to allow its still molten core to solidify slowly. This
+it does with the development of enormous pressures, because the natural
+expansion of the iron on passing into the solid condition is resisted
+by the strong shell of "chilled" metal. The isolation of the diamond
+was then accomplished by dissolving the iron in acid.</p>
+
+<p>The prevailing form of the South African diamonds is that of a rounded
+crystal, with eight large and a number of minute faces&mdash;a form called
+by crystallographers a <i>modified octahedron</i>. Their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> shapes would be
+roughly simulated by the Pyramids of Egypt if they could be seen,
+combined with their reflected images, in a placid lake, or, better
+to meet the conditions of the country, in a desert mirage. It is a
+peculiar property of diamond crystals to have convexly rounded faces,
+so that the edges which separate the faces are not straight, but gently
+curving. Less frequently in the African mines, but commonly in some
+other regions, diamonds are bounded by four, twelve, twenty-four, or
+even forty-eight faces. These must not, of course, be confused with the
+faces of cut stones, which are the product of the lapidary's art.</p>
+
+<p>Geological conditions remarkably like those observed at the Kimberley
+mines have recently been discovered in Kentucky, with the difference
+that here the shales contain a much smaller percentage of carbon, which
+may be the reason that diamonds have not rewarded the diligent search
+that has been made for them.</p>
+
+<p>Though now found in the greatest abundance in South Africa and in
+Brazil, diamonds were formerly obtained from India, Borneo, and from
+the Ural Mountains of Russia. The great stones of history have, with
+hardly an exception, come from India, though in recent years a number
+of diamond monsters have been found in South Africa. One of these,
+the "Excelsior," weighed nine hundred and seventy carats, which is in
+excess even of the supposed weight of the "Great Mogul."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/illo_080.jpg" width="600" height="162" alt="Four Views of the Oregon Diamond" />
+<p>Copyright, 1899, by George F. Kunz.</p>
+
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Four Views of the Oregon Diamond</span>; enlarged about three
+diameters.<br />(Owned by Tiffany and Company.)</div></div>
+
+
+<p>Occasionally diamonds have come to light in other regions than those
+specified. The Piedmont plateau, at the southeastern base of the
+Appalachians, has produced, in the region between southern Virginia and
+Georgia, some ten or twelve diamonds, which have varied in weight from
+those of two or three carats to the "Dewey" diamond, which when found
+weighed over twenty-three carats.</p>
+
+<p>It is, however, in the territory about the Great Lakes that the
+greatest interest now centers, for in this region a very interesting
+problem of origin is being worked out. No less than seven diamonds,
+ranging in size from less than four to more than twenty-one carats, not
+to mention a number of smaller stones, have been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> recently found in the
+clays and gravels of this region, where their distribution was such
+as to indicate with a degree of approximation the location of their
+distant ancestral home.</p>
+
+<p>In order clearly to set forth the nature of this problem and the method
+of its solution it will be necessary, first, to plot upon a map of the
+lake region the locality at which each of the stones has been found,
+and, further, to enter upon the same map the data which geologists
+have gleaned regarding the work of the great ice cap of the Glacial
+period. During this period, not remote as geological time is reckoned,
+an ice mantle covered the entire northeastern portion of our continent,
+and on more than one occasion it invaded for considerable distances
+the territory of the United States. Such a map as has been described
+discloses an important fact which holds the clew for the detection of
+the ancestral home of these diamonds. Each year is bringing with it new
+evidence, and we may look forward hopefully to a full solution of the
+problem.</p>
+
+<p>In 1883 the "Eagle Stone" was brought to Milwaukee and sold for
+the nominal sum of one dollar. When it was submitted to competent
+examination the public learned that it was a diamond of sixteen carats'
+weight, and that it had been discovered seven years earlier in earth
+removed from a well-opening. Two events which were calculated to arouse
+local interest followed directly upon the discovery of the real nature
+of this gem, after which it passed out of the public notice. The woman
+who had parted with the gem for so inadequate a compensation brought
+suit against the jeweler to whom she had sold it, in order to recover
+its value. This curious litigation, which naturally aroused a great
+deal of interest, was finally carried to the Supreme Court of the State
+of Wisconsin, from which a decision was handed down in favor of the
+defendant, on the ground that he, no less than the plaintiff, had been
+ignorant of the value of the gem at the time of purchasing it. The
+other event was the "boom" of the town of Eagle as a diamond center,
+which, after the finding of two other diamonds with unmistakable marks
+of African origin upon them, ended as suddenly as it had begun, with
+the effect of temporarily discrediting, in the minds of geologists, the
+genuineness of the original "find."</p>
+
+<p>Ten years later a white diamond of a little less than four carats'
+weight came to light in a collection of pebbles found in Oregon,
+Wisconsin, and brought to the writer for examination. The stones had
+been found by a farmer's lad while playing in a clay bank near his
+home. The investigation of the subject which was thereupon made brought
+out the fact that a third diamond, and this the larges<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> of all, had
+been discovered at Kohlsville, in the same State, in 1883, and was
+still in the possession of the family on whose property it had been
+found.</p>
+
+<p>As these stones were found in the deposits of "drift" which were left
+by the ice of the Glacial period, it was clear that they had been
+brought to their resting places by the ice itself. The map reveals
+the additional fact, and one of the greatest significance, that all
+these diamonds were found in the so-called "kettle moraine." This
+moraine or ridge was the dumping ground of the ice for its burden of
+bowlders, gravel, and clay at the time of its later invasion, and hence
+indicates the boundaries of the territory over which the ice mass was
+then extended. In view of the fact that two of the three stones found
+had remained in the hands of the farming population, without coming
+to the knowledge of the world, for periods of eleven and seven years
+respectively, it seems most probable that others have been found,
+though not identified as diamonds, and for this reason are doubtless
+still to be found in many cases in association with other local
+"curios" on the clock shelves of country farmhouses in the vicinity
+of the "kettle moraine." The writer felt warranted in predicting, in
+1894, that other diamonds would occasionally be brought to light in the
+"kettle moraine," though the great extent of this moraine left little
+room for hope that more than one or two would be found at any one point
+of it.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/illo_082.jpg" width="450" height="170" alt="Three Views of the Saukville Diamond" />
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Three Views of the Saukville Diamond</span> (six
+carats); enlarged about three diameters.<br />(Owned by Bunde and Upmeyer,
+Milwaukee.)</div>
+
+<p class="center">We are indebted to the courtesy of Bunde and Upmeyer, of Milwaukee, for
+the illustrations showing the Burlington and Saukville diamonds.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>In the time that has since elapsed diamonds have been found at the rate
+of about one a year, though not, so far as I am aware, in any case
+as the result of search. In Wisconsin have been found the Saukville
+diamond, a beautiful white stone of six carats' weight, and also the
+Burlington stone, having a weight of a little over two carats. The
+former had been for more than sixteen years in the possession of the
+finder before he learned of its value. In Michi<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span>gan has been found the
+Dowagiac stone, of about eleven carats' weight, and only very recently
+a diamond weighing six carats and of exceptionally fine "water" has
+come to light at Milford, near Cincinnati. This augmentation of the
+number of localities, and the nearness of all to the "kettle moraines,"
+leaves little room for doubt that the diamonds were conveyed by the ice
+at the time of its later invasion of the country.</p>
+
+<p>Having, then, arrived at a satisfactory conclusion regarding not only
+the agent which conveyed the stones, but also respecting the period
+during which they were transported, it is pertinent to inquire by what
+paths they were brought to their adopted homes, and whether, if these
+may be definitely charted, it may not be possible to follow them in a
+direction the reverse of that taken by the diamonds themselves until we
+arrive at the point from which each diamond started upon its journey.
+If we succeed in this we shall learn whether they have a common home,
+or whether they were formed in regions more or less widely separated.
+From the great rarity of diamonds in Nature it would seem that the
+hypothesis of a common home is the more probable, and this view finds
+confirmation in the fact that certain marks of "consanguinity" have
+been observed upon the stones already found.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/illo_083.jpg" width="500" height="145" alt="Four Views of the Burlington Diamond" />
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Four Views of the Burlington Diamond</span> (a little
+over two carats); enlarged about three diameters.<br />(Owned by Bunde and
+Upmeyer, Milwaukee.)</div></div>
+
+
+<p>Not only did the ice mantle register its advance in the great ridge
+of morainic material which we know as the "kettle moraine," but it
+has engraved upon the ledges of rock over which it has ridden, in a
+simple language of lines and grooves, the direction of its movement,
+after first having planed away the disintegrated portions of the rock
+to secure a smooth and lasting surface. As the same ledges have been
+overridden more than once, and at intervals widely separated, they
+are often found, palimpsestlike, with recent characters superimposed
+upon earlier, partly effaced, and nearly illegible ones. Many of
+the scattered leaves of this record have, however, been copied by
+geologists, and the autobiography of the ice is now read from maps
+which give the direction of its flow, and allow the motion of the ice
+as a whole, as well as that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> of each of its parts, to be satisfactorily
+studied. Recent studies by Canadian geologists have shown that one of
+the highest summits of the ice cap must have been located some distance
+west of Hudson Bay, and that another, the one which glaciated the lake
+region, was in Labrador, to the east of the same body of water. From
+these points the ice moved in spreading fans both northward toward the
+Arctic Ocean and southward toward the States, and always approached the
+margins at the moraines in a direction at right angles to their extent.
+Thus the rock material transported by the ice was spread out in a great
+fan, which constantly extended its boundaries as it advanced.</p>
+
+<p>The evidence from the Oregon, Eagle, and Kohlsville stones, which
+were located on the moraine of the Green Bay glacier, is that their
+home, in case they had a common one, is between the northeastern
+corner of the State of Wisconsin and the eastern summit of the ice
+mantle&mdash;a narrow strip of country of great extent, but yet a first
+approximation of the greatest value. If we assume, further, that the
+Saukville, Burlington, and Dowagiac stones, which were found on the
+moraine of the Lake Michigan glacier, have the same derivation, their
+common home may confidently be placed as far to the northeast as
+the wilderness beyond the Great Lakes, since the Green Bay and Lake
+Michigan glaciers coalesced in that region. The small stones found at
+Plum Creek, Wisconsin, and the Cincinnati stone, if the locations of
+their discovery be taken into consideration, still further circumscribe
+the diamond's home territory, since the lobes of the ice mass which
+transported them made a complete junction with the Green Bay and Lake
+Michigan lobes or glaciers considerably farther to the northward than
+the point of union of the latter glaciers themselves.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/illo_084.jpg" width="450" height="140" alt="Three Views of a Lead Cast of the Milford Stone" />
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Three Views of a Lead Cast of the Milford Stone</span>
+(six carats); enlarged about three diameters.</div>
+
+<p class="center">We are indebted to the courtesy of Prof. T. H. Norton, of the
+University of Cincinnati, for the above illustrations.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>If, therefore, it is assumed that all the stones which have been found
+have a common origin, the conclusion is inevitable that the ancestral
+home must be in the wilderness of Canada between the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> points where the
+several tracks marking their migrations converge upon one another, and
+the former summit of the ice sheet. The broader the "fan" of their
+distribution, the nearer to the latter must the point be located.</p>
+
+<p>It is by no means improbable that when the barren territory about
+Hudson Bay is thoroughly explored a region for profitable diamond
+mining may be revealed, but in the meantime we may be sure that
+individual stones will occasionally be found in the new American homes
+into which they were imported long before the days of tariffs and ports
+of entry. Mother Nature, not content with lavishing upon our favored
+nation the boundless treasures locked up in her mountains, has robbed
+the territory of our Canadian cousins of the rich soils which she has
+unloaded upon our lake States, and of the diamonds with which she has
+sowed them.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/illo_085.jpg" width="400" height="229" alt="" />
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Common Forms of Quartz Crystals.</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/illo_085b.jpg" width="400" height="387" alt="" />
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Common Forms of Diamonds.</span> The African stones
+most resemble the figure above at the left (octahedron). The Wisconsin
+stones most resemble the figure above at the right (dodecahedron).</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The range of the present distribution of the diamonds, while perhaps
+not limited exclusively to the "kettle moraine," will, as the events
+have indicated, be in the main confined to it. This moraine, with
+its numerous subordinate ranges marking halting places in the final
+retreat of the ice, has now been located with sufficient accuracy by
+the geologists of the United States Geological Survey and others,
+approximately as entered upon the accompanying map. Within the
+territory of the United States the large number of observations of the
+rock scorings makes it clear that the ice of each lobe or glacier moved
+from the central portion toward the marginal moraines, which are here
+indicated by dotted bands. In the wilderness of Canada the observations
+have been rare, but the few data which have been gleaned are there
+represented by arrows pointed in the direction of ice movement.</p>
+
+<p>There is every encouragement for persons who reside in or near the
+marginal moraines to search in them for the scattered jewels, which
+may be easily identified and which have a large commercial as well as
+scientific value.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey is now interesting
+itself in the problem of the diamonds, and has undertaken the task of
+disseminating information bearing on the subject to the people who
+reside near the "kettle moraine." With the co-operation of a number of
+mineralogists who reside near this "diamond belt," it offers to make
+examination of the supposed gem stones which may be collected.</p>
+
+<p>The success of this undertaking will depend upon securing the
+co-operation of the people of the morainal belt. Wherever gravel
+ridges have there been opened in cuts it would be advisable to look
+for diamonds. Children in particular, because of their keen eyes and
+abundant leisure, should be encouraged to search for the clear stones.</p>
+
+<p>The serious defect in this plan is that it trusts to inexperienced
+persons to discover the buried diamonds which in the "rough" are
+probably unlike anything that they have ever seen. The first result of
+the search has been the collection of large numbers of quartz pebbles,
+which are everywhere present but which are entirely valueless. There
+are, however, some simple ways of distinguishing diamonds from quartz.</p>
+
+<p>Diamonds never appear in thoroughly rounded forms like ordinary
+pebbles, for they are too hard to be in the least degree worn by
+contact with their neighbors in the gravel bed. Diamonds always show,
+moreover, distinct forms of crystals, and these generally bear some
+resemblance to one of the forms figured. They are never in the least
+degree like crystals of quartz, which are, however, the ones most
+frequently confounded with them. Most of the Wisconsin diamonds have
+either twelve or forty-eight faces. Crystals of most minerals are
+bounded by plane surfaces&mdash;that is to say, their faces are flat&mdash;the
+diamond, however, is inclosed by distinctly curving surfaces.</p>
+
+<p>The one property of the diamond, however, which makes it easy of
+determination is its extraordinary hardness&mdash;greater than that of any
+other mineral. Put in simple language, the hardness of a substance
+may be described as its power to scratch other substances when drawn
+across them under pressure. To compare the hardness of two substances
+we should draw a sharp point of one across a surface of the other
+under a pressure of the fingers, and note whether a permanent scratch
+is left. The harder substances will always scratch the softer, and if
+both have the same hardness they may be made to mutually scratch each
+other. Since diamond, sapphire, and ruby are the only minerals which
+are harder than emery they are the only ones which, when drawn across a
+rough emery surface, will not receive a scratch. Any stone which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> will
+not take a scratch from emery is a gem stone and of sufficient interest
+to be referred to a competent mineralogist.</p>
+
+<p>The dissemination of information regarding the lake diamonds through
+the region of the moraine should serve the twofold purpose of
+encouraging search for the buried stones and of discovering diamonds
+in the little collections of "lucky stones" and local curios which
+accumulate on the clock shelves of country farmhouses. When it is
+considered that three of the largest diamonds thus far found in
+the region remained for periods of seven, eight, and sixteen years
+respectively in the hands of the farming population, it can hardly be
+doubted that many other diamonds have been found and preserved as local
+curiosities without their real nature being discovered.</p>
+
+<p>If diamonds should be discovered in the moraines of eastern Ohio, of
+western Pennsylvania, or of western New York, considerable light would
+thereby be thrown upon the problem of locating the ancestral home. More
+important than this, however, is the mapping of the Canadian wilderness
+to the southeastward and eastward of James Bay, in order to determine
+the direction of ice movement within the region, so that the <i>tracking</i>
+of the stones already found may be carried nearer their home. The
+Director of the Geological Survey of Canada is giving attention to this
+matter, and has also suggested that a study be made of the material
+found in association with the diamonds in the moraine, so that if
+possible its source may be discovered.</p>
+
+<p>With the discovery of new localities of these emigrant stones and the
+collection of data regarding the movement of the ice over Canadian
+territory, it will perhaps be possible the more accurately and
+definitely to circumscribe their home country, and as its boundaries
+are drawn closer and closer to pay this popular jewel a visit in its
+ancestral home, there to learn what we so much desire to know regarding
+its genesis and its life history.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>William Pengelly related, in one of his letters to his wife from the
+British Association, Oxford meeting, 1860, of Sedgwick's presidency
+of the Geological Section, that his opening address was "most
+characteristic, full of clever fun, most imperative that papers should
+be as brief as possible&mdash;about ten minutes, he thought&mdash;he himself
+amplifying marvelously." The next day Pengelly himself was about
+to read his paper, when "dear old Sedgwick wished it compressed. I
+replied that I would do what I could to please him, but did not know
+which to follow, his precept or example. The roar of laughter was
+deafening. Old Sedgwick took it capitally, and behaved much better in
+consequence." On the third day Pengelly went to committee, where, he
+says, "I found Sedgwick very cordial, took my address, and talks of
+paying me a visit."</p></blockquote>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<p class="ph2"><a name="NEEDED_IMPROVEMENTS_IN_THEATER_SANITATION" id="NEEDED_IMPROVEMENTS_IN_THEATER_SANITATION">NEEDED IMPROVEMENTS IN THEATER SANITATION.</a></p>
+
+<p class="ph4"><span class="smcap">By WILLIAM PAUL GERHARD, C. E.</span>,</p>
+
+<p class="center">CONSULTING ENGINEER FOR SANITARY WORKS.</p>
+
+
+<p>Buildings for the representation of theatrical plays must fulfill
+three conditions: they must be (1) comfortable, (2) safe, and (3)
+healthful. The last requirement, of <i>healthfulness</i>, embraces the
+following conditions: plenty of pure air, freedom from draughts,
+moderate warming in winter, suitable cooling in summer, freedom at
+all times from dust, bad odors, and disease germs. In addition to the
+requirements for the theater audience, due regard should be paid to the
+comfort, healthfulness, and safety of the performers, stage hands, and
+mechanics, who are required to spend more hours in the stage part of
+the building than the playgoers.</p>
+
+<p>It is no exaggeration to state that in the majority of theater
+buildings disgracefully unsanitary conditions prevail. In the older
+existing buildings especially sanitation and ventilation are sadly
+neglected. The air of many theaters during a performance becomes
+overheated and stuffy, pre-eminently so in the case of theaters where
+illumination is effected by means of gaslights. At the end of a long
+performance the air is often almost unbearably foul, causing headache,
+nausea, and dizziness.</p>
+
+<p>In ill-ventilated theaters a chilly air often blows into the auditorium
+from the stage when the curtain is raised. This air movement is the
+cause of colds to many persons in the audience, and it is otherwise
+objectionable, for it carries with it noxious odors from the stage
+or under stage, and in gas-lighted theaters this air is laden with
+products of combustion from the footlights and other means of stage
+illumination.</p>
+
+<p>Attempts at ventilation are made by utilizing the heat due to the
+numerous flames of the central chandelier over the auditorium, to
+create an ascending draught, and thereby cause a removal of the
+contaminated air, but seldom is provision made for the introduction
+of fresh air from outdoors, hence the scheme of ventilation results
+in failure. In other buildings, openings for the introduction of pure
+air are provided under the seats or in the floor, but are often found
+stuffed up with paper because the audience suffered from draughts. The
+fear of draughts in a theater also leads to the closing of the few
+possibly available outside windows and doors. The plan of a theater
+building renders it almost impossible to provide outside windows,
+therefore "air flushing" during the day can not be practiced. In the
+case of the older theaters, which are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> located in the midst or rear of
+other buildings, the nature of the site precludes a good arrangement of
+the main fresh-air ducts for the auditorium.</p>
+
+<p>Absence of fresh air is not the only sanitary defect of theater
+buildings; there are many other defects and sources of air pollution.
+In the parts devoted to the audience, the carpeted floors become
+saturated with dirt and dust carried in by the playgoers, and with
+expectorations from careless or untidy persons which in a mixed theater
+audience are ever present. The dust likewise adheres to furniture,
+plush seats, hangings, and decorations, and intermingled with it are
+numerous minute floating organisms, and doubtless some germs of disease.</p>
+
+<p>Behind the curtain a general lack of cleanliness exists&mdash;untidy actors'
+toilet rooms, ill-drained cellars, defective sewerage, leaky drains,
+foul water closets, and overcrowded and poorly located dressing rooms
+into which no fresh air ever enters. The stage floor is covered with
+dust; this is stirred up by the frequent scene shifting or by the
+dancing of performers, and much of it is absorbed and retained by the
+canvas scenery.</p>
+
+<p>Under such conditions the state of health of both theater goers
+and performers is bound to suffer. Many persons can testify from
+personal experience to the ill effects incurred by spending a few
+hours in a crowded and unventilated theater; yet the very fact that
+the stay in such buildings is a brief one seems to render most people
+indifferent, and complaints are seldom uttered. It really rests with
+the theater-going public to enforce the much-needed improvements. As
+long as they will flock to a theater on account of some attractive play
+or "star actor," disregarding entirely the unsanitary condition of the
+building, so long will the present notoriously bad conditions remain.
+When the public does not call for reforms, theater managers and owners
+of playhouses will not, as a rule, trouble themselves about the matter.
+We have a right to demand theater buildings with less outward and
+inside gorgeousness, but in which the paramount subjects of comfort,
+safety, and health are diligently studied and generously provided
+for. Let the general public but once show a determined preference for
+sanitary conditions and surroundings in theaters and abandon visits to
+ill-kept theaters, and I venture to predict that the necessary reforms
+in sanitation will soon be introduced, at least in the better class
+of playhouses. In the cheaper theaters, concert and amusement halls,
+houses with "continuous" shows, variety theaters, etc., sanitation
+is even more urgently required, and may be readily enforced by a few
+visits and peremptory orders from the Health Board.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>When, a year ago, the writer, in a paper on Theater Sanitation
+presented at the annual meeting of the American Public Health
+Association, stated that "chemical analyses show the air in the dress
+circle and gallery of many a theater to be in the evening more foul
+than the air of street sewers," the statement was received by some of
+his critics with incredulity. Yet the fact is true of many theaters.
+Taking the amount of carbonic acid in the air as an indication of its
+contamination, and assuming that the organic vapors are in proportion
+to the amount of carbonic acid (not including the CO<sub>2</sub> due to the
+products of illumination), we know that normal outdoor air contains
+from 0.03 to 0.04 parts of CO<sub>2</sub> per 100 parts of air, while a few
+chemical analyses of the air in English theaters, quoted below, suffice
+to prove how large the contamination sometimes is:</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Theatre Sanitation">
+<tr><td class="tdl">Strand Theater,</td><td class="tdr">10 P.M.,</td><td class="tdl">gallery</td><td class="tdr">0.101</td><td class="tdl">parts</td><td class="tdr">CO<sub>2</sub></td><td class="tdr">per 100.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Surrey Theater,</td><td class="tdr">10 P.M.,</td><td class="tdl">boxes</td><td class="tdr">0.126</td><td class="tdr">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Surrey Theater,</td><td class="tdr">12 P.M.,</td><td class="tdl">boxes</td><td class="tdr">0.218</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Olympia Theater,</td><td class="tdr">11.30 P.M.,</td><td class="tdl">boxes</td><td class="tdr">0.082</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Olympia Theater,</td><td class="tdr">11.55 P.M.,</td><td class="tdl">boxes</td><td class="tdr">0.101</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Victoria Theater,</td><td class="tdr">10 P.M.,</td><td class="tdl">boxes</td><td class="tdr">0.126</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Haymarket Theater,</td><td class="tdr">10 P.M.,</td><td class="tdl">boxes</td><td class="tdr">0.076</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">City of London Theater,</td><td class="tdr">11.15 P.M.,</td><td class="tdl">pit</td><td class="tdr">0.252</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Standard Theater,</td><td class="tdr">11 P.M.,</td><td class="tdl">pit</td><td class="tdr">0.320</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Theater Royal, Manchester,</td><td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl">pit</td><td class="tdr">0.2734</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Theater Royal, Manchester,</td><td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl">pit</td><td class="tdr">0.2734</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Grand Theater, Leeds,</td><td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl">pit</td><td class="tdr">0.150</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Grand Theater, Leeds,</td><td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl">upper circle</td><td class="tdr">0.143</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Grand Theater, Leeds,</td><td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl">balcony</td><td class="tdr">0.142</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Prince's Theater, Manchester,</td><td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl">balcony</td><td class="tdr">0.11-0.17</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+  <p class="center">(Analyses made by Drs. Smith, Bernays, and De Chaumont.)</p>
+
+
+<p>Compare with these figures some analyses of the air of sewers. Dr.
+Russell, of Glasgow, found the air of a well-ventilated and flushed
+sewer to contain 0.051 vols. of CO<sub>2</sub>. The late Prof. W. Ripley
+Nichols conducted many careful experiments on the amount of carbonic
+acid in the Boston sewers, and found the following averages, viz.,
+0.087, 0.082, 0.115, 0.107, 0.08, or much less than the above analyses
+of theater air showed. He states: "It appears from these examinations
+that the air even in a tide-locked sewer does not differ from the
+standard as much as many no doubt suppose."</p>
+
+<p>A comparison of the number of bacteria found in a cubic foot of air
+inside of a theater and in the street air would form a more convincing
+statement, but I have been unable to find published records of any
+such bacteriological tests. Nevertheless, we know that while the
+atmosphere contains some bacteria, the indoor air of crowded assembly
+halls, laden with floating dust, is particularly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> rich in living
+micro-organisms. This has been proved by Tyndall, Miquel, Frankland,
+and other scientists; and in this connection should be mentioned one
+point of much importance, ascertained quite recently, namely, that the
+air of sewers, contrary to expectation, is remarkably free from germs.
+An analysis of the air in the sewers under the Houses of Parliament,
+London, showed that the number of micro-organisms was much less than
+that in the atmosphere outside of the building.</p>
+
+<p>In recent years marked improvements in theater planning and equipment
+have been effected, and corresponding steps in advance have been
+made in matters relating to theater hygiene. It should therefore
+be understood that my remarks are intended to apply to the average
+theater, and in particular to the older buildings of this class. There
+are in large cities a few well-ventilated and hygienically improved
+theaters and opera houses, in which the requirements of sanitation
+are observed. Later on, when speaking more in detail of theater
+ventilation, instances of well-ventilated theaters will be mentioned.
+Nevertheless, the need of urgent and radical measures for comfort and
+health in the majority of theaters is obvious. Much is being done
+in our enlightened age to improve the sanitary condition of school
+buildings, jails and prisons, hospitals and dwelling houses. Why, I
+ask, should not our theaters receive some consideration?</p>
+
+<p>The efficient ventilation of a theater building is conceded to be an
+unusually difficult problem. In order to ventilate a theater properly,
+the causes of noxious odors arising from bad plumbing or defective
+drainage should be removed; outside fumes or vapors must not be
+permitted to enter the building either through doors or windows, or
+through the fresh-air duct of the heating apparatus. The substitution
+of electric lights in place of gas is a great help toward securing
+pure air. This being accomplished, a standard of purity of the air
+should be maintained by proper ventilation. This includes both the
+removal of the vitiated air and the introduction of pure air from
+outdoors and the consequent entire change of the air of a hall three
+or four times per hour. The fresh air brought into the building must
+be ample in volume; it should be free from contamination, dust and
+germs (particularly pathogenic microbes), and with this in view must in
+cities be first purified by filtering, spraying, or washing. It should
+be warmed in cold weather by passing over hot-water or steam-pipe
+stacks, and cooled in warm weather by means of ice or the brine of
+mechanical refrigerating machines. The air should be of a proper degree
+of humidity, and, what is most important of all, it should be admitted
+into the various parts of the theater imperceptibly, so as not to cause
+the sensation of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> draught; in other words, its velocity at the inlets
+must be very slight. The fresh air should enter the audience hall at
+numerous points so well and evenly distributed that the air will be
+equally diffused throughout the entire horizontal cross-section of the
+hall. The air indoors should have as nearly as possible the composition
+of air outdoors, an increase of the CO<sub>2</sub> from 0.3 to 0.6 being the
+permissible limit. The vitiated air should be continuously removed by
+mechanical means, taking care, however, not to remove a larger volume
+of air than is introduced from outdoors.</p>
+
+<p>Regarding the amount of fresh outdoor air to be supplied to keep the
+inside atmosphere at anything like standard purity, authorities differ
+somewhat. The theoretical amount, 3,000 cubic feet per person per hour
+(50 cubic feet per minute), is made a requirement in the Boston theater
+law. In Austria, the law calls for 1,050 cubic feet. The regulations
+of the Prussian Minister of Public Works call for 700 cubic feet,
+Professor von Pettenkofer suggests an air supply per person of from
+1,410 to 1,675 cubic feet per hour (23 to 28 cubic feet per minute),
+General Morin calls for 1,200 to 1,500 cubic feet, and Dr. Billings, an
+American authority, requires 30 cubic feet per minute, or 1,800 cubic
+feet per hour. In the Vienna Opera House, which is described as one of
+the best-ventilated theaters in the world, the air supply is 15 cubic
+feet per person per minute. The Madison Square Theater, in New York, is
+stated to have an air supply of 25 cubic feet per person.</p>
+
+<p>In a moderately large theater, seating twelve hundred persons, the
+total hourly quantity of air to be supplied would, accordingly, amount
+to from 1,440,000 to 2,160,000 cubic feet. It is not an easy matter to
+arrange the fresh-air conduits of a size sufficient to furnish this
+volume of air; it is obviously costly to warm such a large quantity of
+air, and it is a still more difficult problem to introduce it without
+creating objectionable currents of air; and, finally, inasmuch as this
+air can not enter the auditorium unless a like amount of vitiated air
+is removed, the problem includes providing artificial means for the
+removal of large air volumes.</p>
+
+<p>Where gas illumination is used, each gas flame requires an additional
+air supply&mdash;from 140 to 280 cubic feet, according to General Morin.</p>
+
+<p>A slight consideration of the volumes of air which must be moved
+and removed in a theater to secure a complete change of air three
+or four times an hour, demonstrates the impossibility of securing
+satisfactory results by the so-called natural method of ventilation&mdash;i.
+e., the removal of air by means of flues with currents due either to
+the aspirating force of the wind or due to artificially<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> increased
+temperature in the flues. It becomes necessary to adopt mechanical
+means of ventilation by using either exhaust fans or pressure blowers
+or both, these being driven either by steam engines or by electric
+motors. In the older theaters, which were lighted by gas, the heat of
+the flames could be utilized to a certain extent in creating ascending
+currents in outlet shafts, and this accomplished some air renewal. But
+nowadays the central chandelier is almost entirely dispensed with;
+glowing carbon lamps, fed by electric currents, replace the gas flames;
+hence mechanical ventilation seems all the more indicated.</p>
+
+<p>Two principal methods of theater ventilation may be arranged: in one
+the fresh air enters at or near the floor and rises upward to the
+ceiling, to be removed by suitable outlet flues; in this method the
+incoming air follows the naturally existing air currents; in the other
+method pure air enters at the top through perforated cornices or holes
+in the ceiling, and gradually descends, to be removed by outlets
+located at or near the floor line. The two systems are known as the
+"upward" and the "downward" systems; each of them has been successfully
+tried, each offers some advantages, and each has its advocates. In both
+systems separate means for supplying fresh air to the boxes, balconies,
+and galleries are required. Owing to the different opinions held by
+architects and engineers, the two systems have often been made the
+subject of inquiry by scientific and government commissions in France,
+England, Germany, and the United States.</p>
+
+<p>A French scientist, Darcet, was the first to suggest a scientific
+system of theater ventilation. He made use of the heat from the central
+chandelier for removing the foul air, and admitted the air through
+numerous openings in the floor and through inlets in the front of the
+boxes.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Reid, an English specialist in ventilation, is generally regarded
+as the originator of the upward method in ventilation. He applied the
+same with some success to the ventilation of the Houses of Parliament
+in London. Here fresh air is drawn in from high towers, and is
+conducted to the basement, where it is sprayed and moistened. A part
+of the air is warmed by hot-water coils in a sub-basement, while part
+remains cold. The warm and the cold air are mixed in special mixing
+chambers. From here the tempered air goes to a chamber located directly
+under the floor of the auditorium, and passes into the hall at the
+floor level through numerous small holes in the floor. The air enters
+with low velocity, and to prevent unpleasant draughts the floor is
+covered in one hall with hair carpet and in the other with coarse hemp
+matting, both of which are cleaned every day. The removal of the foul<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span>
+air takes place at the ceiling, and is assisted by the heat from the
+gas flames.</p>
+
+<p>The French engineer Péclet, an authority on heating and ventilation,
+suggested a similar system of upward ventilation, but instead of
+allowing the foul air to pass out through the roof, he conducted it
+downward into an underground channel which had exhaust draught. Trélat,
+another French engineer, followed practically the same method.</p>
+
+<p>A large number of theaters are ventilated on the upward system. I will
+mention first the large Vienna Opera House, the ventilation of which
+was planned by Dr. Boehm. The auditorium holds about three thousand
+persons, and a fresh-air supply of about fifteen cubic feet per minute,
+or from nine hundred to one thousand cubic feet per hour, per person
+is provided. The fresh air is taken in from the gardens surrounding
+the theater and is conducted into the cellar, where it passes through
+a water spray, which removes the dust and cools the air in summer.
+A suction fan ten feet in diameter is provided, which blows the air
+through a conduit forty-five square feet in area into a series of three
+chambers located vertically over each other under the auditorium. The
+lowest of these chambers is the cold-air chamber; the middle one is the
+heating chamber and contains steam-heating stacks; the highest chamber
+is the mixing chamber. The air goes partly to the heating and partly
+to the mixing chamber; from this it enters the auditorium at the rate
+of one foot per second velocity through openings in the risers of the
+seats in the parquet, and also through vertical wall channels to the
+boxes and upper galleries. The total area of the fresh-air openings
+is 750 square feet. The foul air ascends, assisted by the heat of the
+central chandelier, and is collected into a large exhaust tube. The
+foul air from the gallery passes out through separate channels. In the
+roof over the auditorium there is a fan which expels the entire foul
+air. Telegraphic thermometers are placed in all parts of the house and
+communicate with the inspection room, where the engineer in charge of
+the ventilation controls and regulates the temperature.</p>
+
+<p>The Vienna Hofburg Theater was ventilated on the same system.</p>
+
+<p>The new Frankfort Opera House has a ventilation system modeled upon
+that of the Vienna Opera House, but with improvements in some details.
+The house has a capacity of two thousand people, and for each person
+fourteen hundred cubic feet of fresh air per hour are supplied. A fan
+about ten feet in diameter and making ninety to one hundred revolutions
+per minute brings in the fresh air from outdoors and drives it into
+chambers under the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> auditorium arranged very much like those at Vienna.
+The total quantity of fresh air supplied per hour is 2,800,000 cubic
+feet. The air enters the auditorium through gratings fixed above the
+floor level in the risers. The foul air is removed by outlets in the
+ceilings, which unite into a large vertical shaft below the cupola.
+An exhaust fan of ten feet diameter is placed in the cupola shaft,
+and is used for summer ventilation only. Every single box and stall
+is ventilated separately. The cost of the entire system was about one
+hundred and twenty-five thousand dollars; it requires a staff of two
+engineers, six assistant engineers, and a number of stokers.</p>
+
+<p>Among well-ventilated American theaters is the Madison Square Theater
+(now Hoyt's), in New York. Here the fresh air is taken down through a
+large vertical shaft on the side of the stage. There is a seven-foot
+suction fan in the basement which drives the air into a number of boxes
+with steam-heating stacks, from which smaller pipes lead to openings
+under each row of seats. The foul air escapes through openings in the
+ceiling and under the galleries. A fresh-air supply of 1,500 cubic feet
+per hour, or 25 cubic feet per minute, per person is provided.</p>
+
+<p>The Metropolitan Opera House is ventilated on the plenum system, and
+has an upward movement of air, the total air supply being 70,000 cubic
+feet per hour.</p>
+
+<p>In the Academy of Music, Baltimore, the fresh air is admitted mainly
+from the stage and the exits of foul air are in the ceiling at the
+auditorium.</p>
+
+<p>Other theaters ventilated by the upward method are the Dresden Royal
+Theater, the Lessing Theater in Berlin, the Opera House in Buda-Pesth,
+the new theater in Prague, the new Municipal Theater at Halle, and the
+Criterion Theatre in London.</p>
+
+<p>The French engineer General Arthur Morin is known as the principal
+advocate of the downward method of ventilation. This was at that
+time a radical departure from existing methods because it apparently
+conflicted with the well-known fact that heated air naturally rises.
+Much the same system was advocated by Dr. Tripier in a pamphlet
+published in 1864.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> The earlier practical applications of this system
+to several French theaters did not prove as much of a success as
+anticipated, the failure being due probably to the gas illumination,
+the central chandelier, and the absence of mechanical means for
+inducing a downward movement of the air.</p>
+
+<p>In 1861 a French commission, of which General Morin was a member,
+proposed the reversing of the currents of air by admitting fresh air
+at both sides of the stage opening high up in the auditorium, and also
+through hollow floor channels for the balconies<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> and boxes; in the
+gallery the openings for fresh air were located in the risers of the
+steppings. The air was exhausted by numerous openings under the seats
+in the parquet. This ventilating system was carried out at the Théâtre
+Lyrique, the Théâtre du Cirque, and the Théâtre de la Gaieté.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Tripier ventilated a theater in 1858 with good success on a similar
+plan, but he introduced the air partly at the rear of the stage and
+partly in the tympanum in the auditorium. He removed the foul air
+at the floor level and separately in the rear of the boxes. He also
+exhausted the foul air from the upper galleries by special flues heated
+by the gas chandelier.</p>
+
+<p>The Grand Amphitheater of the Conservatory of Arts and Industries, in
+Paris, was ventilated by General Morin on the downward system. The
+openings in the ceiling for the admission of fresh air aggregated 120
+square feet, and the air entered with a velocity of only eighteen
+inches per second; the total air supply per hour was 630,000 cubic
+feet. The foul air was exhausted by openings in steps around the
+vertical walls, and the velocity of the outgoing air was about two and
+a half feet per second.</p>
+
+<p>The introduction of the electric light in place of gas gave a fresh
+impetus to the downward method of ventilation, and mechanical means
+also helped to dispel the former difficulties in securing a positive
+downward movement.</p>
+
+<p>The Chicago Auditorium is ventilated on this system, a part of the air
+entering from the rear of the stage, the other from the ceiling of the
+auditorium downward. This plan coincides with the proposition made in
+1846 by Morrill Wyman, though he admits that it can not be considered
+the most desirable method.</p>
+
+<p>A good example of the downward method is given by the New York Music
+Hall, which has a seating capacity of three thousand persons and
+standing room for one thousand more. Fresh air at any temperature
+desired is made to enter through perforations in or near the ceilings,
+the outlets being concealed by the decorations, and passes out through
+exhaust registers near the floor line, under the seats, through
+perforated risers in the terraced steps. About 10,000,000 cubic feet
+of air are supplied per hour, and the velocity of influx and efflux is
+one foot per second. The air supplied per person per hour is figured
+at 2,700 cubic feet, and the entire volume is changed from four and a
+half to five times per hour. The fresh air is taken in at roof level
+through a shaft of seventy square feet area. The air is heated by steam
+coils, and cooled in summer by ice. The mechanical plant comprises four
+blowers and three exhaust fans of six and seven feet in diameter.</p>
+
+<p>The downward method of ventilation was suggested in 1884<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> for the
+improvement of the ventilation of the Senate chamber and the chamber
+of the House of Representatives in the Capitol at Washington, but the
+system was not adopted by the Board of Engineers appointed to inquire
+into the methods.</p>
+
+<p>The downward method is also used in the Hall of the Trocadéro, Paris;
+in the old and also the new buildings for the German Parliament,
+Berlin; in the Chamber of Deputies, Paris; and others.</p>
+
+<p>Professor Fischer, a modern German authority on heating and
+ventilation, in a discussion of the relative advantages of the two
+methods, reaches the conclusion that both are practical and can be
+made to work successfully. For audience halls lighted by gaslights he
+considers the upward method as preferable.</p>
+
+<p>In arranging for the removal of foul air it is necessary, particularly
+in the downward system, to provide separate exhaust flues for the
+galleries and balconies. Unless this is provided for, the exhaled air
+of the occupants of the higher tiers would mingle with the descending
+current of pure air supplied to the occupants of the main auditorium
+floor.</p>
+
+<p>Mention should also be made of a proposition originating in Berlin
+to construct the roof of auditoriums domelike, by dividing it in
+the middle so that it can be partly opened by means of electric or
+hydraulic machinery; such a system would permit of keeping the ceiling
+open in summer time, thereby rendering the theater not only airy,
+but also free from the danger of smoke. A system based on similar
+principles is in actual use at the Madison Square Garden, in New York,
+where part of the roof consists of sliding skylights which in summer
+time can be made to open or close during the performance.</p>
+
+<p>From the point of view of safety in case of fire, which usually in
+a theater breaks out on the stage, it is without doubt best to have
+the air currents travel in a direction from the auditorium toward the
+stage roof. This has been successfully arranged in some of the later
+Vienna theaters, but from the point of view of good acoustics, it
+is better to have the air currents travel from the stage toward the
+auditorium. Obviously, it is a somewhat difficult matter to reconcile
+the conflicting requirements of safety from smoke and fire gases, good
+acoustics and perfect ventilation.</p>
+
+<p>The stage of a theater requires to be well ventilated, for often it
+becomes filled with smoke or gases due to firing of guns, colored
+lights, torches, representations of battles, etc. There should be in
+the roof over the stage large outlet flues, or sliding skylights,
+controlled from the stage for the removal of the smoke. These, in
+case of an outbreak of fire on the stage, become of vital impor<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span>tance
+in preventing the smoke and fire gases from being drawn into the
+auditorium and suffocating the persons in the gallery seats.</p>
+
+<p>Where the stage is lit with gaslights it is important to provide a
+separate downward ventilation for the footlights. This, I believe, was
+first successfully tried at the large Scala Theater, of Milan, Italy.</p>
+
+<p>The actors' and supers' dressing rooms, which are often overcrowded,
+require efficient ventilation, and other parts of the building, like
+the foyers and the toilet, retiring and smoking rooms, must not be
+overlooked.</p>
+
+<p>The entrance halls, vestibules, lobbies, staircases, and corridors
+do not need so much ventilation, but should be kept warm to prevent
+annoying draughts. They are usually heated by abundantly large direct
+steam or hot-water radiators, whereas the auditorium and foyers,
+and often the stage, are heated by indirect radiation. Owing to the
+fact that during a performance the temperature in the auditorium is
+quickly raised by contact of the warm fresh air with the bodies of
+persons (and by the numerous lights, when gas is used), the temperature
+of the incoming air should be only moderate. In the best modern
+theater-heating plants it is usual to gradually reduce the temperature
+of the air as it issues from the mixing chambers toward the end of the
+performance. Both the temperature and the hygrometric conditions of the
+air should be controlled by an efficient staff of intelligent heating
+engineers.</p>
+
+<p>But little need be said regarding theater lighting. Twice during the
+present century have the system and methods been changed. In the early
+part of the present century theaters were still lighted with tallow
+candles or with oil lamps. Next came what was at the time considered
+a wonderful improvement, namely, the introduction of gaslighting.
+The generation who can remember witnessing a theater performance by
+candle or lamp lights, and who experienced the excitement created
+when the first theater was lit up by gas, will soon have passed
+away. Scarcely twenty years ago the electric light was introduced,
+and there are to-day very few theaters which do not make use of this
+improved illuminant. It generates much less heat than gaslight, and
+vastly simplifies the problem of ventilation. The noxious products
+of combustion, incident to all other methods of illumination, are
+eliminated: no carbonic-acid gas is generated to render the air
+of audience halls irrespirable, and no oxygen is drawn to support
+combustion from the air introduced for breathing.</p>
+
+<p>It being now an established fact that the electric light in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span>creases the
+safety of human life in theaters and other places of amusement, its use
+is in many city or building ordinances made imperative&mdash;at least on
+the stage and in the main body of the auditorium. Stairs, corridors,
+entrances, etc., may, as a matter of precaution, be lighted by a
+different system, by means of either gas or auxiliary vegetable oil or
+candle lamps, protected by glass inclosures against smoke or draught,
+and provided with special inlet and outlet flues for air.</p>
+
+<p>Passing to other desirable internal improvements of theaters, I would
+mention first the floors of the auditorium. The covering of the floor
+by carpets is objectionable&mdash;in theaters more so even than in dwelling
+houses. Night after night the carpet comes in contact with thousands
+of feet, which necessarily bring in a good deal of street dirt and
+dust. The latter falls on the carpets and attaches to them, and as
+it is not feasible to take the carpets up except during the summer
+closing, a vast accumulation of dirt and organic matter results, some
+of the dirt falling through the crevices between the floor boards. Many
+theater-goers are not tidy in their habits regarding expectoration, and
+as there must be in every large audience some persons afflicted with
+tuberculosis, the danger is ever present of the germs of the disease
+drying on the carpet, and becoming again detached to float in the air
+which we are obliged to breathe in a theater.</p>
+
+<p>As a remedy I would propose abolishing carpets entirely, and using
+instead a floor covering of linoleum, or thin polished parquetry oak
+floors, varnished floors of hard wood, painted and stained floors,
+interlocked rubber-tile floors, or, at least for the aisles, encaustic
+or mosaic tiling. Between the rows of seats, as well as in the aisles,
+long rugs or mattings may be laid down loose, for these can be taken
+up without much trouble. They should be frequently shaken, beaten, and
+cleaned.</p>
+
+<p>Regarding the walls, ceilings, and cornices, the surfaces should be of
+a material which can be readily cleaned and which is non-absorbent.
+Stucco finish is unobjectionable, but should be kept flat, so as not to
+offer dust-catching projections. Oil painting of walls is preferable
+to a covering with rough wall papers, which hold large quantities
+of dust. The so-called "sanitary" or varnished wall papers have a
+smooth, non-absorbent, easily cleaned surface, and are therefore
+unobjectionable. All heavy decorations, draperies, and hangings in the
+boxes, and plush covers for railings, are to be avoided.</p>
+
+<p>The theater furniture should be of a material which does not catch or
+hold dust. Upholstered plush-covered chairs and seats retain a large
+amount of it, and are not readily cleaned. Leather-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span>covered or other
+sanitary furniture, or rattan seats, would be a great improvement.</p>
+
+<p>In the stage building we often find four or five actors placed in
+one small, overheated, unventilated dressing room, located in the
+basement of the building, without outside windows, and fitted with
+three or four gas jets, for actors require a good light in "making
+up." More attention should be paid to the comfort and health of the
+players, more space and a better location should be given to their
+rooms. Every dressing room should have a window to the outer air, also
+a special ventilating flue. Properly trapped wash basins should be
+fitted up in each room. In the dressing rooms and in the corridors and
+stairs leading from them to the stage all draughts must be avoided,
+as the performers often become overheated from the excitement of the
+acting, and dancers in particular leave the heated stage bathed in
+perspiration. Sanitation, ventilation, and cleanliness are quite as
+necessary for this part of the stage building as for the auditorium and
+foyers.</p>
+
+<p>It will suffice to mention that defects in the drainage and sewerage
+of a theater building must be avoided. The well-known requirements
+of house drainage should be observed in theaters as much as in other
+public buildings.<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p>
+
+<p>The removal of ashes, litter, sweepings, oily waste, and other refuse
+should be attended to with promptness and regularity. It is only by
+constant attention to properly carried out cleaning methods that such
+a building for the public can be kept in a proper sanitary condition.
+Floating air impurities, like dust and dirt, can not be removed or
+rendered innocuous by the most perfect ventilating scheme. Mingled with
+the dust floating in the auditorium or lodging in the stage scenery
+are numbers of bacteria or germs. Among the pathogenic germs will be
+those of tuberculosis, contained in the sputum discharged in coughing
+or expectorating. When this dries on the carpeted floor, the germs
+become readily detached, are inhaled by the playgoers, and thus become
+a prolific source of danger. It is for this reason principally that the
+processes of cleaning, sweeping, and dusting should in a theater be
+under intelligent management.</p>
+
+<p>To guard against the ever-present danger of infection by germs, the
+sanitary floor coverings recommended should be wiped every day with a
+moist rag or cloth. Carpeted floors should be covered with moist tea
+leaves or sawdust before sweeping to prevent the usual dust-raising.
+The common use of the feather duster is to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> be deprecated, for it only
+raises and scatters the dust, but it does not remove it. Dusting of
+the furniture should be done with a dampened dust cloth. The cleaning
+should include the hot-air registers, where a large amount of dust
+collects, which can only be removed by occasionally opening up the
+register faces and wiping out the pipe surfaces; also the baseboards
+and all cornice projections on which dust constantly settles. While
+dusting and sweeping, the windows should be opened; an occasional
+admission of sunlight, where practicable, would likewise be of the
+greatest benefit.</p>
+
+<p>The writer believes that a sanitary inspection of theater buildings
+should be instituted once a year when they are closed up in summer. He
+would also suggest that the granting of the annual license should be
+made dependent not only, as at present, upon the condition of safety
+of the building against fire and panic, but also upon its sanitary
+condition. In connection with the sanitary inspection, a thorough
+disinfection by sulphur, or better with formaldehyde gas, should be
+carried out by the health authorities. If necessary, the disinfection
+of the building should be repeated several times a year, particularly
+during general epidemics of influenza or pneumonia.</p>
+
+<p>Safety measures against outbreaks of fire, dangers from panic,
+accidents, etc., are in a certain sense also sanitary improvements, but
+can not be discussed here.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p>
+
+<p>In order to anticipate captious criticisms, the writer would state
+that in this paper he has not attempted to set forth new theories, nor
+to advocate any special system of theater ventilation. His aim was
+to describe existing defects and to point out well-known remedies.
+The question of efficient theater sanitation belongs quite as much to
+the province of the sanitary engineer as to that of the architect.
+It is one of paramount importance&mdash;certainly more so than the purely
+architectural features of exterior and interior decoration.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>In presenting to the British Association the final report on the
+northwestern tribes of Canada, Professor Tylor observed that, while
+the work of the committee has materially advanced our knowledge of
+the tribes of British Columbia, the field of investigation is by no
+means exhausted. The languages are still known only in outlines. More
+detailed information on physical types may clear up several points
+that have remained obscure, and a fuller knowledge of the ethnology of
+the northern tribes seems desirable. Ethnological evidence has been
+collected bearing upon the history of the development of the area
+under consideration, but no archæological investigations, which would
+help materially in solving these problems, have been carried on.</p></blockquote>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<p class="ph2"><a name="THE_NEW_FIELD_BOTANY" id="THE_NEW_FIELD_BOTANY">THE NEW FIELD BOTANY.</a></p>
+
+<p class="ph4"><span class="smcap">By BYRON D. HALSTED</span>, Sc. D.,</p>
+
+<p class="center">OF RUTGERS COLLEGE.</p>
+
+
+<p>There is something novel every day; were it not so this earth would
+grow monotonous to all, even as it does now to many, and chiefly
+because such do not have the opportunity or the desire to learn some
+new thing. Facts unknown before are constantly coming to the light, and
+principles are being deduced that serve as a stepping stone to other
+and broader fields of knowledge. So accustomed are we to this that
+even a new branch of science may dawn upon the horizon without causing
+a wonder in our minds. In this day of ologies the birth of a new one
+comes without the formal two-line notice in the daily press, just as
+old ones pass from view without tear or epitaph.</p>
+
+<p><i>Phytoecology</i> as a word is not long as scientific terms go, and the
+Greek that lies back of it barely suggests the meaning of the term, a
+fact not at all peculiar to the present instance. Of course, it has to
+do with plants, and is therefore a branch of botany.</p>
+
+<p>In one sense that which it stands for is not new, and, as usual, the
+word has come in the wake of the facts and principles it represents,
+and therefore becomes a convenient term for a branch of knowledge&mdash;a
+handle, so to say&mdash;by which that group of ideas may be held up for
+study and further growth. The word <i>ecology</i> was first employed by
+Haeckel, a leading light in zoölogy in our day, to designate the
+environmental side of animal life.</p>
+
+<p>We will not concern ourselves with definitions, but discuss the field
+that the term is coined to cover, and leave the reader to formulate a
+short concise statement of its meaning.</p>
+
+<p>Within the last year a new botanical guide book for teachers has
+been published, of considerable originality and merit, in which
+the subject-matter is thrown into four groups, and one of these is
+Ecology. Another text-book for secondary schools is now before us in
+which ecology is the heading of one of the three parts into which the
+treatise is divided. The large output of the educational press at the
+present time along the line in hand suggests that the magazine press
+should sound the depths of the new branch of science that is pushing
+its way to the front, or being so pushed by its adherents, and echo the
+merits of it along the line.</p>
+
+<p>Botany in its stages of growth is interesting historically. It
+fascinated for a time one of the greatest minds in the modern school,
+and as a result we have the rich and fruitful history of the science
+as seen through eyes as great as Julius Sachs's, the mas<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span>ter of botany
+during the last half century. From this work it can be gathered that
+early in the centuries since the Christian era botany was little more
+than herborizing&mdash;the collecting of specimens, and learning their gross
+parts, as size of stem and leaf and blossom.</p>
+
+<p>This branch of botany has been cultivated to the present day, and the
+result is the systematist, with all the refinements of species making
+and readjustment of genera and orders with the nicety of detail in
+specific descriptions that only a systematist can fully appreciate.</p>
+
+<p>Later on the study of function was begun, and along with it that of
+structure; for anatomy and physiology, by whatever terms they may be
+known, advance hand in hand, because inseparable. One worker may look
+more to the activities than another who toils with the structural
+relations and finds these problems enough for a lifetime.</p>
+
+<p>This botany of the dissecting table in contrast with that of the
+collector and his dried specimens grew apace, taking new leases of
+life at the uprising of new hypotheses, and long advances with the
+improvement of implements for work. It was natural that the cell and
+all that is made from it should invite the inspector to a field of
+intense interest, somewhat at the expense of the functions of the
+parts. In short, the field was open, the race was on, and it was a
+matter of self-restraint that a man did not enter and strive long and
+well for some anatomical prize. This branch of botany is still alive,
+and never more so than to-day, when cytology offers many attractive
+problems for the cytologist. What with his microtome that cuts his
+imbedded tissue into slices so thin that twenty-five hundred or more
+are needed to measure an inch in thickness, with his fixing solutions
+that kill instantly and hold each particle as if frozen in a cake of
+ice, and his stains and double stains that pick out the specks as the
+magnet draws iron filing from a bin of bran&mdash;with all these and a
+hundred more aids to the refinement of the art there is no wonder that
+the cell becomes a center of attraction, beyond the periphery of which
+the student can scarcely live. In our closing days of the century it
+may be known whether the blephroblasts arise antipodally, and whether
+they are a variation of the centrosomes or should be classed by
+themselves!</p>
+
+<p>One of the general views of phytoecology is that the forms of plants
+are modified to adapt them to the conditions under which they exist.
+Thus the size of a plant is greatly modified by the environment.
+Two grains of corn indistinguishable in themselves and borne by the
+same cob may be so situated that one grows into a stately stalk with
+the ear higher than a horse's head, while the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> other is a dwarf and
+unproductive. Below ground the conditions are many, and all subject
+to infinite variation. Thus, the soil may be deep or shallow, the
+particles small or large, the moisture abundant or scant, and the food
+elements close at hand or far to seek&mdash;all of which will have a marked
+influence upon the root system, its size, and form.</p>
+
+<p>Coming to the aërial portion, there are all the factors of weather and
+climate to work singly or in union to affect the above-ground structure
+of the plant. Temperature varies through wide ranges of heat and
+cold, scorching and freezing; while humidity or aridity, sunshine or
+cloudiness, prevailing winds or sudden tornadoes all have an influence
+in shaping the structure, developing the part, and fashioning the
+details of form of the aërial portions. Phytoecology deals with all
+these, and includes the consideration of that struggle for life that
+plants are constantly waging, for environment determines that the forms
+best suited to a given set of conditions will survive. This struggle
+has been going on since the vegetable life of the earth began, and as
+a result certain prevailing conditions have brought about groups of
+plants found as a rule only where these conditions prevail. As water
+is a leading factor in plant growth, a classification is made upon
+this basis into the plants of the arid regions called xerophytes. The
+opposite to desert vegetation is that of the fresh ponds and lakes,
+called hydrophytes. A third group, the halophytes, includes the
+vegetation of sea or land where there is an excess of various saline
+substances, the common salt being the leading one. The last group is
+the mesophytes, which include plants growing in conditions without the
+extremes accorded to the other three groups.</p>
+
+<p>This somewhat general classification of the conditions of the
+environment lends much of interest to that form of field botany now
+under consideration. As the grouping is made chiefly upon the aqueous
+conditions, it is fair to assume that plants are especially modified
+to accommodate themselves to this compound. Plants, for example,
+unless they are aquatics, need to use large quantities of water to
+carry on the vital functions. Thus the salts from the soil need to
+rise dissolved in the crude sap to the leaves, and in order that a
+sufficient current be kept up there is transpiration going on from
+all thin or soft exposed parts. The leaves are the chief organs where
+aqueous vapor is being given off, sometimes to the extent of tons of
+water upon an acre of area in a single day. This evaporation being
+largely surface action, it is possible for the plant to check this by
+reducing the surface, and the leaf is coiled or folded. Other plants
+have through the ages become adapted to the destructive actions of
+drought and a dry, hot atmosphere, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> have only needle-shaped leaves
+or even no true ones at all, as many of the cacti in the desert lands
+of the Western plains.</p>
+
+<p>Again, the surface of the plant may become covered with a felt of fine
+hairs to prevent rapid evaporation, while other plants with ordinary
+foliage have the acquired power of moving the leaves so that they will
+expose their surfaces broadside to the sun, or contrariwise the edges
+only, as heat and light intensity determine.</p>
+
+<p>Phytoecology deals with all those adaptations of structure, and from
+which permit the plants to take advantage of the habits and wants of
+animals. If we are studying the vegetation of a bog, and note the
+adaptation of the hydrophytic plants, the chances are that attention
+will soon be called to colorations and structures that indicate a more
+complete and far-reaching adjustment than simply to the conditions of
+the wet, spongy bog. A plant may be met with having the leaves in the
+form of flasks or pitchers, and more or less filled with water. These
+strange leaves are conspicuously purplish, and this adds to their
+attractiveness. The upper portion may be variegated, resembling a
+flower and for the same purpose&mdash;namely, to attract insects that find
+within the pitchers a food which is sought at the risk of life. Many
+of the entrapped creatures never escape, and yield up their life for
+the support of that of the captor. Again, the mossy bog may glisten
+in the sun, and thousands of sundew plants with their pink leaves are
+growing upon the surface. Each leaf is covered with adhesive stalked
+glands, and insects lured to and caught by them are devoured by this
+insectivorous vegetation.</p>
+
+<p>In the pools in the same lowland there may be an abundance of the
+bladderwort, a floating plant with flowers upon long stalks that raise
+them into the air and sunshine. With the leaves reduced to a mere
+framework that bears innumerable bladders, water animals of small
+size are captured in vast numbers and provide a large part of the
+nourishment required by the highly specialized hydrophyte.</p>
+
+<p>These are but everyday instances of adaptation between plants and
+animals for the purpose of nutrition, the adjustment of form being
+more particularly upon the vegetative side. Zoölogists may be able to
+show, however, that certain species of animals are adapted to and quite
+dependent upon the carnivorous plants.</p>
+
+<p>An ecological problem has been worked out along the above line to a
+larger extent than generally supposed. If we should take the case of
+ants only in their relation to structural adaptations for them in
+plants, it would be seen that fully three thousand species of the
+latter make use of ants for purposes of protection. The large fighting
+ants of the tropics, when provided with nectar, food,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> and shelter,
+will inhabit plants to the partial exclusion of destructive insects
+and larger foraging animals. Interesting as all this is, it is not the
+time and place to go into the details of how the ant-fostering plants
+have their nectar glands upon stems or leaf, rich soft hairs in tufts
+for food, and homes provided in hollows and chambers. There is still a
+more intimate association of termites with some of the toadstool-like
+plants, where the ants foster the fungi and seem to understand some of
+the essentials of veritable gardening in miniature form.</p>
+
+<p>The most familiar branch of phytoecology, as it concerns adaptations
+for insect visitations, is that which relates to the production of
+seed. Floral structures, so wonderfully varied in form and color and
+withal attractive to every lover of the beautiful, are familiar to all,
+and it only needs to be said in passing that these infinite forms are
+for the same end&mdash;namely, the union of the seed germs, if they may be
+so styled, of different and often widely separated blossoms.</p>
+
+<p>Sweetness and beauty are not the invariable rule with insect-visited
+blossoms, for in the long ages that have elapsed during which these
+adaptations have come about some plants have established an unwritten
+agreement between beetles and bugs with unsavory tastes. Thus there are
+the "carrion flowers," so called because of their fetid odor, designed
+for the sense organs of carrion insects. The "stink-horn" fungi have
+their offensive spores distributed by a similar set of carrion carriers.</p>
+
+<p>Water and wind claim a share of the species, but here adaptation to
+the method of fertilization is as fully realized as when insects
+participate, and the uselessness of showy petals and fantastic forms is
+emphasized by their absence.</p>
+
+<p>Coming now to the fruits of plants, it is again seen that plants have
+adapted their offspring, the seed, to the surrounding conditions,
+not forgetting the wind, the waves, and the tastes and the exterior
+of passing animals. The breezes carry up and hurl along the light
+wing-possessed seeds, and the river and ocean bear these and many
+others onward to a distant land, while by grappling hooks many kinds
+cling to the hair of animals, or, provided with a pleasing pulp, are
+carried willingly by birds and other creatures. In short, the devices
+for seed dispersion are multitudinous, and they provide a large chapter
+in that branch of botany now styled phytoecology.</p>
+
+<p>How different is the old field botany from the new! Then there was the
+collector of plants and classifier of his finds, and an arranger of all
+he could get by exchange or otherwise. His success was measured by the
+size of his herbarium and his stock in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> trade as so many duplicates
+all taken in bloom, but the time of year, locality, and the various
+conditions of growth were all unknown.</p>
+
+<p>His implements for work were, first, a can or basket, a plant press,
+and a manual; and, secondly, a lot of paper, a paste pot, and some way
+of holding the mounts in packets or pigeonholes.</p>
+
+<p>The eyes grew keen as the hunter scoured the forest and field for some
+kind of plant he had not already possessed. There was a keen relish in
+discoveries, and it heightened into ecstasy when the specimen needed
+to be sent away for a name and was returned with his own Latinized and
+appended to that of the genus.</p>
+
+<p>This was all well and good so far as it went, but looked at from the
+present vantage ground there was not so much in it. However, his was an
+essential step to other things, as much so as that of the census taker.</p>
+
+<p>We need to know the species of plants our fair land possesses, and have
+them described and named. But when the nine hundred and ninety-nine
+are known, it is a waste of time to be continually hunting for the
+thousandth. Look for it, but let it be secondary to that of an actual
+study of the great majority already known. The older botany was a study
+of the dried plants in all those details that are laid down in the
+manuals. It lacked something of the true vitality that is inherent in a
+biological science, for often the life had gone out before the subject
+came up for study. To the phytoecologist it was somewhat as the shell
+without the meat, or the bird's nest of a previous year.</p>
+
+<p>Since those days of our forefathers there has come the minute anatomy
+of plants, followed closely by physiology; and now with the working
+knowledge of these two modern branches of botany the student has
+again taken to the field. He is making the wood-lot his laboratory,
+and the garden, so to say, his lecture room. He has a fair knowledge
+of systematic botany, but finds himself rearranging the families
+and genera to fit the facts determined by his ecological study. If
+two species of the same genus are widely separated in habitat, he
+is determining the factors that led to the separation. Why did one
+smart weed become a climber, another an upright herb, and a third a
+prostrate creeper, are questions that may not have entered the mind of
+the plant collector; but now the phytoecologist finds much interest in
+considering questions of this type. What are the differences between
+a species inhabiting the water and another of the same genus upon dry
+land, or what has led one group of the morning-glory family to become
+parasites and exist as the dodders upon other living plants?</p>
+
+<p>The older botanist held his subject under the best mental illumination
+of his time, but his physical light, that of a pine knot<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> or a tallow
+dip, also contrasts strongly with that of the present gas jet and
+electric arc.</p>
+
+<p>The wonder should be that he saw so well, and all who follow him can
+not but feel grateful for the path he blazed through the dense forests
+of ignorance and the bridges he made over the streams of doubt in
+specific distinctions. It was a noble work, but it is nearly past in
+the older parts of our country; and while some of that school should
+linger to readjust their genera, make new combinations of species,
+and attempt to satisfy the claims of priority, the rank and file will
+largely leave systematic botany and the herborizing it embraces, and
+betake themselves to the open fields of phytoecology. It may be along
+the line of structural adaptations when we will have morphological
+phytoecology, or the adjustment of function to the environment when
+there will be physiological phytoecology. These two branches when
+combined to elucidate problems of relationship between the plant and
+its surroundings as involved in accommodation in its comprehensive
+sense there will be phytoecology with climate, geology, geography, or
+fossils as the leading feature, as the case may be.</p>
+
+<p>In the older botany the plant alone in itself was the subject of study.
+The newer botany takes the plant in its surroundings and all that its
+relationships to other plants may suggest as the subject for analysis.
+In the one case the plant was all and its place of growth accidental,
+a dried specimen from any unknown habitat was enough; but now the
+environment and the numerous lines of relationship that reach out from
+the living plant <i>in situ</i> are the major subjects for study. The former
+was field botany because the field contained the plant, the latter is
+field botany in that the plant embraces in its study all else in the
+field in which it lives. The one had as its leading question, What is
+your name and where do you belong in my herbarium? while the other
+raises an endless list of queries, of which How came you here and when?
+Why these curious glands and this strange movement or mimicry? are but
+average samples. Every spot of color, bend of leaf, and shape of fruit
+raises a question.</p>
+
+<p>The collector of fifty years ago pulled up or cut off a portion of
+his plant for a specimen, and rarely measured, weighed, and counted
+anything about it. The phytoecologist to-day watches his subject as
+it grows, and if removed it is for the purpose of testing its vital
+functions under varying circumstances of moisture, heat, or sunlight,
+and exact recording instruments are a part of the equipment for the
+investigation.</p>
+
+<p>The underlying thought in the seashore school and the tropical
+laboratory in botany is this of getting nearer to the haunts of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span>
+living plant. Forestry schools that have for their class room the
+wooded mountains and the botanical gardens with their living herbaria
+are welcome steps toward the same end of phytoecology.</p>
+
+<p>In view of the above facts, and many more that might be mentioned did
+space permit, the writer has felt that the present incomplete and
+faulty presentation of the subject of the newer botany should be placed
+before the great reading public through the medium of a journal that
+has as its watchword Progress in Education.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p class="ph2"><a name="DO_ANIMALS_REASON" id="DO_ANIMALS_REASON">DO ANIMALS REASON?</a></p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">By the Rev. EGERTON R. YOUNG.</span></p>
+
+
+<p>This interesting subject has been ably handled from the negative side
+by Edward Thorndike, Ph. D., in the August number of the Popular
+Science Monthly. Dr. Thorndike, with all his skill in treating this
+very interesting subject, seems to have forgotten one very important
+point. His expectation has not only been higher than any fair claim of
+an animal's reasoning power, but he has overlooked the fact that there
+are different ways of reasoning. Men of different races and those of
+little intelligence can be placed in new environments and be asked to
+perform things which, while utterly impossible to them, are simple and
+crude to those of higher intelligence and who have all their days been
+accustomed to high mental exercise. If such difference exists between
+the highest and most intelligent of the human race and the degraded
+and uncultured, vastly greater is the gulf that separates the lowest
+stratum of humanity from the most intelligent of the brute creation.
+The fair way to test the intelligence of the so-called lower orders
+of men is to go to their native lands and study them in their own
+environments and in possession of the equipments of life to which they
+have been accustomed. The same is true of the brute creation. Only
+the highest results can be expected from congenial environments. To
+pass final judgment upon the animal kingdom, having for data only the
+results of the doctor's experiments, seems to us manifestly unfair.
+He takes a few cats and dogs and submits them to environments which
+are altogether foreign to them, and then expects feats of mind from
+them which would be far greater than the mastering of the reason why
+two and two make four is to the stupidest child of man. As the doctor
+has been permitted to tell the results of his experiments, may I claim
+a similar privilege? While I did not use dogs merely to test their
+intelligence&mdash;my business demanding of myself and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> them the fullest use
+of all our energies and all the intelligence, be it more or less, that
+was possessed by man or beast&mdash;I had the privilege of seeing in my dogs
+actions that were, at least to me, convincing that they possessed the
+rudiments of reasoning powers, and, in the more intelligent, that which
+will be utterly inexplicable if it is not the product of reasoning
+faculties.</p>
+
+<p>For a number of years I was a resident missionary in the Hudson Bay
+Territories, where, in the prosecution of my work, I kept a large
+number of dogs of various breeds. With these dogs I traveled several
+thousands of miles every winter over an area larger than the State of
+New York. In summer I used them to plow my garden and fields. They
+dragged home our fish from the distant fisheries, and the wood from the
+forests for our numerous fires. They cuddled around me on the edges of
+my heavy fur robes in wintry camps, where we often slept out in a hole
+dug in the snow, the temperature ranging from 30° to 60° below zero.
+When blizzard storms raged so terribly that even the most experienced
+Indian guides were bewildered, and knew not north from south or east
+from west, our sole reliance was on our dogs, and with an intelligence
+and an endurance that ever won our admiration they succeeded in
+bringing us to our desired destination.</p>
+
+<p>It is conceded at the outset that these dogs of whom I write were the
+result of careful selection. There are dogs and dogs, as there are
+men and men. They were not picked up in the street at random. I would
+no more keep in my personal service a mere average mongrel dog than I
+would the second time hire for one of my long trips a sulky Indian. As
+there are some people, good in many ways, who can not master a foreign
+tongue, so there are many dogs that never rise above the one gift of
+animal instinct. With such I too have struggled, and long and patiently
+labored, and if of them only I were writing I would unhesitatingly say
+that of them I never saw any act which ever seemed to show reasoning
+powers. But there are other dogs than these, and of them I here would
+write and give my reason why I firmly believe that in a marked degree
+some of them possessed the powers of reasoning.</p>
+
+<p>Two of my favorite dogs I called Jack and Cuffy. Jack was a great black
+St. Bernard, weighing nearly two hundred pounds. Cuffy was a pure
+Newfoundland, with very black curly hair. These two dogs were the gift
+of the late Senator Sanford. With other fine dogs of the same breeds,
+they soon supplanted the Eskimo and mongrels that had been previously
+used for years about the place.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 504px;">
+<img src="images/illo_111.jpg" width="504" height="650" alt="Jack and his Master" />
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Jack and his Master.</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>I had so much work to do in my very extensive field that I required to
+have at least four trains always fit for service. This<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> meant that,
+counting puppies and all, there would be about the premises from twenty
+to thirty dogs. However, as the lakes and rivers there swarmed with
+fish, which was their only food, we kept the pack up to a state of
+efficiency at but little expense. Jack and Cuffy were the only two dogs
+that were allowed the full liberty of the house. They were welcome in
+every room. Our doors were furnished with the ordinary thumb latches.
+These latches at first bothered both dogs. All that was needed on our
+part was to show them how they worked, and from that day on for years
+they both entered the rooms as they desired without any trouble,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span> if
+the doors opened from them. There was a decided difference, however,
+in opening a door if it opened toward them. Cuffy was never able to
+do it. With Jack it was about as easily done as it was by the Indian
+servant girl. Quickly and deftly would he shove up the exposed latch
+and the curved part of the thumb piece and draw it toward him. If the
+door did not easily open, the claws in the other fore paw speedily
+and cleverly did the work. The favorite resting place of these two
+magnificent dogs was on some fur rugs on my study floor. Several times
+have we witnessed the following action in Cuffy, who was of a much more
+restless temperament than Jack: When she wanted to leave the study she
+would invariably first go to the door and try it. If it were in the
+slightest degree ajar she could easily draw it toward her and thus
+open it. If, on the contrary, it were latched, she would at once march
+over to Jack, and, taking him by an ear with her teeth, would lead him
+over to the door, which he at once opened for her. If reason is that
+power by which we "are enabled to combine means for the attainment of
+particular ends," I fail to understand the meaning of words if it were
+not displayed in these instances.</p>
+
+<p>Both Jack and Cuffy were, as is characteristic of such dogs, very fond
+of the water, and in our short, brilliant summers would frequently
+disport themselves in the beautiful little lake, the shores of which
+were close to our home. Cuffy, as a Newfoundland dog, generally
+preferred to continue her sports in the waves some time after Jack had
+finished his bath. As they were inseparable companions, Jack was too
+loyal to retire to the house until Cuffy was ready to accompany him.
+As she was sometimes whimsical and dilatory, she seemed frequently to
+try his patience. It was, however, always interesting to observe his
+deference to her. To understand thoroughly what we are going to relate
+in proof of our argument it is necessary to state that the rocky shore
+in front of our home was at this particular place like a wedge, the
+thickest part in front, rising up about a dozen feet or so abruptly
+from the water. Then to the east the shore gradually sloped down into
+a little sandy cove. When Jack had finished his bath he always swam
+to this sandy beach, and at once, as he shook his great body, came
+gamboling along the rocks, joyously barking to his companion still in
+the waters. When Cuffy had finished her watery sports, if Jack were
+still on the rocks, instead of swimming to the sandy cove and there
+landing she would start directly for the place where Jack was awaiting
+her. If it were at a spot where she could not alone struggle up, Jack,
+firmly bracing himself, would reach down to her and then, catching hold
+of the back of her neck, would help her<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> up the slippery rocks. If it
+were at a spot where he could not possibly reach her, he would, after
+several attempts, all the time furiously barking as though expressing
+his anxiety and solicitude, rush off to a spot where some old oars,
+paddles, and sticks of various kinds were piled. There he searched
+until he secured one that suited his purpose. With this in his mouth,
+he hurried back to the spot where Cuffy was still in the water at the
+base of the steep rocks. Here he would work the stick around until he
+was able to let one end down within reach of his exacting companion in
+the water. Seizing it in her teeth and with the powerful Jack pulling
+at the other end she was soon able to work her way up the rough but
+almost perpendicular rocks. This prompt action, often repeated on
+the part of Jack, looked very much like "the specious appearance of
+reasoning." It was a remarkable coincidence that if Jack were called
+away, Cuffy at once swam to the sandy beach and there came ashore.</p>
+
+<p>Jack never had any special love for the Indians, although we were then
+living among them. He was, however, too well instructed ever to injure
+or even growl at any of them. The changing of Indian servant girls in
+the kitchen was always a matter of perplexity to him. He was suspicious
+of these strange Indians coming in and so familiarly handling the
+various utensils of their work. Not daring to injure them, it was
+amusing to watch him in his various schemes to tease them. If one of
+them seemed especially anxious to keep the doors shut, Jack took the
+greatest delight in frequently opening them. This he took care only
+to do when no member of the family was around. These tricks he would
+continue to do until formal complaints were lodged against him. One
+good scolding was sufficient to deter him from thus teasing that girl,
+but he would soon begin to try it with others.</p>
+
+<p>One summer we had a fat, good-natured servant girl whom we called
+Mary. Soon after she was installed in her place Jack began, as usual,
+to try to annoy her, but found it to be a more difficult job than it
+had been with some of her predecessors. She treated him with complete
+indifference, and was not in the least afraid of him, big as he was.
+This seemed to very much humiliate him, as most of the other girls had
+so stood in awe of the gigantic fellow that they had about given way to
+him in everything. Mary, however, did nothing of the kind. She would
+shout, "Get out of my way!" as quickly to "his mightiness" as she would
+to the smallest dog on the place. This very much offended Jack, but he
+had been so well trained, even regarding the servants, that he dare not
+retaliate even with a growl. Mary, however, had one weakness, and after
+a time Jack found it out. Her mistress observing that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> this girl, who
+had been transferred from a floorless wigwam into a civilized kitchen,
+was at first careless about keeping the floor as clean as it should be,
+had, by the promise of some desired gift in addition to her wages, so
+fired her zeal that it seemed as though every hour that could be saved
+from her other necessary duties was spent in scrubbing that kitchen
+floor. Mary was never difficult to find, as was often the case with
+other Indian girls; if missed from other duties, she was always found
+scrubbing her kitchen.</p>
+
+<p>In some way or other&mdash;how we do not profess to know&mdash;Jack discovered
+this, which had become to us a source of amusement, and here he
+succeeded in annoying her, where in many other ways which he had tried
+he had only been humiliated and disgraced. He would, when the floor
+had just been scrubbed, march in and walk over it with his feet made
+as dirty as tramping in the worst places outside could make them. At
+other times he would plunge into the lake, and instead of, as usual,
+thoroughly shaking himself dry on the rocks, would wait until he had
+marched in upon Mary's spotless floor. At other times, when Jack
+noticed that Mary was about to begin scrubbing her floor he would
+deliberately stretch himself out in a prominent place on it, and
+doggedly resist, yet without any growling or biting, any attempt on her
+part to get him to move. In vain would she coax or scold or threaten.
+Once or twice, by some clever stratagem, such as pretending to feed
+the other dogs outside or getting them excited and furiously barking,
+as though a bear or some other animal were being attacked, did she
+succeed in getting him out. But soon he found her out, and then he paid
+not the slightest attention to any of these things. Once when she had
+him outside she securely fastened the door to keep him out until her
+scrubbing would be done. Furiously did Jack rattle at the latch, but
+the door was otherwise so secured that he could not open it. Getting
+discouraged in his efforts to open the door in the usual way, he went
+to the woodpile and seizing a large billet in his mouth he came and so
+pounded the door with it that Mary, seeing that there was great danger
+of the panel being broken in, was obliged to open the door and let in
+the dog. Jack proudly marched in to the kitchen with the stick of wood
+in his mouth. This he carried to the wood box, and, when he had placed
+it there, he coolly stretched himself out on the floor where he would
+be the biggest nuisance.</p>
+
+<p>Seeing Jack under such circumstances on her kitchen floor, poor Mary
+could stand it no longer, and so she came marching in to my study, and
+in vigorous picturesque language in her native Cree described Jack's
+various tricks and schemes to annoy her and thus hinder her in her
+work. She ended up by the declaration<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span> that she was sure the <i>meechee
+munedoo</i> (the devil) was in that dog. While not fully accepting the
+last statement, we felt that the time had come to interfere, and
+that Jack must be reproved and stopped. In doing this we utilized
+Jack's love for our little ones, especially for Eddie, the little
+four-year-old boy. His obedience as well as loyalty to that child was
+marvelous and beautiful. The slightest wish of the lad was law to Jack.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as Mary had finished her emphatic complaints, I turned to
+Eddie, who with his little sister had been busily playing with some
+blocks on the floor, and said:</p>
+
+<p>"Eddie, go and tell that naughty Jack that he must stop teasing Mary.
+Tell him his place is not in the kitchen, and that he must keep out of
+it."</p>
+
+<p>Eddie had listened to Mary's story, and, although he generally sturdily
+defended Jack's various actions, yet here he saw that the dog was in
+the wrong, and so he gallantly came to her rescue. Away with Mary he
+went, while the rest of us, now much interested, followed in the rear
+to see how the thing would turn out. As Eddie and Mary passed through
+the dining room we remained in that room, while they went on into the
+adjoining kitchen, leaving the door open, so that it was possible for
+us to distinctly hear every word that was uttered. Eddie at once strode
+up to the spot where Jack was stretched upon the floor. Seizing him by
+one of his ears, and addressing him as with the authority of a despot,
+the little lad said:</p>
+
+<p>"I am ashamed of you, Jack. You naughty dog, teasing Mary like this!
+So you won't let her wash her kitchen. Get up and come with me, you
+naughty dog!" saying which the child tugged away at the ear of the dog.
+Jack promptly obeyed, and as they came marching through the dining room
+on their way to the study it was indeed wonderful to see that little
+child, whose beautiful curly head was not much higher than that of the
+great, powerful dog, yet so completely the master. Jack was led into
+the study and over to the great wolf-robe mat where he generally slept.
+As he promptly obeyed the child's command to lie down upon it, he
+received from him his final orders:</p>
+
+<p>"Now, Jack, you keep out of the kitchen"; and to a remarkable degree
+from that time on that order was obeyed.</p>
+
+<p>We have referred to the fact that Jack placed the billet of wood in the
+wood box when it had served his purpose in compelling Mary to open the
+door. Carrying in wood was one of his accomplishments. Living in that
+cold land, where we depended entirely on wood for our fuel, we required
+a large quantity of it. It was cut in the forests, sometimes several
+miles from the house. Dur<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span>ing the winters it was dragged home by the
+dogs. Here it was cut into the proper lengths for the stoves and piled
+up in the yard. When required, it was carried into the kitchen and
+piled up in a large wood box. This work was generally done by Indian
+men. When none were at hand the Indian girls had to do the work, but
+it was far from being enjoyed by them, especially in the bitter cold
+weather. It was suggested one day that Jack could be utilized for this
+work. With but little instruction and trouble he was induced to accept
+of the situation, and so after that the cry, "Jack, the wood box is
+empty!" would set him industriously to work at refilling it.</p>
+
+<p>To us, among many other instances of dog reasoning that came under
+our notice as the years rolled on, was one on the part of a large,
+powerful dog we called Cæsar. It occurred in the spring of the year,
+when the snow had melted on the land, and so, with the first rains, was
+swelling the rivers and creeks very considerably. On the lake before us
+the ice was still a great solid mass, several feet in thickness. Near
+our home was a now rapid stream that, rushing down into the lake, had
+cut a delta of open water in the ice at its mouth. In this open place
+Papanekis, one of my Indians, had placed a gill net for the purpose of
+catching fish. Living, as he did, all winter principally upon the fish
+caught the previous October or November and kept frozen for several
+months hung up in the open air, we were naturally pleased to get the
+fresh ones out of the water in the spring. Papanekis had so arranged
+his net, by fastening a couple of ropes about sixty feet long, one at
+each end, that when it was securely fastened at each side of the stream
+it was carried out into this open deltalike space by the force of the
+current, and there hung like the capital letter U. Its upper side was
+kept in position by light-wooded floats, while medium-sized stones, as
+sinkers, steadied it below.</p>
+
+<p>Every morning Papanekis would take a basket and, being followed by
+all the dogs of the kennels, would visit his net. Placed as we have
+described, he required no canoe or boat in order to overhaul it and
+take from it the fish there caught. All he had to do was to seize hold
+of the rope at the end fastened on the shore and draw it toward him. As
+he kept pulling it in, the deep bend in it gradually straightened out
+until the net was reached. His work was now to secure the fish as he
+gradually drew in the net and coiled it at his feet. The width of the
+opening in the water being about sixty feet, the result was that when
+he had in this way overhauled his net he had about reached the end of
+the rope attached to the other side. When all the fish in the net were
+secured, all Papanekis had to do to reset the net was to throw some
+of it out<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> in the right position in the stream. Here the force of the
+running waters acting upon it soon carried the whole net down into the
+open place as far as the two ropes fastened on the shores would admit.
+Papanekis, after placing the best fish in his basket for consumption
+in the mission house and for his own family, divided what was left
+among the eager dogs that had accompanied him. This work went on for
+several days, and the supply of fish continued to increase, much to our
+satisfaction.</p>
+
+<p>One day Papanekis came into my study in a state of great perturbation.
+He was generally such a quiet, stoical sort of an Indian that I was at
+once attracted by his mental disquietude. On asking the reason why he
+was so troubled, he at once blurted out, "Master, there is some strange
+animal visiting our net!"</p>
+
+<p>In answer to my request for particulars, he replied that for some
+mornings past when he went to visit it he found, entangled in the
+meshes, several heads of whitefish. Yet the net was always in its right
+position in the water. On my suggesting that perhaps otters, fishers,
+minks, or other fish-eating animals might have done the work, he most
+emphatically declared that he knew the habits of all these and all
+other animals living on fish, and it was utterly impossible for any of
+them to have thus done this work. The mystery continuing for several
+following mornings, Papanekis became frightened and asked me to get
+some other fisherman in his place, as he was afraid longer to visit the
+net. He had talked the matter over with some other Indians, and they
+had come to the conclusion that either a <i>windegoo</i> was at the bottom
+of it or the <i>meechee munedoo</i> (the devil). I laughed at his fears,
+and told him I would help him to try and find out who or what it was
+that was giving us this trouble. I went with him to the place, where we
+carefully examined both sides of the stream for evidences of the clever
+thief. There was nothing suspicious, and the only tracks visible were
+those of his own and of the many dogs that followed him to be fed each
+morning. About two or three hundred yards north of the spot where he
+overhauled the net there rose a small abrupt hill, densely covered with
+spruce and balsam trees. On visiting it we found that a person there
+securely hid from observation could with care easily overlook the whole
+locality.</p>
+
+<p>At my suggestion, Papanekis with his axe there arranged a sort of a
+nest or lookout spot. Orders were then given that he and another Indian
+man should, before daybreak on the next morning, make a long detour
+and cautiously reach that spot from the rear, and there carefully
+conceal themselves. This they succeeded in doing, and there, in perfect
+stillness, they waited for the morning. As soon as it was possible to
+see anything they were on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span> the alert. For some time they watched in
+vain. They eagerly scanned every point of vision, and for a time could
+observe nothing unusual.</p>
+
+<p>"Hush!" said one; "see that dog!"</p>
+
+<p>It was Cæsar, cautiously skulking along the trail. He would frequently
+stop and sniff the air. Fortunately for the Indian watchers, the wind
+was blowing toward them, and so the dog did not catch their scent. On
+he came, in a quiet yet swift gait, until he reached the spot where
+Papanekis stood when he pulled in the net. He gave one searching glance
+in every direction, and then he set to work. Seizing the rope in his
+teeth, Cæsar strongly pulled upon it, while he rapidly backed up some
+distance on the trail. Then, walking on the rope to the water's edge as
+it lay on the ground, to keep the pressure of the current from dragging
+it in, he again took a fresh grip upon it and repeated the process.
+This he did until the sixty feet of rope were hauled in, and the end
+of the net was reached to which it was attached. The net he now hauled
+in little by little, keeping his feet firmly on it to securely hold
+it down. As he drew it up, several varieties of inferior fish, such
+as suckers or mullets, pike or jackfish, were at first observed. To
+them Cæsar paid no attention. He was after the delicious whitefish,
+which dogs as well as human beings prefer to those of other kinds.
+When he had perhaps hauled twenty feet of the net, his cleverness was
+rewarded by the sight of a fine whitefish. Still holding the net with
+its struggling captives securely down with his feet, he began to devour
+this whitefish, which was so much more dainty than the coarser fish
+generally thrown to him. Papanekis and his comrade had seen enough. The
+mysterious culprit was detected in the act, and so with a "Whoop!" they
+rushed down upon him. Caught in the very act, Cæsar had to submit to a
+thrashing that ever after deterred him from again trying that cunning
+trick.</p>
+
+<p>Who can read this story, which I give exactly as it occurred, without
+having to admit that here Cæsar "combined means for the attainment of
+particular ends"? On the previous visits which he made to the net the
+rapid current of the stream, working against the greater part of it
+in the water, soon carried it back again into its place ere Papanekis
+arrived later in the morning. The result was that Cæsar's cleverness
+was undetected for some time, even by these most observant Indians.</p>
+
+<p>Many other equally clever instances convince me, and those who with
+me witnessed them, of the possession, in of course a limited degree,
+of reasoning powers. Scores of my dogs never seemed to reveal them,
+perhaps because no special opportunities were presented for their
+exhibition. They were just ordinary dogs, trained<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span> to the work of
+hauling their loads. When night came, if their feet were sore they
+had dog sense enough to come to their master and, throwing themselves
+on their backs, would stick up their feet and whine and howl until
+the warm duffle shoes were put on. Some of the skulking ones had wit
+enough, when they did not want to be caught, in the gloom of the early
+morning, while the stars were still shining, if they were white, to
+cuddle down, still and quiet, in the beautiful snow; while the darker
+ones would slink away into the gloom of the dense balsams, where they
+seemed to know that it would be difficult for them to be seen. Some of
+them had wit enough when traveling up steep places with heavy loads,
+where their progress was slow, to seize hold of small firm bushes in
+their teeth to help them up or to keep them from slipping back. Some
+of them knew how to shirk their work. Cæsar, of whom we have already
+spoken, at times was one of this class. They could pretend, by their
+panting and tugging at their collars, that they were dragging more
+than any other dogs in the train, while at the same time they were not
+pulling a pound!</p>
+
+<p>Of cats I do not write. I am no lover of them, and therefore am
+incompetent to write about them. This lack of love for them is, I
+presume, from the fact that when a boy I was the proud owner of some
+very beautiful rabbits, upon which the cats of the neighborhood used to
+make disastrous raids. So great was my boyish indignation then that the
+dislike to them created has in a measure continued to this day, and I
+have not as yet begun to cultivate their intimate acquaintance.</p>
+
+<p>But of dogs I have ever been a lover and a friend. I never saw one, not
+mad, of which I was afraid, and I never saw one with which I could not
+speedily make friends. Love was the constraining motive principally
+used in breaking my dogs in to their work in the trains. No whip was
+ever used upon Jack or Cuffy while they were learning their tasks.
+Some dogs had to be punished more or less. Some stubborn dogs at once
+surrendered and gave no more trouble when a favorite female dog was
+harnessed up in a train and sent on ahead. This affection in the dog
+for his mate was a powerful lever in the hands of his master, and,
+using it as an incentive, we have seen things performed as remarkable
+as any we have here recorded.</p>
+
+<p>From what I have written it will be seen that I have had unusual
+facilities for studying the habits and possibilities of dogs. I was
+not under the necessity of gathering up a lot of mongrels at random
+in the streets, and then, in order to see instances of their sagacity
+and the exercise of their highest reasoning powers, to keep them until
+they were "practically utterly hungry," and then<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> imprison them in a
+box a good deal less than four feet square, and then say to them, "Now,
+you poor, frightened, half-starved creatures, show us what reasoning
+powers you possess." About as well throw some benighted Africans into
+a slave ship and order them to make a telephone or a phonograph! My
+comparison is not too strong, considering the immense distance there is
+between the human race and the brute creation. And so it must be, in
+the bringing to light of the powers of memory and the clear exhibition
+of the reasoning powers, few though they be, that the tests are not
+conclusive unless made under the most favorable environment, upon dogs
+of the highest intelligence, and in the most congenial and sympathetic
+manner.</p>
+
+<p>Testing this most interesting question in this manner, my decided
+convictions are that animals do reason.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p class="ph2"><a name="SKETCH_OF_GEORGE_M_STERNBERG" id="SKETCH_OF_GEORGE_M_STERNBERG">SKETCH OF GEORGE M. STERNBERG.</a></p>
+
+
+<p>No man among Americans has studied the micro-organisms with more
+profit or has contributed more to our knowledge of the nature of
+infection, particularly of that of yellow fever, than Dr. <span class="smcap">George
+M. Sternberg</span>, of the United States Army. His merits are freely
+recognized abroad, and he ranks there, as well as at home, among the
+leading bacteriologists of the age. He was born at Hartwick Seminary,
+an institution of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (General
+Synod), Otsego, N. Y., June 8, 1838. His father, the Rev. Levi
+Sternberg, D. D., a graduate of Union College, a Lutheran minister,
+and for many years principal of the seminary and a director of it, was
+descended from German ancestors who came to this country in 1703 and
+settled in Schoharie County, New York. The younger Sternberg received
+his academical training at the seminary, after which, intending to
+study medicine, he undertook a school at New Germantown, N. J., as a
+means of earning a part of the money required to defray the cost of
+his instruction in that science. The record of his school was one of
+quiet sessions, thoroughness, and popularity of the teacher, and his
+departure was an occasion of regret among his patrons.</p>
+
+<p>When nineteen years old, young Sternberg began his medical studies
+with Dr. Horace Lathrop, in Cooperstown, N. Y. Afterward he attended
+the courses of the College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York,
+and was graduated thence in the class of 1860. Before he had fairly
+settled in practice the civil war began, and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span> attention of all
+young Americans was directed toward the military service. Among these
+was young Dr. Sternberg, who, having passed the examination, was
+appointed assistant surgeon May 28, 1861, and was attached to the
+command of General Sykes, Army of the Potomac. He was engaged in the
+battle of Bull Run, where, voluntarily remaining on the field with
+the wounded, he was taken prisoner, but was paroled to continue his
+humane work. On the expiration of his parole he made his way through
+the lines and reported at Washington for duty July 30, 1861&mdash;"weary,
+footsore, and worn." Of his conduct in later campaigns of the Army of
+the Potomac, General Sykes, in his official reports of the battles of
+Gaines Mill, Turkey Ridge, and Malvern Hill, said that "Dr. Sternberg
+added largely to the reputation already acquired on the disastrous
+field of Bull Run." He remained with General Sykes's command till
+August, 1862; was then assigned to hospital duty at Portsmouth Grove,
+R. I., till November, 1862; was afterward attached to General Banks's
+expedition as assistant to the medical director in the Department
+of the Gulf till January, 1864; was in the office of the medical
+director, Columbus, Ohio, and in charge of the United States General
+Hospital at Cleveland, Ohio, till July, 1865. Since the civil war he
+has been assigned successively to Jefferson Barracks, Mo.; Fort Harker
+and Fort Riley, Kansas; in the field in the Indian campaign, 1868
+to 1870; Forts Columbus and Hamilton, New York Harbor; Fort Warren,
+Boston Harbor; Department of the Gulf and New Orleans; Fort Barrancas,
+Fla.; Department of the Columbia; Department Headquarters; Fort Walla
+Walla, Washington Territory; California; and Eastern stations. He was
+promoted to be captain and assistant surgeon in 1866, major and surgeon
+in 1875, lieutenant colonel and deputy surgeon general in 1891, and
+brigadier general and surgeon general in 1893. He has also received the
+brevets of captain and major in the United States Army "for faithful
+and meritorious services during the war," and of lieutenant colonel
+"for gallant service in performance of his professional duty under fire
+in action against Indians at Clearwater, Idaho, July 12, 1877." In
+the discharge of his duties at his various posts Dr. Sternberg had to
+deal with a cholera epidemic in Kansas in 1867, with a "yellow-fever
+epidemic" in New York Harbor in 1871, and with epidemics of yellow
+fever at Fort Barrancas, Fla., in 1873 and 1875. He served under
+special detail as member and secretary of the Havana Yellow-Fever
+Commission of the National Board of Health, 1879 to 1881; as a delegate
+from the United States under special instructions of the Secretary of
+State to the International Sanitary Conference at Rome in 1885; as a
+commissioner, under<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span> the act of Congress of March 3, 1887, to make
+investigations in Brazil, Mexico, and Cuba relating to the etiology and
+prevention of yellow fever; by special request of the health officer of
+the port of New York and the advisory committee of the New York Chamber
+of Commerce as consulting bacteriologist to the health officer of the
+port of New York in 1892; and he was a delegate to the International
+Medical Congress in Moscow in 1897.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Sternberg has contributed largely to the literature of scientific
+medicine from the results of his observations and experiments which he
+has made in these various spheres of duty.</p>
+
+<p>His most fruitful researches have been made in the field of
+bacteriology and infectious diseases. He has enjoyed the rare advantage
+in pursuing these studies of having the material for his experiments
+close at hand in the course of his regular work, and of watching, we
+might say habitually, the progress of such diseases as yellow fever
+as it normally went on in the course of Nature. Of the quality of his
+bacteriological work, the writer of a biography in Red Cross Notes,
+reprinted in the North American Medical Review, goes so far as to say
+that "when the overzeal of enthusiasts shall have passed away, and the
+story of bacteriology in the nineteenth century is written up, it will
+probably be found that the chief who brought light out of darkness
+was George M. Sternberg. He was noted not so much for his brilliant
+discoveries, but rather for his exact methods of investigation, for
+his clear statements of the results of experimental data, for his
+enormous labors toward the perfection and simplification of technique,
+and finally for his services in the practical application of the
+truths taught by the science. His early labors in bacteriology were
+made with apparatus and under conditions that were crude enough." His
+work in this department is certainly among the most important that
+has been done. Its value has been freely acknowledged everywhere, it
+has given him a world-wide fame, and it has added to the credit of
+American science. The reviewer in Nature (June 22, 1893) of his Manual
+of Bacteriology, which was published in 1892, while a little disposed
+to criticise the fullness and large size of the book, describes it as
+"the latest, the largest, and, let us add, the most complete manual
+of bacteriology which has yet appeared in the English language. The
+volume combines in itself not only an account of such facts as are
+already established in the science from a morphological, chemical,
+and pathological point of view, discussions on such abstruse subjects
+as susceptibility and immunity, and also full details of the means by
+which these results have been obtained, and practical directions for
+the carrying on of laboratory<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> work." This was not the first of Dr.
+Sternberg's works in bacteriological research. It was preceded by a
+work on Bacteria, of 498 pages, including 152 pages translated from
+the work of Dr. Antoine Magnin (1884); Malaria and Malarial Diseases,
+and Photomicrographs and How to make Them. The manual is at once a
+book for reference, a text-book for students, and a handbook for the
+laboratory. Its four parts include brief notices of the history of
+the subject, classification, morphology, and an account of methods
+and practical laboratory work&mdash;"all clear and concise"; the biology
+and chemistry of bacteria, disinfection, and antiseptics; a detailed
+account of pathogenic bacteria, their modes of action, the way they
+may gain access to the system, susceptibility and immunity, to which
+Dr. Sternberg's own contributions have been not the least important;
+and saprophytic bacteria in water, in the soil, in or on the human
+body, and in food, the whole number of saprophytes described being
+three hundred and thirty-one. "The merit of a work of this kind,"
+Nature says, "depends not less on the number of species described than
+on the clearness and accuracy of the descriptions, and Dr. Sternberg
+has spared no pains to make these as complete as possible." The
+bibliography in this work fills more than a hundred pages, and contains
+2,582 references. A later book on a kindred subject is Immunity,
+Protective Inoculations, and Serum Therapy (1895). Dr. Sternberg has
+also published a Text-Book of Bacteriology.</p>
+
+<p>Bearing upon yellow fever are the Report upon the Prevention of Yellow
+Fever by Inoculation, submitted in March, 1888; Report upon the
+Prevention of Yellow Fever, illustrated by photomicrographs and cuts,
+1890; and Examination of the Blood in Yellow Fever (experiments upon
+animals, etc.), in the Preliminary Report of the Havana Yellow-Fever
+Commission, 1879. Other publications in the list of one hundred and
+thirty-one titles of Dr. Sternberg's works, and mostly consisting
+of shorter articles, relate to Disinfectants and their Value, the
+Etiology of Malarial Fevers, Septicæmia, the Germicide Value of
+Therapeutic Agents, the Etiology of Croupous Pneumonia, the Bacillus
+of Typhoid Fever, the Thermal Death Point of Pathogenic Organisms,
+the Practical Results of Bacteriological Researches, the Cholera
+Spirillum, Disinfection at Quarantine Stations, the Infectious Agent
+of Smallpox, official reports as Surgeon General of the United States
+Army, addresses and reports at the meetings of the American Public
+Health Association, and an address to the members of the Pan-American
+Congress. One paper is recorded quite outside of the domain of microbes
+and fevers, to show what the author might have done if he had allowed
+his attention to be diverted from his special absorb<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span>ing field of work.
+It is upon the Indian Burial Mounds and Shell Heaps near Pensacola, Fla.</p>
+
+<p>The medical and scientific societies of which Dr. Sternberg is a
+member include the American Public Health Association, of which he is
+also an ex-president (1886); the American Association of Physicians;
+the American Physiological Society; the American Microscopical
+Society, of which he is a vice-president; the American Association
+for the Advancement of Science, of which he is a Fellow; the New
+York Academy of Medicine (a Fellow); and the Association of Military
+Surgeons of the United States (president in 1896). He is a Fellow
+of the Royal Microscopical Society of London; an honorary member
+of the Epidemiological Society of London, of the Royal Academy of
+Medicine of Rome, of the Academy of Medicine of Rio de Janeiro, of
+the American Academy of Medicine, of the French Society of Hygiene,
+etc.; was President of the Section on Military Medicine and Surgery of
+the Pan-American Congress; was a Fellow by courtesy in Johns Hopkins
+University, 1885 to 1890; was President of the Biological Society
+of Washington in 1896, and of the American Medical Association in
+1897; and has been designated Honorary President of the Thirteenth
+International Medical Congress, which is to meet in Paris in 1900. He
+received the degree of LL. D. from the University of Michigan in 1894,
+and from Brown University in 1897.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Sternberg's view of the right professional standard of the
+physician is well expressed in the sentiment, "To maintain our
+standing in the estimation of the educated classes we must not rely
+upon our diplomas or upon our membership in medical societies. Work
+and worth are what count." He does not appear to be attached to any
+particular school, but, as his Red Cross Notes biographer says, "has
+placed himself in the crowd 'who have been moving forward upon the
+substantial basis of scientific research, and who, if characterized by
+any distinctive name, should be called <i>the New School of Scientific
+Medicine</i>.' He holds that if our practice was in accordance with our
+knowledge many diseases would disappear; he sees no room for creeds
+or patents in medicine. He is willing to acknowledge the right to
+prescribe either a bread pill or a leaden bullet. But if a patient
+dies from diphtheria because of a failure to administer a proper
+remedy, or if infection follows from dirty fingers or instruments,
+if a practitioner carelessly or ignorantly transfers infection, he
+believes he is not fit to practice medicine.... He rejects every theory
+or dictum that has not been clearly demonstrated to him as an absolute
+truth."</p>
+
+<p>While he is described as without assumption, Dr. Sternberg is
+represented as being evidently in his headquarters as surgeon gen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span>eral
+in every sense the head of the service, the chief whose will governs
+all. Modest and unassuming, he is described as being most exacting, a
+man of command, of thorough execution, a general whose eyes comprehend
+every detail, and who has studied the personality of every member
+of his corps. He is always busy, but seemingly never in a hurry;
+systematic, accepting no man's dictum, and taking nothing as an
+established fact till he has personal experimental evidence of its
+truth. He looks into every detail, and takes equal care of the health
+of the general in chief and of the private.</p>
+
+<p>His addresses are carefully prepared, based on facts he has
+himself determined, made in language so plain that they will not
+be misunderstood, free from sentiment, and delivered in an easy
+conversational style, and his writings are "pen pictures of his results
+in the laboratory and clinic room."</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>The thirty-first year of the Peabody Museum of American Archæology
+and Ethnology was signalized by the transfer of its property to
+the corporation of Harvard College, whereby simplicity and greater
+permanence have been given to its management. The four courses of
+instruction in the museum were attended by sixteen students, and
+these, with others, make twenty-one persons, besides the curator,
+who are engaged in study or special research in subjects included
+under the term anthropology. Special attention is given by explorers
+in the service of the museum to the investigation of the antiquities
+of Yucatan and Central America, of which its publications on Copan,
+the caves of Loltun, and Labná, have been noticed in the Monthly.
+These explorations have been continued when and where circumstances
+made it feasible. Among the gifts acknowledged in the report of the
+museum are two hundred facsimile copies of the Aztec Codex Vaticanus,
+from the Duke of Loubat, an original Mexican manuscript of 1531, on
+agave paper, from the Mary Hemenway estate; the extensive private
+archæological collection of Mr. George W. Hammond; articles from
+Georgia mounds, from Clarence B. Moore, and other gifts of perhaps
+less magnitude but equal interest. Mr. Andrew Gibb, of Edinburgh, has
+given five pieces of rudely made pottery from the Hebrides, which were
+made several years ago by a woman who is thought to have been the
+last one to make pottery according to the ancient method of shaping
+the clay with the hands, and without the use of any form of potter's
+wheel. Miss Maria Whitney, sister of the late Prof. J. D. Whitney,
+has presented the "Calaveras skull" and the articles found with it,
+and all the original documents relating to its discovery and history.
+Miss Phebe Ferris, of Madisonville, Ohio, has bequeathed to the museum
+about twenty-five acres of land, on which is situated the ancient
+mound where Dr. Metz and Curator Putnam have investigated for several
+years, and whence a considerable collection has been obtained. Miss
+Ferris expressed the desire that the museum continue the explorations,
+and after completing convert the tract into a public park. Mr. W. B.
+Nicker has explored some virgin mounds near Galena, Ill., and a rock
+shelter and stone grave near Portage, Ill. The library of the museum
+now contains 1,838 volumes and 2,479 pamphlets on anthropology.</p></blockquote>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<p class="ph2"><a name="Correspondence" id="Correspondence">Correspondence.</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="ph4">DO ANIMALS REASON?</p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Editor Popular Science Monthly:</i></p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Dear Sir</span>: In connection with the discussion of the interesting
+subject Do Animals Reason? permit me to relate the following incident
+in support of the affirmative side of the question:</p>
+
+<p>Some years ago, before the establishment of the National Zoölogical
+Park in this city, Dr. Frank Baker, the curator, kept a small nucleus
+of animals in the rear of the National Museum; among this collection
+were several monkeys. On a hot summer day, as I was passing the monkey
+cage I handed to one of the monkeys a large piece of fresh molasses
+taffy. The animal at once carried it to his mouth and commenced to bite
+it. The candy was somewhat soft, and stuck to the monkey's paws. He
+looked at his paws, licked them with his tongue, and then turned his
+head from side to side looking about the cage. Then, taking the candy
+in his mouth, he sprang to the farther end of the cage and picked up
+a wad of brown paper. This ball of paper he carefully unfolded, and,
+laying it down on the floor of the cage, carefully smoothed out the
+folds of the paper with both paws. After he had smoothed it out to his
+satisfaction, he took the piece of taffy from his mouth and laid it in
+the center of the piece of paper and folded the paper over the candy,
+leaving a part of it exposed. He then sat back on his haunches and ate
+the candy, first wiping one paw and then the other on his hip, just as
+any boy or man might do.</p>
+
+<p>If that monkey did not show reason, what would you call it?</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+Yours etc.,<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;"><span class="smcap">H. O. Hall</span></span>,</p>
+
+<p class="author"><i>Library Surgeon General's Office, United States Army.</i></p>
+
+<p><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Washington, D. C., <i>October 2, 1899</i>.</span>
+</p>
+
+
+
+
+<p class="ph2"><a name="Editors_Table" id="Editors_Table">Editor's Table.</a></p>
+
+<p class="ph4"><i>HOME BURDENS.</i></p>
+
+
+<p>The doctrine has gone abroad, suggested by the most popular poet of
+the day, that "white men" have the duty laid upon them of scouring the
+dark places of the earth for burdens to take up. Through a large part
+of this nation the idea has run like wildfire, infecting not a few
+who themselves are in no small degree burdens to the community that
+shelters them. The rowdier element of the population everywhere is
+strongly in favor of the new doctrine, which to their minds is chiefly
+illustrated by the shooting of Filipinos. We do not say that thousands
+of very respectable citizens are not in favor of it also; we only note
+that they are strongly supported by a class whose adhesion adds no
+strength to their cause.</p>
+
+<p>It is almost needless to remark that a very few years ago we were
+not in the way of thinking that the civilized nations of the earth,
+which had sliced up Asia and Africa in the interest of their trade,
+had done so in the performance of a solemn duty. The formula "the
+white man's burden" had not been invented then, and some of us used to
+think that there was more of the filibustering spirit than of a high
+humanitarianism in these raids upon barbarous races. Possibly we did
+less than justice to some of the countries concerned, notably Great
+Britain, which, having a teeming population in very narrow confines,
+and being of old accustomed to adventures by sea, had naturally been
+led to extend her influence and create outlets for her trade in distant
+parts of the earth. Be this as it may, we seemed to have our own<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span> work
+cut out for us at home. We had the breadth of a continent under our
+feet, rich in the products of every latitude; we had unlimited room for
+expansion and development; we had unlimited confidence in the destinies
+that awaited us as a nation, if only we applied ourselves earnestly
+to the improvement of the heritage which, in the order of Providence,
+had become ours. We thanked Heaven that we were not as other nations,
+which, insufficiently provided with home blessings, were tempted to put
+forth their hands and&mdash;steal, or something like it, in heathen lands.</p>
+
+<p>Well, we have changed all that: we give our sympathy to the nations
+of the Old World in their forays on the heathen, and are vigorously
+tackling "the white man's burden" according to the revised version.
+It is unfortunate and quite unpleasant that this should involve
+shooting down people who are only asking what our ancestors asked and
+obtained&mdash;the right of self-government in the land they occupy. Still,
+we must do it if we want to keep up with the procession we have joined.
+Smoking tobacco is not pleasant to the youth of fifteen or sixteen who
+has determined to line up with his elders in that manly accomplishment.
+He has many a sick stomach, many a flutter of the heart, before he
+breaks himself into it; but, of course, he perseveres&mdash;has he not taken
+up the white boy's burden? So we. Who, outside of that rowdy element to
+which we have referred, has not been, whether he has confessed it or
+not, sick at heart at the thought of the innocent blood we have shed
+and of the blood of our kindred that we have shed in order to shed that
+blood? Still, spite of all misgivings and qualms, we hold our course,
+Kipling leading on, and the colonel of the Rough Riders assuring us
+that it is all right.</p>
+
+<p>Revised versions are not always the best versions; and for our own
+part we prefer to think that the true "white man's burden" is that
+which lies at his own door, and not that which he has to compass land
+and sea to come in sight of. We have in this land the burden of a not
+inconsiderable tramp and hoodlum population. This is a burden of which
+we can never very long lose sight; it is more or less before us every
+day. It is a burden in a material sense, and it is a burden in what
+we may call a spiritual sense. It impairs the satisfaction we derive
+from our own citizenship, and it lies like a weight on the social
+conscience. It is the opprobrium alike of our educational system and
+of our administration of the law. How far would the national treasure
+and individual energy which we have expended in failing to subdue
+the Filipino "rebels" have gone&mdash;if wisely applied&mdash;in subduing the
+rebel elements in our own population, and rescuing from degradation
+those whom our public schools have failed to civilize? Shall the reply
+be that we can not interfere with individual liberty? It would be
+a strange reply to come from people who send soldiers ten thousand
+miles away for the express purpose of interfering with liberty as the
+American nation has always hitherto understood that term; but, in
+point of fact, there is no question of interfering with any liberty
+that ought to be respected. It is a question of the protection of
+public morals, of public decency, and of the rights of property. It is
+a question of the rescue of human beings&mdash;our fellow-citizens&mdash;from
+ignorance, vice, and wretchedness. It is a question of making us as
+a nation right with ourselves, and making citizenship under our flag
+something to be prized by every one entitled to claim it.</p>
+
+<p>It is not in the cities only that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> undesirable elements cluster. The
+editor of a lively little periodical, in which many true things are
+said with great force&mdash;The Philistine&mdash;has lately declared that his own
+village, despite the refining influences radiated from the "Roycroft
+Shop," could furnish a band of hoodlum youths that could give points in
+every form of vile behavior to any equal number gathered from a great
+city. He hints that New England villages may be a trifle better, but
+that the farther Western States are decidedly worse. It is precisely
+in New England, however, that a bitter cry on this very subject of
+hoodlumism has lately been raised. What are we to do about it?</p>
+
+<p>Manifestly the hoodlum or incipient tramp is one of two things: either
+he is a person whom a suitable education might have turned into some
+decent and honest way of earning a living, or he is a person upon whom,
+owing to congenital defect, all educational effort would have been
+thrown away. In either case social duty seems plain. If education would
+have done the work, society&mdash;seeing that it has taken the business of
+public education in hand&mdash;should have supplied the education required
+for the purpose, even though the amount of money available for waging
+war in the Philippines had been slightly reduced. If the case is one
+in which no educational effort is of avail, then, as the old Roman
+formula ran, "Let the magistrates see that the republic takes no harm."
+Before, therefore, our minds can be easy on this hoodlum question,
+we must satisfy ourselves thoroughly that our modes of education are
+not, positively or negatively, adapted to making the hoodlum variety
+of character. The hoodlum, it is safe to say, is an individual in whom
+no intellectual interest has ever been awakened, in whom no special
+capacity has ever been created. His moral nature has never been taught
+to respond to any high or even respectable principle of conduct. If
+there is any glory in earth or heaven, any beauty or harmony in the
+operations of natural law, any poetry or pathos or dignity in human
+life, anything to stir the soul in the records of human achievement,
+to all such things he is wholly insensible. Ought this to be so in
+the case of any human being, not absolutely abnormal, whom the state
+has undertaken to educate? If, as a community, we put our hands to
+the educational plow, and so far not only relieve parents of a large
+portion of their sense of responsibility, but actually suppress the
+voluntary agencies that would otherwise undertake educational work,
+surely we should see to it that our education educates. Direct moral
+instruction in the schools is not likely to be of any great avail
+unless, by other and indirect means, the mind is prepared to receive
+it. What is needed is to awaken a sense of capacity and power, to give
+to each individual some trained faculty and some direct and, as far as
+it goes, scientific cognizance of things. Does any one suppose that
+a youth who had gone through a judicious course of manual training,
+or one who had become interested in any such subject as botany,
+chemistry, or agriculture, or who even had an intelligent insight
+into the elementary laws of mechanics, could develop into a hoodlum?
+On the other hand, there is no difficulty in imagining that such a
+development might take place in a youth who had simply been plied
+with spelling-book, grammar, and arithmetic. Even what seem the most
+interesting reading lessons fall dead upon minds that have no hold upon
+the reality of things, and no sense of the distinctions which the most
+elementary study of Nature forces on the attention.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>But, as we have admitted, there may be cases where the nature of the
+individual is such as to repel all effort for its improvement. Here
+the law must step in, and secure the community against the dangers to
+which the existence of such individuals exposes it. There is a certain
+element in the population which wishes to live, and is determined
+to live, on a level altogether below anything that can be called
+civilization. Those who compose it are nomadic and predatory in their
+habits, and occasionally give way to acts of fearful criminality. It is
+foolish not to recognize the fact, and take the measures that may be
+necessary for the isolation of this element. To devise and execute such
+measures is a burden a thousand times better worth taking up than the
+burden of imposing our yoke upon the Philippine Islands and crushing
+out a movement toward liberty quite as respectable, to all outward
+appearance, as that to which we have reared monuments at Bunker Hill
+and elsewhere. The fact is, the work before us at home is immense;
+and it is work which we might attack, not only without qualms of
+conscience, but with the conviction that every unit of labor devoted to
+it was being directed toward the highest interests not of the present
+generation only, but of generations yet unborn. The "white man," we
+trust, will some day see it; but meanwhile valuable time is being
+lost, and the national conscience is being lowered by the assumption
+of burdens that are <i>not</i> ours, whatever Mr. Kipling may have said
+or sung, or whatever Governor Roosevelt may assert on his word as a
+soldier.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><i>SPECIALIZATION.</i></p>
+
+<p>That division of labor is as necessary in the pursuit of science as
+in the world of industry no one would think of disputing; but that,
+like division of labor elsewhere, it has its drawbacks and dangers is
+equally obvious. When the latter truth is insisted on by those who
+are not recognized as experts, the experts are apt to be somewhat
+contemptuous in resenting such interference, as they consider it.
+An expert himself has, however, taken up the parable, and his words
+merit attention. We refer to an address delivered by Prof. J. Arthur
+Thompson, at the University of Aberdeen, upon entering on his duties
+as Regius Professor of Natural History, a post to which he was lately
+appointed. "We need to be reminded," he said, "amid the undoubted and
+surely legitimate fascinations of dissection and osteology, of section
+cutting and histology, of physiological chemistry and physiological
+physics, of embryology and fossil hunting, and the like, that the chief
+end of our study is a better understanding of living creatures in their
+natural surroundings." He could see no reason, he went on to say, for
+adding aimlessly to the overwhelming mass of detail already accumulated
+in these and other fields of research. The aim of our efforts should
+rather be to grasp the chief laws of growth and structure, and to rise
+to a true conception of the meaning of organization.</p>
+
+<p>The tendency to over-specialization is manifest everywhere; it may be
+traced in physics and chemistry, in mathematics, in archæology, and in
+philology, as well as in biology. We can not help thinking that there
+is a certain narcotic influence arising from the steady accumulation
+of minute facts, so that what was in the first place, and in its early
+stages, an invigorating pursuit becomes not only an absorbing, but
+more or less a benumbing passion. We are accustomed to profess great
+admiration for Browning's Grammarian, who&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Gave us the doctrine of the enclitic <i>De</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4em;">Dead from the waist down,"</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>but really we don't feel quite sure that the cause for which the old
+gentleman struggled was quite worthy of such desperate heroism. The
+world could have got along fairly well for a while with an imperfect
+knowledge of the subtle ways of the "enclitic <i>De</i>," and indeed a large
+portion of the world has neither concerned itself with the subject nor
+felt the worse for not having done so.</p>
+
+<p>What we fear is that some people are "dead from the waist down," or
+even from higher up, without being aware of it, and all on account of
+a furious passion for "enclitic de's" or their equivalent in other
+lines of study. Gentlemen, it is not worth while! You can not all hope
+to be buried on mountain tops like the grammarian, for there are not
+peaks enough for all of you, and any way what good would it do you?
+There is need of specialization, of course; we began by saying that the
+drift of our remarks is simply this, that he who would go into minute
+specializing should be careful to lay in at the outset a good stock of
+common sense, a liberal dose (if he can get it) of humor, and <i>quantum
+suff</i>. of humanity. Thus provided he can go ahead.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p class="ph2"><a name="Scientific_Literature" id="Scientific_Literature">Scientific Literature.</a></p>
+
+<p class="ph4">SPECIAL BOOKS.</p>
+
+
+<p>The comparison between the United States in 1790 and Australia in 1891,
+with which Mr. <i>A. F. Weber</i> opens his essay on <i>The Growth of Cities
+in the Nineteenth Century</i><a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> well illustrates how the tendency of
+population toward agglomeration in cities is one of the most striking
+social phenomena of the present age. Both countries were in nearly
+a corresponding state of development at the time of bringing them
+into the comparison. The population of the United States in 1790 was
+3,929,214; that of Australia in 1891 was 3,809,895; while 3.14 per cent
+of the people of the United States were then living in cities of ten
+thousand or more inhabitants, 33.20 per cent of the Australians are
+now living in such cities. Similar conditions or the tendency toward
+them are evident in nearly every country of the world. What are the
+forces that have produced the shifting of population thus indicated;
+what the economic, moral, political, and social consequences of it; and
+what is to be the attitude of the publicist, the statesman, and the
+teacher toward the movement, are questions which Mr. Weber undertakes
+to discuss. The subject is a very complicated and intricate one, with
+no end of puzzles in it for the careless student, and requiring to be
+viewed in innumerable shifting lights, showing the case in changing
+aspects; for in the discussion lessons are drawn by the author from
+every country in the family of nations. Natural causes&mdash;variations in
+climate, soil, earth formation, political institutions, etc.&mdash;partly
+explain the distribution of population, but only partly. It sometimes
+contradicts what would be deduced from them. Increase and improvement
+in facilities for communication help the expansion of commercial
+and industrial centers,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span> but also contribute to the scattering of
+population over wider areas. The most potent factors in attracting
+people to the cities were, in former times, the commercial facilities
+they afforded, with opportunities to obtain employment in trade, and
+are now the opportunities for employment in trade and in manufacturing
+industries. The cities, however, do not grow merely by accretions
+from the outside, but they also enjoy a new element of natural growth
+within themselves in the greater certainty of living and longer
+duration of life brought about by improved management and ease of
+living in them, especially by improved sanitation, and it is only
+in the nineteenth century that any considerable number of cities
+have had a regular surplus of births over deaths. Migration cityward
+is not an economic phenomenon peculiar to the nineteenth century,
+but is shown by the study of the social statistics and the bills of
+mortality of the past to have been always a factor important enough
+to be a subject of special remark. It is, however, a very lively one
+now, and "in the immediate future we may expect to see a continuation
+of the centralizing movement; while many manufacturers are locating
+their factories in the small cities and towns, there are other
+industries that prosper most in the great cities. Commerce, moreover,
+emphatically favors the great centers rather than the small or
+intermediate centers." In examining the structure of city populations,
+a preponderance of the female sex appears, and is explained by the
+accentuated liability of men over women in cities to death from
+dangers of occupation, vice, crime, and excesses of all kinds. There
+are also present in the urban population a relatively larger number
+of persons in the active period of life, whence an easier and more
+animated career, more energy and enterprise, more radicalism and less
+conservatism, and more vice, crime, and impulsiveness generally may be
+expected. Of foreign immigrants, the least desirable class are most
+prone to remain in the great cities; and with the decline of railway
+building and the complete occupation of the public lands the author
+expects that immigrants in the future will disperse less readily than
+in the past, but in the never-tiring energy of American enterprise
+this may not prove to be the case. As to occupation, the growth of
+cities is found to favor the development of a body of artisans and
+factory workmen, as against the undertaker and employer, and "that
+the class of day laborers is relatively small in the cities is reason
+for rejoicing." It is found "emphatically true that the growth of
+cities not only increases a nation's economic power and energy, but
+quickens the national pulse.... A progressive and dynamic civilization
+implies the good and bad alike. The cities, as the foci of progress,
+inevitably contain both." The development of suburban life, stimulated
+by the railroad and the trolley, and the transference of manufacturing
+industries to the suburbs, are regarded as factors of great promise
+for the amelioration of the recognized evils of city life and for the
+solution of some of the difficulties it offers and the promotion of its
+best results.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Dr.</span> <i>James K. Crook</i>, author of <i>The Mineral Waters of the
+United States and their Therapeutic Uses</i>,<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> accepts it as proved
+by centuries of experience that in certain disorders the intelligent
+use of mineral<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> waters is a more potent curative agency than drugs.
+He believes that Americans have within their own borders the close
+counterparts of the best foreign springs, and that in charms of scenery
+and surroundings, salubrity of climate and facilities for comfort, many
+of our spas will compare as resorts with the most highly developed
+ones of Europe. The purpose of the present volume is to set forth
+the qualities and attractions of American springs, of which we have
+a large number and variety, and the author has aimed to present the
+most complete and advanced work on the subject yet prepared. To make
+it so, he has carefully examined all the available literature on the
+subject, has addressed letters of inquiry to proprietors and other
+persons cognizant of spring resorts and commercial springs, and has
+made personal visits. While a considerable number of the 2,822 springs
+enumerated by Dr. A. C. Peale in his report to the United States
+Geological Survey have dropped out through non-use or non-development,
+more than two hundred mineral-spring localities are here described for
+the first time in a book of this kind. Every known variety of mineral
+water is represented. The subject is introduced by chapters on what
+might be called the science of mineral waters and their therapeutic
+uses, including the definition, the origin of mineral waters, and the
+sources whence they are mineralized; the classification, the discussion
+of their value, and mode of action; their solid and gaseous components;
+their therapeutics or applications to different disorders; and baths
+and douches and their medicinal uses. The springs are then described
+severally by States. The treatise on potable waters in the appendix is
+brief, but contains much.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p class="ph2"><a name="GENERAL_NOTICES" id="GENERAL_NOTICES">GENERAL NOTICES.</a></p>
+
+
+<p>In <i>Every-Day Butterflies</i><a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> Mr. <i>Scudder</i> relates the story of the
+very commonest butterflies&mdash;"those which every rambler at all observant
+sees about him at one time or another, inciting his curiosity or
+pleasing his eye." The sequence of the stories is mainly the order of
+appearance of the different subjects treated&mdash;which the author compares
+to the flowers in that each kind has its own season for appearing in
+perfect bloom, both together variegating the landscape in the open
+season of the year. This order of description is modified occasionally
+by the substitution of a later appearance for the first, when the
+butterfly is double or triple brooded. As illustrations are furnished
+of each butterfly discussed, it is not necessary that the descriptions
+should be long and minute, hence they are given in brief and general
+terms. But it must be remembered that the describer is a thorough
+master of his subject, and also a master in writing the English
+language, so that nothing will be found lacking in his descriptions.
+They are literature as well as butterfly history. Of the illustrations,
+all of which are good, a considerable number are in colors.</p>
+
+
+<p>Dr. <i>M. E. Gellé's</i> <i>L'Audition et ses Organes</i><a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> (The Hearing and
+its Organs) is a full, not over-elaborate treatise on the subject,
+in which prominence is given to the physiological side. The first
+part treats of the excitant of the sense of hearing&mdash;sonorous
+vibrations&mdash;including the vibrations themselves, the length of the
+vibratory phenomena, the intensity of sound, range of audition, tone,
+and timbre of sounds. The second chapter relates to the organs of
+hearing, both the peripheric organs and the acoustic centers, the
+anatomy of which is described in detail, with excellent and ample
+illustrations. The third chapter is devoted to the sensation of hearing
+under its various aspects&mdash;the time<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> required for perception, "hearing
+in school," the influence of habit and attention, orientation of the
+sound, bilateral sensations, effects on the nervous centers, etc.,
+hearing of musical sounds, oscillations and aberrations of hearing,
+auditive memory, obsessions, hallucinations of the ear, and colored
+audition.</p>
+
+<p>Prof. <i>Andrew C. McLaughlin's History of the American Nation</i><a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> has
+many features to recommend it. It aims to trace the main outlines of
+national development, and to show how the American people came to be
+what they are. These outlines involve the struggle of European powers
+for supremacy in the New World, the victory of England, the growth
+of the English colonies and their steady progress in strength and
+self-reliance till they achieved their independence, the development
+of the American idea of government, its extension across the continent
+and its influence abroad&mdash;all achieved in the midst of stirring
+events, social, political, and moral, at the cost sometimes of wars,
+and accompanied by marvelous growth in material prosperity and
+political power. All this the author sets forth, trying to preserve
+the balance of the factors, in a pleasing, easy style. Especial
+attention is paid to political facts, to the rise of parties, to the
+development of governmental machinery, and to questions of government
+and administration. In industrial history those events have been
+selected for mention which seem to have had the most marked effect
+on the progress and make-up of the nation. It is to be desired that
+more attention had been given to social aspects and changes in which
+the development has not been less marked and stirring than in the
+other departments of our history. Indeed, the field for research and
+exposition here is extremely wide and almost infinitely varied, and
+it has hardly yet begun to be worked, and with any fullness only for
+special regions. When he comes to recent events, Professor McLaughlin
+naturally speaks with caution and in rather general terms. It seems
+to us, however, that in the matter of the war with Spain, without
+violating any of the proprieties, he might have given more emphasis
+to the anxious efforts of that country to comply with the demands of
+the administration for the institution of reforms in Cuba; and, in the
+interest of historical truth, he ought not to have left unmentioned the
+very important fact that the Spanish Government offered to refer the
+questions growing out of the blowing up of the Maine to arbitration
+and abide by the result, and our Government made no answer to the
+proposition.</p>
+
+
+<p>Mr. <i>W. W. Campbell's Elements of Practical Astronomy</i><a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> is an
+evolution. It grew out of the lessons of his experience in teaching
+rather large classes in astronomy in the University of Michigan, by
+which he was led to the conclusion that the extensive treatises on the
+subject could not be used satisfactorily except in special cases. Brief
+lecture notes were employed in preference. These were written out and
+printed for use in the author's classes. The first edition of the book
+made from them was used in several colleges and universities having
+astronomical departments of high character. The work now appears,
+slightly enlarged, in a second edition. In the present greatly extended
+field of practical astronomy numerous special problems arise, which
+require prolonged efforts on the part of professional astronomers.
+While for the discussion of the methods employed in solving such
+problems the reader is referred to special treatises and journals,
+these methods are all developed from the <i>elements</i> of astronomy and
+the related sciences, of which it is intended that this book shall
+contain the elements of practical astronomy, with numerous references
+to the problems first requiring solution. The author believes that the
+methods of observing employed are illustrations of the best modern
+practice.</p>
+
+
+<p>In <i>The Characters of Crystals</i><a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> Prof. <i>Alfred J. Moses</i> has
+attempted to describe, simply and concisely, the meth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span>ods and apparatus
+used in studying the physical characters of crystals, and to record
+and explain the observed phenomena without complex mathematical
+discussions. The first part of the book relates to the geometrical
+characteristics of crystals, or the relations and determination of
+their forms, including the spherical projection, the thirty-two classes
+of forms, the measurement of crystal angles, and crystal projection
+or drawing. The optical characters and their determination are the
+subject of the second part. In the third part the thermal, magnetic,
+and electrical characters and the characters dependent upon electricity
+(elastic and permanent deformations) are treated of. A suggested
+outline of a course in physical crystallography is added, which
+includes preliminary experiments with the systematic examination of the
+crystals of any substance, and corresponds with the graduate course
+in physical crystallography given in Columbia University. The book is
+intended to be useful to organic chemists, geologists, mineralogists,
+and others interested in the study of crystals. The treatment is
+necessarily technical.</p>
+
+
+<p>A book describing the <i>Practical Methods of identifying Minerals in
+Rock Sections with the Microscope</i><a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> has been prepared by Mr. <i>L.
+McI. Luquer</i> to ease the path of the student inexperienced in optical
+mineralogy by putting before him only those facts which are absolutely
+necessary for the proper recognition and identification of the minerals
+in thin sections. The microscopic and optical characters of the
+minerals are recorded in the order in which they would be observed with
+a petrographical microscope; when the sections are opaque, attention
+is called to the fact, and the characters are recorded as seen with
+incident light. The order of Rosenbusch, which is based on the symmetry
+of the crystalline form, is followed, with a few exceptions made
+for convenience. In an introductory chapter a practical elementary
+knowledge of optics as applied to optical mineralogy is attempted to
+be given, without going into an elaborate discussion of the subject.
+The petrographical microscope is described in detail. The application
+of it to the investigation of mineral characteristics is set forth in
+general and as to particular minerals. The preparation of sections and
+practical operations are described, and an optical scheme is appended,
+with the minerals grouped according to their common optical characters.</p>
+
+
+<p>Mr. <i>Herbert C. Whitaker's</i> <i>Elements of Trigonometry</i><a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> is concise
+and of very convenient size for use. The introduction and the first
+five of the seven chapters have been prepared for the use of beginners.
+The other two chapters concern the properties of triangles and
+spherical triangles; an appendix presents the theory of logarithms;
+and a second appendix, treating of goniometry, complex quantities,
+and complex functions, has been added for students intending to take
+up work in higher departments of mathematics. For assisting a clearer
+understanding of the several processes, the author has sought to
+associate closely with every equation a definite meaning with reference
+to a diagram. Other characteristics of the book are the practical
+applications to mechanics, surveying, and other everyday problems;
+its many references to astronomical problems, and the constant use of
+geometry as a starting point and standard.</p>
+
+
+<p>A model in suggestions for elementary teaching is offered in
+<i>California Plants in their Homes</i>,<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> by <i>Alice Merritt Davidson</i>,
+formerly of the State Normal School, California. The book consists
+of two parts, a botanical reader for children and a supplement for
+the use of teachers, both divisions being also published in separate
+volumes. It is well illustrated, provided with an index and an outline
+of lessons adapted to different grades. The treatment of each theme is
+fresh, and the grouping novel, as is indicated by the chapter headings:
+Some Plants that lead Easy Lives, Plants that know<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span> how to meet Hard
+Times, Plants that do not make their own Living, Plants with Mechanical
+Genius. Although specially designed for the study of the flora of
+southern California, embodying the results of ten years' observation by
+the author, it may be recommended to science teachers in any locality
+as an excellent guide. The pupil in this vicinity will have to forego
+personal inspection of the shooting-star and mariposa lily, while he
+finds the century plant, yuccas, and cacti domiciled in the greenhouse.
+In addition to these, however, attention is directed to a sufficient
+number of familiar flowers, trees, ferns, and fungi for profitable
+study, and the young novice in botany can scarcely make a better
+beginning than in company with this skillful instructor.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>Prof. <i>John M. Coulter's Plant Relations</i><a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> is one of two parts of a
+system of teaching botany proposed by the author. Each of the two books
+is to represent the work of half a year, but each is to be independent
+of the other, and they may be used in either order. The two books
+relate respectively, as a whole, to ecology, or the life relations of
+surroundings of plants, and to their morphology. The present volume
+concerns the ecology. While it may be to the disadvantage of presenting
+ecology first, that it conveys no knowledge of plant structures and
+plant groups, this disadvantage is compensated for, in the author's
+view, by the facts that the study of the most evident life relations
+gives a proper conception of the place of plants in Nature; that it
+offers a view of the plant kingdom of the most permanent value to those
+who can give but a half year to botany; and that it demands little or
+no use of the compound microscope, an instrument ill adapted to first
+contacts with Nature. The book is intended to present a connected,
+readable account of some of the fundamental facts of botany, and also
+to serve as a supplement to the three far more important factors
+of the teacher, who must amplify and suggest at every point; the
+laboratory, which must bring the pupil face to face with plants and
+their structure; and field work, which must relate the facts observed
+in the laboratory to their actual place in Nature, and must bring new
+facts to notice which can be observed nowhere else. Taking the results
+obtained from these three factors, the book seeks to organize them, and
+to suggest explanations, through a clear, untechnical, compact text and
+appropriate and excellent illustrations.</p>
+
+
+<p>The title of <i>The Wilderness of Worlds</i><a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> was suggested to the author
+by the contemplation of a wilderness of trees, in which those near him
+are very large, while in the distance they seem successively smaller,
+and gradually fade away till the limit of vision is reached. So of the
+wilderness of worlds in space, with its innumerable stars of gradually
+diminishing degrees of visibility&mdash;worlds "of all ages like the trees,
+and the great deep of space is covered with their dust, and pulsating
+with the potency of new births." The body of the book is a review of
+the history of the universe and all that is of it, in the light of
+the theory of evolution, beginning with the entities of space, time,
+matter, force, and motion, and the processes of development from the
+nebulæ as they are indicated by the most recent and best verified
+researches, and terminating with the ultimate extinction of life and
+the end of the planet. In the chapter entitled A Vision of Peace the
+author confronts religion and science. He regards the whole subject
+from the freethinker's point of view, with a denial of all agency of
+the supernatural.</p>
+
+
+<p>In a volume entitled <i>The Living Organism</i><a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> Mr. <i>Alfred Earl</i>
+has endeavored to make a philosophical introduction to the study of
+biology. The closing paragraph of his preface is of interest as showing
+his views regarding vitalism: "The object of the book will be attained
+if it succeeds, although it may be chiefly by negative criticism, in
+directing attention to the important truth that, though chemical and
+physical changes enter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> largely into the composition of vital activity,
+there is much in the living organism that is outside the range of these
+operations." The first three chapters discuss general conceptions,
+and are chiefly psychology. A discussion of the structures accessory
+to alimentation in man and the higher animals occupies Chapters IV
+and V. The Object of Classification, Certain General Statements
+concerning Organisms, A Description of the Organism as related to
+its Surroundings, The Material Basis of Life, The Organism as a
+Chemical Aggregate and as a Center for the Transformation of Energy,
+Certain Aspects of Form and Development, The Meaning of Sensation,
+and, finally, Some of the Problems presented by the Organism, are
+the remaining chapter headings. The volume contains many interesting
+suggestions, and might perhaps most appropriately be described as a
+Theoretical Biology.</p>
+
+
+<p>"<i>Stars and Telescopes</i>,"<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> Professor <i>Todd</i> says, "is intended
+to meet an American demand for a plain, unrhetorical statement of
+the astronomy of to-day." We might state the purpose to be to bring
+astronomy and all that pertains to it up to date. It is hard to do
+this, for the author has been obliged to put what was then the latest
+discovery, made while the book was going through the press, in a
+footnote at the end of the preface. The information embodied in the
+volume is comprehensive, and is conveyed in a very intelligible style.
+The treatise begins with a running commentary or historical outline
+of astronomical discovery, with a rigid exclusion of all detail. The
+account of the earth and moon is followed by chapters on the Calendar
+and the Astronomical Relations of Light. The other members of the
+solar system are described and their relations reviewed, and then the
+comets and the stars. Closely associated with these subjects are the
+men who have contributed to knowledge respecting them, and consequently
+the names of the great discoverers and others who have helped in the
+advancement of astronomy are introduced in immediate connection with
+their work, in brief sketches and often with their portraits. Much
+importance is attributed by Professor Todd to the instruments with
+which astronomical discovery is carried on, and the book may be said to
+culminate in an account of the famous instruments, their construction,
+mounting, and use. The devisers of these instruments are entitled to
+more credit than the unthinking are always inclined to give them, for
+the value of an observation depends on the accuracy of the instrument
+as well as on the skill of the observer, and the skill which makes
+the instrument accurate is not to be underrated. So the makers of
+the instruments are given their place. Then the recent and improved
+processes have to be considered, and, altogether, Professor Todd has
+found material for a full and somewhat novel book, and has used it to
+good advantage.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Some Observations on the Fundamental Principles of Nature</i> is the
+title of an essay by <i>Henry Witt</i>, which, though very brief, takes
+the world of matter, mind, and society within its scope. One of the
+features of the treatment is that instead of the present theory of
+an order of things resulting from the condensation of more rarefied
+matter, one of the organization of converging waves of infinitesimal
+atoms filling all space is substituted. With this point prominently
+in view, the various factors and properties of the material
+universe&mdash;biology, psychology, sociology, ethics, and the future&mdash;are
+treated of.</p>
+
+
+<p>Among the later monographs published by the Field Columbian Museum,
+Chicago, is a paper in the Geological Series (No. 3) on <i>The Ores of
+Colombia, from Mines in Operation in 1892</i>, by <i>H. W. Nichols</i>. It
+describes the collection prepared for the Columbian Exposition by F.
+Pereira Gamba and afterward given to the museum&mdash;a collection which
+merits attention for the light it throws upon the nature and mode of
+occurrence of the ores of one of the most important gold-producing
+countries of the world, and also because it approaches more nearly
+than is usual the ideal of what a collection in economic geology
+should be. Other publications in the museum's Geological Series are
+<i>The Mylagauldæ, an Extinct Family of Sciuromorph Rodents</i> (No. 4),
+by <i>E. S. Riggs</i>, describing some squirrel-like animals from the
+Deep River beds, near White<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span> Sulphur Springs, Montana; <i>A Fossil Egg
+from South Dakota</i> (No. 5), by <i>O. C. Farrington</i>, relative to the
+egg of an anatine bird from the early Miocene; and <i>Contributions to
+the Paleontology of the Upper Cretaceous Series</i> (No. 6), by <i>W. N.
+Logan</i>, in which seven species of <i>Scaphites</i>, <i>Ostrea</i>, <i>Gasteropoda</i>,
+and corals are described. In the Zoölogical Series, <i>Preliminary
+Descriptions of New Rodents from the Olympic Mountains</i> (of Washington)
+(No. 11), by <i>D. G. Elliot</i>, relates to six species; <i>Notes on a
+Collection of Cold-blooded Vertebrates from the Olympic Mountains</i> (No.
+12), by <i>S. E. Meek</i>, to six trout and three other fish, four amphibia,
+and three reptiles; and a <i>Catalogue of Mammals from the Olympic
+Mountains, Washington</i>, with descriptions of new species (No. 13), by
+<i>D. G. Elliot</i>, includes a number of species of rodents, lynx, bear,
+and deer.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Some Notes on Chemical Jurisprudence</i> is the title given by <i>Harwood
+Huntington</i> (260 West Broadway, New York; 25 cents) to a brief digest
+of patent-law cases involving chemistry. The notes are designed to be
+of use to chemists intending to take out patents by presenting some
+of the difficulties attendant upon drawing up a patent strong enough
+to stand a lawsuit, and by explaining some points of law bearing on
+the subject. In most, if not all, cases where the chemist has devised
+a new method or application it is best, the author holds, to take out
+a patent for self-protection, else the inventor may find his device
+stolen from him and patented against him.</p>
+
+
+<p>A cave or fissure in the Cambrian limestone of Port Kennedy, Montgomery
+County, Pa., exposed by quarrymen the year before, was brought to the
+knowledge of geologists by Mr. Charles M. Wheatley in 1871, when the
+fossils obtained from it were determined by Prof. E. D. Cope as of
+thirty-four species. Attention was again called to the paleontological
+interest of the locality by President Dixon, of the Academy of Natural
+Sciences of Philadelphia, in 1894. The fissure was examined again by
+Dr. Dixon and others, and was more thoroughly explored by Mr. Henry C.
+Mercer. Mr. Mercer published a preliminary account of the work, which
+was followed by the successive studies of the material by Professor
+Cope preliminary to a complete and illustrated report to be made after
+a full investigation of all accessible material. Professor Cope did not
+live to publish this full report, which was his last work, prepared
+during the suffering of his final illness. It is now published, just
+as the author left it, as <i>Vertebrate Remains from the Port Kennedy
+Deposit</i>, from the Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of
+Philadelphia. Four plates of illustrations, photographed from the
+remains, accompany the text.</p>
+
+
+<p>The machinery of Mr. <i>Fred A. Lucas's</i> story of <i>The Hermit
+Naturalist</i> reminds us of that of the old classical French romances,
+like Télémaque, and the somewhat artificial, formal diction is not
+dissimilar. An accident brings the author into acquaintance and
+eventual intimacy with an old Sicilian naturalist, who, migrating to
+this country, has established a home, away from the world's life, on
+an island in the Delaware River. The two find a congenial subject of
+conversation in themes of natural history, and the bulk of the book is
+in effect a running discourse by the old Sicilian on snakes and their
+habits&mdash;a valuable and interesting lesson. The hermit has a romance,
+involving the loss of his motherless daughter, stolen by brigands and
+brought to America, his long search for her and resignation of hope,
+and her ultimate discovery and restoration to him. The book is of easy
+reading, both as to its natural history and the romance.</p>
+
+
+<p>We have two papers before us on the question of expansion. One is an
+address delivered by John Barrett, late United States Minister to
+Siam, before the Shanghai General Chamber of Commerce, and previous
+to the beginning of the attempt to subjugate the islands, on <i>The
+Philippine Islands and American Interests in the Far East</i>. This
+address has, we believe, been since followed by others, and in all
+Mr. Barrett favors the acquisition of the Philippine Islands on the
+grounds, among others, of commercial interests and the capacity of the
+Filipinos for development in further civilization and self-government;
+but his arguments, in the present aspect of the Philippine question,
+seem to us to bear quite as decidedly in the opposite direction. He
+gives the following picture of Aguinaldo and the Filipino govern<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span>ment:
+"He (Aguinaldo) captured all Spanish garrisons on the island of
+Luzon outside of Manila, so that when the Americans were ready to
+proceed against the city they were not delayed and troubled with a
+country campaign. Moreover, he has organized a government which has
+practically been administering the affairs of the great island since
+the American occupation of Manila, and which is certainly better
+than the former administration; he has a properly formed Cabinet and
+Congress, the members of which, in appearance and manners, would
+compare favorably with Japanese statesmen. He has among his advisers
+men of ability as international lawyers, while his supporters include
+most of the prominent educated and wealthy natives, all of which prove
+possibilities of self-government that we must consider." This pamphlet
+is published at Hong Kong. The other paper is an address delivered
+before the New York State Bar Association, by <i>Charles A. Gardiner</i>, on
+<i>Our Right to acquire and hold Foreign Territory</i>, and is published by
+G. P. Putnam's Sons in the Questions of the Day Series. Mr. Gardiner
+holds and expresses the broadest views of the constitutional power
+of our Government to commit the acts named, and to exercise all the
+attributes incidental to the possession of acquired territory, but he
+thinks that we need a great deal of legal advice in the matter.</p>
+
+
+<p>A pamphlet, <i>Anti-Imperialism</i>, by <i>Morrison L. Swift</i>, published by
+the Public Ownership Review, Los Angeles, Cal., covers the subject of
+English and American aggression in three chapters&mdash;Imperialism to bless
+the Conquered, Imperialism for the Sake of Mankind, and Our Crime in
+the Philippines. Mr. Swift is very earnest in respect to some of the
+subjects touched upon in his essays, and some persons may object that
+he is more forcible&mdash;even to excess&mdash;than polite in his denunciations.
+To such he may perhaps reply that there are things which language does
+not afford words too strong to characterize fitly.</p>
+
+
+<p>Among the papers read at the Fourth International Catholic Scientific
+Congress, held at Fribourg, Switzerland, in August, 1897, was one by
+<i>William J. D. Croke</i> on <i>Architecture, Painting, and Printing at
+Subiaco</i> as represented in the Abbey at Subiaco. The author regards the
+features of the three arts represented in this place as evidence that
+the record of the activity of the foundation constitutes a real chapter
+in the history of progress in general and of culture in particular.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p class="ph2"><a name="PUBLICATIONS_RECEIVED" id="PUBLICATIONS_RECEIVED">PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.</a></p>
+
+
+<p>Benson, E. F. Mammon &amp; Co. New York: D. Appleton and Company. Pp. 360.
+$1.50.</p>
+
+<p>Buckley, James A. Extemporaneous Oratory. For Professional and Amateur
+Speakers. New York: Eaton &amp; Mains. Pp. 480. $1.50.</p>
+
+<p>Canada, Dominion of, Experimental Farms: Reports for 1897. Pp. 449;
+Reports for 1898. Pp. 429.</p>
+
+<p>Conn, H. W. The Story of Germ Life. (Library of Useful Stories.) New
+York: D. Appleton and Company. Pp. 199. 40 cents.</p>
+
+<p>Dana, Edward S. First Appendix to the Sixth Edition of Dana's
+Mineralogy. New York: John Wiley &amp; Sons. Pp. 75. $1.</p>
+
+<p>Franklin Institute, The Drawing School, also School of Elementary
+Mathematics: Announcements. Pp. 4 each.</p>
+
+<p>Ganong, William F. The Teaching Botanist. New York: The Macmillan
+Company. Pp. 270. $1.10.</p>
+
+<p>Getman, F. H. The Elements of Blowpipe Analysis. New York: The
+Macmillan Company. Pp. 77. 60 cents.</p>
+
+<p>Halliday, H. M. An Essay on the Common Origin of Light, Heat, and
+Electricity. Washington, D. C. Pp. 46.</p>
+
+<p>Hardin, Willett L. The Rise and Development of the Liquefaction of
+Gases. New York: The Macmillan Company. Pp. 250. $1.10.</p>
+
+<p>Hillegas, Howard C. Oom Paul's People. A Narrative of the British-Boer
+Troubles in South Africa, with a History of the Boers, the Country, and
+its Institutions. New York: D. Appleton and Company. Pp. 308. $1.50.</p>
+
+<p>Ireland, Alleyne. Tropical Colonization. An Introduction to the Study
+of the Subject. New York: The Macmillan Company. $2.</p>
+
+<p>Kingsley, J. S. Text-Book of Elementary Zoölogy. New York: Henry Holt &amp;
+Co. Pp. 439.</p>
+
+<p>Knerr, E. B. Relativity in Science. Silico-Barite Nodules from near
+Salina. Concretions. (Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science.)
+Pp. 24.</p>
+
+<p>Kr&otilde;msk&otilde;p Color Photography.
+Philadelphia: Ives Kr&otilde;msk&otilde;p. Pp. 24.</p>
+
+<p>Liquid-Air Power and Automobile Company. Prospectus. Pp. 16.</p>
+
+<p>MacBride, Thomas A. The North American Slime Molds. Being a List of
+Species of Myxomycetes hitherto described from North America, Including
+Central America. New York: The Macmillan Company. Pp. 231, with 18
+plates. $2.25.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Meyer, A. B. The Distribution of the Negritos in the Philippine Islands
+and Elsewhere. Dresden (Saxony): Stengel &amp; Co. Pp. 92.</p>
+
+<p>Nicholson, H. H., and Avery, Samuel. Laboratory Exercises with Outlines
+for the Study of Chemistry, to accompany any Elementary Text. New York:
+Henry Holt &amp; Co. Pp. 134. 60 cents.</p>
+
+<p>Scharff, R. P. The History of the European Fauna. New York: Imported by
+Charles Scribner's Sons. Pp. 354. $1.50.</p>
+
+<p>Schleicher, Charles, and Schull, Duren. Rhenish Prussia. Samples of
+Special Filtering Papers. New York: Eimer &amp; Amend, agents.</p>
+
+<p>Sharpe, Benjamin F. An Advance in Measuring and Photographing Sounds.
+United States Weather Bureau. Pp. 18, with plates.</p>
+
+<p>Shinn, Milicent W. Notes on the Development of a Child. Parts III and
+IV. (University of California Studies.) Pp. 224.</p>
+
+<p>Shoemaker, M. M. Quaint Corners of Ancient Empires, Southern India,
+Burmah, and Manila. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. Pp. 212.</p>
+
+<p>Smith, Orlando J. A Short View of Great Questions. New York: The
+Brandur Company, 220 Broadway. Pp. 75.</p>
+
+<p>Smith, Walter. Methods of Knowledge. An Essay in Epistemology. New
+York: The Macmillan Company. Pp. 340. $1.25.</p>
+
+<p>Southern, The, Magazine. Monthly. Vol. I, No. 1. August, 1899. Pp. 203.
+10 cents. $1 a year.</p>
+
+<p>Suter, William N. Handbook of Optics. New York: The Macmillan Company.
+Pp. 209. $1.</p>
+
+<p>Tarde, G. Social Laws. An Outline of Sociology. With a Preface by James
+Mark Baldwin. New York: The Macmillan Company. Pp. 213. $1.25.</p>
+
+<p>Uline, Edwin B. Higinbothamia. A New Genus, and other New Dioscoreaceæ,
+New Amaranthaceæ. (Field Columbian Museum, Chicago Botanical Series.)
+Pp. 12.</p>
+
+<p>Underwood, Lucien M. Molds, Mildews, and Mushrooms. New York: Henry
+Holt &amp; Co. Pp. 227, with 9 plates. $1.50.</p>
+
+<p>United States Civil-Service Commission. Fifteenth Report, July 1, 1897,
+to June 30, 1898. Pp. 736. Washington.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p class="ph2"><a name="Fragments_of_Science" id="Fragments_of_Science">Fragments of Science.</a></p>
+
+
+<p><b>The Dover Meeting of the British Association.</b>&mdash;While the
+attendance on the meeting of the British Association at Dover was
+not large&mdash;the whole number of members being 1,403, of whom 127 were
+ladies&mdash;the occasion was in other respects eventful and one of marked
+interest. The papers read were, as a rule, of excellent quality, and
+the interchange of visits with the French Association was a novel
+feature that might bear many repetitions. The president, Sir Michael
+Foster, presented, in his inaugural address, a picture of the state
+of science one hundred years ago, illustrating it by portraying the
+conditions to which a body like the association meeting then at
+Dover would have found itself subject, and suggesting the topics
+it would have discussed. The period referred to was, however, that
+of the beginning of the present progress, and, after remarking on
+what had been accomplished in the interval, the speaker drew a very
+hopeful foreview for the future. Besides the intellectual triumphs of
+science, its strengthening discipline, its relation to politics, and
+the "international brotherhood of science" were brought under notice
+in the address. In his address as president of the Physical Section,
+Prof. J. H. Poynting showed how physicists are tending toward a general
+agreement as to the nature of the laws in which they embody their
+discoveries, of the explanations they give, and of the hypotheses they
+make, and, having considered what the form and terms of this agreement
+should be, passed to a discussion of the limitations of physical
+science. The subject of Dr. Horace T. Brown's Chemical Section address
+was The Assimilation of Carbon by the Higher Plants. Sir William
+H. White, president of the Section of Mechanical Science, spoke on
+Steam Navigation at High Speeds. President Adam Sedgwick addressed
+the Zoölogical Section on Variation and some Phenomena connected with
+Reproduction and Sex; Sir John Murray, the Geographical Section on
+The Ocean Floor; and Mr. J. N. Langley, the Physiological Section on
+the general relations of the motor nerves to the several tissues of
+the body, especially of those which run to tissues over which we have
+little or no control. The president of the Anthropological Section,
+Mr. C. H. Read, of the British Museum, spoke of the preservation
+and proper exploration of the prehistoric antiquities of the
+country, and offered a plan for increasing the amount of work done
+in an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span>thropological investigation by the use of Government aid. A
+peculiar distinction attaches to this meeting through its reception
+and entertainment of the French Association, and the subsequent return
+of the courtesy by the latter body at Boulogne. About three hundred of
+the French Associationists, among whom were many ladies, came over,
+on the Saturday of the meeting, under the lead of their president, M.
+Brouardel, and accompanied by a number of men of science from Belgium.
+They were met at the pier by the officers of the British Association,
+and were escorted to the place of meeting and to the sectional meetings
+toward which their several tastes directed them. The geological address
+of Sir Archibald Geikie on Geological Time had been appointed for
+this day out of courtesy to the French geologists, and in order that
+they might have an opportunity of hearing one of the great lights of
+British science. Among the listeners who sat upon the platform were
+M. Gosselet, president of the French Geological Society; M. Kemna,
+president of the Belgian Geological Society; and M. Rénard, of Ghent.
+Public evening lectures were delivered on the Centenary of the Electric
+Current, by Prof. J. A. Fleming, and (in French) on Nervous Vibration,
+by Prof. Charles Richet. Sir William Turner was appointed president
+for the Bradford meeting of the association (1900). The visit of the
+French Association was returned on September 22d, when the president,
+officers, and about three hundred members went to Boulogne. They were
+welcomed by the mayor of the city, the prefect of the department,
+and a representative of the French Government; were feasted by the
+municipality of Boulogne; were entertained by the members of the French
+Association; and special commemorative medals were presented by the
+French Association to the two presidents. The British visitors also
+witnessed the inauguration of a tablet in memory of Dr. Duchesne, and
+of a plaque commemorative of Thomas Campbell, the poet, who died in
+Boulogne.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Artificial India Rubber.</b>&mdash;A recent issue of the Kew Gardens
+Bulletin contains an interesting article on Dr. Tilden's artificial
+production of India rubber. India rubber, or caoutchouc, is chemically
+a hydrocarbon, but its molecular constitution is unknown. When
+decomposed by heat it is broken up into simpler hydrocarbons, among
+which is a substance called isoprene, a volatile liquid boiling
+at about 36° C. Its molecular formula is C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>8</sub>. Dr. Tilden
+obtained this same substance (isoprene) from oil of turpentine and
+other terpenes by the action of moderate heat, and then by treating
+the isoprene with strong acids succeeded, by means of a very slow
+reaction, in converting a small portion of it into a tough elastic
+solid, which seems to be identical in properties with true India
+rubber. This artificial rubber, like the natural, seems to consist of
+two substances, one of which is more soluble in benzene and carbon
+bisulphide than the other. It unites with sulphur in the same way as
+ordinary rubber, forming a tough, elastic compound. In a recent letter
+Professor Tilden says: "As you may imagine, I have tried everything I
+can think of as likely to promote this change, but without success.
+The polymerization proceeds <i>very</i> slowly, occupying, according to my
+experience, several years, and all attempts to hurry it result in the
+production not of rubber, but of 'colophene,' a thick, sticky oil quite
+useless for all purposes to which rubber is applied."</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Dangers of High Altitudes for Elderly People.</b>&mdash;"The public,
+and sometimes the inexperienced physician&mdash;inexperienced not in
+general therapeutics but in the physiological effects of altitude
+on a weak heart," says Dr. Findlater Zangger in the Lancet, "make
+light of a danger they can not understand. But if an altitude of
+from four thousand to five thousand feet above the sea level puts
+a certain amount of strain on a normal heart and by a rise of the
+blood-pressure indirectly also on the small peripheral arteries, must
+not this action be multiplied in the case of a heart suffering from
+even an early stage of myocarditis or in the case of arteries with
+thickened or even calcified walls? It is especially the rapidity of the
+change from one altitude to another, with differences of from three
+thousand to four thousand feet, which must be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span> considered. There is
+a call made on the contractibility of the small arteries on the one
+hand, and on the amount of muscular force of the heart on the other
+hand, and if the structures in question can not respond to this call,
+rupture of an artery or dilatation of the heart may ensue. In the
+case of a normal condition of the circulatory organs little harm is
+done beyond some transient discomfort, such as dizziness, buzzing in
+the ears, palpitation, general <i>malaise</i>, and this often only in the
+case of people totally unaccustomed to high altitudes. For such it is
+desirable to take the high altitude by degrees in two or three stages,
+say first stage 1,500 feet, second stage from 2,500 to 3,000 feet,
+and third stage from 4,000 to 6,000 feet, with a stay of one or two
+days at the intermediate places. The stay at the health resort will
+be shortened, it is true, but the patient will derive more benefit.
+On the return journey one short stay at one intermediate place will
+suffice. Even a fairly strong heart will not stand an overstrain in
+the first days spent at a high altitude. A Dutch lady, about forty
+years of age, who had spent a lifetime in the lowlands, came directly
+up to Adelboden (altitude, 4,600 feet). After two days she went on an
+excursion with a party up to an Alp 7,000 feet high, making the ascent
+quite slowly in four hours. Sudden heart syncope ensued, which lasted
+the best part of an hour, though I chanced to be near and could give
+assistance, which was urgently needed. The patient recovered, but
+derived no benefit from a fortnight's stay, and had to return to the
+low ground the worse for her trip and her inconsiderate enterprise.
+Rapid ascents to a high altitude are very injurious to patients with
+arterio-sclerosis, and the mountain railways up to seven thousand and
+ten thousand feet are positively dangerous to an unsuspecting public,
+for many persons between the ages of fifty-five and seventy years
+consider themselves to be hale and healthy, and are quite unconscious
+of having advanced arterio-sclerosis and perchance contracted kidney.
+An American gentleman, aged fifty-eight years, was under my care for
+slight symptoms of angina pectoris, pointing to sclerosis of the
+coronary arteries. A two-months' course of treatment at Zurich with
+massage, baths, and proper exercise and diet did away with all the
+symptoms. I saw him by chance some months later. 'My son is going to
+St. Moritz (six thousand feet) for the summer,' said he; 'may I go with
+him?' 'Most certainly not,' was my answer. The patient then consulted
+a professor, who allowed him to go. Circumstances, however, took him
+for the summer to Sachseln, which is situated at an altitude of only
+two thousand feet, and he spent a good summer. But he must needs go up
+the Pilatus by rail (seven thousand feet), relying on the professor's
+permission, and the result was disastrous, for he almost died from a
+violent attack of angina pectoris on the night of his return from the
+Pilatus, and vowed on his return to Zurich to keep under three thousand
+feet in future. I may here mention that bad results in the shape of
+heart collapse, angina pectoris, cardiac asthma, and last, not least,
+apoplexy, often occur only on the return to the lowlands."</p>
+
+
+<p><b>The Parliamentary Amenities Committee.</b>&mdash;Under the above rather
+misleading title there was formed last year, in the English Parliament,
+a committee for the purpose of promoting concerted action in the
+preservation and protection of landmarks of general public interest,
+historic buildings, famous battlefields, and portions of landscape of
+unusual scenic beauty or geological conformation, and also for the
+protection from entire extinction of the various animals and even
+plants which the spread of civilization is gradually pushing to the
+wall. In reality, it is an official society for the preservation of
+those things among the works of past man and Nature which, owing to
+their lack of direct money value, are in danger of destruction in
+this intensely commercial age. Despite the comparative newness of the
+American civilization, there are already many relics belonging to the
+history of our republic whose preservation is very desirable, as well
+as very doubtful, if some such public-spirited committee does not
+take the matter in hand; and, as regards the remains of the original
+Americans, in which the country abounds, the necessity is still more
+immediate. The official care of Nature's own curiosities is equally
+needed, as witness the way in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span> which the Hudson River palisades are
+being mutilated, and the constant raids upon our city parks for
+speedways, parade grounds, etc. The great value of a parliamentary or
+congressional committee of this sort lies in the fact that its opinions
+are not only based upon expert knowledge, but that they can be to an
+extent enforced; whereas such a body of men with no official position
+may go on making suggestions and protesting, as have numerous such
+bodies for years, without producing any practical results. The matter
+is, with us perhaps, one of more importance to future generations; but
+as all Nature seems ordered primarily with reference to the future
+welfare of the race, rather than for the comfort of its present
+members, the necessity for such an official body, whose specific
+business should be to look after the preservation of objects of
+historical interest to the succeeding centuries, ought to be inculcated
+in us as a part of the general evolutionary scheme.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Physical Measurements of Asylum Children.</b>&mdash;Dr. Ales Hrdlicka has
+published an account of anthropological investigations and measurements
+which he has made upon one thousand white and colored children in
+the New York Juvenile Asylum and one hundred colored children in
+the Colored Orphan Asylum, for information about the physical state
+of the children who are admitted and kept in juvenile asylums, and
+particularly to learn whether there is anything physically abnormal
+about them. Some abnormality in the social or moral condition of such
+children being assumed, if they are also physically inferior to other
+children, they would have to be considered generally handicapped in the
+struggle for life; but if they do not differ greatly in strength and
+constitution from the average ordinary children, then their state would
+be much more hopeful. Among general facts concerning the condition of
+the children in the Juvenile Asylum, Dr. Hrdlicka learned that when
+admitted to the institution they are almost always in some way morally
+and physically inferior to healthy children from good social classes
+at large&mdash;the result, usually, of neglect or improper nutrition or
+both. Within a month, or even a week, decided changes for the better
+are observed, and after their admission the individuals of the same sex
+and age seem gradually, while preserving the fundamental differences
+of their nature, to show less of their former diversity and grow more
+alike. In learning, the newcomers are more or less retarded when put
+into the school, but in a great majority of cases they begin to acquire
+rapidly, and the child usually reaches the average standing of the
+class. Inveterate backwardness in learning is rare. Physically, about
+one seventh of all the inmates of the asylum were without a blemish
+on their bodies&mdash;a proportion which will not seem small to persons
+well versed in analyses of the kind. The differences in the physical
+standing of the boys and the girls were not so great or so general as
+to permit building a hypothesis upon them, though the girls came out a
+little the better. The colored boys seemed to be physically somewhat
+inferior to the white ones, but the number of them was not large enough
+to justify a conclusion. Of the children not found perfect, two hundred
+presented only a single abnormality, and this usually so small as
+hardly to justify excluding them from the class of perfect. Regarding
+as decidedly abnormal only those in whom one half the parts of the body
+showed defects, the number was eighty-seven. "Should we, for the sake
+of illustration, express the physical condition of the children by such
+terms as fine, medium, and bad, the fine and bad would embrace in all
+192 individuals, while 808 would remain as medium." All the classes
+of abnormalities&mdash;congenital, pathological, and acquired&mdash;seemed more
+numerous in the boys than in the girls. The colored children showed
+fewer inborn abnormalities than the white, but more pathological and
+acquired. No child was found who could be termed a thorough physical
+degenerate, and the author concludes that the majority of the class of
+children dealt with are physically fairly average individuals.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Busy Birds.</b>&mdash;A close observation of a day's work of busy
+activity, of a day's work of the chipping sparrow hunting and catching
+insects to feed its young, is recorded by Clarence M. Weed in a
+Bulletin of the New Hampshire College Agricultural Experiment Station.
+Mr.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span> Weed began his watch before full daylight in the morning, ten
+minutes before the bird got off from its nest, and continued it till
+after dark. During the busy day Mr. Weed says, in his summary, the
+parent birds made almost two hundred visits to the nest, bringing
+food nearly every time, though some of the trips seem to have been
+made to furnish grit for the grinding of the food. There was no long
+interval when they were not at work, the longest period between visits
+being twenty-seven minutes. Soft-bodied caterpillars were the most
+abundant elements of the food, but crickets and crane flies were also
+seen, and doubtless a great variety of insects were taken, but precise
+determination of the quality of most of the food brought was of course
+impossible. The observations were undertaken especially to learn the
+regularity of the feeding habits of the adult birds. The chipping
+sparrow is one of the most abundant and familiar of our birds. It seeks
+its nesting site in the vicinity of houses, and spends most of its time
+searching for insects in grass lands or cultivated fields and gardens.
+In New England two broods are usually reared each season. That the
+young keep the parents busy catching insects and related creatures for
+their food is shown by the minute record which the author publishes in
+his paper. The bird deserves all the protection and encouragement that
+can be given it.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Park-making among the Sand Dunes.</b>&mdash;For the creation of Golden
+Gate Park the park-makers of San Francisco had a series of sand hills,
+"hills on hills, all of sand-dune formation." The city obtained a strip
+of land lying between the bay and the ocean, yet close enough to the
+center of population to be cheaply and easily reached from all parts
+of the town. Work was begun in 1869, and has been prosecuted steadily
+since, with increasing appropriations, and the results are a credit to
+the city, Golden Gate Park, Mr. Frank H. Lamb says in his account of
+it in The Forester, having a charm that distinguishes it from other
+city parks. It has a present area of 1,040 acres, of which 300 acres
+have been sufficiently reclaimed to be planted with coniferous trees."
+It is this portion of the park which the visitor sees as one of the
+sights of the Golden Gate." As he rides through the park out toward
+the Cliff House and Sutro Heights by the Sea," he sees still great
+stretches of sand, some loose, some still held in place by the long
+stems and rhizomes of the sand grass (<i>Arundo arenaria</i>). This is the
+preparatory stage in park-making. The method in brief is as follows:
+The shifting sand is seeded with <i>Arundo arenaria</i>, and this is allowed
+to grow two years, when the ground is sufficiently held in place to
+begin the second stage of reclamation, which consists in planting
+arboreal species, generally the Monterey pine (<i>Pinus insignis</i>) and
+the Monterey cypress (<i>Cupressus macrocarpus</i>); with these are also
+planted the smaller <i>Leptospermum lævigatum</i> and <i>Acacia latifolia</i>.
+These species in two or more years complete the reclamation, and then
+attention is directed to making up all losses of plants and encouraging
+growth as much as possible." The entire cost of reclamation by these
+methods is represented not to average more than fifty dollars per acre.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>A Fossiliferous Formation below the Cambrian.</b>&mdash;Mr. George F.
+Matthew said, in a communication to the New York Academy of Sciences,
+that he had been aware for several years of the existence of fauna in
+the rocks below those containing <i>Paradoxides</i> and <b>Protolenus</b>
+in New Brunswick, eastern Canada, but that the remains of the higher
+types of organisms found in those rocks were so poorly preserved and
+fragmentary that they gave a very imperfect knowledge of their nature.
+Only the casts of <i>Hyolithidæ</i>, the mold of an obolus, a ribbed shell,
+and parts of what appeared to be the arms and bodies of crinoids were
+known, to assure us that there had been living forms in the seas of
+that early time other than Protozoa and burrowing worms. These objects
+were found in the upper division of a series of rocks immediately
+subjacent to the Cambrian strata containing <i>Protolenus</i>, etc. As a
+decided physical break was discovered between the strata containing
+them and those having <i>Protolenus</i>, the underlying series was thought
+worthy of a distinctive name, and was called Etchemenian, after a tribe
+of aborigines that once inhabited the region. In most countries the
+basement of the Paleozoic sediments seems almost de<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span>void of organic
+remains. Only unsatisfactory results have followed the search for them
+in Europe, and America did not seem to promise a much better return.
+Nevertheless, the indications of a fauna obtained in the maritime
+provinces of Canada seemed to afford a hope that somewhere "these
+basement beds of the Paleozoic might yield remains in a better state
+of preservation." The author, therefore, in the summer of 1898, made
+a visit to a part of Newfoundland where a clear section of sediments
+had been found below the horizons of <i>Paradoxides</i> and <i>Agraulos
+strenuus</i>. These formations were examined at Manuel's Brook and Smith's
+Sound. In the beds defined as Etchemenian no trilobites were found,
+though other classes of animals, such as gastropods, brachiopods, and
+lamellibranchs, occur, with which trilobites elsewhere are usually
+associated in the Cambrian and later geological systems. The absence,
+or possibly the rarity of the trilobites appears to have special
+significance in view of their prominence among Cambrian fossils. The
+uniformity of conditions attending the depositions of the Etchemenian
+terrane throughout the Atlantic coast province of the Cambrian is
+spoken of as surprising and as pointing to a quiescent period of long
+continuance, during which the <i>Hyolithidæ</i> and <i>Capulidæ</i> developed
+so as to become the dominant types of the animal world, while the
+brachiopods, the lamellibranchs, and the other gastropods still were
+puny and insignificant. Mr. Matthew last year examined the red shales
+at Braintree, Mass., and was informed by Prof. W. O. Crosby that
+they included many of the types specified as characteristic of the
+Etchemenian fauna, and that no trilobites had with certainty been
+obtained from them. The conditions of their deposition closely resemble
+those of the Etchemenian of Newfoundland.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>The Paris Exposition, 1900, and Congresses.</b>&mdash;The grounds of
+the Paris Exposition of 1900 extend from the southwest angle of the
+Place de la Concorde along both banks of the Seine, nearly a mile and
+a half, to the Avenue de Suffren, which forms the western boundary
+of the Champ de Mars. The principal exhibition spaces are the Park
+of the Art palaces and the Esplanade des Invalides at the east, and
+the Champ de Mars and the Trocadéro at the west. Many entrances and
+exits will be provided, but the principal and most imposing one will
+be erected at the Place de la Concorde, in the form of a triumphal
+arch. Railways will be provided to bring visitors from the city to
+the grounds, and another railway will make their entire circuit. The
+total surface occupied by the exposition grounds is three hundred and
+thirty-six acres, while that of the exposition of 1889 was two hundred
+and forty acres. Another area has been secured in the Park of Vincennes
+for the exhibition of athletic games, sports, etc. The displays will
+be installed for the most part by groups instead of nations. The
+International Congress of Prehistoric Anthropology and Archæology
+will be held in connection with the exposition, August 20th to August
+25th. The arrangements for it are under the charge of a committee that
+includes the masters and leading representatives of the science in
+France, of which M. le Dr. Verneau, 148 Rue Broca, Paris, is secretary
+general. A congress of persons interested in aërial navigation will be
+held in the Observatory of Meudon, the director of which, M. Janssen,
+is president of the Organizing Committee. Correspondence respecting
+this congress should be addressed to the secretary general, M.
+Triboulet, Director de Journal l'Aeronaute, 10 Rue de la Pepinière,
+Paris.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>English Plant Names.</b>&mdash;Common English and American names of
+plants are treated by Britton and Brown, in their Illustrated Flora
+of the Northern United States, Canada, and the British possessions,
+as full of interest from their origin, history, and significance.
+As observed in Britton and Holland's Dictionary, "they are derived
+from a variety of languages, often carrying us back to the early
+days of our country's history and to the various peoples who, as
+conquerors or colonists, have landed on our shores and left an
+impress on our language. Many of these Old-World words are full of
+poetical association, speaking to us of the thoughts and feelings of
+the Old-World people who invented them; others tell of the ancient
+mythology of our ancestors, of strange old mediæval usages, and of
+superstitions now almost forgotten."<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span> Most of these names, Britton
+and Brown continue in the preface to the third volume of their work,
+suggest their own explanation. "The greater number are either derived
+from the supposed uses, qualities, or properties of the plants; many
+refer to their habitat, appearance, or resemblance, real or fancied,
+to other things; others come from poetical suggestion, affection, or
+association with saints or persons. Many are very graphic, as the
+Western name prairie fire (<i>Castillea coccinea</i>); many are quaint or
+humorous, as cling rascal (<i>Galium sparine</i>) or wait-a-bit (<i>Smilax
+rotundifolia</i>); and in some the corruptions are amusing, as Aunt
+Jerichos (New England) for <i>Angelica</i>. The words horse, ox, dog, bull,
+snake, toad, are often used to denote size, coarseness, worthlessness,
+or aversion. Devil or devil's is used as a prefix for upward of forty
+of our plants, mostly expressive of dislike or of some traditional
+resemblance or association. A number of names have been contributed
+by the Indians, such as chinquapin, wicopy, pipsissewa, wankapin,
+etc., while the term Indian, evidently a favorite, is applied as a
+descriptive prefix to upward of eighty different plants." There should
+be no antagonism in the use of scientific and popular names, since
+their purposes are quite different. The scientific names are necessary
+to students for accuracy, "but the vernacular names are a part of the
+development of the language of each people. Though these names are
+sometimes indicative of specific characters and hence scientifically
+valuable, they are for the most part not at all scientific, but
+utilitarian, emotional, or picturesque. As such they are invaluable not
+for science, but for the common intelligence and the appreciation and
+enjoyment of the plant world."</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Educated Colored Labor.</b>&mdash;In a paper published in connection
+with the Proceedings of the Trustees of the John F. Slater Fund, Mr.
+Booker T. Washington describes his efforts, made at the suggestion of
+the trustees, to bring the work done at the Tuskegee school to the
+knowledge of the white people of the South, and their success. Mr.
+Carver, instructor in agriculture, went before the Alabama Legislature
+and gave an exhibition of his methods and results before the Committee
+on Agriculture. The displays of butter and other farm products proved
+so interesting that many members of the Legislature and other citizens
+inspected the exhibit, and all expressed their gratification. A full
+description of the work in agriculture was published in the Southern
+papers: "The result is that the white people are constantly applying
+to us for persons to take charge of farms, dairies, etc., and in many
+ways showing that their interest in our work is growing in proportion
+as they see the value of it." A visit made by the President of the
+United States gave an opportunity of assembling within the institution
+five members of the Cabinet with their families, the Governor of
+Alabama, both branches of the Alabama Legislature, and thousands of
+white and colored people from all parts of the South. "The occasion
+was most helpful in bringing together the two sections of our country
+and the two races. No people in any part of the world could have acted
+more generously and shown a deeper interest in this school than did
+the white people of Tuskegee and Macon County during the visit of the
+President."</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Geology of Columbus, Ohio.</b>&mdash;In his paper, read at the meeting
+of the American Association, on the geology of Ohio, Dr. Orton spoke
+of the construction of glacial drifts as found in central Ohio and the
+source of the material of the drift, showing that the bowlder clay
+is largely derived from the comminution of black slake, the remnants
+of which appear in North Columbus. He spoke also of the bowlders
+scattered over the surface of the region about Columbus, the parent
+rocks of which may be traced to the shores of the northern lakes, and
+of Jasper's conglomerate, picturesque fragments of which may be found
+throughout central Ohio. Some of these bowlders are known to have come
+from Lake Ontario. Bowlders of native copper also occur, one of which
+was found eight feet below the surface in excavations carried on for
+the foundations of the asylum west of the Scioto.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Civilized and Savage.</b>&mdash;Professor Semon, in his book In the
+Australian Bush, characterizes the treatment of the natives by the
+settlers as constituting,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span> on the whole, one of the darkest chapters
+in the colonization of Australia. "Everywhere and always we find the
+same process: the whites arrive and settle in the hunting grounds of
+the blacks, who have frequented them since the remotest time. They
+raise paddocks, which the blacks are forbidden to enter. They breed
+cattle, which the blacks are not allowed to approach. Then it happens
+that these stupid savages do not know how to distinguish between a
+marsupial and a placental animal, and spear a calf or a cow instead
+of a kangaroo, and the white man takes revenge for this misdeed by
+systematically killing all the blacks that come before his gun. This,
+again, the natives take amiss, and throw a spear into his back when he
+rides through the bush, or invade his house when he is absent, killing
+his family and servants. Then arrive the 'native police,' a troop of
+blacks from another district, headed by a white officer. They know the
+tricks of their race, and take a special pleasure in hunting down their
+own countrymen, and they avenge the farmer's dead by killing all the
+blacks in the neighborhood, sometimes also their women and children.
+This is the almost typical progress of colonization, and even though
+such things are abolished in the southeastern colonies and in southeast
+and central Queensland, they are by no means unheard of in the north
+and west."</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p class="ph2"><a name="MINOR_PARAGRAPHS" id="MINOR_PARAGRAPHS">MINOR PARAGRAPHS.</a></p>
+
+
+<p>In a brood of five nestling sparrow-hawks, which he had the opportunity
+of studying alive and dead, Dr. R. W. Shufeldt remarked that the
+largest and therefore oldest bird was nearly double the size of the
+youngest or smallest one, while the three others were graduated down
+from the largest to the smallest in almost exact proportions." It was
+evident, then, that the female had laid the eggs at regular intervals,
+and very likely three or four days apart, and that incubation commenced
+immediately after the first egg was deposited. What is more worthy
+of note, however, is the fact that the sexes of these nestlings
+alternated, the oldest bird being a male, the next a female, followed
+by another male, and so on, the last or youngest one of all five being
+a male. This last had a plumage of pure white down, with the pin
+feathers of the primaries and secondaries of the wings, as well as the
+rectrices of the tail, just beginning to open at their extremities.
+From this stage gradual development of the plumage is exhibited
+throughout the series, the entire plumage of the males and females
+being very different and distinctive." If it be true, as is possibly
+indicated, that the sexes alternate in broods of young sparrow-hawks as
+a regular thing, the author has no explanation for the fact, and has
+never heard of any being offered.</p>
+
+
+<p>Architecture and Building gives the following interesting facts
+regarding the building trades in Chicago: "Reports from Chicago are
+that labor in building lines is scarce. The scarcity of men is giving
+the building trades council trouble to meet the requirements of
+contractors. It is said that half a dozen jobs that are ready to go
+ahead are at a standstill because men can not be had, particularly
+iron workers and laborers&mdash;the employees first to be employed in
+the construction of the modern building. It is also said that wages
+have never been better in the building line. The following is the
+schedule of wages, based on an eight-hour day: Carpenters, $3.40;
+electricians, $3.75; bridge and structural iron workers, $3.60; tin and
+sheet-iron workers, $3.20; plumbers, $4; steam fitters, $3.75; elevator
+constructors, $3; hoisting engineers, $4; derrick men, $2; gas-fitters,
+$3.75; plasterers, $4; marble cutters, $3.50; gravel roofers, $2.80;
+boiler-makers, $2.40; stone sawyers and rubbers, $3; marble enamel
+glassworkers' helpers, $2.25; slate and tile roofers, $3.80; marble
+setters' helpers, $2; steam-fitters' helpers, $2; stone cutters, $4;
+stone carvers, $5; bricklayers, $4; painters, $3; hod carriers and
+building laborers, $2; plasterers' hod carriers, $2.40; mosaic and
+encaustic tile layers, $4; helpers, $2.40."</p>
+
+
+<p>In presenting the fourth part of his memoir on The Tertiary Fauna
+of Florida (Transactions of the Wagner Free Institute of Science,
+Philadelphia), Mr. William Healey Dall observes that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> interest
+aroused in the explorations of Florida by the Wagner Institute and its
+friends and by the United States Geological Survey has resulted in
+bringing in a constantly increasing mass of material. The existence of
+Upper Oligocene beds in western Florida containing hundreds of species,
+many of which were new, added two populous faunas to the Tertiary
+series. It having been found that a number of the species belonging to
+these beds had been described from the Antillean tertiaries, it became
+necessary, in order to put the work on a sound foundation, besides the
+review of the species known to occur in the United States, to extend
+the revision to the tertiaries of the West Indies. It is believed that
+the results will be beneficial in clearing the way for subsequent
+students and putting the nomenclature on a more permanent and reliable
+basis.</p>
+
+
+<p>The numerical system of the natives of Murray Island, Torres Strait, is
+described by the Rev. A. E. Hunt, in the Journal of the Anthropological
+Society, as based on two numbers&mdash;<i>netat</i>, one, and <i>neis</i>, two. The
+numbers above two are expressed by composition&mdash;<i>neis-netat</i>, three;
+<i>neis i neis</i>, or two and two, four. Numbers above four are associated
+with parts of the body, beginning with the little and other fingers
+of the left hand, and going on to the wrist, elbow, armpit, shoulder,
+etc., on the left side and going down on the right side, to 21; and the
+toes give ten numbers more, to 31. Larger numbers are simply "many."</p>
+
+
+<p>President William Orton, of the American Association, in his address at
+the welcoming meeting, showed, in the light of the facts recorded in
+Alfred R. Wallace's book on The Wonderful Century, that the scientific
+achievements of the present century exceed all those of the past
+combined. He then turned to the purpose of the American Association to
+labor for the discovery of new truth, and said: "It is possible that
+we could make ourselves more interesting to the general public if we
+occasionally foreswore our loyalty to our name and spent a portion of
+our time in restating established truths. Our contributions to the
+advancement of science are often fragmentary and devoid of special
+interest to the outside world. But every one of them has a place in
+the great temple of knowledge, and the wise master builders, some of
+whom appear in every generation, will find them all and use them all at
+last, and then only will their true value come to light."</p>
+
+
+<p class="center">NOTES.</p>
+
+<p>The number of broods of seventeen-year and thirteen-year locusts has
+become embarrassing to those who seek to distinguish them, and the
+trouble is complicated by the various designations different authors
+have given them. The usual method is to give the brood a number in a
+series, written with a Roman numeral. Mr. C. L. Marlatt proposes a
+regular and uniform nomenclature, giving the first seventeen numbers to
+the seventeen-year broods, beginning with that of 1893 as number I, and
+the next thirteen numbers (XVIII to XXX) to the thirteen-year broods,
+beginning with the brood of 1842 and 1855 as number XVIII.</p>
+
+
+<p>Experimenting on the adaptability of carbonic acid to the inflation of
+pneumatic tires, M. d'Arsonval, of Paris, has found that the gas acts
+upon India rubber, and, swelling its volume out enormously, reduces it
+to a condition like that following maceration in petroleum. On exposure
+to the air the carbonic acid passes away and the India rubber returns
+to its normal condition. Carbonic acid, therefore, does not seem well
+adapted to use in inflation. Oxygen is likewise not adapted, because it
+permeates the India rubber and oxidizes it, but nitrogen is quite inert
+and answers the purpose admirably.</p>
+
+
+<p>Mr. Gifford Pinchot, Forester of the Department of Agriculture, has
+announced that a few well-qualified persons will be received in the
+Division of Forestry as student-assistants. They will be assigned to
+practical field work, and will be allowed their expenses and three
+hundred dollars a year. They are expected to possess, when they come,
+a certain degree of knowledge, which is defined in Mr. Pinchot's
+announcement, of botany, geology, and other sciences, with good general
+attainments.</p>
+
+
+<p>In a communication made to the general meeting of the French Automobile
+Club, in May, the Baron de Zeylen enumerates 600 manufacturers in
+France who have produced 5,250 motor-carriages and about 10,000
+motor-cycles; 110 makers in England, 80 in Germany, 60 in the United
+States, 55 in Belgium, 25 in Switzerland, and about 30 in the other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span>
+states of Europe. The manufacture outside of France does not appear
+to be on a large scale, for only three hundred carriages are credited
+to other countries, and half of these to Belgium. The United States,
+however, promises to give a good account of itself next time.</p>
+
+
+<p>Mine No. 8 of the Sunday Creek Coal Company, to which the American
+Association made its Saturday excursion from Columbus, Ohio, has
+recently been equipped with electric power, which is obtained by
+utilizing the waste gas from the oil wells in the vicinity. This, the
+Ohio State Journal says, is the first mine in the State to make use of
+this natural power.</p>
+
+
+<p>In a bulletin relating to a "dilution cream separator" which is now
+marketed among farmers, the Purdue University Agricultural Experiment
+Station refers to the results of experiments made several years ago as
+showing that an increased loss of fat occurs in skim milk when dilution
+is practiced, that the loss is greater with cold than with warm water,
+and that the value of the skim milk for feeding is impaired when it
+is diluted. Similar results have been obtained at other experiment
+stations. The results claimed to be realized with the separators can be
+obtained by diluting the milk in a comparatively inexpensive round can.</p>
+
+
+<p>To our death list of men known in science we have to add the names
+of John Cordreaux, an English ornithologist, who was eminent as a
+student, for thirty-six years, of bird migrations, and was secretary
+of the British Association's committee on that subject, at Great
+Cotes House, Lincolnshire, England, August 1st, in his sixty-ninth
+year; he was author of a book on the Birds of the Humber District,
+and of numerous contributions to The Zoölogist and The Ibis; Gaston
+Tissandier, founder, and editor for more than twenty years, of the
+French scientific journal <i>La Nature</i>, at Paris, August 30th, in
+his fifty-seventh year; besides his devotion to his journal, he was
+greatly interested in aërial navigation, to which he devoted much
+time and means in experiments, and was a versatile author of popular
+books touching various departments of science; Judge Charles P. Daly,
+of New York, who, as president for thirty-six years of the American
+Geographical Society, contributed very largely to the encouragement
+and progress of geographical study in the United States, September
+19th, in his eighty-fourth year; he was an honorary member of the Royal
+Geographical Society of London, of the Berlin Geographical Society,
+and of the Imperial Geographical Society of Russia; he was a judge of
+the Court of Common Pleas of New York from 1844 to 1858, and after
+that chief justice of the same court continuously for twenty-seven
+years, and was besides, a publicist of high reputation, whose opinion
+and advice were sought by men charged with responsibility concerning
+them on many important State and national questions; Henri Lévègne de
+Vilmorin, first vice-president of the Paris School of Horticulture;
+O. G. Jones, Physics Master of the City of London School, from an
+accident on the Dent Blanche, Alps, August 30th; Ambrose A. P. Stewart,
+formerly instructor in chemistry in the Lawrence Scientific School, and
+afterward Professor of Chemistry in the Pennsylvania State College and
+in the University of Illinois, at Lincoln, Neb., September 13th; Dr.
+Charles Fayette Taylor, founder of the New York Orthopedic Dispensary,
+and author of articles in the Popular Science Monthly on Bodily
+Conditions as related to Mental States (vol. xv), Gofio, Food, and
+Physique (vol. xxxi), and Climate and Health (vol. xlvii), and of books
+relating to his special vocation, died in Los Angeles, Cal., January
+25th, in his seventy-second year.</p>
+
+
+<p>Efforts are making for the formation of a Soppitt Memorial Library of
+Mycological Literature, to be presented to the Yorkshire (England)
+Naturalists' Union as a memorial of the services rendered to
+mycological science and to Yorkshire natural history generally, by the
+late Mr. H. T. Soppitt.</p>
+
+
+<p>The United States Department of Agriculture has published, for general
+information and in order to develop a wider interest in the subject,
+the History and Present Status of Instruction in Cooking in the
+Public Schools of New York City, by Mrs. Louise E. Hogan, to which an
+introduction is furnished by A. C. True, Ph. D.</p>
+
+
+<p>The United States Weather Bureau publishes a paper On Lightning and
+Electricity in the Air, by Alexander G. McAdie, representing the
+present knowledge on the subject, and, as supplementary to it or
+forming a second part, Loss of Life and Property by Electricity, by
+Alfred J. Henry.</p>
+
+
+<p>A gift of one thousand dollars has been made to the research fund of
+the American Association for the Advancement of Science by Mr. Emerson
+McMillin, of New York.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p class="ph4">FOOTNOTES</p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Dodd, Mead &amp; Co., New York, 1899.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> A paper read before Section F of the American Association
+for the Advancement of Science at the Columbus meeting in August, 1899.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> When the word "bite" is used in connection with these
+bugs, it must be remembered that it is really a puncture made with the
+sharp beak or proboscis (see illustration).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of
+Philadelphia, vol. vii, p. 404, 1854-'55.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of
+Philadelphia, vol. vii, p. 404 1854-'55.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> A report, published in Nature, from Major Ronald Ross to
+the Secretary to the Director General, Indian Medical Service, Simla.
+Dated Calcutta, February 16, 1899.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> Dr. A. Tripier. Assainissement des Théâtres, Ventilation,
+Éclairage et Chauffage.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> The reader will find the subject discussed and illustrated
+in the author's work, Sanitary Engineering of Buildings, vol. i, 1899.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> See the author's work, Theater Fires and Panics, 1895.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> The Growth of Cities in the Nineteenth Century. A Study
+in Statistics. By Adna Ferrln Weber. (Columbia University Studies In
+History, Economics, and Public Law.) New York: Published for Columbia
+University by the Macmillan Company. Pp. 495. Price, $3.50.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Mineral Waters of the United States and their Therapeutic
+Uses, with an Account of the Various Mineral Spring Localities, their
+Advantages as Health Resorts, Means of Access, etc.; to which is
+added an Appendix on Potable Waters. By James K. Crook. New York and
+Philadelphia: Lea Brothers &amp; Co. Pp. 588. Price, $3.50.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Every-Day Butterflies. A Group of Biographies. By Samuel
+Hubbard Scudder. Boston and New York: Houghton, Mifflin &amp; Co. Pp. 386.
+Price. $2.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> L'Audition et ses Organes. By Dr. M. E. Gellé. Paris:
+Félix Alcan (Bibliothèque Scientifique). Pp. 326. Price, six francs.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> A History of the American Nation. By Andrew C.
+McLaughlin. New York: D. Appleton and Company. Pp. 587. Price, $1.40.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> The Elements of Practical Astronomy. By W. W. Campbell.
+Second edition, revised and enlarged. New York: The Macmillan Company.
+Pp. 264. Price, $2.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> The Characters of Crystals. An Introduction to Physical
+Crystallography. By Alfred J. Moses. New York: D. Van Nostrand Company.
+Pp. 211. Price, $2.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> Minerals in Rock Sections; the Practical Method of
+identifying Minerals in Rock Sections with the Microscope. Especially
+arranged for Students in Scientific Schools. By Lea McIlvaine Luquer.
+New York: D. Van Nostrand Company. Pp. 117.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> Elements of Trigonometry, with Tables. By Herbert C.
+Whitaker. Philadelphia: Eldredge &amp; Brother. Pp. 200.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> California Plants in their Homes. By Alice Merritt
+Davidson. Los Angeles, Cal.: B .R. Baumgardt &amp; Co. Pp. 215-133.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> Plant Relations. A First Book of Botany. By John M.
+Coulter. New York: D. Appleton and Company. (Twentieth Century Text
+Books.) Pp. 264. Price, $1.10.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> The Wilderness of Worlds. A Popular Sketch of the
+Evolution of Matter from Nebula to Man and Return. The Life-Orbit of a
+Star. By George W. Morehouse. New York: Peter Eckler. Pp. 246. Price,
+$1.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> The Living Organism. By Alfred Earl, M. A. New York: The
+Macmillan Company. Pp. 271. Price, $1.75.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> Stars and Telescopes A Handbook of Popular Astronomy.
+Boston: Little, Brown &amp; Co. Pp. 419. Price, $2.</p></div></div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ph4">Transcriber's note:</p>
+
+<p class="center">The transcriber added a Table of Contents to help with navigation.</p>
+
+<p class="center">The scale shown below images in the original, is no longer accurate.</p>
+
+<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44725 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
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+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #44725 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/44725)
diff --git a/old/44725-8.txt b/old/44725-8.txt
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Appletons' Popular Science Monthly,
+November 1899, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Appletons' Popular Science Monthly, November 1899
+       Volume LVI, No. 1
+
+Author: Various
+
+Editor: William Jay Youmans
+
+Release Date: January 22, 2014 [EBook #44725]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK APPLETONS' POPULAR SCIENCE, NOV. 1899 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Greg Bergquist and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Established by Edward L. Youmans
+
+APPLETONS' POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY
+
+EDITED BY WILLIAM JAY YOUMANS
+
+VOL. LVI NOVEMBER, 1899, TO APRIL, 1900
+
+NEW YORK D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 1900
+
+
+
+
+COPYRIGHT, 1900, BY D. APPLETON AND COMPANY.
+
+[Illustration: GEORGE M. STERNBERG.]
+
+
+
+
+APPLETONS' POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.
+
+NOVEMBER, 1899.
+
+
+
+
+THE REAL PROBLEMS OF DEMOCRACY.
+
+BY FRANKLIN SMITH.
+
+
+Much has been written of late about "the real problems of democracy."
+According to some "thinkers," they consist of the invention of
+ingenious devices to prevent caucus frauds and the purchase of votes,
+to check the passage of special laws as well as too many laws, and
+to infuse into decent people an ardent desire to participate in
+the wrangles of politics. According to others, they consist of the
+invention of equally ingenious devices to compel corporations to manage
+their business in accordance with Christian principles, to transform
+the so-called natural monopolies into either State or municipal
+monopolies, and to effect, by means of the power of taxation, a more
+equitable distribution of wealth. According to still others, they
+consist of the invention of no less ingenious devices to force people
+to be temperate, to observe humanity toward children and animals, and
+to read and study what will make them model citizens. It is innocently
+and touchingly believed that with the solution of these problems, by
+the application of the authority that society has over the individual,
+"the social conscience" will be awakened. But such a belief can not
+be realized. It has its origin in a conception of democracy that has
+no foundation either in history or science. What are supposed to be
+the real problems of democracy are only the problems of despotism--the
+problems to which every tyrant from time immemorial has addressed
+himself, to the moral and industrial ruin of his subjects.
+
+If democracy be conceived not as a form of political government under
+the _régime_ of universal suffrage, but as a condition of freedom under
+moral control, permitting every man to do as he likes, so long as he
+does not trench upon the equal right of every other man, deliverance
+from the sophistries and absurdities of current social and political
+discussion becomes easy and inevitable. Its real problems cease to
+be an endless succession of political devices that stimulate cunning
+and evasion, and countless encroachments upon individual freedom that
+stir up contention and ill feeling. Instead of being innumerable and
+complex, defying the solvent power of the greatest intellects and the
+efforts of the most enthusiastic philanthropists, they become few and
+simple. While their proper solution is beset with difficulties, these
+difficulties are not as hopeless as the framing of a statute to produce
+a growth of virtue in a depraved heart. Indeed, no such task has ever
+been accomplished, and every effort in that direction has been worse
+than futile. It has encouraged the growth of all the savage traits that
+ages of conflict have stamped so profoundly in the nervous system of
+the race. But let it be understood that the real problems of democracy
+are the problems of self-support and self-control, the problems that
+appeared with the appearance of human life, and that their sole
+solution is to be found in the application of precisely the same
+methods with which Nature disciplines the meanest of her creatures,
+then we may expect a measure of success from the efforts of social
+and political reformers; for freedom of thought and action, coupled
+with the punishment that comes from a failure to comply with the laws
+of life and the conditions of existence, creates an internal control
+far more potent than any law. It impels men to depend upon their own
+efforts to gain a livelihood; it inspires them with a respect for the
+right of others to do the same.
+
+Simple and commonplace as the traits of self-support and self-control
+may seem, they are of transcendent importance. Every other trait sinks
+into insignificance. The society whose members have learned to care for
+themselves and to control themselves has no further moral or economic
+conquests to make. It will be in the happy condition dreamed of by all
+poets, philosophers, and philanthropists. There will be no destitution,
+for each person, being able to maintain himself and his family, will
+have no occasion, except in a case of a sudden and an unforeseen
+misfortune, to look to his friends and neighbors for aid. But in thus
+maintaining himself--that is, in pursuing the occupation best adapted
+to his ability and most congenial to his taste--he will contribute
+in the largest degree to the happiness of the other members of the
+community. While they are pursuing the occupations best adapted to
+their ability and most congenial to their tastes, they will be able to
+obtain from him, as he will be able to obtain from them, those things
+that both need to supplement the products of their own industry. Since
+each will be left in full possession of all the fruits of his own toil,
+he will be at liberty to make just such use of them as will contribute
+most to his happiness, thus permitting the realization, in the only
+practicable way, of Bentham's principle of "the greatest happiness
+of the greatest number." Since all of them will be free to make such
+contracts as they believe will be most advantageous to them, exchanging
+what they are willing to part with for what some one else is willing
+to give in return, there will prevail the only equitable distribution
+of the returns from labor and capital. No one will receive more and no
+one less than he is entitled to. Thus will benefit be in proportion to
+merit, and the most scrupulous justice be satisfied.
+
+But this _régime_ of equity in the distribution of property implies, as
+I have already said, the possession of a high degree of self-control.
+Not only must all persons have such a keen sense of their own rights
+as will never permit them to submit to infringement, but they must
+have such a keen sense of the rights of others that they will not be
+guilty themselves of infringement. Not only will they refrain from the
+commission of those acts of aggression whose ill effects are immediate
+and obvious; they will refrain from those acts whose ill effects are
+remote and obscure. Although they will not, for example, deceive or
+steal or commit personal assaults, they will not urge the adoption of
+a policy that will injure the unknown members of other communities,
+like the Welsh tin-plate makers and the Vienna pearl-button makers that
+the McKinley Bill deprived of employment. Realizing the vice of the
+plea of the opponents of international copyright that cheap literature
+for a people is better than scrupulous honesty, they will not refuse
+to foreign authors the same protection to property that they demand.
+They will not, finally, allow themselves to take by compulsion or by
+persuasion the property of neighbors to be used to alleviate suffering
+or to disseminate knowledge in a way to weaken the moral and physical
+strength of their fellows. But the possession of a sense of justice
+so scrupulous assumes the possession of a fellow-feeling so vivid
+that it will allow no man to refuse all needful aid to the victims of
+misfortune. As suffering to others will mean suffering to himself,
+he will be as powerfully moved to go to their rescue as he would to
+protect himself against the same misfortune. Indeed, he will be moved,
+as all others will be moved, to undertake without compulsion all the
+benevolent work, be it charitable or educational, that may be necessary
+to aid those persons less fortunate than himself to obtain the greatest
+possible satisfaction out of life.
+
+But the methods of social reform now in greatest vogue do not
+contribute to the realization of any such millennium. They are a
+flagrant violation of the laws of life and the conditions of existence.
+They make difficult, if not impossible, the establishment of the moral
+government of a democracy that insures every man and woman not only
+freedom but also sustentation and protection. In disregard of the
+principles of biology, which demand that benefit shall be in proportion
+to merit, the feeble members of society are fostered at the expense
+of the strong. Setting at defiance the principles of psychology,
+which insist upon the cultivation of the clearest perception of the
+inseparable relation of cause and effect and the equally inseparable
+relation of aggression and punishment, honest people are turned into
+thieves and murderers, and thieves and murderers are taught to believe
+that no retribution awaits the commission of the foulest crime.
+Scornful of the principles of sociology, which teach in the plainest
+way that the institutions of feudalism are the products of war and can
+serve no other purpose than the promotion of aggression, a deliberate
+effort, born of the astonishing belief that they can be transformed
+into the agencies of progress, is made in time of peace to restore them
+to life.
+
+To the American Philistine nothing is more indicative of the marvelous
+moral superiority of this age and country than the rapid increase
+in the public expenditures for enterprises "to benefit the people."
+Particularly enamored is he of the showy statistics of hospitals,
+asylums, reformatories, and other so-called charitable institutions
+supported by public taxation. "How unselfish we are!" he exclaims,
+swelling with pride as he points to them. "In what other age or in what
+other country has so much been done for the poor and unfortunate?"
+Naught shall ever be said by me against the desire to help others.
+The fellow-feeling that thrives upon the aid rendered to the sick and
+destitute I believe to be the most precious gift of civilization.
+Upon its growth depends the further moral advancement of the race. As
+I have already intimated, only as human beings are able to represent
+to themselves vividly the sufferings of others will they be moved to
+desist from the conduct that contributes to those sufferings. But the
+system of public charity that prevails in this country is not charity
+at all; it is a system of forcible public largesses, as odious and
+demoralizing as the one that contributed so powerfully to the downfall
+of Athens and Rome. By it money is extorted from the taxpayer with as
+little justification as the crime of the highwayman, and expended by
+politicians with as little love as he of their fellows. What is the
+result? Precisely what might be expected. He is infuriated because of
+the growing burden of his taxes. Instead of being made more humane and
+sympathetic with every dollar he gives under compulsion to the poor and
+suffering, he becomes more hard-hearted and bitter toward his fellows.
+The notion that society, as organized at present, is reducing him to
+poverty and degradation takes possession of him. He becomes an agitator
+for violent reforms that will only render his condition worse. At the
+same time the people he aids come to regard him simply as a person
+under obligations to care for them. They feel no more gratitude toward
+him than the wolf toward the victim of its hunger and ferocity.
+
+Akin to public charity are all those public enterprises undertaken to
+ameliorate the condition of the poor--parks, model tenement houses, art
+galleries, free concerts, free baths, and relief works of all kinds. To
+these I must add all those Federal, State, and municipal enterprises,
+such as the post office with the proposed savings attachment, a State
+system of highways and waterways, municipal water, gas and electric
+works, etc., that are supposed to be of inestimable advantage to the
+same worthy class. These likewise fill the heart of the American
+Philistine with immense satisfaction. Although he finds, by his study
+of pleasing romances on municipal government in Europe, that we have
+yet to take some further steps before we fall as completely as the
+inhabitants of Paris and Berlin into the hands of municipal despotism,
+he is convinced that we have made gratifying headway, and that the
+outlook for complete subjection to that despotism is encouraging. But
+it should be remembered that splendid public libraries and public
+baths, and extensive and expensive systems of highways and municipal
+improvements, built under a modified form of the old _corvée_, are
+no measure of the fellow-feeling and enlightenment of a community.
+On the contrary, they indicate a pitiful incapacity to appreciate
+the rights of others, and are, therefore, a measure rather of the
+low degree of civilization. It should be remembered also, especially
+by the impoverished victims of the delusions of the legislative
+philanthropist, that there is no expenditure that yields a smaller
+return in the long run than public expenditure; that however honest the
+belief that public officials will do their duty as conscientiously and
+efficiently as private individuals, history has yet to record the fact
+of any bureaucracy; that however profound the conviction that the cost
+of these "public blessings" comes out of the pockets of the rich and is
+on that account particularly justifiable, it comes largely out of the
+pockets of the poor; and that by the amount abstracted from the income
+of labor and capital by that amount is the sum divided between labor
+and capital reduced.
+
+"But," interposes the optimist, "have the Americans not their great
+public-school system, unrivaled in the world, to check and finally
+to end the evils that appear thus far to be inseparably connected
+with popular government? Is there any truth more firmly established
+than that it is the bulwark of American institutions, and that if we
+maintain it as it should be maintained they will be able to weather any
+storm that may threaten?" Precisely the same argument has been urged
+time out of mind in behalf of an ecclesiastical system supported at
+the expense of the taxpayer. Good men without number have believed,
+and have fought to maintain their belief, that only by the continuance
+of this form of aggression could society be saved from corruption and
+barbarism. Even in England to-day, where freedom and civilization
+have made their most brilliant conquests, this absurd contention
+is made to bolster up the rotten and tottering union of Church and
+state, and to justify the seizure of the property of taxpayers to
+support a particular form of ecclesiastical instruction. But no fact
+of history has received demonstrations more numerous and conclusive
+than that such instruction, whether Protestant or Catholic, Buddhist
+or Mohammedan, in the presence of the demoralizing forces of militant
+activities, is as impotent as the revolutions of the prayer wheel of
+a pious Hindu. To whatever country or people or age we may turn, we
+find that the spirit of the warrior tramples the spirit of the saint
+in the dust. Despite the lofty teachings of Socrates and Plato, the
+Athenians degenerated until the name of the Greek became synonymous
+with that of the blackest knave. With the noble examples and precepts
+of the Stoics in constant view, the Romans became beastlier than any
+beast. All through the middle ages and down to the present century
+the armies of ecclesiastics, the vast libraries of theology, and the
+myriads of homilies and prayers were impotent to prevent the social
+degradation that inundated the world with the outbreak of every great
+conflict. Take, for example, a page from the history of Spain. At the
+time of Philip II, who tried to make his people as rigid as monks, that
+country had no rival in its fanatical devotion to the Church, or its
+slavish observance of the forms of religion. Yet its moral as well as
+its intellectual and industrial life was sinking to the lowest level.
+Official corruption was rampant. The most shameless sexual laxity
+pervaded all ranks. The name of Spanish women, who had "in previous
+times been modest, almost austere and Oriental in their deportment,"
+became a byword and a reproach throughout the world. "The ladies are
+naturally shameless," says Camille Borghese, the Pope's delegate
+to Madrid in 1593, "and even in the streets go up and address men
+unknown to them, looking upon it as a kind of heresy to be properly
+introduced. They admit all sorts of men to their conversation, and
+are not in the least scandalized at the most improper proposals being
+made to them." To see how ecclesiastics themselves fall a prey to the
+ethics of militant activities, becoming as heartless and debauched as
+any other class, take a page from Italian history at the time of Pope
+Alexander VI. "Crimes grosser than Scythian," says a pious Catholic who
+visited Rome, "acts of treachery worse than Carthaginian, are committed
+without disguise in the Vatican itself under the eyes of the Pope.
+There are rapines, murders, incests, debaucheries, cruelties exceeding
+those of the Neros and Caligulas." Similar pages from the history of
+every other country in Europe given up to war, including Protestant
+England, might be quoted.
+
+But what is true of ecclesiastical effort in the presence of militant
+activities is true of pedagogic effort in the presence of political
+activities. For more than half a century the public-school system
+in its existing form has been in full and energetic operation. The
+money devoted to it every year now reaches the enormous total of one
+hundred and eighty million dollars. Simultaneously an unprecedented
+extension of secondary education has occurred. Since the war, colleges
+and universities, supported in whole or in part at the public expense,
+have been established in more than half of the States and Territories
+of the Union. To these must be added the phenomenal growth of normal
+schools, high schools, and academies, and of the equipment of the
+educational institutions already in existence. Yet, as a result, are
+the American people more moral than they were half a century ago? Have
+American institutions--that is, the institutions based upon the freedom
+of the individual--been made more secure? I venture to answer both
+questions with an emphatic negative. The construction and operation
+of the greatest machine of pedagogy recorded in history has been
+absolutely impotent to stem the rising tide of political corruption
+and social degeneration. If there are skeptics that doubt the truth
+of this indictment let them study the criminal history of the day
+that records the annual commission of more than six thousand suicides
+and more than ten thousand homicides, and the embezzlement of more
+than eleven million dollars. Let them study the lying pleas of the
+commercial interests of the country that demand protection against "the
+pauper labor of Europe," and thus commit a shameless aggression upon
+the pauper labor of America. Let them study the records of the deeds
+of intolerance and violence committed upon workingmen that refuse to
+exchange their personal liberty for membership of a despotic labor
+organization. Let them study the columns of the newspapers, crowded
+with records of crime, salacious stories, and ignorant comment on
+current questions and events that appeal to a population as unlettered
+and base as themselves. Let them study, finally, the appalling
+indictment of American political life, in a State where the native
+blood still runs pure in the veins of the majority of the inhabitants,
+that Mr. John Wanamaker framed in a great speech at the opening of
+his memorable campaign in Lancaster against the most powerful and
+most corrupt despotism that can be found outside of Russia or Turkey.
+"In the fourth century of Rome, in the time of Emperor Theodosius,
+Hellebichus was master of the forces," he said, endeavoring to describe
+a condition of affairs that exists in a similar degree in every State
+in the Union, "and Cæsarius was count of the offices. In the nineteenth
+century, M. S. Quay is count of the offices, and W. A. Andrews, Prince
+of Lexow, is master of forces in Pennsylvania, and we have to come
+through the iron age and the silver age to the worst of all ages--the
+degraded, evil age of conscienceless, debauched politics.... Profligacy
+and extravagance and boss rule everywhere oppress the people. By the
+multiplication of indictments your district attorney has multiplied
+his fees far beyond the joint salaries of both your judges. The
+administration of justice before the magistrates has degenerated
+into organized raids on the county treasury.... Voters are corruptly
+influenced or forcibly coerced to do the bidding of the bosses, and
+thus force the fetters of political vassalage on the freemen of the
+old guard. School directors, supervisors, and magistrates, and the
+whole machinery of local government, are involved and dominated by this
+accursed system."
+
+But Mr. Wanamaker might have added that the whole social and industrial
+life of the country is involved and dominated by the same system. It
+is a well-established law of social science that the evil effects
+of a dominant activity are not confined to the persons engaged
+in it. Like a contagion, they spread to every part of the social
+organization, and poison the life farthest removed from their origin.
+Yet the public-school system, so impotent to save us from social and
+political degradation and still such an object of unbounded pride and
+adulation, is, as Mr. Wanamaker, all unconscious of the implication of
+his scathing criticism, points out in so many words, an integral part
+of the vast and complex machinery that political despotism has seized
+upon to plunder and enslave the American people. As in the case of
+every other extension of the duties of government beyond the limits
+of the preservation of order and the enforcement of justice, it is an
+aggression upon the rights of the individual, and, as in the case of
+every other aggression, contributes powerfully to the decay of national
+character and free institutions. It adds thousands upon thousands to
+the constantly growing army of tax eaters that are impoverishing the
+people still striving against heavy odds to gain an honest livelihood.
+It places in the hands of the political despots now ruling the country,
+without the responsibility that the most odious monarchs have to bear,
+a revenue and an army of mercenaries that make more and more difficult
+emancipation from their shackles. It is doing more than anything else
+except the post-office department to teach people that there is no
+connection between merit and benefit; that they have the right to look
+to the State rather than to themselves for maintenance; that they
+are under no obligations to see that they do not take from others,
+in the form of salaries not earned nor intended to be earned, what
+does not belong to them. In the face of this wholesale destruction of
+fellow-feeling such as occurred in France under the old _régime_ and is
+occurring to-day in Italy and Spain, and the inculcation of the ethics
+of militant activities, such as may be observed in these countries as
+well as elsewhere in Europe, is it any wonder that the mind-stuffing
+that goes on in the public schools has no more effect upon the morals
+of the American people than the creeds and prayers of the mediæval
+ecclesiastics that joined in wars and the spoliation of oppressed
+populations throughout Europe?
+
+Since the path that all people under popular government as well
+as under forms more despotic are pursuing so energetically and
+hopefully leads to the certain destruction of the foundations of
+civilization, what is the path that social science points out? What
+must they do to prevent the extinction of the priceless acquisition
+of fellow-feeling, now vanishing so rapidly before the most unselfish
+efforts to promote it? The supposition is that the social teachings
+of the philosophy of evolution have no answer to these questions.
+Believing that they inculcate the hideous _laissez-faire_ doctrine of
+"each for himself and the devil take the hindmost," so characteristic
+of human relations among all classes of people in this country, the
+victims of this supposition have repudiated them. But I propose to
+show that they are the only teachings that give the slightest promise
+of social amelioration. Although they are ignorantly stigmatized as
+individualistic, and therefore necessarily selfish and inconsiderate
+of the welfare of others, they are in reality socialistic in the best
+sense of the word--that is, they enjoin voluntary, not coercive,
+co-operation, and insure the noblest humanity and the most perfect
+civilization, moral as well as material, that can be attained.
+
+Why a society organized upon the individualistic instead of the
+socialistic basis will realize every achievement admits of easy
+explanation. A man dependent upon himself is forced by the struggle
+for existence to exercise every faculty he possesses or can possibly
+develop to save himself and his progeny from extinction. Under
+such pitiless and irresistible pressure he acquires the highest
+physical and intellectual strength. Thus equipped with weapons
+absolutely indispensable in any state of society, whether civilized
+or uncivilized, he is prepared for the conquest of the world. He
+gains also the physical and moral courage needful to cope with the
+difficulties that terrify and paralyze the people that have not been
+subjected to the same rigid discipline. Energetic and self-reliant, he
+assails them with no thought of failure. If, however, he meets with
+reverses, he renews the attack, and repeats it until success finally
+comes to reward his efforts. Such prolonged struggles give steadiness
+and solidity to his character that do not permit him to abandon himself
+to trifles or to yield easily, if at all, to excitement and panic. He
+never falls a victim to Reigns of Terror. The more trying the times,
+the more self-possessed, clear-headed, and capable of grappling with
+the situation he becomes, and soon rises superior to it. With every
+triumph over difficulties there never fails to come the joy that
+more than balances the pain and suffering endured. But the pain and
+suffering are as precious as the joy of triumph. Indelibly registered
+in the nervous system, they enable their victim to feel as others feel
+passing through the same experience, and this fellow-feeling prompts
+him to render them the assistance they may need. In this way be becomes
+a philanthropist. Possessed of the abundant means that the success of
+his enterprises has placed in his hands, he is in a position to help
+them to a degree not within the reach nor the desires of the member of
+the society organized upon the socialistic basis.
+
+In the briefest appeal to history may be found the amplest support
+for these deductions from the principles of social science. Wherever
+the individual has been given the largest freedom to do whatever he
+pleases, as long as he does not trench upon the equal freedom of
+others, there we witness all those achievements and discover all
+those traits that indicate an advanced state of social progress.
+The people are the most energetic, the most resourceful, the most
+prosperous, the most considerate and humane, the most anxious, and the
+most competent to care for their less fortunate fellows. On the other
+hand, wherever the individual has been most repressed, deterred by
+custom or legislation from making the most of himself in every way,
+there are to be observed social immobility or retrogression and all
+the hateful traits that belong to barbarians. The people are inert,
+slavish, cruel, and superstitious. In the ancient world one type
+of society is represented by the Egyptians and Assyrians, and the
+other by the Greeks and Romans. In the modern world all the Oriental
+peoples, particularly the Hindus and Chinese, represent the former, and
+the Occidental peoples, particularly the Anglo-Saxons, represent the
+latter. So superior, in fact, are the Anglo-Saxons because of their
+observance of the sacred and fruitful principle of individual freedom
+that they control the most desirable parts of the earth's surface. If
+not checked by the practice of a philosophy that has destroyed all
+the great peoples of antiquity and paralyzed their competitors in the
+establishment of colonies in the New as well as the Old World, there is
+no reason to doubt that the time will eventually come when, like the
+Romans, there will be no other rule than theirs in all the choicest
+parts of the globe.
+
+It is the immense material superiority of the Anglo-Saxon peoples
+over all other nations that first arrests attention. No people in
+Europe possess the capital or conduct the enterprises that the
+English and Americans do. They have more railroads, more steamships,
+more factories, more foundries, more warehouses, more of everything
+that requires wealth and energy than their rivals. Though the fact
+evokes the sneers of the Ruskins and Carlyles, these enterprises are
+the indispensable agents of civilization. They have done more for
+civilization, for the union of distant peoples, and the development of
+fellow-feeling--for all that makes life worth living--than all the art,
+literature, and theology ever produced. Without industry and commerce,
+which these devotees of "the higher life" never weary of deprecating,
+how would the inhabitants of the Italian republics have achieved the
+intellectual and artistic conquests that make them the admiration of
+every historian? The Stones of Venice could not have been written. The
+artists could not have lived that enabled Vassari to hand his name
+down to posterity. The new learning would have been a flower planted
+in a barren soil, and even before it had come to bud it would have
+fallen withered. May we not, therefore, expect that in like manner the
+wealth and freedom of the Anglo-Saxon race will bring forth fruits
+that shall not evoke scorn and contempt? Already their achievements
+in every field except painting, sculpture, and architecture eclipse
+those of their rivals. Not excepting the literature of the Greeks,
+is any so rich, varied, powerful, and voluminous as theirs? If they
+have no Cæsar or Napoleon, they have a long list of men that have been
+of infinitely greater use to civilization than those two products of
+militant barbarism. If judged by practical results, they are without
+rivals in the work of education. By their inventions and their
+applications of the discoveries of science they have distanced all
+competitors in the race for industrial and commercial supremacy. In
+the work of philanthropy no people has done as much as they. The volume
+of their personal effort and pecuniary contributions to ameliorate
+the condition of the poor and unfortunate are without parallel in the
+annals of charity. Yet Professor Ely, echoing the opinion of Charles
+Booth and other misguided philanthropists, has the assurance to tell us
+that "individualism has broken down." It is the social philosophy that
+they are trying to thrust upon the world again that stands hopelessly
+condemned before the remorseless tribunal of universal experience.
+
+In the light thus obtained from science and history, the duty of the
+American people toward the current social and political philosophy
+and all the quack measures it proposes for the amelioration of the
+condition of the unfortunate becomes clear and urgent. It is to
+pursue without equivocation or deviation the policy of larger and
+larger freedom for the individual that has given the Anglo-Saxon his
+superiority and present dominance in the world. To this end they should
+oppose with all possible vigor every proposed extension of the duty
+of the state that does not look to the preservation of order and the
+enforcement of justice. Regarding it as an onslaught of the forces of
+barbarism, they should make no compromise with it; they should fight it
+until freedom has triumphed. The next duty is to conquer the freedom
+they still lack. Here the battle must be for the suppression of the
+system of protective tariffs, for the transfer to private enterprise
+and beneficence, the duties of the post office, the public schools, and
+all public charities, for the repeal of all laws in regulation of trade
+and industry as well as those in regulation of habits and morals. As
+an inspiration it should be remembered that the struggle is not only
+for freedom but for honesty. For the truth can not be too loudly or
+too often proclaimed that every law taking a dollar from a man without
+his consent, or regulating his conduct not in accordance with his own
+notions, but in accordance with those of his neighbors, contributes to
+the education of a people in idleness and crime. The next duty is to
+encourage on every hand an appeal to voluntary effort to accomplish
+all tasks too great for the strength of the individual. Whether those
+tasks be moral, industrial, or educational, voluntary co-operation
+alone should assume them and carry them to a successful issue. The
+government should have no more to do with them than it has to do with
+the cultivation of wheat or the management of Sunday schools or the
+suppression of backbiting. The last and final duty should be to cheapen
+and, as fast as possible, to establish gratuitous justice. With the
+great diminution of crime that would result from the observance of the
+duties already mentioned there would be much less occasion than now
+to appeal to the courts. But, whenever the occasion arises, it should
+involve no cost to the person that feels that his rights have been
+invaded.
+
+Thus will be solved indirectly all the problems of democracy that
+social and political reformers seek in vain to solve directly. With the
+diminution of the duties of the state to the preservation of order and
+the enforcement of justice will be effected a reform as important and
+far reaching as the suppression of chronic warfare. When politicians
+are deprived of the immense plunder now involved in political warfare,
+it will not be necessary to devise futile plans for caucus reform, or
+ballot reform, or convention reform, or charter reform, or legislative
+reform. Having no more incentive to engage in their nefarious business
+than the smugglers that the abolition of the infamous tariff laws
+banished from Europe, they will disappear among the crowd of honest
+toilers. The suppression of the robberies of the tax collectors and
+tax eaters, who have become so vast an army in the United States,
+will effect also a solution of all labor problems. A society that
+permits every toiler to work for whomsoever he pleases and for whatever
+he pleases, protecting him in the full enjoyment of all the fruits
+of his labor, has done for him everything that can be done. It has
+taught him self-support and self-control. In thus guaranteeing him
+freedom of contract and putting an end to the plunder of a bureaucracy
+and privileged classes of private individuals, the beneficiaries of
+special legislation, it has effected the only equitable distribution
+of property possible. At the same time it has accomplished a vastly
+greater work. As I have shown, the indispensable condition of success
+of all movements for moral reform is the suppression not only of
+militant strife, but of political strife. While they prevail, all
+ecclesiastical and pedagogic efforts to better the condition of society
+must fail. Despite lectures, despite sermons and prayers, despite also
+literature and art, the ethics controlling the conduct of men and women
+will be those of war. But with the abolition of both forms of militant
+strife it becomes an easy task to teach the ethics of peace, and to
+establish a state of society that requires no other government than
+that of conscience. All the forces of industrialism contribute to the
+work and insure its success.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+"This thirst for shooting every rare or unwonted kind of bird," says
+the author of an article in the London Saturday Review, "is accountable
+for the disappearance of many interesting forms of life in the British
+Islands."
+
+
+
+
+AN ENGLISH UNIVERSITY.
+
+BY HERBERT STOTESBURY.
+
+
+[Illustration: MICHAEL FOSTER, K. C. B., M. A., F. R. S., Trinity.
+Professor of Physiology.]
+
+Most minds in America, as in England, if they think about the
+subject at all, impute to the two ancient centers of Anglo-Saxon
+learning--Oxford and Cambridge--an unquestionable supremacy. A halo
+of greatness surrounds these august institutions, none the less real
+because to the American mind, at least, it is vague. Half the books
+students at other institutions require in their various courses have
+the names of eminent Cambridge or Oxford men upon the fly leaf.
+Michael Foster's Physiology, Sidgwick's Methods of Ethics, and Bryce's
+American Commonwealth are recognized text-books wherever the subjects
+of which they treat are studied; while Sir G. G. Stokes, Jebb, Lord
+Acton, Caird, Max Müller, and Ray Lankester are as well known to
+students of Leland Stanford or Princeton as they are to Englishmen.
+One can scarcely read a work on English literature or open an English
+novel which does not make some reference to one or other of the great
+universities or their colleges, inseparably associated as they are
+with English life and history, past and present. Our oldest college
+owes its existence to John Harvard, of Emmanuel, Cambridge, and the
+name of the mother university still clings to her transatlantic
+offspring. The English institutions have become firmly associated in
+the vulgar mind with all that is dignified, venerable, and thorough in
+learning, but, beyond a vague sentiment of admiration, little adequate
+knowledge on the subject is abroad. American or German universities are
+organizations not very difficult to comprehend, and a vague knowledge
+of them is perhaps sufficient. The understanding, however, of those
+complicated academic communities, Oxford and Cambridge, is a matter of
+intimate experience. They differ widely from their sister institutions
+in other countries, and in attempting to give some conception of
+their peculiarities the writer proposes to restrict himself chiefly
+to Cambridge, because there are not very many striking differences
+between the latter and Oxford, and because the scientific supremacy
+of Cambridge is sufficiently established to render her an object of
+greater interest to the readers of the Science Monthly.
+
+[Illustration: The Right Hon. LORD ACTON, M. A., LL. D., Trinity.
+Professor of Modern History.]
+
+First of all, it must be borne in mind that throughout most of their
+history these institutions have been closely related, not to the body
+of the people, but to the aristocracy. This was not so much the case
+at first, before the university became an aggregate of colleges. Then
+a rather poor and humble class were enabled, through the small expense
+involved, to acquire the rudiments of an education, and even to become
+proficient in the scholastic dialectic. But ere long, and with the
+gradual endowment of different colleges, the expenses of a student
+became much greater, and, save where scholarships could be obtained,
+it required some affluence before parents could afford to give their
+sons an academic training. Hence, the more fortunate or aristocratic
+classes came in time to contribute the large majority of the student
+body. Those whose intellectual attainments were so unusual as to
+constitute ways and means have never been debarred, but impecunious
+mediocrity had and still has little place or opportunity. It is well to
+remember, in addition, that the Church fostered these universities in
+their infancy, that it deserves unqualified credit for having nursed
+them through their early months, and that it continues to have some
+considerable influence over the modern institutions. Finally, the
+growth of Cambridge and Oxford has largely been occasioned by lack of
+rivals in their own class. In this branch or that, other institutions
+have become deservedly famous. Edinburgh has a high reputation in
+moral science; Manchester is renowned for her physics, chemistry,
+and engineering; and London for her medical schools. But Oxford and
+Cambridge are strong in many branches. Financially powerful, they are
+able to attract the majority of promising and eminent men, whence has
+resulted that remarkable _coterie_ of unrivaled intellects through whom
+the above-named universities are chiefly known to the outer and foreign
+world. This characteristic has its opposite illustrated in the United
+States, where the tendency is centrifugal, no one or two universities
+or colleges having advantages so decided as inevitably to attract most
+of the best minds, and where, in consequence, the best minds are found
+scattered from California to Harvard and Pennsylvania.
+
+[Illustration: J. J. THOMSON, M. A., F. R. S., Trinity. Professor of
+Experimental Physics.]
+
+The characteristic peculiar to Cambridge and Oxford, and which
+distinguishes them not only from American but also from all other
+universities in England and elsewhere, is the college system. Thus
+Cambridge is a collection of eighteen colleges which, though nominally
+united to form one institution, are really distinct, inasmuch as
+each is a separate community with its own buildings and grounds, its
+own resident students, its own lecturers, and Fellows--a community
+which is supported by its own moneys without aid from the university
+exchequer, and which in most matters legislates for itself. The
+system is not unlike the American Union on a small scale, with its
+cluster of governments and their relation to a supreme center. The
+advantages of this scheme might theoretically be very great. With
+each college handsomely endowed and, though managing its own affairs,
+entering freely, in addition, into those relations of reciprocity
+which make for the good of the whole, one can readily imagine an
+ideal academic commonwealth. And while the present condition of the
+university can scarcely be said to approximate very closely to such
+an academic Utopia, it yet derives from its constitution numerous
+obvious advantages which universities otherwise constituted would and
+do undoubtedly lack. The chief evils besetting the university are
+perhaps more adventitious than inherent; they are largely financial,
+and arise from carrying the system of college individualism too far. A
+description of the college and university organization may make this
+apparent. By its endowment a college must support a certain number
+of Fellows and scholars. The latter form a temporary body, while the
+former are more or less permanent, and therefore upon them devolves the
+management of the college. Business is usually done by a council chosen
+from the Fellows, and the election of new Fellows to fill vacancies is
+made by this select body. The head of a college is known as the master;
+he is elected by the Fellows save in one or two cases, where his
+appointment rests with the crown or with certain wealthy individuals.
+He lives in the college lodge especially built for him, draws a salary
+large in proportion to the wealth of his college, and exerts an
+influence corresponding to his intelligence.
+
+[Illustration: G. H. DARWIN, M. A., F. R. S., Trinity. Plumian
+Professor of Astronomy.]
+
+The Fellows are in most cases chosen from those men who have achieved
+the greatest success in an honor course. At Cambridge College
+individualism has progressed so far that the Fellows of, say, Magdalen
+must be Magdalen men, the students of Queens', St Catherine's, or any
+other being ineligible save for their own fellowships. Oxford obtains
+perhaps better men on the whole by throwing open the fellowships of
+each particular college to the graduates of all, thus producing a
+wider competition. A fellowship until recently was tenable for life,
+but it has been reduced to about six years, the Fellows as a whole,
+however, retaining the power to extend the period of possession. And,
+further, the holding of a college office for fifteen years in general
+qualifies for the holding of a fellowship for life, and for a pension
+as lecturer or tutor. Thus a man is able to devote himself to research
+with little fear that at the latter end of his career he will lack the
+means of support. It is perhaps not too much to say that the offices of
+college dean, tutor, and lecturer are more perquisites than anything
+else. They are meant to keep and attract men of ability and parts.
+However, their existence reacts upon the student body by augmenting
+the expenses of the latter out of proportion to the benefits to be
+obtained. For instance, instead of utilizing one set of lecturers for
+one class of subjects, which all students could attend for a small fee,
+each of the larger colleges, at any rate, pays special lecturers, drawn
+from its own Fellows, to speak upon the same subjects each to a mere
+handful of men from their own college only. The tutor is another luxury
+inherited from the middle ages and therefore retained, and one for
+which the students have to pay dearly. The chief business of the tutor
+is not to teach, but to "look after" a certain number of students who
+are theoretically relegated to his charge. He looks up their lodgings
+for them, pays their bills at the end of the term, gets them out of
+scrapes, and draws a large salary. The tutorships seem to the writer
+to be a good illustration of how an office necessary to one period
+persists after that for which it was instituted has ceased to exist.
+When the students of Oxford and Cambridge were many of them thirteen
+and fourteen years of age, as in the fourteenth century, nurses were
+doubtless necessary, but they are still retained when the greater
+maturity of the students renders them not only unnecessary but at times
+even an impertinence.
+
+The dean is not, as with us, the head of a department; his functions
+are not so many, his tasks far less onerous. It is before a college
+dean that students are "hauled" for such offenses as irregularity at
+chapel, returning to the college after 12 P. M., smoking in college
+precincts, bringing dogs into the college grounds, and other villainous
+offenses against regulations. A dean must also attend chapel. Some
+colleges require two deans to struggle through these complicated and
+laborious duties, though some possessing only a few dozen students
+succeed in getting along with one.
+
+The line of demarcation between the university and the colleges is
+very distinct. The legislative influence of the former extends over a
+comparatively restricted field. All professorial chairs and certain
+lectureships belong to and are paid by the university; the latter
+has the arranging of the curricula, the care of the laboratories,
+the disposition of certain noncollegiate scholarships; but, broadly
+speaking, its two functions are the examination of all students and the
+conferring of degrees. The supreme legislative body is the senate,
+and it is composed of all masters of arts, doctors, and bachelors
+of divinity whose names still remain on the university books--that
+is, who continue to pay certain fees into the university treasury.
+In addition to the legislative body there is an executive head or
+council of nineteen, including the chancellor--at present the Duke of
+Devonshire--and the vice-chancellor. Both these bodies must govern
+according to the statutes, no alteration in which can be effected
+without recourse being had to Parliament. The senate is a peculiar
+body, and on occasions becomes somewhat unwieldy. It consists at
+present of some 6,800 members, of whom only 452 are in residence at
+Cambridge. Upon ordinary occasions only these 452 vote upon questions
+proposed by the council; but on occasions of great moment, as when
+the question of granting university degrees to women came up, some
+thousands or more of the nonresident members, who in many cases have
+lost touch with the modern university and modern systems of education,
+swarm to their alma mater, annihilate the champions of reform, and are
+hailed by their brethren as the saviors of their university.
+
+[Illustration: R. C. JEBB, Litt. D., M. P., Trinity. Regius Professor
+of Greek.]
+
+The university's exchequer is supplied partly by its endowment, but
+chiefly by an assessment on the college incomes, a capitation tax on
+all undergraduates, and the fees attending matriculation, examinations,
+and the granting of degrees. The examinations are numerous. Every
+student on entering is required to pass, or to claim exemption from,
+an entrance examination. In either case he pays £3 to the university,
+and upon admission to any honor course or "tripos" to qualify for
+the degree of Bachelor of Arts £3 more is exacted. The income of the
+university from these examination fees alone amounts to £9,400 per
+annum, £4,600 of which goes to pay the examiners. In America this is
+supposed to be a part of the professor's or instructor's duty, no
+additional remuneration is allowed, and hence it does not become
+necessary to make an additional tax upon the students' resources. The
+conferring of degrees is also made a very profitable affair. Each
+candidate for the degree of B. A. pays out £7 to the voracious 'varsity
+chest, and upon proceeding to the M. A. a further contribution of £12
+is requested. In this way the university makes about £12,000 a year,
+and, as though this was not sufficient, she requires a matriculation
+fee of £5 for every student who becomes a member. By this means another
+annual £5,000 is obtained. It must be remembered that these fees are
+entirely separate from the college fees. When the £5 matriculation for
+the latter is taken into consideration and the £8 a term (at Trinity)
+for lectures, two thirds of which the student does not attend, when it
+is understood that all this and more does not include living expenses,
+which are by no means slight, and that there are three terms instead of
+two, as with us, it will be obvious that Cambridge adheres very closely
+to the rule that to them only who have wealth shall her refining
+influence be given. That the greatest universities in existence should
+render it almost totally impossible for aught but the rich to obtain
+the advantages of their unusual educational facilities jars with that
+idea of democracy of learning which an American training is apt to
+foster. But, as we shall point out later, an aristocracy of learning
+may also have its uses.
+
+[Illustration: HENRY SIDGWICK, Litt. D., Trinity. Knightbridge
+Professor of Moral Philosophy.]
+
+With all the revenues the university collects from colleges and
+students, amounting in all to about £65,000, Cambridge still finds
+herself poor. Some of the colleges, notably King's and Trinity,
+are extremely wealthy, but the university remains, if not exactly
+impecunious, at least on the ragged edge of financial difficulties.
+The various regius and other professorships, inadequately endowed by
+the munificence of the crown and of individuals, have each to be
+augmented from the university chest. The continual repairing of the old
+laboratories and scientific apparatus, the salaries to lecturers, to
+proctors, bedells, and other officers, cause a continual drain on the
+exchequer, which, with the rapidly growing need for larger laboratories
+and newer apparatus, has finally resulted in an appeal to the country
+for the sum of half a million pounds.
+
+[Illustration: DONALD MACALISTER, M. A., M. D., St. Johns. Linacre
+Lecturer of Physics.]
+
+It has been seen that the drains on a student's pocket are very
+considerable at Cambridge, owing to the number of perquisites showered
+by the colleges on their Fellows, and it may appear that this state
+of things is unjust and wrong. At present Oxford and Cambridge are
+practically within the reach of only the moneyed population. According,
+however, to a plausible and frequently repeated theory, it is not the
+function of these universities to meet the educational needs of the
+mediocre poor. The writer's critical attitude toward the financial
+system in vogue at Cambridge is a proper one, only on the assumption
+that a maximum of education to all classes alike at a minimum of
+expense is the final cause and desideratum of a university's existence.
+But if one assumes that Oxford and Cambridge exist for a different
+purpose, that the chief end they propose to themselves is individual
+research, and the advancement, not the promulgation, of learning, it
+must be admitted that their system has little that is reprehensible.
+According to this standpoint the students only exist by courtesy of
+the dons (a name for the Fellows), who have a perfect right to impose
+upon the students, in return for the condescension which is shown them,
+what terms they see fit. And they argue that this view is the historic
+one. The colleges were originally endowed solely for the benefit of
+a certain limited number of Fellows and scholars. The undergraduate
+body, as it at present exists, is a later growth, whose eventual
+existence and the importance of which to the university was probably
+not anticipated by the college founders. Starting with this, the
+defenders of the present _régime_ would point out, in addition, that
+there are other English institutions where the poorer classes may be
+educated, that Cambridge and Oxford are not only not bound to take upon
+themselves this task, but that they actually subserve a higher purpose
+and one just as necessary to the development of English science and
+letters and to the education of the English intellect by specializing
+in another direction. The good of a philosopher's lifelong reflections,
+they would say, is not always manifest, but the teachers who instruct
+the nation's youth are themselves dependent for rational standpoints
+upon the labor of the greater teacher, and they act as the instruments
+of communication between the most learned and the unlettered. So Oxford
+and Cambridge are the sources from whose fountains of wisdom and
+culture flow streams supplying all the academic mills of Britain, which
+in their turn are enabled to feed the inhabitants. It would be absurd,
+they maintain, to insist that the streams and the mills could equally
+well fulfill the same functions. Cambridge and Oxford instruct just so
+far as so doing is compatible with what for them is the main end--the
+furthering of various kinds of research and the offering of all sorts
+of inducements in order to keep and attract the interested attention of
+classical butterflies and scientific worms. How well they succeed in
+this noble ambition is known throughout the civilized world.
+
+Mr. G. H. Darwin, a son of Charles Darwin, has recently had occasion
+to mention the enormous scientific output of Cambridge University.
+After saying that the Royal Society is the Academy of Sciences in
+England, and that in its publications appear accounts of all the
+most important scientific discoveries in England and most of those
+in Scotland, Ireland, and other parts of Europe, he goes on to state
+that he examined the Transactions of this society for three years and
+discovered that out of the 5,480 pages published in that time 2,418
+were contributed by Cambridge men and 1,324 by residents.
+
+In view of these facts, and despite the shortcomings of this university
+as a teaching institution, it is to be hoped that private generosity
+will answer her appeal for financial assistance. Her laboratories are
+a mine of research, and it is in them and in the men who conduct them
+that Cambridge is perhaps most to be admired.
+
+[Illustration: SIR G. G. STOKES, Bart., M. A., LL. D., Sc. D., F. R.
+S., Pembroke. Lucasian Professor of Mathematics.]
+
+The Cavendish Laboratory of Physics, where Clerk-Maxwell and afterward
+Lord Rayleigh taught, and which is at present in the hand of their
+able successor, J. J. Thomson, is a building of considerable size
+and admirably fitted out, but the rapidly increasing number of young
+physicists who are being allured by the working facilities of the
+place, and by the fame of Professor Thomson, is rendering even this
+splendidly equipped hall of science inadequate. The physiological
+laboratories are many, they are completely furnished with appliances,
+and a large number of students are there trained annually under the
+supervision of one of England's most eminent living scientists,
+Michael Foster, and his scarcely less able associates--Langley, Hardy,
+and Gaskell. Chemistry, zoölogy, botany, anatomy, and geology have
+each their well-appointed halls and masterly exponents. The names
+MacAlister, Liveing, Dewar, Newton, Sedgwick, Marshall Ward, and Hughes
+are not easily matched in any other one institution. Indeed, it is
+when one stops to consider the intellects at Cambridge that it becomes
+a dangerous matter to institute comparisons, and to say that this
+discipline or that is most rich in eminent interpreters. In science,
+at any rate, and in all branches of science, Cambridge stands alone.
+Not even Oxford can be considered for a moment as in the same class
+with her. And of all the sciences it is undoubtedly in mathematics
+and astronomy that the supremacy of Cambridge is most pronounced. The
+names of Profs. Sir G. G. Stokes and Sir R. S. Ball will be familiar to
+every reader, while those of Profs. Forsythe and G. H. Darwin and Mr.
+Baker will be familiar to all mathematicians. In classics Cambridge,
+while not possessing a similar monopoly of almost all the talent,
+still holds her own even with Oxford. Professors Jebb, Mayor, and
+Ridgeway, and Drs. Verrall, Jackson, and Frazer constitute a group of
+men second to none in the subjects of which they treat. Professor Jebb
+is also one of the university's two representatives in Parliament.
+In philosophy Cambridge has two men, Henry Sidgwick and James Ward,
+the former of whom is perhaps by common consent the first living
+authority on moral science, while the latter ranks among the first of
+living psychologists. These men, while representing very different
+philosophical standpoints, unite in opposition not only to the
+Hegelian movement, which, led by Caird and Bradley of Oxford, Seth and
+Stirling of Edinburgh, threatens the invasion of England, but also to
+the Spencerian philosophy. The latter system has not many adherents at
+either university, but the writer has been told by Professor Sully that
+the ascendency of the neo-Hegelian and other systems is by no means
+so pronounced elsewhere in England. The Spencerian biology, on the
+contrary, has been largely defended at Cambridge, while Weismannism,
+for the most part, is repudiated there and at Oxford.
+
+The teaching at Cambridge, as at all universities, is of many grades.
+In many subjects the lectures are not meant to give a student
+sufficient material to get him through an examination, and a "coach"
+becomes requisite, or at any rate is employed. This system of coaching
+has attained large dimensions; its results are often good, but it
+means an additional expense and seems an incentive to laziness, making
+it unnecessary for a student to exert his own mental aggressiveness
+or powers of application as he who fights his own battles must do.
+The Socratic form of instruction, producing a more intimate and
+unrestricted relation between instructor and student, and which is
+largely in operation in the States, is little practiced in England.
+In science the methods of instruction at Cambridge are ideal. That
+practical acquaintance with the facts of Nature which Huxley and
+Tyndall taught is the only true means of knowing Nature, is the key
+according to which all biological and physical instruction at these
+institutions is conducted.
+
+[Illustration: JAMES WARD, Sc. D., Trinity. Professor of Mental
+Philosophy and Logic.]
+
+In the last half dozen years two radical steps have been taken by both
+Oxford and Cambridge--steps leading, to many respectable minds, in
+diametrically opposite directions. The step backward (in the writer's
+view) occurred when the universities, after much excitement, defeated
+with slaughter the proposition granting university degrees to women.
+It was simply proposed that the students of Newnham and Girton, who
+should successfully compete with male students in an honor course,
+should have an equal right with the latter to receive the usual degrees
+from their alma mater. After industrious inquiry among those who were
+foremost in supporting and opposing this movement the writer has
+unearthed no objection of weight against the change. "If the women
+were granted degrees they would have votes in the senate," and "It
+never has been done"--these are the two reasons most persistently
+urged in defense of the conservative view; while justice and utility
+alike appear to be for once, at any rate, unequivocally on the side
+of the women. Prejudice defeated progress, and students celebrated
+the auspicious occasion with bonfires. The step forward was taken
+when the universities and their colleges decided to throw open their
+gates to the graduates of other universities in England, America, and
+elsewhere for the purpose of advanced study. But here, as in other
+things, Cambridge leads the way, and Oxford follows falteringly. The
+advanced students at Cambridge are treated like Cambridge men, they
+have the status of Bachelors of Arts, and possess in most respects
+the advantages, such as they are, of the latter; while at Oxford the
+advanced students are a restricted class, with restricted advantages,
+and their relation to the university is not that of the other
+students. In Cambridge the movement which has resulted in the present
+admirable condition of affairs was largely brought about by the zeal
+and enterprise of Dr. Donald MacAlister, of St. John's College, the
+University Lecturer in Therapeutics, a man of wide sympathies and
+ability, and whose name is closely associated with this university's
+metamorphosis into a more modern institution.
+
+
+
+
+THE WONDERFUL CENTURY.[1]
+
+A REVIEW BY W. K. BROOKS,
+
+PROFESSOR OF ZOÖLOGY IN THE JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY.
+
+
+Every naturalist has in his heart a warm affection for the author of
+the Malay Archipelago, and is glad to acknowledge with gratitude his
+debt to this great explorer and thinker and teacher who gave us the law
+of natural selection independently of Darwin. When the history of our
+century is written, the foremost place among those who have guided the
+thought of their generation and opened new fields for discovery will
+assuredly be given to Wallace and Darwin.
+
+[1] Dodd, Mead & Co., New York, 1899.
+
+Few of the great men who have helped to make our century memorable
+in the history of thought are witnesses of its end, and all who have
+profited by the labors of Wallace will rejoice that he has been
+permitted to stand on the threshold of a new century, and, reviewing
+the past, to give us his impressions of the wonderful century.
+
+We men of the nineteenth century, he says, have not been slow to praise
+it. The wise and the foolish, the learned and the unlearned, the poet
+and the pressman, the rich and the poor, alike swell the chorus of
+admiration for the marvelous inventions and discoveries of our own age,
+and especially for those innumerable applications of science which now
+form part of our daily life, and which remind us every hour of our
+immense superiority over our comparatively ignorant forefathers.
+
+Our century, he tells us, has been characterized by a marvelous and
+altogether unprecedented progress in the knowledge of the universe and
+of its complex forces, and also in the application of that knowledge
+to an infinite variety of purposes calculated, if properly utilized,
+to supply all the wants of every human being and to add greatly to the
+comforts, the enjoyments, and the refinements of life. The bounds of
+human knowledge have been so far extended that new vistas have opened
+to us in nearly all directions where it had been thought that we could
+never penetrate, and the more we learn the more we seem capable of
+learning in the ever-widening expanse of the universe. It may, he
+says, be truly said of the men of science that they have become as
+gods knowing good and evil, since they have been able not only to
+utilize the most recondite powers of Nature in their service, but have
+in many cases been able to discover the sources of much of the evil
+that afflicts humanity, to abolish pain, to lengthen life, and to add
+immensely to the intellectual as well as the physical enjoyments of our
+race.
+
+In order to get any adequate measure for comparison with the nineteenth
+century we must take not any preceding century, but the whole preceding
+epoch of human history. We must take into consideration not only the
+changes effected in science, in the arts, in the possibilities of
+human intercourse, and in the extension of our knowledge both of the
+earth and of the whole visible universe, but the means our century has
+furnished for future advancement.
+
+Our author, who has borne such a distinguished part in the intellectual
+progress of our century, shows clearly that in means for the discovery
+of truth, for the extension of our control over Nature, and for the
+alleviation of the ills that beset mankind, the inheritance of the
+twentieth century from the nineteenth will be greater than our own
+inheritance from all the centuries that have gone before.
+
+Some may regret that, while only one third of Wallace's book is
+devoted to the successes of the wonderful century, the author finds
+the remaining two thirds none too much for the enumeration of some of
+its most notable failures; but it is natural for one who has borne his
+own distinguished part in all this marvelous progress to ask where the
+century has fallen short of the enthusiastic hopes of its leaders, what
+that it might have done it has failed to do, and what lies ready at
+the hand of the workers who will begin the new century with this rich
+inheritance of new thoughts, new methods, and new resources.
+
+The more we realize the vast possibilities of human welfare which
+science has given us the more, he says, must we recognize our total
+failure to make any adequate use of them.
+
+Along with this continuous progress in science, in the arts, and in
+wealth-production, which has dazzled our imaginations to such an extent
+that we can hardly admit the possibility of any serious evils having
+accompanied or been caused by it, there has, he says, been many serious
+failures--intellectual, social, and moral. Some of our great thinkers,
+he says, have been so impressed by the terrible nature of these
+failures that they have doubted whether the final result of the work
+of the century has any balance of good over evil, of happiness over
+misery, for mankind at large.
+
+Wallace is no pessimist, but one who believes that the first step in
+retrieving our failures is to perceive clearly where we have failed,
+for he says there can be no doubt of the magnitude of the evils that
+have grown up or persisted in the midst of all our triumphs over
+natural forces and our unprecedented growth in wealth and luxury, and
+he holds it not the least important part of his work to call attention
+to some of these failures.
+
+With ample knowledge of the sources of health, we allow and even
+compel the bulk of our population to live and work under conditions
+which greatly shorten life. In our mad race for wealth we have made
+gold more sacred than human life; we have made life so hard for many
+that suicide and insanity and crime are alike increasing. The struggle
+for wealth has been accompanied by a reckless destruction of the
+stored-up products of Nature, which is even more deplorable because
+irretrievable. Not only have forest growths of many hundred years been
+cleared away, often with disastrous consequences, but the whole of
+the mineral treasures of the earth's surface, the slow productions of
+long-past eras of time and geological change, have been and are still
+being exhausted with reckless disregard of our duties to posterity and
+solely in the interest of landlords and capitalists. With all our
+labor-saving machinery and all our command over the forces of Nature,
+the struggle for existence has become more fierce than ever before,
+and year by year an ever-increasing proportion of our people sink into
+paupers' graves.
+
+When the brightness of future ages shall have dimmed the glamour of our
+material progress he says that the judgment of history will surely be
+that our ethical standard was low and that we were unworthy to possess
+the great and beneficent powers that science had placed in our hands,
+for, instead of devoting the highest powers of our greatest men to
+remedy these evils, we see the governments of the most advanced nations
+arming their people to the teeth and expending most of the wealth and
+all the resources of their science in preparation for the destruction
+of life, of property, and of happiness.
+
+He reminds us that the first International Exhibition, in 1851,
+fostered the hope that men would soon perceive that peace and
+commercial intercourse are essential to national well-being. Poets and
+statesmen joined in hailing the dawn of an era of peaceful industry,
+and exposition following exposition taught the nations how much they
+have to learn from each other and how much to give to each other for
+the benefit and happiness of all.
+
+Dueling, which had long prevailed, in spite of its absurdity and
+harmfulness, as a means of settling disputes, was practically abolished
+by the general diffusion of a spirit of intolerance of private war; and
+as the same public opinion which condemns it should, if consistent,
+also condemn war between nations, many thought they perceived the dawn
+of a wiser policy between nations.
+
+Yet so far are we from progress toward its abolition that the latter
+half of the century has witnessed not the decay, but a revival of the
+war spirit, and at its end we find all nations loaded with the burden
+of increasing armies and navies.
+
+The armies are continually being equipped with new and more deadly
+weapons at a cost which strains the resources of even the most wealthy
+nations and impoverishes the mass of the people by increasing burdens
+of debt and taxation, and all this as a means of settling disputes
+which have no sufficient cause and no relation whatever to the
+well-being of the communities which engage in them.
+
+The evils of war do not cease with the awful loss of life and
+destruction of property which are their immediate results, since they
+form the excuse for inordinate increase of armaments--an increase
+which has been intensified by the application to war purposes of those
+mechanical inventions and scientific discoveries which, properly used,
+should bring peace and plenty to all, but which when seized upon by the
+spirit of militarism directly lead to enmity among nations and to the
+misery of the people.
+
+The first steps in this military development were the adoption of a new
+rifle by the Prussian army in 1846, the application of steam to ships
+of war in 1840, and the use of armor for battle ships in 1859. The
+remainder of the century has witnessed a mad race between the nations
+to increase the death-dealing power of their weapons and to add to
+the number and efficiency of their armies, while all the resources of
+modern science have been utilized in order to add to the destructive
+power of cannon and both the defensive and the offensive power of
+ships. The inability of industrious laboring men to gain any due share
+of the benefits of our progress in scientific knowledge is due, beyond
+everything else, to the expense of withdrawing great armies of men
+in the prime of life from productive labor, joined to the burden of
+feeding and clothing them and of keeping weapons and ammunition, ships,
+and fortifications in a state of readiness, of continually renewing
+stores of all kinds, of pensions, and of all the laboring men who must,
+besides making good the destruction caused by war, be withdrawn from
+productive labor and be supported by others that they may support the
+army.
+
+And what a horrible mockery is this when viewed in the light of either
+Christianity or advancing civilization! All the nations armed to the
+teeth and watching stealthily for some occasion to use their vast
+armaments for their own aggrandizement and for the injury of their
+neighbors are Christian nations, but their Christian governments do not
+exist for the good of the governed, still less for the good of humanity
+or civilization, but for the aggrandizement and greed and lust of the
+ruling classes.
+
+The devastation caused by the tyrants and conquerors of the middle
+ages and of antiquity has been reproduced in our times by the rush to
+obtain wealth. Even the lust of conquest, in order to obtain slaves
+and tribute and great estates, by means of which the ruling classes
+could live in boundless luxury, so characteristic of the earlier
+civilization, is reproduced in our time.
+
+Witness the recent conduct of the nations of Europe toward Crete and
+Greece, upholding the most terrible despotism in the world because each
+hopes for a favorable opportunity to obtain some advantage, leading
+ultimately to the largest share of the spoil.
+
+Witness the struggles in Africa and Asia, where millions of foreign
+people may be enslaved and bled for the benefit of their new rulers.
+
+The whole world, says Wallace, is but a gambling table. Just as
+gambling deteriorates and demoralizes the individual, so the greed
+for dominion demoralizes governments. The welfare of the people is
+little cared for, except so far as to make them submissive taxpayers,
+enabling the ruling and moneyed classes to extend their sway over new
+territories and to create well-paid places and exciting work for their
+sons and relatives.
+
+Hence, says Wallace, comes the force that ever urges on the increase
+of armaments and the extension of empire. Great vested interests
+are at stake, and ever-growing pressure is brought to bear upon the
+too-willing governments in the name of the greatness of the country,
+the extension of commerce, or the advance of civilization. This state
+of things is not progress, but retrogression. It will be held by the
+historian of the future to show that we of the nineteenth century were
+morally and socially unfit to possess the enormous powers for good and
+evil which the rapid advance of scientific discovery has given us,
+that our boasted civilization was in many respects a mere superficial
+veneer, and that our methods of government were not in accord with
+either Christianity or civilization.
+
+Comparing the conduct of these modern nations, who call themselves
+Christian and civilized, with that of the Spanish conquerors of
+the West Indies, Mexico, and Peru, and making some allowances for
+differences of race and public opinion, Wallace says there is not much
+to choose between them.
+
+Wealth and territory and native labor were the real objects in both
+cases, and if the Spaniards were more cruel by nature and more reckless
+in their methods the results were much the same. In both cases the
+country was conquered and thereafter occupied and governed by the
+conquerors frankly for their own ends, and with little regard for
+the feelings or the well-being of the conquered. If the Spaniards
+exterminated the natives of the West Indies, we, he says, have done the
+same thing in Tasmania and about the same in temperate Australia. Their
+belief that they were really serving God in converting the heathen,
+even at the point of the sword, was a genuine belief, shared by priests
+and conquerors alike--not a mere sham as ours is when we defend our
+conduct by the plea of "introducing the blessings of civilization."
+
+It is quite possible, says Wallace, that both the conquest of Mexico
+and Peru by the Spaniards and our conquest of South Africa may have
+been real steps in advance, essential to human progress, and helping on
+the future reign of true civilization and the well-being of the human
+race. But if so, we have been and are unconscious agents in hastening
+the "far-off divine event." We deserve no credit for it. Our aims have
+been for the most part sordid and selfish, and our rule has often
+been largely influenced and often entirely directed by the necessity
+of finding well-paid places for young men with influence, and also by
+the constant demands for fresh markets by the influential class of
+merchants and manufacturers.
+
+More general diffusion of the conviction that while all share the
+burdens of war, such good as comes from it is appropriated by the few,
+will no doubt do much to discourage wars; but we must ask whether there
+may not be another incentive to war which Wallace does not give due
+weight--whether love of fighting may not have something to do with wars.
+
+As we look backward over history we are forced to ask whether the greed
+and selfishness of the wealthy and influential and those who hope to
+gain are the only causes of war. We went to war with Spain because our
+people in general demanded war. If we have been carried further than
+we intended and are now fighting for objects which we did not foresee
+and may not approve, this is no more than history might have led us to
+expect. War with Spain was popular with nearly all our people a year
+ago, and, while wise counsels might have stemmed this popular tide,
+there can be no doubt that it existed, for the evil passions of the
+human race are the real cause of wars.
+
+The great problem of the twentieth century, as of all that have gone
+before, is the development of the wise and prudent self-restraint which
+represses natural passions and appetites for the sake of higher and
+better ends.
+
+
+
+
+SPIDER BITES AND "KISSING BUGS."[2]
+
+BY L. O. HOWARD,
+
+CHIEF OF THE DIVISION OF ENTOMOLOGY, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF
+AGRICULTURE.
+
+
+On several occasions during the past ten years, and especially at
+the Brooklyn meeting of the American Association for the Advancement
+of Science in 1894, the writer has endeavored to show that most of
+the newspaper stories of deaths from spider bite are either grossly
+exaggerated or based upon misinformation. He has failed to thoroughly
+substantiate a single case of death from a so-called spider bite,
+and has concluded that there is only one spider in the United States
+which is capable of inflicting a serious bite--viz., _Latrodectus
+mactans_, a species belonging to a genus of world-wide distribution,
+the other species of which have universally a bad reputation among the
+peoples whose country they inhabit. In spite of these conclusions, the
+accuracy of which has been tested with great care, there occur in the
+newspapers every year stories of spider bites of great seriousness,
+often resulting in death or the amputation of a limb. The details of
+negative evidence and of lack of positive evidence need not be entered
+upon here, except in so far as to state that in the great majority
+of these cases the spider supposed to have inflicted the bite is not
+even seen, while in almost no case is the spider seen to inflict the
+bite; and it is a well-known fact that there are practically no spiders
+in our more northern States which are able to pierce the human skin,
+except upon a portion of the body where the skin is especially delicate
+and which is seldom exposed. There arises, then, the probability that
+there are other insects capable of piercing tough skin, the results of
+whose bites may be more or less painful, the wounds being attributed
+to spiders on account of the universally bad reputation which these
+arthropods seem to have.
+
+[2] A paper read before Section F of the American Association for the
+Advancement of Science at the Columbus meeting in August, 1899.
+
+[Illustration: DIFFERENT STAGES OF CONORHINUS SANGUISUGUS. Twice
+natural size. (After Marlatt.)]
+
+These sentences formed the introduction to a paper read by the writer
+at a meeting of the Entomological Society of Washington, held June
+1st last. I went on to state that some of these insects are rather
+well known, as, for example, the blood-sucking cone-nose (_Conorhinus
+sanguisugus_) and the two-spotted corsairs (_Rasatus thoracicus_ and
+_R. biguttatus_), both of which occur, however, most numerously in the
+South and West, and then spoke of _Melanotestis picipes_, a species
+which had been especially called to my attention by Mr. Frank M.
+Jones, of Wilmington, Del., who submitted the report of the attending
+physician in a case of two punctures by this insect inflicted upon
+the thumb and forefinger of a middle-aged man in Delaware. I further
+reported upon occasional somewhat severe results from the bites[3] of
+the old _Reduvius personatus_, now placed in the genus _Opsicostes_,
+and stated that a smaller species, _Coriscus subcoleoptratus_, had
+bitten me rather severely under circumstances similar to some of those
+which have given rise in the past to spider-bite stories. In the
+course of the discussion which followed the reading of this paper, Mr.
+Schwarz stated that twice during the present spring he had been bitten
+rather severely by _Melanotestis picipes_ which had entered his room,
+probably attracted by light. He described it as the worst biter among
+heteropterous insects with which he had had any experience, and said
+he thought it was commoner than usual in Washington during the present
+year.
+
+[3] When the word "bite" is used in connection with these bugs, it must
+be remembered that it is really a puncture made with the sharp beak or
+proboscis (see illustration).
+
+No account of this meeting was published, but within a few weeks
+thereafter several persons suffering from swollen faces visited the
+Emergency Hospital in Washington and complained that they had been
+bitten by some insect while asleep; that they did not see the insect,
+and could not describe it. This happened during one of the temporary
+periods when newspaper men are most actively engaged in hunting for
+items. There was a dearth of news. These swollen faces offered an
+opportunity for a good story, and thus began the "kissing-bug" scare
+which has grown to such extraordinary proportions. I have received
+the following letter and clipping from Mr. J. F. McElhone, of the
+Washington Post, in reply to a request for information regarding the
+origin of this curious epidemic:
+
+"WASHINGTON, D. C., _August 14, 1899_.
+
+"_Dr. L. O. Howard, Cosmos Club, Washington, D. C._
+
+"DEAR SIR: Attached please find clipping from the Washington Post of
+June 20, 1899, being the first story that ever appeared in print, so
+far as I can learn, of the depredations of the _Melanotestis picipes_,
+better known now as the kissing bug. In my rounds as police reporter of
+the Post, I noticed, for two or three days before writing this story,
+that the register of the Emergency Hospital of this city contained
+unusually frequent notes of 'bug-bite' cases. Investigating, on the
+evening of June 19th I learned from the hospital physicians that a
+noticeable number of patients were applying daily for treatment for
+very red and extensive swellings, usually on the lips, and apparently
+the result of an insect bite. This led to the writing of the story
+attached.
+
+"Very truly yours, "James F. McElhone."
+
+[Illustration:
+
+The Washington Post.
+
+TUESDAY, JUNE 20, 1899.
+
+BITE OF A STRANGE BUG.
+
+Several Patients Have Appeared at the Hospitals Very Badly Poisoned.
+
+Lookout for the new bug. It is an insidious insect that bites without
+causing pain and escapes unnoticed. But afterward the place where it
+has bitten swells to ten times its normal size. The Emergency Hospital
+has had several victims of this insect as patients lately and the
+number is increasing. Application for treatment by other victims are
+being made at other hospitals, and the matter threatens to become
+something like a plague. None of those who have been bitten saw the
+insect whose sting proves so disastrous. One old negro went to sleep
+and woke up to find both his eyes nearly closed by the swelling from
+his nose and cheeks, where the insect had alighted. The lips seems to
+be the favorite point of attack.
+
+William Smith, a newspaper agent, of 327 Trumbull street, went to the
+Emergency last night with his upper lip swollen to many times its
+natural size. The symptoms are in every case the same, and there is
+indication of poisoning from an insect's bite. The matter is beginning
+to interest the physicians, and every patient who comes in with the now
+well-known marks is closely questioned as to the description of the
+insect. No one has yet been found who has seen it. ]
+
+It would be an interesting computation for one to figure out the amount
+of newspaper space which was filled in the succeeding two months by
+items and articles about the "kissing bug." Other Washington newspapers
+took the matter up. The New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore papers
+soon followed suit. The epidemic spread east to Boston and west to
+California. By "epidemic" is meant the _newspaper_ epidemic, for every
+insect bite where the biter was not at once recognized was attributed
+to the popular and somewhat mysterious creature which had been given
+such an attractive name, and there can be no doubt that some mosquito,
+flea, and bedbug bites which had by accident resulted in a greater than
+the usual severity were attributed to the prevailing osculatory insect.
+In Washington professional beggars seized the opportunity, and went
+around from door to door with bandaged faces and hands, complaining
+that they were poor men and had been thrown out of work by the results
+of "kissing-bug" stings! One beggar came to the writer's door and
+offered, in support of his plea, a card supposed to be signed by the
+head surgeon of the Emergency Hospital. In a small town in central
+New York a man arrested on the charge of swindling entered the plea
+that he was temporarily insane owing to the bite of the "kissing
+bug." Entomologists all through the East were also much overworked
+answering questions asked them about the mysterious creature. Men of
+local entomological reputations were applied to by newspaper reporters,
+by their friends, by people who knew them, in church, on the street,
+and under all conceivable circumstances. Editorials were written about
+it. Even the Scientific American published a two-column article on
+the subject; and, while no international complications have resulted
+as yet, the kissing bug, in its own way and in the short space of two
+months, produced almost as much of a scare as did the San José scale in
+its five years of Eastern excitement. Now, however, the newspapers have
+had their fun, the necessary amount of space has been filled, and the
+subject has assumed a castaneous hue, to Latinize the slang of a few
+years back.
+
+The experience has been a most interesting one. To the reader familiar
+with the old accounts of the hysterical craze of south Europe,
+based upon supposed tarantula bites, there can not fail to come the
+suggestion that we have had in miniature and in modernized form,
+aided largely by the newspapers, a hysterical craze of much the same
+character. From the medical and psychological point of view this aspect
+is interesting, and deserves investigation by competent persons.
+
+As an entomologist, however, the writer confines himself to the actual
+authors of the bites so far as he has been able to determine them. It
+seems undoubtedly true that while there has been a great cry there
+has been very little wool. It is undoubtedly true, also, that there
+have been a certain number of bites by heteropterous insects, some
+of which have resulted in considerable swelling. It seems true that
+_Melanotestis picipes_ and _Opsicostes personatus_ have been more
+numerous than usual this year, at least around Washington. They have
+been captured in a number of instances while biting people, and have
+been brought to the writer's office for determination in such a way
+that there can be no doubt about the accuracy of this statement. As
+the story went West, bites by _Conorhinus sanguisuga_ and _Rasatus
+thoracicus_ were without doubt termed "kissing-bug" bites. With regard
+to other cases, the writer has known of an instance where the mosquito
+bite upon the lip of a sleeping child produced a very considerable
+swelling. Therefore he argues that many of these reported cases may
+have been nothing more than mosquito bites. With nervous and excitable
+individuals the symptoms of any skin puncture become exaggerated not
+only in the mind of the individual but in their actual characteristics,
+and not only does this refer to cases of skin puncture but to certain
+skin eruptions, and to some of those early summer skin troubles which
+are known as strawberry rash, etc. It is in this aspect of the subject
+that the resemblance to tarantulism comes in, and this is the result of
+the hysterical wave, if it may be so termed.
+
+Six different heteropterous insects were mentioned in the early part
+of this article, and it will be appropriate to give each of them
+some little detailed consideration, taking the species of Eastern
+distribution first, since the scare had its origin in the East, and has
+there perhaps been more fully exploited.
+
+[Illustration: MELANOTESTIS ABDOMINALIS. Female at right; male at left,
+with enlarged beak at side. Twice natural size. (Original.)]
+
+[Illustration: HEAD AND PROBOSCIS OF CONORHINUS SANGUISUGUS. (After
+Marlatt.)]
+
+_Opsicostes personatus_, also known as _Reduvius personatus_, and which
+has been termed the "cannibal bug," is a European species introduced
+into this country at some unknown date, but possibly following close in
+the wake of the bedbug. In Europe this species haunts houses for the
+purpose of preying upon bedbugs. Riley, in his well-known article on
+Poisonous Insects, published in Wood's Reference Handbook of Medical
+Science, states that if a fly or another insect is offered to the
+cannibal bug it is first touched with the antennæ, a sudden spring
+follows, and at the same time the beak is thrust into the prey. The
+young specimens are covered with a glutinous substance, to which
+bits of dirt and dust adhere. They move deliberately, with a long
+pause between each step, the step being taken in a jerky manner. The
+distribution of the species, as given by Reuter in his Monograph of the
+Genus _Reduvius_, is Europe to the middle of Sweden, Caucasia, Asia
+Minor, Algeria, Madeira; North America, Canada, New York, Philadelphia,
+Indiana; Tasmania, Australia--from which it appears that the insect is
+already practically cosmopolitan, and in fact may almost be termed
+a household insect. The collections of the United States National
+Museum and of Messrs. Heidemann and Chittenden, of Washington, D. C.,
+indicate the following localities for this species: Locust Hill, Va.;
+Washington, D. C.; Baltimore, Md.; Ithaca, N. Y.; Cleveland, Ohio;
+Keokuk, Iowa.
+
+[Illustration: CORISCUS SUBCOLEOPTRATUS: _a_, wingless form; _b_,
+winged form; _c_, proboscis. All twice natural size. (Original.)]
+
+The bite of this species is said to be very painful, more so than that
+of a bee, and to be followed by numbness (Lintner). One of the cases
+brought to the writer's attention this summer was that of a Swedish
+servant girl, in which the insect was caught, where the sting was
+upon the neck, and was followed by considerable swelling. Le Conte,
+in describing it under the synonymical name _Reduvius pungens_, gives
+Georgia as the locality, and makes the following statement: "This
+species is remarkable for the intense pain caused by its bite. I do not
+know whether it ever willingly plunges its rostrum into any person, but
+when caught or unskillfully handled it always stings. In this case the
+pain is almost equal to that of the bite of a snake, and the swelling
+and irritation which result from it will sometimes last for a week. In
+very weak and irritable constitutions it may even prove fatal."[4]
+
+[4] Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia,
+vol. vii, p. 404, 1854-'55.
+
+The second Eastern species is _Melanotestis picipes_. This and the
+closely allied and possibly identical _M. abdominalis_ are not rare in
+the United States, and have been found all along the Atlantic States,
+in the West and South, and also in Mexico. They live underneath stones
+and logs, and run swiftly. Both sexes of _M. picipes_ in the adult
+are fully winged, but the female of _M. abdominalis_ is usually found
+in the short-winged condition. Prof. P. R. Uhler writes (in litt.):
+"_Melanotestis abdominalis_ is not rare in this section (Baltimore),
+but the winged female is a great rarity. At the present time I have not
+a specimen of the winged female in my collection. I have seen specimens
+from the South, in North Carolina and Florida, but I do not remember
+one from Maryland. I am satisfied that _M. picipes_ is distinct from
+_M. abdominalis_. I have not known the two species to unite sexually,
+but I have seen them both united to their proper consorts. Both species
+are sometimes found under the same flat stone or log, and they both
+hibernate in our valleys beneath stones and rubbish in loamy soils."
+Specimens in Washington collections show the following localities
+for _M. abdominalis_: Baltimore, Md.; Washington, D. C.; Wilmington,
+Del.; New Jersey; Long Island; Fort Bliss, Texas; Louisiana; and
+Keokuk, Iowa;, and for _M. picipes_, Washington, D. C.; Roslyn, Va.;
+Baltimore, Md.; Derby, Conn.; Long Island; a series labeled New Jersey;
+Wilmington, Del.; Keokuk, Iowa; Cleveland and Cincinnati, Ohio;
+Louisiana; Jackson, Miss.; Barton County, Mo.; Fort Bliss, Texas; San
+Antonio, Texas; Crescent City, Fla.; Holland, S. C.
+
+This insect has been mentioned several times in entomological
+literature. The first reference to its bite probably was made by
+Townend Glover in the Annual Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture
+for 1875 (page 130). In Maryland, he states, _M. picipes_ is found
+under stones, moss, logs of wood, etc., and is capable of inflicting a
+severe wound with its rostrum or piercer. In 1888 Dr. Lintner, in his
+Fourth Report as State Entomologist of New York (page 110), quotes from
+a correspondent in Natchez, Miss., concerning this insect: "I send a
+specimen of a fly not known to us here. A few days ago it punctured the
+finger of my wife, inflicting a painful sting. The swelling was rapid,
+and for several days the wound was quite annoying." Until recent years
+this insect has not been known to the writer as occurring in houses
+with any degree of frequency. In May, 1895, however, I received a
+specimen from an esteemed correspondent--Dr. J. M. Shaffer, of Keokuk,
+Iowa--together with a letter written on May 7th, in which the statement
+was made that four specimens flew into his window the night before. The
+insect, therefore, is attracted to light or is becoming attracted to
+light, is a night-flier, and enters houses through open windows. Among
+the several cases coming under the writer's observation of bites by
+this insect, one has been reported by the well-known entomologist Mr.
+Charles Dury, of Cincinnati, Ohio, in which this species (_M. picipes_)
+bit a man on the back of the hand, making a bad sore. In another case,
+where the insect was brought for our determination and proved to be
+this species, the bite was upon the cheek, and the swelling was said to
+be great, but with little pain. In a third case, occurring at Holland,
+S. C., the symptoms were more serious. The patient was bitten upon
+the end of the middle finger, and stated that the first paroxysm of
+pain was about like that resulting from a hornet or a bee sting, but
+almost immediately it grew ten times more painful, with a feeling of
+weakness followed by vomiting. The pain was felt to shoot up the arm to
+the under jaw, and the sickness lasted for a number of days. A fourth
+case, at Fort Bliss, Texas, is interesting as having occurred in bed.
+The patient was bitten on the hand, with very painful results and bad
+swelling.
+
+The third of the Eastern species, _Coriscus subcoleoptratus_, is said
+by Uhler to have a general distribution in the Northern States, and is
+like the species immediately preceding a native insect. There is no
+record of any bite by this species, and it is introduced here for the
+reason that it attracted the writer's attention crawling upon the walls
+of an earth closet in Greene County, New York, where on one occasion it
+bit him between the fingers. The pain was sharp, like the prick of a
+pin, but only a faint swelling followed, and no further inconvenience.
+The insect is mentioned, however, for the reason that, occurring in
+such situations, it is one of the forms which are liable to carry
+pathogenic bacteria.
+
+[Illustration: RASATUS BIGUTTATUS. Twice natural size. (Original.)]
+
+[Illustration: REDUVIUS (OPSICOSTES) PERSONATUS. Twice natural size.
+(Original.)]
+
+There remain for consideration the Southern and Western forms--_Rasatus
+thoracicus_ and _R. biguttatus_, and _Conorhinus sanguisugus_.
+
+The two-spotted corsair, as _Rasatus biguttatus_ is popularly termed,
+is said by Riley to be found frequently in houses in the Southern
+States, and to prey upon bedbugs. Lintner, referring to the fact that
+it preys upon bedbugs, says: "It evidently delights in human blood, but
+prefers taking it at second hand." Dr. A. Davidson, formerly of Los
+Angeles, Cal., in an important paper entitled So-called Spider Bites
+and their Treatment, published in the Therapeutic Gazette of February
+15, 1897, arrives at the conclusion that almost all of the so-called
+spider bites met with in southern California are produced by no spider
+at all, but by _Rasatus biguttatus_. The symptoms which he describes
+are as follows: "Next day the injured part shows a local cellulitis,
+with a central dark spot; around this spot there frequently appears
+a bullous vesicle about the size of a ten-cent piece, and filled with
+a dark grumous fluid; a small ulcer forms underneath the vesicle, the
+necrotic area being generally limited to the central part, while the
+surrounding tissues are more or less swollen and somewhat painful. In
+a few days, with rest and proper care, the swelling subsides, and in
+a week all traces of the cellulitis are usually gone. In some of the
+cases no vesicle forms at the point of injury, the formation probably
+depending on the constitutional vitality of the individual or the
+amount of poison introduced." The explanation of the severity of the
+wound suggested by Dr. Davidson, and in which the writer fully concurs
+with him, is not that the insect introduces any specific poison of
+its own, but that the poison introduced is probably accidental and
+contains the ordinary putrefactive germs which may adhere to its
+proboscis. Dr. Davidson's treatment was corrosive sublimate--1 to 500
+or 1 to 1,000--locally applied to the wound, keeping the necrotic part
+bathed in the solution. The results have in all cases been favorable.
+Uhler gives the distribution of _R. biguttatus_ as Arizona, Texas,
+Panama, Pará, Cuba, Louisiana, West Virginia, and California. After a
+careful study of the material in the United States National Museum,
+Mr. Heidemann has decided that the specimens of _Rasatus_ from the
+southeastern part of the country are in reality Say's _R. biguttatus_,
+while those from the Southwestern States belong to a distinct species
+answering more fully, with slight exceptions, to the description of
+Stal's _Rasatus thoracicus_. The writer has recently received a large
+series of _R. thoracicus_ from Mr. H. Brown, of Tucson, Arizona, and
+had a disagreeable experience with the same species in April, 1898, at
+San José de Guaymas, in the State of Sonora, Mexico. He had not seen
+the insect alive before, and was sitting at the supper table with his
+host--a ranchero of cosmopolitan language. One of the bugs, attracted
+by the light, flew in with a buzz and flopped down on the table. The
+writer's entomological instinct led him to reach out for it, and was
+warned by his host in the remarkable sentence comprising words derived
+from three distinct languages: "Guardez, guardez! Zat animalito sting
+like ze dev!" But it was too late; the writer had been stung on the
+forefinger, with painful results. Fortunately, however, the insect's
+beak must have been clean, and no great swelling or long inconvenience
+ensued.
+
+Perhaps the best known of any of the species mentioned in our list is
+the blood-sucking cone-nose (_Conorhinus sanguisugus_). This ferocious
+insect belongs to a genus which has several representatives in the
+United States, all, however, confined to the South or West. _C.
+rubro-fasciatus_ and _C. variegatus_, as well as _C. sanguisugus_,
+are given the general geographical distribution of "Southern States."
+_C. dimidiatus_ and _C. maculipennis_ are Mexican forms, while _C.
+gerstaeckeri_ occurs in the Western States. The more recently described
+species, _C. protractus_ Uhl., has been taken at Los Angeles, Cal.;
+Dragoon, Ariz.; and Salt Lake City, Utah. All of these insects are
+blood-suckers, and do not hesitate to attack animals. Le Conte, in his
+original description of _C. sanguisugus_,[5] adds a most significant
+paragraph or two which, as it has not been quoted of late, will be
+especially appropriate here: "This insect, equally with the former"
+(see above), "inflicts a most painful wound. It is remarkable also
+for sucking the blood of mammals, particularly of children. I have
+known its bite followed by very serious consequences, the patient not
+recovering from its effects for nearly a year. The many relations which
+we have of spider bites frequently proving fatal have no doubt arisen
+from the stings of these insects or others of the same genera. When
+the disease called spider bite is not an anthrax or carbuncle it is
+undoubtedly occasioned by the bite of an insect--by no means however,
+of a spider. Among the many species of _Araneidæ_ which we have in the
+United States I have never seen one capable of inflicting the slightest
+wound. Ignorant persons may easily mistake a _Cimex_ for a spider. I
+have known a physician who sent to me the fragments of a large ant,
+which he supposed was a spider, that came out of his grandchild's
+head." The fact that Le Conte was himself a physician, having graduated
+from the College of Physicians and Surgeons in 1846, thus having been
+nine years in practice at the time, renders this statement all the
+more significant. The life history and habits of _C. sanguisugus_ have
+been so well written up by my assistant, Mr. Marlatt, in Bulletin No.
+4, New Series, of the Division of Entomology, United States Department
+of Agriculture, that it is not necessary to enter upon them here.
+The point made by Marlatt--that the constant and uniform character
+of the symptoms in nearly all cases of bites by this insect indicate
+that there is a specific poison connected with the bite--deserves
+consideration, but there can be no doubt that the very serious results
+which sometimes follow the bite are due to the introduction of
+extraneous poison germs. The late Mr. J. B. Lembert, of Yosemite, Cal.,
+noticed particularly that the species of _Conorhinus_ occurring upon
+the Pacific coast is attracted by carrion. Professor Toumey, of Tucson,
+Arizona, shows how a woman broke out all over the body and limbs with
+red blotches and welts from a single sting on the shoulders. Specimens
+of _C. sanguisugus_ received in July, 1899, from Mayersville, Miss.,
+were accompanied by the statement--which is appropriate, in view of the
+fact that the newspapers have insisted that the "kissing bug" prefers
+the lip--that a friend of the writer was bitten on the lip, and that
+the effect was a burning pain, intense itching, and much swelling,
+lasting three or four days. The writer of the letter had been bitten
+upon the leg and arm, and his brother was bitten upon both feet and
+legs and on the arm, the symptoms being the same in all cases.
+
+[5] Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia,
+vol. vii, p. 404 1854-'55.
+
+More need hardly be said specifically concerning these biting bugs.
+The writer's conclusions are that a puncture by any one of them may
+be and frequently has been mistaken for a spider bite, and that
+nearly all reported spider-bite cases have had in reality this cause,
+that the so-called "kissing-bug" scare has been based upon certain
+undoubted cases of the bite of one or the other of them, but that other
+bites, including mosquitoes, with hysterical and nervous symptoms
+produced by the newspaper accounts, have aided in the general alarm.
+The case of Miss Larson, who died in August, 1898, as the result of
+a mosquito bite, at Mystic, Conn., is an instance which goes to show
+that no mysterious new insect need be looked for to explain occasional
+remarkable cases. One good result of the "kissing-bug" excitement will
+prove in the end to be that it will have relieved spiders from much
+unnecessary discredit.
+
+
+
+
+THE MOSQUITO THEORY OF MALARIA.[6]
+
+BY MAJOR RONALD ROSS.
+
+
+I have the honor to address you, on completion of my term of special
+duty for the investigation of malaria, on the subject of the practical
+results as regard the prevention of the disease which may be expected
+to arise from my researches; and I trust that this letter may be
+submitted to the Government if the director general thinks fit.
+
+[6] A report, published in Nature, from Major Ronald Ross to the
+Secretary to the Director General, Indian Medical Service, Simla. Dated
+Calcutta, February 16, 1899.
+
+It has been shown in my reports to you that the parasites of malaria
+pass a stage of their existence in certain species of mosquitoes, by
+the bites of which they are inoculated into the blood of healthy men
+and birds. These observations have solved the problem--previously
+thought insolvable--of the mode of life of these parasites in external
+Nature.
+
+My results have been accepted by Dr. Laveran, the discoverer of the
+parasites of malaria; by Dr. Manson, who elaborated the mosquito
+theory of malaria; by Dr. Nuttall, of the Hygienic Institute of
+Berlin, who has made a special study of the relations between insects
+and disease; and, I understand, by M. Metchnikoff, Director of the
+Laboratory of the Pasteur Institute in Paris. Lately, moreover, Dr. C.
+W. Daniels, of the Malaria Commission, who has been sent to study with
+me in Calcutta, has confirmed my observations in a special report to
+the Royal Society; while, lastly, Professor Grassi and Drs. Bignami
+and Bastianelli, of Rome, have been able, after receiving specimens
+and copies of my reports from me, to repeat my experiments in detail,
+and to follow two of the parasites of human malaria through all their
+stages in a species of mosquito called the _Anopheles claviger_.
+
+It may therefore be finally accepted as a fact that malaria is
+communicated by the bites of some species of mosquito; and, to judge
+from the general laws governing the development of parasitic animals,
+such as the parasites of malaria, this is very probably the only way in
+which infection is acquired, in which opinion several distinguished men
+of science concur with me.
+
+In considering this statement it is necessary to remember that it does
+not refer to the mere recurrences of fever to which people previously
+infected are often subject as the result of chill, fatigue, and so on.
+When I say that malaria is communicated by the bites of mosquitoes, I
+allude only to the original infection.
+
+It is also necessary to guard against assertions to the effect that
+malaria is prevalent where mosquitoes and gnats do not exist. In my
+experience, when the facts come to be inquired into, such assertions
+are found to be untrue. Scientific research has now yielded so absolute
+a proof of the mosquito theory of malaria that hearsay evidence opposed
+to it can no longer carry any weight.
+
+Hence it follows that, in order to eliminate malaria wholly or partly
+from a given locality, it is necessary only to exterminate the various
+species of insect which carry the infection. This will certainly
+remove the malaria to a large extent, and will almost certainly remove
+it altogether. It remains only to consider whether such a measure is
+practicable.
+
+Theoretically the extermination of mosquitoes is a very simple matter.
+These insects are always hatched from aquatic larvæ or grubs which can
+live only in small stagnant collections of water, such as pots and tubs
+of water, garden cisterns, wells, ditches and drains, small ponds,
+half-dried water courses, and temporary pools of rain-water. So far as
+I have yet observed, the larvæ are seldom to be found in larger bodies
+of water, such as tanks, rice fields, streams, and rivers and lakes,
+because in such places they are devoured by minnows and other small
+fish. Nor have I ever seen any evidence in favor of the popular view
+that they breed in damp grass, dead leaves, and so on.
+
+Hence, in order to get rid of these insects from a locality, it will
+suffice to empty out or drain away, or treat with certain chemicals,
+the small collections of water in which their larvæ must pass their
+existence.
+
+But the practicability of this will depend on
+circumstances--especially, I think, on the species of mosquito with
+which we wish to deal. In my experience, different species select
+different habitations for their larvæ. Thus the common "brindled
+mosquitoes" breed almost entirely in pots and tubs of water; the
+common "gray mosquitoes" only in cisterns, ditches, and drains; while
+the rarer "spotted-winged mosquitoes" seem to choose only shallow
+rain-water puddles and ponds too large to dry up under a week or more,
+and too small or too foul and stagnant for minnows.
+
+Hence the larvæ of the first two varieties are found in large numbers
+round almost all human dwellings in India; and, because their breeding
+grounds--namely, vessels of water, drains, and wells--are so numerous
+and are so frequently contained in private tenements, it will be almost
+impossible to exterminate them on a large scale.
+
+On the other hand, spotted-winged mosquitoes are generally much
+more rare than the other two varieties. They do not appear to breed
+in wells, cisterns, and vessels of water, and therefore have no
+special connection with human habitations. In fact, it is usually
+a matter of some difficulty to obtain their larvæ. Small pools of
+any permanence--such as they require--are not common in most parts
+of India, except during the rains, and then pools of this kind are
+generally full of minnows which make short work of any mosquito
+larvæ they may find. In other words, the breeding grounds of the
+spotted-winged varieties seem to be so isolated and small that I
+think it may be possible to exterminate this species under certain
+circumstances.
+
+The importance of these observations will be apparent when I add
+that hitherto the parasites of human malaria have been found only in
+spotted-winged mosquitoes--namely, in two species of them in India and
+in one species in Italy. As a result of very numerous experiments I
+think that the common brindled and gray mosquitoes are quite innocuous
+as regards human malaria--a fortunate circumstance for the human race
+in the tropics; and Professor Grassi seems to have come to the same
+conclusion as the result of his inquiries in Italy.
+
+But I wish to be understood as writing with all due caution on these
+points. Up to the present our knowledge, both as regards the habits
+of the various species of mosquito and as regards the capacity of each
+for carrying malaria, is not complete. All I can now say is that if
+my anticipations be realized--if it be found that the malaria-bearing
+species of mosquito multiply only in small isolated collections of
+water which can easily be dissipated--we shall possess a simple mode of
+eliminating malaria from certain localities.
+
+I limit this statement to certain localities only, because it is
+obvious that where the breeding pools are very numerous, as in
+water-logged country, or where the inhabitants are not sufficiently
+advanced to take the necessary precautions, we can scarcely expect the
+recent observations to be of much use--at least for some years to come.
+And this limitation must, I fear, exclude most of the rural areas in
+India.
+
+Where, however, the breeding pools are not very numerous, and where
+there is anything approaching a competent sanitary establishment, we
+may, I think, hope to reap the benefit of these discoveries. And this
+should apply to the most crowded areas, such as those of cities, towns
+and cantonments, and also to tea, coffee, and indigo estates, and
+perhaps to military camps.
+
+For instance, malaria causes an enormous amount of sickness among the
+poor in most Indian cities. Here the common species of mosquitoes breed
+in the precincts of almost all the houses, and can therefore scarcely
+be exterminated; but pools suitable for the spotted-winged varieties
+are comparatively scarce, being found only on vacant areas, ill-kept
+gardens, or beside roads in very exceptional positions where they can
+neither dry up quickly nor contain fish. Thus a single small puddle
+may supply the dangerous mosquitoes to several square miles containing
+a crowded population: if this be detected and drained off--which will
+generally cost only a very few rupees--we may expect malaria to vanish
+from that particular area.
+
+The same considerations will apply to military cantonments and estates
+under cultivation. In many such malaria causes the bulk of the
+sickness, and may often, I think, originate from two or three small
+puddles of a few square yards in size. Thus in a malarious part of
+the cantonment of Secunderabad I found the larvæ of spotted-winged
+mosquitoes only after a long search in a single little pool which could
+be filled up with a few cart-loads of town rubbish.
+
+In making these suggestions I do not wish to excite hopes which may
+ultimately prove to have been unfounded. We do not yet know all the
+dangerous species of mosquito, nor do we even possess an exhaustive
+knowledge of the haunts and habits of any one variety. I wish merely
+to indicate what, so far as I can see at present, may become a very
+simple means of eradicating malaria.
+
+One thing may be said for certain. Where previously we have been unable
+to point out the exact origin of the malaria in a locality, and have
+thought that it rises from the soil generally, we now hope for much
+more precise knowledge regarding its source; and it will be contrary to
+experience if human ingenuity does not finally succeed in turning such
+information to practical account.
+
+More than this, if the distinguishing characteristics of the
+malaria-bearing mosquitoes are sufficiently marked (if, for instance,
+they all have spotted wings), people forced to live or travel in
+malarious districts will ultimately come to recognize them and to take
+precautions against being bitten by them.
+
+Before practical results can be reasonably looked for, however, we must
+find precisely--
+
+(_a_) What species of Indian mosquitoes do and do not carry human
+malaria.
+
+(_b_) What are the habits of the dangerous varieties.
+
+I hope, therefore, that I may be permitted to urge the desirability of
+carrying out this research. It will no longer present any scientific
+difficulties, as only the methods already successfully adopted will be
+required. The results obtained will be quite unequivocal and definite.
+
+But the inquiry should be exhaustive. It will not suffice to
+distinguish merely one or two malaria-bearing species of mosquito in
+one or two localities; we should learn to know all of them in all parts
+of the country.
+
+The investigation will be abbreviated if the dangerous species be found
+to belong only to one class of mosquito, as I think is likely; and the
+researches which are now being energetically entered upon in Germany,
+Italy, America, and Africa will assist any which may be undertaken in
+India, though there is reason for thinking that the malaria-bearing
+species differ in various countries.
+
+As each species is detected it will be possible to attempt measures at
+once for its extermination in given localities as an experiment.
+
+I regret that, owing to my work connected with _kala-azar_, I have not
+been able to advance this branch of knowledge as much during my term
+of special duty as I had hoped to do; but I think that the solution of
+the malaria problem which has been obtained during this period will
+ultimately yield results of practical importance.
+
+
+
+
+FOOD POISONING.
+
+BY VICTOR C. VAUGHAN,
+
+PROFESSOR OF HYGIENE IN THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN.
+
+
+Within the past fifteen or twenty years cases of poisoning with foods
+of various kinds have apparently become quite numerous. This increase
+in the number of instances of this kind has been both apparent and
+real. In the first place, it is only within recent years that it has
+been recognized that foods ordinarily harmless may become most powerful
+poisons. In the second place, the more extensive use of preserved
+foods of various kinds has led to an actual increase in the number of
+outbreaks of food poisoning.
+
+The harmful effects of foods may be due to any of the following causes:
+
+1. Certain poisonous fungi may infect grains. This is the cause of
+epidemics of poisoning with ergotized bread, which formerly prevailed
+during certain seasons throughout the greater part of continental
+Europe, but which are now practically limited to southern Russia and
+Spain. In this country ergotism is practically unknown, except as a
+result of the criminal use of the drug ergot. However, a few herds of
+cattle in Kansas and Nebraska have been quite extensively affected with
+this disease.
+
+2. Plants and animals may feed upon substances that are not harmful
+to them, but which may seriously affect man on account of his greater
+susceptibility. It is a well-known fact that hogs may eat large
+quantities of arsenic or antimony without harm to themselves, and thus
+render their flesh unfit for food for man. It is believed that birds
+that feed upon the mountain laurel furnish a food poisonous to man.
+
+3. During periods of the physiological activity of certain glands
+in some of the lower animals the flesh becomes harmful to man. Some
+species of fish are poisonous during the spawning season.
+
+4. Both animal and vegetable foods may become infected with the
+specific germs of disease and serve as the carriers of the infection to
+man. Instances of the distribution of typhoid fever by the milkman are
+illustrations of this.
+
+5. Animals may be infected with specific diseases, which may be
+transmitted to man in the meat or milk. This is one of the means by
+which tuberculosis is spread.
+
+6. Certain nonspecific, poison-producing germs may find their way into
+foods of various kinds, and may by their growth produce chemical
+poisons either before or after the food has been eaten. This is the
+most common form of food poisoning known in this country.
+
+We will briefly discuss some foods most likely to prove harmful to man.
+
+MUSSEL POISONING.--It has long been known that this bivalve is
+occasionally poisonous. Three forms of mussel poisoning are recognized.
+The first, known as _Mytilotoxismus gastricus_, is accompanied by
+symptoms practically identical with those of cholera morbus. At first
+there is nausea, followed by vomiting, which may continue for hours.
+In severe cases the walls of the stomach are so seriously altered that
+the vomited matter contains considerable quantities of blood. Vomiting
+is usually accompanied by severe and painful purging. The heart may be
+markedly affected, and death may result from failure of this organ.
+Examination after death from this cause shows the stomach and small
+intestines to be highly inflamed.
+
+The second form of mussel poisoning is known as _Mytilotoxismus
+exanthematicus_ on account of visible changes in the skin. At first
+there is a sensation of heat, usually beginning in the eyelids, then
+spreading to the face, and finally extending over the whole body.
+This sensation is followed by an eruption, which is accompanied by
+intolerable itching. In severe cases the breathing becomes labored, the
+face grows livid, consciousness is lost, and death may result within
+two or three days.
+
+The most frequently observed form of mussel poisoning is that
+designated as _Mytilotoxismus paralyticus_. As early as 1827 Combe
+reported his observations upon thirty persons who had suffered from
+this kind of mussel poisoning. The first symptoms, as a rule, appeared
+within two hours after eating the poisonous food. Some suffered from
+nausea and vomiting, but these were not constant or lasting symptoms.
+All complained of a prickly feeling in the hands, heat and constriction
+of the throat, difficulty of swallowing and speaking, numbness about
+the mouth, gradually extending over the face and to the arms, with
+great debility of the limbs. Most of the sufferers were unable to
+stand; the action of the heart was feeble, and the face grew pale and
+expressed much anxiety. Two of the thirty cases terminated fatally.
+Post-mortem examination showed no abnormality.
+
+Many opinions have been expressed concerning the nature of harmful
+mussels. Until quite recently it was a common belief that certain
+species are constantly toxic. Virchow has attempted to describe the
+dangerous variety of mussels, stating that it has a brighter shell,
+sweeter, more penetrating, bouillonlike odor than the edible kind, and
+that the flesh of the poisonous mussel is yellow; the water in which
+they are boiled becomes bluish.
+
+However, this belief in a poisonous species is now admitted to be
+erroneous. At one time it was suggested that mussels became hurtful
+by absorbing the copper from the bottoms of vessels, but Christison
+made an analysis of the mussels that poisoned the men mentioned by
+Combe, with negative results, and also pointed out the fact that the
+symptoms were not those of poisoning with copper. Some have held that
+the ill effects were due wholly to idiosyncrasies in the consumers,
+but cats and dogs are affected in the same way as men are. It has also
+been believed that all mussels are poisonous during the period of
+reproduction. This theory is the basis of the popular superstition that
+shellfish should not be eaten during the months in the name of which
+the letter "r" does not occur. At one time this popular idea took the
+form of a legal enactment in France forbidding the sale of shellfish
+from May 1st to September 1st. This widespread idea has a grain of
+truth in it, inasmuch as decomposition is more likely to alter food
+injuriously during the summer months. However, poisoning with mussels
+may occur at any time of the year.
+
+It has been pretty well demonstrated that the first two forms of mussel
+poisoning mentioned above are due to putrefactive processes, while
+the paralytic manifestations seen in other cases are due to a poison
+isolated a few years ago by Brieger, and named by him mytilotoxin. Any
+mussel may acquire this poison when it lives in filthy water. Indeed,
+it has been shown experimentally that edible mussels may become harmful
+when left for fourteen days or longer in filthy water; while, on the
+other hand, poisonous mussels may become harmless if kept four weeks
+or longer in clear water. This is true not only of mussels, but of
+oysters as well. Some years ago, many cases of poisoning from oysters
+were reported at Havre. The oysters had been taken from a bed near the
+outlet of a drain from a public water closet. Both oysters and mussels
+may harbor the typhoid bacillus, and may act as carriers of this germ
+to man.
+
+There should be most stringent police regulations against the sale of
+all kinds of mollusks, and all fish as well, taken from filthy waters.
+Certainly one should avoid shellfish from impure waters, and it is not
+too much to insist that those offered for food should be washed in
+clean water. All forms of clam and oyster broth should be avoided when
+it has stood even for a few hours at summer heat. These preparations
+very quickly become infected with bacteria, which develop most potent
+poisons.
+
+FISH POISONING.--Some fish are supplied with poisonous glands, by means
+of which they secure their prey and protect themselves from their
+enemies. The "dragon weaver," or "sea weaver" (_Trachinus draco_),
+is one of the best known of these fish. There are numerous varieties
+widely distributed in salt waters. The poisonous spine is attached
+partly to the maxilla and partly to the gill cover at its base. This
+spine is connected with a poisonous gland; the spine itself is grooved
+and covered with a thin membrane, which converts the grooves into
+canals. When the point enters another animal its membrane is stripped
+back and the poison enters the wound. Men sometimes wound their feet
+with the barbs of this fish while bathing. It also occasionally happens
+that a fisherman pricks his fingers with one of these barbs. The most
+poisonous variety of this fish known is found in the Mediterranean Sea.
+Wounds produced by these animals sometimes cause death. In _Synanceia
+brachio_ there are in the dorsal fin thirteen barbs, each connected
+with two poison reservoirs. The secretion from these glands is clear,
+bluish in color, and acid in reaction, and when introduced beneath the
+skin causes local gangrene and, if in sufficient quantity, general
+paralysis. In _Plotosus lineatus_ there is a powerful barb in front of
+the ventral fin, and the poison is not discharged unless the end of
+the barb is broken. The most poisonous variety of this fish is found
+only in tropical waters. In _Scorpæna scrofa_ and other species of this
+family there are poison glands connected with the barbs in the dorsal
+and in some varieties in the caudal fin.
+
+A disease known as _kakke_ was a few years ago quite prevalent in
+Japan and other countries along the eastern coast of Asia. With
+the opening up of Japan to the civilized world the study of this
+disease by scientific methods was undertaken by the observant and
+intelligent natives who acquired their medical training in Europe and
+America. In Tokio the disease generally appears in May, reaches its
+greatest prevalence in August, and gradually disappears in September
+and October. The researches of Miura and others have fairly well
+demonstrated that this disease is due to the eating of fish belonging
+to the family of _Scombridæ_. There are other kinds of fish in
+Japanese waters that undoubtedly are poisonous. This is true of the
+_tetrodon_, of which, according to Remey, there are twelve species
+whose ovaries are poisonous. Dogs fed upon these organs soon suffered
+from salivation, vomiting, and convulsive muscular contractions. When
+some of the fluid obtained by rubbing the ovaries in a mortar was
+injected subcutaneously in dogs the symptoms were much more severe, and
+death resulted. Tahara states that he has isolated from the roe of the
+tetrodon two poisons, one of which is a crystalline base, while the
+other is a white, waxy body. From 1885 to 1892 inclusive, 933 cases of
+poisoning with this fish were reported in Tokio, with a mortality of
+seventy-two per cent.
+
+Fish poisoning is quite frequently observed in the West Indies, where
+the complex of symptoms is designated by the Spanish term _siguatera_.
+It is believed by the natives that the poisonous properties of the fish
+are due to the fact that they feed upon decomposing medusæ and corals.
+In certain localities it is stated that all fish caught off certain
+coral reefs are unfit for food. However, all statements concerning the
+origin and nature of the poison in these fish are mere assumptions,
+since no scientific work has been done. Whatever the source of the
+poison may be, it is quite powerful, and death not infrequently
+results. The symptoms are those of gastro-intestinal irritation
+followed by collapse.
+
+In Russia fish poisoning sometimes causes severe and widespread
+epidemics. The Government has offered a large reward for any one who
+will positively determine the cause of the fish being poisonous and
+suggest successful means of preventing these outbreaks. Schmidt, after
+studying several of these epidemics, states the following conclusions:
+
+(_a_) The harmful effects are not due to putrefactive processes. (_b_)
+Fish poisoning in Russia is always due to the eating of some member of
+the sturgeon tribe. (_c_) The ill effects are not due to the method of
+catching the fish, the use of salt, or to imperfections in the methods
+of preservation. (_d_) The deleterious substance is not uniformly
+distributed through the fish, but is confined to certain parts. (_e_)
+The poisonous portions are not distinguishable from the nonpoisonous,
+either macroscopically or microscopically. (_f_) When the fish is
+cooked it may be eaten without harm. (_g_) The poison is an animal
+alkaloid produced most probably by bacteria that cause an infectious
+disease in the fish during life.
+
+The conclusion reached by Schmidt is confirmed by the researches of
+Madame Sieber, who found a poisonous bacillus in fish which had caused
+an epidemic.
+
+In the United States fish poisoning is most frequently due to
+decomposition in canned fish. The most prominent symptoms are nausea,
+vomiting, and purging. Sometimes there is a scarlatinous rash, which
+may cover the whole body. The writer has studied two outbreaks of
+this kind of fish poisoning. In both instances canned salmon was the
+cause of the trouble. Although a discussion of the treatment of food
+poisoning is foreign to this paper, the writer must call attention to
+the danger in the administration of opiates in cases of poisoning with
+canned fish. Vomiting and purging are efforts on the part of Nature to
+remove the poison, and should be assisted by the stomach tube and by
+irrigation of the colon. In one of the cases seen by the writer large
+doses of morphine had been administered in order to check the vomiting
+and purging and to relieve the pain; in this case death resulted. The
+danger of arresting the elimination of the poison in all cases of food
+poisoning can not be too emphatically condemned.
+
+MEAT POISONING.--The diseases most frequently transmitted from the
+lower animals to man by the consumption of the flesh or milk of the
+former by the latter are tuberculosis, anthrax, symptomatic anthrax,
+pleuro-pneumonia, trichinosis, mucous diarrhoea, and actinomycosis.
+It hardly comes within the scope of this article to discuss in detail
+the transmission of these diseases from the lower animals to man.
+However, the writer must be allowed to offer a few opinions concerning
+some mooted questions pertaining to the consumption of the flesh
+of tuberculous animals. Some hold that it is sufficient to condemn
+the diseased part of the tuberculous cow, and that the remainder
+may be eaten with perfect safety. Others teach that "total seizure"
+and destruction of the entire carcass by the health authorities are
+desirable. Experiments consisting of the inoculation of guinea pigs
+with the meat and meat juices of tuberculous animals have given
+different results to several investigators. To one who has seen
+tuberculous animals slaughtered, these differences in opinion and in
+experimental results are easily explainable. The tuberculous invasion
+may be confined to a single gland, and this may occur in a portion
+of the carcass not ordinarily eaten; while, on the other hand, the
+invasion may be much more extensive and the muscles may be involved.
+The tuberculous portion may consist of hard nodules that do not break
+down and contaminate other tissues in the process of removal, but the
+writer has seen a tuberculous abscess in the liver holding nearly a
+pint of broken-down infected matter ruptured or cut in removing this
+organ, and its contents spread over the greater part of the carcass.
+This explains why one investigator succeeds in inducing tuberculosis
+in guinea pigs by introducing small bits of meat from a tuberculous
+cow into the abdominal cavity, while another equally skillful
+bacteriologist follows the same details and fails to get positive
+results. No one desires to eat any portion of a tuberculous animal, and
+the only safety lies in "total seizure" and destruction. That the milk
+from tuberculous cows, even when the udder is not involved, may contain
+the specific bacillus has been demonstrated experimentally. The writer
+has suggested that every one selling milk should be licensed, and the
+granting of a license should be dependent upon the application of the
+tuberculin test to every cow from which milk is sold. The frequency
+with which tuberculosis is transmitted to children through milk should
+justify this action.
+
+That a profuse diarrhoea may render the flesh of an animal unfit
+food for man was demonstrated by the cases studied by Gärtner. In this
+instance the cow was observed to have a profuse diarrhoea for two
+days before she was slaughtered. Both the raw and cooked meat from this
+animal poisoned the persons who ate it. Medical literature contains the
+records of many cases of meat poisoning due to the eating of the flesh
+of cows slaughtered while suffering from puerperal fever. It has been
+found that the flesh of animals dead of symptomatic anthrax may retain
+its infection after having been preserved in a dry state for ten years.
+
+One of the most frequently observed forms of meat poisoning is that
+due to the eating of decomposed sausage. Sausage poisoning, known
+as _botulismus_, is most common in parts of Germany. Germans who
+have brought to the United States their methods of preparing sausage
+occasionally suffer from this form of poisoning. The writer had
+occasion two years ago to investigate six cases of this kind, two
+of which proved fatal. The sausage meat had been placed in uncooked
+sections of the intestines and alternately frozen and thawed and
+then eaten raw. In this instance the meat was infected with a highly
+virulent bacillus, which resembled very closely the _Bacterium coli_.
+
+In England, Ballard has reported numerous epidemics of meat poisoning,
+in most of which the meat had become infected with some nonspecific,
+poison-producing germ. In 1894 the writer was called upon to
+investigate cases of poisoning due to the eating of pressed chicken.
+The chickens were killed Tuesday afternoon and left hanging in a market
+room at ordinary temperature until Wednesday forenoon, when they were
+drawn and carried to a restaurant and here left in a warm room until
+Thursday, when they were cooked (not thoroughly), pressed, and served
+at a banquet in which nearly two hundred men participated. All ate
+of the chicken, and were more or less seriously poisoned. The meat
+contained a slender bacillus, which was fatal to white rats, guinea
+pigs, dogs, and rabbits.
+
+Ermengem states that since 1867 there have been reported 112 epidemics
+of meat poisoning, in which 6,000 persons have been affected. In 103 of
+these outbreaks the meat came from diseased animals, while in only five
+was there any evidence that putrefactive changes in the meat had taken
+place. My experience convinces me that in this country meat poisoning
+frequently results from putrefactive changes.
+
+Instances of poisoning from the eating of canned meats have become
+quite common. Although it may be possible that in some instances the
+ill effects result from metallic poisoning, in a great majority of
+cases the poisonous substances are formed by putrefactive changes. In
+many cases it is probable that decomposition begins after the can has
+been opened by the consumer; in others the canning is imperfectly done,
+and putrefaction is far advanced before the food reaches the consumer.
+In still other instances the meat may have been taken from diseased
+animals, or it may have undergone putrefactive changes before the
+canning. It should always be remembered that canned meat is especially
+liable to putrefactive changes after the can has been opened, and when
+the contents of the open can are not consumed at once the remainder
+should be kept in a cold place or should be thrown away. People are
+especially careless on this point. While every one knows that fresh
+meat should be kept in a cold place during the summer, an open can of
+meat is often allowed to stand at summer temperature and its contents
+eaten hours after the can has been opened. This is not safe, and has
+caused several outbreaks of meat poisoning that have come under the
+observation of the writer.
+
+MILK POISONING.--In discussing this form of food poisoning we will
+exclude any consideration of the distribution of the specific
+infectious diseases through milk as the carrier of the infection,
+and will confine ourselves to that form of milk poisoning which is
+due to infection with nonspecific, poison-producing germs. Infants
+are highly susceptible to the action of the galactotoxicons (milk
+poisons). There can no longer be any doubt that these poisons are
+largely responsible for much of the infantile mortality which is
+alarmingly high in all parts of the world. It has been positively shown
+that the summer diarrhoea of infancy is due to milk poisoning. The
+diarrhoeas prevalent among infants during the summer months are not
+due to a specific germ, but there are many bacteria that grow rapidly
+in milk and form poisons which induce vomiting and purging, and may
+cause death. These diseases occur almost exclusively among children
+artificially fed. It is true that there are differences in chemical
+composition between the milk of woman and that of the cow, but these
+variations in percentage of proteids, fats, and carbohydrates are of
+less importance than the infection of milk with harmful bacteria. The
+child that takes its food exclusively from the breast of a healthy
+mother obtains a food that is free from poisonous bacteria, while the
+bottle-fed child may take into its body with its food a great number
+and variety of germs, some of which may be quite deadly in their
+effects. The diarrhoeas of infancy are practically confined to the
+hot months, because a high temperature is essential to the growth and
+wide distribution of the poison-producing bacteria. Furthermore, during
+the summer time these bacteria grow abundantly in all kinds of filth.
+Within recent years the medical profession has so urgently called
+attention to the danger of infected milk that there has been a great
+improvement in the care of this article of diet, but that there is yet
+room for more scientific and thorough work in this direction must be
+granted. The sterilization and Pasteurization of milk have doubtlessly
+saved the lives of many children, but every intelligent physician knows
+that even the most careful mother or nurse often fails to secure a milk
+that is altogether safe.
+
+It is true that milk often contains germs the spores of which
+are not destroyed by the ordinary methods of sterilization and
+Pasteurization. However, these germs are not the most dangerous ones
+found in milk. Moreover, every mother and nurse should remember
+that in the preparation of sterilized milk for the child it is not
+only necessary to heat the milk, but, after it has been heated to a
+temperature sufficiently high and sufficiently prolonged, the milk must
+subsequently be kept at a low temperature until the child is ready to
+take it, when it may be warmed. It should be borne in mind that the
+subsequent cooling of the milk and keeping it at a low temperature is a
+necessary feature in the preparation of it as a food for the infant.
+
+CHEESE POISONING.--Under this heading we shall include the ill effects
+that may follow the eating of not only cheese but other milk products,
+such as ice cream, cream custard, cream puffs, etc. Any poison formed
+in milk may exist in the various milk products, and it is impossible
+to draw any sharp line of distinction between milk poisoning and
+cheese poisoning. However, the distinction is greater than is at first
+apparent. Under the head of milk poisoning we have called especial
+attention to those substances formed in milk to which children are
+particularly susceptible, while in cheese and other milk products
+there are formed poisonous substances against which age does not give
+immunity. Since milk is practically the sole food during the first year
+or eighteen months of life, the effect of its poisons upon infants is
+of the greatest importance; on the other hand, milk products are seldom
+taken by the infant, but are frequent articles of diet in after life.
+
+In 1884 the writer succeeded in isolating from poisonous cheese a
+highly active basic substance, to which he gave the name _tyrotoxicon_.
+The symptoms produced by this poison are quite marked, but differ in
+degree according to the amount of the poison taken. At first there is
+dryness of the mouth, followed by constriction of the fauces, then
+nausea, vomiting, and purging. The first vomited matter consists of
+food, then it becomes watery and is frequently stained with blood. The
+stools are at first semisolid, and then are watery and serous. The
+heart is depressed, the pulse becomes weak and irregular, and in severe
+cases the face appears cyanotic. There may be dilatation of the pupil,
+but this is not seen in all. The most dangerous cases are those in
+which the vomiting is slight and soon ceases altogether, and the bowels
+are constipated from the beginning. Such cases as these require prompt
+and energetic treatment. The stomach and bowels should be thoroughly
+irrigated in order to remove the poison, and the action of the heart
+must be sustained.
+
+At one time the writer believed that tyrotoxicon was the active agent
+in all samples of poisonous cheese, but more extended experimentation
+has convinced him that this is not the case. Indeed, this poison is
+rarely found, while the number of poisons in harmful cheese is no doubt
+considerable. There are numerous poisonous albumins found in cheese
+and other milk products. While all of these are gastro-intestinal
+irritants, they differ considerably in other respects.
+
+In 1895 the writer and Perkins made a prolonged study of a bacillus
+found in cheese which had poisoned fifty people. Chemically the
+poison produced by this germ is distinguished from tyrotoxicon by
+the fact that it is not removed from alkaline solution with ether.
+Physiologically the new poison has a more pronounced effect on the
+heart, in which it resembles muscarin or neurin more closely than it
+does tyrotoxicon. Pathologically, the two poisons are unlike, inasmuch
+as the new poison induces marked congestion of the tissues about the
+point of injection when used upon animals hypodermically. Furthermore,
+the intestinal constrictions which are so uniformly observed in animals
+poisoned by tyrotoxicon was not once seen in our work with this new
+poison, although it was carefully looked for in all our experiments.
+
+In 1898 the writer, with McClymonds, examined samples of cheese from
+more than sixty manufacturers in this country and in Europe. In all
+samples of ordinary American green cheese poisonous germs were found in
+greater or less abundance. These germs resemble very closely the colon
+bacillus, and most likely their presence in the milk is to be accounted
+for by contamination with bits of fecal matter from the cow. It is more
+than probable that the manufacture of cheese is yet in its infancy,
+and we need some one to do for this industry what Pasteur did for the
+manufacture of beer. At present the flavor of a given cheese depends
+upon the bacteria and molds which accidentally get into it. The time
+will probably come when all milk used for the manufacture of cheese
+will be sterilized, and then selected molds and bacteria will be sown
+in it. In this way the flavor and value of a cheese will be determined
+with scientific accuracy, and will not be left to accident.
+
+CANNED FOODS.--As has been stated, the increased consumption of
+preserved foods is accountable for a great proportion of the cases
+of food poisoning. The preparation of canned foods involves the
+application of scientific principles, and since this work is done by
+men wholly ignorant of science it is quite remarkable that harmful
+effects do not manifest themselves more frequently than they do. Every
+can of food which is not thoroughly sterilized may become a source of
+danger to health and even to life. It may be of interest for us to
+study briefly the methods ordinarily resorted to in the preparation
+of canned foods. With most substances the food is cooked before being
+put into the can. This is especially true of meats of various kinds.
+Thorough cooking necessarily leads to the complete sterilization of
+the food; but after this, it must be transferred to the can, and the
+can must be properly closed. With the handling necessary in canning
+the food, germs are likely to be introduced. Moreover, it is possible
+that the preliminary cooking is not thoroughly done and complete
+sterilization is not reached. The empty can should be sterilized. If
+one wishes to understand the _modus operandi_ of canning foods, let him
+take up a round can of any fruit, vegetable, or meat and examine the
+bottom of the can, which is in reality the top during the process of
+canning and until the label is put on. The food is introduced through
+the circular opening in this end, now closed by a piece which can be
+seen to be soldered on. After the food has been introduced through this
+opening the can and contents are heated either in a water bath or by
+means of steam. The opening through which the food was introduced is
+now closed by a circular cap of suitable size, which is soldered in
+position.
+
+This cap has near its center a "prick-hole" through which the steam
+continues to escape. This "prick-hole" is then closed with solder, and
+the closed can again heated in the water bath or with steam. If the
+can "blows" (if the ends of the can become convex) during this last
+heating the "prick-hole" is again punctured and the heated air allowed
+to escape, after which the "prick-hole" is again closed. Cans thus
+prepared should be allowed to stand in a warm chamber for four or five
+days. If the contents have not been thoroughly sterilized gases will
+be evolved during this time, or the can will "blow" and the contents
+should be discarded. Unscrupulous manufacturers take cans which have
+"blown," prick them to allow the escape of the contained gases, and
+then resterilize the cans with their contents, close them again, and
+put them on the market. These "blowholes" may be made in either end of
+the can, or they may be made in the sides of the can, where they are
+subsequently covered with the label. Of course, it does not necessarily
+follow that if a can has "blown" and been subsequently resterilized its
+contents will prove poisonous, but it is not safe to eat the contents
+of such cans. Reputable manufacturers discard all "blown" cans.
+
+Nearly all canned jellies sold in this country are made from apples.
+The apples are boiled with a preparation sold under the trade
+name "tartarine." This consists of either dilute hydrochloric or
+sulphuric acid. Samples examined by the writer have invariably been
+found to consist of dilute hydrochloric acid. The jelly thus formed
+by the action of the dilute acid upon the apple is converted into
+quince, pear, pineapple, or any other fruit that the pleasure of the
+manufacturer may choose by the addition of artificial flavoring agents.
+There is no reason for believing that the jellies thus prepared are
+harmful to health.
+
+Canned fruits occasionally contain salicylic acid in some form. There
+has been considerable discussion among sanitarians as to whether or
+not the use of this preservative is admissible. Serious poisoning with
+canned fruits is very rare. However, there can be but little doubt that
+many minor digestive disturbances are caused by acids formed in these
+foods. There has been much apprehension concerning the possibility of
+poisoning resulting from the soluble salts of tin formed by the action
+of fruit acids upon the can. The writer believes that anxiety on this
+point is unnecessary, and he has failed to find any positive evidence
+of poisoning resulting from this cause.
+
+There are two kinds of condensed milk sold in cans. These are known as
+condensed milk "with" and "without" sugar. In the preparation of the
+first-mentioned kind a large amount of cane sugar is added to condensed
+milk, and this acting as a preservative renders the preparation and
+successful handling of this article of food comparatively easy. On
+the other hand, condensed milk to which sugar has not been added is
+very liable to decomposition, and great care must be used in its
+preparation. The writer has seen several cases of severe poisoning that
+have resulted from decomposed canned milk. Any of the galactotoxicons
+(milk poisons) may be formed in this milk. In these instances the cans
+were "blown," both ends being convex.
+
+One of the most important sanitary questions in which we are concerned
+to-day is that pertaining to the subject of canned meats. It is
+undoubtedly true that unscrupulous manufacturers are putting upon the
+market articles of this kind of food which no decent man knowingly
+would eat, and which are undoubtedly harmful to all.
+
+The knowledge gained by investigations in chemical and bacteriological
+science have enabled the unscrupulous to take putrid liver and other
+disgusting substances and present them in such a form that the most
+fastidious palate would not recognize their origin. In this way the
+flesh from diseased animals and that which has undergone putrefactive
+changes may be doctored up and sold as reputable articles of diet.
+The writer does not believe that this practice is largely resorted
+to in this country, but that questionable preservatives have been
+used to some extent has been amply demonstrated by the testimony of
+the manufacturers of these articles themselves, given before the
+Senate committee now investigating the question of food and food
+adulterations. It is certainly true that most of the adulterations
+used in our foods are not injurious to health, but are fraudulent in a
+pecuniary sense; but when the flesh of diseased animals and substances
+which have undergone putrefactive decomposition can be doctored up and
+preserved by the addition of such agents as formaldehyde, it is time
+that the public should demand some restrictive measures.
+
+
+
+
+WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY.
+
+BY PROF. JOHN TROWBRIDGE,
+
+DIRECTOR OF JEFFERSON PHYSICAL LABORATORY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY.
+
+
+I never visit the historical collection of physical apparatus in the
+physical laboratory of Harvard University without a sense of wonderment
+at the marvelous use that has been made of old and antiquated pieces
+of apparatus which were once considered electrical toys. There can
+be seen the first batteries, the model of dynamo machines, and the
+electric motor. Such a collection is in a way a Westminster Abbey--dead
+mechanisms born to new uses and a great future.
+
+There is one simple piece of apparatus in the collection, without which
+telephony and wireless telegraphy would be impossible. To my mind it
+is the most interesting skeleton there, and if physicists marked the
+resting places of their apparatus laid to apparent rest and desuetude,
+this merits the highest sounding and most suggestive inscription. It
+is called a transformer, and consists merely of two coils of wire
+placed near each other. One coil is adapted to receive an electric
+current; the other coil, entirely independent of the first, responds
+by sympathy, or what is called induction, across the space which
+separates the coils. Doubtless if man knew all the capabilities of this
+simple apparatus he might talk to China, or receive messages from the
+antipodes. He now, by means of it, analyzes the light of distant suns,
+and produces the singular X rays which enable him to see through the
+human body. By means of it he already communicates his thoughts between
+stations thousands of miles apart, and by means of its manifestations I
+hope to make this article on wireless telegraphy intelligible. My essay
+can be considered a panegyric of this buried form--a history of its new
+life and of its unbounded possibilities.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Disposition of batteries and coils at the
+sending station, showing the arrangement of the vertical wire and the
+spark gap.]
+
+For convenience, one of the coils of the transformer is placed inside
+the other, and the combination is called a Ruhmkorf coil. It is
+represented in the accompanying photograph (Fig. 1), with batteries
+attached to the inner coil, while the outer coil is connected to two
+balls, between which an electric spark jumps whenever the battery
+circuit is broken. In fact, any disturbance in the battery circuit--a
+weakening, a strengthening, or a break--provided that the changes are
+sudden, produces a corresponding change in the neighboring circuit. One
+coil thus responds to the other, in some mysterious way, across the
+interval of air which separates them. Usually the coils are placed very
+near to each other--in fact, one embraces the other, as shown in the
+photograph.
+
+The coils, however, if placed several miles apart, will still respond
+to each other if they are made sufficiently large, if they are properly
+placed, and if a powerful current is used to excite one coil. Thus,
+by simply varying the distance between the coils of wire we can send
+messages through the air between stations which are not connected
+with a wire. This method, however, does not constitute the system of
+wireless telegraphy of Marconi, which it is the object of this paper
+to describe. Marconi has succeeded in transmitting messages over forty
+miles between points not connected by wires, and he has accomplished
+this feat by merely slightly modifying the disposition of the coils,
+thus revealing a new possibility of the wondrous transformer. If the
+reader will compare the following diagram (Fig. 2) with the photograph
+(Fig. 1), he will see how simple the sending apparatus of Marconi is.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Diagram of the arrangement of wires and
+batteries at the receiving station.]
+
+S is a gap between the ends of one coil, across which an electric spark
+is produced whenever the current from the batteries B flowing through
+the coil C is broken by an arrangement at D. This break produces an
+electrical pulsation in the coil C', which travels up and down the
+wire W, which is elevated to a considerable height above the ground.
+This pulsation can not be seen by the eye. The wire does not move;
+it appears perfectly quiescent and dead, and seems only a wire and
+nothing more. At night, under favorable circumstances, one could see a
+luminosity on the wire, especially at the end, when messages are being
+transmitted, by a powerful battery B.
+
+It is very easy to detect the electric lines which radiate from every
+part of such a wire when a spark jumps between the terminals S of
+the coil. All that is necessary to do is to pass the wire through a
+sensitive film and to develop the film. The accompanying photograph
+(Fig. 3) was taken at the top of such a wire, by means of a very
+powerful apparatus at my command. When the photograph is examined
+with a microscope the arborescent electric lines radiating from the
+wire, like the rays of light from a star, exhibit a beautiful fernlike
+structure. These lines, however, are not chiefly instrumental in
+transmitting the electric pulse across space.
+
+There are other lines, called magnetic lines of force, which emanate
+from every portion of the vertical wire W just as ripples spread out
+on the surface of placid water when it is disturbed by the fall of a
+stone. These magnetic ripples travel in the ether of space, and when
+they embrace a neighboring wire or coil they produce similar ripples,
+which whirl about the distant wire and produce in some strange way an
+electrical current in the wire. These magnetic pulsations can travel
+great distances.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+FIG. 2_a_ represents a more complete electrical arrangement of the
+receiver circuit. The vertical wire, W', is connected to one wire of
+the coherer, L. The other wire of the coherer is led to the ground, G.
+The wires in the coherer, L, are separated by fine metallic particles.
+B represents a battery. E, an electro-magnet which attracts a piece of
+iron, A (armature), and closes a local battery, B, causing a click of
+the sounder (electro-magnet), S. The magnetic waves (Fig. 5) embracing
+the wire, W', cause a pulsation in this wire which produces an
+electrical disturbance in the coherer analogous to that shown in Fig.
+3, by means of which an electrical current is enabled to pass through
+the electro-magnet, E.]
+
+In the photographs of these magnetic whirls, Fig. 4 is the whirl
+produced in the circuit C' by the battery B (Fig. 2), while Fig. 5 is
+that produced by electrical sympathy, or as it is called induction,
+in a neighboring wire. These photographs were obtained by passing the
+circuits through the sensitive films, perpendicularly to the latter,
+and then sprinkling very fine iron filings on these surfaces and
+exposing them to the light. In order to obtain these photographs a
+very powerful electrical current excited the coil C (Fig. 2), and the
+neighboring circuit W' (Fig. 5) was placed very near the circuit W.
+
+When the receiving wire is at the distance of several miles from
+the sending wire it is impossible to detect by the above method the
+magnetic ripples or whirls. We can, however, detect the electrical
+currents which these magnetic lines of force cause in the receiving
+wire; and this leads me to speak of the discovery of a remarkable
+phenomenon which has made Marconi's system of wireless telegraphy
+possible. In order that an electrical current may flow through a mass
+of particles of a metal, a mass, for instance, of iron filings, it
+is necessary either to compress them or to cause a minute spark or
+electrical discharge between the particles. Now, it is supposed that
+the magnetic whirls, in embracing the distant receiving circuit, cause
+these minute sparks, and thus enable the electric current from the
+battery B to work a telegraphic sounder or bell M. The metallic filings
+are inclosed in a glass tube between wires which lead to the battery,
+and the arrangement is called a coherer. It can be made small and
+light. Fig. 6 is a representation in full size of one that has been
+found to be very sensitive. It consists of two silver wires with a few
+iron filings contained in a glass tube between the ends of the wires.
+It is necessary that this little tube should be constantly shaken up
+in order that after the electrical circuit is made the iron filings
+should return to their non-conducting condition, or should cease to
+cohere together, and should thus be ready to respond to the following
+signal. My colleague, Professor Sabine, has employed a very small
+electric motor to cause the glass tube to revolve, and thus to keep the
+filings in motion while signals are being received. Fig. 7 shows the
+arrangement of the receiving apparatus.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Photograph of the electric lines which emanate
+from the end of the wire at the sending station, and which are probably
+reproduced among the metallic filings of the coherer at the receiving
+station.]
+
+The coherer and the motor are shown between two batteries, one of
+which drives the motor while the other serves to work the bell or
+sounder when the electric wire excites the iron filings. In Fig. 2
+this receiving apparatus is shown diagrammatically. B is the battery
+which sends a current through the sounder M and the coherer N when the
+magnetic whirls coming from the sending wire W embrace the receiving
+wire W'.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Magnetic whirls about the sending wire.]
+
+The term wireless telegraphy is a misnomer, for without wires the
+method would not be possible. The phenomenon is merely an enlargement
+of one that we are fully conscious of in the case of telegraph and
+telephone circuits, which is termed electro-magnetic induction.
+Whenever an electric current suddenly flows or suddenly ceases to
+flow along a wire, electrical currents are caused by induction in
+neighboring wires. The receiver employed by Marconi is a delicate
+spark caused by this induction, which forms a bridge so that an
+electric current from the relay battery can pass and influence magnetic
+instruments.
+
+Many investigators had succeeded before Marconi in sending telegraphic
+messages several miles through the air or ether between two points
+not directly connected by wires. Marconi has extended the distance by
+employing a much higher electro-motive force at the sending station
+and using the feeble inductive effect at a distance to set in action a
+local battery.
+
+It is evident that wires are needed at the sending station from every
+point of which magnetic and electric waves are sent out, and wires at
+the receiving station which embrace, so to speak, these waves in the
+manner shown by our photographs. These waves produce minute sparks in
+the receiving instrument, which act like a suddenly drawn flood gate in
+allowing the current from a local battery to flow through the circuit
+in which the spark occurs, and thus produce a click on a telegraphic
+instrument.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Magnetic whirls about the receiving wire.]
+
+We have said that messages had been sent by what is called wireless
+telegraphy before Marconi made his experiments. These messages had
+also been sent by induction, signals on one wire being received by a
+parallel and distant wire. To Marconi is due the credit of greatly
+extending the method by using a vertical wire. The method of using the
+coherer to detect electric pulses is not due, however, to Marconi.
+It is usually attributed to Branly; it had been employed, however,
+by previous observers, among whom is Hughes, the inventor of the
+microphone, an instrument analogous in its action to that of the
+coherer. In the case of the microphone, the waves from the human voice
+shake up the particles of carbon in the microphone transmitter, and
+thus cause an electrical current to flow more easily through the minute
+contacts of the carbon particles.
+
+The action of the telephone transmitter, which also consists of minute
+conducting particles in which a battery terminals are immersed, and
+the analogous coherer is microscopic, and there are many theories to
+account for their changes of resistance to electrical currents. We can
+not, I believe, be far wrong in thinking that the electric force breaks
+down the insulating effect of the infinitely thin layers of air between
+the particles, and thus allows an electric current to flow. This action
+is doubtless of the nature of an electric spark. An electric spark,
+in the case of wireless telegraphy, produces magnetic and electric
+lines of force in space, these reach out and embrace the circuit
+containing the coherer, and produce in turn minute sparks. _Similia
+similibus_--one action perfectly corresponds to the other.
+
+The Marconi system, therefore, of what is called wireless telegraphy
+is not new in principle, but only new in practical application. It had
+been used to show the phenomena of electric waves in lecture rooms.
+Marconi extended it from distances of sixty to one hundred feet to
+fifty or sixty miles. He did this by lifting the sending-wire spark on
+a lofty pole and improving the sensitiveness of the metallic filings
+in the glass tube at the receiving station. He adopted a mechanical
+arrangement for continually tapping the coherer in order to break up
+the minute bridges formed by the cohering action, and thus to prepare
+the filings for the next magnetic pulse. The system of wireless
+telegraphy is emphatically a spark system strangely analogous to
+flash-light signaling, a system in which the human eye with its rods
+and cones in the retina acts as the coherer, and the nerve system, the
+local battery, making a signal or sensation in the brain.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--The coherer employed to receive the electric
+waves. (One and a third actual size.)]
+
+Let us examine the sending spark a little further. An electric spark
+is perhaps the most interesting phenomenon in electricity. What causes
+it--how does the air behave toward it--what is it that apparently flows
+through the air, sending out light and heat waves as well as magnetic
+and electric waves? If we could answer all these questions, we should
+know what electricity is. A critical study of the electric spark has
+not only its scientific but its practical side. We see the latter side
+evidenced by its employment in wireless telegraphy and in the X rays;
+for in the latter case we have an electric discharge in a tube from
+which the air is removed--a special case of an electric spark. In
+order to understand the capabilities of wireless telegraphy we must
+turn to the scientific study of the electric spark; for its practical
+employment resides largely in its strength, in its frequency in its
+position, and in its power to make the air a conductor for electricity.
+All these points are involved in wireless telegraphy. How, then, shall
+we study the electric spark? The eye sees only an instantaneous flash
+following a devious path. It can not tell in what direction a spark
+flies (a flash of lightning, for instance), or indeed whether it has
+a direction. There is probably no commoner fallacy mankind entertains
+than the belief that the direction of lightning, or any electric spark,
+can be ascertained by the eye--that is, the direction from the sky
+to the earth or from the earth to the sky. I have repeatedly tested
+numbers of students in regard to this question, employing sparks four
+to six feet in length, taking precautions in regard to the concealment
+of the directions in which I charged the poles of the charging
+batteries, and I have never found a consensus of opinion in regard to
+directions. The ordinary photograph, too, reveals no more than the eye
+can see--a brilliant, devious line or a flaming discharge.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Arrangement of batteries of motor (to disturb
+the coherer) and the sounder by which the messages are received.]
+
+A large storage battery forms the best means of studying electric
+sparks, for with it one can run the entire gamut of this
+phenomenon--from the flaming discharge which we see in the arc light
+on the street to the crackling spark we employ in wireless telegraphy,
+and the more powerful discharges of six or more feet in length which
+closely resemble lightning discharges. A critical study of this gamut
+throws considerable light on the problem of the possibility of secret
+wireless telegraphy--a problem which it is most important to solve if
+the system is to be made practical; for at present the message spreads
+out from the sending spark in great circular ripples in all directions,
+and may be received by any one.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Photograph of electrical pulses. The interval
+between the pulses is one millionth of a second.]
+
+Several methods enable us to transform electrical energy so as to
+obtain suitable quick and intense blows on the surrounding medium.
+Is it possible that there is some mysterious vibration in the spark
+which is instrumental in the effective transmission of electrical
+energy across space? If the spark should vibrate or oscillate to and
+fro faster than sixteen times a second the human eye could not detect
+such oscillations; for an impression remains on the eye one sixteenth
+of a second, and subsequent ones separated by intervals shorter than a
+sixteenth would mingle together and could not be separated. The only
+way to ascertain whether the spark is oscillatory, or whether it is
+not one spark, as it appears to the eye, but a number of to-and-fro
+impulses, is to photograph it by a rapidly revolving mirror. The
+principle is similar to that of the biograph or the vitoscope, in
+which the quick to-and-fro motions of the spark are received on a
+sensitive film, which is in rapid motion. One terminal of the spark
+gap, the positive terminal so called, is always brighter than the
+other. Hence, if the sensitive film is moved at right angles to the
+path of the discharge, we shall get a row of dots which are the images
+of the brighter terminal, and these dots occur alternately first
+on one terminal and then on the other, showing that the discharge
+oscillates--that is, leaps in one discharge (which seems but one to the
+eye) many times in a hundred thousandth of a second. In practice it is
+found better to make an image of the spark move across the sensitive
+film instead of moving the film. This is accomplished by the same
+method that a boy uses in flashing sunlight by means of a mirror. The
+faster the mirror moves the faster moves the image of the light. In
+this way a speed of a millionth of a second can be attained. In this
+case the distance between the dots on the film may be one tenth of
+an inch, sufficient to separate them to the eye. The photograph of
+electric sparks (Fig. 8) was taken in this manner. The distance between
+any two bright spots in the trail of the photographic images represents
+the time of the electric oscillation or the time of the magnetic pulse
+or wave which is sent out from the spark, and which will cause a
+distant circuit to respond by a similar oscillation.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Photograph of a pilot spark, which is the
+principal factor in the method of wireless telegraphy.]
+
+At present the shortest time that can, so to speak, be photographed
+in this manner is about one two-millionth of a second. This is the
+time of propagation of a magnetic wave over four hundred feet long.
+The waves used in wireless telegraphy are not more than four feet in
+length--about one hundredth the length of those we can photograph.
+The photographic method thus reveals a mechanism of the spark which
+is entirely hidden from the eye and will always be concealed from
+human sight. It reveals, however, a greater mystery which it seems
+incompetent to solve--the mystery of what is called the pilot spark,
+the first discharge which we see on our photograph (Fig. 9) stretching
+intact from terminal to terminal, having the prodigious velocity of one
+hundred and eighty thousand miles a second. None of our experimental
+devices suffice to penetrate the mystery of this discharge. It is this
+pilot spark which is chiefly instrumental in sending out the magnetic
+pulses or waves which are powerful enough to reach forty or fifty
+miles. The preponderating influence of this pilot spark--so called
+since it finds a way for the subsequent surgings or oscillations--is
+a bar to the efforts to make wireless telegraphy secret. We can see
+from the photograph how much greater its strength is than that of the
+subsequent discharges shown by the mere brightening of the terminals.
+A delicate coherer will immediately respond to the influence of this
+pilot spark, and the subsequent oscillations of this discharge will
+have little effect. How, then, can we effectively time a receiving
+circuit so that it will respond to only one sending station? We can not
+depend upon the oscillatory nature of the spark, or adopt, in other
+words, its rate of vibration and form a coherer with the same rate.
+
+It seems as if it would be necessary to invent some method of sending
+pilot sparks at a high and definite rate of vibration, and of employing
+coherers which will only respond to definite powerful rates of magnetic
+pulsation. Various attempts have been made to produce by mechanical
+means powerful electric surgings, but they have been unsuccessful. Both
+high electro-motive force and strength of current are needed. These can
+be obtained by the employment of a great number of storage cells. The
+discharge from a large number of these cells, however, is not suitable
+for the purpose of wireless telegraphy, although it may possess the
+qualifications of both high electrical pressure and strength of current.
+
+The only apparatus we have at command to produce quick blows on the
+ether is the Ruhmkorf coil. This coil, I have said, has been in all our
+physical cabinets for fifty years. It contained within itself the germ
+of the telephone transmitter and the method of wireless telegraphy,
+unrecognized until the present. In its elements it consists, as we have
+seen, of two electrical circuits, placed near each other, entirely
+unconnected. A battery is connected with one of these circuits, and
+any change in the strength of the electrical current gives a blow to
+the ether or medium between the two circuits. A quick stopping of the
+electrical current gives the strongest impulse to the ether, which
+is taken up by the neighboring circuit. For the past fifty years
+very little advance has been made in the method of giving strong
+electrical impulses to the medium of space. It is accomplished simply
+by a mechanical breaking of the connection to the battery, either by
+a revolving wheel with suitable projections, or by a vibrating point.
+All the various forms of mechanical breaks are inefficient. They do not
+give quick and uniform breaks. Latterly, hopes have been excited by the
+discovery of a chemical break, called the Weynelt interrupter, shown in
+Fig. 1. The electrical current in passing through a vessel of diluted
+sulphuric acid from a point of platinum to a disk of lead causes
+bubbles of gas which form a barrier to its passage which is suddenly
+broken down, and this action goes on at a high rate of speed, causing
+a torrent of sparks in the neighboring circuit. The medium between
+the two circuits is thereby submitted to rapid and comparatively
+powerful impulses. The discovery of this and similar chemical or
+molecular interruptions marks an era in the history of the electrical
+transformer, and the hopes of further progress by means of them is far
+greater than in the direction of mechanical interruptions.
+
+We are still, however, unable to generate sufficiently powerful and
+sufficiently well-timed electrical impulses to make wireless telegraphy
+of great and extended use. Can we not hope to strengthen the present
+feeble impulses in wireless telegraphy by some method of relaying or
+repeating? In the analogous subject of telephony many efforts have
+also been made to render the service secret, and to extend it to great
+distances by means of relays. These efforts have not been successful up
+to the present. We still have our neighbors' call bells, and we could
+listen to their messages if we were gossips. The telephone service
+has been extended to great distances--for instance, from Boston to
+Omaha--not by relays, but by strengthening the blows upon the medium
+between the transmitting circuit and the receiving one, just as we
+desire to do in what is called wireless telegraphy, the apparatus of
+which is almost identical in principle to that employed in telephony.
+The individual call in telephony is not a success for nearly the same
+reasons that exist in the case of wireless telegraphy. Perfectly
+definite and powerful rates of vibration can not be sent from point to
+point over wires to which only certain definite apparatus will respond.
+There are so many ways in which the energy of the electric current can
+be dissipated in passing over wires and through calling bells that the
+form of the waves and their strength becomes attenuated. The form of
+the electrical waves is better preserved in free space, where there
+are no wires or where there is no magnetic matter. The difficulty
+in obtaining individual calls in wireless telegraphy resides in the
+present impossibility of obtaining sufficiently rapid and powerful
+electrical impulses, and a receiver which will properly respond to a
+definite number of such impulses.
+
+The question of a relay seems as impossible of solution as it does in
+telephony. The character of speech depends upon numberless delicate
+inflections and harmonies. The form, for instance, of the wave
+transmitting the vowel _a_ must be preserved in order that the sound
+may be recognized. A relay in telephony acts very much like one's
+neighbor in the game called gossip, in which a sentence repeated more
+or less indistinctly, after passing from one person to another, becomes
+distorted and meaningless. No telephone relay has been invented which
+preserves the form of the first utterance, the vowel _a_ loses its
+delicate characteristics, and becomes simply a meaningless noise. It is
+maintained by some authorities that such a relay can not be invented,
+that it is impossible to preserve the delicate inflections of the
+human voice in passing from one circuit to another, even through an
+infinitesimal air gap or ether space. It is well, however, to reflect
+upon Hosea Bigelow's sapient advice "not to prophesy unless you know."
+It was maintained in the early days of the telephone that speech would
+lose so many characteristics in the process of transmission over wires
+and through magnetic apparatus that it would not be intelligible.
+It is certain that at present long-distance transmission of speech
+can only be accomplished by using more powerful transmitters, and by
+making the line of copper better fitted for the transmission--just as
+quick transportation from place to place has not been accomplished by
+quitting the earth and by flying through space, but by obtaining more
+powerful engines and by improving the roadbeds.
+
+The hopes of obtaining a relay for wireless telegraphy seem as small
+as they do in telephony. The present method is practically limited to
+distances of fifty or sixty miles--distances not much exceeding those
+which can be reached by a search-light in fair weather. Indeed, there
+is a close parallelism between the search-light and the spark used in
+Marconi's experiments: both send out waves which differ only in length.
+The waves of the search-light are about one forty-thousandth of an
+inch long, while the magnetic waves of the spark, invisible to the
+eye, are three to four feet--more than a million times longer than the
+light waves. These very long waves have this advantage over the short
+light waves: they are able to penetrate fog, and even sand hills and
+masonry. One can send messages into a building from a point outside. A
+prisoner could communicate with the outer world, a beleaguered garrison
+could send for help, a disabled light-ship could summon assistance, and
+possibly one steamer could inform another in a fog of its course.
+
+Wireless telegraphy is the nearest approach to telepathy that has
+been vouchsafed to our intelligence, and it serves to stimulate our
+imagination and to make us think that things greatly hoped for can be
+always reached, although not exactly in the way expected. The nerves
+of the whole world are, so to speak, being bound together, so that a
+touch in one country is transmitted instantly to a far-distant one. Why
+should we not in time speak through the earth to the antipodes? If the
+magnetic waves can pass through brick and stone walls and sand hills,
+why should we not direct, so to speak, our trumpet to the earth,
+instead of letting its utterances skim over the horizon? In regard
+to this suggestion, we know certainly one fact from our laboratory
+experiences: that these magnetic waves, meeting layers of electrically
+conducting matter, like layers of iron ore, would be reflected back,
+and would not penetrate. Thus a means may be discovered through the
+instrumentality of such waves of exploring the mysteries of the earth
+before success is attained in completely penetrating its mass.
+
+
+
+
+EMIGRANT DIAMONDS IN AMERICA.
+
+BY PROF. WILLIAM HERBERT HOBBS.
+
+
+To discover the origin of the diamond in Nature we must seek it in
+its ancestral home, where the rocky matrix gave it birth in the form
+characteristic of its species. In prosecuting our search we should very
+soon discover that, in common with other gem minerals, the diamond has
+been a great wanderer, for it is usually found far from its original
+home. The disintegrating forces of the atmosphere, by acting upon the
+rocky material in which the stones were imbedded, have loosed them from
+their natural setting, to be caught up by the streams, sorted from
+their disintegrated matrix, and transported far from the parent rock,
+to be at last set down upon some gravelly bed over which the force of
+the current is weakened. The mines of Brazil and the Urals, of India,
+Borneo, and the "river diggings" of South Africa either have been or
+are now in deposits of this character.
+
+The "dry diggings" of the Kimberley district, in South Africa, afford
+the unique locality in which the diamond has thus far been found in
+its original home, and all our knowledge of the genesis of the mineral
+has been derived from study of this locality. The mines are located
+in "pans," in which is found the "blue ground" now recognized as the
+disintegrated matrix of the diamond. These "pans" are known to be the
+"pipes," or "necks," of former volcanoes, now deeply dissected by the
+forces of the atmosphere--in fact, worn down if not to their roots, at
+least to their stumps. These remnants of the "pipes," through which
+the lava reached the surface, are surrounded in part by a black shale
+containing a large percentage of carbon, and this is believed to be the
+material out of which the diamonds have been formed. What appear to
+be modified fragments of the black shale inclosed within the "pipes"
+afford evidence that portions of the shale have been broken from the
+parent beds by the force of the ascending current of lava--a common
+enough accompaniment to volcanic action--and have been profoundly
+altered by the high temperature and the extreme hydrostatic pressure
+under which the mass must have been held. The most important feature
+of this alteration has been the recrystallization of the carbon of the
+shale into diamond.
+
+[Illustration: GLACIAL MAP OF THE GREAT LAKES REGION
+
+Driftless Areas. Older Drift. Newer Drift.
+
+Moraines. Glacial Striae. Track of Diamonds.
+
+
+Diamond Localities E. Eagle O. Oregon K. Kohlsville D. Dowagiac M.
+Milford. P. Plum Crk. B. Burlington.
+
+We are indebted to the University of Chicago Press for the above
+illustration.]
+
+[Illustration: Copyright, 1899, by George F. Kunz.
+
+FIVE VIEWS OF THE EAGLE DIAMOND (sixteen carats); enlarged about three
+diameters. (Owned by Tiffany and Company.)
+
+We are indebted to the courtesy of Mr. G. F. Kunz, of Tiffany and
+Company, for the illustrations of the Oregon and Eagle diamonds.]
+
+This apparent explanation of the genesis of the diamond finds strong
+support in the experiments of Moissan, who obtained artificial diamond
+by dissolving carbon in molten iron and immersing the mass in cold
+water until a firm surface crust had formed. The "chilled" mass was
+then removed, to allow its still molten core to solidify slowly. This
+it does with the development of enormous pressures, because the natural
+expansion of the iron on passing into the solid condition is resisted
+by the strong shell of "chilled" metal. The isolation of the diamond
+was then accomplished by dissolving the iron in acid.
+
+The prevailing form of the South African diamonds is that of a rounded
+crystal, with eight large and a number of minute faces--a form called
+by crystallographers a _modified octahedron_. Their shapes would be
+roughly simulated by the Pyramids of Egypt if they could be seen,
+combined with their reflected images, in a placid lake, or, better
+to meet the conditions of the country, in a desert mirage. It is a
+peculiar property of diamond crystals to have convexly rounded faces,
+so that the edges which separate the faces are not straight, but gently
+curving. Less frequently in the African mines, but commonly in some
+other regions, diamonds are bounded by four, twelve, twenty-four, or
+even forty-eight faces. These must not, of course, be confused with the
+faces of cut stones, which are the product of the lapidary's art.
+
+Geological conditions remarkably like those observed at the Kimberley
+mines have recently been discovered in Kentucky, with the difference
+that here the shales contain a much smaller percentage of carbon, which
+may be the reason that diamonds have not rewarded the diligent search
+that has been made for them.
+
+Though now found in the greatest abundance in South Africa and in
+Brazil, diamonds were formerly obtained from India, Borneo, and from
+the Ural Mountains of Russia. The great stones of history have, with
+hardly an exception, come from India, though in recent years a number
+of diamond monsters have been found in South Africa. One of these,
+the "Excelsior," weighed nine hundred and seventy carats, which is in
+excess even of the supposed weight of the "Great Mogul."
+
+[Illustration: Copyright, 1899, by George F. Kunz.
+
+FOUR VIEWS OF THE OREGON DIAMOND; enlarged about three diameters.
+(Owned by Tiffany and Company.)]
+
+Occasionally diamonds have come to light in other regions than those
+specified. The Piedmont plateau, at the southeastern base of the
+Appalachians, has produced, in the region between southern Virginia and
+Georgia, some ten or twelve diamonds, which have varied in weight from
+those of two or three carats to the "Dewey" diamond, which when found
+weighed over twenty-three carats.
+
+It is, however, in the territory about the Great Lakes that the
+greatest interest now centers, for in this region a very interesting
+problem of origin is being worked out. No less than seven diamonds,
+ranging in size from less than four to more than twenty-one carats, not
+to mention a number of smaller stones, have been recently found in the
+clays and gravels of this region, where their distribution was such
+as to indicate with a degree of approximation the location of their
+distant ancestral home.
+
+In order clearly to set forth the nature of this problem and the method
+of its solution it will be necessary, first, to plot upon a map of the
+lake region the locality at which each of the stones has been found,
+and, further, to enter upon the same map the data which geologists
+have gleaned regarding the work of the great ice cap of the Glacial
+period. During this period, not remote as geological time is reckoned,
+an ice mantle covered the entire northeastern portion of our continent,
+and on more than one occasion it invaded for considerable distances
+the territory of the United States. Such a map as has been described
+discloses an important fact which holds the clew for the detection of
+the ancestral home of these diamonds. Each year is bringing with it new
+evidence, and we may look forward hopefully to a full solution of the
+problem.
+
+In 1883 the "Eagle Stone" was brought to Milwaukee and sold for
+the nominal sum of one dollar. When it was submitted to competent
+examination the public learned that it was a diamond of sixteen carats'
+weight, and that it had been discovered seven years earlier in earth
+removed from a well-opening. Two events which were calculated to arouse
+local interest followed directly upon the discovery of the real nature
+of this gem, after which it passed out of the public notice. The woman
+who had parted with the gem for so inadequate a compensation brought
+suit against the jeweler to whom she had sold it, in order to recover
+its value. This curious litigation, which naturally aroused a great
+deal of interest, was finally carried to the Supreme Court of the State
+of Wisconsin, from which a decision was handed down in favor of the
+defendant, on the ground that he, no less than the plaintiff, had been
+ignorant of the value of the gem at the time of purchasing it. The
+other event was the "boom" of the town of Eagle as a diamond center,
+which, after the finding of two other diamonds with unmistakable marks
+of African origin upon them, ended as suddenly as it had begun, with
+the effect of temporarily discrediting, in the minds of geologists, the
+genuineness of the original "find."
+
+Ten years later a white diamond of a little less than four carats'
+weight came to light in a collection of pebbles found in Oregon,
+Wisconsin, and brought to the writer for examination. The stones had
+been found by a farmer's lad while playing in a clay bank near his
+home. The investigation of the subject which was thereupon made brought
+out the fact that a third diamond, and this the larges of all, had
+been discovered at Kohlsville, in the same State, in 1883, and was
+still in the possession of the family on whose property it had been
+found.
+
+As these stones were found in the deposits of "drift" which were left
+by the ice of the Glacial period, it was clear that they had been
+brought to their resting places by the ice itself. The map reveals
+the additional fact, and one of the greatest significance, that all
+these diamonds were found in the so-called "kettle moraine." This
+moraine or ridge was the dumping ground of the ice for its burden of
+bowlders, gravel, and clay at the time of its later invasion, and hence
+indicates the boundaries of the territory over which the ice mass was
+then extended. In view of the fact that two of the three stones found
+had remained in the hands of the farming population, without coming
+to the knowledge of the world, for periods of eleven and seven years
+respectively, it seems most probable that others have been found,
+though not identified as diamonds, and for this reason are doubtless
+still to be found in many cases in association with other local
+"curios" on the clock shelves of country farmhouses in the vicinity
+of the "kettle moraine." The writer felt warranted in predicting, in
+1894, that other diamonds would occasionally be brought to light in the
+"kettle moraine," though the great extent of this moraine left little
+room for hope that more than one or two would be found at any one point
+of it.
+
+[Illustration: THREE VIEWS OF THE SAUKVILLE DIAMOND (six carats);
+enlarged about three diameters. (Owned by Bunde and Upmeyer, Milwaukee.)
+
+We are indebted to the courtesy of Bunde and Upmeyer, of Milwaukee, for
+the illustrations showing the Burlington and Saukville diamonds.]
+
+In the time that has since elapsed diamonds have been found at the rate
+of about one a year, though not, so far as I am aware, in any case
+as the result of search. In Wisconsin have been found the Saukville
+diamond, a beautiful white stone of six carats' weight, and also the
+Burlington stone, having a weight of a little over two carats. The
+former had been for more than sixteen years in the possession of the
+finder before he learned of its value. In Michigan has been found the
+Dowagiac stone, of about eleven carats' weight, and only very recently
+a diamond weighing six carats and of exceptionally fine "water" has
+come to light at Milford, near Cincinnati. This augmentation of the
+number of localities, and the nearness of all to the "kettle moraines,"
+leaves little room for doubt that the diamonds were conveyed by the ice
+at the time of its later invasion of the country.
+
+Having, then, arrived at a satisfactory conclusion regarding not only
+the agent which conveyed the stones, but also respecting the period
+during which they were transported, it is pertinent to inquire by what
+paths they were brought to their adopted homes, and whether, if these
+may be definitely charted, it may not be possible to follow them in a
+direction the reverse of that taken by the diamonds themselves until we
+arrive at the point from which each diamond started upon its journey.
+If we succeed in this we shall learn whether they have a common home,
+or whether they were formed in regions more or less widely separated.
+From the great rarity of diamonds in Nature it would seem that the
+hypothesis of a common home is the more probable, and this view finds
+confirmation in the fact that certain marks of "consanguinity" have
+been observed upon the stones already found.
+
+[Illustration: FOUR VIEWS OF THE BURLINGTON DIAMOND (a little over two
+carats); enlarged about three diameters. (Owned by Bunde and Upmeyer,
+Milwaukee.)]
+
+Not only did the ice mantle register its advance in the great ridge
+of morainic material which we know as the "kettle moraine," but it
+has engraved upon the ledges of rock over which it has ridden, in a
+simple language of lines and grooves, the direction of its movement,
+after first having planed away the disintegrated portions of the rock
+to secure a smooth and lasting surface. As the same ledges have been
+overridden more than once, and at intervals widely separated, they
+are often found, palimpsestlike, with recent characters superimposed
+upon earlier, partly effaced, and nearly illegible ones. Many of
+the scattered leaves of this record have, however, been copied by
+geologists, and the autobiography of the ice is now read from maps
+which give the direction of its flow, and allow the motion of the ice
+as a whole, as well as that of each of its parts, to be satisfactorily
+studied. Recent studies by Canadian geologists have shown that one of
+the highest summits of the ice cap must have been located some distance
+west of Hudson Bay, and that another, the one which glaciated the lake
+region, was in Labrador, to the east of the same body of water. From
+these points the ice moved in spreading fans both northward toward the
+Arctic Ocean and southward toward the States, and always approached the
+margins at the moraines in a direction at right angles to their extent.
+Thus the rock material transported by the ice was spread out in a great
+fan, which constantly extended its boundaries as it advanced.
+
+The evidence from the Oregon, Eagle, and Kohlsville stones, which
+were located on the moraine of the Green Bay glacier, is that their
+home, in case they had a common one, is between the northeastern
+corner of the State of Wisconsin and the eastern summit of the ice
+mantle--a narrow strip of country of great extent, but yet a first
+approximation of the greatest value. If we assume, further, that the
+Saukville, Burlington, and Dowagiac stones, which were found on the
+moraine of the Lake Michigan glacier, have the same derivation, their
+common home may confidently be placed as far to the northeast as
+the wilderness beyond the Great Lakes, since the Green Bay and Lake
+Michigan glaciers coalesced in that region. The small stones found at
+Plum Creek, Wisconsin, and the Cincinnati stone, if the locations of
+their discovery be taken into consideration, still further circumscribe
+the diamond's home territory, since the lobes of the ice mass which
+transported them made a complete junction with the Green Bay and Lake
+Michigan lobes or glaciers considerably farther to the northward than
+the point of union of the latter glaciers themselves.
+
+[Illustration: THREE VIEWS OF A LEAD CAST OF THE MILFORD STONE (six
+carats); enlarged about three diameters.
+
+We are indebted to the courtesy of Prof. T. H. Norton, of the
+University of Cincinnati, for the above illustrations.]
+
+If, therefore, it is assumed that all the stones which have been found
+have a common origin, the conclusion is inevitable that the ancestral
+home must be in the wilderness of Canada between the points where the
+several tracks marking their migrations converge upon one another, and
+the former summit of the ice sheet. The broader the "fan" of their
+distribution, the nearer to the latter must the point be located.
+
+It is by no means improbable that when the barren territory about
+Hudson Bay is thoroughly explored a region for profitable diamond
+mining may be revealed, but in the meantime we may be sure that
+individual stones will occasionally be found in the new American homes
+into which they were imported long before the days of tariffs and ports
+of entry. Mother Nature, not content with lavishing upon our favored
+nation the boundless treasures locked up in her mountains, has robbed
+the territory of our Canadian cousins of the rich soils which she has
+unloaded upon our lake States, and of the diamonds with which she has
+sowed them.
+
+[Illustration: COMMON FORMS OF QUARTZ CRYSTALS.]
+
+[Illustration: COMMON FORMS OF DIAMONDS. The African stones most
+resemble the figure above at the left (octahedron). The Wisconsin
+stones most resemble the figure above at the right (dodecahedron).]
+
+The range of the present distribution of the diamonds, while perhaps
+not limited exclusively to the "kettle moraine," will, as the events
+have indicated, be in the main confined to it. This moraine, with
+its numerous subordinate ranges marking halting places in the final
+retreat of the ice, has now been located with sufficient accuracy by
+the geologists of the United States Geological Survey and others,
+approximately as entered upon the accompanying map. Within the
+territory of the United States the large number of observations of the
+rock scorings makes it clear that the ice of each lobe or glacier moved
+from the central portion toward the marginal moraines, which are here
+indicated by dotted bands. In the wilderness of Canada the observations
+have been rare, but the few data which have been gleaned are there
+represented by arrows pointed in the direction of ice movement.
+
+There is every encouragement for persons who reside in or near the
+marginal moraines to search in them for the scattered jewels, which
+may be easily identified and which have a large commercial as well as
+scientific value.
+
+The Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey is now interesting
+itself in the problem of the diamonds, and has undertaken the task of
+disseminating information bearing on the subject to the people who
+reside near the "kettle moraine." With the co-operation of a number of
+mineralogists who reside near this "diamond belt," it offers to make
+examination of the supposed gem stones which may be collected.
+
+The success of this undertaking will depend upon securing the
+co-operation of the people of the morainal belt. Wherever gravel
+ridges have there been opened in cuts it would be advisable to look
+for diamonds. Children in particular, because of their keen eyes and
+abundant leisure, should be encouraged to search for the clear stones.
+
+The serious defect in this plan is that it trusts to inexperienced
+persons to discover the buried diamonds which in the "rough" are
+probably unlike anything that they have ever seen. The first result of
+the search has been the collection of large numbers of quartz pebbles,
+which are everywhere present but which are entirely valueless. There
+are, however, some simple ways of distinguishing diamonds from quartz.
+
+Diamonds never appear in thoroughly rounded forms like ordinary
+pebbles, for they are too hard to be in the least degree worn by
+contact with their neighbors in the gravel bed. Diamonds always show,
+moreover, distinct forms of crystals, and these generally bear some
+resemblance to one of the forms figured. They are never in the least
+degree like crystals of quartz, which are, however, the ones most
+frequently confounded with them. Most of the Wisconsin diamonds have
+either twelve or forty-eight faces. Crystals of most minerals are
+bounded by plane surfaces--that is to say, their faces are flat--the
+diamond, however, is inclosed by distinctly curving surfaces.
+
+The one property of the diamond, however, which makes it easy of
+determination is its extraordinary hardness--greater than that of any
+other mineral. Put in simple language, the hardness of a substance
+may be described as its power to scratch other substances when drawn
+across them under pressure. To compare the hardness of two substances
+we should draw a sharp point of one across a surface of the other
+under a pressure of the fingers, and note whether a permanent scratch
+is left. The harder substances will always scratch the softer, and if
+both have the same hardness they may be made to mutually scratch each
+other. Since diamond, sapphire, and ruby are the only minerals which
+are harder than emery they are the only ones which, when drawn across a
+rough emery surface, will not receive a scratch. Any stone which will
+not take a scratch from emery is a gem stone and of sufficient interest
+to be referred to a competent mineralogist.
+
+The dissemination of information regarding the lake diamonds through
+the region of the moraine should serve the twofold purpose of
+encouraging search for the buried stones and of discovering diamonds
+in the little collections of "lucky stones" and local curios which
+accumulate on the clock shelves of country farmhouses. When it is
+considered that three of the largest diamonds thus far found in
+the region remained for periods of seven, eight, and sixteen years
+respectively in the hands of the farming population, it can hardly be
+doubted that many other diamonds have been found and preserved as local
+curiosities without their real nature being discovered.
+
+If diamonds should be discovered in the moraines of eastern Ohio, of
+western Pennsylvania, or of western New York, considerable light would
+thereby be thrown upon the problem of locating the ancestral home. More
+important than this, however, is the mapping of the Canadian wilderness
+to the southeastward and eastward of James Bay, in order to determine
+the direction of ice movement within the region, so that the _tracking_
+of the stones already found may be carried nearer their home. The
+Director of the Geological Survey of Canada is giving attention to this
+matter, and has also suggested that a study be made of the material
+found in association with the diamonds in the moraine, so that if
+possible its source may be discovered.
+
+With the discovery of new localities of these emigrant stones and the
+collection of data regarding the movement of the ice over Canadian
+territory, it will perhaps be possible the more accurately and
+definitely to circumscribe their home country, and as its boundaries
+are drawn closer and closer to pay this popular jewel a visit in its
+ancestral home, there to learn what we so much desire to know regarding
+its genesis and its life history.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+William Pengelly related, in one of his letters to his wife from the
+British Association, Oxford meeting, 1860, of Sedgwick's presidency
+of the Geological Section, that his opening address was "most
+characteristic, full of clever fun, most imperative that papers should
+be as brief as possible--about ten minutes, he thought--he himself
+amplifying marvelously." The next day Pengelly himself was about to
+read his paper, when "dear old Sedgwick wished it compressed. I replied
+that I would do what I could to please him, but did not know which to
+follow, his precept or example. The roar of laughter was deafening. Old
+Sedgwick took it capitally, and behaved much better in consequence."
+On the third day Pengelly went to committee, where, he says, "I found
+Sedgwick very cordial, took my address, and talks of paying me a
+visit."
+
+
+
+
+NEEDED IMPROVEMENTS IN THEATER SANITATION.
+
+BY WILLIAM PAUL GERHARD, C. E.,
+
+CONSULTING ENGINEER FOR SANITARY WORKS.
+
+
+Buildings for the representation of theatrical plays must fulfill
+three conditions: they must be (1) comfortable, (2) safe, and (3)
+healthful. The last requirement, of _healthfulness_, embraces the
+following conditions: plenty of pure air, freedom from draughts,
+moderate warming in winter, suitable cooling in summer, freedom at
+all times from dust, bad odors, and disease germs. In addition to the
+requirements for the theater audience, due regard should be paid to the
+comfort, healthfulness, and safety of the performers, stage hands, and
+mechanics, who are required to spend more hours in the stage part of
+the building than the playgoers.
+
+It is no exaggeration to state that in the majority of theater
+buildings disgracefully unsanitary conditions prevail. In the older
+existing buildings especially sanitation and ventilation are sadly
+neglected. The air of many theaters during a performance becomes
+overheated and stuffy, pre-eminently so in the case of theaters where
+illumination is effected by means of gaslights. At the end of a long
+performance the air is often almost unbearably foul, causing headache,
+nausea, and dizziness.
+
+In ill-ventilated theaters a chilly air often blows into the auditorium
+from the stage when the curtain is raised. This air movement is the
+cause of colds to many persons in the audience, and it is otherwise
+objectionable, for it carries with it noxious odors from the stage
+or under stage, and in gas-lighted theaters this air is laden with
+products of combustion from the footlights and other means of stage
+illumination.
+
+Attempts at ventilation are made by utilizing the heat due to the
+numerous flames of the central chandelier over the auditorium, to
+create an ascending draught, and thereby cause a removal of the
+contaminated air, but seldom is provision made for the introduction
+of fresh air from outdoors, hence the scheme of ventilation results
+in failure. In other buildings, openings for the introduction of pure
+air are provided under the seats or in the floor, but are often found
+stuffed up with paper because the audience suffered from draughts. The
+fear of draughts in a theater also leads to the closing of the few
+possibly available outside windows and doors. The plan of a theater
+building renders it almost impossible to provide outside windows,
+therefore "air flushing" during the day can not be practiced. In the
+case of the older theaters, which are located in the midst or rear of
+other buildings, the nature of the site precludes a good arrangement of
+the main fresh-air ducts for the auditorium.
+
+Absence of fresh air is not the only sanitary defect of theater
+buildings; there are many other defects and sources of air pollution.
+In the parts devoted to the audience, the carpeted floors become
+saturated with dirt and dust carried in by the playgoers, and with
+expectorations from careless or untidy persons which in a mixed theater
+audience are ever present. The dust likewise adheres to furniture,
+plush seats, hangings, and decorations, and intermingled with it are
+numerous minute floating organisms, and doubtless some germs of disease.
+
+Behind the curtain a general lack of cleanliness exists--untidy actors'
+toilet rooms, ill-drained cellars, defective sewerage, leaky drains,
+foul water closets, and overcrowded and poorly located dressing rooms
+into which no fresh air ever enters. The stage floor is covered with
+dust; this is stirred up by the frequent scene shifting or by the
+dancing of performers, and much of it is absorbed and retained by the
+canvas scenery.
+
+Under such conditions the state of health of both theater goers
+and performers is bound to suffer. Many persons can testify from
+personal experience to the ill effects incurred by spending a few
+hours in a crowded and unventilated theater; yet the very fact that
+the stay in such buildings is a brief one seems to render most people
+indifferent, and complaints are seldom uttered. It really rests with
+the theater-going public to enforce the much-needed improvements. As
+long as they will flock to a theater on account of some attractive play
+or "star actor," disregarding entirely the unsanitary condition of the
+building, so long will the present notoriously bad conditions remain.
+When the public does not call for reforms, theater managers and owners
+of playhouses will not, as a rule, trouble themselves about the matter.
+We have a right to demand theater buildings with less outward and
+inside gorgeousness, but in which the paramount subjects of comfort,
+safety, and health are diligently studied and generously provided
+for. Let the general public but once show a determined preference for
+sanitary conditions and surroundings in theaters and abandon visits to
+ill-kept theaters, and I venture to predict that the necessary reforms
+in sanitation will soon be introduced, at least in the better class
+of playhouses. In the cheaper theaters, concert and amusement halls,
+houses with "continuous" shows, variety theaters, etc., sanitation
+is even more urgently required, and may be readily enforced by a few
+visits and peremptory orders from the Health Board.
+
+When, a year ago, the writer, in a paper on Theater Sanitation
+presented at the annual meeting of the American Public Health
+Association, stated that "chemical analyses show the air in the dress
+circle and gallery of many a theater to be in the evening more foul
+than the air of street sewers," the statement was received by some of
+his critics with incredulity. Yet the fact is true of many theaters.
+Taking the amount of carbonic acid in the air as an indication of its
+contamination, and assuming that the organic vapors are in proportion
+to the amount of carbonic acid (not including the CO_{2} due to the
+products of illumination), we know that normal outdoor air contains
+from 0.03 to 0.04 parts of CO_{2} per 100 parts of air, while a few
+chemical analyses of the air in English theaters, quoted below, suffice
+to prove how large the contamination sometimes is:
+
+
+  Strand Theater, 10 P. M., gallery             0.101 parts CO_{2} per 100.
+  Surrey Theater, 10 P. M., boxes               0.111  "      "        "
+  Surrey Theater, 12 P. M., boxes               0.218  "      "        "
+  Olympia Theater, 11.30 P. M., boxes           0.082  "      "        "
+  Olympia Theater, 11.55 P. M.., boxes          0.101  "      "        "
+  Victoria Theater, 10 P. M., boxes             0.126  "      "        "
+  Haymarket Theater, 11.30 P. M., dress circle  0.076  "      "        "
+  City of London Theater, 11.15 P. M., pit      0.252  "      "        "
+  Standard Theater, 11 P. M., pit               0.320  "      "        "
+  Theater Royal, Manchester, pit                0.2734 "      "        "
+  Grand Theater, Leeds, pit                     0.150  "      "        "
+  Grand Theater, Leeds, upper circle            0.143  "      "        "
+  Grand Theater, balcony                        0.142  "      "        "
+  Prince's Theater, Manchester                  0.11-0.17     "        "
+
+  (Analyses made by Drs. Smith, Bernays, and De Chaumont.)
+
+
+Compare with these figures some analyses of the air of sewers. Dr.
+Russell, of Glasgow, found the air of a well-ventilated and flushed
+sewer to contain 0.051 vols. of CO_{2}. The late Prof. W. Ripley
+Nichols conducted many careful experiments on the amount of carbonic
+acid in the Boston sewers, and found the following averages, viz.,
+0.087, 0.082, 0.115, 0.107, 0.08, or much less than the above analyses
+of theater air showed. He states: "It appears from these examinations
+that the air even in a tide-locked sewer does not differ from the
+standard as much as many no doubt suppose."
+
+A comparison of the number of bacteria found in a cubic foot of air
+inside of a theater and in the street air would form a more convincing
+statement, but I have been unable to find published records of any
+such bacteriological tests. Nevertheless, we know that while the
+atmosphere contains some bacteria, the indoor air of crowded assembly
+halls, laden with floating dust, is particularly rich in living
+micro-organisms. This has been proved by Tyndall, Miquel, Frankland,
+and other scientists; and in this connection should be mentioned one
+point of much importance, ascertained quite recently, namely, that the
+air of sewers, contrary to expectation, is remarkably free from germs.
+An analysis of the air in the sewers under the Houses of Parliament,
+London, showed that the number of micro-organisms was much less than
+that in the atmosphere outside of the building.
+
+In recent years marked improvements in theater planning and equipment
+have been effected, and corresponding steps in advance have been
+made in matters relating to theater hygiene. It should therefore
+be understood that my remarks are intended to apply to the average
+theater, and in particular to the older buildings of this class. There
+are in large cities a few well-ventilated and hygienically improved
+theaters and opera houses, in which the requirements of sanitation
+are observed. Later on, when speaking more in detail of theater
+ventilation, instances of well-ventilated theaters will be mentioned.
+Nevertheless, the need of urgent and radical measures for comfort and
+health in the majority of theaters is obvious. Much is being done
+in our enlightened age to improve the sanitary condition of school
+buildings, jails and prisons, hospitals and dwelling houses. Why, I
+ask, should not our theaters receive some consideration?
+
+The efficient ventilation of a theater building is conceded to be an
+unusually difficult problem. In order to ventilate a theater properly,
+the causes of noxious odors arising from bad plumbing or defective
+drainage should be removed; outside fumes or vapors must not be
+permitted to enter the building either through doors or windows, or
+through the fresh-air duct of the heating apparatus. The substitution
+of electric lights in place of gas is a great help toward securing
+pure air. This being accomplished, a standard of purity of the air
+should be maintained by proper ventilation. This includes both the
+removal of the vitiated air and the introduction of pure air from
+outdoors and the consequent entire change of the air of a hall three
+or four times per hour. The fresh air brought into the building must
+be ample in volume; it should be free from contamination, dust and
+germs (particularly pathogenic microbes), and with this in view must in
+cities be first purified by filtering, spraying, or washing. It should
+be warmed in cold weather by passing over hot-water or steam-pipe
+stacks, and cooled in warm weather by means of ice or the brine of
+mechanical refrigerating machines. The air should be of a proper degree
+of humidity, and, what is most important of all, it should be admitted
+into the various parts of the theater imperceptibly, so as not to cause
+the sensation of draught; in other words, its velocity at the inlets
+must be very slight. The fresh air should enter the audience hall at
+numerous points so well and evenly distributed that the air will be
+equally diffused throughout the entire horizontal cross-section of the
+hall. The air indoors should have as nearly as possible the composition
+of air outdoors, an increase of the CO_{2} from 0.3 to 0.6 being the
+permissible limit. The vitiated air should be continuously removed by
+mechanical means, taking care, however, not to remove a larger volume
+of air than is introduced from outdoors.
+
+Regarding the amount of fresh outdoor air to be supplied to keep the
+inside atmosphere at anything like standard purity, authorities differ
+somewhat. The theoretical amount, 3,000 cubic feet per person per hour
+(50 cubic feet per minute), is made a requirement in the Boston theater
+law. In Austria, the law calls for 1,050 cubic feet. The regulations
+of the Prussian Minister of Public Works call for 700 cubic feet,
+Professor von Pettenkofer suggests an air supply per person of from
+1,410 to 1,675 cubic feet per hour (23 to 28 cubic feet per minute),
+General Morin calls for 1,200 to 1,500 cubic feet, and Dr. Billings, an
+American authority, requires 30 cubic feet per minute, or 1,800 cubic
+feet per hour. In the Vienna Opera House, which is described as one of
+the best-ventilated theaters in the world, the air supply is 15 cubic
+feet per person per minute. The Madison Square Theater, in New York, is
+stated to have an air supply of 25 cubic feet per person.
+
+In a moderately large theater, seating twelve hundred persons, the
+total hourly quantity of air to be supplied would, accordingly, amount
+to from 1,440,000 to 2,160,000 cubic feet. It is not an easy matter to
+arrange the fresh-air conduits of a size sufficient to furnish this
+volume of air; it is obviously costly to warm such a large quantity of
+air, and it is a still more difficult problem to introduce it without
+creating objectionable currents of air; and, finally, inasmuch as this
+air can not enter the auditorium unless a like amount of vitiated air
+is removed, the problem includes providing artificial means for the
+removal of large air volumes.
+
+Where gas illumination is used, each gas flame requires an additional
+air supply--from 140 to 280 cubic feet, according to General Morin.
+
+A slight consideration of the volumes of air which must be moved
+and removed in a theater to secure a complete change of air three
+or four times an hour, demonstrates the impossibility of securing
+satisfactory results by the so-called natural method of ventilation--i.
+e., the removal of air by means of flues with currents due either to
+the aspirating force of the wind or due to artificially increased
+temperature in the flues. It becomes necessary to adopt mechanical
+means of ventilation by using either exhaust fans or pressure blowers
+or both, these being driven either by steam engines or by electric
+motors. In the older theaters, which were lighted by gas, the heat of
+the flames could be utilized to a certain extent in creating ascending
+currents in outlet shafts, and this accomplished some air renewal. But
+nowadays the central chandelier is almost entirely dispensed with;
+glowing carbon lamps, fed by electric currents, replace the gas flames;
+hence mechanical ventilation seems all the more indicated.
+
+Two principal methods of theater ventilation may be arranged: in one
+the fresh air enters at or near the floor and rises upward to the
+ceiling, to be removed by suitable outlet flues; in this method the
+incoming air follows the naturally existing air currents; in the other
+method pure air enters at the top through perforated cornices or holes
+in the ceiling, and gradually descends, to be removed by outlets
+located at or near the floor line. The two systems are known as the
+"upward" and the "downward" systems; each of them has been successfully
+tried, each offers some advantages, and each has its advocates. In both
+systems separate means for supplying fresh air to the boxes, balconies,
+and galleries are required. Owing to the different opinions held by
+architects and engineers, the two systems have often been made the
+subject of inquiry by scientific and government commissions in France,
+England, Germany, and the United States.
+
+A French scientist, Darcet, was the first to suggest a scientific
+system of theater ventilation. He made use of the heat from the central
+chandelier for removing the foul air, and admitted the air through
+numerous openings in the floor and through inlets in the front of the
+boxes.
+
+Dr. Reid, an English specialist in ventilation, is generally regarded
+as the originator of the upward method in ventilation. He applied the
+same with some success to the ventilation of the Houses of Parliament
+in London. Here fresh air is drawn in from high towers, and is
+conducted to the basement, where it is sprayed and moistened. A part
+of the air is warmed by hot-water coils in a sub-basement, while part
+remains cold. The warm and the cold air are mixed in special mixing
+chambers. From here the tempered air goes to a chamber located directly
+under the floor of the auditorium, and passes into the hall at the
+floor level through numerous small holes in the floor. The air enters
+with low velocity, and to prevent unpleasant draughts the floor is
+covered in one hall with hair carpet and in the other with coarse hemp
+matting, both of which are cleaned every day. The removal of the foul
+air takes place at the ceiling, and is assisted by the heat from the
+gas flames.
+
+The French engineer Péclet, an authority on heating and ventilation,
+suggested a similar system of upward ventilation, but instead of
+allowing the foul air to pass out through the roof, he conducted it
+downward into an underground channel which had exhaust draught. Trélat,
+another French engineer, followed practically the same method.
+
+A large number of theaters are ventilated on the upward system. I will
+mention first the large Vienna Opera House, the ventilation of which
+was planned by Dr. Boehm. The auditorium holds about three thousand
+persons, and a fresh-air supply of about fifteen cubic feet per minute,
+or from nine hundred to one thousand cubic feet per hour, per person
+is provided. The fresh air is taken in from the gardens surrounding
+the theater and is conducted into the cellar, where it passes through
+a water spray, which removes the dust and cools the air in summer.
+A suction fan ten feet in diameter is provided, which blows the air
+through a conduit forty-five square feet in area into a series of three
+chambers located vertically over each other under the auditorium. The
+lowest of these chambers is the cold-air chamber; the middle one is the
+heating chamber and contains steam-heating stacks; the highest chamber
+is the mixing chamber. The air goes partly to the heating and partly
+to the mixing chamber; from this it enters the auditorium at the rate
+of one foot per second velocity through openings in the risers of the
+seats in the parquet, and also through vertical wall channels to the
+boxes and upper galleries. The total area of the fresh-air openings
+is 750 square feet. The foul air ascends, assisted by the heat of the
+central chandelier, and is collected into a large exhaust tube. The
+foul air from the gallery passes out through separate channels. In the
+roof over the auditorium there is a fan which expels the entire foul
+air. Telegraphic thermometers are placed in all parts of the house and
+communicate with the inspection room, where the engineer in charge of
+the ventilation controls and regulates the temperature.
+
+The Vienna Hofburg Theater was ventilated on the same system.
+
+The new Frankfort Opera House has a ventilation system modeled upon
+that of the Vienna Opera House, but with improvements in some details.
+The house has a capacity of two thousand people, and for each person
+fourteen hundred cubic feet of fresh air per hour are supplied. A fan
+about ten feet in diameter and making ninety to one hundred revolutions
+per minute brings in the fresh air from outdoors and drives it into
+chambers under the auditorium arranged very much like those at Vienna.
+The total quantity of fresh air supplied per hour is 2,800,000 cubic
+feet. The air enters the auditorium through gratings fixed above the
+floor level in the risers. The foul air is removed by outlets in the
+ceilings, which unite into a large vertical shaft below the cupola.
+An exhaust fan of ten feet diameter is placed in the cupola shaft,
+and is used for summer ventilation only. Every single box and stall
+is ventilated separately. The cost of the entire system was about one
+hundred and twenty-five thousand dollars; it requires a staff of two
+engineers, six assistant engineers, and a number of stokers.
+
+Among well-ventilated American theaters is the Madison Square Theater
+(now Hoyt's), in New York. Here the fresh air is taken down through a
+large vertical shaft on the side of the stage. There is a seven-foot
+suction fan in the basement which drives the air into a number of boxes
+with steam-heating stacks, from which smaller pipes lead to openings
+under each row of seats. The foul air escapes through openings in the
+ceiling and under the galleries. A fresh-air supply of 1,500 cubic feet
+per hour, or 25 cubic feet per minute, per person is provided.
+
+The Metropolitan Opera House is ventilated on the plenum system, and
+has an upward movement of air, the total air supply being 70,000 cubic
+feet per hour.
+
+In the Academy of Music, Baltimore, the fresh air is admitted mainly
+from the stage and the exits of foul air are in the ceiling at the
+auditorium.
+
+Other theaters ventilated by the upward method are the Dresden Royal
+Theater, the Lessing Theater in Berlin, the Opera House in Buda-Pesth,
+the new theater in Prague, the new Municipal Theater at Halle, and the
+Criterion Theatre in London.
+
+The French engineer General Arthur Morin is known as the principal
+advocate of the downward method of ventilation. This was at that
+time a radical departure from existing methods because it apparently
+conflicted with the well-known fact that heated air naturally rises.
+Much the same system was advocated by Dr. Tripier in a pamphlet
+published in 1864.[7] The earlier practical applications of this system
+to several French theaters did not prove as much of a success as
+anticipated, the failure being due probably to the gas illumination,
+the central chandelier, and the absence of mechanical means for
+inducing a downward movement of the air.
+
+[7] Dr. A. Tripier. Assainissement des Théâtres, Ventilation, Éclairage
+et Chauffage.
+
+In 1861 a French commission, of which General Morin was a member,
+proposed the reversing of the currents of air by admitting fresh air
+at both sides of the stage opening high up in the auditorium, and also
+through hollow floor channels for the balconies and boxes; in the
+gallery the openings for fresh air were located in the risers of the
+steppings. The air was exhausted by numerous openings under the seats
+in the parquet. This ventilating system was carried out at the Théâtre
+Lyrique, the Théâtre du Cirque, and the Théâtre de la Gaieté.
+
+Dr. Tripier ventilated a theater in 1858 with good success on a similar
+plan, but he introduced the air partly at the rear of the stage and
+partly in the tympanum in the auditorium. He removed the foul air
+at the floor level and separately in the rear of the boxes. He also
+exhausted the foul air from the upper galleries by special flues heated
+by the gas chandelier.
+
+The Grand Amphitheater of the Conservatory of Arts and Industries, in
+Paris, was ventilated by General Morin on the downward system. The
+openings in the ceiling for the admission of fresh air aggregated 120
+square feet, and the air entered with a velocity of only eighteen
+inches per second; the total air supply per hour was 630,000 cubic
+feet. The foul air was exhausted by openings in steps around the
+vertical walls, and the velocity of the outgoing air was about two and
+a half feet per second.
+
+The introduction of the electric light in place of gas gave a fresh
+impetus to the downward method of ventilation, and mechanical means
+also helped to dispel the former difficulties in securing a positive
+downward movement.
+
+The Chicago Auditorium is ventilated on this system, a part of the air
+entering from the rear of the stage, the other from the ceiling of the
+auditorium downward. This plan coincides with the proposition made in
+1846 by Morrill Wyman, though he admits that it can not be considered
+the most desirable method.
+
+A good example of the downward method is given by the New York Music
+Hall, which has a seating capacity of three thousand persons and
+standing room for one thousand more. Fresh air at any temperature
+desired is made to enter through perforations in or near the ceilings,
+the outlets being concealed by the decorations, and passes out through
+exhaust registers near the floor line, under the seats, through
+perforated risers in the terraced steps. About 10,000,000 cubic feet
+of air are supplied per hour, and the velocity of influx and efflux is
+one foot per second. The air supplied per person per hour is figured
+at 2,700 cubic feet, and the entire volume is changed from four and a
+half to five times per hour. The fresh air is taken in at roof level
+through a shaft of seventy square feet area. The air is heated by steam
+coils, and cooled in summer by ice. The mechanical plant comprises four
+blowers and three exhaust fans of six and seven feet in diameter.
+
+The downward method of ventilation was suggested in 1884 for the
+improvement of the ventilation of the Senate chamber and the chamber
+of the House of Representatives in the Capitol at Washington, but the
+system was not adopted by the Board of Engineers appointed to inquire
+into the methods.
+
+The downward method is also used in the Hall of the Trocadéro, Paris;
+in the old and also the new buildings for the German Parliament,
+Berlin; in the Chamber of Deputies, Paris; and others.
+
+Professor Fischer, a modern German authority on heating and
+ventilation, in a discussion of the relative advantages of the two
+methods, reaches the conclusion that both are practical and can be
+made to work successfully. For audience halls lighted by gaslights he
+considers the upward method as preferable.
+
+In arranging for the removal of foul air it is necessary, particularly
+in the downward system, to provide separate exhaust flues for the
+galleries and balconies. Unless this is provided for, the exhaled air
+of the occupants of the higher tiers would mingle with the descending
+current of pure air supplied to the occupants of the main auditorium
+floor.
+
+Mention should also be made of a proposition originating in Berlin
+to construct the roof of auditoriums domelike, by dividing it in
+the middle so that it can be partly opened by means of electric or
+hydraulic machinery; such a system would permit of keeping the ceiling
+open in summer time, thereby rendering the theater not only airy,
+but also free from the danger of smoke. A system based on similar
+principles is in actual use at the Madison Square Garden, in New York,
+where part of the roof consists of sliding skylights which in summer
+time can be made to open or close during the performance.
+
+From the point of view of safety in case of fire, which usually in
+a theater breaks out on the stage, it is without doubt best to have
+the air currents travel in a direction from the auditorium toward the
+stage roof. This has been successfully arranged in some of the later
+Vienna theaters, but from the point of view of good acoustics, it
+is better to have the air currents travel from the stage toward the
+auditorium. Obviously, it is a somewhat difficult matter to reconcile
+the conflicting requirements of safety from smoke and fire gases, good
+acoustics and perfect ventilation.
+
+The stage of a theater requires to be well ventilated, for often it
+becomes filled with smoke or gases due to firing of guns, colored
+lights, torches, representations of battles, etc. There should be in
+the roof over the stage large outlet flues, or sliding skylights,
+controlled from the stage for the removal of the smoke. These, in
+case of an outbreak of fire on the stage, become of vital importance
+in preventing the smoke and fire gases from being drawn into the
+auditorium and suffocating the persons in the gallery seats.
+
+Where the stage is lit with gaslights it is important to provide a
+separate downward ventilation for the footlights. This, I believe, was
+first successfully tried at the large Scala Theater, of Milan, Italy.
+
+The actors' and supers' dressing rooms, which are often overcrowded,
+require efficient ventilation, and other parts of the building, like
+the foyers and the toilet, retiring and smoking rooms, must not be
+overlooked.
+
+The entrance halls, vestibules, lobbies, staircases, and corridors
+do not need so much ventilation, but should be kept warm to prevent
+annoying draughts. They are usually heated by abundantly large direct
+steam or hot-water radiators, whereas the auditorium and foyers,
+and often the stage, are heated by indirect radiation. Owing to the
+fact that during a performance the temperature in the auditorium is
+quickly raised by contact of the warm fresh air with the bodies of
+persons (and by the numerous lights, when gas is used), the temperature
+of the incoming air should be only moderate. In the best modern
+theater-heating plants it is usual to gradually reduce the temperature
+of the air as it issues from the mixing chambers toward the end of the
+performance. Both the temperature and the hygrometric conditions of the
+air should be controlled by an efficient staff of intelligent heating
+engineers.
+
+But little need be said regarding theater lighting. Twice during the
+present century have the system and methods been changed. In the early
+part of the present century theaters were still lighted with tallow
+candles or with oil lamps. Next came what was at the time considered
+a wonderful improvement, namely, the introduction of gaslighting.
+The generation who can remember witnessing a theater performance by
+candle or lamp lights, and who experienced the excitement created
+when the first theater was lit up by gas, will soon have passed
+away. Scarcely twenty years ago the electric light was introduced,
+and there are to-day very few theaters which do not make use of this
+improved illuminant. It generates much less heat than gaslight, and
+vastly simplifies the problem of ventilation. The noxious products
+of combustion, incident to all other methods of illumination, are
+eliminated: no carbonic-acid gas is generated to render the air
+of audience halls irrespirable, and no oxygen is drawn to support
+combustion from the air introduced for breathing.
+
+It being now an established fact that the electric light increases the
+safety of human life in theaters and other places of amusement, its use
+is in many city or building ordinances made imperative--at least on
+the stage and in the main body of the auditorium. Stairs, corridors,
+entrances, etc., may, as a matter of precaution, be lighted by a
+different system, by means of either gas or auxiliary vegetable oil or
+candle lamps, protected by glass inclosures against smoke or draught,
+and provided with special inlet and outlet flues for air.
+
+Passing to other desirable internal improvements of theaters, I would
+mention first the floors of the auditorium. The covering of the floor
+by carpets is objectionable--in theaters more so even than in dwelling
+houses. Night after night the carpet comes in contact with thousands
+of feet, which necessarily bring in a good deal of street dirt and
+dust. The latter falls on the carpets and attaches to them, and as
+it is not feasible to take the carpets up except during the summer
+closing, a vast accumulation of dirt and organic matter results, some
+of the dirt falling through the crevices between the floor boards. Many
+theater-goers are not tidy in their habits regarding expectoration, and
+as there must be in every large audience some persons afflicted with
+tuberculosis, the danger is ever present of the germs of the disease
+drying on the carpet, and becoming again detached to float in the air
+which we are obliged to breathe in a theater.
+
+As a remedy I would propose abolishing carpets entirely, and using
+instead a floor covering of linoleum, or thin polished parquetry oak
+floors, varnished floors of hard wood, painted and stained floors,
+interlocked rubber-tile floors, or, at least for the aisles, encaustic
+or mosaic tiling. Between the rows of seats, as well as in the aisles,
+long rugs or mattings may be laid down loose, for these can be taken
+up without much trouble. They should be frequently shaken, beaten, and
+cleaned.
+
+Regarding the walls, ceilings, and cornices, the surfaces should be of
+a material which can be readily cleaned and which is non-absorbent.
+Stucco finish is unobjectionable, but should be kept flat, so as not to
+offer dust-catching projections. Oil painting of walls is preferable
+to a covering with rough wall papers, which hold large quantities
+of dust. The so-called "sanitary" or varnished wall papers have a
+smooth, non-absorbent, easily cleaned surface, and are therefore
+unobjectionable. All heavy decorations, draperies, and hangings in the
+boxes, and plush covers for railings, are to be avoided.
+
+The theater furniture should be of a material which does not catch or
+hold dust. Upholstered plush-covered chairs and seats retain a large
+amount of it, and are not readily cleaned. Leather-covered or other
+sanitary furniture, or rattan seats, would be a great improvement.
+
+In the stage building we often find four or five actors placed in
+one small, overheated, unventilated dressing room, located in the
+basement of the building, without outside windows, and fitted with
+three or four gas jets, for actors require a good light in "making
+up." More attention should be paid to the comfort and health of the
+players, more space and a better location should be given to their
+rooms. Every dressing room should have a window to the outer air, also
+a special ventilating flue. Properly trapped wash basins should be
+fitted up in each room. In the dressing rooms and in the corridors and
+stairs leading from them to the stage all draughts must be avoided,
+as the performers often become overheated from the excitement of the
+acting, and dancers in particular leave the heated stage bathed in
+perspiration. Sanitation, ventilation, and cleanliness are quite as
+necessary for this part of the stage building as for the auditorium and
+foyers.
+
+It will suffice to mention that defects in the drainage and sewerage
+of a theater building must be avoided. The well-known requirements
+of house drainage should be observed in theaters as much as in other
+public buildings.[8]
+
+[8] The reader will find the subject discussed and illustrated in the
+author's work, Sanitary Engineering of Buildings, vol. i, 1899.
+
+The removal of ashes, litter, sweepings, oily waste, and other refuse
+should be attended to with promptness and regularity. It is only by
+constant attention to properly carried out cleaning methods that such
+a building for the public can be kept in a proper sanitary condition.
+Floating air impurities, like dust and dirt, can not be removed or
+rendered innocuous by the most perfect ventilating scheme. Mingled with
+the dust floating in the auditorium or lodging in the stage scenery
+are numbers of bacteria or germs. Among the pathogenic germs will be
+those of tuberculosis, contained in the sputum discharged in coughing
+or expectorating. When this dries on the carpeted floor, the germs
+become readily detached, are inhaled by the playgoers, and thus become
+a prolific source of danger. It is for this reason principally that the
+processes of cleaning, sweeping, and dusting should in a theater be
+under intelligent management.
+
+To guard against the ever-present danger of infection by germs, the
+sanitary floor coverings recommended should be wiped every day with a
+moist rag or cloth. Carpeted floors should be covered with moist tea
+leaves or sawdust before sweeping to prevent the usual dust-raising.
+The common use of the feather duster is to be deprecated, for it only
+raises and scatters the dust, but it does not remove it. Dusting of
+the furniture should be done with a dampened dust cloth. The cleaning
+should include the hot-air registers, where a large amount of dust
+collects, which can only be removed by occasionally opening up the
+register faces and wiping out the pipe surfaces; also the baseboards
+and all cornice projections on which dust constantly settles. While
+dusting and sweeping, the windows should be opened; an occasional
+admission of sunlight, where practicable, would likewise be of the
+greatest benefit.
+
+The writer believes that a sanitary inspection of theater buildings
+should be instituted once a year when they are closed up in summer. He
+would also suggest that the granting of the annual license should be
+made dependent not only, as at present, upon the condition of safety
+of the building against fire and panic, but also upon its sanitary
+condition. In connection with the sanitary inspection, a thorough
+disinfection by sulphur, or better with formaldehyde gas, should be
+carried out by the health authorities. If necessary, the disinfection
+of the building should be repeated several times a year, particularly
+during general epidemics of influenza or pneumonia.
+
+Safety measures against outbreaks of fire, dangers from panic,
+accidents, etc., are in a certain sense also sanitary improvements, but
+can not be discussed here.[9]
+
+[9] See the author's work, Theater Fires and Panics, 1895.
+
+In order to anticipate captious criticisms, the writer would state
+that in this paper he has not attempted to set forth new theories, nor
+to advocate any special system of theater ventilation. His aim was
+to describe existing defects and to point out well-known remedies.
+The question of efficient theater sanitation belongs quite as much to
+the province of the sanitary engineer as to that of the architect.
+It is one of paramount importance--certainly more so than the purely
+architectural features of exterior and interior decoration.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+In presenting to the British Association the final report on the
+northwestern tribes of Canada, Professor Tylor observed that, while
+the work of the committee has materially advanced our knowledge of
+the tribes of British Columbia, the field of investigation is by no
+means exhausted. The languages are still known only in outlines. More
+detailed information on physical types may clear up several points
+that have remained obscure, and a fuller knowledge of the ethnology of
+the northern tribes seems desirable. Ethnological evidence has been
+collected bearing upon the history of the development of the area under
+consideration, but no archæological investigations, which would help
+materially in solving these problems, have been carried on.
+
+
+
+
+THE NEW FIELD BOTANY.
+
+BY BYRON D. HALSTED, Sc. D.,
+
+OF RUTGERS COLLEGE.
+
+
+There is something novel every day; were it not so this earth would
+grow monotonous to all, even as it does now to many, and chiefly
+because such do not have the opportunity or the desire to learn some
+new thing. Facts unknown before are constantly coming to the light, and
+principles are being deduced that serve as a stepping stone to other
+and broader fields of knowledge. So accustomed are we to this that
+even a new branch of science may dawn upon the horizon without causing
+a wonder in our minds. In this day of ologies the birth of a new one
+comes without the formal two-line notice in the daily press, just as
+old ones pass from view without tear or epitaph.
+
+_Phytoecology_ as a word is not long as scientific terms go, and the
+Greek that lies back of it barely suggests the meaning of the term, a
+fact not at all peculiar to the present instance. Of course, it has to
+do with plants, and is therefore a branch of botany.
+
+In one sense that which it stands for is not new, and, as usual, the
+word has come in the wake of the facts and principles it represents,
+and therefore becomes a convenient term for a branch of knowledge--a
+handle, so to say--by which that group of ideas may be held up for
+study and further growth. The word _ecology_ was first employed by
+Haeckel, a leading light in zoölogy in our day, to designate the
+environmental side of animal life.
+
+We will not concern ourselves with definitions, but discuss the field
+that the term is coined to cover, and leave the reader to formulate a
+short concise statement of its meaning.
+
+Within the last year a new botanical guide book for teachers has
+been published, of considerable originality and merit, in which
+the subject-matter is thrown into four groups, and one of these is
+Ecology. Another text-book for secondary schools is now before us in
+which ecology is the heading of one of the three parts into which the
+treatise is divided. The large output of the educational press at the
+present time along the line in hand suggests that the magazine press
+should sound the depths of the new branch of science that is pushing
+its way to the front, or being so pushed by its adherents, and echo the
+merits of it along the line.
+
+Botany in its stages of growth is interesting historically. It
+fascinated for a time one of the greatest minds in the modern school,
+and as a result we have the rich and fruitful history of the science
+as seen through eyes as great as Julius Sachs's, the master of botany
+during the last half century. From this work it can be gathered that
+early in the centuries since the Christian era botany was little more
+than herborizing--the collecting of specimens, and learning their gross
+parts, as size of stem and leaf and blossom.
+
+This branch of botany has been cultivated to the present day, and the
+result is the systematist, with all the refinements of species making
+and readjustment of genera and orders with the nicety of detail in
+specific descriptions that only a systematist can fully appreciate.
+
+Later on the study of function was begun, and along with it that of
+structure; for anatomy and physiology, by whatever terms they may be
+known, advance hand in hand, because inseparable. One worker may look
+more to the activities than another who toils with the structural
+relations and finds these problems enough for a lifetime.
+
+This botany of the dissecting table in contrast with that of the
+collector and his dried specimens grew apace, taking new leases of
+life at the uprising of new hypotheses, and long advances with the
+improvement of implements for work. It was natural that the cell and
+all that is made from it should invite the inspector to a field of
+intense interest, somewhat at the expense of the functions of the
+parts. In short, the field was open, the race was on, and it was a
+matter of self-restraint that a man did not enter and strive long and
+well for some anatomical prize. This branch of botany is still alive,
+and never more so than to-day, when cytology offers many attractive
+problems for the cytologist. What with his microtome that cuts his
+imbedded tissue into slices so thin that twenty-five hundred or more
+are needed to measure an inch in thickness, with his fixing solutions
+that kill instantly and hold each particle as if frozen in a cake of
+ice, and his stains and double stains that pick out the specks as the
+magnet draws iron filing from a bin of bran--with all these and a
+hundred more aids to the refinement of the art there is no wonder that
+the cell becomes a center of attraction, beyond the periphery of which
+the student can scarcely live. In our closing days of the century it
+may be known whether the blephroblasts arise antipodally, and whether
+they are a variation of the centrosomes or should be classed by
+themselves!
+
+One of the general views of phytoecology is that the forms of plants
+are modified to adapt them to the conditions under which they exist.
+Thus the size of a plant is greatly modified by the environment.
+Two grains of corn indistinguishable in themselves and borne by the
+same cob may be so situated that one grows into a stately stalk with
+the ear higher than a horse's head, while the other is a dwarf and
+unproductive. Below ground the conditions are many, and all subject
+to infinite variation. Thus, the soil may be deep or shallow, the
+particles small or large, the moisture abundant or scant, and the food
+elements close at hand or far to seek--all of which will have a marked
+influence upon the root system, its size, and form.
+
+Coming to the aërial portion, there are all the factors of weather and
+climate to work singly or in union to affect the above-ground structure
+of the plant. Temperature varies through wide ranges of heat and
+cold, scorching and freezing; while humidity or aridity, sunshine or
+cloudiness, prevailing winds or sudden tornadoes all have an influence
+in shaping the structure, developing the part, and fashioning the
+details of form of the aërial portions. Phytoecology deals with all
+these, and includes the consideration of that struggle for life that
+plants are constantly waging, for environment determines that the forms
+best suited to a given set of conditions will survive. This struggle
+has been going on since the vegetable life of the earth began, and as
+a result certain prevailing conditions have brought about groups of
+plants found as a rule only where these conditions prevail. As water
+is a leading factor in plant growth, a classification is made upon
+this basis into the plants of the arid regions called xerophytes. The
+opposite to desert vegetation is that of the fresh ponds and lakes,
+called hydrophytes. A third group, the halophytes, includes the
+vegetation of sea or land where there is an excess of various saline
+substances, the common salt being the leading one. The last group is
+the mesophytes, which include plants growing in conditions without the
+extremes accorded to the other three groups.
+
+This somewhat general classification of the conditions of the
+environment lends much of interest to that form of field botany now
+under consideration. As the grouping is made chiefly upon the aqueous
+conditions, it is fair to assume that plants are especially modified
+to accommodate themselves to this compound. Plants, for example,
+unless they are aquatics, need to use large quantities of water to
+carry on the vital functions. Thus the salts from the soil need to
+rise dissolved in the crude sap to the leaves, and in order that a
+sufficient current be kept up there is transpiration going on from
+all thin or soft exposed parts. The leaves are the chief organs where
+aqueous vapor is being given off, sometimes to the extent of tons of
+water upon an acre of area in a single day. This evaporation being
+largely surface action, it is possible for the plant to check this by
+reducing the surface, and the leaf is coiled or folded. Other plants
+have through the ages become adapted to the destructive actions of
+drought and a dry, hot atmosphere, and have only needle-shaped leaves
+or even no true ones at all, as many of the cacti in the desert lands
+of the Western plains.
+
+Again, the surface of the plant may become covered with a felt of fine
+hairs to prevent rapid evaporation, while other plants with ordinary
+foliage have the acquired power of moving the leaves so that they will
+expose their surfaces broadside to the sun, or contrariwise the edges
+only, as heat and light intensity determine.
+
+Phytoecology deals with all those adaptations of structure, and from
+which permit the plants to take advantage of the habits and wants of
+animals. If we are studying the vegetation of a bog, and note the
+adaptation of the hydrophytic plants, the chances are that attention
+will soon be called to colorations and structures that indicate a more
+complete and far-reaching adjustment than simply to the conditions of
+the wet, spongy bog. A plant may be met with having the leaves in the
+form of flasks or pitchers, and more or less filled with water. These
+strange leaves are conspicuously purplish, and this adds to their
+attractiveness. The upper portion may be variegated, resembling a
+flower and for the same purpose--namely, to attract insects that find
+within the pitchers a food which is sought at the risk of life. Many
+of the entrapped creatures never escape, and yield up their life for
+the support of that of the captor. Again, the mossy bog may glisten
+in the sun, and thousands of sundew plants with their pink leaves are
+growing upon the surface. Each leaf is covered with adhesive stalked
+glands, and insects lured to and caught by them are devoured by this
+insectivorous vegetation.
+
+In the pools in the same lowland there may be an abundance of the
+bladderwort, a floating plant with flowers upon long stalks that raise
+them into the air and sunshine. With the leaves reduced to a mere
+framework that bears innumerable bladders, water animals of small
+size are captured in vast numbers and provide a large part of the
+nourishment required by the highly specialized hydrophyte.
+
+These are but everyday instances of adaptation between plants and
+animals for the purpose of nutrition, the adjustment of form being
+more particularly upon the vegetative side. Zoölogists may be able to
+show, however, that certain species of animals are adapted to and quite
+dependent upon the carnivorous plants.
+
+An ecological problem has been worked out along the above line to a
+larger extent than generally supposed. If we should take the case of
+ants only in their relation to structural adaptations for them in
+plants, it would be seen that fully three thousand species of the
+latter make use of ants for purposes of protection. The large fighting
+ants of the tropics, when provided with nectar, food, and shelter,
+will inhabit plants to the partial exclusion of destructive insects
+and larger foraging animals. Interesting as all this is, it is not the
+time and place to go into the details of how the ant-fostering plants
+have their nectar glands upon stems or leaf, rich soft hairs in tufts
+for food, and homes provided in hollows and chambers. There is still a
+more intimate association of termites with some of the toadstool-like
+plants, where the ants foster the fungi and seem to understand some of
+the essentials of veritable gardening in miniature form.
+
+The most familiar branch of phytoecology, as it concerns adaptations
+for insect visitations, is that which relates to the production of
+seed. Floral structures, so wonderfully varied in form and color and
+withal attractive to every lover of the beautiful, are familiar to all,
+and it only needs to be said in passing that these infinite forms are
+for the same end--namely, the union of the seed germs, if they may be
+so styled, of different and often widely separated blossoms.
+
+Sweetness and beauty are not the invariable rule with insect-visited
+blossoms, for in the long ages that have elapsed during which these
+adaptations have come about some plants have established an unwritten
+agreement between beetles and bugs with unsavory tastes. Thus there are
+the "carrion flowers," so called because of their fetid odor, designed
+for the sense organs of carrion insects. The "stink-horn" fungi have
+their offensive spores distributed by a similar set of carrion carriers.
+
+Water and wind claim a share of the species, but here adaptation to
+the method of fertilization is as fully realized as when insects
+participate, and the uselessness of showy petals and fantastic forms is
+emphasized by their absence.
+
+Coming now to the fruits of plants, it is again seen that plants have
+adapted their offspring, the seed, to the surrounding conditions,
+not forgetting the wind, the waves, and the tastes and the exterior
+of passing animals. The breezes carry up and hurl along the light
+wing-possessed seeds, and the river and ocean bear these and many
+others onward to a distant land, while by grappling hooks many kinds
+cling to the hair of animals, or, provided with a pleasing pulp, are
+carried willingly by birds and other creatures. In short, the devices
+for seed dispersion are multitudinous, and they provide a large chapter
+in that branch of botany now styled phytoecology.
+
+How different is the old field botany from the new! Then there was the
+collector of plants and classifier of his finds, and an arranger of all
+he could get by exchange or otherwise. His success was measured by the
+size of his herbarium and his stock in trade as so many duplicates
+all taken in bloom, but the time of year, locality, and the various
+conditions of growth were all unknown.
+
+His implements for work were, first, a can or basket, a plant press,
+and a manual; and, secondly, a lot of paper, a paste pot, and some way
+of holding the mounts in packets or pigeonholes.
+
+The eyes grew keen as the hunter scoured the forest and field for some
+kind of plant he had not already possessed. There was a keen relish in
+discoveries, and it heightened into ecstasy when the specimen needed
+to be sent away for a name and was returned with his own Latinized and
+appended to that of the genus.
+
+This was all well and good so far as it went, but looked at from the
+present vantage ground there was not so much in it. However, his was an
+essential step to other things, as much so as that of the census taker.
+
+We need to know the species of plants our fair land possesses, and have
+them described and named. But when the nine hundred and ninety-nine
+are known, it is a waste of time to be continually hunting for the
+thousandth. Look for it, but let it be secondary to that of an actual
+study of the great majority already known. The older botany was a study
+of the dried plants in all those details that are laid down in the
+manuals. It lacked something of the true vitality that is inherent in a
+biological science, for often the life had gone out before the subject
+came up for study. To the phytoecologist it was somewhat as the shell
+without the meat, or the bird's nest of a previous year.
+
+Since those days of our forefathers there has come the minute anatomy
+of plants, followed closely by physiology; and now with the working
+knowledge of these two modern branches of botany the student has
+again taken to the field. He is making the wood-lot his laboratory,
+and the garden, so to say, his lecture room. He has a fair knowledge
+of systematic botany, but finds himself rearranging the families
+and genera to fit the facts determined by his ecological study. If
+two species of the same genus are widely separated in habitat, he
+is determining the factors that led to the separation. Why did one
+smart weed become a climber, another an upright herb, and a third a
+prostrate creeper, are questions that may not have entered the mind of
+the plant collector; but now the phytoecologist finds much interest in
+considering questions of this type. What are the differences between
+a species inhabiting the water and another of the same genus upon dry
+land, or what has led one group of the morning-glory family to become
+parasites and exist as the dodders upon other living plants?
+
+The older botanist held his subject under the best mental illumination
+of his time, but his physical light, that of a pine knot or a tallow
+dip, also contrasts strongly with that of the present gas jet and
+electric arc.
+
+The wonder should be that he saw so well, and all who follow him can
+not but feel grateful for the path he blazed through the dense forests
+of ignorance and the bridges he made over the streams of doubt in
+specific distinctions. It was a noble work, but it is nearly past in
+the older parts of our country; and while some of that school should
+linger to readjust their genera, make new combinations of species,
+and attempt to satisfy the claims of priority, the rank and file will
+largely leave systematic botany and the herborizing it embraces, and
+betake themselves to the open fields of phytoecology. It may be along
+the line of structural adaptations when we will have morphological
+phytoecology, or the adjustment of function to the environment when
+there will be physiological phytoecology. These two branches when
+combined to elucidate problems of relationship between the plant and
+its surroundings as involved in accommodation in its comprehensive
+sense there will be phytoecology with climate, geology, geography, or
+fossils as the leading feature, as the case may be.
+
+In the older botany the plant alone in itself was the subject of study.
+The newer botany takes the plant in its surroundings and all that its
+relationships to other plants may suggest as the subject for analysis.
+In the one case the plant was all and its place of growth accidental,
+a dried specimen from any unknown habitat was enough; but now the
+environment and the numerous lines of relationship that reach out from
+the living plant _in situ_ are the major subjects for study. The former
+was field botany because the field contained the plant, the latter is
+field botany in that the plant embraces in its study all else in the
+field in which it lives. The one had as its leading question, What is
+your name and where do you belong in my herbarium? while the other
+raises an endless list of queries, of which How came you here and when?
+Why these curious glands and this strange movement or mimicry? are but
+average samples. Every spot of color, bend of leaf, and shape of fruit
+raises a question.
+
+The collector of fifty years ago pulled up or cut off a portion of
+his plant for a specimen, and rarely measured, weighed, and counted
+anything about it. The phytoecologist to-day watches his subject as
+it grows, and if removed it is for the purpose of testing its vital
+functions under varying circumstances of moisture, heat, or sunlight,
+and exact recording instruments are a part of the equipment for the
+investigation.
+
+The underlying thought in the seashore school and the tropical
+laboratory in botany is this of getting nearer to the haunts of the
+living plant. Forestry schools that have for their class room the
+wooded mountains and the botanical gardens with their living herbaria
+are welcome steps toward the same end of phytoecology.
+
+In view of the above facts, and many more that might be mentioned did
+space permit, the writer has felt that the present incomplete and
+faulty presentation of the subject of the newer botany should be placed
+before the great reading public through the medium of a journal that
+has as its watchword Progress in Education.
+
+
+
+
+DO ANIMALS REASON?
+
+BY THE REV. EGERTON R. YOUNG.
+
+
+This interesting subject has been ably handled from the negative side
+by Edward Thorndike, Ph. D., in the August number of the Popular
+Science Monthly. Dr. Thorndike, with all his skill in treating this
+very interesting subject, seems to have forgotten one very important
+point. His expectation has not only been higher than any fair claim of
+an animal's reasoning power, but he has overlooked the fact that there
+are different ways of reasoning. Men of different races and those of
+little intelligence can be placed in new environments and be asked to
+perform things which, while utterly impossible to them, are simple and
+crude to those of higher intelligence and who have all their days been
+accustomed to high mental exercise. If such difference exists between
+the highest and most intelligent of the human race and the degraded
+and uncultured, vastly greater is the gulf that separates the lowest
+stratum of humanity from the most intelligent of the brute creation.
+The fair way to test the intelligence of the so-called lower orders
+of men is to go to their native lands and study them in their own
+environments and in possession of the equipments of life to which they
+have been accustomed. The same is true of the brute creation. Only
+the highest results can be expected from congenial environments. To
+pass final judgment upon the animal kingdom, having for data only the
+results of the doctor's experiments, seems to us manifestly unfair.
+He takes a few cats and dogs and submits them to environments which
+are altogether foreign to them, and then expects feats of mind from
+them which would be far greater than the mastering of the reason why
+two and two make four is to the stupidest child of man. As the doctor
+has been permitted to tell the results of his experiments, may I claim
+a similar privilege? While I did not use dogs merely to test their
+intelligence--my business demanding of myself and them the fullest use
+of all our energies and all the intelligence, be it more or less, that
+was possessed by man or beast--I had the privilege of seeing in my dogs
+actions that were, at least to me, convincing that they possessed the
+rudiments of reasoning powers, and, in the more intelligent, that which
+will be utterly inexplicable if it is not the product of reasoning
+faculties.
+
+For a number of years I was a resident missionary in the Hudson Bay
+Territories, where, in the prosecution of my work, I kept a large
+number of dogs of various breeds. With these dogs I traveled several
+thousands of miles every winter over an area larger than the State of
+New York. In summer I used them to plow my garden and fields. They
+dragged home our fish from the distant fisheries, and the wood from the
+forests for our numerous fires. They cuddled around me on the edges of
+my heavy fur robes in wintry camps, where we often slept out in a hole
+dug in the snow, the temperature ranging from 30° to 60° below zero.
+When blizzard storms raged so terribly that even the most experienced
+Indian guides were bewildered, and knew not north from south or east
+from west, our sole reliance was on our dogs, and with an intelligence
+and an endurance that ever won our admiration they succeeded in
+bringing us to our desired destination.
+
+It is conceded at the outset that these dogs of whom I write were the
+result of careful selection. There are dogs and dogs, as there are
+men and men. They were not picked up in the street at random. I would
+no more keep in my personal service a mere average mongrel dog than I
+would the second time hire for one of my long trips a sulky Indian. As
+there are some people, good in many ways, who can not master a foreign
+tongue, so there are many dogs that never rise above the one gift of
+animal instinct. With such I too have struggled, and long and patiently
+labored, and if of them only I were writing I would unhesitatingly say
+that of them I never saw any act which ever seemed to show reasoning
+powers. But there are other dogs than these, and of them I here would
+write and give my reason why I firmly believe that in a marked degree
+some of them possessed the powers of reasoning.
+
+Two of my favorite dogs I called Jack and Cuffy. Jack was a great black
+St. Bernard, weighing nearly two hundred pounds. Cuffy was a pure
+Newfoundland, with very black curly hair. These two dogs were the gift
+of the late Senator Sanford. With other fine dogs of the same breeds,
+they soon supplanted the Eskimo and mongrels that had been previously
+used for years about the place.
+
+[Illustration: JACK AND HIS MASTER.]
+
+I had so much work to do in my very extensive field that I required to
+have at least four trains always fit for service. This meant that,
+counting puppies and all, there would be about the premises from twenty
+to thirty dogs. However, as the lakes and rivers there swarmed with
+fish, which was their only food, we kept the pack up to a state of
+efficiency at but little expense. Jack and Cuffy were the only two dogs
+that were allowed the full liberty of the house. They were welcome in
+every room. Our doors were furnished with the ordinary thumb latches.
+These latches at first bothered both dogs. All that was needed on our
+part was to show them how they worked, and from that day on for years
+they both entered the rooms as they desired without any trouble, if
+the doors opened from them. There was a decided difference, however,
+in opening a door if it opened toward them. Cuffy was never able to
+do it. With Jack it was about as easily done as it was by the Indian
+servant girl. Quickly and deftly would he shove up the exposed latch
+and the curved part of the thumb piece and draw it toward him. If the
+door did not easily open, the claws in the other fore paw speedily
+and cleverly did the work. The favorite resting place of these two
+magnificent dogs was on some fur rugs on my study floor. Several times
+have we witnessed the following action in Cuffy, who was of a much more
+restless temperament than Jack: When she wanted to leave the study she
+would invariably first go to the door and try it. If it were in the
+slightest degree ajar she could easily draw it toward her and thus
+open it. If, on the contrary, it were latched, she would at once march
+over to Jack, and, taking him by an ear with her teeth, would lead him
+over to the door, which he at once opened for her. If reason is that
+power by which we "are enabled to combine means for the attainment of
+particular ends," I fail to understand the meaning of words if it were
+not displayed in these instances.
+
+Both Jack and Cuffy were, as is characteristic of such dogs, very fond
+of the water, and in our short, brilliant summers would frequently
+disport themselves in the beautiful little lake, the shores of which
+were close to our home. Cuffy, as a Newfoundland dog, generally
+preferred to continue her sports in the waves some time after Jack had
+finished his bath. As they were inseparable companions, Jack was too
+loyal to retire to the house until Cuffy was ready to accompany him.
+As she was sometimes whimsical and dilatory, she seemed frequently to
+try his patience. It was, however, always interesting to observe his
+deference to her. To understand thoroughly what we are going to relate
+in proof of our argument it is necessary to state that the rocky shore
+in front of our home was at this particular place like a wedge, the
+thickest part in front, rising up about a dozen feet or so abruptly
+from the water. Then to the east the shore gradually sloped down into
+a little sandy cove. When Jack had finished his bath he always swam
+to this sandy beach, and at once, as he shook his great body, came
+gamboling along the rocks, joyously barking to his companion still in
+the waters. When Cuffy had finished her watery sports, if Jack were
+still on the rocks, instead of swimming to the sandy cove and there
+landing she would start directly for the place where Jack was awaiting
+her. If it were at a spot where she could not alone struggle up, Jack,
+firmly bracing himself, would reach down to her and then, catching hold
+of the back of her neck, would help her up the slippery rocks. If it
+were at a spot where he could not possibly reach her, he would, after
+several attempts, all the time furiously barking as though expressing
+his anxiety and solicitude, rush off to a spot where some old oars,
+paddles, and sticks of various kinds were piled. There he searched
+until he secured one that suited his purpose. With this in his mouth,
+he hurried back to the spot where Cuffy was still in the water at the
+base of the steep rocks. Here he would work the stick around until he
+was able to let one end down within reach of his exacting companion in
+the water. Seizing it in her teeth and with the powerful Jack pulling
+at the other end she was soon able to work her way up the rough but
+almost perpendicular rocks. This prompt action, often repeated on
+the part of Jack, looked very much like "the specious appearance of
+reasoning." It was a remarkable coincidence that if Jack were called
+away, Cuffy at once swam to the sandy beach and there came ashore.
+
+Jack never had any special love for the Indians, although we were then
+living among them. He was, however, too well instructed ever to injure
+or even growl at any of them. The changing of Indian servant girls in
+the kitchen was always a matter of perplexity to him. He was suspicious
+of these strange Indians coming in and so familiarly handling the
+various utensils of their work. Not daring to injure them, it was
+amusing to watch him in his various schemes to tease them. If one of
+them seemed especially anxious to keep the doors shut, Jack took the
+greatest delight in frequently opening them. This he took care only
+to do when no member of the family was around. These tricks he would
+continue to do until formal complaints were lodged against him. One
+good scolding was sufficient to deter him from thus teasing that girl,
+but he would soon begin to try it with others.
+
+One summer we had a fat, good-natured servant girl whom we called
+Mary. Soon after she was installed in her place Jack began, as usual,
+to try to annoy her, but found it to be a more difficult job than it
+had been with some of her predecessors. She treated him with complete
+indifference, and was not in the least afraid of him, big as he was.
+This seemed to very much humiliate him, as most of the other girls had
+so stood in awe of the gigantic fellow that they had about given way to
+him in everything. Mary, however, did nothing of the kind. She would
+shout, "Get out of my way!" as quickly to "his mightiness" as she would
+to the smallest dog on the place. This very much offended Jack, but he
+had been so well trained, even regarding the servants, that he dare not
+retaliate even with a growl. Mary, however, had one weakness, and after
+a time Jack found it out. Her mistress observing that this girl, who
+had been transferred from a floorless wigwam into a civilized kitchen,
+was at first careless about keeping the floor as clean as it should be,
+had, by the promise of some desired gift in addition to her wages, so
+fired her zeal that it seemed as though every hour that could be saved
+from her other necessary duties was spent in scrubbing that kitchen
+floor. Mary was never difficult to find, as was often the case with
+other Indian girls; if missed from other duties, she was always found
+scrubbing her kitchen.
+
+In some way or other--how we do not profess to know--Jack discovered
+this, which had become to us a source of amusement, and here he
+succeeded in annoying her, where in many other ways which he had tried
+he had only been humiliated and disgraced. He would, when the floor
+had just been scrubbed, march in and walk over it with his feet made
+as dirty as tramping in the worst places outside could make them. At
+other times he would plunge into the lake, and instead of, as usual,
+thoroughly shaking himself dry on the rocks, would wait until he had
+marched in upon Mary's spotless floor. At other times, when Jack
+noticed that Mary was about to begin scrubbing her floor he would
+deliberately stretch himself out in a prominent place on it, and
+doggedly resist, yet without any growling or biting, any attempt on her
+part to get him to move. In vain would she coax or scold or threaten.
+Once or twice, by some clever stratagem, such as pretending to feed
+the other dogs outside or getting them excited and furiously barking,
+as though a bear or some other animal were being attacked, did she
+succeed in getting him out. But soon he found her out, and then he paid
+not the slightest attention to any of these things. Once when she had
+him outside she securely fastened the door to keep him out until her
+scrubbing would be done. Furiously did Jack rattle at the latch, but
+the door was otherwise so secured that he could not open it. Getting
+discouraged in his efforts to open the door in the usual way, he went
+to the woodpile and seizing a large billet in his mouth he came and so
+pounded the door with it that Mary, seeing that there was great danger
+of the panel being broken in, was obliged to open the door and let in
+the dog. Jack proudly marched in to the kitchen with the stick of wood
+in his mouth. This he carried to the wood box, and, when he had placed
+it there, he coolly stretched himself out on the floor where he would
+be the biggest nuisance.
+
+Seeing Jack under such circumstances on her kitchen floor, poor Mary
+could stand it no longer, and so she came marching in to my study, and
+in vigorous picturesque language in her native Cree described Jack's
+various tricks and schemes to annoy her and thus hinder her in her
+work. She ended up by the declaration that she was sure the _meechee
+munedoo_ (the devil) was in that dog. While not fully accepting the
+last statement, we felt that the time had come to interfere, and
+that Jack must be reproved and stopped. In doing this we utilized
+Jack's love for our little ones, especially for Eddie, the little
+four-year-old boy. His obedience as well as loyalty to that child was
+marvelous and beautiful. The slightest wish of the lad was law to Jack.
+
+As soon as Mary had finished her emphatic complaints, I turned to
+Eddie, who with his little sister had been busily playing with some
+blocks on the floor, and said:
+
+"Eddie, go and tell that naughty Jack that he must stop teasing Mary.
+Tell him his place is not in the kitchen, and that he must keep out of
+it."
+
+Eddie had listened to Mary's story, and, although he generally sturdily
+defended Jack's various actions, yet here he saw that the dog was in
+the wrong, and so he gallantly came to her rescue. Away with Mary he
+went, while the rest of us, now much interested, followed in the rear
+to see how the thing would turn out. As Eddie and Mary passed through
+the dining room we remained in that room, while they went on into the
+adjoining kitchen, leaving the door open, so that it was possible for
+us to distinctly hear every word that was uttered. Eddie at once strode
+up to the spot where Jack was stretched upon the floor. Seizing him by
+one of his ears, and addressing him as with the authority of a despot,
+the little lad said:
+
+"I am ashamed of you, Jack. You naughty dog, teasing Mary like this!
+So you won't let her wash her kitchen. Get up and come with me, you
+naughty dog!" saying which the child tugged away at the ear of the dog.
+Jack promptly obeyed, and as they came marching through the dining room
+on their way to the study it was indeed wonderful to see that little
+child, whose beautiful curly head was not much higher than that of the
+great, powerful dog, yet so completely the master. Jack was led into
+the study and over to the great wolf-robe mat where he generally slept.
+As he promptly obeyed the child's command to lie down upon it, he
+received from him his final orders:
+
+"Now, Jack, you keep out of the kitchen"; and to a remarkable degree
+from that time on that order was obeyed.
+
+We have referred to the fact that Jack placed the billet of wood in the
+wood box when it had served his purpose in compelling Mary to open the
+door. Carrying in wood was one of his accomplishments. Living in that
+cold land, where we depended entirely on wood for our fuel, we required
+a large quantity of it. It was cut in the forests, sometimes several
+miles from the house. During the winters it was dragged home by the
+dogs. Here it was cut into the proper lengths for the stoves and piled
+up in the yard. When required, it was carried into the kitchen and
+piled up in a large wood box. This work was generally done by Indian
+men. When none were at hand the Indian girls had to do the work, but
+it was far from being enjoyed by them, especially in the bitter cold
+weather. It was suggested one day that Jack could be utilized for this
+work. With but little instruction and trouble he was induced to accept
+of the situation, and so after that the cry, "Jack, the wood box is
+empty!" would set him industriously to work at refilling it.
+
+To us, among many other instances of dog reasoning that came under
+our notice as the years rolled on, was one on the part of a large,
+powerful dog we called Cæsar. It occurred in the spring of the year,
+when the snow had melted on the land, and so, with the first rains, was
+swelling the rivers and creeks very considerably. On the lake before us
+the ice was still a great solid mass, several feet in thickness. Near
+our home was a now rapid stream that, rushing down into the lake, had
+cut a delta of open water in the ice at its mouth. In this open place
+Papanekis, one of my Indians, had placed a gill net for the purpose of
+catching fish. Living, as he did, all winter principally upon the fish
+caught the previous October or November and kept frozen for several
+months hung up in the open air, we were naturally pleased to get the
+fresh ones out of the water in the spring. Papanekis had so arranged
+his net, by fastening a couple of ropes about sixty feet long, one at
+each end, that when it was securely fastened at each side of the stream
+it was carried out into this open deltalike space by the force of the
+current, and there hung like the capital letter U. Its upper side was
+kept in position by light-wooded floats, while medium-sized stones, as
+sinkers, steadied it below.
+
+Every morning Papanekis would take a basket and, being followed by
+all the dogs of the kennels, would visit his net. Placed as we have
+described, he required no canoe or boat in order to overhaul it and
+take from it the fish there caught. All he had to do was to seize hold
+of the rope at the end fastened on the shore and draw it toward him. As
+he kept pulling it in, the deep bend in it gradually straightened out
+until the net was reached. His work was now to secure the fish as he
+gradually drew in the net and coiled it at his feet. The width of the
+opening in the water being about sixty feet, the result was that when
+he had in this way overhauled his net he had about reached the end of
+the rope attached to the other side. When all the fish in the net were
+secured, all Papanekis had to do to reset the net was to throw some
+of it out in the right position in the stream. Here the force of the
+running waters acting upon it soon carried the whole net down into the
+open place as far as the two ropes fastened on the shores would admit.
+Papanekis, after placing the best fish in his basket for consumption
+in the mission house and for his own family, divided what was left
+among the eager dogs that had accompanied him. This work went on for
+several days, and the supply of fish continued to increase, much to our
+satisfaction.
+
+One day Papanekis came into my study in a state of great perturbation.
+He was generally such a quiet, stoical sort of an Indian that I was at
+once attracted by his mental disquietude. On asking the reason why he
+was so troubled, he at once blurted out, "Master, there is some strange
+animal visiting our net!"
+
+In answer to my request for particulars, he replied that for some
+mornings past when he went to visit it he found, entangled in the
+meshes, several heads of whitefish. Yet the net was always in its right
+position in the water. On my suggesting that perhaps otters, fishers,
+minks, or other fish-eating animals might have done the work, he most
+emphatically declared that he knew the habits of all these and all
+other animals living on fish, and it was utterly impossible for any of
+them to have thus done this work. The mystery continuing for several
+following mornings, Papanekis became frightened and asked me to get
+some other fisherman in his place, as he was afraid longer to visit the
+net. He had talked the matter over with some other Indians, and they
+had come to the conclusion that either a _windegoo_ was at the bottom
+of it or the _meechee munedoo_ (the devil). I laughed at his fears,
+and told him I would help him to try and find out who or what it was
+that was giving us this trouble. I went with him to the place, where we
+carefully examined both sides of the stream for evidences of the clever
+thief. There was nothing suspicious, and the only tracks visible were
+those of his own and of the many dogs that followed him to be fed each
+morning. About two or three hundred yards north of the spot where he
+overhauled the net there rose a small abrupt hill, densely covered with
+spruce and balsam trees. On visiting it we found that a person there
+securely hid from observation could with care easily overlook the whole
+locality.
+
+At my suggestion, Papanekis with his axe there arranged a sort of a
+nest or lookout spot. Orders were then given that he and another Indian
+man should, before daybreak on the next morning, make a long detour
+and cautiously reach that spot from the rear, and there carefully
+conceal themselves. This they succeeded in doing, and there, in perfect
+stillness, they waited for the morning. As soon as it was possible to
+see anything they were on the alert. For some time they watched in
+vain. They eagerly scanned every point of vision, and for a time could
+observe nothing unusual.
+
+"Hush!" said one; "see that dog!"
+
+It was Cæsar, cautiously skulking along the trail. He would frequently
+stop and sniff the air. Fortunately for the Indian watchers, the wind
+was blowing toward them, and so the dog did not catch their scent. On
+he came, in a quiet yet swift gait, until he reached the spot where
+Papanekis stood when he pulled in the net. He gave one searching glance
+in every direction, and then he set to work. Seizing the rope in his
+teeth, Cæsar strongly pulled upon it, while he rapidly backed up some
+distance on the trail. Then, walking on the rope to the water's edge as
+it lay on the ground, to keep the pressure of the current from dragging
+it in, he again took a fresh grip upon it and repeated the process.
+This he did until the sixty feet of rope were hauled in, and the end
+of the net was reached to which it was attached. The net he now hauled
+in little by little, keeping his feet firmly on it to securely hold
+it down. As he drew it up, several varieties of inferior fish, such
+as suckers or mullets, pike or jackfish, were at first observed. To
+them Cæsar paid no attention. He was after the delicious whitefish,
+which dogs as well as human beings prefer to those of other kinds.
+When he had perhaps hauled twenty feet of the net, his cleverness was
+rewarded by the sight of a fine whitefish. Still holding the net with
+its struggling captives securely down with his feet, he began to devour
+this whitefish, which was so much more dainty than the coarser fish
+generally thrown to him. Papanekis and his comrade had seen enough. The
+mysterious culprit was detected in the act, and so with a "Whoop!" they
+rushed down upon him. Caught in the very act, Cæsar had to submit to a
+thrashing that ever after deterred him from again trying that cunning
+trick.
+
+Who can read this story, which I give exactly as it occurred, without
+having to admit that here Cæsar "combined means for the attainment of
+particular ends"? On the previous visits which he made to the net the
+rapid current of the stream, working against the greater part of it
+in the water, soon carried it back again into its place ere Papanekis
+arrived later in the morning. The result was that Cæsar's cleverness
+was undetected for some time, even by these most observant Indians.
+
+Many other equally clever instances convince me, and those who with
+me witnessed them, of the possession, in of course a limited degree,
+of reasoning powers. Scores of my dogs never seemed to reveal them,
+perhaps because no special opportunities were presented for their
+exhibition. They were just ordinary dogs, trained to the work of
+hauling their loads. When night came, if their feet were sore they
+had dog sense enough to come to their master and, throwing themselves
+on their backs, would stick up their feet and whine and howl until
+the warm duffle shoes were put on. Some of the skulking ones had wit
+enough, when they did not want to be caught, in the gloom of the early
+morning, while the stars were still shining, if they were white, to
+cuddle down, still and quiet, in the beautiful snow; while the darker
+ones would slink away into the gloom of the dense balsams, where they
+seemed to know that it would be difficult for them to be seen. Some of
+them had wit enough when traveling up steep places with heavy loads,
+where their progress was slow, to seize hold of small firm bushes in
+their teeth to help them up or to keep them from slipping back. Some
+of them knew how to shirk their work. Cæsar, of whom we have already
+spoken, at times was one of this class. They could pretend, by their
+panting and tugging at their collars, that they were dragging more
+than any other dogs in the train, while at the same time they were not
+pulling a pound!
+
+Of cats I do not write. I am no lover of them, and therefore am
+incompetent to write about them. This lack of love for them is, I
+presume, from the fact that when a boy I was the proud owner of some
+very beautiful rabbits, upon which the cats of the neighborhood used to
+make disastrous raids. So great was my boyish indignation then that the
+dislike to them created has in a measure continued to this day, and I
+have not as yet begun to cultivate their intimate acquaintance.
+
+But of dogs I have ever been a lover and a friend. I never saw one, not
+mad, of which I was afraid, and I never saw one with which I could not
+speedily make friends. Love was the constraining motive principally
+used in breaking my dogs in to their work in the trains. No whip was
+ever used upon Jack or Cuffy while they were learning their tasks.
+Some dogs had to be punished more or less. Some stubborn dogs at once
+surrendered and gave no more trouble when a favorite female dog was
+harnessed up in a train and sent on ahead. This affection in the dog
+for his mate was a powerful lever in the hands of his master, and,
+using it as an incentive, we have seen things performed as remarkable
+as any we have here recorded.
+
+From what I have written it will be seen that I have had unusual
+facilities for studying the habits and possibilities of dogs. I was
+not under the necessity of gathering up a lot of mongrels at random
+in the streets, and then, in order to see instances of their sagacity
+and the exercise of their highest reasoning powers, to keep them until
+they were "practically utterly hungry," and then imprison them in a
+box a good deal less than four feet square, and then say to them, "Now,
+you poor, frightened, half-starved creatures, show us what reasoning
+powers you possess." About as well throw some benighted Africans into
+a slave ship and order them to make a telephone or a phonograph! My
+comparison is not too strong, considering the immense distance there is
+between the human race and the brute creation. And so it must be, in
+the bringing to light of the powers of memory and the clear exhibition
+of the reasoning powers, few though they be, that the tests are not
+conclusive unless made under the most favorable environment, upon dogs
+of the highest intelligence, and in the most congenial and sympathetic
+manner.
+
+Testing this most interesting question in this manner, my decided
+convictions are that animals do reason.
+
+
+
+
+SKETCH OF GEORGE M. STERNBERG.
+
+
+No man among Americans has studied the micro-organisms with more profit
+or has contributed more to our knowledge of the nature of infection,
+particularly of that of yellow fever, than Dr. GEORGE M. STERNBERG, of
+the United States Army. His merits are freely recognized abroad, and
+he ranks there, as well as at home, among the leading bacteriologists
+of the age. He was born at Hartwick Seminary, an institution of the
+Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (General Synod), Otsego, N. Y.,
+June 8, 1838. His father, the Rev. Levi Sternberg, D. D., a graduate of
+Union College, a Lutheran minister, and for many years principal of the
+seminary and a director of it, was descended from German ancestors who
+came to this country in 1703 and settled in Schoharie County, New York.
+The younger Sternberg received his academical training at the seminary,
+after which, intending to study medicine, he undertook a school at New
+Germantown, N. J., as a means of earning a part of the money required
+to defray the cost of his instruction in that science. The record of
+his school was one of quiet sessions, thoroughness, and popularity of
+the teacher, and his departure was an occasion of regret among his
+patrons.
+
+When nineteen years old, young Sternberg began his medical studies
+with Dr. Horace Lathrop, in Cooperstown, N. Y. Afterward he attended
+the courses of the College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York,
+and was graduated thence in the class of 1860. Before he had fairly
+settled in practice the civil war began, and the attention of all
+young Americans was directed toward the military service. Among these
+was young Dr. Sternberg, who, having passed the examination, was
+appointed assistant surgeon May 28, 1861, and was attached to the
+command of General Sykes, Army of the Potomac. He was engaged in the
+battle of Bull Run, where, voluntarily remaining on the field with
+the wounded, he was taken prisoner, but was paroled to continue his
+humane work. On the expiration of his parole he made his way through
+the lines and reported at Washington for duty July 30, 1861--"weary,
+footsore, and worn." Of his conduct in later campaigns of the Army of
+the Potomac, General Sykes, in his official reports of the battles of
+Gaines Mill, Turkey Ridge, and Malvern Hill, said that "Dr. Sternberg
+added largely to the reputation already acquired on the disastrous
+field of Bull Run." He remained with General Sykes's command till
+August, 1862; was then assigned to hospital duty at Portsmouth Grove,
+R. I., till November, 1862; was afterward attached to General Banks's
+expedition as assistant to the medical director in the Department
+of the Gulf till January, 1864; was in the office of the medical
+director, Columbus, Ohio, and in charge of the United States General
+Hospital at Cleveland, Ohio, till July, 1865. Since the civil war he
+has been assigned successively to Jefferson Barracks, Mo.; Fort Harker
+and Fort Riley, Kansas; in the field in the Indian campaign, 1868
+to 1870; Forts Columbus and Hamilton, New York Harbor; Fort Warren,
+Boston Harbor; Department of the Gulf and New Orleans; Fort Barrancas,
+Fla.; Department of the Columbia; Department Headquarters; Fort Walla
+Walla, Washington Territory; California; and Eastern stations. He was
+promoted to be captain and assistant surgeon in 1866, major and surgeon
+in 1875, lieutenant colonel and deputy surgeon general in 1891, and
+brigadier general and surgeon general in 1893. He has also received the
+brevets of captain and major in the United States Army "for faithful
+and meritorious services during the war," and of lieutenant colonel
+"for gallant service in performance of his professional duty under fire
+in action against Indians at Clearwater, Idaho, July 12, 1877." In
+the discharge of his duties at his various posts Dr. Sternberg had to
+deal with a cholera epidemic in Kansas in 1867, with a "yellow-fever
+epidemic" in New York Harbor in 1871, and with epidemics of yellow
+fever at Fort Barrancas, Fla., in 1873 and 1875. He served under
+special detail as member and secretary of the Havana Yellow-Fever
+Commission of the National Board of Health, 1879 to 1881; as a delegate
+from the United States under special instructions of the Secretary of
+State to the International Sanitary Conference at Rome in 1885; as a
+commissioner, under the act of Congress of March 3, 1887, to make
+investigations in Brazil, Mexico, and Cuba relating to the etiology and
+prevention of yellow fever; by special request of the health officer of
+the port of New York and the advisory committee of the New York Chamber
+of Commerce as consulting bacteriologist to the health officer of the
+port of New York in 1892; and he was a delegate to the International
+Medical Congress in Moscow in 1897.
+
+Dr. Sternberg has contributed largely to the literature of scientific
+medicine from the results of his observations and experiments which he
+has made in these various spheres of duty.
+
+His most fruitful researches have been made in the field of
+bacteriology and infectious diseases. He has enjoyed the rare advantage
+in pursuing these studies of having the material for his experiments
+close at hand in the course of his regular work, and of watching, we
+might say habitually, the progress of such diseases as yellow fever
+as it normally went on in the course of Nature. Of the quality of his
+bacteriological work, the writer of a biography in Red Cross Notes,
+reprinted in the North American Medical Review, goes so far as to say
+that "when the overzeal of enthusiasts shall have passed away, and the
+story of bacteriology in the nineteenth century is written up, it will
+probably be found that the chief who brought light out of darkness
+was George M. Sternberg. He was noted not so much for his brilliant
+discoveries, but rather for his exact methods of investigation, for
+his clear statements of the results of experimental data, for his
+enormous labors toward the perfection and simplification of technique,
+and finally for his services in the practical application of the
+truths taught by the science. His early labors in bacteriology were
+made with apparatus and under conditions that were crude enough." His
+work in this department is certainly among the most important that
+has been done. Its value has been freely acknowledged everywhere, it
+has given him a world-wide fame, and it has added to the credit of
+American science. The reviewer in Nature (June 22, 1893) of his Manual
+of Bacteriology, which was published in 1892, while a little disposed
+to criticise the fullness and large size of the book, describes it as
+"the latest, the largest, and, let us add, the most complete manual
+of bacteriology which has yet appeared in the English language. The
+volume combines in itself not only an account of such facts as are
+already established in the science from a morphological, chemical,
+and pathological point of view, discussions on such abstruse subjects
+as susceptibility and immunity, and also full details of the means by
+which these results have been obtained, and practical directions for
+the carrying on of laboratory work." This was not the first of Dr.
+Sternberg's works in bacteriological research. It was preceded by a
+work on Bacteria, of 498 pages, including 152 pages translated from
+the work of Dr. Antoine Magnin (1884); Malaria and Malarial Diseases,
+and Photomicrographs and How to make Them. The manual is at once a
+book for reference, a text-book for students, and a handbook for the
+laboratory. Its four parts include brief notices of the history of
+the subject, classification, morphology, and an account of methods
+and practical laboratory work--"all clear and concise"; the biology
+and chemistry of bacteria, disinfection, and antiseptics; a detailed
+account of pathogenic bacteria, their modes of action, the way they
+may gain access to the system, susceptibility and immunity, to which
+Dr. Sternberg's own contributions have been not the least important;
+and saprophytic bacteria in water, in the soil, in or on the human
+body, and in food, the whole number of saprophytes described being
+three hundred and thirty-one. "The merit of a work of this kind,"
+Nature says, "depends not less on the number of species described than
+on the clearness and accuracy of the descriptions, and Dr. Sternberg
+has spared no pains to make these as complete as possible." The
+bibliography in this work fills more than a hundred pages, and contains
+2,582 references. A later book on a kindred subject is Immunity,
+Protective Inoculations, and Serum Therapy (1895). Dr. Sternberg has
+also published a Text-Book of Bacteriology.
+
+Bearing upon yellow fever are the Report upon the Prevention of Yellow
+Fever by Inoculation, submitted in March, 1888; Report upon the
+Prevention of Yellow Fever, illustrated by photomicrographs and cuts,
+1890; and Examination of the Blood in Yellow Fever (experiments upon
+animals, etc.), in the Preliminary Report of the Havana Yellow-Fever
+Commission, 1879. Other publications in the list of one hundred and
+thirty-one titles of Dr. Sternberg's works, and mostly consisting
+of shorter articles, relate to Disinfectants and their Value, the
+Etiology of Malarial Fevers, Septicæmia, the Germicide Value of
+Therapeutic Agents, the Etiology of Croupous Pneumonia, the Bacillus
+of Typhoid Fever, the Thermal Death Point of Pathogenic Organisms,
+the Practical Results of Bacteriological Researches, the Cholera
+Spirillum, Disinfection at Quarantine Stations, the Infectious Agent
+of Smallpox, official reports as Surgeon General of the United States
+Army, addresses and reports at the meetings of the American Public
+Health Association, and an address to the members of the Pan-American
+Congress. One paper is recorded quite outside of the domain of microbes
+and fevers, to show what the author might have done if he had allowed
+his attention to be diverted from his special absorbing field of work.
+It is upon the Indian Burial Mounds and Shell Heaps near Pensacola, Fla.
+
+The medical and scientific societies of which Dr. Sternberg is a
+member include the American Public Health Association, of which he is
+also an ex-president (1886); the American Association of Physicians;
+the American Physiological Society; the American Microscopical
+Society, of which he is a vice-president; the American Association
+for the Advancement of Science, of which he is a Fellow; the New
+York Academy of Medicine (a Fellow); and the Association of Military
+Surgeons of the United States (president in 1896). He is a Fellow
+of the Royal Microscopical Society of London; an honorary member
+of the Epidemiological Society of London, of the Royal Academy of
+Medicine of Rome, of the Academy of Medicine of Rio de Janeiro, of
+the American Academy of Medicine, of the French Society of Hygiene,
+etc.; was President of the Section on Military Medicine and Surgery of
+the Pan-American Congress; was a Fellow by courtesy in Johns Hopkins
+University, 1885 to 1890; was President of the Biological Society
+of Washington in 1896, and of the American Medical Association in
+1897; and has been designated Honorary President of the Thirteenth
+International Medical Congress, which is to meet in Paris in 1900. He
+received the degree of LL. D. from the University of Michigan in 1894,
+and from Brown University in 1897.
+
+Dr. Sternberg's view of the right professional standard of the
+physician is well expressed in the sentiment, "To maintain our
+standing in the estimation of the educated classes we must not rely
+upon our diplomas or upon our membership in medical societies. Work
+and worth are what count." He does not appear to be attached to any
+particular school, but, as his Red Cross Notes biographer says, "has
+placed himself in the crowd 'who have been moving forward upon the
+substantial basis of scientific research, and who, if characterized by
+any distinctive name, should be called _the New School of Scientific
+Medicine_.' He holds that if our practice was in accordance with our
+knowledge many diseases would disappear; he sees no room for creeds
+or patents in medicine. He is willing to acknowledge the right to
+prescribe either a bread pill or a leaden bullet. But if a patient
+dies from diphtheria because of a failure to administer a proper
+remedy, or if infection follows from dirty fingers or instruments,
+if a practitioner carelessly or ignorantly transfers infection, he
+believes he is not fit to practice medicine.... He rejects every theory
+or dictum that has not been clearly demonstrated to him as an absolute
+truth."
+
+While he is described as without assumption, Dr. Sternberg is
+represented as being evidently in his headquarters as surgeon general
+in every sense the head of the service, the chief whose will governs
+all. Modest and unassuming, he is described as being most exacting, a
+man of command, of thorough execution, a general whose eyes comprehend
+every detail, and who has studied the personality of every member
+of his corps. He is always busy, but seemingly never in a hurry;
+systematic, accepting no man's dictum, and taking nothing as an
+established fact till he has personal experimental evidence of its
+truth. He looks into every detail, and takes equal care of the health
+of the general in chief and of the private.
+
+His addresses are carefully prepared, based on facts he has
+himself determined, made in language so plain that they will not
+be misunderstood, free from sentiment, and delivered in an easy
+conversational style, and his writings are "pen pictures of his results
+in the laboratory and clinic room."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The thirty-first year of the Peabody Museum of American Archæology
+and Ethnology was signalized by the transfer of its property to
+the corporation of Harvard College, whereby simplicity and greater
+permanence have been given to its management. The four courses of
+instruction in the museum were attended by sixteen students, and
+these, with others, make twenty-one persons, besides the curator, who
+are engaged in study or special research in subjects included under
+the term anthropology. Special attention is given by explorers in
+the service of the museum to the investigation of the antiquities of
+Yucatan and Central America, of which its publications on Copan, the
+caves of Loltun, and Labná, have been noticed in the Monthly. These
+explorations have been continued when and where circumstances made it
+feasible. Among the gifts acknowledged in the report of the museum are
+two hundred facsimile copies of the Aztec Codex Vaticanus, from the
+Duke of Loubat, an original Mexican manuscript of 1531, on agave paper,
+from the Mary Hemenway estate; the extensive private archæological
+collection of Mr. George W. Hammond; articles from Georgia mounds,
+from Clarence B. Moore, and other gifts of perhaps less magnitude but
+equal interest. Mr. Andrew Gibb, of Edinburgh, has given five pieces
+of rudely made pottery from the Hebrides, which were made several
+years ago by a woman who is thought to have been the last one to make
+pottery according to the ancient method of shaping the clay with the
+hands, and without the use of any form of potter's wheel. Miss Maria
+Whitney, sister of the late Prof. J. D. Whitney, has presented the
+"Calaveras skull" and the articles found with it, and all the original
+documents relating to its discovery and history. Miss Phebe Ferris,
+of Madisonville, Ohio, has bequeathed to the museum about twenty-five
+acres of land, on which is situated the ancient mound where Dr. Metz
+and Curator Putnam have investigated for several years, and whence a
+considerable collection has been obtained. Miss Ferris expressed the
+desire that the museum continue the explorations, and after completing
+convert the tract into a public park. Mr. W. B. Nicker has explored
+some virgin mounds near Galena, Ill., and a rock shelter and stone
+grave near Portage, Ill. The library of the museum now contains 1,838
+volumes and 2,479 pamphlets on anthropology.
+
+
+
+
+Correspondence.
+
+
+DO ANIMALS REASON?
+
+_Editor Popular Science Monthly:_
+
+DEAR SIR: In connection with the discussion of the interesting subject
+Do Animals Reason? permit me to relate the following incident in
+support of the affirmative side of the question:
+
+Some years ago, before the establishment of the National Zoölogical
+Park in this city, Dr. Frank Baker, the curator, kept a small nucleus
+of animals in the rear of the National Museum; among this collection
+were several monkeys. On a hot summer day, as I was passing the monkey
+cage I handed to one of the monkeys a large piece of fresh molasses
+taffy. The animal at once carried it to his mouth and commenced to bite
+it. The candy was somewhat soft, and stuck to the monkey's paws. He
+looked at his paws, licked them with his tongue, and then turned his
+head from side to side looking about the cage. Then, taking the candy
+in his mouth, he sprang to the farther end of the cage and picked up
+a wad of brown paper. This ball of paper he carefully unfolded, and,
+laying it down on the floor of the cage, carefully smoothed out the
+folds of the paper with both paws. After he had smoothed it out to his
+satisfaction, he took the piece of taffy from his mouth and laid it in
+the center of the piece of paper and folded the paper over the candy,
+leaving a part of it exposed. He then sat back on his haunches and ate
+the candy, first wiping one paw and then the other on his hip, just as
+any boy or man might do.
+
+If that monkey did not show reason, what would you call it?
+
+Yours etc., H. O. HALL, _Library Surgeon General's Office, United
+States Army._ WASHINGTON, D. C., _October 2, 1899_.
+
+
+
+
+Editor's Table.
+
+_HOME BURDENS._
+
+
+The doctrine has gone abroad, suggested by the most popular poet of
+the day, that "white men" have the duty laid upon them of scouring the
+dark places of the earth for burdens to take up. Through a large part
+of this nation the idea has run like wildfire, infecting not a few
+who themselves are in no small degree burdens to the community that
+shelters them. The rowdier element of the population everywhere is
+strongly in favor of the new doctrine, which to their minds is chiefly
+illustrated by the shooting of Filipinos. We do not say that thousands
+of very respectable citizens are not in favor of it also; we only note
+that they are strongly supported by a class whose adhesion adds no
+strength to their cause.
+
+It is almost needless to remark that a very few years ago we were
+not in the way of thinking that the civilized nations of the earth,
+which had sliced up Asia and Africa in the interest of their trade,
+had done so in the performance of a solemn duty. The formula "the
+white man's burden" had not been invented then, and some of us used to
+think that there was more of the filibustering spirit than of a high
+humanitarianism in these raids upon barbarous races. Possibly we did
+less than justice to some of the countries concerned, notably Great
+Britain, which, having a teeming population in very narrow confines,
+and being of old accustomed to adventures by sea, had naturally been
+led to extend her influence and create outlets for her trade in distant
+parts of the earth. Be this as it may, we seemed to have our own work
+cut out for us at home. We had the breadth of a continent under our
+feet, rich in the products of every latitude; we had unlimited room for
+expansion and development; we had unlimited confidence in the destinies
+that awaited us as a nation, if only we applied ourselves earnestly
+to the improvement of the heritage which, in the order of Providence,
+had become ours. We thanked Heaven that we were not as other nations,
+which, insufficiently provided with home blessings, were tempted to put
+forth their hands and--steal, or something like it, in heathen lands.
+
+Well, we have changed all that: we give our sympathy to the nations
+of the Old World in their forays on the heathen, and are vigorously
+tackling "the white man's burden" according to the revised version.
+It is unfortunate and quite unpleasant that this should involve
+shooting down people who are only asking what our ancestors asked and
+obtained--the right of self-government in the land they occupy. Still,
+we must do it if we want to keep up with the procession we have joined.
+Smoking tobacco is not pleasant to the youth of fifteen or sixteen who
+has determined to line up with his elders in that manly accomplishment.
+He has many a sick stomach, many a flutter of the heart, before he
+breaks himself into it; but, of course, he perseveres--has he not taken
+up the white boy's burden? So we. Who, outside of that rowdy element to
+which we have referred, has not been, whether he has confessed it or
+not, sick at heart at the thought of the innocent blood we have shed
+and of the blood of our kindred that we have shed in order to shed that
+blood? Still, spite of all misgivings and qualms, we hold our course,
+Kipling leading on, and the colonel of the Rough Riders assuring us
+that it is all right.
+
+Revised versions are not always the best versions; and for our own
+part we prefer to think that the true "white man's burden" is that
+which lies at his own door, and not that which he has to compass land
+and sea to come in sight of. We have in this land the burden of a not
+inconsiderable tramp and hoodlum population. This is a burden of which
+we can never very long lose sight; it is more or less before us every
+day. It is a burden in a material sense, and it is a burden in what
+we may call a spiritual sense. It impairs the satisfaction we derive
+from our own citizenship, and it lies like a weight on the social
+conscience. It is the opprobrium alike of our educational system and
+of our administration of the law. How far would the national treasure
+and individual energy which we have expended in failing to subdue
+the Filipino "rebels" have gone--if wisely applied--in subduing the
+rebel elements in our own population, and rescuing from degradation
+those whom our public schools have failed to civilize? Shall the reply
+be that we can not interfere with individual liberty? It would be
+a strange reply to come from people who send soldiers ten thousand
+miles away for the express purpose of interfering with liberty as the
+American nation has always hitherto understood that term; but, in
+point of fact, there is no question of interfering with any liberty
+that ought to be respected. It is a question of the protection of
+public morals, of public decency, and of the rights of property. It is
+a question of the rescue of human beings--our fellow-citizens--from
+ignorance, vice, and wretchedness. It is a question of making us as
+a nation right with ourselves, and making citizenship under our flag
+something to be prized by every one entitled to claim it.
+
+It is not in the cities only that undesirable elements cluster. The
+editor of a lively little periodical, in which many true things are
+said with great force--The Philistine--has lately declared that his own
+village, despite the refining influences radiated from the "Roycroft
+Shop," could furnish a band of hoodlum youths that could give points in
+every form of vile behavior to any equal number gathered from a great
+city. He hints that New England villages may be a trifle better, but
+that the farther Western States are decidedly worse. It is precisely
+in New England, however, that a bitter cry on this very subject of
+hoodlumism has lately been raised. What are we to do about it?
+
+Manifestly the hoodlum or incipient tramp is one of two things: either
+he is a person whom a suitable education might have turned into some
+decent and honest way of earning a living, or he is a person upon whom,
+owing to congenital defect, all educational effort would have been
+thrown away. In either case social duty seems plain. If education would
+have done the work, society--seeing that it has taken the business of
+public education in hand--should have supplied the education required
+for the purpose, even though the amount of money available for waging
+war in the Philippines had been slightly reduced. If the case is one
+in which no educational effort is of avail, then, as the old Roman
+formula ran, "Let the magistrates see that the republic takes no harm."
+Before, therefore, our minds can be easy on this hoodlum question,
+we must satisfy ourselves thoroughly that our modes of education are
+not, positively or negatively, adapted to making the hoodlum variety
+of character. The hoodlum, it is safe to say, is an individual in whom
+no intellectual interest has ever been awakened, in whom no special
+capacity has ever been created. His moral nature has never been taught
+to respond to any high or even respectable principle of conduct. If
+there is any glory in earth or heaven, any beauty or harmony in the
+operations of natural law, any poetry or pathos or dignity in human
+life, anything to stir the soul in the records of human achievement,
+to all such things he is wholly insensible. Ought this to be so in
+the case of any human being, not absolutely abnormal, whom the state
+has undertaken to educate? If, as a community, we put our hands to
+the educational plow, and so far not only relieve parents of a large
+portion of their sense of responsibility, but actually suppress the
+voluntary agencies that would otherwise undertake educational work,
+surely we should see to it that our education educates. Direct moral
+instruction in the schools is not likely to be of any great avail
+unless, by other and indirect means, the mind is prepared to receive
+it. What is needed is to awaken a sense of capacity and power, to give
+to each individual some trained faculty and some direct and, as far as
+it goes, scientific cognizance of things. Does any one suppose that
+a youth who had gone through a judicious course of manual training,
+or one who had become interested in any such subject as botany,
+chemistry, or agriculture, or who even had an intelligent insight
+into the elementary laws of mechanics, could develop into a hoodlum?
+On the other hand, there is no difficulty in imagining that such a
+development might take place in a youth who had simply been plied
+with spelling-book, grammar, and arithmetic. Even what seem the most
+interesting reading lessons fall dead upon minds that have no hold upon
+the reality of things, and no sense of the distinctions which the most
+elementary study of Nature forces on the attention.
+
+But, as we have admitted, there may be cases where the nature of the
+individual is such as to repel all effort for its improvement. Here
+the law must step in, and secure the community against the dangers to
+which the existence of such individuals exposes it. There is a certain
+element in the population which wishes to live, and is determined
+to live, on a level altogether below anything that can be called
+civilization. Those who compose it are nomadic and predatory in their
+habits, and occasionally give way to acts of fearful criminality. It is
+foolish not to recognize the fact, and take the measures that may be
+necessary for the isolation of this element. To devise and execute such
+measures is a burden a thousand times better worth taking up than the
+burden of imposing our yoke upon the Philippine Islands and crushing
+out a movement toward liberty quite as respectable, to all outward
+appearance, as that to which we have reared monuments at Bunker Hill
+and elsewhere. The fact is, the work before us at home is immense;
+and it is work which we might attack, not only without qualms of
+conscience, but with the conviction that every unit of labor devoted to
+it was being directed toward the highest interests not of the present
+generation only, but of generations yet unborn. The "white man," we
+trust, will some day see it; but meanwhile valuable time is being
+lost, and the national conscience is being lowered by the assumption
+of burdens that are _not_ ours, whatever Mr. Kipling may have said
+or sung, or whatever Governor Roosevelt may assert on his word as a
+soldier.
+
+
+_SPECIALIZATION._
+
+That division of labor is as necessary in the pursuit of science as
+in the world of industry no one would think of disputing; but that,
+like division of labor elsewhere, it has its drawbacks and dangers is
+equally obvious. When the latter truth is insisted on by those who
+are not recognized as experts, the experts are apt to be somewhat
+contemptuous in resenting such interference, as they consider it.
+An expert himself has, however, taken up the parable, and his words
+merit attention. We refer to an address delivered by Prof. J. Arthur
+Thompson, at the University of Aberdeen, upon entering on his duties
+as Regius Professor of Natural History, a post to which he was lately
+appointed. "We need to be reminded," he said, "amid the undoubted and
+surely legitimate fascinations of dissection and osteology, of section
+cutting and histology, of physiological chemistry and physiological
+physics, of embryology and fossil hunting, and the like, that the chief
+end of our study is a better understanding of living creatures in their
+natural surroundings." He could see no reason, he went on to say, for
+adding aimlessly to the overwhelming mass of detail already accumulated
+in these and other fields of research. The aim of our efforts should
+rather be to grasp the chief laws of growth and structure, and to rise
+to a true conception of the meaning of organization.
+
+The tendency to over-specialization is manifest everywhere; it may be
+traced in physics and chemistry, in mathematics, in archæology, and in
+philology, as well as in biology. We can not help thinking that there
+is a certain narcotic influence arising from the steady accumulation
+of minute facts, so that what was in the first place, and in its early
+stages, an invigorating pursuit becomes not only an absorbing, but
+more or less a benumbing passion. We are accustomed to profess great
+admiration for Browning's Grammarian, who--
+
+"Gave us the doctrine of the enclitic _De_ Dead from the waist down,"
+
+but really we don't feel quite sure that the cause for which the old
+gentleman struggled was quite worthy of such desperate heroism. The
+world could have got along fairly well for a while with an imperfect
+knowledge of the subtle ways of the "enclitic _De_," and indeed a large
+portion of the world has neither concerned itself with the subject nor
+felt the worse for not having done so.
+
+What we fear is that some people are "dead from the waist down," or
+even from higher up, without being aware of it, and all on account of
+a furious passion for "enclitic de's" or their equivalent in other
+lines of study. Gentlemen, it is not worth while! You can not all hope
+to be buried on mountain tops like the grammarian, for there are not
+peaks enough for all of you, and any way what good would it do you?
+There is need of specialization, of course; we began by saying that the
+drift of our remarks is simply this, that he who would go into minute
+specializing should be careful to lay in at the outset a good stock of
+common sense, a liberal dose (if he can get it) of humor, and _quantum
+suff_. of humanity. Thus provided he can go ahead.
+
+
+
+
+Scientific Literature.
+
+SPECIAL BOOKS.
+
+
+The comparison between the United States in 1790 and Australia in 1891,
+with which Mr. _A. F. Weber_ opens his essay on _The Growth of Cities
+in the Nineteenth Century_[10] well illustrates how the tendency of
+population toward agglomeration in cities is one of the most striking
+social phenomena of the present age. Both countries were in nearly
+a corresponding state of development at the time of bringing them
+into the comparison. The population of the United States in 1790 was
+3,929,214; that of Australia in 1891 was 3,809,895; while 3.14 per cent
+of the people of the United States were then living in cities of ten
+thousand or more inhabitants, 33.20 per cent of the Australians are
+now living in such cities. Similar conditions or the tendency toward
+them are evident in nearly every country of the world. What are the
+forces that have produced the shifting of population thus indicated;
+what the economic, moral, political, and social consequences of it; and
+what is to be the attitude of the publicist, the statesman, and the
+teacher toward the movement, are questions which Mr. Weber undertakes
+to discuss. The subject is a very complicated and intricate one, with
+no end of puzzles in it for the careless student, and requiring to be
+viewed in innumerable shifting lights, showing the case in changing
+aspects; for in the discussion lessons are drawn by the author from
+every country in the family of nations. Natural causes--variations in
+climate, soil, earth formation, political institutions, etc.--partly
+explain the distribution of population, but only partly. It sometimes
+contradicts what would be deduced from them. Increase and improvement
+in facilities for communication help the expansion of commercial
+and industrial centers, but also contribute to the scattering of
+population over wider areas. The most potent factors in attracting
+people to the cities were, in former times, the commercial facilities
+they afforded, with opportunities to obtain employment in trade, and
+are now the opportunities for employment in trade and in manufacturing
+industries. The cities, however, do not grow merely by accretions
+from the outside, but they also enjoy a new element of natural growth
+within themselves in the greater certainty of living and longer
+duration of life brought about by improved management and ease of
+living in them, especially by improved sanitation, and it is only
+in the nineteenth century that any considerable number of cities
+have had a regular surplus of births over deaths. Migration cityward
+is not an economic phenomenon peculiar to the nineteenth century,
+but is shown by the study of the social statistics and the bills of
+mortality of the past to have been always a factor important enough
+to be a subject of special remark. It is, however, a very lively one
+now, and "in the immediate future we may expect to see a continuation
+of the centralizing movement; while many manufacturers are locating
+their factories in the small cities and towns, there are other
+industries that prosper most in the great cities. Commerce, moreover,
+emphatically favors the great centers rather than the small or
+intermediate centers." In examining the structure of city populations,
+a preponderance of the female sex appears, and is explained by the
+accentuated liability of men over women in cities to death from
+dangers of occupation, vice, crime, and excesses of all kinds. There
+are also present in the urban population a relatively larger number
+of persons in the active period of life, whence an easier and more
+animated career, more energy and enterprise, more radicalism and less
+conservatism, and more vice, crime, and impulsiveness generally may be
+expected. Of foreign immigrants, the least desirable class are most
+prone to remain in the great cities; and with the decline of railway
+building and the complete occupation of the public lands the author
+expects that immigrants in the future will disperse less readily than
+in the past, but in the never-tiring energy of American enterprise
+this may not prove to be the case. As to occupation, the growth of
+cities is found to favor the development of a body of artisans and
+factory workmen, as against the undertaker and employer, and "that
+the class of day laborers is relatively small in the cities is reason
+for rejoicing." It is found "emphatically true that the growth of
+cities not only increases a nation's economic power and energy, but
+quickens the national pulse.... A progressive and dynamic civilization
+implies the good and bad alike. The cities, as the foci of progress,
+inevitably contain both." The development of suburban life, stimulated
+by the railroad and the trolley, and the transference of manufacturing
+industries to the suburbs, are regarded as factors of great promise
+for the amelioration of the recognized evils of city life and for the
+solution of some of the difficulties it offers and the promotion of its
+best results.
+
+[10] The Growth of Cities in the Nineteenth Century. A Study in
+Statistics. By Adna Ferrln Weber. (Columbia University Studies In
+History, Economics, and Public Law.) New York: Published for Columbia
+University by the Macmillan Company. Pp. 495. Price, $3.50.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+DR. _James K. Crook_, author of _The Mineral Waters of the United
+States and their Therapeutic Uses_,[11] accepts it as proved by
+centuries of experience that in certain disorders the intelligent
+use of mineral waters is a more potent curative agency than drugs.
+He believes that Americans have within their own borders the close
+counterparts of the best foreign springs, and that in charms of scenery
+and surroundings, salubrity of climate and facilities for comfort, many
+of our spas will compare as resorts with the most highly developed
+ones of Europe. The purpose of the present volume is to set forth
+the qualities and attractions of American springs, of which we have
+a large number and variety, and the author has aimed to present the
+most complete and advanced work on the subject yet prepared. To make
+it so, he has carefully examined all the available literature on the
+subject, has addressed letters of inquiry to proprietors and other
+persons cognizant of spring resorts and commercial springs, and has
+made personal visits. While a considerable number of the 2,822 springs
+enumerated by Dr. A. C. Peale in his report to the United States
+Geological Survey have dropped out through non-use or non-development,
+more than two hundred mineral-spring localities are here described for
+the first time in a book of this kind. Every known variety of mineral
+water is represented. The subject is introduced by chapters on what
+might be called the science of mineral waters and their therapeutic
+uses, including the definition, the origin of mineral waters, and the
+sources whence they are mineralized; the classification, the discussion
+of their value, and mode of action; their solid and gaseous components;
+their therapeutics or applications to different disorders; and baths
+and douches and their medicinal uses. The springs are then described
+severally by States. The treatise on potable waters in the appendix is
+brief, but contains much.
+
+[11] Mineral Waters of the United States and their Therapeutic Uses,
+with an Account of the Various Mineral Spring Localities, their
+Advantages as Health Resorts, Means of Access, etc.; to which is
+added an Appendix on Potable Waters. By James K. Crook. New York and
+Philadelphia: Lea Brothers & Co. Pp. 588. Price, $3.50.
+
+
+
+
+GENERAL NOTICES.
+
+
+In _Every-Day Butterflies_[12] Mr. _Scudder_ relates the story of the
+very commonest butterflies--"those which every rambler at all observant
+sees about him at one time or another, inciting his curiosity or
+pleasing his eye." The sequence of the stories is mainly the order of
+appearance of the different subjects treated--which the author compares
+to the flowers in that each kind has its own season for appearing in
+perfect bloom, both together variegating the landscape in the open
+season of the year. This order of description is modified occasionally
+by the substitution of a later appearance for the first, when the
+butterfly is double or triple brooded. As illustrations are furnished
+of each butterfly discussed, it is not necessary that the descriptions
+should be long and minute, hence they are given in brief and general
+terms. But it must be remembered that the describer is a thorough
+master of his subject, and also a master in writing the English
+language, so that nothing will be found lacking in his descriptions.
+They are literature as well as butterfly history. Of the illustrations,
+all of which are good, a considerable number are in colors.
+
+[12] Every-Day Butterflies. A Group of Biographies. By Samuel Hubbard
+Scudder. Boston and New York: Houghton, Mifflin & Co. Pp. 386. Price.
+$2.
+
+
+Dr. _M. E. Gellé's_ _L'Audition et ses Organes_[13] (The Hearing and its
+Organs) is a full, not over-elaborate treatise on the subject, in which
+prominence is given to the physiological side. The first part treats of
+the excitant of the sense of hearing--sonorous vibrations--including
+the vibrations themselves, the length of the vibratory phenomena, the
+intensity of sound, range of audition, tone, and timbre of sounds. The
+second chapter relates to the organs of hearing, both the peripheric
+organs and the acoustic centers, the anatomy of which is described in
+detail, with excellent and ample illustrations. The third chapter is
+devoted to the sensation of hearing under its various aspects--the
+time required for perception, "hearing in school," the influence of
+habit and attention, orientation of the sound, bilateral sensations,
+effects on the nervous centers, etc., hearing of musical sounds,
+oscillations and aberrations of hearing, auditive memory, obsessions,
+hallucinations of the ear, and colored audition.
+
+[13] L'Audition et ses Organes. By Dr. M. E. Gellé. Paris: Félix Alcan
+(Bibliothèque Scientifique). Pp. 326. Price, six francs.
+
+Prof. _Andrew C. McLaughlin's History of the American Nation_[14] has
+many features to recommend it. It aims to trace the main outlines of
+national development, and to show how the American people came to be
+what they are. These outlines involve the struggle of European powers
+for supremacy in the New World, the victory of England, the growth
+of the English colonies and their steady progress in strength and
+self-reliance till they achieved their independence, the development
+of the American idea of government, its extension across the continent
+and its influence abroad--all achieved in the midst of stirring
+events, social, political, and moral, at the cost sometimes of wars,
+and accompanied by marvelous growth in material prosperity and
+political power. All this the author sets forth, trying to preserve
+the balance of the factors, in a pleasing, easy style. Especial
+attention is paid to political facts, to the rise of parties, to the
+development of governmental machinery, and to questions of government
+and administration. In industrial history those events have been
+selected for mention which seem to have had the most marked effect
+on the progress and make-up of the nation. It is to be desired that
+more attention had been given to social aspects and changes in which
+the development has not been less marked and stirring than in the
+other departments of our history. Indeed, the field for research and
+exposition here is extremely wide and almost infinitely varied, and
+it has hardly yet begun to be worked, and with any fullness only for
+special regions. When he comes to recent events, Professor McLaughlin
+naturally speaks with caution and in rather general terms. It seems
+to us, however, that in the matter of the war with Spain, without
+violating any of the proprieties, he might have given more emphasis
+to the anxious efforts of that country to comply with the demands of
+the administration for the institution of reforms in Cuba; and, in the
+interest of historical truth, he ought not to have left unmentioned the
+very important fact that the Spanish Government offered to refer the
+questions growing out of the blowing up of the Maine to arbitration
+and abide by the result, and our Government made no answer to the
+proposition.
+
+[14] A History of the American Nation. By Andrew C. McLaughlin. New
+York: D. Appleton and Company. Pp. 587. Price, $1.40.
+
+
+Mr. _W. W. Campbell's Elements of Practical Astronomy_[15] is an
+evolution. It grew out of the lessons of his experience in teaching
+rather large classes in astronomy in the University of Michigan, by
+which he was led to the conclusion that the extensive treatises on the
+subject could not be used satisfactorily except in special cases. Brief
+lecture notes were employed in preference. These were written out and
+printed for use in the author's classes. The first edition of the book
+made from them was used in several colleges and universities having
+astronomical departments of high character. The work now appears,
+slightly enlarged, in a second edition. In the present greatly extended
+field of practical astronomy numerous special problems arise, which
+require prolonged efforts on the part of professional astronomers.
+While for the discussion of the methods employed in solving such
+problems the reader is referred to special treatises and journals,
+these methods are all developed from the _elements_ of astronomy and
+the related sciences, of which it is intended that this book shall
+contain the elements of practical astronomy, with numerous references
+to the problems first requiring solution. The author believes that the
+methods of observing employed are illustrations of the best modern
+practice.
+
+[15] The Elements of Practical Astronomy. By W. W. Campbell. Second
+edition, revised and enlarged. New York: The Macmillan Company. Pp.
+264. Price, $2.
+
+
+In _The Characters of Crystals_[16] Prof. _Alfred J. Moses_ has
+attempted to describe, simply and concisely, the methods and apparatus
+used in studying the physical characters of crystals, and to record
+and explain the observed phenomena without complex mathematical
+discussions. The first part of the book relates to the geometrical
+characteristics of crystals, or the relations and determination of
+their forms, including the spherical projection, the thirty-two classes
+of forms, the measurement of crystal angles, and crystal projection
+or drawing. The optical characters and their determination are the
+subject of the second part. In the third part the thermal, magnetic,
+and electrical characters and the characters dependent upon electricity
+(elastic and permanent deformations) are treated of. A suggested
+outline of a course in physical crystallography is added, which
+includes preliminary experiments with the systematic examination of the
+crystals of any substance, and corresponds with the graduate course
+in physical crystallography given in Columbia University. The book is
+intended to be useful to organic chemists, geologists, mineralogists,
+and others interested in the study of crystals. The treatment is
+necessarily technical.
+
+[16] The Characters of Crystals. An Introduction to Physical
+Crystallography. By Alfred J. Moses. New York: D. Van Nostrand Company.
+Pp. 211. Price, $2.
+
+
+A book describing the _Practical Methods of identifying Minerals in
+Rock Sections with the Microscope_[17] has been prepared by Mr. _L.
+McI. Luquer_ to ease the path of the student inexperienced in optical
+mineralogy by putting before him only those facts which are absolutely
+necessary for the proper recognition and identification of the minerals
+in thin sections. The microscopic and optical characters of the
+minerals are recorded in the order in which they would be observed with
+a petrographical microscope; when the sections are opaque, attention
+is called to the fact, and the characters are recorded as seen with
+incident light. The order of Rosenbusch, which is based on the symmetry
+of the crystalline form, is followed, with a few exceptions made
+for convenience. In an introductory chapter a practical elementary
+knowledge of optics as applied to optical mineralogy is attempted to
+be given, without going into an elaborate discussion of the subject.
+The petrographical microscope is described in detail. The application
+of it to the investigation of mineral characteristics is set forth in
+general and as to particular minerals. The preparation of sections and
+practical operations are described, and an optical scheme is appended,
+with the minerals grouped according to their common optical characters.
+
+[17] Minerals in Rock Sections; the Practical Method of identifying
+Minerals in Rock Sections with the Microscope. Especially arranged for
+Students in Scientific Schools. By Lea McIlvaine Luquer. New York: D.
+Van Nostrand Company. Pp. 117.
+
+
+Mr. _Herbert C. Whitaker's_ _Elements of Trigonometry_[18] is concise
+and of very convenient size for use. The introduction and the first
+five of the seven chapters have been prepared for the use of beginners.
+The other two chapters concern the properties of triangles and
+spherical triangles; an appendix presents the theory of logarithms;
+and a second appendix, treating of goniometry, complex quantities,
+and complex functions, has been added for students intending to take
+up work in higher departments of mathematics. For assisting a clearer
+understanding of the several processes, the author has sought to
+associate closely with every equation a definite meaning with reference
+to a diagram. Other characteristics of the book are the practical
+applications to mechanics, surveying, and other everyday problems;
+its many references to astronomical problems, and the constant use of
+geometry as a starting point and standard.
+
+[18] Elements of Trigonometry, with Tables. By Herbert C. Whitaker.
+Philadelphia: Eldredge & Brother. Pp. 200.
+
+
+A model in suggestions for elementary teaching is offered in
+_California Plants in their Homes_,[19] by _Alice Merritt Davidson_,
+formerly of the State Normal School, California. The book consists
+of two parts, a botanical reader for children and a supplement for
+the use of teachers, both divisions being also published in separate
+volumes. It is well illustrated, provided with an index and an outline
+of lessons adapted to different grades. The treatment of each theme is
+fresh, and the grouping novel, as is indicated by the chapter headings:
+Some Plants that lead Easy Lives, Plants that know how to meet Hard
+Times, Plants that do not make their own Living, Plants with Mechanical
+Genius. Although specially designed for the study of the flora of
+southern California, embodying the results of ten years' observation by
+the author, it may be recommended to science teachers in any locality
+as an excellent guide. The pupil in this vicinity will have to forego
+personal inspection of the shooting-star and mariposa lily, while he
+finds the century plant, yuccas, and cacti domiciled in the greenhouse.
+In addition to these, however, attention is directed to a sufficient
+number of familiar flowers, trees, ferns, and fungi for profitable
+study, and the young novice in botany can scarcely make a better
+beginning than in company with this skillful instructor.
+
+[19] California Plants in their Homes. By Alice Merritt Davidson. Los
+Angeles, Cal.: B .R. Baumgardt & Co. Pp. 215-133.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Prof. _John M. Coulter's Plant Relations_[20] is one of two parts of a
+system of teaching botany proposed by the author. Each of the two books
+is to represent the work of half a year, but each is to be independent
+of the other, and they may be used in either order. The two books
+relate respectively, as a whole, to ecology, or the life relations of
+surroundings of plants, and to their morphology. The present volume
+concerns the ecology. While it may be to the disadvantage of presenting
+ecology first, that it conveys no knowledge of plant structures and
+plant groups, this disadvantage is compensated for, in the author's
+view, by the facts that the study of the most evident life relations
+gives a proper conception of the place of plants in Nature; that it
+offers a view of the plant kingdom of the most permanent value to those
+who can give but a half year to botany; and that it demands little or
+no use of the compound microscope, an instrument ill adapted to first
+contacts with Nature. The book is intended to present a connected,
+readable account of some of the fundamental facts of botany, and also
+to serve as a supplement to the three far more important factors
+of the teacher, who must amplify and suggest at every point; the
+laboratory, which must bring the pupil face to face with plants and
+their structure; and field work, which must relate the facts observed
+in the laboratory to their actual place in Nature, and must bring new
+facts to notice which can be observed nowhere else. Taking the results
+obtained from these three factors, the book seeks to organize them, and
+to suggest explanations, through a clear, untechnical, compact text and
+appropriate and excellent illustrations.
+
+[20] Plant Relations. A First Book of Botany. By John M. Coulter. New
+York: D. Appleton and Company. (Twentieth Century Text Books.) Pp. 264.
+Price, $1.10.
+
+
+The title of _The Wilderness of Worlds_[21] was suggested to the author
+by the contemplation of a wilderness of trees, in which those near him
+are very large, while in the distance they seem successively smaller,
+and gradually fade away till the limit of vision is reached. So of the
+wilderness of worlds in space, with its innumerable stars of gradually
+diminishing degrees of visibility--worlds "of all ages like the trees,
+and the great deep of space is covered with their dust, and pulsating
+with the potency of new births." The body of the book is a review of
+the history of the universe and all that is of it, in the light of
+the theory of evolution, beginning with the entities of space, time,
+matter, force, and motion, and the processes of development from the
+nebulæ as they are indicated by the most recent and best verified
+researches, and terminating with the ultimate extinction of life and
+the end of the planet. In the chapter entitled A Vision of Peace the
+author confronts religion and science. He regards the whole subject
+from the freethinker's point of view, with a denial of all agency of
+the supernatural.
+
+[21] The Wilderness of Worlds. A Popular Sketch of the Evolution of
+Matter from Nebula to Man and Return. The Life-Orbit of a Star. By
+George W. Morehouse. New York: Peter Eckler. Pp. 246. Price, $1.
+
+
+In a volume entitled _The Living Organism_[22] Mr. _Alfred Earl_ has
+endeavored to make a philosophical introduction to the study of
+biology. The closing paragraph of his preface is of interest as showing
+his views regarding vitalism: "The object of the book will be attained
+if it succeeds, although it may be chiefly by negative criticism, in
+directing attention to the important truth that, though chemical and
+physical changes enter largely into the composition of vital activity,
+there is much in the living organism that is outside the range of these
+operations." The first three chapters discuss general conceptions,
+and are chiefly psychology. A discussion of the structures accessory
+to alimentation in man and the higher animals occupies Chapters IV
+and V. The Object of Classification, Certain General Statements
+concerning Organisms, A Description of the Organism as related to
+its Surroundings, The Material Basis of Life, The Organism as a
+Chemical Aggregate and as a Center for the Transformation of Energy,
+Certain Aspects of Form and Development, The Meaning of Sensation,
+and, finally, Some of the Problems presented by the Organism, are
+the remaining chapter headings. The volume contains many interesting
+suggestions, and might perhaps most appropriately be described as a
+Theoretical Biology.
+
+[22] The Living Organism. By Alfred Earl, M. A. New York: The Macmillan
+Company. Pp. 271. Price, $1.75.
+
+
+"_Stars and Telescopes_,"[23] Professor _Todd_ says, "is intended
+to meet an American demand for a plain, unrhetorical statement of
+the astronomy of to-day." We might state the purpose to be to bring
+astronomy and all that pertains to it up to date. It is hard to do
+this, for the author has been obliged to put what was then the latest
+discovery, made while the book was going through the press, in a
+footnote at the end of the preface. The information embodied in the
+volume is comprehensive, and is conveyed in a very intelligible style.
+The treatise begins with a running commentary or historical outline
+of astronomical discovery, with a rigid exclusion of all detail. The
+account of the earth and moon is followed by chapters on the Calendar
+and the Astronomical Relations of Light. The other members of the
+solar system are described and their relations reviewed, and then the
+comets and the stars. Closely associated with these subjects are the
+men who have contributed to knowledge respecting them, and consequently
+the names of the great discoverers and others who have helped in the
+advancement of astronomy are introduced in immediate connection with
+their work, in brief sketches and often with their portraits. Much
+importance is attributed by Professor Todd to the instruments with
+which astronomical discovery is carried on, and the book may be said to
+culminate in an account of the famous instruments, their construction,
+mounting, and use. The devisers of these instruments are entitled to
+more credit than the unthinking are always inclined to give them, for
+the value of an observation depends on the accuracy of the instrument
+as well as on the skill of the observer, and the skill which makes
+the instrument accurate is not to be underrated. So the makers of
+the instruments are given their place. Then the recent and improved
+processes have to be considered, and, altogether, Professor Todd has
+found material for a full and somewhat novel book, and has used it to
+good advantage.
+
+[23] Stars and Telescopes A Handbook of Popular Astronomy. Boston:
+Little, Brown & Co. Pp. 419. Price, $2.
+
+
+_Some Observations on the Fundamental Principles of Nature_ is the
+title of an essay by _Henry Witt_, which, though very brief, takes
+the world of matter, mind, and society within its scope. One of the
+features of the treatment is that instead of the present theory of
+an order of things resulting from the condensation of more rarefied
+matter, one of the organization of converging waves of infinitesimal
+atoms filling all space is substituted. With this point prominently
+in view, the various factors and properties of the material
+universe--biology, psychology, sociology, ethics, and the future--are
+treated of.
+
+
+Among the later monographs published by the Field Columbian Museum,
+Chicago, is a paper in the Geological Series (No. 3) on _The Ores of
+Colombia, from Mines in Operation in 1892_, by _H. W. Nichols_. It
+describes the collection prepared for the Columbian Exposition by F.
+Pereira Gamba and afterward given to the museum--a collection which
+merits attention for the light it throws upon the nature and mode of
+occurrence of the ores of one of the most important gold-producing
+countries of the world, and also because it approaches more nearly
+than is usual the ideal of what a collection in economic geology
+should be. Other publications in the museum's Geological Series are
+_The Mylagauldæ, an Extinct Family of Sciuromorph Rodents_ (No. 4),
+by _E. S. Riggs_, describing some squirrel-like animals from the
+Deep River beds, near White Sulphur Springs, Montana; _A Fossil Egg
+from South Dakota_ (No. 5), by _O. C. Farrington_, relative to the
+egg of an anatine bird from the early Miocene; and _Contributions to
+the Paleontology of the Upper Cretaceous Series_ (No. 6), by _W. N.
+Logan_, in which seven species of _Scaphites_, _Ostrea_, _Gasteropoda_,
+and corals are described. In the Zoölogical Series, _Preliminary
+Descriptions of New Rodents from the Olympic Mountains_ (of Washington)
+(No. 11), by _D. G. Elliot_, relates to six species; _Notes on a
+Collection of Cold-blooded Vertebrates from the Olympic Mountains_ (No.
+12), by _S. E. Meek_, to six trout and three other fish, four amphibia,
+and three reptiles; and a _Catalogue of Mammals from the Olympic
+Mountains, Washington_, with descriptions of new species (No. 13), by
+_D. G. Elliot_, includes a number of species of rodents, lynx, bear,
+and deer.
+
+
+_Some Notes on Chemical Jurisprudence_ is the title given by _Harwood
+Huntington_ (260 West Broadway, New York; 25 cents) to a brief digest
+of patent-law cases involving chemistry. The notes are designed to be
+of use to chemists intending to take out patents by presenting some
+of the difficulties attendant upon drawing up a patent strong enough
+to stand a lawsuit, and by explaining some points of law bearing on
+the subject. In most, if not all, cases where the chemist has devised
+a new method or application it is best, the author holds, to take out
+a patent for self-protection, else the inventor may find his device
+stolen from him and patented against him.
+
+
+A cave or fissure in the Cambrian limestone of Port Kennedy, Montgomery
+County, Pa., exposed by quarrymen the year before, was brought to the
+knowledge of geologists by Mr. Charles M. Wheatley in 1871, when the
+fossils obtained from it were determined by Prof. E. D. Cope as of
+thirty-four species. Attention was again called to the paleontological
+interest of the locality by President Dixon, of the Academy of Natural
+Sciences of Philadelphia, in 1894. The fissure was examined again by
+Dr. Dixon and others, and was more thoroughly explored by Mr. Henry C.
+Mercer. Mr. Mercer published a preliminary account of the work, which
+was followed by the successive studies of the material by Professor
+Cope preliminary to a complete and illustrated report to be made after
+a full investigation of all accessible material. Professor Cope did not
+live to publish this full report, which was his last work, prepared
+during the suffering of his final illness. It is now published, just
+as the author left it, as _Vertebrate Remains from the Port Kennedy
+Deposit_, from the Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of
+Philadelphia. Four plates of illustrations, photographed from the
+remains, accompany the text.
+
+
+The machinery of Mr. _Fred A. Lucas's_ story of _The Hermit
+Naturalist_ reminds us of that of the old classical French romances,
+like Télémaque, and the somewhat artificial, formal diction is not
+dissimilar. An accident brings the author into acquaintance and
+eventual intimacy with an old Sicilian naturalist, who, migrating to
+this country, has established a home, away from the world's life, on
+an island in the Delaware River. The two find a congenial subject of
+conversation in themes of natural history, and the bulk of the book is
+in effect a running discourse by the old Sicilian on snakes and their
+habits--a valuable and interesting lesson. The hermit has a romance,
+involving the loss of his motherless daughter, stolen by brigands and
+brought to America, his long search for her and resignation of hope,
+and her ultimate discovery and restoration to him. The book is of easy
+reading, both as to its natural history and the romance.
+
+
+We have two papers before us on the question of expansion. One is an
+address delivered by John Barrett, late United States Minister to
+Siam, before the Shanghai General Chamber of Commerce, and previous
+to the beginning of the attempt to subjugate the islands, on _The
+Philippine Islands and American Interests in the Far East_. This
+address has, we believe, been since followed by others, and in all
+Mr. Barrett favors the acquisition of the Philippine Islands on the
+grounds, among others, of commercial interests and the capacity of the
+Filipinos for development in further civilization and self-government;
+but his arguments, in the present aspect of the Philippine question,
+seem to us to bear quite as decidedly in the opposite direction. He
+gives the following picture of Aguinaldo and the Filipino government:
+"He (Aguinaldo) captured all Spanish garrisons on the island of
+Luzon outside of Manila, so that when the Americans were ready to
+proceed against the city they were not delayed and troubled with a
+country campaign. Moreover, he has organized a government which has
+practically been administering the affairs of the great island since
+the American occupation of Manila, and which is certainly better
+than the former administration; he has a properly formed Cabinet and
+Congress, the members of which, in appearance and manners, would
+compare favorably with Japanese statesmen. He has among his advisers
+men of ability as international lawyers, while his supporters include
+most of the prominent educated and wealthy natives, all of which prove
+possibilities of self-government that we must consider." This pamphlet
+is published at Hong Kong. The other paper is an address delivered
+before the New York State Bar Association, by _Charles A. Gardiner_, on
+_Our Right to acquire and hold Foreign Territory_, and is published by
+G. P. Putnam's Sons in the Questions of the Day Series. Mr. Gardiner
+holds and expresses the broadest views of the constitutional power
+of our Government to commit the acts named, and to exercise all the
+attributes incidental to the possession of acquired territory, but he
+thinks that we need a great deal of legal advice in the matter.
+
+
+A pamphlet, _Anti-Imperialism_, by _Morrison L. Swift_, published by
+the Public Ownership Review, Los Angeles, Cal., covers the subject of
+English and American aggression in three chapters--Imperialism to bless
+the Conquered, Imperialism for the Sake of Mankind, and Our Crime in
+the Philippines. Mr. Swift is very earnest in respect to some of the
+subjects touched upon in his essays, and some persons may object that
+he is more forcible--even to excess--than polite in his denunciations.
+To such he may perhaps reply that there are things which language does
+not afford words too strong to characterize fitly.
+
+
+Among the papers read at the Fourth International Catholic Scientific
+Congress, held at Fribourg, Switzerland, in August, 1897, was one by
+_William J. D. Croke_ on _Architecture, Painting, and Printing at
+Subiaco_ as represented in the Abbey at Subiaco. The author regards the
+features of the three arts represented in this place as evidence that
+the record of the activity of the foundation constitutes a real chapter
+in the history of progress in general and of culture in particular.
+
+
+
+
+PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.
+
+
+Benson, E. F. Mammon & Co. New York: D. Appleton and Company. Pp. 360.
+$1.50.
+
+Buckley, James A. Extemporaneous Oratory. For Professional and Amateur
+Speakers. New York: Eaton & Mains. Pp. 480. $1.50.
+
+Canada, Dominion of, Experimental Farms: Reports for 1897. Pp. 449;
+Reports for 1898. Pp. 429.
+
+Conn, H. W. The Story of Germ Life. (Library of Useful Stories.) New
+York: D. Appleton and Company. Pp. 199. 40 cents.
+
+Dana, Edward S. First Appendix to the Sixth Edition of Dana's
+Mineralogy. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Pp. 75. $1.
+
+Franklin Institute, The Drawing School, also School of Elementary
+Mathematics: Announcements. Pp. 4 each.
+
+Ganong, William F. The Teaching Botanist. New York: The Macmillan
+Company. Pp. 270. $1.10.
+
+Getman, F. H. The Elements of Blowpipe Analysis. New York: The
+Macmillan Company. Pp. 77. 60 cents.
+
+Halliday, H. M. An Essay on the Common Origin of Light, Heat, and
+Electricity. Washington, D. C. Pp. 46.
+
+Hardin, Willett L. The Rise and Development of the Liquefaction of
+Gases. New York: The Macmillan Company. Pp. 250. $1.10.
+
+Hillegas, Howard C. Oom Paul's People. A Narrative of the British-Boer
+Troubles in South Africa, with a History of the Boers, the Country, and
+its Institutions. New York: D. Appleton and Company. Pp. 308. $1.50.
+
+Ireland, Alleyne. Tropical Colonization. An Introduction to the Study
+of the Subject. New York: The Macmillan Company. $2.
+
+Kingsley, J. S. Text-Book of Elementary Zoölogy. New York: Henry Holt &
+Co. Pp. 439.
+
+Knerr, E. B. Relativity in Science. Silico-Barite Nodules from near
+Salina. Concretions. (Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science.)
+Pp. 24.
+
+Krõmskõp, Color Photography. Philadelphia: Ives Krõmskõp. Pp. 24.
+
+Liquid-Air Power and Automobile Company. Prospectus. Pp. 16.
+
+MacBride, Thomas A. The North American Slime Molds. Being a List of
+Species of Myxomycetes hitherto described from North America, Including
+Central America. New York: The Macmillan Company. Pp. 231, with 18
+plates. $2.25.
+
+Meyer, A. B. The Distribution of the Negritos in the Philippine Islands
+and Elsewhere. Dresden (Saxony): Stengel & Co. Pp. 92.
+
+Nicholson, H. H., and Avery, Samuel. Laboratory Exercises with Outlines
+for the Study of Chemistry, to accompany any Elementary Text. New York:
+Henry Holt & Co. Pp. 134. 60 cents.
+
+Scharff, R. P. The History of the European Fauna. New York: Imported by
+Charles Scribner's Sons. Pp. 354. $1.50.
+
+Schleicher, Charles, and Schull, Duren. Rhenish Prussia. Samples of
+Special Filtering Papers. New York: Eimer & Amend, agents.
+
+Sharpe, Benjamin F. An Advance in Measuring and Photographing Sounds.
+United States Weather Bureau. Pp. 18, with plates.
+
+Shinn, Milicent W. Notes on the Development of a Child. Parts III and
+IV. (University of California Studies.) Pp. 224.
+
+Shoemaker, M. M. Quaint Corners of Ancient Empires, Southern India,
+Burmah, and Manila. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. Pp. 212.
+
+Smith, Orlando J. A Short View of Great Questions. New York: The
+Brandur Company, 220 Broadway. Pp. 75.
+
+Smith, Walter. Methods of Knowledge. An Essay in Epistemology. New
+York: The Macmillan Company. Pp. 340. $1.25.
+
+Southern, The, Magazine. Monthly. Vol. I, No. 1. August, 1899. Pp. 203.
+10 cents. $1 a year.
+
+Suter, William N. Handbook of Optics. New York: The Macmillan Company.
+Pp. 209. $1.
+
+Tarde, G. Social Laws. An Outline of Sociology. With a Preface by James
+Mark Baldwin. New York: The Macmillan Company. Pp. 213. $1.25.
+
+Uline, Edwin B. Higinbothamia. A New Genus, and other New Dioscoreaceæ,
+New Amaranthaceæ. (Field Columbian Museum, Chicago Botanical Series.)
+Pp. 12.
+
+Underwood, Lucien M. Molds, Mildews, and Mushrooms. New York: Henry
+Holt & Co. Pp. 227, with 9 plates. $1.50.
+
+United States Civil-Service Commission. Fifteenth Report, July 1, 1897,
+to June 30, 1898. Pp. 736. Washington.
+
+
+
+
+Fragments of Science.
+
+
+The Dover Meeting of the British Association.--While the attendance
+on the meeting of the British Association at Dover was not large--the
+whole number of members being 1,403, of whom 127 were ladies--the
+occasion was in other respects eventful and one of marked interest. The
+papers read were, as a rule, of excellent quality, and the interchange
+of visits with the French Association was a novel feature that might
+bear many repetitions. The president, Sir Michael Foster, presented, in
+his inaugural address, a picture of the state of science one hundred
+years ago, illustrating it by portraying the conditions to which a
+body like the association meeting then at Dover would have found
+itself subject, and suggesting the topics it would have discussed.
+The period referred to was, however, that of the beginning of the
+present progress, and, after remarking on what had been accomplished
+in the interval, the speaker drew a very hopeful foreview for the
+future. Besides the intellectual triumphs of science, its strengthening
+discipline, its relation to politics, and the "international
+brotherhood of science" were brought under notice in the address. In
+his address as president of the Physical Section, Prof. J. H. Poynting
+showed how physicists are tending toward a general agreement as to
+the nature of the laws in which they embody their discoveries, of the
+explanations they give, and of the hypotheses they make, and, having
+considered what the form and terms of this agreement should be, passed
+to a discussion of the limitations of physical science. The subject of
+Dr. Horace T. Brown's Chemical Section address was The Assimilation
+of Carbon by the Higher Plants. Sir William H. White, president of
+the Section of Mechanical Science, spoke on Steam Navigation at High
+Speeds. President Adam Sedgwick addressed the Zoölogical Section on
+Variation and some Phenomena connected with Reproduction and Sex; Sir
+John Murray, the Geographical Section on The Ocean Floor; and Mr. J.
+N. Langley, the Physiological Section on the general relations of
+the motor nerves to the several tissues of the body, especially of
+those which run to tissues over which we have little or no control.
+The president of the Anthropological Section, Mr. C. H. Read, of the
+British Museum, spoke of the preservation and proper exploration of
+the prehistoric antiquities of the country, and offered a plan for
+increasing the amount of work done in anthropological investigation
+by the use of Government aid. A peculiar distinction attaches to
+this meeting through its reception and entertainment of the French
+Association, and the subsequent return of the courtesy by the latter
+body at Boulogne. About three hundred of the French Associationists,
+among whom were many ladies, came over, on the Saturday of the meeting,
+under the lead of their president, M. Brouardel, and accompanied by a
+number of men of science from Belgium. They were met at the pier by the
+officers of the British Association, and were escorted to the place
+of meeting and to the sectional meetings toward which their several
+tastes directed them. The geological address of Sir Archibald Geikie
+on Geological Time had been appointed for this day out of courtesy to
+the French geologists, and in order that they might have an opportunity
+of hearing one of the great lights of British science. Among the
+listeners who sat upon the platform were M. Gosselet, president of
+the French Geological Society; M. Kemna, president of the Belgian
+Geological Society; and M. Rénard, of Ghent. Public evening lectures
+were delivered on the Centenary of the Electric Current, by Prof. J.
+A. Fleming, and (in French) on Nervous Vibration, by Prof. Charles
+Richet. Sir William Turner was appointed president for the Bradford
+meeting of the association (1900). The visit of the French Association
+was returned on September 22d, when the president, officers, and about
+three hundred members went to Boulogne. They were welcomed by the mayor
+of the city, the prefect of the department, and a representative of
+the French Government; were feasted by the municipality of Boulogne;
+were entertained by the members of the French Association; and special
+commemorative medals were presented by the French Association to the
+two presidents. The British visitors also witnessed the inauguration of
+a tablet in memory of Dr. Duchesne, and of a plaque commemorative of
+Thomas Campbell, the poet, who died in Boulogne.
+
+
+Artificial India Rubber.--A recent issue of the Kew Gardens Bulletin
+contains an interesting article on Dr. Tilden's artificial production
+of India rubber. India rubber, or caoutchouc, is chemically a
+hydrocarbon, but its molecular constitution is unknown. When decomposed
+by heat it is broken up into simpler hydrocarbons, among which is a
+substance called isoprene, a volatile liquid boiling at about 36° C.
+Its molecular formula is C_{5}H_{8}. Dr. Tilden obtained this same
+substance (isoprene) from oil of turpentine and other terpenes by the
+action of moderate heat, and then by treating the isoprene with strong
+acids succeeded, by means of a very slow reaction, in converting a
+small portion of it into a tough elastic solid, which seems to be
+identical in properties with true India rubber. This artificial rubber,
+like the natural, seems to consist of two substances, one of which is
+more soluble in benzene and carbon bisulphide than the other. It unites
+with sulphur in the same way as ordinary rubber, forming a tough,
+elastic compound. In a recent letter Professor Tilden says: "As you may
+imagine, I have tried everything I can think of as likely to promote
+this change, but without success. The polymerization proceeds _very_
+slowly, occupying, according to my experience, several years, and all
+attempts to hurry it result in the production not of rubber, but of
+'colophene,' a thick, sticky oil quite useless for all purposes to
+which rubber is applied."
+
+
+Dangers of High Altitudes for Elderly People.--"The public, and
+sometimes the inexperienced physician--inexperienced not in general
+therapeutics but in the physiological effects of altitude on a weak
+heart," says Dr. Findlater Zangger in the Lancet, "make light of
+a danger they can not understand. But if an altitude of from four
+thousand to five thousand feet above the sea level puts a certain
+amount of strain on a normal heart and by a rise of the blood-pressure
+indirectly also on the small peripheral arteries, must not this
+action be multiplied in the case of a heart suffering from even an
+early stage of myocarditis or in the case of arteries with thickened
+or even calcified walls? It is especially the rapidity of the change
+from one altitude to another, with differences of from three thousand
+to four thousand feet, which must be considered. There is a call
+made on the contractibility of the small arteries on the one hand,
+and on the amount of muscular force of the heart on the other hand,
+and if the structures in question can not respond to this call,
+rupture of an artery or dilatation of the heart may ensue. In the
+case of a normal condition of the circulatory organs little harm is
+done beyond some transient discomfort, such as dizziness, buzzing in
+the ears, palpitation, general _malaise_, and this often only in the
+case of people totally unaccustomed to high altitudes. For such it is
+desirable to take the high altitude by degrees in two or three stages,
+say first stage 1,500 feet, second stage from 2,500 to 3,000 feet,
+and third stage from 4,000 to 6,000 feet, with a stay of one or two
+days at the intermediate places. The stay at the health resort will
+be shortened, it is true, but the patient will derive more benefit.
+On the return journey one short stay at one intermediate place will
+suffice. Even a fairly strong heart will not stand an overstrain in
+the first days spent at a high altitude. A Dutch lady, about forty
+years of age, who had spent a lifetime in the lowlands, came directly
+up to Adelboden (altitude, 4,600 feet). After two days she went on an
+excursion with a party up to an Alp 7,000 feet high, making the ascent
+quite slowly in four hours. Sudden heart syncope ensued, which lasted
+the best part of an hour, though I chanced to be near and could give
+assistance, which was urgently needed. The patient recovered, but
+derived no benefit from a fortnight's stay, and had to return to the
+low ground the worse for her trip and her inconsiderate enterprise.
+Rapid ascents to a high altitude are very injurious to patients with
+arterio-sclerosis, and the mountain railways up to seven thousand and
+ten thousand feet are positively dangerous to an unsuspecting public,
+for many persons between the ages of fifty-five and seventy years
+consider themselves to be hale and healthy, and are quite unconscious
+of having advanced arterio-sclerosis and perchance contracted kidney.
+An American gentleman, aged fifty-eight years, was under my care for
+slight symptoms of angina pectoris, pointing to sclerosis of the
+coronary arteries. A two-months' course of treatment at Zurich with
+massage, baths, and proper exercise and diet did away with all the
+symptoms. I saw him by chance some months later. 'My son is going to
+St. Moritz (six thousand feet) for the summer,' said he; 'may I go with
+him?' 'Most certainly not,' was my answer. The patient then consulted
+a professor, who allowed him to go. Circumstances, however, took him
+for the summer to Sachseln, which is situated at an altitude of only
+two thousand feet, and he spent a good summer. But he must needs go up
+the Pilatus by rail (seven thousand feet), relying on the professor's
+permission, and the result was disastrous, for he almost died from a
+violent attack of angina pectoris on the night of his return from the
+Pilatus, and vowed on his return to Zurich to keep under three thousand
+feet in future. I may here mention that bad results in the shape of
+heart collapse, angina pectoris, cardiac asthma, and last, not least,
+apoplexy, often occur only on the return to the lowlands."
+
+
+The Parliamentary Amenities Committee.--Under the above rather
+misleading title there was formed last year, in the English Parliament,
+a committee for the purpose of promoting concerted action in the
+preservation and protection of landmarks of general public interest,
+historic buildings, famous battlefields, and portions of landscape of
+unusual scenic beauty or geological conformation, and also for the
+protection from entire extinction of the various animals and even
+plants which the spread of civilization is gradually pushing to the
+wall. In reality, it is an official society for the preservation of
+those things among the works of past man and Nature which, owing to
+their lack of direct money value, are in danger of destruction in
+this intensely commercial age. Despite the comparative newness of the
+American civilization, there are already many relics belonging to the
+history of our republic whose preservation is very desirable, as well
+as very doubtful, if some such public-spirited committee does not
+take the matter in hand; and, as regards the remains of the original
+Americans, in which the country abounds, the necessity is still more
+immediate. The official care of Nature's own curiosities is equally
+needed, as witness the way in which the Hudson River palisades are
+being mutilated, and the constant raids upon our city parks for
+speedways, parade grounds, etc. The great value of a parliamentary or
+congressional committee of this sort lies in the fact that its opinions
+are not only based upon expert knowledge, but that they can be to an
+extent enforced; whereas such a body of men with no official position
+may go on making suggestions and protesting, as have numerous such
+bodies for years, without producing any practical results. The matter
+is, with us perhaps, one of more importance to future generations; but
+as all Nature seems ordered primarily with reference to the future
+welfare of the race, rather than for the comfort of its present
+members, the necessity for such an official body, whose specific
+business should be to look after the preservation of objects of
+historical interest to the succeeding centuries, ought to be inculcated
+in us as a part of the general evolutionary scheme.
+
+
+Physical Measurements of Asylum Children.--Dr. Ales Hrdlicka has
+published an account of anthropological investigations and measurements
+which he has made upon one thousand white and colored children in
+the New York Juvenile Asylum and one hundred colored children in
+the Colored Orphan Asylum, for information about the physical state
+of the children who are admitted and kept in juvenile asylums, and
+particularly to learn whether there is anything physically abnormal
+about them. Some abnormality in the social or moral condition of such
+children being assumed, if they are also physically inferior to other
+children, they would have to be considered generally handicapped in the
+struggle for life; but if they do not differ greatly in strength and
+constitution from the average ordinary children, then their state would
+be much more hopeful. Among general facts concerning the condition of
+the children in the Juvenile Asylum, Dr. Hrdlicka learned that when
+admitted to the institution they are almost always in some way morally
+and physically inferior to healthy children from good social classes
+at large--the result, usually, of neglect or improper nutrition or
+both. Within a month, or even a week, decided changes for the better
+are observed, and after their admission the individuals of the same sex
+and age seem gradually, while preserving the fundamental differences
+of their nature, to show less of their former diversity and grow more
+alike. In learning, the newcomers are more or less retarded when put
+into the school, but in a great majority of cases they begin to acquire
+rapidly, and the child usually reaches the average standing of the
+class. Inveterate backwardness in learning is rare. Physically, about
+one seventh of all the inmates of the asylum were without a blemish
+on their bodies--a proportion which will not seem small to persons
+well versed in analyses of the kind. The differences in the physical
+standing of the boys and the girls were not so great or so general as
+to permit building a hypothesis upon them, though the girls came out a
+little the better. The colored boys seemed to be physically somewhat
+inferior to the white ones, but the number of them was not large enough
+to justify a conclusion. Of the children not found perfect, two hundred
+presented only a single abnormality, and this usually so small as
+hardly to justify excluding them from the class of perfect. Regarding
+as decidedly abnormal only those in whom one half the parts of the body
+showed defects, the number was eighty-seven. "Should we, for the sake
+of illustration, express the physical condition of the children by such
+terms as fine, medium, and bad, the fine and bad would embrace in all
+192 individuals, while 808 would remain as medium." All the classes
+of abnormalities--congenital, pathological, and acquired--seemed more
+numerous in the boys than in the girls. The colored children showed
+fewer inborn abnormalities than the white, but more pathological and
+acquired. No child was found who could be termed a thorough physical
+degenerate, and the author concludes that the majority of the class of
+children dealt with are physically fairly average individuals.
+
+
+Busy Birds.--A close observation of a day's work of busy activity, of
+a day's work of the chipping sparrow hunting and catching insects to
+feed its young, is recorded by Clarence M. Weed in a Bulletin of the
+New Hampshire College Agricultural Experiment Station. Mr. Weed began
+his watch before full daylight in the morning, ten minutes before the
+bird got off from its nest, and continued it till after dark. During
+the busy day Mr. Weed says, in his summary, the parent birds made
+almost two hundred visits to the nest, bringing food nearly every time,
+though some of the trips seem to have been made to furnish grit for the
+grinding of the food. There was no long interval when they were not at
+work, the longest period between visits being twenty-seven minutes.
+Soft-bodied caterpillars were the most abundant elements of the food,
+but crickets and crane flies were also seen, and doubtless a great
+variety of insects were taken, but precise determination of the quality
+of most of the food brought was of course impossible. The observations
+were undertaken especially to learn the regularity of the feeding
+habits of the adult birds. The chipping sparrow is one of the most
+abundant and familiar of our birds. It seeks its nesting site in the
+vicinity of houses, and spends most of its time searching for insects
+in grass lands or cultivated fields and gardens. In New England two
+broods are usually reared each season. That the young keep the parents
+busy catching insects and related creatures for their food is shown by
+the minute record which the author publishes in his paper. The bird
+deserves all the protection and encouragement that can be given it.
+
+
+Park-making among the Sand Dunes.--For the creation of Golden Gate Park
+the park-makers of San Francisco had a series of sand hills, "hills on
+hills, all of sand-dune formation." The city obtained a strip of land
+lying between the bay and the ocean, yet close enough to the center of
+population to be cheaply and easily reached from all parts of the town.
+Work was begun in 1869, and has been prosecuted steadily since, with
+increasing appropriations, and the results are a credit to the city,
+Golden Gate Park, Mr. Frank H. Lamb says in his account of it in The
+Forester, having a charm that distinguishes it from other city parks.
+It has a present area of 1,040 acres, of which 300 acres have been
+sufficiently reclaimed to be planted with coniferous trees." It is this
+portion of the park which the visitor sees as one of the sights of the
+Golden Gate." As he rides through the park out toward the Cliff House
+and Sutro Heights by the Sea," he sees still great stretches of sand,
+some loose, some still held in place by the long stems and rhizomes of
+the sand grass (_Arundo arenaria_). This is the preparatory stage in
+park-making. The method in brief is as follows: The shifting sand is
+seeded with _Arundo arenaria_, and this is allowed to grow two years,
+when the ground is sufficiently held in place to begin the second
+stage of reclamation, which consists in planting arboreal species,
+generally the Monterey pine (_Pinus insignis_) and the Monterey cypress
+(_Cupressus macrocarpus_); with these are also planted the smaller
+_Leptospermum lævigatum_ and _Acacia latifolia_. These species in
+two or more years complete the reclamation, and then attention is
+directed to making up all losses of plants and encouraging growth as
+much as possible." The entire cost of reclamation by these methods is
+represented not to average more than fifty dollars per acre.
+
+
+A Fossiliferous Formation below the Cambrian.--Mr. George F. Matthew
+said, in a communication to the New York Academy of Sciences, that he
+had been aware for several years of the existence of fauna in the rocks
+below those containing _Paradoxides_ and Protolenus in New Brunswick,
+eastern Canada, but that the remains of the higher types of organisms
+found in those rocks were so poorly preserved and fragmentary that
+they gave a very imperfect knowledge of their nature. Only the casts
+of _Hyolithidæ_, the mold of an obolus, a ribbed shell, and parts of
+what appeared to be the arms and bodies of crinoids were known, to
+assure us that there had been living forms in the seas of that early
+time other than Protozoa and burrowing worms. These objects were found
+in the upper division of a series of rocks immediately subjacent
+to the Cambrian strata containing _Protolenus_, etc. As a decided
+physical break was discovered between the strata containing them and
+those having _Protolenus_, the underlying series was thought worthy
+of a distinctive name, and was called Etchemenian, after a tribe of
+aborigines that once inhabited the region. In most countries the
+basement of the Paleozoic sediments seems almost devoid of organic
+remains. Only unsatisfactory results have followed the search for them
+in Europe, and America did not seem to promise a much better return.
+Nevertheless, the indications of a fauna obtained in the maritime
+provinces of Canada seemed to afford a hope that somewhere "these
+basement beds of the Paleozoic might yield remains in a better state
+of preservation." The author, therefore, in the summer of 1898, made
+a visit to a part of Newfoundland where a clear section of sediments
+had been found below the horizons of _Paradoxides_ and _Agraulos
+strenuus_. These formations were examined at Manuel's Brook and Smith's
+Sound. In the beds defined as Etchemenian no trilobites were found,
+though other classes of animals, such as gastropods, brachiopods, and
+lamellibranchs, occur, with which trilobites elsewhere are usually
+associated in the Cambrian and later geological systems. The absence,
+or possibly the rarity of the trilobites appears to have special
+significance in view of their prominence among Cambrian fossils. The
+uniformity of conditions attending the depositions of the Etchemenian
+terrane throughout the Atlantic coast province of the Cambrian is
+spoken of as surprising and as pointing to a quiescent period of long
+continuance, during which the _Hyolithidæ_ and _Capulidæ_ developed
+so as to become the dominant types of the animal world, while the
+brachiopods, the lamellibranchs, and the other gastropods still were
+puny and insignificant. Mr. Matthew last year examined the red shales
+at Braintree, Mass., and was informed by Prof. W. O. Crosby that
+they included many of the types specified as characteristic of the
+Etchemenian fauna, and that no trilobites had with certainty been
+obtained from them. The conditions of their deposition closely resemble
+those of the Etchemenian of Newfoundland.
+
+
+The Paris Exposition, 1900, and Congresses.--The grounds of the Paris
+Exposition of 1900 extend from the southwest angle of the Place de la
+Concorde along both banks of the Seine, nearly a mile and a half, to
+the Avenue de Suffren, which forms the western boundary of the Champ de
+Mars. The principal exhibition spaces are the Park of the Art palaces
+and the Esplanade des Invalides at the east, and the Champ de Mars and
+the Trocadéro at the west. Many entrances and exits will be provided,
+but the principal and most imposing one will be erected at the Place
+de la Concorde, in the form of a triumphal arch. Railways will be
+provided to bring visitors from the city to the grounds, and another
+railway will make their entire circuit. The total surface occupied by
+the exposition grounds is three hundred and thirty-six acres, while
+that of the exposition of 1889 was two hundred and forty acres. Another
+area has been secured in the Park of Vincennes for the exhibition of
+athletic games, sports, etc. The displays will be installed for the
+most part by groups instead of nations. The International Congress of
+Prehistoric Anthropology and Archæology will be held in connection
+with the exposition, August 20th to August 25th. The arrangements for
+it are under the charge of a committee that includes the masters and
+leading representatives of the science in France, of which M. le Dr.
+Verneau, 148 Rue Broca, Paris, is secretary general. A congress of
+persons interested in aërial navigation will be held in the Observatory
+of Meudon, the director of which, M. Janssen, is president of the
+Organizing Committee. Correspondence respecting this congress should be
+addressed to the secretary general, M. Triboulet, Director de Journal
+l'Aeronaute, 10 Rue de la Pepinière, Paris.
+
+
+English Plant Names.--Common English and American names of plants
+are treated by Britton and Brown, in their Illustrated Flora of the
+Northern United States, Canada, and the British possessions, as full of
+interest from their origin, history, and significance. As observed in
+Britton and Holland's Dictionary, "they are derived from a variety of
+languages, often carrying us back to the early days of our country's
+history and to the various peoples who, as conquerors or colonists,
+have landed on our shores and left an impress on our language. Many of
+these Old-World words are full of poetical association, speaking to
+us of the thoughts and feelings of the Old-World people who invented
+them; others tell of the ancient mythology of our ancestors, of strange
+old mediæval usages, and of superstitions now almost forgotten."
+Most of these names, Britton and Brown continue in the preface to
+the third volume of their work, suggest their own explanation. "The
+greater number are either derived from the supposed uses, qualities,
+or properties of the plants; many refer to their habitat, appearance,
+or resemblance, real or fancied, to other things; others come from
+poetical suggestion, affection, or association with saints or persons.
+Many are very graphic, as the Western name prairie fire (_Castillea
+coccinea_); many are quaint or humorous, as cling rascal (_Galium
+sparine_) or wait-a-bit (_Smilax rotundifolia_); and in some the
+corruptions are amusing, as Aunt Jerichos (New England) for _Angelica_.
+The words horse, ox, dog, bull, snake, toad, are often used to denote
+size, coarseness, worthlessness, or aversion. Devil or devil's is used
+as a prefix for upward of forty of our plants, mostly expressive of
+dislike or of some traditional resemblance or association. A number
+of names have been contributed by the Indians, such as chinquapin,
+wicopy, pipsissewa, wankapin, etc., while the term Indian, evidently
+a favorite, is applied as a descriptive prefix to upward of eighty
+different plants." There should be no antagonism in the use of
+scientific and popular names, since their purposes are quite different.
+The scientific names are necessary to students for accuracy, "but the
+vernacular names are a part of the development of the language of
+each people. Though these names are sometimes indicative of specific
+characters and hence scientifically valuable, they are for the most
+part not at all scientific, but utilitarian, emotional, or picturesque.
+As such they are invaluable not for science, but for the common
+intelligence and the appreciation and enjoyment of the plant world."
+
+
+Educated Colored Labor.--In a paper published in connection with the
+Proceedings of the Trustees of the John F. Slater Fund, Mr. Booker
+T. Washington describes his efforts, made at the suggestion of the
+trustees, to bring the work done at the Tuskegee school to the
+knowledge of the white people of the South, and their success. Mr.
+Carver, instructor in agriculture, went before the Alabama Legislature
+and gave an exhibition of his methods and results before the Committee
+on Agriculture. The displays of butter and other farm products proved
+so interesting that many members of the Legislature and other citizens
+inspected the exhibit, and all expressed their gratification. A full
+description of the work in agriculture was published in the Southern
+papers: "The result is that the white people are constantly applying
+to us for persons to take charge of farms, dairies, etc., and in many
+ways showing that their interest in our work is growing in proportion
+as they see the value of it." A visit made by the President of the
+United States gave an opportunity of assembling within the institution
+five members of the Cabinet with their families, the Governor of
+Alabama, both branches of the Alabama Legislature, and thousands of
+white and colored people from all parts of the South. "The occasion
+was most helpful in bringing together the two sections of our country
+and the two races. No people in any part of the world could have acted
+more generously and shown a deeper interest in this school than did
+the white people of Tuskegee and Macon County during the visit of the
+President."
+
+
+Geology of Columbus, Ohio.--In his paper, read at the meeting of the
+American Association, on the geology of Ohio, Dr. Orton spoke of the
+construction of glacial drifts as found in central Ohio and the source
+of the material of the drift, showing that the bowlder clay is largely
+derived from the comminution of black slake, the remnants of which
+appear in North Columbus. He spoke also of the bowlders scattered over
+the surface of the region about Columbus, the parent rocks of which
+may be traced to the shores of the northern lakes, and of Jasper's
+conglomerate, picturesque fragments of which may be found throughout
+central Ohio. Some of these bowlders are known to have come from
+Lake Ontario. Bowlders of native copper also occur, one of which was
+found eight feet below the surface in excavations carried on for the
+foundations of the asylum west of the Scioto.
+
+
+Civilized and Savage.--Professor Semon, in his book In the Australian
+Bush, characterizes the treatment of the natives by the settlers
+as constituting, on the whole, one of the darkest chapters in the
+colonization of Australia. "Everywhere and always we find the same
+process: the whites arrive and settle in the hunting grounds of
+the blacks, who have frequented them since the remotest time. They
+raise paddocks, which the blacks are forbidden to enter. They breed
+cattle, which the blacks are not allowed to approach. Then it happens
+that these stupid savages do not know how to distinguish between a
+marsupial and a placental animal, and spear a calf or a cow instead
+of a kangaroo, and the white man takes revenge for this misdeed by
+systematically killing all the blacks that come before his gun. This,
+again, the natives take amiss, and throw a spear into his back when he
+rides through the bush, or invade his house when he is absent, killing
+his family and servants. Then arrive the 'native police,' a troop of
+blacks from another district, headed by a white officer. They know the
+tricks of their race, and take a special pleasure in hunting down their
+own countrymen, and they avenge the farmer's dead by killing all the
+blacks in the neighborhood, sometimes also their women and children.
+This is the almost typical progress of colonization, and even though
+such things are abolished in the southeastern colonies and in southeast
+and central Queensland, they are by no means unheard of in the north
+and west."
+
+
+
+
+MINOR PARAGRAPHS.
+
+
+In a brood of five nestling sparrow-hawks, which he had the opportunity
+of studying alive and dead, Dr. R. W. Shufeldt remarked that the
+largest and therefore oldest bird was nearly double the size of the
+youngest or smallest one, while the three others were graduated down
+from the largest to the smallest in almost exact proportions." It was
+evident, then, that the female had laid the eggs at regular intervals,
+and very likely three or four days apart, and that incubation commenced
+immediately after the first egg was deposited. What is more worthy
+of note, however, is the fact that the sexes of these nestlings
+alternated, the oldest bird being a male, the next a female, followed
+by another male, and so on, the last or youngest one of all five being
+a male. This last had a plumage of pure white down, with the pin
+feathers of the primaries and secondaries of the wings, as well as the
+rectrices of the tail, just beginning to open at their extremities.
+From this stage gradual development of the plumage is exhibited
+throughout the series, the entire plumage of the males and females
+being very different and distinctive." If it be true, as is possibly
+indicated, that the sexes alternate in broods of young sparrow-hawks as
+a regular thing, the author has no explanation for the fact, and has
+never heard of any being offered.
+
+
+Architecture and Building gives the following interesting facts
+regarding the building trades in Chicago: "Reports from Chicago are
+that labor in building lines is scarce. The scarcity of men is giving
+the building trades council trouble to meet the requirements of
+contractors. It is said that half a dozen jobs that are ready to go
+ahead are at a standstill because men can not be had, particularly
+iron workers and laborers--the employees first to be employed in
+the construction of the modern building. It is also said that wages
+have never been better in the building line. The following is the
+schedule of wages, based on an eight-hour day: Carpenters, $3.40;
+electricians, $3.75; bridge and structural iron workers, $3.60; tin and
+sheet-iron workers, $3.20; plumbers, $4; steam fitters, $3.75; elevator
+constructors, $3; hoisting engineers, $4; derrick men, $2; gas-fitters,
+$3.75; plasterers, $4; marble cutters, $3.50; gravel roofers, $2.80;
+boiler-makers, $2.40; stone sawyers and rubbers, $3; marble enamel
+glassworkers' helpers, $2.25; slate and tile roofers, $3.80; marble
+setters' helpers, $2; steam-fitters' helpers, $2; stone cutters, $4;
+stone carvers, $5; bricklayers, $4; painters, $3; hod carriers and
+building laborers, $2; plasterers' hod carriers, $2.40; mosaic and
+encaustic tile layers, $4; helpers, $2.40."
+
+
+In presenting the fourth part of his memoir on The Tertiary Fauna
+of Florida (Transactions of the Wagner Free Institute of Science,
+Philadelphia), Mr. William Healey Dall observes that the interest
+aroused in the explorations of Florida by the Wagner Institute and its
+friends and by the United States Geological Survey has resulted in
+bringing in a constantly increasing mass of material. The existence of
+Upper Oligocene beds in western Florida containing hundreds of species,
+many of which were new, added two populous faunas to the Tertiary
+series. It having been found that a number of the species belonging to
+these beds had been described from the Antillean tertiaries, it became
+necessary, in order to put the work on a sound foundation, besides the
+review of the species known to occur in the United States, to extend
+the revision to the tertiaries of the West Indies. It is believed that
+the results will be beneficial in clearing the way for subsequent
+students and putting the nomenclature on a more permanent and reliable
+basis.
+
+
+The numerical system of the natives of Murray Island, Torres Strait, is
+described by the Rev. A. E. Hunt, in the Journal of the Anthropological
+Society, as based on two numbers--_netat_, one, and _neis_, two. The
+numbers above two are expressed by composition--_neis-netat_, three;
+_neis i neis_, or two and two, four. Numbers above four are associated
+with parts of the body, beginning with the little and other fingers
+of the left hand, and going on to the wrist, elbow, armpit, shoulder,
+etc., on the left side and going down on the right side, to 21; and the
+toes give ten numbers more, to 31. Larger numbers are simply "many."
+
+
+President William Orton, of the American Association, in his address at
+the welcoming meeting, showed, in the light of the facts recorded in
+Alfred R. Wallace's book on The Wonderful Century, that the scientific
+achievements of the present century exceed all those of the past
+combined. He then turned to the purpose of the American Association to
+labor for the discovery of new truth, and said: "It is possible that
+we could make ourselves more interesting to the general public if we
+occasionally foreswore our loyalty to our name and spent a portion of
+our time in restating established truths. Our contributions to the
+advancement of science are often fragmentary and devoid of special
+interest to the outside world. But every one of them has a place in
+the great temple of knowledge, and the wise master builders, some of
+whom appear in every generation, will find them all and use them all at
+last, and then only will their true value come to light."
+
+
+NOTES.
+
+The number of broods of seventeen-year and thirteen-year locusts has
+become embarrassing to those who seek to distinguish them, and the
+trouble is complicated by the various designations different authors
+have given them. The usual method is to give the brood a number in a
+series, written with a Roman numeral. Mr. C. L. Marlatt proposes a
+regular and uniform nomenclature, giving the first seventeen numbers to
+the seventeen-year broods, beginning with that of 1893 as number I, and
+the next thirteen numbers (XVIII to XXX) to the thirteen-year broods,
+beginning with the brood of 1842 and 1855 as number XVIII.
+
+
+Experimenting on the adaptability of carbonic acid to the inflation of
+pneumatic tires, M. d'Arsonval, of Paris, has found that the gas acts
+upon India rubber, and, swelling its volume out enormously, reduces it
+to a condition like that following maceration in petroleum. On exposure
+to the air the carbonic acid passes away and the India rubber returns
+to its normal condition. Carbonic acid, therefore, does not seem well
+adapted to use in inflation. Oxygen is likewise not adapted, because it
+permeates the India rubber and oxidizes it, but nitrogen is quite inert
+and answers the purpose admirably.
+
+
+Mr. Gifford Pinchot, Forester of the Department of Agriculture, has
+announced that a few well-qualified persons will be received in the
+Division of Forestry as student-assistants. They will be assigned to
+practical field work, and will be allowed their expenses and three
+hundred dollars a year. They are expected to possess, when they come,
+a certain degree of knowledge, which is defined in Mr. Pinchot's
+announcement, of botany, geology, and other sciences, with good general
+attainments.
+
+
+In a communication made to the general meeting of the French Automobile
+Club, in May, the Baron de Zeylen enumerates 600 manufacturers in
+France who have produced 5,250 motor-carriages and about 10,000
+motor-cycles; 110 makers in England, 80 in Germany, 60 in the United
+States, 55 in Belgium, 25 in Switzerland, and about 30 in the other
+states of Europe. The manufacture outside of France does not appear
+to be on a large scale, for only three hundred carriages are credited
+to other countries, and half of these to Belgium. The United States,
+however, promises to give a good account of itself next time.
+
+
+Mine No. 8 of the Sunday Creek Coal Company, to which the American
+Association made its Saturday excursion from Columbus, Ohio, has
+recently been equipped with electric power, which is obtained by
+utilizing the waste gas from the oil wells in the vicinity. This, the
+Ohio State Journal says, is the first mine in the State to make use of
+this natural power.
+
+
+In a bulletin relating to a "dilution cream separator" which is now
+marketed among farmers, the Purdue University Agricultural Experiment
+Station refers to the results of experiments made several years ago as
+showing that an increased loss of fat occurs in skim milk when dilution
+is practiced, that the loss is greater with cold than with warm water,
+and that the value of the skim milk for feeding is impaired when it
+is diluted. Similar results have been obtained at other experiment
+stations. The results claimed to be realized with the separators can be
+obtained by diluting the milk in a comparatively inexpensive round can.
+
+
+To our death list of men known in science we have to add the names
+of John Cordreaux, an English ornithologist, who was eminent as a
+student, for thirty-six years, of bird migrations, and was secretary
+of the British Association's committee on that subject, at Great
+Cotes House, Lincolnshire, England, August 1st, in his sixty-ninth
+year; he was author of a book on the Birds of the Humber District,
+and of numerous contributions to The Zoölogist and The Ibis; Gaston
+Tissandier, founder, and editor for more than twenty years, of the
+French scientific journal _La Nature_, at Paris, August 30th, in
+his fifty-seventh year; besides his devotion to his journal, he was
+greatly interested in aërial navigation, to which he devoted much
+time and means in experiments, and was a versatile author of popular
+books touching various departments of science; Judge Charles P. Daly,
+of New York, who, as president for thirty-six years of the American
+Geographical Society, contributed very largely to the encouragement
+and progress of geographical study in the United States, September
+19th, in his eighty-fourth year; he was an honorary member of the Royal
+Geographical Society of London, of the Berlin Geographical Society,
+and of the Imperial Geographical Society of Russia; he was a judge of
+the Court of Common Pleas of New York from 1844 to 1858, and after
+that chief justice of the same court continuously for twenty-seven
+years, and was besides, a publicist of high reputation, whose opinion
+and advice were sought by men charged with responsibility concerning
+them on many important State and national questions; Henri Lévègne de
+Vilmorin, first vice-president of the Paris School of Horticulture;
+O. G. Jones, Physics Master of the City of London School, from an
+accident on the Dent Blanche, Alps, August 30th; Ambrose A. P. Stewart,
+formerly instructor in chemistry in the Lawrence Scientific School, and
+afterward Professor of Chemistry in the Pennsylvania State College and
+in the University of Illinois, at Lincoln, Neb., September 13th; Dr.
+Charles Fayette Taylor, founder of the New York Orthopedic Dispensary,
+and author of articles in the Popular Science Monthly on Bodily
+Conditions as related to Mental States (vol. xv), Gofio, Food, and
+Physique (vol. xxxi), and Climate and Health (vol. xlvii), and of books
+relating to his special vocation, died in Los Angeles, Cal., January
+25th, in his seventy-second year.
+
+
+Efforts are making for the formation of a Soppitt Memorial Library of
+Mycological Literature, to be presented to the Yorkshire (England)
+Naturalists' Union as a memorial of the services rendered to
+mycological science and to Yorkshire natural history generally, by the
+late Mr. H. T. Soppitt.
+
+
+The United States Department of Agriculture has published, for general
+information and in order to develop a wider interest in the subject,
+the History and Present Status of Instruction in Cooking in the
+Public Schools of New York City, by Mrs. Louise E. Hogan, to which an
+introduction is furnished by A. C. True, Ph. D.
+
+
+The United States Weather Bureau publishes a paper On Lightning and
+Electricity in the Air, by Alexander G. McAdie, representing the
+present knowledge on the subject, and, as supplementary to it or
+forming a second part, Loss of Life and Property by Electricity, by
+Alfred J. Henry.
+
+
+A gift of one thousand dollars has been made to the research fund of
+the American Association for the Advancement of Science by Mr. Emerson
+McMillin, of New York.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Appletons' Popular Science Monthly,
+November 1899, by Various
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK APPLETONS' POPULAR SCIENCE, NOV. 1899 ***
+
+***** This file should be named 44725-8.txt or 44725-8.zip *****
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+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of Appleton's Popular Science Monthly, Vol. 56. November, 1899, by Various.
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+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Appletons' Popular Science Monthly,
+November 1899, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Appletons' Popular Science Monthly, November 1899
+       Volume LVI, No. 1
+
+Author: Various
+
+Editor: William Jay Youmans
+
+Release Date: January 22, 2014 [EBook #44725]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK APPLETONS' POPULAR SCIENCE, NOV. 1899 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Greg Bergquist and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<p class="center">
+Established by Edward L. Youmans</p>
+
+<h1>APPLETONS'<br />
+POPULAR SCIENCE<br />
+MONTHLY</h1>
+
+<p class="center space-above spaced">EDITED BY<br />
+<big>WILLIAM JAY YOUMANS</big></p>
+
+<p class="center space-above spaced">VOL. LIV<br />
+
+NOVEMBER, 1899, TO APRIL, 1900</p>
+
+<p class="center space-above">NEW YORK<br />
+D. APPLETON AND COMPANY<br />
+1900
+</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+
+<p class="center">
+<span class="smcap">Copyright, 1900,<br />
+By</span> D. APPLETON AND COMPANY.<br />
+</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 363px;">
+<img src="images/004.jpg" width="363" height="500" alt="GEORGE M. STERNBERG" />
+<div class="caption">GEORGE M. STERNBERG.</div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h2>CONTENTS.</h2>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tdl"><a href="#THE_REAL_PROBLEMS_OF_DEMOCRACY">The Real Problems of_Democracy.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl"><a href="#AN_ENGLISH_UNIVERSITY">An English University.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl"><a href="#THE_WONDERFUL_CENTURY1">The Wonderful Century.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl"><a href="#SPIDER_BITES_AND_KISSING_BUGS2">Spider Bites and "Kissing Bugs."</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl"><a href="#THE_MOSQUITO_THEORY_OF_MALARIA6">The Mosquito Theory of Malaria.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl"><a href="#FOOD_POISONING">Food Poisoning.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl"><a href="#WIRELESS_TELEGRAPHY">Wireless Telegraphy.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl"><a href="#EMIGRANT_DIAMONDS_IN_AMERICA">Emigrant Diamonds in America.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl"><a href="#NEEDED_IMPROVEMENTS_IN_THEATER_SANITATION">Needed Improvements in Theater Sanitation.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl"><a href="#THE_NEW_FIELD_BOTANY">The New Field Botany.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl"><a href="#DO_ANIMALS_REASON">Do Animals Reason?</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl"><a href="#SKETCH_OF_GEORGE_M_STERNBERG">Sketch of George M. Sternberg.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl"><a href="#Correspondence">Correspondence.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl"><a href="#Editors_Table">Editor's Table.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl"><a href="#Scientific_Literature">Scientific Literature.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl"><a href="#GENERAL_NOTICES">General Notices.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl"><a href="#PUBLICATIONS_RECEIVED">Publications Received.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl"><a href="#Fragments_of_Science">Fragments of Science.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdl"><a href="#MINOR_PARAGRAPHS">Minor Paragraphs.</a></td></tr>
+
+</table></div>
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+
+  <h2>APPLETONS'<br />
+  POPULAR SCIENCE<br />
+  MONTHLY.</h2>
+<hr class="short" />
+
+  <p class="ph3">NOVEMBER, 1899.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="short" />
+
+
+<p class="ph2"><a name="THE_REAL_PROBLEMS_OF_DEMOCRACY" id="THE_REAL_PROBLEMS_OF_DEMOCRACY">THE REAL PROBLEMS OF DEMOCRACY.</a></p>
+
+<p class="ph4"><span class="smcap">By FRANKLIN SMITH.</span></p>
+
+
+<p>Much has been written of late about "the real problems of democracy."
+According to some "thinkers," they consist of the invention of
+ingenious devices to prevent caucus frauds and the purchase of votes,
+to check the passage of special laws as well as too many laws, and
+to infuse into decent people an ardent desire to participate in
+the wrangles of politics. According to others, they consist of the
+invention of equally ingenious devices to compel corporations to manage
+their business in accordance with Christian principles, to transform
+the so-called natural monopolies into either State or municipal
+monopolies, and to effect, by means of the power of taxation, a more
+equitable distribution of wealth. According to still others, they
+consist of the invention of no less ingenious devices to force people
+to be temperate, to observe humanity toward children and animals, and
+to read and study what will make them model citizens. It is innocently
+and touchingly believed that with the solution of these problems, by
+the application of the authority that society has over the individual,
+"the social conscience" will be awakened. But such a belief can not
+be realized. It has its origin in a conception of democracy that has
+no foundation either in history or science. What are supposed to be
+the real problems of democracy are only the problems of despotism&mdash;the
+problems to which every tyrant from time immemorial has addressed
+himself, to the moral and industrial ruin of his subjects.</p>
+
+<p>If democracy be conceived not as a form of political government under
+the <i>régime</i> of universal suffrage, but as a condition of freedom under
+moral control, permitting every man to do as he likes, so long as he
+does not trench upon the equal right of every other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span> man, deliverance
+from the sophistries and absurdities of current social and political
+discussion becomes easy and inevitable. Its real problems cease to
+be an endless succession of political devices that stimulate cunning
+and evasion, and countless encroachments upon individual freedom that
+stir up contention and ill feeling. Instead of being innumerable and
+complex, defying the solvent power of the greatest intellects and the
+efforts of the most enthusiastic philanthropists, they become few and
+simple. While their proper solution is beset with difficulties, these
+difficulties are not as hopeless as the framing of a statute to produce
+a growth of virtue in a depraved heart. Indeed, no such task has ever
+been accomplished, and every effort in that direction has been worse
+than futile. It has encouraged the growth of all the savage traits that
+ages of conflict have stamped so profoundly in the nervous system of
+the race. But let it be understood that the real problems of democracy
+are the problems of self-support and self-control, the problems that
+appeared with the appearance of human life, and that their sole
+solution is to be found in the application of precisely the same
+methods with which Nature disciplines the meanest of her creatures,
+then we may expect a measure of success from the efforts of social
+and political reformers; for freedom of thought and action, coupled
+with the punishment that comes from a failure to comply with the laws
+of life and the conditions of existence, creates an internal control
+far more potent than any law. It impels men to depend upon their own
+efforts to gain a livelihood; it inspires them with a respect for the
+right of others to do the same.</p>
+
+<p>Simple and commonplace as the traits of self-support and self-control
+may seem, they are of transcendent importance. Every other trait sinks
+into insignificance. The society whose members have learned to care for
+themselves and to control themselves has no further moral or economic
+conquests to make. It will be in the happy condition dreamed of by all
+poets, philosophers, and philanthropists. There will be no destitution,
+for each person, being able to maintain himself and his family, will
+have no occasion, except in a case of a sudden and an unforeseen
+misfortune, to look to his friends and neighbors for aid. But in thus
+maintaining himself&mdash;that is, in pursuing the occupation best adapted
+to his ability and most congenial to his taste&mdash;he will contribute
+in the largest degree to the happiness of the other members of the
+community. While they are pursuing the occupations best adapted to
+their ability and most congenial to their tastes, they will be able to
+obtain from him, as he will be able to obtain from them, those things
+that both need to supplement the products of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span> their own industry. Since
+each will be left in full possession of all the fruits of his own toil,
+he will be at liberty to make just such use of them as will contribute
+most to his happiness, thus permitting the realization, in the only
+practicable way, of Bentham's principle of "the greatest happiness
+of the greatest number." Since all of them will be free to make such
+contracts as they believe will be most advantageous to them, exchanging
+what they are willing to part with for what some one else is willing
+to give in return, there will prevail the only equitable distribution
+of the returns from labor and capital. No one will receive more and no
+one less than he is entitled to. Thus will benefit be in proportion to
+merit, and the most scrupulous justice be satisfied.</p>
+
+<p>But this <i>régime</i> of equity in the distribution of property implies, as
+I have already said, the possession of a high degree of self-control.
+Not only must all persons have such a keen sense of their own rights
+as will never permit them to submit to infringement, but they must
+have such a keen sense of the rights of others that they will not be
+guilty themselves of infringement. Not only will they refrain from the
+commission of those acts of aggression whose ill effects are immediate
+and obvious; they will refrain from those acts whose ill effects are
+remote and obscure. Although they will not, for example, deceive or
+steal or commit personal assaults, they will not urge the adoption of
+a policy that will injure the unknown members of other communities,
+like the Welsh tin-plate makers and the Vienna pearl-button makers that
+the McKinley Bill deprived of employment. Realizing the vice of the
+plea of the opponents of international copyright that cheap literature
+for a people is better than scrupulous honesty, they will not refuse
+to foreign authors the same protection to property that they demand.
+They will not, finally, allow themselves to take by compulsion or by
+persuasion the property of neighbors to be used to alleviate suffering
+or to disseminate knowledge in a way to weaken the moral and physical
+strength of their fellows. But the possession of a sense of justice
+so scrupulous assumes the possession of a fellow-feeling so vivid
+that it will allow no man to refuse all needful aid to the victims of
+misfortune. As suffering to others will mean suffering to himself,
+he will be as powerfully moved to go to their rescue as he would to
+protect himself against the same misfortune. Indeed, he will be moved,
+as all others will be moved, to undertake without compulsion all the
+benevolent work, be it charitable or educational, that may be necessary
+to aid those persons less fortunate than himself to obtain the greatest
+possible satisfaction out of life.</p>
+
+<p>But the methods of social reform now in greatest vogue do<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span> not
+contribute to the realization of any such millennium. They are a
+flagrant violation of the laws of life and the conditions of existence.
+They make difficult, if not impossible, the establishment of the moral
+government of a democracy that insures every man and woman not only
+freedom but also sustentation and protection. In disregard of the
+principles of biology, which demand that benefit shall be in proportion
+to merit, the feeble members of society are fostered at the expense
+of the strong. Setting at defiance the principles of psychology,
+which insist upon the cultivation of the clearest perception of the
+inseparable relation of cause and effect and the equally inseparable
+relation of aggression and punishment, honest people are turned into
+thieves and murderers, and thieves and murderers are taught to believe
+that no retribution awaits the commission of the foulest crime.
+Scornful of the principles of sociology, which teach in the plainest
+way that the institutions of feudalism are the products of war and can
+serve no other purpose than the promotion of aggression, a deliberate
+effort, born of the astonishing belief that they can be transformed
+into the agencies of progress, is made in time of peace to restore them
+to life.</p>
+
+<p>To the American Philistine nothing is more indicative of the marvelous
+moral superiority of this age and country than the rapid increase
+in the public expenditures for enterprises "to benefit the people."
+Particularly enamored is he of the showy statistics of hospitals,
+asylums, reformatories, and other so-called charitable institutions
+supported by public taxation. "How unselfish we are!" he exclaims,
+swelling with pride as he points to them. "In what other age or in what
+other country has so much been done for the poor and unfortunate?"
+Naught shall ever be said by me against the desire to help others.
+The fellow-feeling that thrives upon the aid rendered to the sick and
+destitute I believe to be the most precious gift of civilization.
+Upon its growth depends the further moral advancement of the race. As
+I have already intimated, only as human beings are able to represent
+to themselves vividly the sufferings of others will they be moved to
+desist from the conduct that contributes to those sufferings. But the
+system of public charity that prevails in this country is not charity
+at all; it is a system of forcible public largesses, as odious and
+demoralizing as the one that contributed so powerfully to the downfall
+of Athens and Rome. By it money is extorted from the taxpayer with as
+little justification as the crime of the highwayman, and expended by
+politicians with as little love as he of their fellows. What is the
+result? Precisely what might be expected. He is infuriated because of
+the growing burden of his taxes.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span> Instead of being made more humane and
+sympathetic with every dollar he gives under compulsion to the poor and
+suffering, he becomes more hard-hearted and bitter toward his fellows.
+The notion that society, as organized at present, is reducing him to
+poverty and degradation takes possession of him. He becomes an agitator
+for violent reforms that will only render his condition worse. At the
+same time the people he aids come to regard him simply as a person
+under obligations to care for them. They feel no more gratitude toward
+him than the wolf toward the victim of its hunger and ferocity.</p>
+
+<p>Akin to public charity are all those public enterprises undertaken to
+ameliorate the condition of the poor&mdash;parks, model tenement houses, art
+galleries, free concerts, free baths, and relief works of all kinds. To
+these I must add all those Federal, State, and municipal enterprises,
+such as the post office with the proposed savings attachment, a State
+system of highways and waterways, municipal water, gas and electric
+works, etc., that are supposed to be of inestimable advantage to the
+same worthy class. These likewise fill the heart of the American
+Philistine with immense satisfaction. Although he finds, by his study
+of pleasing romances on municipal government in Europe, that we have
+yet to take some further steps before we fall as completely as the
+inhabitants of Paris and Berlin into the hands of municipal despotism,
+he is convinced that we have made gratifying headway, and that the
+outlook for complete subjection to that despotism is encouraging. But
+it should be remembered that splendid public libraries and public
+baths, and extensive and expensive systems of highways and municipal
+improvements, built under a modified form of the old <i>corvée</i>, are
+no measure of the fellow-feeling and enlightenment of a community.
+On the contrary, they indicate a pitiful incapacity to appreciate
+the rights of others, and are, therefore, a measure rather of the
+low degree of civilization. It should be remembered also, especially
+by the impoverished victims of the delusions of the legislative
+philanthropist, that there is no expenditure that yields a smaller
+return in the long run than public expenditure; that however honest the
+belief that public officials will do their duty as conscientiously and
+efficiently as private individuals, history has yet to record the fact
+of any bureaucracy; that however profound the conviction that the cost
+of these "public blessings" comes out of the pockets of the rich and is
+on that account particularly justifiable, it comes largely out of the
+pockets of the poor; and that by the amount abstracted from the income
+of labor and capital by that amount is the sum divided between labor
+and capital reduced.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>"But," interposes the optimist, "have the Americans not their great
+public-school system, unrivaled in the world, to check and finally
+to end the evils that appear thus far to be inseparably connected
+with popular government? Is there any truth more firmly established
+than that it is the bulwark of American institutions, and that if we
+maintain it as it should be maintained they will be able to weather any
+storm that may threaten?" Precisely the same argument has been urged
+time out of mind in behalf of an ecclesiastical system supported at
+the expense of the taxpayer. Good men without number have believed,
+and have fought to maintain their belief, that only by the continuance
+of this form of aggression could society be saved from corruption and
+barbarism. Even in England to-day, where freedom and civilization
+have made their most brilliant conquests, this absurd contention
+is made to bolster up the rotten and tottering union of Church and
+state, and to justify the seizure of the property of taxpayers to
+support a particular form of ecclesiastical instruction. But no fact
+of history has received demonstrations more numerous and conclusive
+than that such instruction, whether Protestant or Catholic, Buddhist
+or Mohammedan, in the presence of the demoralizing forces of militant
+activities, is as impotent as the revolutions of the prayer wheel of
+a pious Hindu. To whatever country or people or age we may turn, we
+find that the spirit of the warrior tramples the spirit of the saint
+in the dust. Despite the lofty teachings of Socrates and Plato, the
+Athenians degenerated until the name of the Greek became synonymous
+with that of the blackest knave. With the noble examples and precepts
+of the Stoics in constant view, the Romans became beastlier than any
+beast. All through the middle ages and down to the present century
+the armies of ecclesiastics, the vast libraries of theology, and the
+myriads of homilies and prayers were impotent to prevent the social
+degradation that inundated the world with the outbreak of every great
+conflict. Take, for example, a page from the history of Spain. At the
+time of Philip II, who tried to make his people as rigid as monks, that
+country had no rival in its fanatical devotion to the Church, or its
+slavish observance of the forms of religion. Yet its moral as well as
+its intellectual and industrial life was sinking to the lowest level.
+Official corruption was rampant. The most shameless sexual laxity
+pervaded all ranks. The name of Spanish women, who had "in previous
+times been modest, almost austere and Oriental in their deportment,"
+became a byword and a reproach throughout the world. "The ladies are
+naturally shameless," says Camille Borghese, the Pope's delegate
+to Madrid in 1593, "and even in the streets go up and address men
+unknown to them, looking upon it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span> as a kind of heresy to be properly
+introduced. They admit all sorts of men to their conversation, and
+are not in the least scandalized at the most improper proposals being
+made to them." To see how ecclesiastics themselves fall a prey to the
+ethics of militant activities, becoming as heartless and debauched as
+any other class, take a page from Italian history at the time of Pope
+Alexander VI. "Crimes grosser than Scythian," says a pious Catholic who
+visited Rome, "acts of treachery worse than Carthaginian, are committed
+without disguise in the Vatican itself under the eyes of the Pope.
+There are rapines, murders, incests, debaucheries, cruelties exceeding
+those of the Neros and Caligulas." Similar pages from the history of
+every other country in Europe given up to war, including Protestant
+England, might be quoted.</p>
+
+<p>But what is true of ecclesiastical effort in the presence of militant
+activities is true of pedagogic effort in the presence of political
+activities. For more than half a century the public-school system
+in its existing form has been in full and energetic operation. The
+money devoted to it every year now reaches the enormous total of one
+hundred and eighty million dollars. Simultaneously an unprecedented
+extension of secondary education has occurred. Since the war, colleges
+and universities, supported in whole or in part at the public expense,
+have been established in more than half of the States and Territories
+of the Union. To these must be added the phenomenal growth of normal
+schools, high schools, and academies, and of the equipment of the
+educational institutions already in existence. Yet, as a result, are
+the American people more moral than they were half a century ago? Have
+American institutions&mdash;that is, the institutions based upon the freedom
+of the individual&mdash;been made more secure? I venture to answer both
+questions with an emphatic negative. The construction and operation
+of the greatest machine of pedagogy recorded in history has been
+absolutely impotent to stem the rising tide of political corruption
+and social degeneration. If there are skeptics that doubt the truth
+of this indictment let them study the criminal history of the day
+that records the annual commission of more than six thousand suicides
+and more than ten thousand homicides, and the embezzlement of more
+than eleven million dollars. Let them study the lying pleas of the
+commercial interests of the country that demand protection against "the
+pauper labor of Europe," and thus commit a shameless aggression upon
+the pauper labor of America. Let them study the records of the deeds
+of intolerance and violence committed upon workingmen that refuse to
+exchange their personal liberty for membership of a despotic labor
+organization. Let them study the columns of the newspapers, crowded
+with records of crime,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span> salacious stories, and ignorant comment on
+current questions and events that appeal to a population as unlettered
+and base as themselves. Let them study, finally, the appalling
+indictment of American political life, in a State where the native
+blood still runs pure in the veins of the majority of the inhabitants,
+that Mr. John Wanamaker framed in a great speech at the opening of
+his memorable campaign in Lancaster against the most powerful and
+most corrupt despotism that can be found outside of Russia or Turkey.
+"In the fourth century of Rome, in the time of Emperor Theodosius,
+Hellebichus was master of the forces," he said, endeavoring to describe
+a condition of affairs that exists in a similar degree in every State
+in the Union, "and Cæsarius was count of the offices. In the nineteenth
+century, M. S. Quay is count of the offices, and W. A. Andrews, Prince
+of Lexow, is master of forces in Pennsylvania, and we have to come
+through the iron age and the silver age to the worst of all ages&mdash;the
+degraded, evil age of conscienceless, debauched politics.... Profligacy
+and extravagance and boss rule everywhere oppress the people. By the
+multiplication of indictments your district attorney has multiplied
+his fees far beyond the joint salaries of both your judges. The
+administration of justice before the magistrates has degenerated
+into organized raids on the county treasury.... Voters are corruptly
+influenced or forcibly coerced to do the bidding of the bosses, and
+thus force the fetters of political vassalage on the freemen of the
+old guard. School directors, supervisors, and magistrates, and the
+whole machinery of local government, are involved and dominated by this
+accursed system."</p>
+
+<p>But Mr. Wanamaker might have added that the whole social and industrial
+life of the country is involved and dominated by the same system. It
+is a well-established law of social science that the evil effects
+of a dominant activity are not confined to the persons engaged
+in it. Like a contagion, they spread to every part of the social
+organization, and poison the life farthest removed from their origin.
+Yet the public-school system, so impotent to save us from social and
+political degradation and still such an object of unbounded pride and
+adulation, is, as Mr. Wanamaker, all unconscious of the implication of
+his scathing criticism, points out in so many words, an integral part
+of the vast and complex machinery that political despotism has seized
+upon to plunder and enslave the American people. As in the case of
+every other extension of the duties of government beyond the limits
+of the preservation of order and the enforcement of justice, it is an
+aggression upon the rights of the individual, and, as in the case of
+every other aggression, contributes powerfully to the decay of national
+character<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> and free institutions. It adds thousands upon thousands to
+the constantly growing army of tax eaters that are impoverishing the
+people still striving against heavy odds to gain an honest livelihood.
+It places in the hands of the political despots now ruling the country,
+without the responsibility that the most odious monarchs have to bear,
+a revenue and an army of mercenaries that make more and more difficult
+emancipation from their shackles. It is doing more than anything else
+except the post-office department to teach people that there is no
+connection between merit and benefit; that they have the right to look
+to the State rather than to themselves for maintenance; that they
+are under no obligations to see that they do not take from others,
+in the form of salaries not earned nor intended to be earned, what
+does not belong to them. In the face of this wholesale destruction of
+fellow-feeling such as occurred in France under the old <i>régime</i> and is
+occurring to-day in Italy and Spain, and the inculcation of the ethics
+of militant activities, such as may be observed in these countries as
+well as elsewhere in Europe, is it any wonder that the mind-stuffing
+that goes on in the public schools has no more effect upon the morals
+of the American people than the creeds and prayers of the mediæval
+ecclesiastics that joined in wars and the spoliation of oppressed
+populations throughout Europe?</p>
+
+<p>Since the path that all people under popular government as well
+as under forms more despotic are pursuing so energetically and
+hopefully leads to the certain destruction of the foundations of
+civilization, what is the path that social science points out? What
+must they do to prevent the extinction of the priceless acquisition
+of fellow-feeling, now vanishing so rapidly before the most unselfish
+efforts to promote it? The supposition is that the social teachings
+of the philosophy of evolution have no answer to these questions.
+Believing that they inculcate the hideous <i>laissez-faire</i> doctrine of
+"each for himself and the devil take the hindmost," so characteristic
+of human relations among all classes of people in this country, the
+victims of this supposition have repudiated them. But I propose to
+show that they are the only teachings that give the slightest promise
+of social amelioration. Although they are ignorantly stigmatized as
+individualistic, and therefore necessarily selfish and inconsiderate
+of the welfare of others, they are in reality socialistic in the best
+sense of the word&mdash;that is, they enjoin voluntary, not coercive,
+co-operation, and insure the noblest humanity and the most perfect
+civilization, moral as well as material, that can be attained.</p>
+
+<p>Why a society organized upon the individualistic instead of the
+socialistic basis will realize every achievement admits of easy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span>
+explanation. A man dependent upon himself is forced by the struggle
+for existence to exercise every faculty he possesses or can possibly
+develop to save himself and his progeny from extinction. Under
+such pitiless and irresistible pressure he acquires the highest
+physical and intellectual strength. Thus equipped with weapons
+absolutely indispensable in any state of society, whether civilized
+or uncivilized, he is prepared for the conquest of the world. He
+gains also the physical and moral courage needful to cope with the
+difficulties that terrify and paralyze the people that have not been
+subjected to the same rigid discipline. Energetic and self-reliant, he
+assails them with no thought of failure. If, however, he meets with
+reverses, he renews the attack, and repeats it until success finally
+comes to reward his efforts. Such prolonged struggles give steadiness
+and solidity to his character that do not permit him to abandon himself
+to trifles or to yield easily, if at all, to excitement and panic. He
+never falls a victim to Reigns of Terror. The more trying the times,
+the more self-possessed, clear-headed, and capable of grappling with
+the situation he becomes, and soon rises superior to it. With every
+triumph over difficulties there never fails to come the joy that
+more than balances the pain and suffering endured. But the pain and
+suffering are as precious as the joy of triumph. Indelibly registered
+in the nervous system, they enable their victim to feel as others feel
+passing through the same experience, and this fellow-feeling prompts
+him to render them the assistance they may need. In this way be becomes
+a philanthropist. Possessed of the abundant means that the success of
+his enterprises has placed in his hands, he is in a position to help
+them to a degree not within the reach nor the desires of the member of
+the society organized upon the socialistic basis.</p>
+
+<p>In the briefest appeal to history may be found the amplest support
+for these deductions from the principles of social science. Wherever
+the individual has been given the largest freedom to do whatever he
+pleases, as long as he does not trench upon the equal freedom of
+others, there we witness all those achievements and discover all
+those traits that indicate an advanced state of social progress.
+The people are the most energetic, the most resourceful, the most
+prosperous, the most considerate and humane, the most anxious, and the
+most competent to care for their less fortunate fellows. On the other
+hand, wherever the individual has been most repressed, deterred by
+custom or legislation from making the most of himself in every way,
+there are to be observed social immobility or retrogression and all
+the hateful traits that belong to barbarians. The people are inert,
+slavish, cruel, and superstitious. In the ancient world one type
+of society is represented by the Egyptians<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> and Assyrians, and the
+other by the Greeks and Romans. In the modern world all the Oriental
+peoples, particularly the Hindus and Chinese, represent the former, and
+the Occidental peoples, particularly the Anglo-Saxons, represent the
+latter. So superior, in fact, are the Anglo-Saxons because of their
+observance of the sacred and fruitful principle of individual freedom
+that they control the most desirable parts of the earth's surface. If
+not checked by the practice of a philosophy that has destroyed all
+the great peoples of antiquity and paralyzed their competitors in the
+establishment of colonies in the New as well as the Old World, there is
+no reason to doubt that the time will eventually come when, like the
+Romans, there will be no other rule than theirs in all the choicest
+parts of the globe.</p>
+
+<p>It is the immense material superiority of the Anglo-Saxon peoples
+over all other nations that first arrests attention. No people in
+Europe possess the capital or conduct the enterprises that the
+English and Americans do. They have more railroads, more steamships,
+more factories, more foundries, more warehouses, more of everything
+that requires wealth and energy than their rivals. Though the fact
+evokes the sneers of the Ruskins and Carlyles, these enterprises are
+the indispensable agents of civilization. They have done more for
+civilization, for the union of distant peoples, and the development of
+fellow-feeling&mdash;for all that makes life worth living&mdash;than all the art,
+literature, and theology ever produced. Without industry and commerce,
+which these devotees of "the higher life" never weary of deprecating,
+how would the inhabitants of the Italian republics have achieved the
+intellectual and artistic conquests that make them the admiration of
+every historian? The Stones of Venice could not have been written. The
+artists could not have lived that enabled Vassari to hand his name
+down to posterity. The new learning would have been a flower planted
+in a barren soil, and even before it had come to bud it would have
+fallen withered. May we not, therefore, expect that in like manner the
+wealth and freedom of the Anglo-Saxon race will bring forth fruits
+that shall not evoke scorn and contempt? Already their achievements
+in every field except painting, sculpture, and architecture eclipse
+those of their rivals. Not excepting the literature of the Greeks,
+is any so rich, varied, powerful, and voluminous as theirs? If they
+have no Cæsar or Napoleon, they have a long list of men that have been
+of infinitely greater use to civilization than those two products of
+militant barbarism. If judged by practical results, they are without
+rivals in the work of education. By their inventions and their
+applications of the discoveries of science they have distanced all
+competitors in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> race for industrial and commercial supremacy. In
+the work of philanthropy no people has done as much as they. The volume
+of their personal effort and pecuniary contributions to ameliorate
+the condition of the poor and unfortunate are without parallel in the
+annals of charity. Yet Professor Ely, echoing the opinion of Charles
+Booth and other misguided philanthropists, has the assurance to tell us
+that "individualism has broken down." It is the social philosophy that
+they are trying to thrust upon the world again that stands hopelessly
+condemned before the remorseless tribunal of universal experience.</p>
+
+<p>In the light thus obtained from science and history, the duty of the
+American people toward the current social and political philosophy
+and all the quack measures it proposes for the amelioration of the
+condition of the unfortunate becomes clear and urgent. It is to
+pursue without equivocation or deviation the policy of larger and
+larger freedom for the individual that has given the Anglo-Saxon his
+superiority and present dominance in the world. To this end they should
+oppose with all possible vigor every proposed extension of the duty
+of the state that does not look to the preservation of order and the
+enforcement of justice. Regarding it as an onslaught of the forces of
+barbarism, they should make no compromise with it; they should fight it
+until freedom has triumphed. The next duty is to conquer the freedom
+they still lack. Here the battle must be for the suppression of the
+system of protective tariffs, for the transfer to private enterprise
+and beneficence, the duties of the post office, the public schools, and
+all public charities, for the repeal of all laws in regulation of trade
+and industry as well as those in regulation of habits and morals. As
+an inspiration it should be remembered that the struggle is not only
+for freedom but for honesty. For the truth can not be too loudly or
+too often proclaimed that every law taking a dollar from a man without
+his consent, or regulating his conduct not in accordance with his own
+notions, but in accordance with those of his neighbors, contributes to
+the education of a people in idleness and crime. The next duty is to
+encourage on every hand an appeal to voluntary effort to accomplish
+all tasks too great for the strength of the individual. Whether those
+tasks be moral, industrial, or educational, voluntary co-operation
+alone should assume them and carry them to a successful issue. The
+government should have no more to do with them than it has to do with
+the cultivation of wheat or the management of Sunday schools or the
+suppression of backbiting. The last and final duty should be to cheapen
+and, as fast as possible, to establish gratuitous justice. With the
+great diminution of crime that would result from the observance of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span>
+duties already mentioned there would be much less occasion than now
+to appeal to the courts. But, whenever the occasion arises, it should
+involve no cost to the person that feels that his rights have been
+invaded.</p>
+
+<p>Thus will be solved indirectly all the problems of democracy that
+social and political reformers seek in vain to solve directly. With the
+diminution of the duties of the state to the preservation of order and
+the enforcement of justice will be effected a reform as important and
+far reaching as the suppression of chronic warfare. When politicians
+are deprived of the immense plunder now involved in political warfare,
+it will not be necessary to devise futile plans for caucus reform, or
+ballot reform, or convention reform, or charter reform, or legislative
+reform. Having no more incentive to engage in their nefarious business
+than the smugglers that the abolition of the infamous tariff laws
+banished from Europe, they will disappear among the crowd of honest
+toilers. The suppression of the robberies of the tax collectors and
+tax eaters, who have become so vast an army in the United States,
+will effect also a solution of all labor problems. A society that
+permits every toiler to work for whomsoever he pleases and for whatever
+he pleases, protecting him in the full enjoyment of all the fruits
+of his labor, has done for him everything that can be done. It has
+taught him self-support and self-control. In thus guaranteeing him
+freedom of contract and putting an end to the plunder of a bureaucracy
+and privileged classes of private individuals, the beneficiaries of
+special legislation, it has effected the only equitable distribution
+of property possible. At the same time it has accomplished a vastly
+greater work. As I have shown, the indispensable condition of success
+of all movements for moral reform is the suppression not only of
+militant strife, but of political strife. While they prevail, all
+ecclesiastical and pedagogic efforts to better the condition of society
+must fail. Despite lectures, despite sermons and prayers, despite also
+literature and art, the ethics controlling the conduct of men and women
+will be those of war. But with the abolition of both forms of militant
+strife it becomes an easy task to teach the ethics of peace, and to
+establish a state of society that requires no other government than
+that of conscience. All the forces of industrialism contribute to the
+work and insure its success.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>"This thirst for shooting every rare or unwonted kind of bird,"
+says the author of an article in the London Saturday Review, "is
+accountable for the disappearance of many interesting forms of life in
+the British Islands."</p></blockquote>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<p class="ph2"><a name="AN_ENGLISH_UNIVERSITY" id="AN_ENGLISH_UNIVERSITY">AN ENGLISH UNIVERSITY.</a></p>
+
+<p class="ph4"><span class="smcap">By HERBERT STOTESBURY.</span></p>
+
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 280px;">
+<img src="images/illo_018.jpg" width="280" height="400" alt="Michael Foster" />
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Michael Foster</span>, K. C. B., M. A., F. R. S.,
+Trinity. Professor of Physiology.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Most minds in America, as in England, if they think about the
+subject at all, impute to the two ancient centers of Anglo-Saxon
+learning&mdash;Oxford and Cambridge&mdash;an unquestionable supremacy. A halo
+of greatness surrounds these august institutions, none the less real
+because to the American mind, at least, it is vague. Half the books
+students at other institutions require in their various courses have
+the names of eminent Cambridge or Oxford men upon the fly leaf.
+Michael Foster's Physiology, Sidgwick's Methods of Ethics, and Bryce's
+American Commonwealth are recognized text-books wherever the subjects
+of which they treat are studied; while Sir G. G. Stokes, Jebb, Lord
+Acton, Caird, Max Müller, and Ray Lankester are as well known to
+students of Leland Stanford or Princeton as they are to Englishmen.
+One can scarcely read a work on English literature or open an English
+novel which does not make some reference to one or other of the great
+universities or their colleges, inseparably associated as they are
+with English life and history, past and present. Our oldest college
+owes its existence to John Harvard, of Emmanuel, Cambridge, and the
+name of the mother university still clings to her transatlantic
+offspring. The English institutions have become firmly associated in
+the vulgar mind with all that is dignified, venerable, and thorough in
+learning, but, beyond a vague sentiment of admiration, little adequate
+knowledge on the subject is abroad. American or German universities are
+organizations not very difficult to comprehend, and a vague knowledge
+of them is perhaps sufficient. The understanding, however, of those
+complicated academic communities, Oxford and Cambridge, is a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> matter of
+intimate experience. They differ widely from their sister institutions
+in other countries, and in attempting to give some conception of
+their peculiarities the writer proposes to restrict himself chiefly
+to Cambridge, because there are not very many striking differences
+between the latter and Oxford, and because the scientific supremacy
+of Cambridge is sufficiently established to render her an object of
+greater interest to the readers of the Science Monthly.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 280px;">
+<img src="images/illo_019.jpg" width="280" height="400" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">The Right Hon. <span class="smcap">Lord Acton</span>, M. A., LL. D.,
+Trinity. Professor of Modern History.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>First of all, it must be borne in mind that throughout most of their
+history these institutions have been closely related, not to the body
+of the people, but to the aristocracy. This was not so much the case
+at first, before the university became an aggregate of colleges. Then
+a rather poor and humble class were enabled, through the small expense
+involved, to acquire the rudiments of an education, and even to become
+proficient in the scholastic dialectic. But ere long, and with the
+gradual endowment of different colleges, the expenses of a student
+became much greater, and, save where scholarships could be obtained,
+it required some affluence before parents could afford to give their
+sons an academic training. Hence, the more fortunate or aristocratic
+classes came in time to contribute the large majority of the student
+body. Those whose intellectual attainments were so unusual as to
+constitute ways and means have never been debarred, but impecunious
+mediocrity had and still has little place or opportunity. It is well to
+remember, in addition, that the Church fostered these universities in
+their infancy, that it deserves unqualified credit for having nursed
+them through their early months, and that it continues to have some
+considerable influence over the modern institutions. Finally, the
+growth of Cambridge and Oxford has largely been occasioned by lack of
+rivals in their own class. In this branch or that, other institutions
+have become deservedly famous. Edinburgh has a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> high reputation in
+moral science; Manchester is renowned for her physics, chemistry,
+and engineering; and London for her medical schools. But Oxford and
+Cambridge are strong in many branches. Financially powerful, they are
+able to attract the majority of promising and eminent men, whence has
+resulted that remarkable <i>coterie</i> of unrivaled intellects through whom
+the above-named universities are chiefly known to the outer and foreign
+world. This characteristic has its opposite illustrated in the United
+States, where the tendency is centrifugal, no one or two universities
+or colleges having advantages so decided as inevitably to attract most
+of the best minds, and where, in consequence, the best minds are found
+scattered from California to Harvard and Pennsylvania.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 279px;">
+<img src="images/illo_020.jpg" width="279" height="400" alt="J. J. Thomson" />
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">J. J. Thomson</span>, M. A., F. R. S., Trinity.
+Professor of Experimental Physics.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The characteristic peculiar to Cambridge and Oxford, and which
+distinguishes them not only from American but also from all other
+universities in England and elsewhere, is the college system. Thus
+Cambridge is a collection of eighteen colleges which, though nominally
+united to form one institution, are really distinct, inasmuch as
+each is a separate community with its own buildings and grounds, its
+own resident students, its own lecturers, and Fellows&mdash;a community
+which is supported by its own moneys without aid from the university
+exchequer, and which in most matters legislates for itself. The
+system is not unlike the American Union on a small scale, with its
+cluster of governments and their relation to a supreme center. The
+advantages of this scheme might theoretically be very great. With
+each college handsomely endowed and, though managing its own affairs,
+entering freely, in addition, into those relations of reciprocity
+which make for the good of the whole, one can readily imagine an
+ideal academic commonwealth. And while the present condition of the
+university can scarcely be said to approximate very closely to such
+an academic Utopia, it yet derives from its<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> constitution numerous
+obvious advantages which universities otherwise constituted would and
+do undoubtedly lack. The chief evils besetting the university are
+perhaps more adventitious than inherent; they are largely financial,
+and arise from carrying the system of college individualism too far. A
+description of the college and university organization may make this
+apparent. By its endowment a college must support a certain number
+of Fellows and scholars. The latter form a temporary body, while the
+former are more or less permanent, and therefore upon them devolves the
+management of the college. Business is usually done by a council chosen
+from the Fellows, and the election of new Fellows to fill vacancies is
+made by this select body. The head of a college is known as the master;
+he is elected by the Fellows save in one or two cases, where his
+appointment rests with the crown or with certain wealthy individuals.
+He lives in the college lodge especially built for him, draws a salary
+large in proportion to the wealth of his college, and exerts an
+influence corresponding to his intelligence.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 266px;">
+<img src="images/illo_021.jpg" width="266" height="400" alt="G. H. Darwin" />
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">G. H. Darwin</span>, M. A., F. R. S., Trinity. Plumian
+Professor of Astronomy.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Fellows are in most cases chosen from those men who have achieved
+the greatest success in an honor course. At Cambridge College
+individualism has progressed so far that the Fellows of, say, Magdalen
+must be Magdalen men, the students of Queens', St Catherine's, or any
+other being ineligible save for their own fellowships. Oxford obtains
+perhaps better men on the whole by throwing open the fellowships of
+each particular college to the graduates of all, thus producing a
+wider competition. A fellowship until recently was tenable for life,
+but it has been reduced to about six years, the Fellows as a whole,
+however, retaining the power to extend the period of possession. And,
+further, the holding of a college office for fifteen years in general
+qualifies for the holding of a fellow<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span>ship for life, and for a pension
+as lecturer or tutor. Thus a man is able to devote himself to research
+with little fear that at the latter end of his career he will lack the
+means of support. It is perhaps not too much to say that the offices of
+college dean, tutor, and lecturer are more perquisites than anything
+else. They are meant to keep and attract men of ability and parts.
+However, their existence reacts upon the student body by augmenting
+the expenses of the latter out of proportion to the benefits to be
+obtained. For instance, instead of utilizing one set of lecturers for
+one class of subjects, which all students could attend for a small fee,
+each of the larger colleges, at any rate, pays special lecturers, drawn
+from its own Fellows, to speak upon the same subjects each to a mere
+handful of men from their own college only. The tutor is another luxury
+inherited from the middle ages and therefore retained, and one for
+which the students have to pay dearly. The chief business of the tutor
+is not to teach, but to "look after" a certain number of students who
+are theoretically relegated to his charge. He looks up their lodgings
+for them, pays their bills at the end of the term, gets them out of
+scrapes, and draws a large salary. The tutorships seem to the writer
+to be a good illustration of how an office necessary to one period
+persists after that for which it was instituted has ceased to exist.
+When the students of Oxford and Cambridge were many of them thirteen
+and fourteen years of age, as in the fourteenth century, nurses were
+doubtless necessary, but they are still retained when the greater
+maturity of the students renders them not only unnecessary but at times
+even an impertinence.</p>
+
+<p>The dean is not, as with us, the head of a department; his functions
+are not so many, his tasks far less onerous. It is before a college
+dean that students are "hauled" for such offenses as irregularity at
+chapel, returning to the college after 12 <span class="smcap">P. M.</span>, smoking in
+college precincts, bringing dogs into the college grounds, and other
+villainous offenses against regulations. A dean must also attend
+chapel. Some colleges require two deans to struggle through these
+complicated and laborious duties, though some possessing only a few
+dozen students succeed in getting along with one.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 283px;">
+<img src="images/illo_023.jpg" width="283" height="400" alt="R. C. Jebb" />
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">R. C. Jebb</span>, Litt. D., M. P., Trinity. Regius
+Professor of Greek.</div>
+</div>
+<p>The line of demarcation between the university and the colleges is
+very distinct. The legislative influence of the former extends over a
+comparatively restricted field. All professorial chairs and certain
+lectureships belong to and are paid by the university; the latter
+has the arranging of the curricula, the care of the laboratories,
+the disposition of certain noncollegiate scholarships; but, broadly
+speaking, its two functions are the examination of all students and the
+conferring of degrees. The supreme legislative body<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> is the senate,
+and it is composed of all masters of arts, doctors, and bachelors
+of divinity whose names still remain on the university books&mdash;that
+is, who continue to pay certain fees into the university treasury.
+In addition to the legislative body there is an executive head or
+council of nineteen, including the chancellor&mdash;at present the Duke of
+Devonshire&mdash;and the vice-chancellor. Both these bodies must govern
+according to the statutes, no alteration in which can be effected
+without recourse being had to Parliament. The senate is a peculiar
+body, and on occasions becomes somewhat unwieldy. It consists at
+present of some 6,800 members, of whom only 452 are in residence at
+Cambridge. Upon ordinary occasions only these 452 vote upon questions
+proposed by the council; but on occasions of great moment, as when
+the question of granting university degrees to women came up, some
+thousands or more of the nonresident members, who in many cases have
+lost touch with the modern university and modern systems of education,
+swarm to their alma mater, annihilate the champions of reform, and are
+hailed by their brethren as the saviors of their university.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 278px;">
+<img src="images/illo_024.jpg" width="278" height="400" alt="Henry Sidgwick" />
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Henry Sidgwick</span>, Litt. D., Trinity. Knightbridge
+Professor of Moral Philosophy.</div>
+</div>
+<p>The university's exchequer is supplied partly by its endowment, but
+chiefly by an assessment on the college incomes, a capitation tax on
+all undergraduates, and the fees attending matriculation, examinations,
+and the granting of degrees. The examinations are numerous. Every
+student on entering is required to pass, or to claim exemption from,
+an entrance examination. In either case he pays £3 to the university,
+and upon admission to any honor course or "tripos" to qualify for
+the degree of Bachelor of Arts £3 more is exacted. The income of the
+university from these examination fees alone amounts to £9,400 per
+annum, £4,600 of which goes to pay the examiners. In America this is
+supposed to be a part of the professor's or instructor's duty, no
+additional<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> remuneration is allowed, and hence it does not become
+necessary to make an additional tax upon the students' resources. The
+conferring of degrees is also made a very profitable affair. Each
+candidate for the degree of B. A. pays out £7 to the voracious 'varsity
+chest, and upon proceeding to the M. A. a further contribution of £12
+is requested. In this way the university makes about £12,000 a year,
+and, as though this was not sufficient, she requires a matriculation
+fee of £5 for every student who becomes a member. By this means another
+annual £5,000 is obtained. It must be remembered that these fees are
+entirely separate from the college fees. When the £5 matriculation for
+the latter is taken into consideration and the £8 a term (at Trinity)
+for lectures, two thirds of which the student does not attend, when it
+is understood that all this and more does not include living expenses,
+which are by no means slight, and that there are three terms instead of
+two, as with us, it will be obvious that Cambridge adheres very closely
+to the rule that to them only who have wealth shall her refining
+influence be given. That the greatest universities in existence should
+render it almost totally impossible for aught but the rich to obtain
+the advantages of their unusual educational facilities jars with that
+idea of democracy of learning which an American training is apt to
+foster. But, as we shall point out later, an aristocracy of learning
+may also have its uses.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 289px;">
+<img src="images/illo_025.jpg" width="289" height="400" alt="Donald MacAlister" />
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Donald MacAlister</span>, M. A., M. D., St. Johns.
+Linacre Lecturer of Physics.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>With all the revenues the university collects from colleges and
+students, amounting in all to about £65,000, Cambridge still finds
+herself poor. Some of the colleges, notably King's and Trinity,
+are extremely wealthy, but the university remains, if not exactly
+impecunious, at least on the ragged edge of financial difficulties.
+The various regius and other professorships, inadequately endowed by
+the munificence of the crown and of individuals, have each to be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span>
+augmented from the university chest. The continual repairing of the old
+laboratories and scientific apparatus, the salaries to lecturers, to
+proctors, bedells, and other officers, cause a continual drain on the
+exchequer, which, with the rapidly growing need for larger laboratories
+and newer apparatus, has finally resulted in an appeal to the country
+for the sum of half a million pounds.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>It has been seen that the drains on a student's pocket are very
+considerable at Cambridge, owing to the number of perquisites showered
+by the colleges on their Fellows, and it may appear that this state
+of things is unjust and wrong. At present Oxford and Cambridge are
+practically within the reach of only the moneyed population. According,
+however, to a plausible and frequently repeated theory, it is not the
+function of these universities to meet the educational needs of the
+mediocre poor. The writer's critical attitude toward the financial
+system in vogue at Cambridge is a proper one, only on the assumption
+that a maximum of education to all classes alike at a minimum of
+expense is the final cause and desideratum of a university's existence.
+But if one assumes that Oxford and Cambridge exist for a different
+purpose, that the chief end they propose to themselves is individual
+research, and the advancement, not the promulgation, of learning, it
+must be admitted that their system has little that is reprehensible.
+According to this standpoint the students only exist by courtesy of
+the dons (a name for the Fellows), who have a perfect right to impose
+upon the students, in return for the condescension which is shown them,
+what terms they see fit. And they argue that this view is the historic
+one. The colleges were originally endowed solely for the benefit of
+a certain limited number of Fellows and scholars. The undergraduate
+body, as it at present exists, is a later growth, whose eventual
+existence and the importance of which to the university was probably
+not anticipated by the college founders. Starting<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> with this, the
+defenders of the present <i>régime</i> would point out, in addition, that
+there are other English institutions where the poorer classes may be
+educated, that Cambridge and Oxford are not only not bound to take upon
+themselves this task, but that they actually subserve a higher purpose
+and one just as necessary to the development of English science and
+letters and to the education of the English intellect by specializing
+in another direction. The good of a philosopher's lifelong reflections,
+they would say, is not always manifest, but the teachers who instruct
+the nation's youth are themselves dependent for rational standpoints
+upon the labor of the greater teacher, and they act as the instruments
+of communication between the most learned and the unlettered. So Oxford
+and Cambridge are the sources from whose fountains of wisdom and
+culture flow streams supplying all the academic mills of Britain, which
+in their turn are enabled to feed the inhabitants. It would be absurd,
+they maintain, to insist that the streams and the mills could equally
+well fulfill the same functions. Cambridge and Oxford instruct just so
+far as so doing is compatible with what for them is the main end&mdash;the
+furthering of various kinds of research and the offering of all sorts
+of inducements in order to keep and attract the interested attention of
+classical butterflies and scientific worms. How well they succeed in
+this noble ambition is known throughout the civilized world.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. G. H. Darwin, a son of Charles Darwin, has recently had occasion
+to mention the enormous scientific output of Cambridge University.
+After saying that the Royal Society is the Academy of Sciences in
+England, and that in its publications appear accounts of all the
+most important scientific discoveries in England and most of those
+in Scotland, Ireland, and other parts of Europe, he goes on to state
+that he examined the Transactions of this society for three years and
+discovered that out of the 5,480 pages published in that time 2,418
+were contributed by Cambridge men and 1,324 by residents.</p>
+
+<p>In view of these facts, and despite the shortcomings of this university
+as a teaching institution, it is to be hoped that private generosity
+will answer her appeal for financial assistance. Her laboratories are
+a mine of research, and it is in them and in the men who conduct them
+that Cambridge is perhaps most to be admired.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 287px;">
+<img src="images/illo_027.jpg" width="287" height="400" alt="Sir G. G. Stokes" />
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Sir G. G. Stokes</span>, Bart., M. A., LL. D., Sc. D.,
+F. R. S., Pembroke. Lucasian Professor of Mathematics.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Cavendish Laboratory of Physics, where Clerk-Maxwell and afterward
+Lord Rayleigh taught, and which is at present in the hand of their
+able successor, J. J. Thomson, is a building of considerable size
+and admirably fitted out, but the rapidly increasing number of young
+physicists who are being allured by the working facilities of the
+place, and by the fame of Professor Thomson, is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> rendering even this
+splendidly equipped hall of science inadequate. The physiological
+laboratories are many, they are completely furnished with appliances,
+and a large number of students are there trained annually under the
+supervision of one of England's most eminent living scientists,
+Michael Foster, and his scarcely less able associates&mdash;Langley, Hardy,
+and Gaskell. Chemistry, zoölogy, botany, anatomy, and geology have
+each their well-appointed halls and masterly exponents. The names
+MacAlister, Liveing, Dewar, Newton, Sedgwick, Marshall Ward, and Hughes
+are not easily matched in any other one institution. Indeed, it is
+when one stops to consider the intellects at Cambridge that it becomes
+a dangerous matter to institute comparisons, and to say that this
+discipline or that is most rich in eminent interpreters. In science,
+at any rate, and in all branches of science, Cambridge stands alone.
+Not even Oxford can be considered for a moment as in the same class
+with her. And of all the sciences it is undoubtedly in mathematics
+and astronomy that the supremacy of Cambridge is most pronounced. The
+names of Profs. Sir G. G. Stokes and Sir R. S. Ball will be familiar to
+every reader, while those of Profs. Forsythe and G. H. Darwin and Mr.
+Baker will be familiar to all mathematicians. In classics Cambridge,
+while not possessing a similar monopoly of almost all the talent,
+still holds her own even with Oxford. Professors Jebb, Mayor, and
+Ridgeway, and Drs. Verrall, Jackson, and Frazer constitute a group of
+men second to none in the subjects of which they treat. Professor Jebb
+is also one of the university's two representatives in Parliament.
+In philosophy Cambridge has two men, Henry Sidgwick and James Ward,
+the former of whom is perhaps by common consent the first living
+authority on moral science, while the latter ranks among the first of
+living psychologists. These men, while representing very different
+philosophical standpoints,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> unite in opposition not only to the
+Hegelian movement, which, led by Caird and Bradley of Oxford, Seth and
+Stirling of Edinburgh, threatens the invasion of England, but also to
+the Spencerian philosophy. The latter system has not many adherents at
+either university, but the writer has been told by Professor Sully that
+the ascendency of the neo-Hegelian and other systems is by no means
+so pronounced elsewhere in England. The Spencerian biology, on the
+contrary, has been largely defended at Cambridge, while Weismannism,
+for the most part, is repudiated there and at Oxford.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 286px;">
+<img src="images/illo_028.jpg" width="286" height="400" alt="James Ward" />
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">James Ward</span>, Sc. D., Trinity. Professor of
+Mental Philosophy and Logic.</div>
+</div>
+<p>The teaching at Cambridge, as at all universities, is of many grades.
+In many subjects the lectures are not meant to give a student
+sufficient material to get him through an examination, and a "coach"
+becomes requisite, or at any rate is employed. This system of coaching
+has attained large dimensions; its results are often good, but it
+means an additional expense and seems an incentive to laziness, making
+it unnecessary for a student to exert his own mental aggressiveness
+or powers of application as he who fights his own battles must do.
+The Socratic form of instruction, producing a more intimate and
+unrestricted relation between instructor and student, and which is
+largely in operation in the States, is little practiced in England.
+In science the methods of instruction at Cambridge are ideal. That
+practical acquaintance with the facts of Nature which Huxley and
+Tyndall taught is the only true means of knowing Nature, is the key
+according to which all biological and physical instruction at these
+institutions is conducted.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>In the last half dozen years two radical steps have been taken by both
+Oxford and Cambridge&mdash;steps leading, to many respectable minds, in
+diametrically opposite directions. The step backward (in the writer's
+view) occurred when the universities, after much excitement, defeated
+with slaughter the proposition grant<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span>ing university degrees to women.
+It was simply proposed that the students of Newnham and Girton, who
+should successfully compete with male students in an honor course,
+should have an equal right with the latter to receive the usual degrees
+from their alma mater. After industrious inquiry among those who were
+foremost in supporting and opposing this movement the writer has
+unearthed no objection of weight against the change. "If the women
+were granted degrees they would have votes in the senate," and "It
+never has been done"&mdash;these are the two reasons most persistently
+urged in defense of the conservative view; while justice and utility
+alike appear to be for once, at any rate, unequivocally on the side
+of the women. Prejudice defeated progress, and students celebrated
+the auspicious occasion with bonfires. The step forward was taken
+when the universities and their colleges decided to throw open their
+gates to the graduates of other universities in England, America, and
+elsewhere for the purpose of advanced study. But here, as in other
+things, Cambridge leads the way, and Oxford follows falteringly. The
+advanced students at Cambridge are treated like Cambridge men, they
+have the status of Bachelors of Arts, and possess in most respects
+the advantages, such as they are, of the latter; while at Oxford the
+advanced students are a restricted class, with restricted advantages,
+and their relation to the university is not that of the other
+students. In Cambridge the movement which has resulted in the present
+admirable condition of affairs was largely brought about by the zeal
+and enterprise of Dr. Donald MacAlister, of St. John's College, the
+University Lecturer in Therapeutics, a man of wide sympathies and
+ability, and whose name is closely associated with this university's
+metamorphosis into a more modern institution.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p class="ph2"><a name="THE_WONDERFUL_CENTURY1" id="THE_WONDERFUL_CENTURY1"></a>THE WONDERFUL CENTURY.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
+
+<p class="ph4">A REVIEW BY W. K. BROOKS,</p>
+
+<p class="center">PROFESSOR OF ZOÖLOGY IN THE JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY.</p>
+
+
+<p>Every naturalist has in his heart a warm affection for the author of
+the Malay Archipelago, and is glad to acknowledge with gratitude his
+debt to this great explorer and thinker and teacher who gave us the law
+of natural selection independently of Darwin. When the history of our
+century is written, the foremost place among those who have guided the
+thought of their generation and opened new fields for discovery will
+assuredly be given to Wallace and Darwin.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Few of the great men who have helped to make our century memorable
+in the history of thought are witnesses of its end, and all who have
+profited by the labors of Wallace will rejoice that he has been
+permitted to stand on the threshold of a new century, and, reviewing
+the past, to give us his impressions of the wonderful century.</p>
+
+<p>We men of the nineteenth century, he says, have not been slow to praise
+it. The wise and the foolish, the learned and the unlearned, the poet
+and the pressman, the rich and the poor, alike swell the chorus of
+admiration for the marvelous inventions and discoveries of our own age,
+and especially for those innumerable applications of science which now
+form part of our daily life, and which remind us every hour of our
+immense superiority over our comparatively ignorant forefathers.</p>
+
+<p>Our century, he tells us, has been characterized by a marvelous and
+altogether unprecedented progress in the knowledge of the universe and
+of its complex forces, and also in the application of that knowledge
+to an infinite variety of purposes calculated, if properly utilized,
+to supply all the wants of every human being and to add greatly to the
+comforts, the enjoyments, and the refinements of life. The bounds of
+human knowledge have been so far extended that new vistas have opened
+to us in nearly all directions where it had been thought that we could
+never penetrate, and the more we learn the more we seem capable of
+learning in the ever-widening expanse of the universe. It may, he
+says, be truly said of the men of science that they have become as
+gods knowing good and evil, since they have been able not only to
+utilize the most recondite powers of Nature in their service, but have
+in many cases been able to discover the sources of much of the evil
+that afflicts humanity, to abolish pain, to lengthen life, and to add
+immensely to the intellectual as well as the physical enjoyments of our
+race.</p>
+
+<p>In order to get any adequate measure for comparison with the nineteenth
+century we must take not any preceding century, but the whole preceding
+epoch of human history. We must take into consideration not only the
+changes effected in science, in the arts, in the possibilities of
+human intercourse, and in the extension of our knowledge both of the
+earth and of the whole visible universe, but the means our century has
+furnished for future advancement.</p>
+
+<p>Our author, who has borne such a distinguished part in the intellectual
+progress of our century, shows clearly that in means for the discovery
+of truth, for the extension of our control over Nature, and for the
+alleviation of the ills that beset mankind, the inheritance of the
+twentieth century from the nineteenth will be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> greater than our own
+inheritance from all the centuries that have gone before.</p>
+
+<p>Some may regret that, while only one third of Wallace's book is
+devoted to the successes of the wonderful century, the author finds
+the remaining two thirds none too much for the enumeration of some of
+its most notable failures; but it is natural for one who has borne his
+own distinguished part in all this marvelous progress to ask where the
+century has fallen short of the enthusiastic hopes of its leaders, what
+that it might have done it has failed to do, and what lies ready at
+the hand of the workers who will begin the new century with this rich
+inheritance of new thoughts, new methods, and new resources.</p>
+
+<p>The more we realize the vast possibilities of human welfare which
+science has given us the more, he says, must we recognize our total
+failure to make any adequate use of them.</p>
+
+<p>Along with this continuous progress in science, in the arts, and in
+wealth-production, which has dazzled our imaginations to such an extent
+that we can hardly admit the possibility of any serious evils having
+accompanied or been caused by it, there has, he says, been many serious
+failures&mdash;intellectual, social, and moral. Some of our great thinkers,
+he says, have been so impressed by the terrible nature of these
+failures that they have doubted whether the final result of the work
+of the century has any balance of good over evil, of happiness over
+misery, for mankind at large.</p>
+
+<p>Wallace is no pessimist, but one who believes that the first step in
+retrieving our failures is to perceive clearly where we have failed,
+for he says there can be no doubt of the magnitude of the evils that
+have grown up or persisted in the midst of all our triumphs over
+natural forces and our unprecedented growth in wealth and luxury, and
+he holds it not the least important part of his work to call attention
+to some of these failures.</p>
+
+<p>With ample knowledge of the sources of health, we allow and even
+compel the bulk of our population to live and work under conditions
+which greatly shorten life. In our mad race for wealth we have made
+gold more sacred than human life; we have made life so hard for many
+that suicide and insanity and crime are alike increasing. The struggle
+for wealth has been accompanied by a reckless destruction of the
+stored-up products of Nature, which is even more deplorable because
+irretrievable. Not only have forest growths of many hundred years been
+cleared away, often with disastrous consequences, but the whole of
+the mineral treasures of the earth's surface, the slow productions of
+long-past eras of time and geological change, have been and are still
+being exhausted with reckless disregard of our duties to posterity and
+solely in the in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span>terest of landlords and capitalists. With all our
+labor-saving machinery and all our command over the forces of Nature,
+the struggle for existence has become more fierce than ever before,
+and year by year an ever-increasing proportion of our people sink into
+paupers' graves.</p>
+
+<p>When the brightness of future ages shall have dimmed the glamour of our
+material progress he says that the judgment of history will surely be
+that our ethical standard was low and that we were unworthy to possess
+the great and beneficent powers that science had placed in our hands,
+for, instead of devoting the highest powers of our greatest men to
+remedy these evils, we see the governments of the most advanced nations
+arming their people to the teeth and expending most of the wealth and
+all the resources of their science in preparation for the destruction
+of life, of property, and of happiness.</p>
+
+<p>He reminds us that the first International Exhibition, in 1851,
+fostered the hope that men would soon perceive that peace and
+commercial intercourse are essential to national well-being. Poets and
+statesmen joined in hailing the dawn of an era of peaceful industry,
+and exposition following exposition taught the nations how much they
+have to learn from each other and how much to give to each other for
+the benefit and happiness of all.</p>
+
+<p>Dueling, which had long prevailed, in spite of its absurdity and
+harmfulness, as a means of settling disputes, was practically abolished
+by the general diffusion of a spirit of intolerance of private war; and
+as the same public opinion which condemns it should, if consistent,
+also condemn war between nations, many thought they perceived the dawn
+of a wiser policy between nations.</p>
+
+<p>Yet so far are we from progress toward its abolition that the latter
+half of the century has witnessed not the decay, but a revival of the
+war spirit, and at its end we find all nations loaded with the burden
+of increasing armies and navies.</p>
+
+<p>The armies are continually being equipped with new and more deadly
+weapons at a cost which strains the resources of even the most wealthy
+nations and impoverishes the mass of the people by increasing burdens
+of debt and taxation, and all this as a means of settling disputes
+which have no sufficient cause and no relation whatever to the
+well-being of the communities which engage in them.</p>
+
+<p>The evils of war do not cease with the awful loss of life and
+destruction of property which are their immediate results, since they
+form the excuse for inordinate increase of armaments&mdash;an increase
+which has been intensified by the application to war purposes of those
+mechanical inventions and scientific discoveries which,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> properly used,
+should bring peace and plenty to all, but which when seized upon by the
+spirit of militarism directly lead to enmity among nations and to the
+misery of the people.</p>
+
+<p>The first steps in this military development were the adoption of a new
+rifle by the Prussian army in 1846, the application of steam to ships
+of war in 1840, and the use of armor for battle ships in 1859. The
+remainder of the century has witnessed a mad race between the nations
+to increase the death-dealing power of their weapons and to add to
+the number and efficiency of their armies, while all the resources of
+modern science have been utilized in order to add to the destructive
+power of cannon and both the defensive and the offensive power of
+ships. The inability of industrious laboring men to gain any due share
+of the benefits of our progress in scientific knowledge is due, beyond
+everything else, to the expense of withdrawing great armies of men
+in the prime of life from productive labor, joined to the burden of
+feeding and clothing them and of keeping weapons and ammunition, ships,
+and fortifications in a state of readiness, of continually renewing
+stores of all kinds, of pensions, and of all the laboring men who must,
+besides making good the destruction caused by war, be withdrawn from
+productive labor and be supported by others that they may support the
+army.</p>
+
+<p>And what a horrible mockery is this when viewed in the light of either
+Christianity or advancing civilization! All the nations armed to the
+teeth and watching stealthily for some occasion to use their vast
+armaments for their own aggrandizement and for the injury of their
+neighbors are Christian nations, but their Christian governments do not
+exist for the good of the governed, still less for the good of humanity
+or civilization, but for the aggrandizement and greed and lust of the
+ruling classes.</p>
+
+<p>The devastation caused by the tyrants and conquerors of the middle
+ages and of antiquity has been reproduced in our times by the rush to
+obtain wealth. Even the lust of conquest, in order to obtain slaves
+and tribute and great estates, by means of which the ruling classes
+could live in boundless luxury, so characteristic of the earlier
+civilization, is reproduced in our time.</p>
+
+<p>Witness the recent conduct of the nations of Europe toward Crete and
+Greece, upholding the most terrible despotism in the world because each
+hopes for a favorable opportunity to obtain some advantage, leading
+ultimately to the largest share of the spoil.</p>
+
+<p>Witness the struggles in Africa and Asia, where millions of foreign
+people may be enslaved and bled for the benefit of their new rulers.</p>
+
+<p>The whole world, says Wallace, is but a gambling table. Just<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> as
+gambling deteriorates and demoralizes the individual, so the greed
+for dominion demoralizes governments. The welfare of the people is
+little cared for, except so far as to make them submissive taxpayers,
+enabling the ruling and moneyed classes to extend their sway over new
+territories and to create well-paid places and exciting work for their
+sons and relatives.</p>
+
+<p>Hence, says Wallace, comes the force that ever urges on the increase
+of armaments and the extension of empire. Great vested interests
+are at stake, and ever-growing pressure is brought to bear upon the
+too-willing governments in the name of the greatness of the country,
+the extension of commerce, or the advance of civilization. This state
+of things is not progress, but retrogression. It will be held by the
+historian of the future to show that we of the nineteenth century were
+morally and socially unfit to possess the enormous powers for good and
+evil which the rapid advance of scientific discovery has given us,
+that our boasted civilization was in many respects a mere superficial
+veneer, and that our methods of government were not in accord with
+either Christianity or civilization.</p>
+
+<p>Comparing the conduct of these modern nations, who call themselves
+Christian and civilized, with that of the Spanish conquerors of
+the West Indies, Mexico, and Peru, and making some allowances for
+differences of race and public opinion, Wallace says there is not much
+to choose between them.</p>
+
+<p>Wealth and territory and native labor were the real objects in both
+cases, and if the Spaniards were more cruel by nature and more reckless
+in their methods the results were much the same. In both cases the
+country was conquered and thereafter occupied and governed by the
+conquerors frankly for their own ends, and with little regard for
+the feelings or the well-being of the conquered. If the Spaniards
+exterminated the natives of the West Indies, we, he says, have done the
+same thing in Tasmania and about the same in temperate Australia. Their
+belief that they were really serving God in converting the heathen,
+even at the point of the sword, was a genuine belief, shared by priests
+and conquerors alike&mdash;not a mere sham as ours is when we defend our
+conduct by the plea of "introducing the blessings of civilization."</p>
+
+<p>It is quite possible, says Wallace, that both the conquest of Mexico
+and Peru by the Spaniards and our conquest of South Africa may have
+been real steps in advance, essential to human progress, and helping on
+the future reign of true civilization and the well-being of the human
+race. But if so, we have been and are unconscious agents in hastening
+the "far-off divine event." We deserve no credit for it. Our aims have
+been for the most part<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> sordid and selfish, and our rule has often
+been largely influenced and often entirely directed by the necessity
+of finding well-paid places for young men with influence, and also by
+the constant demands for fresh markets by the influential class of
+merchants and manufacturers.</p>
+
+<p>More general diffusion of the conviction that while all share the
+burdens of war, such good as comes from it is appropriated by the few,
+will no doubt do much to discourage wars; but we must ask whether there
+may not be another incentive to war which Wallace does not give due
+weight&mdash;whether love of fighting may not have something to do with wars.</p>
+
+<p>As we look backward over history we are forced to ask whether the greed
+and selfishness of the wealthy and influential and those who hope to
+gain are the only causes of war. We went to war with Spain because our
+people in general demanded war. If we have been carried further than
+we intended and are now fighting for objects which we did not foresee
+and may not approve, this is no more than history might have led us to
+expect. War with Spain was popular with nearly all our people a year
+ago, and, while wise counsels might have stemmed this popular tide,
+there can be no doubt that it existed, for the evil passions of the
+human race are the real cause of wars.</p>
+
+<p>The great problem of the twentieth century, as of all that have gone
+before, is the development of the wise and prudent self-restraint which
+represses natural passions and appetites for the sake of higher and
+better ends.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p class="ph2"><a name="SPIDER_BITES_AND_KISSING_BUGS2" id="SPIDER_BITES_AND_KISSING_BUGS2">SPIDER BITES AND "KISSING BUGS."</a><a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
+
+<p class="ph4"><span class="smcap">By L. O. HOWARD</span>,</p>
+
+<p class="center">CHIEF OF THE DIVISION OF ENTOMOLOGY, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF
+AGRICULTURE.</p>
+
+
+<p>On several occasions during the past ten years, and especially at
+the Brooklyn meeting of the American Association for the Advancement
+of Science in 1894, the writer has endeavored to show that most of
+the newspaper stories of deaths from spider bite are either grossly
+exaggerated or based upon misinformation. He has failed to thoroughly
+substantiate a single case of death from a so-called spider bite,
+and has concluded that there is only one spider in the United States
+which is capable of inflicting a serious bite&mdash;viz., <i>Latrodectus
+mactans</i>, a species belonging to a genus of world-wide distribution,
+the other species of which have universally a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> bad reputation among the
+peoples whose country they inhabit. In spite of these conclusions, the
+accuracy of which has been tested with great care, there occur in the
+newspapers every year stories of spider bites of great seriousness,
+often resulting in death or the amputation of a limb. The details of
+negative evidence and of lack of positive evidence need not be entered
+upon here, except in so far as to state that in the great majority
+of these cases the spider supposed to have inflicted the bite is not
+even seen, while in almost no case is the spider seen to inflict the
+bite; and it is a well-known fact that there are practically no spiders
+in our more northern States which are able to pierce the human skin,
+except upon a portion of the body where the skin is especially delicate
+and which is seldom exposed. There arises, then, the probability that
+there are other insects capable of piercing tough skin, the results of
+whose bites may be more or less painful, the wounds being attributed
+to spiders on account of the universally bad reputation which these
+arthropods seem to have.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 578px;">
+<img src="images/illo_036.jpg" width="578" height="600" alt="Different Stages of Conorhinus sanguisugus" />
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Different Stages of Conorhinus sanguisugus.</span>
+Twice natural size. (After Marlatt.)</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>These sentences formed the introduction to a paper read by the writer
+at a meeting of the Entomological Society of Washington, held June
+1st last. I went on to state that some of these insects are rather
+well known, as, for example, the blood-sucking cone-nose (<i>Conorhinus
+sanguisugus</i>) and the two-spotted corsairs<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> (<i>Rasatus thoracicus</i> and
+<i>R. biguttatus</i>), both of which occur, however, most numerously in the
+South and West, and then spoke of <i>Melanotestis picipes</i>, a species
+which had been especially called to my attention by Mr. Frank M.
+Jones, of Wilmington, Del., who submitted the report of the attending
+physician in a case of two punctures by this insect inflicted upon
+the thumb and forefinger of a middle-aged man in Delaware. I further
+reported upon occasional somewhat severe results from the bites<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> of
+the old <i>Reduvius personatus</i>, now placed in the genus <i>Opsicostes</i>,
+and stated that a smaller species, <i>Coriscus subcoleoptratus</i>, had
+bitten me rather severely under circumstances similar to some of those
+which have given rise in the past to spider-bite stories. In the
+course of the discussion which followed the reading of this paper, Mr.
+Schwarz stated that twice during the present spring he had been bitten
+rather severely by <i>Melanotestis picipes</i> which had entered his room,
+probably attracted by light. He described it as the worst biter among
+heteropterous insects with which he had had any experience, and said
+he thought it was commoner than usual in Washington during the present
+year.</p>
+
+<p>No account of this meeting was published, but within a few weeks
+thereafter several persons suffering from swollen faces visited the
+Emergency Hospital in Washington and complained that they had been
+bitten by some insect while asleep; that they did not see the insect,
+and could not describe it. This happened during one of the temporary
+periods when newspaper men are most actively engaged in hunting for
+items. There was a dearth of news. These swollen faces offered an
+opportunity for a good story, and thus began the "kissing-bug" scare
+which has grown to such extraordinary proportions. I have received
+the following letter and clipping from Mr. J. F. McElhone, of the
+Washington Post, in reply to a request for information regarding the
+origin of this curious epidemic:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="author">
+
+"<span class="smcap">Washington, D. C.</span>, <i>August 14, 1899</i>.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="i2">"<i>Dr. L. O. Howard, Cosmos Club, Washington, D. C.</i></span>
+</p>
+
+<p>"<span class="smcap">Dear Sir</span>: Attached please find clipping from the Washington
+Post of June 20, 1899, being the first story that ever appeared in
+print, so far as I can learn, of the depredations of the <i>Melanotestis
+picipes</i>, better known now as the kissing bug. In my rounds as
+police reporter of the Post, I noticed, for two or three days before
+writing this story, that the register of the Emergency Hospital of
+this city contained unusually frequent notes of 'bug-bite'<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> cases.
+Investigating, on the evening of June 19th I learned from the hospital
+physicians that a noticeable number of patients were applying daily
+for treatment for very red and extensive swellings, usually on the
+lips, and apparently the result of an insect bite. This led to the
+writing of the story attached.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+"Very truly yours,<br />
+<span class="i6">"James F. McElhone."</span>
+</p></blockquote>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 445px;">
+
+<img src="images/illo_038.jpg" width="242" height="500" alt="The Washington Post" />
+
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p class="ph3">The Washington Post.</p>
+
+<p class="center">TUESDAY, JUNE 20, 1899.</p>
+
+<p class="ph4">BITE OF A STRANGE BUG.</p>
+
+<p class="center">Several Patients Have Appeared at the Hospitals Very Badly Poisoned.</p>
+
+<p>Lookout for the new bug. It is an insidious insect that bites without
+causing pain and escapes unnoticed. But afterward the place where it
+has bitten swells to ten times its normal size. The Emergency Hospital
+has had several victims of this insect as patients lately and the
+number is increasing. Application for treatment by other victims are
+being made at other hospitals, and the matter threatens to become
+something like a plague. None of those who have been bitten saw the
+insect whose sting proves so disastrous. One old negro went to sleep
+and woke up to find both his eyes nearly closed by the swelling from
+his nose and cheeks, where the insect had alighted. The lips seems to
+be the favorite point of attack.</p>
+
+<p>William Smith, a newspaper agent, of 327 Trumbull street, went to the
+Emergency last night with his upper lip swollen to many times its
+natural size. The symptoms are in every case the same, and there is
+indication of poisoning from an insect's bite. The matter is beginning
+to interest the physicians, and every patient who comes in with the
+now well-known marks is closely questioned as to the description of
+the insect. No one has yet been found who has seen it.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+</div>
+
+
+<p>It would be an interesting computation for one to figure out the amount
+of newspaper space which was filled in the succeeding two months by
+items and articles about the "kissing bug." Other Washington newspapers
+took the matter up. The New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore papers
+soon followed suit. The epidemic spread east to Boston and west to
+California. By "epidemic" is meant the <i>newspaper</i> epidemic, for every
+insect bite where the biter was not at once recognized was attributed
+to the popular and somewhat mysterious creature which had been given
+such an attractive name, and there can be no doubt that some mosquito,
+flea, and bedbug bites which had by accident resulted in a greater than
+the usual severity were attributed to the prevailing osculatory insect.
+In Washington professional beggars seized the opportunity, and went
+around from door to door with bandaged faces and hands, complaining
+that they were poor men and had been thrown out of work by the results
+of "kissing-bug" stings! One beggar came to the writer's door and
+offered, in support of his plea, a card supposed to be signed by the
+head surgeon of the Emergency Hospital. In a small town in central
+New York a man arrested on the charge of swindling entered the plea
+that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> he was temporarily insane owing to the bite of the "kissing
+bug." Entomologists all through the East were also much overworked
+answering questions asked them about the mysterious creature. Men of
+local entomological reputations were applied to by newspaper reporters,
+by their friends, by people who knew them, in church, on the street,
+and under all conceivable circumstances. Editorials were written about
+it. Even the Scientific American published a two-column article on
+the subject; and, while no international complications have resulted
+as yet, the kissing bug, in its own way and in the short space of two
+months, produced almost as much of a scare as did the San José scale in
+its five years of Eastern excitement. Now, however, the newspapers have
+had their fun, the necessary amount of space has been filled, and the
+subject has assumed a castaneous hue, to Latinize the slang of a few
+years back.</p>
+
+<p>The experience has been a most interesting one. To the reader familiar
+with the old accounts of the hysterical craze of south Europe,
+based upon supposed tarantula bites, there can not fail to come the
+suggestion that we have had in miniature and in modernized form,
+aided largely by the newspapers, a hysterical craze of much the same
+character. From the medical and psychological point of view this aspect
+is interesting, and deserves investigation by competent persons.</p>
+
+<p>As an entomologist, however, the writer confines himself to the actual
+authors of the bites so far as he has been able to determine them. It
+seems undoubtedly true that while there has been a great cry there
+has been very little wool. It is undoubtedly true, also, that there
+have been a certain number of bites by heteropterous insects, some
+of which have resulted in considerable swelling. It seems true that
+<i>Melanotestis picipes</i> and <i>Opsicostes personatus</i> have been more
+numerous than usual this year, at least around Washington. They have
+been captured in a number of instances while biting people, and have
+been brought to the writer's office for determination in such a way
+that there can be no doubt about the accuracy of this statement. As
+the story went West, bites by <i>Conorhinus sanguisuga</i> and <i>Rasatus
+thoracicus</i> were without doubt termed "kissing-bug" bites. With regard
+to other cases, the writer has known of an instance where the mosquito
+bite upon the lip of a sleeping child produced a very considerable
+swelling. Therefore he argues that many of these reported cases may
+have been nothing more than mosquito bites. With nervous and excitable
+individuals the symptoms of any skin puncture become exaggerated not
+only in the mind of the individual but in their actual characteristics,
+and not only does this refer to cases of skin<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> puncture but to certain
+skin eruptions, and to some of those early summer skin troubles which
+are known as strawberry rash, etc. It is in this aspect of the subject
+that the resemblance to tarantulism comes in, and this is the result of
+the hysterical wave, if it may be so termed.</p>
+
+<p>Six different heteropterous insects were mentioned in the early part
+of this article, and it will be appropriate to give each of them
+some little detailed consideration, taking the species of Eastern
+distribution first, since the scare had its origin in the East, and has
+there perhaps been more fully exploited.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;">
+<img src="images/illo_040.jpg" width="800" height="373" alt="Melanotestis abdominalis" />
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Melanotestis abdominalis.</span> Female at right; male
+at left, with enlarged beak at side. Twice natural size. (Original.)</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 440px;">
+<img src="images/illo_041.jpg" width="440" height="242" alt="Head and Proboscis of Conorhinus sanguisugus" />
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Head and Proboscis of Conorhinus sanguisugus.</span>
+(After Marlatt.)</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Opsicostes personatus</i>, also known as <i>Reduvius personatus</i>, and which
+has been termed the "cannibal bug," is a European species introduced
+into this country at some unknown date, but possibly following close in
+the wake of the bedbug. In Europe this species haunts houses for the
+purpose of preying upon bedbugs. Riley, in his well-known article on
+Poisonous Insects, published in Wood's Reference Handbook of Medical
+Science, states that if a fly or another insect is offered to the
+cannibal bug it is first touched with the antennæ, a sudden spring
+follows, and at the same time the beak is thrust into the prey. The
+young specimens are covered with a glutinous substance, to which
+bits of dirt and dust adhere. They move deliberately, with a long
+pause between each step, the step being taken in a jerky manner. The
+distribution of the species, as given by Reuter in his Monograph of the
+Genus <i>Reduvius</i>, is Europe to the middle of Sweden, Caucasia, Asia
+Minor, Algeria, Madeira; North America, Canada, New York, Philadelphia,
+Indiana; Tasmania, Australia&mdash;from which it appears that the insect is
+already practically cosmopolitan, and in fact may almost be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> termed
+a household insect. The collections of the United States National
+Museum and of Messrs. Heidemann and Chittenden, of Washington, D. C.,
+indicate the following localities for this species: Locust Hill, Va.;
+Washington, D. C.; Baltimore, Md.; Ithaca, N. Y.; Cleveland, Ohio;
+Keokuk, Iowa.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>The bite of this species is said to be very painful, more so than that
+of a bee, and to be followed by numbness (Lintner). One of the cases
+brought to the writer's attention this summer was that of a Swedish
+servant girl, in which the insect was caught, where the sting was
+upon the neck, and was followed by considerable swelling. Le Conte,
+in describing it under the synonymical name <i>Reduvius pungens</i>, gives
+Georgia as the locality, and makes the following statement: "This
+species is remarkable for the intense pain caused by its bite. I do not
+know whether it ever willingly plunges its rostrum into any person, but
+when caught or unskillfully handled it always stings. In this case the
+pain is almost equal to that of the bite of a snake, and the swelling
+and irritation which result from it will sometimes last for a week. In
+very weak and irritable constitutions it may even prove fatal."<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 440px;">
+<img src="images/illo_041.jpg" width="440" height="242" alt="Coriscus subcoleoptratus" />
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Coriscus subcoleoptratus</span>: <i>a</i>, wingless form;
+<i>b</i>, winged form; <i>c</i>, proboscis. All twice natural size. (Original.)</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The second Eastern species is <i>Melanotestis picipes</i>. This and the
+closely allied and possibly identical <i>M. abdominalis</i> are not rare in
+the United States, and have been found all along the Atlantic States,
+in the West and South, and also in Mexico. They live underneath stones
+and logs, and run swiftly. Both sexes of <i>M. picipes</i> in the adult
+are fully winged, but the female of <i>M. abdominalis</i> is usually found
+in the short-winged condition. Prof. P. R. Uhler writes (in litt.):
+"<i>Melanotestis abdominalis</i> is not rare in this section (Baltimore),
+but the winged female is a great rarity. At the present time I have not
+a specimen of the winged female in my collection. I have seen specimens
+from the South, in North Carolina and Florida, but I do not remember
+one from Maryland. I am satisfied that <i>M. picipes</i> is distinct from
+<i>M. abdominalis</i>. I have not known the two species to unite sexually,
+but I have seen them both united to their proper consorts. Both species
+are sometimes found under the same flat stone or log, and they both
+hiber<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span>nate in our valleys beneath stones and rubbish in loamy soils."
+Specimens in Washington collections show the following localities
+for <i>M. abdominalis</i>: Baltimore, Md.; Washington, D. C.; Wilmington,
+Del.; New Jersey; Long Island; Fort Bliss, Texas; Louisiana; and
+Keokuk, Iowa;, and for <i>M. picipes</i>, Washington, D. C.; Roslyn, Va.;
+Baltimore, Md.; Derby, Conn.; Long Island; a series labeled New Jersey;
+Wilmington, Del.; Keokuk, Iowa; Cleveland and Cincinnati, Ohio;
+Louisiana; Jackson, Miss.; Barton County, Mo.; Fort Bliss, Texas; San
+Antonio, Texas; Crescent City, Fla.; Holland, S. C.</p>
+
+<p>This insect has been mentioned several times in entomological
+literature. The first reference to its bite probably was made by
+Townend Glover in the Annual Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture
+for 1875 (page 130). In Maryland, he states, <i>M. picipes</i> is found
+under stones, moss, logs of wood, etc., and is capable of inflicting a
+severe wound with its rostrum or piercer. In 1888 Dr. Lintner, in his
+Fourth Report as State Entomologist of New York (page 110), quotes from
+a correspondent in Natchez, Miss., concerning this insect: "I send a
+specimen of a fly not known to us here. A few days ago it punctured the
+finger of my wife, inflicting a painful sting. The swelling was rapid,
+and for several days the wound was quite annoying." Until recent years
+this insect has not been known to the writer as occurring in houses
+with any degree of frequency. In May, 1895, however, I received a
+specimen from an esteemed correspondent&mdash;Dr. J. M. Shaffer, of Keokuk,
+Iowa&mdash;together with a letter written on May 7th, in which the statement
+was made that four specimens flew into his window the night before. The
+insect, therefore, is attracted to light or is becoming attracted to
+light, is a night-flier, and enters houses through open windows. Among
+the several cases coming under the writer's observation of bites by
+this insect, one has been reported by the well-known entomologist Mr.
+Charles Dury, of Cincinnati, Ohio, in which this species (<i>M. picipes</i>)
+bit a man on the back of the hand, making a bad sore. In another case,
+where the insect was brought for our determination and proved to be
+this species, the bite was upon the cheek, and the swelling was said to
+be great, but with little pain. In a third case, occurring at Holland,
+S. C., the symptoms were more serious. The patient was bitten upon
+the end of the middle finger, and stated that the first paroxysm of
+pain was about like that resulting from a hornet or a bee sting, but
+almost immediately it grew ten times more painful, with a feeling of
+weakness followed by vomiting. The pain was felt to shoot up the arm to
+the under jaw, and the sickness lasted for a number of days. A fourth
+case, at Fort Bliss,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span> Texas, is interesting as having occurred in bed.
+The patient was bitten on the hand, with very painful results and bad
+swelling.</p>
+
+<p>The third of the Eastern species, <i>Coriscus subcoleoptratus</i>, is said
+by Uhler to have a general distribution in the Northern States, and is
+like the species immediately preceding a native insect. There is no
+record of any bite by this species, and it is introduced here for the
+reason that it attracted the writer's attention crawling upon the walls
+of an earth closet in Greene County, New York, where on one occasion it
+bit him between the fingers. The pain was sharp, like the prick of a
+pin, but only a faint swelling followed, and no further inconvenience.
+The insect is mentioned, however, for the reason that, occurring in
+such situations, it is one of the forms which are liable to carry
+pathogenic bacteria.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/illo_043.jpg" width="600" height="344" alt="Rasatus biguttatus" />
+</div>
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Rasatus biguttatus">
+<tr><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Rasatus biguttatus.</span></td><td class="tdr"><span class="smcap">Reduvius (Opsicostes) personatus.</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdc">Twice natural size. (Original.)</td><td class="tdc">Twice natural
+size. (Original.)</td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p>There remain for consideration the Southern and Western forms&mdash;<i>Rasatus
+thoracicus</i> and <i>R. biguttatus</i>, and <i>Conorhinus sanguisugus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The two-spotted corsair, as <i>Rasatus biguttatus</i> is popularly termed,
+is said by Riley to be found frequently in houses in the Southern
+States, and to prey upon bedbugs. Lintner, referring to the fact that
+it preys upon bedbugs, says: "It evidently delights in human blood, but
+prefers taking it at second hand." Dr. A. Davidson, formerly of Los
+Angeles, Cal., in an important paper entitled So-called Spider Bites
+and their Treatment, published in the Therapeutic Gazette of February
+15, 1897, arrives at the conclusion that almost all of the so-called
+spider bites met with in southern California are produced by no spider
+at all, but by <i>Rasatus biguttatus</i>. The symptoms which he describes
+are as follows: "Next day the injured part shows a local cellulitis,
+with a central<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> dark spot; around this spot there frequently appears
+a bullous vesicle about the size of a ten-cent piece, and filled with
+a dark grumous fluid; a small ulcer forms underneath the vesicle, the
+necrotic area being generally limited to the central part, while the
+surrounding tissues are more or less swollen and somewhat painful. In
+a few days, with rest and proper care, the swelling subsides, and in
+a week all traces of the cellulitis are usually gone. In some of the
+cases no vesicle forms at the point of injury, the formation probably
+depending on the constitutional vitality of the individual or the
+amount of poison introduced." The explanation of the severity of the
+wound suggested by Dr. Davidson, and in which the writer fully concurs
+with him, is not that the insect introduces any specific poison of
+its own, but that the poison introduced is probably accidental and
+contains the ordinary putrefactive germs which may adhere to its
+proboscis. Dr. Davidson's treatment was corrosive sublimate&mdash;1 to 500
+or 1 to 1,000&mdash;locally applied to the wound, keeping the necrotic part
+bathed in the solution. The results have in all cases been favorable.
+Uhler gives the distribution of <i>R. biguttatus</i> as Arizona, Texas,
+Panama, Pará, Cuba, Louisiana, West Virginia, and California. After a
+careful study of the material in the United States National Museum,
+Mr. Heidemann has decided that the specimens of <i>Rasatus</i> from the
+southeastern part of the country are in reality Say's <i>R. biguttatus</i>,
+while those from the Southwestern States belong to a distinct species
+answering more fully, with slight exceptions, to the description of
+Stal's <i>Rasatus thoracicus</i>. The writer has recently received a large
+series of <i>R. thoracicus</i> from Mr. H. Brown, of Tucson, Arizona, and
+had a disagreeable experience with the same species in April, 1898, at
+San José de Guaymas, in the State of Sonora, Mexico. He had not seen
+the insect alive before, and was sitting at the supper table with his
+host&mdash;a ranchero of cosmopolitan language. One of the bugs, attracted
+by the light, flew in with a buzz and flopped down on the table. The
+writer's entomological instinct led him to reach out for it, and was
+warned by his host in the remarkable sentence comprising words derived
+from three distinct languages: "Guardez, guardez! Zat animalito sting
+like ze dev!" But it was too late; the writer had been stung on the
+forefinger, with painful results. Fortunately, however, the insect's
+beak must have been clean, and no great swelling or long inconvenience
+ensued.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps the best known of any of the species mentioned in our list is
+the blood-sucking cone-nose (<i>Conorhinus sanguisugus</i>). This ferocious
+insect belongs to a genus which has several representatives in the
+United States, all, however, confined to the South or West. <i>C.
+rubro-fasciatus</i> and <i>C. variegatus</i>, as well as <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span><i>C. sanguisugus</i>,
+are given the general geographical distribution of "Southern States."
+<i>C. dimidiatus</i> and <i>C. maculipennis</i> are Mexican forms, while <i>C.
+gerstaeckeri</i> occurs in the Western States. The more recently described
+species, <i>C. protractus</i> Uhl., has been taken at Los Angeles, Cal.;
+Dragoon, Ariz.; and Salt Lake City, Utah. All of these insects are
+blood-suckers, and do not hesitate to attack animals. Le Conte, in his
+original description of <i>C. sanguisugus</i>,<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> adds a most significant
+paragraph or two which, as it has not been quoted of late, will be
+especially appropriate here: "This insect, equally with the former"
+(see above), "inflicts a most painful wound. It is remarkable also
+for sucking the blood of mammals, particularly of children. I have
+known its bite followed by very serious consequences, the patient not
+recovering from its effects for nearly a year. The many relations which
+we have of spider bites frequently proving fatal have no doubt arisen
+from the stings of these insects or others of the same genera. When
+the disease called spider bite is not an anthrax or carbuncle it is
+undoubtedly occasioned by the bite of an insect&mdash;by no means however,
+of a spider. Among the many species of <i>Araneidæ</i> which we have in the
+United States I have never seen one capable of inflicting the slightest
+wound. Ignorant persons may easily mistake a <i>Cimex</i> for a spider. I
+have known a physician who sent to me the fragments of a large ant,
+which he supposed was a spider, that came out of his grandchild's
+head." The fact that Le Conte was himself a physician, having graduated
+from the College of Physicians and Surgeons in 1846, thus having been
+nine years in practice at the time, renders this statement all the
+more significant. The life history and habits of <i>C. sanguisugus</i> have
+been so well written up by my assistant, Mr. Marlatt, in Bulletin No.
+4, New Series, of the Division of Entomology, United States Department
+of Agriculture, that it is not necessary to enter upon them here.
+The point made by Marlatt&mdash;that the constant and uniform character
+of the symptoms in nearly all cases of bites by this insect indicate
+that there is a specific poison connected with the bite&mdash;deserves
+consideration, but there can be no doubt that the very serious results
+which sometimes follow the bite are due to the introduction of
+extraneous poison germs. The late Mr. J. B. Lembert, of Yosemite, Cal.,
+noticed particularly that the species of <i>Conorhinus</i> occurring upon
+the Pacific coast is attracted by carrion. Professor Toumey, of Tucson,
+Arizona, shows how a woman broke out all over the body and limbs with
+red blotches and welts from a single sting on the shoulders. Specimens
+of <i>C. sanguisugus</i> re<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span>ceived in July, 1899, from Mayersville, Miss.,
+were accompanied by the statement&mdash;which is appropriate, in view of the
+fact that the newspapers have insisted that the "kissing bug" prefers
+the lip&mdash;that a friend of the writer was bitten on the lip, and that
+the effect was a burning pain, intense itching, and much swelling,
+lasting three or four days. The writer of the letter had been bitten
+upon the leg and arm, and his brother was bitten upon both feet and
+legs and on the arm, the symptoms being the same in all cases.</p>
+
+<p>More need hardly be said specifically concerning these biting bugs.
+The writer's conclusions are that a puncture by any one of them may
+be and frequently has been mistaken for a spider bite, and that
+nearly all reported spider-bite cases have had in reality this cause,
+that the so-called "kissing-bug" scare has been based upon certain
+undoubted cases of the bite of one or the other of them, but that other
+bites, including mosquitoes, with hysterical and nervous symptoms
+produced by the newspaper accounts, have aided in the general alarm.
+The case of Miss Larson, who died in August, 1898, as the result of
+a mosquito bite, at Mystic, Conn., is an instance which goes to show
+that no mysterious new insect need be looked for to explain occasional
+remarkable cases. One good result of the "kissing-bug" excitement will
+prove in the end to be that it will have relieved spiders from much
+unnecessary discredit.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p class="ph2"><a name="THE_MOSQUITO_THEORY_OF_MALARIA6" id="THE_MOSQUITO_THEORY_OF_MALARIA6"></a>THE MOSQUITO THEORY OF MALARIA.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p>
+
+<p class="ph4"><span class="smcap">By Major RONALD ROSS.</span></p>
+
+<p>I have the honor to address you, on completion of my term of special
+duty for the investigation of malaria, on the subject of the practical
+results as regard the prevention of the disease which may be expected
+to arise from my researches; and I trust that this letter may be
+submitted to the Government if the director general thinks fit.</p>
+
+<p>It has been shown in my reports to you that the parasites of malaria
+pass a stage of their existence in certain species of mosquitoes, by
+the bites of which they are inoculated into the blood of healthy men
+and birds. These observations have solved the problem&mdash;previously
+thought insolvable&mdash;of the mode of life of these parasites in external
+Nature.</p>
+
+<p>My results have been accepted by Dr. Laveran, the discoverer of the
+parasites of malaria; by Dr. Manson, who elaborated the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> mosquito
+theory of malaria; by Dr. Nuttall, of the Hygienic Institute of
+Berlin, who has made a special study of the relations between insects
+and disease; and, I understand, by M. Metchnikoff, Director of the
+Laboratory of the Pasteur Institute in Paris. Lately, moreover, Dr. C.
+W. Daniels, of the Malaria Commission, who has been sent to study with
+me in Calcutta, has confirmed my observations in a special report to
+the Royal Society; while, lastly, Professor Grassi and Drs. Bignami
+and Bastianelli, of Rome, have been able, after receiving specimens
+and copies of my reports from me, to repeat my experiments in detail,
+and to follow two of the parasites of human malaria through all their
+stages in a species of mosquito called the <i>Anopheles claviger</i>.</p>
+
+<p>It may therefore be finally accepted as a fact that malaria is
+communicated by the bites of some species of mosquito; and, to judge
+from the general laws governing the development of parasitic animals,
+such as the parasites of malaria, this is very probably the only way in
+which infection is acquired, in which opinion several distinguished men
+of science concur with me.</p>
+
+<p>In considering this statement it is necessary to remember that it does
+not refer to the mere recurrences of fever to which people previously
+infected are often subject as the result of chill, fatigue, and so on.
+When I say that malaria is communicated by the bites of mosquitoes, I
+allude only to the original infection.</p>
+
+<p>It is also necessary to guard against assertions to the effect that
+malaria is prevalent where mosquitoes and gnats do not exist. In my
+experience, when the facts come to be inquired into, such assertions
+are found to be untrue. Scientific research has now yielded so absolute
+a proof of the mosquito theory of malaria that hearsay evidence opposed
+to it can no longer carry any weight.</p>
+
+<p>Hence it follows that, in order to eliminate malaria wholly or partly
+from a given locality, it is necessary only to exterminate the various
+species of insect which carry the infection. This will certainly
+remove the malaria to a large extent, and will almost certainly remove
+it altogether. It remains only to consider whether such a measure is
+practicable.</p>
+
+<p>Theoretically the extermination of mosquitoes is a very simple matter.
+These insects are always hatched from aquatic larvæ or grubs which can
+live only in small stagnant collections of water, such as pots and tubs
+of water, garden cisterns, wells, ditches and drains, small ponds,
+half-dried water courses, and temporary pools of rain-water. So far as
+I have yet observed, the larvæ are seldom to be found in larger bodies
+of water, such as tanks, rice fields, streams, and rivers and lakes,
+because in such places they are devoured by minnows and other small
+fish. Nor have I ever seen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span> any evidence in favor of the popular view
+that they breed in damp grass, dead leaves, and so on.</p>
+
+<p>Hence, in order to get rid of these insects from a locality, it will
+suffice to empty out or drain away, or treat with certain chemicals,
+the small collections of water in which their larvæ must pass their
+existence.</p>
+
+<p>But the practicability of this will depend on
+circumstances&mdash;especially, I think, on the species of mosquito with
+which we wish to deal. In my experience, different species select
+different habitations for their larvæ. Thus the common "brindled
+mosquitoes" breed almost entirely in pots and tubs of water; the
+common "gray mosquitoes" only in cisterns, ditches, and drains; while
+the rarer "spotted-winged mosquitoes" seem to choose only shallow
+rain-water puddles and ponds too large to dry up under a week or more,
+and too small or too foul and stagnant for minnows.</p>
+
+<p>Hence the larvæ of the first two varieties are found in large numbers
+round almost all human dwellings in India; and, because their breeding
+grounds&mdash;namely, vessels of water, drains, and wells&mdash;are so numerous
+and are so frequently contained in private tenements, it will be almost
+impossible to exterminate them on a large scale.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, spotted-winged mosquitoes are generally much
+more rare than the other two varieties. They do not appear to breed
+in wells, cisterns, and vessels of water, and therefore have no
+special connection with human habitations. In fact, it is usually
+a matter of some difficulty to obtain their larvæ. Small pools of
+any permanence&mdash;such as they require&mdash;are not common in most parts
+of India, except during the rains, and then pools of this kind are
+generally full of minnows which make short work of any mosquito
+larvæ they may find. In other words, the breeding grounds of the
+spotted-winged varieties seem to be so isolated and small that I
+think it may be possible to exterminate this species under certain
+circumstances.</p>
+
+<p>The importance of these observations will be apparent when I add
+that hitherto the parasites of human malaria have been found only in
+spotted-winged mosquitoes&mdash;namely, in two species of them in India and
+in one species in Italy. As a result of very numerous experiments I
+think that the common brindled and gray mosquitoes are quite innocuous
+as regards human malaria&mdash;a fortunate circumstance for the human race
+in the tropics; and Professor Grassi seems to have come to the same
+conclusion as the result of his inquiries in Italy.</p>
+
+<p>But I wish to be understood as writing with all due caution on these
+points. Up to the present our knowledge, both as regards<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> the habits
+of the various species of mosquito and as regards the capacity of each
+for carrying malaria, is not complete. All I can now say is that if
+my anticipations be realized&mdash;if it be found that the malaria-bearing
+species of mosquito multiply only in small isolated collections of
+water which can easily be dissipated&mdash;we shall possess a simple mode of
+eliminating malaria from certain localities.</p>
+
+<p>I limit this statement to certain localities only, because it is
+obvious that where the breeding pools are very numerous, as in
+water-logged country, or where the inhabitants are not sufficiently
+advanced to take the necessary precautions, we can scarcely expect the
+recent observations to be of much use&mdash;at least for some years to come.
+And this limitation must, I fear, exclude most of the rural areas in
+India.</p>
+
+<p>Where, however, the breeding pools are not very numerous, and where
+there is anything approaching a competent sanitary establishment, we
+may, I think, hope to reap the benefit of these discoveries. And this
+should apply to the most crowded areas, such as those of cities, towns
+and cantonments, and also to tea, coffee, and indigo estates, and
+perhaps to military camps.</p>
+
+<p>For instance, malaria causes an enormous amount of sickness among the
+poor in most Indian cities. Here the common species of mosquitoes breed
+in the precincts of almost all the houses, and can therefore scarcely
+be exterminated; but pools suitable for the spotted-winged varieties
+are comparatively scarce, being found only on vacant areas, ill-kept
+gardens, or beside roads in very exceptional positions where they can
+neither dry up quickly nor contain fish. Thus a single small puddle
+may supply the dangerous mosquitoes to several square miles containing
+a crowded population: if this be detected and drained off&mdash;which will
+generally cost only a very few rupees&mdash;we may expect malaria to vanish
+from that particular area.</p>
+
+<p>The same considerations will apply to military cantonments and estates
+under cultivation. In many such malaria causes the bulk of the
+sickness, and may often, I think, originate from two or three small
+puddles of a few square yards in size. Thus in a malarious part of
+the cantonment of Secunderabad I found the larvæ of spotted-winged
+mosquitoes only after a long search in a single little pool which could
+be filled up with a few cart-loads of town rubbish.</p>
+
+<p>In making these suggestions I do not wish to excite hopes which may
+ultimately prove to have been unfounded. We do not yet know all the
+dangerous species of mosquito, nor do we even possess an exhaustive
+knowledge of the haunts and habits of any one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> variety. I wish merely
+to indicate what, so far as I can see at present, may become a very
+simple means of eradicating malaria.</p>
+
+<p>One thing may be said for certain. Where previously we have been unable
+to point out the exact origin of the malaria in a locality, and have
+thought that it rises from the soil generally, we now hope for much
+more precise knowledge regarding its source; and it will be contrary to
+experience if human ingenuity does not finally succeed in turning such
+information to practical account.</p>
+
+<p>More than this, if the distinguishing characteristics of the
+malaria-bearing mosquitoes are sufficiently marked (if, for instance,
+they all have spotted wings), people forced to live or travel in
+malarious districts will ultimately come to recognize them and to take
+precautions against being bitten by them.</p>
+
+<p>Before practical results can be reasonably looked for, however, we must
+find precisely&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) What species of Indian mosquitoes do and do not carry human
+malaria.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) What are the habits of the dangerous varieties.</p>
+
+<p>I hope, therefore, that I may be permitted to urge the desirability of
+carrying out this research. It will no longer present any scientific
+difficulties, as only the methods already successfully adopted will be
+required. The results obtained will be quite unequivocal and definite.</p>
+
+<p>But the inquiry should be exhaustive. It will not suffice to
+distinguish merely one or two malaria-bearing species of mosquito in
+one or two localities; we should learn to know all of them in all parts
+of the country.</p>
+
+<p>The investigation will be abbreviated if the dangerous species be found
+to belong only to one class of mosquito, as I think is likely; and the
+researches which are now being energetically entered upon in Germany,
+Italy, America, and Africa will assist any which may be undertaken in
+India, though there is reason for thinking that the malaria-bearing
+species differ in various countries.</p>
+
+<p>As each species is detected it will be possible to attempt measures at
+once for its extermination in given localities as an experiment.</p>
+
+<p>I regret that, owing to my work connected with <i>kala-azar</i>, I have not
+been able to advance this branch of knowledge as much during my term
+of special duty as I had hoped to do; but I think that the solution of
+the malaria problem which has been obtained during this period will
+ultimately yield results of practical importance.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<p class="ph2"><a name="FOOD_POISONING" id="FOOD_POISONING">FOOD POISONING.</a></p>
+
+<p class="ph4"><span class="smcap">By VICTOR C. VAUGHAN</span>,</p>
+
+<p class="center">PROFESSOR OF HYGIENE IN THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN.</p>
+
+
+<p>Within the past fifteen or twenty years cases of poisoning with foods
+of various kinds have apparently become quite numerous. This increase
+in the number of instances of this kind has been both apparent and
+real. In the first place, it is only within recent years that it has
+been recognized that foods ordinarily harmless may become most powerful
+poisons. In the second place, the more extensive use of preserved
+foods of various kinds has led to an actual increase in the number of
+outbreaks of food poisoning.</p>
+
+<p>The harmful effects of foods may be due to any of the following causes:</p>
+
+<p>1. Certain poisonous fungi may infect grains. This is the cause of
+epidemics of poisoning with ergotized bread, which formerly prevailed
+during certain seasons throughout the greater part of continental
+Europe, but which are now practically limited to southern Russia and
+Spain. In this country ergotism is practically unknown, except as a
+result of the criminal use of the drug ergot. However, a few herds of
+cattle in Kansas and Nebraska have been quite extensively affected with
+this disease.</p>
+
+<p>2. Plants and animals may feed upon substances that are not harmful
+to them, but which may seriously affect man on account of his greater
+susceptibility. It is a well-known fact that hogs may eat large
+quantities of arsenic or antimony without harm to themselves, and thus
+render their flesh unfit for food for man. It is believed that birds
+that feed upon the mountain laurel furnish a food poisonous to man.</p>
+
+<p>3. During periods of the physiological activity of certain glands
+in some of the lower animals the flesh becomes harmful to man. Some
+species of fish are poisonous during the spawning season.</p>
+
+<p>4. Both animal and vegetable foods may become infected with the
+specific germs of disease and serve as the carriers of the infection to
+man. Instances of the distribution of typhoid fever by the milkman are
+illustrations of this.</p>
+
+<p>5. Animals may be infected with specific diseases, which may be
+transmitted to man in the meat or milk. This is one of the means by
+which tuberculosis is spread.</p>
+
+<p>6. Certain nonspecific, poison-producing germs may find their way into
+foods of various kinds, and may by their growth produce<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> chemical
+poisons either before or after the food has been eaten. This is the
+most common form of food poisoning known in this country.</p>
+
+<p>We will briefly discuss some foods most likely to prove harmful to man.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Mussel Poisoning.</span>&mdash;It has long been known that this bivalve is
+occasionally poisonous. Three forms of mussel poisoning are recognized.
+The first, known as <i>Mytilotoxismus gastricus</i>, is accompanied by
+symptoms practically identical with those of cholera morbus. At first
+there is nausea, followed by vomiting, which may continue for hours.
+In severe cases the walls of the stomach are so seriously altered that
+the vomited matter contains considerable quantities of blood. Vomiting
+is usually accompanied by severe and painful purging. The heart may be
+markedly affected, and death may result from failure of this organ.
+Examination after death from this cause shows the stomach and small
+intestines to be highly inflamed.</p>
+
+<p>The second form of mussel poisoning is known as <i>Mytilotoxismus
+exanthematicus</i> on account of visible changes in the skin. At first
+there is a sensation of heat, usually beginning in the eyelids, then
+spreading to the face, and finally extending over the whole body.
+This sensation is followed by an eruption, which is accompanied by
+intolerable itching. In severe cases the breathing becomes labored, the
+face grows livid, consciousness is lost, and death may result within
+two or three days.</p>
+
+<p>The most frequently observed form of mussel poisoning is that
+designated as <i>Mytilotoxismus paralyticus</i>. As early as 1827 Combe
+reported his observations upon thirty persons who had suffered from
+this kind of mussel poisoning. The first symptoms, as a rule, appeared
+within two hours after eating the poisonous food. Some suffered from
+nausea and vomiting, but these were not constant or lasting symptoms.
+All complained of a prickly feeling in the hands, heat and constriction
+of the throat, difficulty of swallowing and speaking, numbness about
+the mouth, gradually extending over the face and to the arms, with
+great debility of the limbs. Most of the sufferers were unable to
+stand; the action of the heart was feeble, and the face grew pale and
+expressed much anxiety. Two of the thirty cases terminated fatally.
+Post-mortem examination showed no abnormality.</p>
+
+<p>Many opinions have been expressed concerning the nature of harmful
+mussels. Until quite recently it was a common belief that certain
+species are constantly toxic. Virchow has attempted to describe the
+dangerous variety of mussels, stating that it has a brighter shell,
+sweeter, more penetrating, bouillonlike odor than<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> the edible kind, and
+that the flesh of the poisonous mussel is yellow; the water in which
+they are boiled becomes bluish.</p>
+
+<p>However, this belief in a poisonous species is now admitted to be
+erroneous. At one time it was suggested that mussels became hurtful
+by absorbing the copper from the bottoms of vessels, but Christison
+made an analysis of the mussels that poisoned the men mentioned by
+Combe, with negative results, and also pointed out the fact that the
+symptoms were not those of poisoning with copper. Some have held that
+the ill effects were due wholly to idiosyncrasies in the consumers,
+but cats and dogs are affected in the same way as men are. It has also
+been believed that all mussels are poisonous during the period of
+reproduction. This theory is the basis of the popular superstition that
+shellfish should not be eaten during the months in the name of which
+the letter "r" does not occur. At one time this popular idea took the
+form of a legal enactment in France forbidding the sale of shellfish
+from May 1st to September 1st. This widespread idea has a grain of
+truth in it, inasmuch as decomposition is more likely to alter food
+injuriously during the summer months. However, poisoning with mussels
+may occur at any time of the year.</p>
+
+<p>It has been pretty well demonstrated that the first two forms of mussel
+poisoning mentioned above are due to putrefactive processes, while
+the paralytic manifestations seen in other cases are due to a poison
+isolated a few years ago by Brieger, and named by him mytilotoxin. Any
+mussel may acquire this poison when it lives in filthy water. Indeed,
+it has been shown experimentally that edible mussels may become harmful
+when left for fourteen days or longer in filthy water; while, on the
+other hand, poisonous mussels may become harmless if kept four weeks
+or longer in clear water. This is true not only of mussels, but of
+oysters as well. Some years ago, many cases of poisoning from oysters
+were reported at Havre. The oysters had been taken from a bed near the
+outlet of a drain from a public water closet. Both oysters and mussels
+may harbor the typhoid bacillus, and may act as carriers of this germ
+to man.</p>
+
+<p>There should be most stringent police regulations against the sale of
+all kinds of mollusks, and all fish as well, taken from filthy waters.
+Certainly one should avoid shellfish from impure waters, and it is not
+too much to insist that those offered for food should be washed in
+clean water. All forms of clam and oyster broth should be avoided when
+it has stood even for a few hours at summer heat. These preparations
+very quickly become infected with bacteria, which develop most potent
+poisons.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Fish Poisoning.</span>&mdash;Some fish are supplied with poisonous glands,
+by means of which they secure their prey and protect themselves from
+their enemies. The "dragon weaver," or "sea weaver" (<i>Trachinus
+draco</i>), is one of the best known of these fish. There are numerous
+varieties widely distributed in salt waters. The poisonous spine
+is attached partly to the maxilla and partly to the gill cover at
+its base. This spine is connected with a poisonous gland; the spine
+itself is grooved and covered with a thin membrane, which converts the
+grooves into canals. When the point enters another animal its membrane
+is stripped back and the poison enters the wound. Men sometimes
+wound their feet with the barbs of this fish while bathing. It also
+occasionally happens that a fisherman pricks his fingers with one of
+these barbs. The most poisonous variety of this fish known is found in
+the Mediterranean Sea. Wounds produced by these animals sometimes cause
+death. In <i>Synanceia brachio</i> there are in the dorsal fin thirteen
+barbs, each connected with two poison reservoirs. The secretion from
+these glands is clear, bluish in color, and acid in reaction, and when
+introduced beneath the skin causes local gangrene and, if in sufficient
+quantity, general paralysis. In <i>Plotosus lineatus</i> there is a powerful
+barb in front of the ventral fin, and the poison is not discharged
+unless the end of the barb is broken. The most poisonous variety of
+this fish is found only in tropical waters. In <i>Scorpæna scrofa</i> and
+other species of this family there are poison glands connected with the
+barbs in the dorsal and in some varieties in the caudal fin.</p>
+
+<p>A disease known as <i>kakke</i> was a few years ago quite prevalent in
+Japan and other countries along the eastern coast of Asia. With
+the opening up of Japan to the civilized world the study of this
+disease by scientific methods was undertaken by the observant and
+intelligent natives who acquired their medical training in Europe and
+America. In Tokio the disease generally appears in May, reaches its
+greatest prevalence in August, and gradually disappears in September
+and October. The researches of Miura and others have fairly well
+demonstrated that this disease is due to the eating of fish belonging
+to the family of <i>Scombridæ</i>. There are other kinds of fish in
+Japanese waters that undoubtedly are poisonous. This is true of the
+<i>tetrodon</i>, of which, according to Remey, there are twelve species
+whose ovaries are poisonous. Dogs fed upon these organs soon suffered
+from salivation, vomiting, and convulsive muscular contractions. When
+some of the fluid obtained by rubbing the ovaries in a mortar was
+injected subcutaneously in dogs the symptoms were much more severe, and
+death resulted. Tahara states that he has isolated from the roe of the
+tetrodon two poisons, one of which is a crystalline base, while the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span>
+other is a white, waxy body. From 1885 to 1892 inclusive, 933 cases of
+poisoning with this fish were reported in Tokio, with a mortality of
+seventy-two per cent.</p>
+
+<p>Fish poisoning is quite frequently observed in the West Indies, where
+the complex of symptoms is designated by the Spanish term <i>siguatera</i>.
+It is believed by the natives that the poisonous properties of the fish
+are due to the fact that they feed upon decomposing medusæ and corals.
+In certain localities it is stated that all fish caught off certain
+coral reefs are unfit for food. However, all statements concerning the
+origin and nature of the poison in these fish are mere assumptions,
+since no scientific work has been done. Whatever the source of the
+poison may be, it is quite powerful, and death not infrequently
+results. The symptoms are those of gastro-intestinal irritation
+followed by collapse.</p>
+
+<p>In Russia fish poisoning sometimes causes severe and widespread
+epidemics. The Government has offered a large reward for any one who
+will positively determine the cause of the fish being poisonous and
+suggest successful means of preventing these outbreaks. Schmidt, after
+studying several of these epidemics, states the following conclusions:</p>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) The harmful effects are not due to putrefactive processes. (<i>b</i>)
+Fish poisoning in Russia is always due to the eating of some member of
+the sturgeon tribe. (<i>c</i>) The ill effects are not due to the method of
+catching the fish, the use of salt, or to imperfections in the methods
+of preservation. (<i>d</i>) The deleterious substance is not uniformly
+distributed through the fish, but is confined to certain parts. (<i>e</i>)
+The poisonous portions are not distinguishable from the nonpoisonous,
+either macroscopically or microscopically. (<i>f</i>) When the fish is
+cooked it may be eaten without harm. (<i>g</i>) The poison is an animal
+alkaloid produced most probably by bacteria that cause an infectious
+disease in the fish during life.</p>
+
+<p>The conclusion reached by Schmidt is confirmed by the researches of
+Madame Sieber, who found a poisonous bacillus in fish which had caused
+an epidemic.</p>
+
+<p>In the United States fish poisoning is most frequently due to
+decomposition in canned fish. The most prominent symptoms are nausea,
+vomiting, and purging. Sometimes there is a scarlatinous rash, which
+may cover the whole body. The writer has studied two outbreaks of
+this kind of fish poisoning. In both instances canned salmon was the
+cause of the trouble. Although a discussion of the treatment of food
+poisoning is foreign to this paper, the writer must call attention to
+the danger in the administration of opiates in cases of poisoning with
+canned fish. Vomiting and purging are efforts on the part of Nature to
+remove the poison, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> should be assisted by the stomach tube and by
+irrigation of the colon. In one of the cases seen by the writer large
+doses of morphine had been administered in order to check the vomiting
+and purging and to relieve the pain; in this case death resulted. The
+danger of arresting the elimination of the poison in all cases of food
+poisoning can not be too emphatically condemned.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Meat Poisoning.</span>&mdash;The diseases most frequently transmitted
+from the lower animals to man by the consumption of the flesh or milk
+of the former by the latter are tuberculosis, anthrax, symptomatic
+anthrax, pleuro-pneumonia, trichinosis, mucous diarrh&oelig;a, and
+actinomycosis. It hardly comes within the scope of this article
+to discuss in detail the transmission of these diseases from the
+lower animals to man. However, the writer must be allowed to offer
+a few opinions concerning some mooted questions pertaining to the
+consumption of the flesh of tuberculous animals. Some hold that it is
+sufficient to condemn the diseased part of the tuberculous cow, and
+that the remainder may be eaten with perfect safety. Others teach that
+"total seizure" and destruction of the entire carcass by the health
+authorities are desirable. Experiments consisting of the inoculation of
+guinea pigs with the meat and meat juices of tuberculous animals have
+given different results to several investigators. To one who has seen
+tuberculous animals slaughtered, these differences in opinion and in
+experimental results are easily explainable. The tuberculous invasion
+may be confined to a single gland, and this may occur in a portion
+of the carcass not ordinarily eaten; while, on the other hand, the
+invasion may be much more extensive and the muscles may be involved.
+The tuberculous portion may consist of hard nodules that do not break
+down and contaminate other tissues in the process of removal, but the
+writer has seen a tuberculous abscess in the liver holding nearly a
+pint of broken-down infected matter ruptured or cut in removing this
+organ, and its contents spread over the greater part of the carcass.
+This explains why one investigator succeeds in inducing tuberculosis
+in guinea pigs by introducing small bits of meat from a tuberculous
+cow into the abdominal cavity, while another equally skillful
+bacteriologist follows the same details and fails to get positive
+results. No one desires to eat any portion of a tuberculous animal, and
+the only safety lies in "total seizure" and destruction. That the milk
+from tuberculous cows, even when the udder is not involved, may contain
+the specific bacillus has been demonstrated experimentally. The writer
+has suggested that every one selling milk should be licensed, and the
+granting of a license should be dependent upon the application of the
+tuberculin test to every cow from which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> milk is sold. The frequency
+with which tuberculosis is transmitted to children through milk should
+justify this action.</p>
+
+<p>That a profuse diarrh&oelig;a may render the flesh of an animal unfit
+food for man was demonstrated by the cases studied by Gärtner. In this
+instance the cow was observed to have a profuse diarrh&oelig;a for two
+days before she was slaughtered. Both the raw and cooked meat from this
+animal poisoned the persons who ate it. Medical literature contains the
+records of many cases of meat poisoning due to the eating of the flesh
+of cows slaughtered while suffering from puerperal fever. It has been
+found that the flesh of animals dead of symptomatic anthrax may retain
+its infection after having been preserved in a dry state for ten years.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most frequently observed forms of meat poisoning is that
+due to the eating of decomposed sausage. Sausage poisoning, known
+as <i>botulismus</i>, is most common in parts of Germany. Germans who
+have brought to the United States their methods of preparing sausage
+occasionally suffer from this form of poisoning. The writer had
+occasion two years ago to investigate six cases of this kind, two
+of which proved fatal. The sausage meat had been placed in uncooked
+sections of the intestines and alternately frozen and thawed and
+then eaten raw. In this instance the meat was infected with a highly
+virulent bacillus, which resembled very closely the <i>Bacterium coli</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In England, Ballard has reported numerous epidemics of meat poisoning,
+in most of which the meat had become infected with some nonspecific,
+poison-producing germ. In 1894 the writer was called upon to
+investigate cases of poisoning due to the eating of pressed chicken.
+The chickens were killed Tuesday afternoon and left hanging in a market
+room at ordinary temperature until Wednesday forenoon, when they were
+drawn and carried to a restaurant and here left in a warm room until
+Thursday, when they were cooked (not thoroughly), pressed, and served
+at a banquet in which nearly two hundred men participated. All ate
+of the chicken, and were more or less seriously poisoned. The meat
+contained a slender bacillus, which was fatal to white rats, guinea
+pigs, dogs, and rabbits.</p>
+
+<p>Ermengem states that since 1867 there have been reported 112 epidemics
+of meat poisoning, in which 6,000 persons have been affected. In 103 of
+these outbreaks the meat came from diseased animals, while in only five
+was there any evidence that putrefactive changes in the meat had taken
+place. My experience convinces me that in this country meat poisoning
+frequently results from putrefactive changes.</p>
+
+<p>Instances of poisoning from the eating of canned meats have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> become
+quite common. Although it may be possible that in some instances the
+ill effects result from metallic poisoning, in a great majority of
+cases the poisonous substances are formed by putrefactive changes. In
+many cases it is probable that decomposition begins after the can has
+been opened by the consumer; in others the canning is imperfectly done,
+and putrefaction is far advanced before the food reaches the consumer.
+In still other instances the meat may have been taken from diseased
+animals, or it may have undergone putrefactive changes before the
+canning. It should always be remembered that canned meat is especially
+liable to putrefactive changes after the can has been opened, and when
+the contents of the open can are not consumed at once the remainder
+should be kept in a cold place or should be thrown away. People are
+especially careless on this point. While every one knows that fresh
+meat should be kept in a cold place during the summer, an open can of
+meat is often allowed to stand at summer temperature and its contents
+eaten hours after the can has been opened. This is not safe, and has
+caused several outbreaks of meat poisoning that have come under the
+observation of the writer.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Milk Poisoning.</span>&mdash;In discussing this form of food poisoning
+we will exclude any consideration of the distribution of the specific
+infectious diseases through milk as the carrier of the infection,
+and will confine ourselves to that form of milk poisoning which is
+due to infection with nonspecific, poison-producing germs. Infants
+are highly susceptible to the action of the galactotoxicons (milk
+poisons). There can no longer be any doubt that these poisons are
+largely responsible for much of the infantile mortality which is
+alarmingly high in all parts of the world. It has been positively shown
+that the summer diarrh&oelig;a of infancy is due to milk poisoning. The
+diarrh&oelig;as prevalent among infants during the summer months are not
+due to a specific germ, but there are many bacteria that grow rapidly
+in milk and form poisons which induce vomiting and purging, and may
+cause death. These diseases occur almost exclusively among children
+artificially fed. It is true that there are differences in chemical
+composition between the milk of woman and that of the cow, but these
+variations in percentage of proteids, fats, and carbohydrates are of
+less importance than the infection of milk with harmful bacteria. The
+child that takes its food exclusively from the breast of a healthy
+mother obtains a food that is free from poisonous bacteria, while the
+bottle-fed child may take into its body with its food a great number
+and variety of germs, some of which may be quite deadly in their
+effects. The diarrh&oelig;as of infancy are practically confined to the
+hot months, because a high temperature is essential to the growth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> and
+wide distribution of the poison-producing bacteria. Furthermore, during
+the summer time these bacteria grow abundantly in all kinds of filth.
+Within recent years the medical profession has so urgently called
+attention to the danger of infected milk that there has been a great
+improvement in the care of this article of diet, but that there is yet
+room for more scientific and thorough work in this direction must be
+granted. The sterilization and Pasteurization of milk have doubtlessly
+saved the lives of many children, but every intelligent physician knows
+that even the most careful mother or nurse often fails to secure a milk
+that is altogether safe.</p>
+
+<p>It is true that milk often contains germs the spores of which
+are not destroyed by the ordinary methods of sterilization and
+Pasteurization. However, these germs are not the most dangerous ones
+found in milk. Moreover, every mother and nurse should remember
+that in the preparation of sterilized milk for the child it is not
+only necessary to heat the milk, but, after it has been heated to a
+temperature sufficiently high and sufficiently prolonged, the milk must
+subsequently be kept at a low temperature until the child is ready to
+take it, when it may be warmed. It should be borne in mind that the
+subsequent cooling of the milk and keeping it at a low temperature is a
+necessary feature in the preparation of it as a food for the infant.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cheese Poisoning.</span>&mdash;Under this heading we shall include the
+ill effects that may follow the eating of not only cheese but other
+milk products, such as ice cream, cream custard, cream puffs, etc. Any
+poison formed in milk may exist in the various milk products, and it is
+impossible to draw any sharp line of distinction between milk poisoning
+and cheese poisoning. However, the distinction is greater than is
+at first apparent. Under the head of milk poisoning we have called
+especial attention to those substances formed in milk to which children
+are particularly susceptible, while in cheese and other milk products
+there are formed poisonous substances against which age does not give
+immunity. Since milk is practically the sole food during the first year
+or eighteen months of life, the effect of its poisons upon infants is
+of the greatest importance; on the other hand, milk products are seldom
+taken by the infant, but are frequent articles of diet in after life.</p>
+
+<p>In 1884 the writer succeeded in isolating from poisonous cheese a
+highly active basic substance, to which he gave the name <i>tyrotoxicon</i>.
+The symptoms produced by this poison are quite marked, but differ in
+degree according to the amount of the poison taken. At first there is
+dryness of the mouth, followed by constriction of the fauces, then
+nausea, vomiting, and purging. The first vomited<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> matter consists of
+food, then it becomes watery and is frequently stained with blood. The
+stools are at first semisolid, and then are watery and serous. The
+heart is depressed, the pulse becomes weak and irregular, and in severe
+cases the face appears cyanotic. There may be dilatation of the pupil,
+but this is not seen in all. The most dangerous cases are those in
+which the vomiting is slight and soon ceases altogether, and the bowels
+are constipated from the beginning. Such cases as these require prompt
+and energetic treatment. The stomach and bowels should be thoroughly
+irrigated in order to remove the poison, and the action of the heart
+must be sustained.</p>
+
+<p>At one time the writer believed that tyrotoxicon was the active agent
+in all samples of poisonous cheese, but more extended experimentation
+has convinced him that this is not the case. Indeed, this poison is
+rarely found, while the number of poisons in harmful cheese is no doubt
+considerable. There are numerous poisonous albumins found in cheese
+and other milk products. While all of these are gastro-intestinal
+irritants, they differ considerably in other respects.</p>
+
+<p>In 1895 the writer and Perkins made a prolonged study of a bacillus
+found in cheese which had poisoned fifty people. Chemically the
+poison produced by this germ is distinguished from tyrotoxicon by
+the fact that it is not removed from alkaline solution with ether.
+Physiologically the new poison has a more pronounced effect on the
+heart, in which it resembles muscarin or neurin more closely than it
+does tyrotoxicon. Pathologically, the two poisons are unlike, inasmuch
+as the new poison induces marked congestion of the tissues about the
+point of injection when used upon animals hypodermically. Furthermore,
+the intestinal constrictions which are so uniformly observed in animals
+poisoned by tyrotoxicon was not once seen in our work with this new
+poison, although it was carefully looked for in all our experiments.</p>
+
+<p>In 1898 the writer, with McClymonds, examined samples of cheese from
+more than sixty manufacturers in this country and in Europe. In all
+samples of ordinary American green cheese poisonous germs were found in
+greater or less abundance. These germs resemble very closely the colon
+bacillus, and most likely their presence in the milk is to be accounted
+for by contamination with bits of fecal matter from the cow. It is more
+than probable that the manufacture of cheese is yet in its infancy,
+and we need some one to do for this industry what Pasteur did for the
+manufacture of beer. At present the flavor of a given cheese depends
+upon the bacteria and molds which accidentally get into it. The time
+will probably come when all milk used for the manufacture of cheese<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>
+will be sterilized, and then selected molds and bacteria will be sown
+in it. In this way the flavor and value of a cheese will be determined
+with scientific accuracy, and will not be left to accident.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Canned Foods.</span>&mdash;As has been stated, the increased consumption
+of preserved foods is accountable for a great proportion of the cases
+of food poisoning. The preparation of canned foods involves the
+application of scientific principles, and since this work is done by
+men wholly ignorant of science it is quite remarkable that harmful
+effects do not manifest themselves more frequently than they do. Every
+can of food which is not thoroughly sterilized may become a source of
+danger to health and even to life. It may be of interest for us to
+study briefly the methods ordinarily resorted to in the preparation
+of canned foods. With most substances the food is cooked before being
+put into the can. This is especially true of meats of various kinds.
+Thorough cooking necessarily leads to the complete sterilization of
+the food; but after this, it must be transferred to the can, and the
+can must be properly closed. With the handling necessary in canning
+the food, germs are likely to be introduced. Moreover, it is possible
+that the preliminary cooking is not thoroughly done and complete
+sterilization is not reached. The empty can should be sterilized. If
+one wishes to understand the <i>modus operandi</i> of canning foods, let him
+take up a round can of any fruit, vegetable, or meat and examine the
+bottom of the can, which is in reality the top during the process of
+canning and until the label is put on. The food is introduced through
+the circular opening in this end, now closed by a piece which can be
+seen to be soldered on. After the food has been introduced through this
+opening the can and contents are heated either in a water bath or by
+means of steam. The opening through which the food was introduced is
+now closed by a circular cap of suitable size, which is soldered in
+position.</p>
+
+<p>This cap has near its center a "prick-hole" through which the steam
+continues to escape. This "prick-hole" is then closed with solder, and
+the closed can again heated in the water bath or with steam. If the
+can "blows" (if the ends of the can become convex) during this last
+heating the "prick-hole" is again punctured and the heated air allowed
+to escape, after which the "prick-hole" is again closed. Cans thus
+prepared should be allowed to stand in a warm chamber for four or five
+days. If the contents have not been thoroughly sterilized gases will
+be evolved during this time, or the can will "blow" and the contents
+should be discarded. Unscrupulous manufacturers take cans which have
+"blown," prick them to allow the escape of the contained gases, and
+then resterilize the cans with their contents, close them again, and
+put them<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> on the market. These "blowholes" may be made in either end of
+the can, or they may be made in the sides of the can, where they are
+subsequently covered with the label. Of course, it does not necessarily
+follow that if a can has "blown" and been subsequently resterilized its
+contents will prove poisonous, but it is not safe to eat the contents
+of such cans. Reputable manufacturers discard all "blown" cans.</p>
+
+<p>Nearly all canned jellies sold in this country are made from apples.
+The apples are boiled with a preparation sold under the trade
+name "tartarine." This consists of either dilute hydrochloric or
+sulphuric acid. Samples examined by the writer have invariably been
+found to consist of dilute hydrochloric acid. The jelly thus formed
+by the action of the dilute acid upon the apple is converted into
+quince, pear, pineapple, or any other fruit that the pleasure of the
+manufacturer may choose by the addition of artificial flavoring agents.
+There is no reason for believing that the jellies thus prepared are
+harmful to health.</p>
+
+<p>Canned fruits occasionally contain salicylic acid in some form. There
+has been considerable discussion among sanitarians as to whether or
+not the use of this preservative is admissible. Serious poisoning with
+canned fruits is very rare. However, there can be but little doubt that
+many minor digestive disturbances are caused by acids formed in these
+foods. There has been much apprehension concerning the possibility of
+poisoning resulting from the soluble salts of tin formed by the action
+of fruit acids upon the can. The writer believes that anxiety on this
+point is unnecessary, and he has failed to find any positive evidence
+of poisoning resulting from this cause.</p>
+
+<p>There are two kinds of condensed milk sold in cans. These are known as
+condensed milk "with" and "without" sugar. In the preparation of the
+first-mentioned kind a large amount of cane sugar is added to condensed
+milk, and this acting as a preservative renders the preparation and
+successful handling of this article of food comparatively easy. On
+the other hand, condensed milk to which sugar has not been added is
+very liable to decomposition, and great care must be used in its
+preparation. The writer has seen several cases of severe poisoning that
+have resulted from decomposed canned milk. Any of the galactotoxicons
+(milk poisons) may be formed in this milk. In these instances the cans
+were "blown," both ends being convex.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most important sanitary questions in which we are concerned
+to-day is that pertaining to the subject of canned meats. It is
+undoubtedly true that unscrupulous manufacturers are putting upon the
+market articles of this kind of food which no decent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> man knowingly
+would eat, and which are undoubtedly harmful to all.</p>
+
+<p>The knowledge gained by investigations in chemical and bacteriological
+science have enabled the unscrupulous to take putrid liver and other
+disgusting substances and present them in such a form that the most
+fastidious palate would not recognize their origin. In this way the
+flesh from diseased animals and that which has undergone putrefactive
+changes may be doctored up and sold as reputable articles of diet.
+The writer does not believe that this practice is largely resorted
+to in this country, but that questionable preservatives have been
+used to some extent has been amply demonstrated by the testimony of
+the manufacturers of these articles themselves, given before the
+Senate committee now investigating the question of food and food
+adulterations. It is certainly true that most of the adulterations
+used in our foods are not injurious to health, but are fraudulent in a
+pecuniary sense; but when the flesh of diseased animals and substances
+which have undergone putrefactive decomposition can be doctored up and
+preserved by the addition of such agents as formaldehyde, it is time
+that the public should demand some restrictive measures.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p class="ph2"><a name="WIRELESS_TELEGRAPHY" id="WIRELESS_TELEGRAPHY">WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY.</a></p>
+
+<p class="ph4"><span class="smcap">By Prof. JOHN TROWBRIDGE</span>,</p>
+
+<p class="center">DIRECTOR OF JEFFERSON PHYSICAL LABORATORY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY.</p>
+
+
+<p>I never visit the historical collection of physical apparatus in the
+physical laboratory of Harvard University without a sense of wonderment
+at the marvelous use that has been made of old and antiquated pieces
+of apparatus which were once considered electrical toys. There can
+be seen the first batteries, the model of dynamo machines, and the
+electric motor. Such a collection is in a way a Westminster Abbey&mdash;dead
+mechanisms born to new uses and a great future.</p>
+
+<p>There is one simple piece of apparatus in the collection, without which
+telephony and wireless telegraphy would be impossible. To my mind it
+is the most interesting skeleton there, and if physicists marked the
+resting places of their apparatus laid to apparent rest and desuetude,
+this merits the highest sounding and most suggestive inscription. It
+is called a transformer, and consists merely of two coils of wire
+placed near each other. One coil is adapted to receive an electric
+current; the other coil, entirely independent of the first, responds
+by sympathy, or what is called induction,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> across the space which
+separates the coils. Doubtless if man knew all the capabilities of this
+simple apparatus he might talk to China, or receive messages from the
+antipodes. He now, by means of it, analyzes the light of distant suns,
+and produces the singular X rays which enable him to see through the
+human body. By means of it he already communicates his thoughts between
+stations thousands of miles apart, and by means of its manifestations I
+hope to make this article on wireless telegraphy intelligible. My essay
+can be considered a panegyric of this buried form&mdash;a history of its new
+life and of its unbounded possibilities.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;">
+<img src="images/illo_064.jpg" width="700" height="501" alt="Disposition of batteries" />
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Disposition of batteries and coils at
+the sending station, showing the arrangement of the vertical wire and
+the spark gap.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>For convenience, one of the coils of the transformer is placed inside
+the other, and the combination is called a Ruhmkorf coil. It is
+represented in the accompanying photograph (Fig. 1), with batteries
+attached to the inner coil, while the outer coil is connected to two
+balls, between which an electric spark jumps whenever the battery
+circuit is broken. In fact, any disturbance in the battery circuit&mdash;a
+weakening, a strengthening, or a break&mdash;provided that the changes are
+sudden, produces a corresponding change in the neighboring circuit. One
+coil thus responds to the other, in some mysterious way, across the
+interval of air which separates them. Usually the coils are placed very
+near to each other&mdash;in fact, one embraces the other, as shown in the
+photograph.</p>
+
+<p>The coils, however, if placed several miles apart, will still re<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span>spond
+to each other if they are made sufficiently large, if they are properly
+placed, and if a powerful current is used to excite one coil. Thus,
+by simply varying the distance between the coils of wire we can send
+messages through the air between stations which are not connected
+with a wire. This method, however, does not constitute the system of
+wireless telegraphy of Marconi, which it is the object of this paper
+to describe. Marconi has succeeded in transmitting messages over forty
+miles between points not connected by wires, and he has accomplished
+this feat by merely slightly modifying the disposition of the coils,
+thus revealing a new possibility of the wondrous transformer. If the
+reader will compare the following diagram (Fig. 2) with the photograph
+(Fig. 1), he will see how simple the sending apparatus of Marconi is.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/illo_065.jpg" width="600" height="561" alt="Diagram of the arrangement of wires" />
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Diagram of the arrangement of wires
+and batteries at the receiving station.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>S is a gap between the ends of one coil, across which an electric spark
+is produced whenever the current from the batteries B flowing through
+the coil C is broken by an arrangement at D. This break produces an
+electrical pulsation in the coil C', which travels up and down the
+wire W, which is elevated to a considerable height above the ground.
+This pulsation can not be seen by the eye. The wire does not move;
+it appears perfectly quiescent and dead, and seems only a wire and
+nothing more. At night, under favorable circumstances, one could see a
+luminosity on the wire, especially at the end, when messages are being
+transmitted, by a powerful battery B.</p>
+
+<p>It is very easy to detect the electric lines which radiate from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> every
+part of such a wire when a spark jumps between the terminals S of
+the coil. All that is necessary to do is to pass the wire through a
+sensitive film and to develop the film. The accompanying photograph
+(Fig. 3) was taken at the top of such a wire, by means of a very
+powerful apparatus at my command. When the photograph is examined
+with a microscope the arborescent electric lines radiating from the
+wire, like the rays of light from a star, exhibit a beautiful fernlike
+structure. These lines, however, are not chiefly instrumental in
+transmitting the electric pulse across space.</p>
+
+<p>There are other lines, called magnetic lines of force, which emanate
+from every portion of the vertical wire W just as ripples spread out
+on the surface of placid water when it is disturbed by the fall of a
+stone. These magnetic ripples travel in the ether of space, and when
+they embrace a neighboring wire or coil they produce similar ripples,
+which whirl about the distant wire and produce in some strange way an
+electrical current in the wire. These magnetic pulsations can travel
+great distances.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 334px;">
+<img src="images/illo_066.jpg" width="334" height="500" alt="" />
+<p class="ph4"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 2<i>a</i> represents a more complete electrical arrangement
+of the receiver circuit. The vertical wire, W', is connected to one
+wire of the coherer, L. The other wire of the coherer is led to the
+ground, G. The wires in the coherer, L, are separated by fine metallic
+particles. B represents a battery. E, an electro-magnet which attracts
+a piece of iron, A (armature), and closes a local battery, B, causing a
+click of the sounder (electro-magnet), S. The magnetic waves (Fig. 5)
+embracing the wire, W', cause a pulsation in this wire which produces
+an electrical disturbance in the coherer analogous to that shown in
+Fig. 3, by means of which an electrical current is enabled to pass
+through the electro-magnet, E.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>In the photographs of these magnetic whirls, Fig. 4 is the whirl
+produced in the circuit C' by the battery B (Fig. 2), while Fig. 5 is
+that produced by electrical sympathy, or as it is called induction,
+in a neighboring wire. These photographs were obtained by passing the
+circuits through the sensitive films, perpendicularly to the latter,
+and then sprinkling very fine iron filings on these surfaces and
+exposing them to the light. In order to obtain these photographs a
+very powerful electrical current excited the coil C (Fig. 2), and the
+neighboring circuit W' (Fig. 5) was placed very near the circuit W.</p>
+
+<p>When the receiving wire is at the distance of several miles from
+the sending wire it is impossible to detect by the above method the
+magnetic ripples or whirls. We can, however, detect the electrical
+currents which these magnetic lines of force cause in the receiving
+wire; and this leads me to speak of the discovery<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span> of a remarkable
+phenomenon which has made Marconi's system of wireless telegraphy
+possible. In order that an electrical current may flow through a mass
+of particles of a metal, a mass, for instance, of iron filings, it
+is necessary either to compress them or to cause a minute spark or
+electrical discharge between the particles. Now, it is supposed that
+the magnetic whirls, in embracing the distant receiving circuit, cause
+these minute sparks, and thus enable the electric current from the
+battery B to work a telegraphic sounder or bell M. The metallic filings
+are inclosed in a glass tube between wires which lead to the battery,
+and the arrangement is called a coherer. It can be made small and
+light. Fig. 6 is a representation in full size of one that has been
+found to be very sensitive. It consists of two silver wires with a few
+iron filings contained in a glass tube between the ends of the wires.
+It is necessary that this little tube should be constantly shaken up
+in order that after the electrical circuit is made the iron filings
+should return to their non-conducting condition, or should cease to
+cohere together, and should thus be ready to respond to the following
+signal. My colleague, Professor Sabine, has employed a very small
+electric motor to cause the glass tube to revolve, and thus to keep the
+filings in motion while signals are being received. Fig. 7 shows the
+arrangement of the receiving apparatus.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/illo_067.jpg" width="500" height="324" alt="Photograph of the electric lines" />
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;Photograph of the electric lines which
+emanate from the end of the wire at the sending station, and which are
+probably reproduced among the metallic filings of the coherer at the
+receiving station.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The coherer and the motor are shown between two batteries, one of
+which drives the motor while the other serves to work the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> bell or
+sounder when the electric wire excites the iron filings. In Fig. 2
+this receiving apparatus is shown diagrammatically. B is the battery
+which sends a current through the sounder M and the coherer N when the
+magnetic whirls coming from the sending wire W embrace the receiving
+wire W'.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>The term wireless telegraphy is a misnomer, for without wires the
+method would not be possible. The phenomenon is merely an enlargement
+of one that we are fully conscious of in the case of telegraph and
+telephone circuits, which is termed electro-magnetic induction.
+Whenever an electric current suddenly flows or suddenly ceases to
+flow along a wire, electrical currents are caused by induction in
+neighboring wires. The receiver employed by Marconi is a delicate
+spark caused by this induction, which forms a bridge so that an
+electric current from the relay battery can pass and influence magnetic
+instruments.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/illo_068.jpg" width="500" height="398" alt="Magnetic whirls" />
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span>&mdash;Magnetic whirls about the sending
+wire.</div>
+</div>
+<p>Many investigators had succeeded before Marconi in sending telegraphic
+messages several miles through the air or ether between two points
+not directly connected by wires. Marconi has extended the distance by
+employing a much higher electro-motive force at the sending station
+and using the feeble inductive effect at a distance to set in action a
+local battery.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It is evident that wires are needed at the sending station from every
+point of which magnetic and electric waves are sent out, and wires at
+the receiving station which embrace, so to speak, these waves in the
+manner shown by our photographs. These waves produce minute sparks in
+the receiving instrument, which act like a suddenly drawn flood gate in
+allowing the current from a local battery to flow through the circuit
+in which the spark occurs, and thus produce a click on a telegraphic
+instrument.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>We have said that messages had been sent by what is called wireless
+telegraphy before Marconi made his experiments. These messages had
+also been sent by induction, signals on one wire being received by a
+parallel and distant wire. To Marconi is due the credit of greatly
+extending the method by using a vertical wire. The method of using the
+coherer to detect electric pulses is not due, however, to Marconi.
+It is usually attributed to Branly; it had been employed, however,
+by previous observers, among whom is Hughes, the inventor of the
+microphone, an instrument analogous in its action to that of the
+coherer. In the case of the microphone, the waves from the human voice
+shake up the particles of carbon in the microphone transmitter, and
+thus cause an electrical current to flow more easily through the minute
+contacts of the carbon particles.</p>
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/illo_069.jpg" width="500" height="402" alt="Magnetic whirls" />
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span>&mdash;Magnetic whirls about the receiving
+wire.</div>
+</div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><br />The action of the telephone transmitter, which also consists of minute
+conducting particles in which a battery terminals are immersed, and
+the analogous coherer is microscopic, and there are many theories to
+account for their changes of resistance to electrical currents. We can
+not, I believe, be far wrong in thinking that the electric force breaks
+down the insulating effect of the infinitely thin layers of air between
+the particles, and thus allows an electric current to flow. This action
+is doubtless of the nature of an electric spark. An electric spark,
+in the case of wireless telegraphy, produces magnetic and electric
+lines of force in space, these reach out and embrace the circuit
+containing the coherer, and produce in turn minute sparks. <i>Similia
+similibus</i>&mdash;one action perfectly corresponds to the other.</p>
+
+<p>The Marconi system, therefore, of what is called wireless telegraphy
+is not new in principle, but only new in practical application. It had
+been used to show the phenomena of electric waves in lecture rooms.
+Marconi extended it from distances of sixty to one hundred feet to
+fifty or sixty miles. He did this by lifting the sending-wire spark on
+a lofty pole and improving the sensitiveness of the metallic filings
+in the glass tube at the receiving station. He adopted a mechanical
+arrangement for continually tapping the coherer in order to break up
+the minute bridges formed by the cohering action, and thus to prepare
+the filings for the next magnetic pulse. The system of wireless
+telegraphy is emphatically a spark system strangely analogous to
+flash-light signaling, a system in which the human eye with its rods
+and cones in the retina acts as the coherer, and the nerve system, the
+local battery, making a signal or sensation in the brain.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/illo_070.jpg" width="600" height="61" alt="The coherer employed" />
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span>&mdash;The coherer employed to receive the
+electric waves. (One and a third actual size.)</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Let us examine the sending spark a little further. An electric spark
+is perhaps the most interesting phenomenon in electricity. What causes
+it&mdash;how does the air behave toward it&mdash;what is it that apparently flows
+through the air, sending out light and heat waves as well as magnetic
+and electric waves? If we could answer all these questions, we should
+know what electricity is. A critical study of the electric spark has
+not only its scientific but its practical side. We see the latter side
+evidenced by its employment in wireless telegraphy and in the X rays;
+for in the latter case we have an electric discharge in a tube from
+which the air is removed&mdash;a special case of an electric spark. In<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span>
+order to understand the capabilities of wireless telegraphy we must
+turn to the scientific study of the electric spark; for its practical
+employment resides largely in its strength, in its frequency in its
+position, and in its power to make the air a conductor for electricity.
+All these points are involved in wireless telegraphy. How, then, shall
+we study the electric spark? The eye sees only an instantaneous flash
+following a devious path. It can not tell in what direction a spark
+flies (a flash of lightning, for instance), or indeed whether it has
+a direction. There is probably no commoner fallacy mankind entertains
+than the belief that the direction of lightning, or any electric spark,
+can be ascertained by the eye&mdash;that is, the direction from the sky
+to the earth or from the earth to the sky. I have repeatedly tested
+numbers of students in regard to this question, employing sparks four
+to six feet in length, taking precautions in regard to the concealment
+of the directions in which I charged the poles of the charging
+batteries, and I have never found a consensus of opinion in regard to
+directions. The ordinary photograph, too, reveals no more than the eye
+can see&mdash;a brilliant, devious line or a flaming discharge.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/illo_071.jpg" width="600" height="371" alt="Arrangement of batteries" />
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span>&mdash;Arrangement of batteries of motor
+(to disturb the coherer) and the sounder by which the messages are
+received.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>A large storage battery forms the best means of studying electric
+sparks, for with it one can run the entire gamut of this
+phenomenon&mdash;from the flaming discharge which we see in the arc light
+on the street to the crackling spark we employ in wireless telegraphy,
+and the more powerful discharges of six or more feet in length which
+closely resemble lightning discharges. A critical study of this gamut
+throws considerable light on the problem of the possibility<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> of secret
+wireless telegraphy&mdash;a problem which it is most important to solve if
+the system is to be made practical; for at present the message spreads
+out from the sending spark in great circular ripples in all directions,
+and may be received by any one.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/illo_072.jpg" width="500" height="250" alt="Photograph of electrical pulses." />
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span>&mdash;Photograph of electrical pulses. The
+interval between the pulses is one millionth of a second.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Several methods enable us to transform electrical energy so as to
+obtain suitable quick and intense blows on the surrounding medium.
+Is it possible that there is some mysterious vibration in the spark
+which is instrumental in the effective transmission of electrical
+energy across space? If the spark should vibrate or oscillate to and
+fro faster than sixteen times a second the human eye could not detect
+such oscillations; for an impression remains on the eye one sixteenth
+of a second, and subsequent ones separated by intervals shorter than a
+sixteenth would mingle together and could not be separated. The only
+way to ascertain whether the spark is oscillatory, or whether it is
+not one spark, as it appears to the eye, but a number of to-and-fro
+impulses, is to photograph it by a rapidly revolving mirror. The
+principle is similar to that of the biograph or the vitoscope, in
+which the quick to-and-fro motions of the spark are received on a
+sensitive film, which is in rapid motion. One terminal of the spark
+gap, the positive terminal so called, is always brighter than the
+other. Hence, if the sensitive film is moved at right angles to the
+path of the discharge, we shall get a row of dots which are the images
+of the brighter terminal, and these dots occur alternately first
+on one terminal and then on the other, showing that the discharge
+oscillates&mdash;that is, leaps in one discharge (which seems but one to the
+eye) many times in a hundred thousandth of a second. In practice it is
+found better to make an image of the spark move across the sensitive
+film instead of moving the film. This is accomplished by the same
+method that a boy uses in flashing sunlight by means of a mirror. The
+faster the mirror<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> moves the faster moves the image of the light. In
+this way a speed of a millionth of a second can be attained. In this
+case the distance between the dots on the film may be one tenth of
+an inch, sufficient to separate them to the eye. The photograph of
+electric sparks (Fig. 8) was taken in this manner. The distance between
+any two bright spots in the trail of the photographic images represents
+the time of the electric oscillation or the time of the magnetic pulse
+or wave which is sent out from the spark, and which will cause a
+distant circuit to respond by a similar oscillation.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/illo_073.jpg" width="500" height="311" alt="Photograph of a pilot spark" />
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span>&mdash;Photograph of a pilot spark, which is
+the principal factor in the method of wireless telegraphy.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>At present the shortest time that can, so to speak, be photographed
+in this manner is about one two-millionth of a second. This is the
+time of propagation of a magnetic wave over four hundred feet long.
+The waves used in wireless telegraphy are not more than four feet in
+length&mdash;about one hundredth the length of those we can photograph.
+The photographic method thus reveals a mechanism of the spark which
+is entirely hidden from the eye and will always be concealed from
+human sight. It reveals, however, a greater mystery which it seems
+incompetent to solve&mdash;the mystery of what is called the pilot spark,
+the first discharge which we see on our photograph (Fig. 9) stretching
+intact from terminal to terminal, having the prodigious velocity of one
+hundred and eighty thousand miles a second. None of our experimental
+devices suffice to penetrate the mystery of this discharge. It is this
+pilot spark which is chiefly instrumental in sending out the magnetic
+pulses or waves which are powerful enough to reach forty or fifty
+miles. The preponderating influence of this pilot spark&mdash;so called
+since it finds a way for the subsequent surgings<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> or oscillations&mdash;is
+a bar to the efforts to make wireless telegraphy secret. We can see
+from the photograph how much greater its strength is than that of the
+subsequent discharges shown by the mere brightening of the terminals.
+A delicate coherer will immediately respond to the influence of this
+pilot spark, and the subsequent oscillations of this discharge will
+have little effect. How, then, can we effectively time a receiving
+circuit so that it will respond to only one sending station? We can not
+depend upon the oscillatory nature of the spark, or adopt, in other
+words, its rate of vibration and form a coherer with the same rate.</p>
+
+<p>It seems as if it would be necessary to invent some method of sending
+pilot sparks at a high and definite rate of vibration, and of employing
+coherers which will only respond to definite powerful rates of magnetic
+pulsation. Various attempts have been made to produce by mechanical
+means powerful electric surgings, but they have been unsuccessful. Both
+high electro-motive force and strength of current are needed. These can
+be obtained by the employment of a great number of storage cells. The
+discharge from a large number of these cells, however, is not suitable
+for the purpose of wireless telegraphy, although it may possess the
+qualifications of both high electrical pressure and strength of current.</p>
+
+<p>The only apparatus we have at command to produce quick blows on the
+ether is the Ruhmkorf coil. This coil, I have said, has been in all our
+physical cabinets for fifty years. It contained within itself the germ
+of the telephone transmitter and the method of wireless telegraphy,
+unrecognized until the present. In its elements it consists, as we have
+seen, of two electrical circuits, placed near each other, entirely
+unconnected. A battery is connected with one of these circuits, and
+any change in the strength of the electrical current gives a blow to
+the ether or medium between the two circuits. A quick stopping of the
+electrical current gives the strongest impulse to the ether, which
+is taken up by the neighboring circuit. For the past fifty years
+very little advance has been made in the method of giving strong
+electrical impulses to the medium of space. It is accomplished simply
+by a mechanical breaking of the connection to the battery, either by
+a revolving wheel with suitable projections, or by a vibrating point.
+All the various forms of mechanical breaks are inefficient. They do not
+give quick and uniform breaks. Latterly, hopes have been excited by the
+discovery of a chemical break, called the Weynelt interrupter, shown in
+Fig. 1. The electrical current in passing through a vessel of diluted
+sulphuric acid from a point of platinum to a disk of lead causes
+bubbles of gas which form a barrier to its passage which is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span> suddenly
+broken down, and this action goes on at a high rate of speed, causing
+a torrent of sparks in the neighboring circuit. The medium between
+the two circuits is thereby submitted to rapid and comparatively
+powerful impulses. The discovery of this and similar chemical or
+molecular interruptions marks an era in the history of the electrical
+transformer, and the hopes of further progress by means of them is far
+greater than in the direction of mechanical interruptions.</p>
+
+<p>We are still, however, unable to generate sufficiently powerful and
+sufficiently well-timed electrical impulses to make wireless telegraphy
+of great and extended use. Can we not hope to strengthen the present
+feeble impulses in wireless telegraphy by some method of relaying or
+repeating? In the analogous subject of telephony many efforts have
+also been made to render the service secret, and to extend it to great
+distances by means of relays. These efforts have not been successful up
+to the present. We still have our neighbors' call bells, and we could
+listen to their messages if we were gossips. The telephone service
+has been extended to great distances&mdash;for instance, from Boston to
+Omaha&mdash;not by relays, but by strengthening the blows upon the medium
+between the transmitting circuit and the receiving one, just as we
+desire to do in what is called wireless telegraphy, the apparatus of
+which is almost identical in principle to that employed in telephony.
+The individual call in telephony is not a success for nearly the same
+reasons that exist in the case of wireless telegraphy. Perfectly
+definite and powerful rates of vibration can not be sent from point to
+point over wires to which only certain definite apparatus will respond.
+There are so many ways in which the energy of the electric current can
+be dissipated in passing over wires and through calling bells that the
+form of the waves and their strength becomes attenuated. The form of
+the electrical waves is better preserved in free space, where there
+are no wires or where there is no magnetic matter. The difficulty
+in obtaining individual calls in wireless telegraphy resides in the
+present impossibility of obtaining sufficiently rapid and powerful
+electrical impulses, and a receiver which will properly respond to a
+definite number of such impulses.</p>
+
+<p>The question of a relay seems as impossible of solution as it does in
+telephony. The character of speech depends upon numberless delicate
+inflections and harmonies. The form, for instance, of the wave
+transmitting the vowel <i>a</i> must be preserved in order that the sound
+may be recognized. A relay in telephony acts very much like one's
+neighbor in the game called gossip, in which a sentence repeated more
+or less indistinctly, after passing from one person to another, becomes
+distorted and meaningless. No<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> telephone relay has been invented which
+preserves the form of the first utterance, the vowel <i>a</i> loses its
+delicate characteristics, and becomes simply a meaningless noise. It is
+maintained by some authorities that such a relay can not be invented,
+that it is impossible to preserve the delicate inflections of the
+human voice in passing from one circuit to another, even through an
+infinitesimal air gap or ether space. It is well, however, to reflect
+upon Hosea Bigelow's sapient advice "not to prophesy unless you know."
+It was maintained in the early days of the telephone that speech would
+lose so many characteristics in the process of transmission over wires
+and through magnetic apparatus that it would not be intelligible.
+It is certain that at present long-distance transmission of speech
+can only be accomplished by using more powerful transmitters, and by
+making the line of copper better fitted for the transmission&mdash;just as
+quick transportation from place to place has not been accomplished by
+quitting the earth and by flying through space, but by obtaining more
+powerful engines and by improving the roadbeds.</p>
+
+<p>The hopes of obtaining a relay for wireless telegraphy seem as small
+as they do in telephony. The present method is practically limited to
+distances of fifty or sixty miles&mdash;distances not much exceeding those
+which can be reached by a search-light in fair weather. Indeed, there
+is a close parallelism between the search-light and the spark used in
+Marconi's experiments: both send out waves which differ only in length.
+The waves of the search-light are about one forty-thousandth of an
+inch long, while the magnetic waves of the spark, invisible to the
+eye, are three to four feet&mdash;more than a million times longer than the
+light waves. These very long waves have this advantage over the short
+light waves: they are able to penetrate fog, and even sand hills and
+masonry. One can send messages into a building from a point outside. A
+prisoner could communicate with the outer world, a beleaguered garrison
+could send for help, a disabled light-ship could summon assistance, and
+possibly one steamer could inform another in a fog of its course.</p>
+
+<p>Wireless telegraphy is the nearest approach to telepathy that has
+been vouchsafed to our intelligence, and it serves to stimulate our
+imagination and to make us think that things greatly hoped for can be
+always reached, although not exactly in the way expected. The nerves
+of the whole world are, so to speak, being bound together, so that a
+touch in one country is transmitted instantly to a far-distant one. Why
+should we not in time speak through the earth to the antipodes? If the
+magnetic waves can pass through brick and stone walls and sand hills,
+why should we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> not direct, so to speak, our trumpet to the earth,
+instead of letting its utterances skim over the horizon? In regard
+to this suggestion, we know certainly one fact from our laboratory
+experiences: that these magnetic waves, meeting layers of electrically
+conducting matter, like layers of iron ore, would be reflected back,
+and would not penetrate. Thus a means may be discovered through the
+instrumentality of such waves of exploring the mysteries of the earth
+before success is attained in completely penetrating its mass.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p class="ph2"><a name="EMIGRANT_DIAMONDS_IN_AMERICA" id="EMIGRANT_DIAMONDS_IN_AMERICA">EMIGRANT DIAMONDS IN AMERICA.</a></p>
+
+<p class="ph4"><span class="smcap">By Prof.</span> WILLIAM HERBERT HOBBS.</p>
+
+
+<p>To discover the origin of the diamond in Nature we must seek it in
+its ancestral home, where the rocky matrix gave it birth in the form
+characteristic of its species. In prosecuting our search we should very
+soon discover that, in common with other gem minerals, the diamond has
+been a great wanderer, for it is usually found far from its original
+home. The disintegrating forces of the atmosphere, by acting upon the
+rocky material in which the stones were imbedded, have loosed them from
+their natural setting, to be caught up by the streams, sorted from
+their disintegrated matrix, and transported far from the parent rock,
+to be at last set down upon some gravelly bed over which the force of
+the current is weakened. The mines of Brazil and the Urals, of India,
+Borneo, and the "river diggings" of South Africa either have been or
+are now in deposits of this character.</p>
+
+<p>The "dry diggings" of the Kimberley district, in South Africa, afford
+the unique locality in which the diamond has thus far been found in
+its original home, and all our knowledge of the genesis of the mineral
+has been derived from study of this locality. The mines are located
+in "pans," in which is found the "blue ground" now recognized as the
+disintegrated matrix of the diamond. These "pans" are known to be the
+"pipes," or "necks," of former volcanoes, now deeply dissected by the
+forces of the atmosphere&mdash;in fact, worn down if not to their roots, at
+least to their stumps. These remnants of the "pipes," through which
+the lava reached the surface, are surrounded in part by a black shale
+containing a large percentage of carbon, and this is believed to be the
+material out of which the diamonds have been formed. What appear to
+be modified fragments of the black shale inclosed within the "pipes"
+afford evidence that portions of the shale have been broken from the
+parent beds by the force of the ascending current of lava&mdash;a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> common
+enough accompaniment to volcanic action&mdash;and have been profoundly
+altered by the high temperature and the extreme hydrostatic pressure
+under which the mass must have been held. The most important feature
+of this alteration has been the recrystallization of the carbon of the
+shale into diamond.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 537px;">
+<a href="images/illo_078full.jpg">
+
+<img src="images/illo_078.jpg" width="537" height="800" alt="GLACIAL MAP OF THE GREAT LAKES REGION" /></a>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class="ph4">GLACIAL MAP OF THE GREAT LAKES REGION</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tdc">shaded<br /></td><td class="tdc">////////</td><td class="tdc">clear</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdc">Driftless Areas.</td><td class="tdc">Older Drift.</td><td class="tdc">Newer Drift.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdc">Moraines.</td><td class="tdc">Glacial Striae.</td><td class="tdc">Track of Diamonds.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc">Diamond Localities.</td><td class="tdc">E. Eagle.</td><td class="tdc">O. Oregon.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class="center">K. Kohlsville D. Dowagiac M. Milford. P. Plum Crk. B. Burlington.</p>
+
+<p class="center">We are indebted to the University of Chicago Press for the above
+illustration.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/illo_079.jpg" width="600" height="432" alt="" />
+
+
+<p>Copyright, 1899, by George F. Kunz.</p>
+
+
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Five Views of the Eagle Diamond</span> (sixteen carats); enlarged
+about three diameters.<br /> (Owned by Tiffany and Company.)</div>
+
+<p class="center">We are indebted to the courtesy of Mr. G. F. Kunz, of Tiffany and
+Company, for the illustrations of the Oregon and Eagle diamonds.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>This apparent explanation of the genesis of the diamond finds strong
+support in the experiments of Moissan, who obtained artificial diamond
+by dissolving carbon in molten iron and immersing the mass in cold
+water until a firm surface crust had formed. The "chilled" mass was
+then removed, to allow its still molten core to solidify slowly. This
+it does with the development of enormous pressures, because the natural
+expansion of the iron on passing into the solid condition is resisted
+by the strong shell of "chilled" metal. The isolation of the diamond
+was then accomplished by dissolving the iron in acid.</p>
+
+<p>The prevailing form of the South African diamonds is that of a rounded
+crystal, with eight large and a number of minute faces&mdash;a form called
+by crystallographers a <i>modified octahedron</i>. Their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> shapes would be
+roughly simulated by the Pyramids of Egypt if they could be seen,
+combined with their reflected images, in a placid lake, or, better
+to meet the conditions of the country, in a desert mirage. It is a
+peculiar property of diamond crystals to have convexly rounded faces,
+so that the edges which separate the faces are not straight, but gently
+curving. Less frequently in the African mines, but commonly in some
+other regions, diamonds are bounded by four, twelve, twenty-four, or
+even forty-eight faces. These must not, of course, be confused with the
+faces of cut stones, which are the product of the lapidary's art.</p>
+
+<p>Geological conditions remarkably like those observed at the Kimberley
+mines have recently been discovered in Kentucky, with the difference
+that here the shales contain a much smaller percentage of carbon, which
+may be the reason that diamonds have not rewarded the diligent search
+that has been made for them.</p>
+
+<p>Though now found in the greatest abundance in South Africa and in
+Brazil, diamonds were formerly obtained from India, Borneo, and from
+the Ural Mountains of Russia. The great stones of history have, with
+hardly an exception, come from India, though in recent years a number
+of diamond monsters have been found in South Africa. One of these,
+the "Excelsior," weighed nine hundred and seventy carats, which is in
+excess even of the supposed weight of the "Great Mogul."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/illo_080.jpg" width="600" height="162" alt="Four Views of the Oregon Diamond" />
+<p>Copyright, 1899, by George F. Kunz.</p>
+
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Four Views of the Oregon Diamond</span>; enlarged about three
+diameters.<br />(Owned by Tiffany and Company.)</div></div>
+
+
+<p>Occasionally diamonds have come to light in other regions than those
+specified. The Piedmont plateau, at the southeastern base of the
+Appalachians, has produced, in the region between southern Virginia and
+Georgia, some ten or twelve diamonds, which have varied in weight from
+those of two or three carats to the "Dewey" diamond, which when found
+weighed over twenty-three carats.</p>
+
+<p>It is, however, in the territory about the Great Lakes that the
+greatest interest now centers, for in this region a very interesting
+problem of origin is being worked out. No less than seven diamonds,
+ranging in size from less than four to more than twenty-one carats, not
+to mention a number of smaller stones, have been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> recently found in the
+clays and gravels of this region, where their distribution was such
+as to indicate with a degree of approximation the location of their
+distant ancestral home.</p>
+
+<p>In order clearly to set forth the nature of this problem and the method
+of its solution it will be necessary, first, to plot upon a map of the
+lake region the locality at which each of the stones has been found,
+and, further, to enter upon the same map the data which geologists
+have gleaned regarding the work of the great ice cap of the Glacial
+period. During this period, not remote as geological time is reckoned,
+an ice mantle covered the entire northeastern portion of our continent,
+and on more than one occasion it invaded for considerable distances
+the territory of the United States. Such a map as has been described
+discloses an important fact which holds the clew for the detection of
+the ancestral home of these diamonds. Each year is bringing with it new
+evidence, and we may look forward hopefully to a full solution of the
+problem.</p>
+
+<p>In 1883 the "Eagle Stone" was brought to Milwaukee and sold for
+the nominal sum of one dollar. When it was submitted to competent
+examination the public learned that it was a diamond of sixteen carats'
+weight, and that it had been discovered seven years earlier in earth
+removed from a well-opening. Two events which were calculated to arouse
+local interest followed directly upon the discovery of the real nature
+of this gem, after which it passed out of the public notice. The woman
+who had parted with the gem for so inadequate a compensation brought
+suit against the jeweler to whom she had sold it, in order to recover
+its value. This curious litigation, which naturally aroused a great
+deal of interest, was finally carried to the Supreme Court of the State
+of Wisconsin, from which a decision was handed down in favor of the
+defendant, on the ground that he, no less than the plaintiff, had been
+ignorant of the value of the gem at the time of purchasing it. The
+other event was the "boom" of the town of Eagle as a diamond center,
+which, after the finding of two other diamonds with unmistakable marks
+of African origin upon them, ended as suddenly as it had begun, with
+the effect of temporarily discrediting, in the minds of geologists, the
+genuineness of the original "find."</p>
+
+<p>Ten years later a white diamond of a little less than four carats'
+weight came to light in a collection of pebbles found in Oregon,
+Wisconsin, and brought to the writer for examination. The stones had
+been found by a farmer's lad while playing in a clay bank near his
+home. The investigation of the subject which was thereupon made brought
+out the fact that a third diamond, and this the larges<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> of all, had
+been discovered at Kohlsville, in the same State, in 1883, and was
+still in the possession of the family on whose property it had been
+found.</p>
+
+<p>As these stones were found in the deposits of "drift" which were left
+by the ice of the Glacial period, it was clear that they had been
+brought to their resting places by the ice itself. The map reveals
+the additional fact, and one of the greatest significance, that all
+these diamonds were found in the so-called "kettle moraine." This
+moraine or ridge was the dumping ground of the ice for its burden of
+bowlders, gravel, and clay at the time of its later invasion, and hence
+indicates the boundaries of the territory over which the ice mass was
+then extended. In view of the fact that two of the three stones found
+had remained in the hands of the farming population, without coming
+to the knowledge of the world, for periods of eleven and seven years
+respectively, it seems most probable that others have been found,
+though not identified as diamonds, and for this reason are doubtless
+still to be found in many cases in association with other local
+"curios" on the clock shelves of country farmhouses in the vicinity
+of the "kettle moraine." The writer felt warranted in predicting, in
+1894, that other diamonds would occasionally be brought to light in the
+"kettle moraine," though the great extent of this moraine left little
+room for hope that more than one or two would be found at any one point
+of it.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/illo_082.jpg" width="450" height="170" alt="Three Views of the Saukville Diamond" />
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Three Views of the Saukville Diamond</span> (six
+carats); enlarged about three diameters.<br />(Owned by Bunde and Upmeyer,
+Milwaukee.)</div>
+
+<p class="center">We are indebted to the courtesy of Bunde and Upmeyer, of Milwaukee, for
+the illustrations showing the Burlington and Saukville diamonds.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>In the time that has since elapsed diamonds have been found at the rate
+of about one a year, though not, so far as I am aware, in any case
+as the result of search. In Wisconsin have been found the Saukville
+diamond, a beautiful white stone of six carats' weight, and also the
+Burlington stone, having a weight of a little over two carats. The
+former had been for more than sixteen years in the possession of the
+finder before he learned of its value. In Michi<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span>gan has been found the
+Dowagiac stone, of about eleven carats' weight, and only very recently
+a diamond weighing six carats and of exceptionally fine "water" has
+come to light at Milford, near Cincinnati. This augmentation of the
+number of localities, and the nearness of all to the "kettle moraines,"
+leaves little room for doubt that the diamonds were conveyed by the ice
+at the time of its later invasion of the country.</p>
+
+<p>Having, then, arrived at a satisfactory conclusion regarding not only
+the agent which conveyed the stones, but also respecting the period
+during which they were transported, it is pertinent to inquire by what
+paths they were brought to their adopted homes, and whether, if these
+may be definitely charted, it may not be possible to follow them in a
+direction the reverse of that taken by the diamonds themselves until we
+arrive at the point from which each diamond started upon its journey.
+If we succeed in this we shall learn whether they have a common home,
+or whether they were formed in regions more or less widely separated.
+From the great rarity of diamonds in Nature it would seem that the
+hypothesis of a common home is the more probable, and this view finds
+confirmation in the fact that certain marks of "consanguinity" have
+been observed upon the stones already found.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/illo_083.jpg" width="500" height="145" alt="Four Views of the Burlington Diamond" />
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Four Views of the Burlington Diamond</span> (a little
+over two carats); enlarged about three diameters.<br />(Owned by Bunde and
+Upmeyer, Milwaukee.)</div></div>
+
+
+<p>Not only did the ice mantle register its advance in the great ridge
+of morainic material which we know as the "kettle moraine," but it
+has engraved upon the ledges of rock over which it has ridden, in a
+simple language of lines and grooves, the direction of its movement,
+after first having planed away the disintegrated portions of the rock
+to secure a smooth and lasting surface. As the same ledges have been
+overridden more than once, and at intervals widely separated, they
+are often found, palimpsestlike, with recent characters superimposed
+upon earlier, partly effaced, and nearly illegible ones. Many of
+the scattered leaves of this record have, however, been copied by
+geologists, and the autobiography of the ice is now read from maps
+which give the direction of its flow, and allow the motion of the ice
+as a whole, as well as that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> of each of its parts, to be satisfactorily
+studied. Recent studies by Canadian geologists have shown that one of
+the highest summits of the ice cap must have been located some distance
+west of Hudson Bay, and that another, the one which glaciated the lake
+region, was in Labrador, to the east of the same body of water. From
+these points the ice moved in spreading fans both northward toward the
+Arctic Ocean and southward toward the States, and always approached the
+margins at the moraines in a direction at right angles to their extent.
+Thus the rock material transported by the ice was spread out in a great
+fan, which constantly extended its boundaries as it advanced.</p>
+
+<p>The evidence from the Oregon, Eagle, and Kohlsville stones, which
+were located on the moraine of the Green Bay glacier, is that their
+home, in case they had a common one, is between the northeastern
+corner of the State of Wisconsin and the eastern summit of the ice
+mantle&mdash;a narrow strip of country of great extent, but yet a first
+approximation of the greatest value. If we assume, further, that the
+Saukville, Burlington, and Dowagiac stones, which were found on the
+moraine of the Lake Michigan glacier, have the same derivation, their
+common home may confidently be placed as far to the northeast as
+the wilderness beyond the Great Lakes, since the Green Bay and Lake
+Michigan glaciers coalesced in that region. The small stones found at
+Plum Creek, Wisconsin, and the Cincinnati stone, if the locations of
+their discovery be taken into consideration, still further circumscribe
+the diamond's home territory, since the lobes of the ice mass which
+transported them made a complete junction with the Green Bay and Lake
+Michigan lobes or glaciers considerably farther to the northward than
+the point of union of the latter glaciers themselves.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/illo_084.jpg" width="450" height="140" alt="Three Views of a Lead Cast of the Milford Stone" />
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Three Views of a Lead Cast of the Milford Stone</span>
+(six carats); enlarged about three diameters.</div>
+
+<p class="center">We are indebted to the courtesy of Prof. T. H. Norton, of the
+University of Cincinnati, for the above illustrations.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>If, therefore, it is assumed that all the stones which have been found
+have a common origin, the conclusion is inevitable that the ancestral
+home must be in the wilderness of Canada between the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> points where the
+several tracks marking their migrations converge upon one another, and
+the former summit of the ice sheet. The broader the "fan" of their
+distribution, the nearer to the latter must the point be located.</p>
+
+<p>It is by no means improbable that when the barren territory about
+Hudson Bay is thoroughly explored a region for profitable diamond
+mining may be revealed, but in the meantime we may be sure that
+individual stones will occasionally be found in the new American homes
+into which they were imported long before the days of tariffs and ports
+of entry. Mother Nature, not content with lavishing upon our favored
+nation the boundless treasures locked up in her mountains, has robbed
+the territory of our Canadian cousins of the rich soils which she has
+unloaded upon our lake States, and of the diamonds with which she has
+sowed them.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/illo_085.jpg" width="400" height="229" alt="" />
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Common Forms of Quartz Crystals.</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/illo_085b.jpg" width="400" height="387" alt="" />
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Common Forms of Diamonds.</span> The African stones
+most resemble the figure above at the left (octahedron). The Wisconsin
+stones most resemble the figure above at the right (dodecahedron).</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The range of the present distribution of the diamonds, while perhaps
+not limited exclusively to the "kettle moraine," will, as the events
+have indicated, be in the main confined to it. This moraine, with
+its numerous subordinate ranges marking halting places in the final
+retreat of the ice, has now been located with sufficient accuracy by
+the geologists of the United States Geological Survey and others,
+approximately as entered upon the accompanying map. Within the
+territory of the United States the large number of observations of the
+rock scorings makes it clear that the ice of each lobe or glacier moved
+from the central portion toward the marginal moraines, which are here
+indicated by dotted bands. In the wilderness of Canada the observations
+have been rare, but the few data which have been gleaned are there
+represented by arrows pointed in the direction of ice movement.</p>
+
+<p>There is every encouragement for persons who reside in or near the
+marginal moraines to search in them for the scattered jewels, which
+may be easily identified and which have a large commercial as well as
+scientific value.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey is now interesting
+itself in the problem of the diamonds, and has undertaken the task of
+disseminating information bearing on the subject to the people who
+reside near the "kettle moraine." With the co-operation of a number of
+mineralogists who reside near this "diamond belt," it offers to make
+examination of the supposed gem stones which may be collected.</p>
+
+<p>The success of this undertaking will depend upon securing the
+co-operation of the people of the morainal belt. Wherever gravel
+ridges have there been opened in cuts it would be advisable to look
+for diamonds. Children in particular, because of their keen eyes and
+abundant leisure, should be encouraged to search for the clear stones.</p>
+
+<p>The serious defect in this plan is that it trusts to inexperienced
+persons to discover the buried diamonds which in the "rough" are
+probably unlike anything that they have ever seen. The first result of
+the search has been the collection of large numbers of quartz pebbles,
+which are everywhere present but which are entirely valueless. There
+are, however, some simple ways of distinguishing diamonds from quartz.</p>
+
+<p>Diamonds never appear in thoroughly rounded forms like ordinary
+pebbles, for they are too hard to be in the least degree worn by
+contact with their neighbors in the gravel bed. Diamonds always show,
+moreover, distinct forms of crystals, and these generally bear some
+resemblance to one of the forms figured. They are never in the least
+degree like crystals of quartz, which are, however, the ones most
+frequently confounded with them. Most of the Wisconsin diamonds have
+either twelve or forty-eight faces. Crystals of most minerals are
+bounded by plane surfaces&mdash;that is to say, their faces are flat&mdash;the
+diamond, however, is inclosed by distinctly curving surfaces.</p>
+
+<p>The one property of the diamond, however, which makes it easy of
+determination is its extraordinary hardness&mdash;greater than that of any
+other mineral. Put in simple language, the hardness of a substance
+may be described as its power to scratch other substances when drawn
+across them under pressure. To compare the hardness of two substances
+we should draw a sharp point of one across a surface of the other
+under a pressure of the fingers, and note whether a permanent scratch
+is left. The harder substances will always scratch the softer, and if
+both have the same hardness they may be made to mutually scratch each
+other. Since diamond, sapphire, and ruby are the only minerals which
+are harder than emery they are the only ones which, when drawn across a
+rough emery surface, will not receive a scratch. Any stone which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> will
+not take a scratch from emery is a gem stone and of sufficient interest
+to be referred to a competent mineralogist.</p>
+
+<p>The dissemination of information regarding the lake diamonds through
+the region of the moraine should serve the twofold purpose of
+encouraging search for the buried stones and of discovering diamonds
+in the little collections of "lucky stones" and local curios which
+accumulate on the clock shelves of country farmhouses. When it is
+considered that three of the largest diamonds thus far found in
+the region remained for periods of seven, eight, and sixteen years
+respectively in the hands of the farming population, it can hardly be
+doubted that many other diamonds have been found and preserved as local
+curiosities without their real nature being discovered.</p>
+
+<p>If diamonds should be discovered in the moraines of eastern Ohio, of
+western Pennsylvania, or of western New York, considerable light would
+thereby be thrown upon the problem of locating the ancestral home. More
+important than this, however, is the mapping of the Canadian wilderness
+to the southeastward and eastward of James Bay, in order to determine
+the direction of ice movement within the region, so that the <i>tracking</i>
+of the stones already found may be carried nearer their home. The
+Director of the Geological Survey of Canada is giving attention to this
+matter, and has also suggested that a study be made of the material
+found in association with the diamonds in the moraine, so that if
+possible its source may be discovered.</p>
+
+<p>With the discovery of new localities of these emigrant stones and the
+collection of data regarding the movement of the ice over Canadian
+territory, it will perhaps be possible the more accurately and
+definitely to circumscribe their home country, and as its boundaries
+are drawn closer and closer to pay this popular jewel a visit in its
+ancestral home, there to learn what we so much desire to know regarding
+its genesis and its life history.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>William Pengelly related, in one of his letters to his wife from the
+British Association, Oxford meeting, 1860, of Sedgwick's presidency
+of the Geological Section, that his opening address was "most
+characteristic, full of clever fun, most imperative that papers should
+be as brief as possible&mdash;about ten minutes, he thought&mdash;he himself
+amplifying marvelously." The next day Pengelly himself was about
+to read his paper, when "dear old Sedgwick wished it compressed. I
+replied that I would do what I could to please him, but did not know
+which to follow, his precept or example. The roar of laughter was
+deafening. Old Sedgwick took it capitally, and behaved much better in
+consequence." On the third day Pengelly went to committee, where, he
+says, "I found Sedgwick very cordial, took my address, and talks of
+paying me a visit."</p></blockquote>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<p class="ph2"><a name="NEEDED_IMPROVEMENTS_IN_THEATER_SANITATION" id="NEEDED_IMPROVEMENTS_IN_THEATER_SANITATION">NEEDED IMPROVEMENTS IN THEATER SANITATION.</a></p>
+
+<p class="ph4"><span class="smcap">By WILLIAM PAUL GERHARD, C. E.</span>,</p>
+
+<p class="center">CONSULTING ENGINEER FOR SANITARY WORKS.</p>
+
+
+<p>Buildings for the representation of theatrical plays must fulfill
+three conditions: they must be (1) comfortable, (2) safe, and (3)
+healthful. The last requirement, of <i>healthfulness</i>, embraces the
+following conditions: plenty of pure air, freedom from draughts,
+moderate warming in winter, suitable cooling in summer, freedom at
+all times from dust, bad odors, and disease germs. In addition to the
+requirements for the theater audience, due regard should be paid to the
+comfort, healthfulness, and safety of the performers, stage hands, and
+mechanics, who are required to spend more hours in the stage part of
+the building than the playgoers.</p>
+
+<p>It is no exaggeration to state that in the majority of theater
+buildings disgracefully unsanitary conditions prevail. In the older
+existing buildings especially sanitation and ventilation are sadly
+neglected. The air of many theaters during a performance becomes
+overheated and stuffy, pre-eminently so in the case of theaters where
+illumination is effected by means of gaslights. At the end of a long
+performance the air is often almost unbearably foul, causing headache,
+nausea, and dizziness.</p>
+
+<p>In ill-ventilated theaters a chilly air often blows into the auditorium
+from the stage when the curtain is raised. This air movement is the
+cause of colds to many persons in the audience, and it is otherwise
+objectionable, for it carries with it noxious odors from the stage
+or under stage, and in gas-lighted theaters this air is laden with
+products of combustion from the footlights and other means of stage
+illumination.</p>
+
+<p>Attempts at ventilation are made by utilizing the heat due to the
+numerous flames of the central chandelier over the auditorium, to
+create an ascending draught, and thereby cause a removal of the
+contaminated air, but seldom is provision made for the introduction
+of fresh air from outdoors, hence the scheme of ventilation results
+in failure. In other buildings, openings for the introduction of pure
+air are provided under the seats or in the floor, but are often found
+stuffed up with paper because the audience suffered from draughts. The
+fear of draughts in a theater also leads to the closing of the few
+possibly available outside windows and doors. The plan of a theater
+building renders it almost impossible to provide outside windows,
+therefore "air flushing" during the day can not be practiced. In the
+case of the older theaters, which are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> located in the midst or rear of
+other buildings, the nature of the site precludes a good arrangement of
+the main fresh-air ducts for the auditorium.</p>
+
+<p>Absence of fresh air is not the only sanitary defect of theater
+buildings; there are many other defects and sources of air pollution.
+In the parts devoted to the audience, the carpeted floors become
+saturated with dirt and dust carried in by the playgoers, and with
+expectorations from careless or untidy persons which in a mixed theater
+audience are ever present. The dust likewise adheres to furniture,
+plush seats, hangings, and decorations, and intermingled with it are
+numerous minute floating organisms, and doubtless some germs of disease.</p>
+
+<p>Behind the curtain a general lack of cleanliness exists&mdash;untidy actors'
+toilet rooms, ill-drained cellars, defective sewerage, leaky drains,
+foul water closets, and overcrowded and poorly located dressing rooms
+into which no fresh air ever enters. The stage floor is covered with
+dust; this is stirred up by the frequent scene shifting or by the
+dancing of performers, and much of it is absorbed and retained by the
+canvas scenery.</p>
+
+<p>Under such conditions the state of health of both theater goers
+and performers is bound to suffer. Many persons can testify from
+personal experience to the ill effects incurred by spending a few
+hours in a crowded and unventilated theater; yet the very fact that
+the stay in such buildings is a brief one seems to render most people
+indifferent, and complaints are seldom uttered. It really rests with
+the theater-going public to enforce the much-needed improvements. As
+long as they will flock to a theater on account of some attractive play
+or "star actor," disregarding entirely the unsanitary condition of the
+building, so long will the present notoriously bad conditions remain.
+When the public does not call for reforms, theater managers and owners
+of playhouses will not, as a rule, trouble themselves about the matter.
+We have a right to demand theater buildings with less outward and
+inside gorgeousness, but in which the paramount subjects of comfort,
+safety, and health are diligently studied and generously provided
+for. Let the general public but once show a determined preference for
+sanitary conditions and surroundings in theaters and abandon visits to
+ill-kept theaters, and I venture to predict that the necessary reforms
+in sanitation will soon be introduced, at least in the better class
+of playhouses. In the cheaper theaters, concert and amusement halls,
+houses with "continuous" shows, variety theaters, etc., sanitation
+is even more urgently required, and may be readily enforced by a few
+visits and peremptory orders from the Health Board.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>When, a year ago, the writer, in a paper on Theater Sanitation
+presented at the annual meeting of the American Public Health
+Association, stated that "chemical analyses show the air in the dress
+circle and gallery of many a theater to be in the evening more foul
+than the air of street sewers," the statement was received by some of
+his critics with incredulity. Yet the fact is true of many theaters.
+Taking the amount of carbonic acid in the air as an indication of its
+contamination, and assuming that the organic vapors are in proportion
+to the amount of carbonic acid (not including the CO<sub>2</sub> due to the
+products of illumination), we know that normal outdoor air contains
+from 0.03 to 0.04 parts of CO<sub>2</sub> per 100 parts of air, while a few
+chemical analyses of the air in English theaters, quoted below, suffice
+to prove how large the contamination sometimes is:</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Theatre Sanitation">
+<tr><td class="tdl">Strand Theater,</td><td class="tdr">10 P.M.,</td><td class="tdl">gallery</td><td class="tdr">0.101</td><td class="tdl">parts</td><td class="tdr">CO<sub>2</sub></td><td class="tdr">per 100.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Surrey Theater,</td><td class="tdr">10 P.M.,</td><td class="tdl">boxes</td><td class="tdr">0.126</td><td class="tdr">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Surrey Theater,</td><td class="tdr">12 P.M.,</td><td class="tdl">boxes</td><td class="tdr">0.218</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Olympia Theater,</td><td class="tdr">11.30 P.M.,</td><td class="tdl">boxes</td><td class="tdr">0.082</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Olympia Theater,</td><td class="tdr">11.55 P.M.,</td><td class="tdl">boxes</td><td class="tdr">0.101</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Victoria Theater,</td><td class="tdr">10 P.M.,</td><td class="tdl">boxes</td><td class="tdr">0.126</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Haymarket Theater,</td><td class="tdr">10 P.M.,</td><td class="tdl">boxes</td><td class="tdr">0.076</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">City of London Theater,</td><td class="tdr">11.15 P.M.,</td><td class="tdl">pit</td><td class="tdr">0.252</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Standard Theater,</td><td class="tdr">11 P.M.,</td><td class="tdl">pit</td><td class="tdr">0.320</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Theater Royal, Manchester,</td><td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl">pit</td><td class="tdr">0.2734</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Theater Royal, Manchester,</td><td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl">pit</td><td class="tdr">0.2734</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Grand Theater, Leeds,</td><td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl">pit</td><td class="tdr">0.150</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Grand Theater, Leeds,</td><td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl">upper circle</td><td class="tdr">0.143</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Grand Theater, Leeds,</td><td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl">balcony</td><td class="tdr">0.142</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Prince's Theater, Manchester,</td><td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl">balcony</td><td class="tdr">0.11-0.17</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+  <p class="center">(Analyses made by Drs. Smith, Bernays, and De Chaumont.)</p>
+
+
+<p>Compare with these figures some analyses of the air of sewers. Dr.
+Russell, of Glasgow, found the air of a well-ventilated and flushed
+sewer to contain 0.051 vols. of CO<sub>2</sub>. The late Prof. W. Ripley
+Nichols conducted many careful experiments on the amount of carbonic
+acid in the Boston sewers, and found the following averages, viz.,
+0.087, 0.082, 0.115, 0.107, 0.08, or much less than the above analyses
+of theater air showed. He states: "It appears from these examinations
+that the air even in a tide-locked sewer does not differ from the
+standard as much as many no doubt suppose."</p>
+
+<p>A comparison of the number of bacteria found in a cubic foot of air
+inside of a theater and in the street air would form a more convincing
+statement, but I have been unable to find published records of any
+such bacteriological tests. Nevertheless, we know that while the
+atmosphere contains some bacteria, the indoor air of crowded assembly
+halls, laden with floating dust, is particularly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> rich in living
+micro-organisms. This has been proved by Tyndall, Miquel, Frankland,
+and other scientists; and in this connection should be mentioned one
+point of much importance, ascertained quite recently, namely, that the
+air of sewers, contrary to expectation, is remarkably free from germs.
+An analysis of the air in the sewers under the Houses of Parliament,
+London, showed that the number of micro-organisms was much less than
+that in the atmosphere outside of the building.</p>
+
+<p>In recent years marked improvements in theater planning and equipment
+have been effected, and corresponding steps in advance have been
+made in matters relating to theater hygiene. It should therefore
+be understood that my remarks are intended to apply to the average
+theater, and in particular to the older buildings of this class. There
+are in large cities a few well-ventilated and hygienically improved
+theaters and opera houses, in which the requirements of sanitation
+are observed. Later on, when speaking more in detail of theater
+ventilation, instances of well-ventilated theaters will be mentioned.
+Nevertheless, the need of urgent and radical measures for comfort and
+health in the majority of theaters is obvious. Much is being done
+in our enlightened age to improve the sanitary condition of school
+buildings, jails and prisons, hospitals and dwelling houses. Why, I
+ask, should not our theaters receive some consideration?</p>
+
+<p>The efficient ventilation of a theater building is conceded to be an
+unusually difficult problem. In order to ventilate a theater properly,
+the causes of noxious odors arising from bad plumbing or defective
+drainage should be removed; outside fumes or vapors must not be
+permitted to enter the building either through doors or windows, or
+through the fresh-air duct of the heating apparatus. The substitution
+of electric lights in place of gas is a great help toward securing
+pure air. This being accomplished, a standard of purity of the air
+should be maintained by proper ventilation. This includes both the
+removal of the vitiated air and the introduction of pure air from
+outdoors and the consequent entire change of the air of a hall three
+or four times per hour. The fresh air brought into the building must
+be ample in volume; it should be free from contamination, dust and
+germs (particularly pathogenic microbes), and with this in view must in
+cities be first purified by filtering, spraying, or washing. It should
+be warmed in cold weather by passing over hot-water or steam-pipe
+stacks, and cooled in warm weather by means of ice or the brine of
+mechanical refrigerating machines. The air should be of a proper degree
+of humidity, and, what is most important of all, it should be admitted
+into the various parts of the theater imperceptibly, so as not to cause
+the sensation of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> draught; in other words, its velocity at the inlets
+must be very slight. The fresh air should enter the audience hall at
+numerous points so well and evenly distributed that the air will be
+equally diffused throughout the entire horizontal cross-section of the
+hall. The air indoors should have as nearly as possible the composition
+of air outdoors, an increase of the CO<sub>2</sub> from 0.3 to 0.6 being the
+permissible limit. The vitiated air should be continuously removed by
+mechanical means, taking care, however, not to remove a larger volume
+of air than is introduced from outdoors.</p>
+
+<p>Regarding the amount of fresh outdoor air to be supplied to keep the
+inside atmosphere at anything like standard purity, authorities differ
+somewhat. The theoretical amount, 3,000 cubic feet per person per hour
+(50 cubic feet per minute), is made a requirement in the Boston theater
+law. In Austria, the law calls for 1,050 cubic feet. The regulations
+of the Prussian Minister of Public Works call for 700 cubic feet,
+Professor von Pettenkofer suggests an air supply per person of from
+1,410 to 1,675 cubic feet per hour (23 to 28 cubic feet per minute),
+General Morin calls for 1,200 to 1,500 cubic feet, and Dr. Billings, an
+American authority, requires 30 cubic feet per minute, or 1,800 cubic
+feet per hour. In the Vienna Opera House, which is described as one of
+the best-ventilated theaters in the world, the air supply is 15 cubic
+feet per person per minute. The Madison Square Theater, in New York, is
+stated to have an air supply of 25 cubic feet per person.</p>
+
+<p>In a moderately large theater, seating twelve hundred persons, the
+total hourly quantity of air to be supplied would, accordingly, amount
+to from 1,440,000 to 2,160,000 cubic feet. It is not an easy matter to
+arrange the fresh-air conduits of a size sufficient to furnish this
+volume of air; it is obviously costly to warm such a large quantity of
+air, and it is a still more difficult problem to introduce it without
+creating objectionable currents of air; and, finally, inasmuch as this
+air can not enter the auditorium unless a like amount of vitiated air
+is removed, the problem includes providing artificial means for the
+removal of large air volumes.</p>
+
+<p>Where gas illumination is used, each gas flame requires an additional
+air supply&mdash;from 140 to 280 cubic feet, according to General Morin.</p>
+
+<p>A slight consideration of the volumes of air which must be moved
+and removed in a theater to secure a complete change of air three
+or four times an hour, demonstrates the impossibility of securing
+satisfactory results by the so-called natural method of ventilation&mdash;i.
+e., the removal of air by means of flues with currents due either to
+the aspirating force of the wind or due to artificially<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> increased
+temperature in the flues. It becomes necessary to adopt mechanical
+means of ventilation by using either exhaust fans or pressure blowers
+or both, these being driven either by steam engines or by electric
+motors. In the older theaters, which were lighted by gas, the heat of
+the flames could be utilized to a certain extent in creating ascending
+currents in outlet shafts, and this accomplished some air renewal. But
+nowadays the central chandelier is almost entirely dispensed with;
+glowing carbon lamps, fed by electric currents, replace the gas flames;
+hence mechanical ventilation seems all the more indicated.</p>
+
+<p>Two principal methods of theater ventilation may be arranged: in one
+the fresh air enters at or near the floor and rises upward to the
+ceiling, to be removed by suitable outlet flues; in this method the
+incoming air follows the naturally existing air currents; in the other
+method pure air enters at the top through perforated cornices or holes
+in the ceiling, and gradually descends, to be removed by outlets
+located at or near the floor line. The two systems are known as the
+"upward" and the "downward" systems; each of them has been successfully
+tried, each offers some advantages, and each has its advocates. In both
+systems separate means for supplying fresh air to the boxes, balconies,
+and galleries are required. Owing to the different opinions held by
+architects and engineers, the two systems have often been made the
+subject of inquiry by scientific and government commissions in France,
+England, Germany, and the United States.</p>
+
+<p>A French scientist, Darcet, was the first to suggest a scientific
+system of theater ventilation. He made use of the heat from the central
+chandelier for removing the foul air, and admitted the air through
+numerous openings in the floor and through inlets in the front of the
+boxes.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Reid, an English specialist in ventilation, is generally regarded
+as the originator of the upward method in ventilation. He applied the
+same with some success to the ventilation of the Houses of Parliament
+in London. Here fresh air is drawn in from high towers, and is
+conducted to the basement, where it is sprayed and moistened. A part
+of the air is warmed by hot-water coils in a sub-basement, while part
+remains cold. The warm and the cold air are mixed in special mixing
+chambers. From here the tempered air goes to a chamber located directly
+under the floor of the auditorium, and passes into the hall at the
+floor level through numerous small holes in the floor. The air enters
+with low velocity, and to prevent unpleasant draughts the floor is
+covered in one hall with hair carpet and in the other with coarse hemp
+matting, both of which are cleaned every day. The removal of the foul<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span>
+air takes place at the ceiling, and is assisted by the heat from the
+gas flames.</p>
+
+<p>The French engineer Péclet, an authority on heating and ventilation,
+suggested a similar system of upward ventilation, but instead of
+allowing the foul air to pass out through the roof, he conducted it
+downward into an underground channel which had exhaust draught. Trélat,
+another French engineer, followed practically the same method.</p>
+
+<p>A large number of theaters are ventilated on the upward system. I will
+mention first the large Vienna Opera House, the ventilation of which
+was planned by Dr. Boehm. The auditorium holds about three thousand
+persons, and a fresh-air supply of about fifteen cubic feet per minute,
+or from nine hundred to one thousand cubic feet per hour, per person
+is provided. The fresh air is taken in from the gardens surrounding
+the theater and is conducted into the cellar, where it passes through
+a water spray, which removes the dust and cools the air in summer.
+A suction fan ten feet in diameter is provided, which blows the air
+through a conduit forty-five square feet in area into a series of three
+chambers located vertically over each other under the auditorium. The
+lowest of these chambers is the cold-air chamber; the middle one is the
+heating chamber and contains steam-heating stacks; the highest chamber
+is the mixing chamber. The air goes partly to the heating and partly
+to the mixing chamber; from this it enters the auditorium at the rate
+of one foot per second velocity through openings in the risers of the
+seats in the parquet, and also through vertical wall channels to the
+boxes and upper galleries. The total area of the fresh-air openings
+is 750 square feet. The foul air ascends, assisted by the heat of the
+central chandelier, and is collected into a large exhaust tube. The
+foul air from the gallery passes out through separate channels. In the
+roof over the auditorium there is a fan which expels the entire foul
+air. Telegraphic thermometers are placed in all parts of the house and
+communicate with the inspection room, where the engineer in charge of
+the ventilation controls and regulates the temperature.</p>
+
+<p>The Vienna Hofburg Theater was ventilated on the same system.</p>
+
+<p>The new Frankfort Opera House has a ventilation system modeled upon
+that of the Vienna Opera House, but with improvements in some details.
+The house has a capacity of two thousand people, and for each person
+fourteen hundred cubic feet of fresh air per hour are supplied. A fan
+about ten feet in diameter and making ninety to one hundred revolutions
+per minute brings in the fresh air from outdoors and drives it into
+chambers under the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> auditorium arranged very much like those at Vienna.
+The total quantity of fresh air supplied per hour is 2,800,000 cubic
+feet. The air enters the auditorium through gratings fixed above the
+floor level in the risers. The foul air is removed by outlets in the
+ceilings, which unite into a large vertical shaft below the cupola.
+An exhaust fan of ten feet diameter is placed in the cupola shaft,
+and is used for summer ventilation only. Every single box and stall
+is ventilated separately. The cost of the entire system was about one
+hundred and twenty-five thousand dollars; it requires a staff of two
+engineers, six assistant engineers, and a number of stokers.</p>
+
+<p>Among well-ventilated American theaters is the Madison Square Theater
+(now Hoyt's), in New York. Here the fresh air is taken down through a
+large vertical shaft on the side of the stage. There is a seven-foot
+suction fan in the basement which drives the air into a number of boxes
+with steam-heating stacks, from which smaller pipes lead to openings
+under each row of seats. The foul air escapes through openings in the
+ceiling and under the galleries. A fresh-air supply of 1,500 cubic feet
+per hour, or 25 cubic feet per minute, per person is provided.</p>
+
+<p>The Metropolitan Opera House is ventilated on the plenum system, and
+has an upward movement of air, the total air supply being 70,000 cubic
+feet per hour.</p>
+
+<p>In the Academy of Music, Baltimore, the fresh air is admitted mainly
+from the stage and the exits of foul air are in the ceiling at the
+auditorium.</p>
+
+<p>Other theaters ventilated by the upward method are the Dresden Royal
+Theater, the Lessing Theater in Berlin, the Opera House in Buda-Pesth,
+the new theater in Prague, the new Municipal Theater at Halle, and the
+Criterion Theatre in London.</p>
+
+<p>The French engineer General Arthur Morin is known as the principal
+advocate of the downward method of ventilation. This was at that
+time a radical departure from existing methods because it apparently
+conflicted with the well-known fact that heated air naturally rises.
+Much the same system was advocated by Dr. Tripier in a pamphlet
+published in 1864.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> The earlier practical applications of this system
+to several French theaters did not prove as much of a success as
+anticipated, the failure being due probably to the gas illumination,
+the central chandelier, and the absence of mechanical means for
+inducing a downward movement of the air.</p>
+
+<p>In 1861 a French commission, of which General Morin was a member,
+proposed the reversing of the currents of air by admitting fresh air
+at both sides of the stage opening high up in the auditorium, and also
+through hollow floor channels for the balconies<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> and boxes; in the
+gallery the openings for fresh air were located in the risers of the
+steppings. The air was exhausted by numerous openings under the seats
+in the parquet. This ventilating system was carried out at the Théâtre
+Lyrique, the Théâtre du Cirque, and the Théâtre de la Gaieté.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Tripier ventilated a theater in 1858 with good success on a similar
+plan, but he introduced the air partly at the rear of the stage and
+partly in the tympanum in the auditorium. He removed the foul air
+at the floor level and separately in the rear of the boxes. He also
+exhausted the foul air from the upper galleries by special flues heated
+by the gas chandelier.</p>
+
+<p>The Grand Amphitheater of the Conservatory of Arts and Industries, in
+Paris, was ventilated by General Morin on the downward system. The
+openings in the ceiling for the admission of fresh air aggregated 120
+square feet, and the air entered with a velocity of only eighteen
+inches per second; the total air supply per hour was 630,000 cubic
+feet. The foul air was exhausted by openings in steps around the
+vertical walls, and the velocity of the outgoing air was about two and
+a half feet per second.</p>
+
+<p>The introduction of the electric light in place of gas gave a fresh
+impetus to the downward method of ventilation, and mechanical means
+also helped to dispel the former difficulties in securing a positive
+downward movement.</p>
+
+<p>The Chicago Auditorium is ventilated on this system, a part of the air
+entering from the rear of the stage, the other from the ceiling of the
+auditorium downward. This plan coincides with the proposition made in
+1846 by Morrill Wyman, though he admits that it can not be considered
+the most desirable method.</p>
+
+<p>A good example of the downward method is given by the New York Music
+Hall, which has a seating capacity of three thousand persons and
+standing room for one thousand more. Fresh air at any temperature
+desired is made to enter through perforations in or near the ceilings,
+the outlets being concealed by the decorations, and passes out through
+exhaust registers near the floor line, under the seats, through
+perforated risers in the terraced steps. About 10,000,000 cubic feet
+of air are supplied per hour, and the velocity of influx and efflux is
+one foot per second. The air supplied per person per hour is figured
+at 2,700 cubic feet, and the entire volume is changed from four and a
+half to five times per hour. The fresh air is taken in at roof level
+through a shaft of seventy square feet area. The air is heated by steam
+coils, and cooled in summer by ice. The mechanical plant comprises four
+blowers and three exhaust fans of six and seven feet in diameter.</p>
+
+<p>The downward method of ventilation was suggested in 1884<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> for the
+improvement of the ventilation of the Senate chamber and the chamber
+of the House of Representatives in the Capitol at Washington, but the
+system was not adopted by the Board of Engineers appointed to inquire
+into the methods.</p>
+
+<p>The downward method is also used in the Hall of the Trocadéro, Paris;
+in the old and also the new buildings for the German Parliament,
+Berlin; in the Chamber of Deputies, Paris; and others.</p>
+
+<p>Professor Fischer, a modern German authority on heating and
+ventilation, in a discussion of the relative advantages of the two
+methods, reaches the conclusion that both are practical and can be
+made to work successfully. For audience halls lighted by gaslights he
+considers the upward method as preferable.</p>
+
+<p>In arranging for the removal of foul air it is necessary, particularly
+in the downward system, to provide separate exhaust flues for the
+galleries and balconies. Unless this is provided for, the exhaled air
+of the occupants of the higher tiers would mingle with the descending
+current of pure air supplied to the occupants of the main auditorium
+floor.</p>
+
+<p>Mention should also be made of a proposition originating in Berlin
+to construct the roof of auditoriums domelike, by dividing it in
+the middle so that it can be partly opened by means of electric or
+hydraulic machinery; such a system would permit of keeping the ceiling
+open in summer time, thereby rendering the theater not only airy,
+but also free from the danger of smoke. A system based on similar
+principles is in actual use at the Madison Square Garden, in New York,
+where part of the roof consists of sliding skylights which in summer
+time can be made to open or close during the performance.</p>
+
+<p>From the point of view of safety in case of fire, which usually in
+a theater breaks out on the stage, it is without doubt best to have
+the air currents travel in a direction from the auditorium toward the
+stage roof. This has been successfully arranged in some of the later
+Vienna theaters, but from the point of view of good acoustics, it
+is better to have the air currents travel from the stage toward the
+auditorium. Obviously, it is a somewhat difficult matter to reconcile
+the conflicting requirements of safety from smoke and fire gases, good
+acoustics and perfect ventilation.</p>
+
+<p>The stage of a theater requires to be well ventilated, for often it
+becomes filled with smoke or gases due to firing of guns, colored
+lights, torches, representations of battles, etc. There should be in
+the roof over the stage large outlet flues, or sliding skylights,
+controlled from the stage for the removal of the smoke. These, in
+case of an outbreak of fire on the stage, become of vital impor<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span>tance
+in preventing the smoke and fire gases from being drawn into the
+auditorium and suffocating the persons in the gallery seats.</p>
+
+<p>Where the stage is lit with gaslights it is important to provide a
+separate downward ventilation for the footlights. This, I believe, was
+first successfully tried at the large Scala Theater, of Milan, Italy.</p>
+
+<p>The actors' and supers' dressing rooms, which are often overcrowded,
+require efficient ventilation, and other parts of the building, like
+the foyers and the toilet, retiring and smoking rooms, must not be
+overlooked.</p>
+
+<p>The entrance halls, vestibules, lobbies, staircases, and corridors
+do not need so much ventilation, but should be kept warm to prevent
+annoying draughts. They are usually heated by abundantly large direct
+steam or hot-water radiators, whereas the auditorium and foyers,
+and often the stage, are heated by indirect radiation. Owing to the
+fact that during a performance the temperature in the auditorium is
+quickly raised by contact of the warm fresh air with the bodies of
+persons (and by the numerous lights, when gas is used), the temperature
+of the incoming air should be only moderate. In the best modern
+theater-heating plants it is usual to gradually reduce the temperature
+of the air as it issues from the mixing chambers toward the end of the
+performance. Both the temperature and the hygrometric conditions of the
+air should be controlled by an efficient staff of intelligent heating
+engineers.</p>
+
+<p>But little need be said regarding theater lighting. Twice during the
+present century have the system and methods been changed. In the early
+part of the present century theaters were still lighted with tallow
+candles or with oil lamps. Next came what was at the time considered
+a wonderful improvement, namely, the introduction of gaslighting.
+The generation who can remember witnessing a theater performance by
+candle or lamp lights, and who experienced the excitement created
+when the first theater was lit up by gas, will soon have passed
+away. Scarcely twenty years ago the electric light was introduced,
+and there are to-day very few theaters which do not make use of this
+improved illuminant. It generates much less heat than gaslight, and
+vastly simplifies the problem of ventilation. The noxious products
+of combustion, incident to all other methods of illumination, are
+eliminated: no carbonic-acid gas is generated to render the air
+of audience halls irrespirable, and no oxygen is drawn to support
+combustion from the air introduced for breathing.</p>
+
+<p>It being now an established fact that the electric light in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span>creases the
+safety of human life in theaters and other places of amusement, its use
+is in many city or building ordinances made imperative&mdash;at least on
+the stage and in the main body of the auditorium. Stairs, corridors,
+entrances, etc., may, as a matter of precaution, be lighted by a
+different system, by means of either gas or auxiliary vegetable oil or
+candle lamps, protected by glass inclosures against smoke or draught,
+and provided with special inlet and outlet flues for air.</p>
+
+<p>Passing to other desirable internal improvements of theaters, I would
+mention first the floors of the auditorium. The covering of the floor
+by carpets is objectionable&mdash;in theaters more so even than in dwelling
+houses. Night after night the carpet comes in contact with thousands
+of feet, which necessarily bring in a good deal of street dirt and
+dust. The latter falls on the carpets and attaches to them, and as
+it is not feasible to take the carpets up except during the summer
+closing, a vast accumulation of dirt and organic matter results, some
+of the dirt falling through the crevices between the floor boards. Many
+theater-goers are not tidy in their habits regarding expectoration, and
+as there must be in every large audience some persons afflicted with
+tuberculosis, the danger is ever present of the germs of the disease
+drying on the carpet, and becoming again detached to float in the air
+which we are obliged to breathe in a theater.</p>
+
+<p>As a remedy I would propose abolishing carpets entirely, and using
+instead a floor covering of linoleum, or thin polished parquetry oak
+floors, varnished floors of hard wood, painted and stained floors,
+interlocked rubber-tile floors, or, at least for the aisles, encaustic
+or mosaic tiling. Between the rows of seats, as well as in the aisles,
+long rugs or mattings may be laid down loose, for these can be taken
+up without much trouble. They should be frequently shaken, beaten, and
+cleaned.</p>
+
+<p>Regarding the walls, ceilings, and cornices, the surfaces should be of
+a material which can be readily cleaned and which is non-absorbent.
+Stucco finish is unobjectionable, but should be kept flat, so as not to
+offer dust-catching projections. Oil painting of walls is preferable
+to a covering with rough wall papers, which hold large quantities
+of dust. The so-called "sanitary" or varnished wall papers have a
+smooth, non-absorbent, easily cleaned surface, and are therefore
+unobjectionable. All heavy decorations, draperies, and hangings in the
+boxes, and plush covers for railings, are to be avoided.</p>
+
+<p>The theater furniture should be of a material which does not catch or
+hold dust. Upholstered plush-covered chairs and seats retain a large
+amount of it, and are not readily cleaned. Leather-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span>covered or other
+sanitary furniture, or rattan seats, would be a great improvement.</p>
+
+<p>In the stage building we often find four or five actors placed in
+one small, overheated, unventilated dressing room, located in the
+basement of the building, without outside windows, and fitted with
+three or four gas jets, for actors require a good light in "making
+up." More attention should be paid to the comfort and health of the
+players, more space and a better location should be given to their
+rooms. Every dressing room should have a window to the outer air, also
+a special ventilating flue. Properly trapped wash basins should be
+fitted up in each room. In the dressing rooms and in the corridors and
+stairs leading from them to the stage all draughts must be avoided,
+as the performers often become overheated from the excitement of the
+acting, and dancers in particular leave the heated stage bathed in
+perspiration. Sanitation, ventilation, and cleanliness are quite as
+necessary for this part of the stage building as for the auditorium and
+foyers.</p>
+
+<p>It will suffice to mention that defects in the drainage and sewerage
+of a theater building must be avoided. The well-known requirements
+of house drainage should be observed in theaters as much as in other
+public buildings.<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p>
+
+<p>The removal of ashes, litter, sweepings, oily waste, and other refuse
+should be attended to with promptness and regularity. It is only by
+constant attention to properly carried out cleaning methods that such
+a building for the public can be kept in a proper sanitary condition.
+Floating air impurities, like dust and dirt, can not be removed or
+rendered innocuous by the most perfect ventilating scheme. Mingled with
+the dust floating in the auditorium or lodging in the stage scenery
+are numbers of bacteria or germs. Among the pathogenic germs will be
+those of tuberculosis, contained in the sputum discharged in coughing
+or expectorating. When this dries on the carpeted floor, the germs
+become readily detached, are inhaled by the playgoers, and thus become
+a prolific source of danger. It is for this reason principally that the
+processes of cleaning, sweeping, and dusting should in a theater be
+under intelligent management.</p>
+
+<p>To guard against the ever-present danger of infection by germs, the
+sanitary floor coverings recommended should be wiped every day with a
+moist rag or cloth. Carpeted floors should be covered with moist tea
+leaves or sawdust before sweeping to prevent the usual dust-raising.
+The common use of the feather duster is to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> be deprecated, for it only
+raises and scatters the dust, but it does not remove it. Dusting of
+the furniture should be done with a dampened dust cloth. The cleaning
+should include the hot-air registers, where a large amount of dust
+collects, which can only be removed by occasionally opening up the
+register faces and wiping out the pipe surfaces; also the baseboards
+and all cornice projections on which dust constantly settles. While
+dusting and sweeping, the windows should be opened; an occasional
+admission of sunlight, where practicable, would likewise be of the
+greatest benefit.</p>
+
+<p>The writer believes that a sanitary inspection of theater buildings
+should be instituted once a year when they are closed up in summer. He
+would also suggest that the granting of the annual license should be
+made dependent not only, as at present, upon the condition of safety
+of the building against fire and panic, but also upon its sanitary
+condition. In connection with the sanitary inspection, a thorough
+disinfection by sulphur, or better with formaldehyde gas, should be
+carried out by the health authorities. If necessary, the disinfection
+of the building should be repeated several times a year, particularly
+during general epidemics of influenza or pneumonia.</p>
+
+<p>Safety measures against outbreaks of fire, dangers from panic,
+accidents, etc., are in a certain sense also sanitary improvements, but
+can not be discussed here.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p>
+
+<p>In order to anticipate captious criticisms, the writer would state
+that in this paper he has not attempted to set forth new theories, nor
+to advocate any special system of theater ventilation. His aim was
+to describe existing defects and to point out well-known remedies.
+The question of efficient theater sanitation belongs quite as much to
+the province of the sanitary engineer as to that of the architect.
+It is one of paramount importance&mdash;certainly more so than the purely
+architectural features of exterior and interior decoration.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>In presenting to the British Association the final report on the
+northwestern tribes of Canada, Professor Tylor observed that, while
+the work of the committee has materially advanced our knowledge of
+the tribes of British Columbia, the field of investigation is by no
+means exhausted. The languages are still known only in outlines. More
+detailed information on physical types may clear up several points
+that have remained obscure, and a fuller knowledge of the ethnology of
+the northern tribes seems desirable. Ethnological evidence has been
+collected bearing upon the history of the development of the area
+under consideration, but no archæological investigations, which would
+help materially in solving these problems, have been carried on.</p></blockquote>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<p class="ph2"><a name="THE_NEW_FIELD_BOTANY" id="THE_NEW_FIELD_BOTANY">THE NEW FIELD BOTANY.</a></p>
+
+<p class="ph4"><span class="smcap">By BYRON D. HALSTED</span>, Sc. D.,</p>
+
+<p class="center">OF RUTGERS COLLEGE.</p>
+
+
+<p>There is something novel every day; were it not so this earth would
+grow monotonous to all, even as it does now to many, and chiefly
+because such do not have the opportunity or the desire to learn some
+new thing. Facts unknown before are constantly coming to the light, and
+principles are being deduced that serve as a stepping stone to other
+and broader fields of knowledge. So accustomed are we to this that
+even a new branch of science may dawn upon the horizon without causing
+a wonder in our minds. In this day of ologies the birth of a new one
+comes without the formal two-line notice in the daily press, just as
+old ones pass from view without tear or epitaph.</p>
+
+<p><i>Phytoecology</i> as a word is not long as scientific terms go, and the
+Greek that lies back of it barely suggests the meaning of the term, a
+fact not at all peculiar to the present instance. Of course, it has to
+do with plants, and is therefore a branch of botany.</p>
+
+<p>In one sense that which it stands for is not new, and, as usual, the
+word has come in the wake of the facts and principles it represents,
+and therefore becomes a convenient term for a branch of knowledge&mdash;a
+handle, so to say&mdash;by which that group of ideas may be held up for
+study and further growth. The word <i>ecology</i> was first employed by
+Haeckel, a leading light in zoölogy in our day, to designate the
+environmental side of animal life.</p>
+
+<p>We will not concern ourselves with definitions, but discuss the field
+that the term is coined to cover, and leave the reader to formulate a
+short concise statement of its meaning.</p>
+
+<p>Within the last year a new botanical guide book for teachers has
+been published, of considerable originality and merit, in which
+the subject-matter is thrown into four groups, and one of these is
+Ecology. Another text-book for secondary schools is now before us in
+which ecology is the heading of one of the three parts into which the
+treatise is divided. The large output of the educational press at the
+present time along the line in hand suggests that the magazine press
+should sound the depths of the new branch of science that is pushing
+its way to the front, or being so pushed by its adherents, and echo the
+merits of it along the line.</p>
+
+<p>Botany in its stages of growth is interesting historically. It
+fascinated for a time one of the greatest minds in the modern school,
+and as a result we have the rich and fruitful history of the science
+as seen through eyes as great as Julius Sachs's, the mas<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span>ter of botany
+during the last half century. From this work it can be gathered that
+early in the centuries since the Christian era botany was little more
+than herborizing&mdash;the collecting of specimens, and learning their gross
+parts, as size of stem and leaf and blossom.</p>
+
+<p>This branch of botany has been cultivated to the present day, and the
+result is the systematist, with all the refinements of species making
+and readjustment of genera and orders with the nicety of detail in
+specific descriptions that only a systematist can fully appreciate.</p>
+
+<p>Later on the study of function was begun, and along with it that of
+structure; for anatomy and physiology, by whatever terms they may be
+known, advance hand in hand, because inseparable. One worker may look
+more to the activities than another who toils with the structural
+relations and finds these problems enough for a lifetime.</p>
+
+<p>This botany of the dissecting table in contrast with that of the
+collector and his dried specimens grew apace, taking new leases of
+life at the uprising of new hypotheses, and long advances with the
+improvement of implements for work. It was natural that the cell and
+all that is made from it should invite the inspector to a field of
+intense interest, somewhat at the expense of the functions of the
+parts. In short, the field was open, the race was on, and it was a
+matter of self-restraint that a man did not enter and strive long and
+well for some anatomical prize. This branch of botany is still alive,
+and never more so than to-day, when cytology offers many attractive
+problems for the cytologist. What with his microtome that cuts his
+imbedded tissue into slices so thin that twenty-five hundred or more
+are needed to measure an inch in thickness, with his fixing solutions
+that kill instantly and hold each particle as if frozen in a cake of
+ice, and his stains and double stains that pick out the specks as the
+magnet draws iron filing from a bin of bran&mdash;with all these and a
+hundred more aids to the refinement of the art there is no wonder that
+the cell becomes a center of attraction, beyond the periphery of which
+the student can scarcely live. In our closing days of the century it
+may be known whether the blephroblasts arise antipodally, and whether
+they are a variation of the centrosomes or should be classed by
+themselves!</p>
+
+<p>One of the general views of phytoecology is that the forms of plants
+are modified to adapt them to the conditions under which they exist.
+Thus the size of a plant is greatly modified by the environment.
+Two grains of corn indistinguishable in themselves and borne by the
+same cob may be so situated that one grows into a stately stalk with
+the ear higher than a horse's head, while the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> other is a dwarf and
+unproductive. Below ground the conditions are many, and all subject
+to infinite variation. Thus, the soil may be deep or shallow, the
+particles small or large, the moisture abundant or scant, and the food
+elements close at hand or far to seek&mdash;all of which will have a marked
+influence upon the root system, its size, and form.</p>
+
+<p>Coming to the aërial portion, there are all the factors of weather and
+climate to work singly or in union to affect the above-ground structure
+of the plant. Temperature varies through wide ranges of heat and
+cold, scorching and freezing; while humidity or aridity, sunshine or
+cloudiness, prevailing winds or sudden tornadoes all have an influence
+in shaping the structure, developing the part, and fashioning the
+details of form of the aërial portions. Phytoecology deals with all
+these, and includes the consideration of that struggle for life that
+plants are constantly waging, for environment determines that the forms
+best suited to a given set of conditions will survive. This struggle
+has been going on since the vegetable life of the earth began, and as
+a result certain prevailing conditions have brought about groups of
+plants found as a rule only where these conditions prevail. As water
+is a leading factor in plant growth, a classification is made upon
+this basis into the plants of the arid regions called xerophytes. The
+opposite to desert vegetation is that of the fresh ponds and lakes,
+called hydrophytes. A third group, the halophytes, includes the
+vegetation of sea or land where there is an excess of various saline
+substances, the common salt being the leading one. The last group is
+the mesophytes, which include plants growing in conditions without the
+extremes accorded to the other three groups.</p>
+
+<p>This somewhat general classification of the conditions of the
+environment lends much of interest to that form of field botany now
+under consideration. As the grouping is made chiefly upon the aqueous
+conditions, it is fair to assume that plants are especially modified
+to accommodate themselves to this compound. Plants, for example,
+unless they are aquatics, need to use large quantities of water to
+carry on the vital functions. Thus the salts from the soil need to
+rise dissolved in the crude sap to the leaves, and in order that a
+sufficient current be kept up there is transpiration going on from
+all thin or soft exposed parts. The leaves are the chief organs where
+aqueous vapor is being given off, sometimes to the extent of tons of
+water upon an acre of area in a single day. This evaporation being
+largely surface action, it is possible for the plant to check this by
+reducing the surface, and the leaf is coiled or folded. Other plants
+have through the ages become adapted to the destructive actions of
+drought and a dry, hot atmosphere, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> have only needle-shaped leaves
+or even no true ones at all, as many of the cacti in the desert lands
+of the Western plains.</p>
+
+<p>Again, the surface of the plant may become covered with a felt of fine
+hairs to prevent rapid evaporation, while other plants with ordinary
+foliage have the acquired power of moving the leaves so that they will
+expose their surfaces broadside to the sun, or contrariwise the edges
+only, as heat and light intensity determine.</p>
+
+<p>Phytoecology deals with all those adaptations of structure, and from
+which permit the plants to take advantage of the habits and wants of
+animals. If we are studying the vegetation of a bog, and note the
+adaptation of the hydrophytic plants, the chances are that attention
+will soon be called to colorations and structures that indicate a more
+complete and far-reaching adjustment than simply to the conditions of
+the wet, spongy bog. A plant may be met with having the leaves in the
+form of flasks or pitchers, and more or less filled with water. These
+strange leaves are conspicuously purplish, and this adds to their
+attractiveness. The upper portion may be variegated, resembling a
+flower and for the same purpose&mdash;namely, to attract insects that find
+within the pitchers a food which is sought at the risk of life. Many
+of the entrapped creatures never escape, and yield up their life for
+the support of that of the captor. Again, the mossy bog may glisten
+in the sun, and thousands of sundew plants with their pink leaves are
+growing upon the surface. Each leaf is covered with adhesive stalked
+glands, and insects lured to and caught by them are devoured by this
+insectivorous vegetation.</p>
+
+<p>In the pools in the same lowland there may be an abundance of the
+bladderwort, a floating plant with flowers upon long stalks that raise
+them into the air and sunshine. With the leaves reduced to a mere
+framework that bears innumerable bladders, water animals of small
+size are captured in vast numbers and provide a large part of the
+nourishment required by the highly specialized hydrophyte.</p>
+
+<p>These are but everyday instances of adaptation between plants and
+animals for the purpose of nutrition, the adjustment of form being
+more particularly upon the vegetative side. Zoölogists may be able to
+show, however, that certain species of animals are adapted to and quite
+dependent upon the carnivorous plants.</p>
+
+<p>An ecological problem has been worked out along the above line to a
+larger extent than generally supposed. If we should take the case of
+ants only in their relation to structural adaptations for them in
+plants, it would be seen that fully three thousand species of the
+latter make use of ants for purposes of protection. The large fighting
+ants of the tropics, when provided with nectar, food,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> and shelter,
+will inhabit plants to the partial exclusion of destructive insects
+and larger foraging animals. Interesting as all this is, it is not the
+time and place to go into the details of how the ant-fostering plants
+have their nectar glands upon stems or leaf, rich soft hairs in tufts
+for food, and homes provided in hollows and chambers. There is still a
+more intimate association of termites with some of the toadstool-like
+plants, where the ants foster the fungi and seem to understand some of
+the essentials of veritable gardening in miniature form.</p>
+
+<p>The most familiar branch of phytoecology, as it concerns adaptations
+for insect visitations, is that which relates to the production of
+seed. Floral structures, so wonderfully varied in form and color and
+withal attractive to every lover of the beautiful, are familiar to all,
+and it only needs to be said in passing that these infinite forms are
+for the same end&mdash;namely, the union of the seed germs, if they may be
+so styled, of different and often widely separated blossoms.</p>
+
+<p>Sweetness and beauty are not the invariable rule with insect-visited
+blossoms, for in the long ages that have elapsed during which these
+adaptations have come about some plants have established an unwritten
+agreement between beetles and bugs with unsavory tastes. Thus there are
+the "carrion flowers," so called because of their fetid odor, designed
+for the sense organs of carrion insects. The "stink-horn" fungi have
+their offensive spores distributed by a similar set of carrion carriers.</p>
+
+<p>Water and wind claim a share of the species, but here adaptation to
+the method of fertilization is as fully realized as when insects
+participate, and the uselessness of showy petals and fantastic forms is
+emphasized by their absence.</p>
+
+<p>Coming now to the fruits of plants, it is again seen that plants have
+adapted their offspring, the seed, to the surrounding conditions,
+not forgetting the wind, the waves, and the tastes and the exterior
+of passing animals. The breezes carry up and hurl along the light
+wing-possessed seeds, and the river and ocean bear these and many
+others onward to a distant land, while by grappling hooks many kinds
+cling to the hair of animals, or, provided with a pleasing pulp, are
+carried willingly by birds and other creatures. In short, the devices
+for seed dispersion are multitudinous, and they provide a large chapter
+in that branch of botany now styled phytoecology.</p>
+
+<p>How different is the old field botany from the new! Then there was the
+collector of plants and classifier of his finds, and an arranger of all
+he could get by exchange or otherwise. His success was measured by the
+size of his herbarium and his stock in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> trade as so many duplicates
+all taken in bloom, but the time of year, locality, and the various
+conditions of growth were all unknown.</p>
+
+<p>His implements for work were, first, a can or basket, a plant press,
+and a manual; and, secondly, a lot of paper, a paste pot, and some way
+of holding the mounts in packets or pigeonholes.</p>
+
+<p>The eyes grew keen as the hunter scoured the forest and field for some
+kind of plant he had not already possessed. There was a keen relish in
+discoveries, and it heightened into ecstasy when the specimen needed
+to be sent away for a name and was returned with his own Latinized and
+appended to that of the genus.</p>
+
+<p>This was all well and good so far as it went, but looked at from the
+present vantage ground there was not so much in it. However, his was an
+essential step to other things, as much so as that of the census taker.</p>
+
+<p>We need to know the species of plants our fair land possesses, and have
+them described and named. But when the nine hundred and ninety-nine
+are known, it is a waste of time to be continually hunting for the
+thousandth. Look for it, but let it be secondary to that of an actual
+study of the great majority already known. The older botany was a study
+of the dried plants in all those details that are laid down in the
+manuals. It lacked something of the true vitality that is inherent in a
+biological science, for often the life had gone out before the subject
+came up for study. To the phytoecologist it was somewhat as the shell
+without the meat, or the bird's nest of a previous year.</p>
+
+<p>Since those days of our forefathers there has come the minute anatomy
+of plants, followed closely by physiology; and now with the working
+knowledge of these two modern branches of botany the student has
+again taken to the field. He is making the wood-lot his laboratory,
+and the garden, so to say, his lecture room. He has a fair knowledge
+of systematic botany, but finds himself rearranging the families
+and genera to fit the facts determined by his ecological study. If
+two species of the same genus are widely separated in habitat, he
+is determining the factors that led to the separation. Why did one
+smart weed become a climber, another an upright herb, and a third a
+prostrate creeper, are questions that may not have entered the mind of
+the plant collector; but now the phytoecologist finds much interest in
+considering questions of this type. What are the differences between
+a species inhabiting the water and another of the same genus upon dry
+land, or what has led one group of the morning-glory family to become
+parasites and exist as the dodders upon other living plants?</p>
+
+<p>The older botanist held his subject under the best mental illumination
+of his time, but his physical light, that of a pine knot<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> or a tallow
+dip, also contrasts strongly with that of the present gas jet and
+electric arc.</p>
+
+<p>The wonder should be that he saw so well, and all who follow him can
+not but feel grateful for the path he blazed through the dense forests
+of ignorance and the bridges he made over the streams of doubt in
+specific distinctions. It was a noble work, but it is nearly past in
+the older parts of our country; and while some of that school should
+linger to readjust their genera, make new combinations of species,
+and attempt to satisfy the claims of priority, the rank and file will
+largely leave systematic botany and the herborizing it embraces, and
+betake themselves to the open fields of phytoecology. It may be along
+the line of structural adaptations when we will have morphological
+phytoecology, or the adjustment of function to the environment when
+there will be physiological phytoecology. These two branches when
+combined to elucidate problems of relationship between the plant and
+its surroundings as involved in accommodation in its comprehensive
+sense there will be phytoecology with climate, geology, geography, or
+fossils as the leading feature, as the case may be.</p>
+
+<p>In the older botany the plant alone in itself was the subject of study.
+The newer botany takes the plant in its surroundings and all that its
+relationships to other plants may suggest as the subject for analysis.
+In the one case the plant was all and its place of growth accidental,
+a dried specimen from any unknown habitat was enough; but now the
+environment and the numerous lines of relationship that reach out from
+the living plant <i>in situ</i> are the major subjects for study. The former
+was field botany because the field contained the plant, the latter is
+field botany in that the plant embraces in its study all else in the
+field in which it lives. The one had as its leading question, What is
+your name and where do you belong in my herbarium? while the other
+raises an endless list of queries, of which How came you here and when?
+Why these curious glands and this strange movement or mimicry? are but
+average samples. Every spot of color, bend of leaf, and shape of fruit
+raises a question.</p>
+
+<p>The collector of fifty years ago pulled up or cut off a portion of
+his plant for a specimen, and rarely measured, weighed, and counted
+anything about it. The phytoecologist to-day watches his subject as
+it grows, and if removed it is for the purpose of testing its vital
+functions under varying circumstances of moisture, heat, or sunlight,
+and exact recording instruments are a part of the equipment for the
+investigation.</p>
+
+<p>The underlying thought in the seashore school and the tropical
+laboratory in botany is this of getting nearer to the haunts of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span>
+living plant. Forestry schools that have for their class room the
+wooded mountains and the botanical gardens with their living herbaria
+are welcome steps toward the same end of phytoecology.</p>
+
+<p>In view of the above facts, and many more that might be mentioned did
+space permit, the writer has felt that the present incomplete and
+faulty presentation of the subject of the newer botany should be placed
+before the great reading public through the medium of a journal that
+has as its watchword Progress in Education.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p class="ph2"><a name="DO_ANIMALS_REASON" id="DO_ANIMALS_REASON">DO ANIMALS REASON?</a></p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">By the Rev. EGERTON R. YOUNG.</span></p>
+
+
+<p>This interesting subject has been ably handled from the negative side
+by Edward Thorndike, Ph. D., in the August number of the Popular
+Science Monthly. Dr. Thorndike, with all his skill in treating this
+very interesting subject, seems to have forgotten one very important
+point. His expectation has not only been higher than any fair claim of
+an animal's reasoning power, but he has overlooked the fact that there
+are different ways of reasoning. Men of different races and those of
+little intelligence can be placed in new environments and be asked to
+perform things which, while utterly impossible to them, are simple and
+crude to those of higher intelligence and who have all their days been
+accustomed to high mental exercise. If such difference exists between
+the highest and most intelligent of the human race and the degraded
+and uncultured, vastly greater is the gulf that separates the lowest
+stratum of humanity from the most intelligent of the brute creation.
+The fair way to test the intelligence of the so-called lower orders
+of men is to go to their native lands and study them in their own
+environments and in possession of the equipments of life to which they
+have been accustomed. The same is true of the brute creation. Only
+the highest results can be expected from congenial environments. To
+pass final judgment upon the animal kingdom, having for data only the
+results of the doctor's experiments, seems to us manifestly unfair.
+He takes a few cats and dogs and submits them to environments which
+are altogether foreign to them, and then expects feats of mind from
+them which would be far greater than the mastering of the reason why
+two and two make four is to the stupidest child of man. As the doctor
+has been permitted to tell the results of his experiments, may I claim
+a similar privilege? While I did not use dogs merely to test their
+intelligence&mdash;my business demanding of myself and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> them the fullest use
+of all our energies and all the intelligence, be it more or less, that
+was possessed by man or beast&mdash;I had the privilege of seeing in my dogs
+actions that were, at least to me, convincing that they possessed the
+rudiments of reasoning powers, and, in the more intelligent, that which
+will be utterly inexplicable if it is not the product of reasoning
+faculties.</p>
+
+<p>For a number of years I was a resident missionary in the Hudson Bay
+Territories, where, in the prosecution of my work, I kept a large
+number of dogs of various breeds. With these dogs I traveled several
+thousands of miles every winter over an area larger than the State of
+New York. In summer I used them to plow my garden and fields. They
+dragged home our fish from the distant fisheries, and the wood from the
+forests for our numerous fires. They cuddled around me on the edges of
+my heavy fur robes in wintry camps, where we often slept out in a hole
+dug in the snow, the temperature ranging from 30° to 60° below zero.
+When blizzard storms raged so terribly that even the most experienced
+Indian guides were bewildered, and knew not north from south or east
+from west, our sole reliance was on our dogs, and with an intelligence
+and an endurance that ever won our admiration they succeeded in
+bringing us to our desired destination.</p>
+
+<p>It is conceded at the outset that these dogs of whom I write were the
+result of careful selection. There are dogs and dogs, as there are
+men and men. They were not picked up in the street at random. I would
+no more keep in my personal service a mere average mongrel dog than I
+would the second time hire for one of my long trips a sulky Indian. As
+there are some people, good in many ways, who can not master a foreign
+tongue, so there are many dogs that never rise above the one gift of
+animal instinct. With such I too have struggled, and long and patiently
+labored, and if of them only I were writing I would unhesitatingly say
+that of them I never saw any act which ever seemed to show reasoning
+powers. But there are other dogs than these, and of them I here would
+write and give my reason why I firmly believe that in a marked degree
+some of them possessed the powers of reasoning.</p>
+
+<p>Two of my favorite dogs I called Jack and Cuffy. Jack was a great black
+St. Bernard, weighing nearly two hundred pounds. Cuffy was a pure
+Newfoundland, with very black curly hair. These two dogs were the gift
+of the late Senator Sanford. With other fine dogs of the same breeds,
+they soon supplanted the Eskimo and mongrels that had been previously
+used for years about the place.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 504px;">
+<img src="images/illo_111.jpg" width="504" height="650" alt="Jack and his Master" />
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Jack and his Master.</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>I had so much work to do in my very extensive field that I required to
+have at least four trains always fit for service. This<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> meant that,
+counting puppies and all, there would be about the premises from twenty
+to thirty dogs. However, as the lakes and rivers there swarmed with
+fish, which was their only food, we kept the pack up to a state of
+efficiency at but little expense. Jack and Cuffy were the only two dogs
+that were allowed the full liberty of the house. They were welcome in
+every room. Our doors were furnished with the ordinary thumb latches.
+These latches at first bothered both dogs. All that was needed on our
+part was to show them how they worked, and from that day on for years
+they both entered the rooms as they desired without any trouble,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span> if
+the doors opened from them. There was a decided difference, however,
+in opening a door if it opened toward them. Cuffy was never able to
+do it. With Jack it was about as easily done as it was by the Indian
+servant girl. Quickly and deftly would he shove up the exposed latch
+and the curved part of the thumb piece and draw it toward him. If the
+door did not easily open, the claws in the other fore paw speedily
+and cleverly did the work. The favorite resting place of these two
+magnificent dogs was on some fur rugs on my study floor. Several times
+have we witnessed the following action in Cuffy, who was of a much more
+restless temperament than Jack: When she wanted to leave the study she
+would invariably first go to the door and try it. If it were in the
+slightest degree ajar she could easily draw it toward her and thus
+open it. If, on the contrary, it were latched, she would at once march
+over to Jack, and, taking him by an ear with her teeth, would lead him
+over to the door, which he at once opened for her. If reason is that
+power by which we "are enabled to combine means for the attainment of
+particular ends," I fail to understand the meaning of words if it were
+not displayed in these instances.</p>
+
+<p>Both Jack and Cuffy were, as is characteristic of such dogs, very fond
+of the water, and in our short, brilliant summers would frequently
+disport themselves in the beautiful little lake, the shores of which
+were close to our home. Cuffy, as a Newfoundland dog, generally
+preferred to continue her sports in the waves some time after Jack had
+finished his bath. As they were inseparable companions, Jack was too
+loyal to retire to the house until Cuffy was ready to accompany him.
+As she was sometimes whimsical and dilatory, she seemed frequently to
+try his patience. It was, however, always interesting to observe his
+deference to her. To understand thoroughly what we are going to relate
+in proof of our argument it is necessary to state that the rocky shore
+in front of our home was at this particular place like a wedge, the
+thickest part in front, rising up about a dozen feet or so abruptly
+from the water. Then to the east the shore gradually sloped down into
+a little sandy cove. When Jack had finished his bath he always swam
+to this sandy beach, and at once, as he shook his great body, came
+gamboling along the rocks, joyously barking to his companion still in
+the waters. When Cuffy had finished her watery sports, if Jack were
+still on the rocks, instead of swimming to the sandy cove and there
+landing she would start directly for the place where Jack was awaiting
+her. If it were at a spot where she could not alone struggle up, Jack,
+firmly bracing himself, would reach down to her and then, catching hold
+of the back of her neck, would help her<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> up the slippery rocks. If it
+were at a spot where he could not possibly reach her, he would, after
+several attempts, all the time furiously barking as though expressing
+his anxiety and solicitude, rush off to a spot where some old oars,
+paddles, and sticks of various kinds were piled. There he searched
+until he secured one that suited his purpose. With this in his mouth,
+he hurried back to the spot where Cuffy was still in the water at the
+base of the steep rocks. Here he would work the stick around until he
+was able to let one end down within reach of his exacting companion in
+the water. Seizing it in her teeth and with the powerful Jack pulling
+at the other end she was soon able to work her way up the rough but
+almost perpendicular rocks. This prompt action, often repeated on
+the part of Jack, looked very much like "the specious appearance of
+reasoning." It was a remarkable coincidence that if Jack were called
+away, Cuffy at once swam to the sandy beach and there came ashore.</p>
+
+<p>Jack never had any special love for the Indians, although we were then
+living among them. He was, however, too well instructed ever to injure
+or even growl at any of them. The changing of Indian servant girls in
+the kitchen was always a matter of perplexity to him. He was suspicious
+of these strange Indians coming in and so familiarly handling the
+various utensils of their work. Not daring to injure them, it was
+amusing to watch him in his various schemes to tease them. If one of
+them seemed especially anxious to keep the doors shut, Jack took the
+greatest delight in frequently opening them. This he took care only
+to do when no member of the family was around. These tricks he would
+continue to do until formal complaints were lodged against him. One
+good scolding was sufficient to deter him from thus teasing that girl,
+but he would soon begin to try it with others.</p>
+
+<p>One summer we had a fat, good-natured servant girl whom we called
+Mary. Soon after she was installed in her place Jack began, as usual,
+to try to annoy her, but found it to be a more difficult job than it
+had been with some of her predecessors. She treated him with complete
+indifference, and was not in the least afraid of him, big as he was.
+This seemed to very much humiliate him, as most of the other girls had
+so stood in awe of the gigantic fellow that they had about given way to
+him in everything. Mary, however, did nothing of the kind. She would
+shout, "Get out of my way!" as quickly to "his mightiness" as she would
+to the smallest dog on the place. This very much offended Jack, but he
+had been so well trained, even regarding the servants, that he dare not
+retaliate even with a growl. Mary, however, had one weakness, and after
+a time Jack found it out. Her mistress observing that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> this girl, who
+had been transferred from a floorless wigwam into a civilized kitchen,
+was at first careless about keeping the floor as clean as it should be,
+had, by the promise of some desired gift in addition to her wages, so
+fired her zeal that it seemed as though every hour that could be saved
+from her other necessary duties was spent in scrubbing that kitchen
+floor. Mary was never difficult to find, as was often the case with
+other Indian girls; if missed from other duties, she was always found
+scrubbing her kitchen.</p>
+
+<p>In some way or other&mdash;how we do not profess to know&mdash;Jack discovered
+this, which had become to us a source of amusement, and here he
+succeeded in annoying her, where in many other ways which he had tried
+he had only been humiliated and disgraced. He would, when the floor
+had just been scrubbed, march in and walk over it with his feet made
+as dirty as tramping in the worst places outside could make them. At
+other times he would plunge into the lake, and instead of, as usual,
+thoroughly shaking himself dry on the rocks, would wait until he had
+marched in upon Mary's spotless floor. At other times, when Jack
+noticed that Mary was about to begin scrubbing her floor he would
+deliberately stretch himself out in a prominent place on it, and
+doggedly resist, yet without any growling or biting, any attempt on her
+part to get him to move. In vain would she coax or scold or threaten.
+Once or twice, by some clever stratagem, such as pretending to feed
+the other dogs outside or getting them excited and furiously barking,
+as though a bear or some other animal were being attacked, did she
+succeed in getting him out. But soon he found her out, and then he paid
+not the slightest attention to any of these things. Once when she had
+him outside she securely fastened the door to keep him out until her
+scrubbing would be done. Furiously did Jack rattle at the latch, but
+the door was otherwise so secured that he could not open it. Getting
+discouraged in his efforts to open the door in the usual way, he went
+to the woodpile and seizing a large billet in his mouth he came and so
+pounded the door with it that Mary, seeing that there was great danger
+of the panel being broken in, was obliged to open the door and let in
+the dog. Jack proudly marched in to the kitchen with the stick of wood
+in his mouth. This he carried to the wood box, and, when he had placed
+it there, he coolly stretched himself out on the floor where he would
+be the biggest nuisance.</p>
+
+<p>Seeing Jack under such circumstances on her kitchen floor, poor Mary
+could stand it no longer, and so she came marching in to my study, and
+in vigorous picturesque language in her native Cree described Jack's
+various tricks and schemes to annoy her and thus hinder her in her
+work. She ended up by the declaration<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span> that she was sure the <i>meechee
+munedoo</i> (the devil) was in that dog. While not fully accepting the
+last statement, we felt that the time had come to interfere, and
+that Jack must be reproved and stopped. In doing this we utilized
+Jack's love for our little ones, especially for Eddie, the little
+four-year-old boy. His obedience as well as loyalty to that child was
+marvelous and beautiful. The slightest wish of the lad was law to Jack.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as Mary had finished her emphatic complaints, I turned to
+Eddie, who with his little sister had been busily playing with some
+blocks on the floor, and said:</p>
+
+<p>"Eddie, go and tell that naughty Jack that he must stop teasing Mary.
+Tell him his place is not in the kitchen, and that he must keep out of
+it."</p>
+
+<p>Eddie had listened to Mary's story, and, although he generally sturdily
+defended Jack's various actions, yet here he saw that the dog was in
+the wrong, and so he gallantly came to her rescue. Away with Mary he
+went, while the rest of us, now much interested, followed in the rear
+to see how the thing would turn out. As Eddie and Mary passed through
+the dining room we remained in that room, while they went on into the
+adjoining kitchen, leaving the door open, so that it was possible for
+us to distinctly hear every word that was uttered. Eddie at once strode
+up to the spot where Jack was stretched upon the floor. Seizing him by
+one of his ears, and addressing him as with the authority of a despot,
+the little lad said:</p>
+
+<p>"I am ashamed of you, Jack. You naughty dog, teasing Mary like this!
+So you won't let her wash her kitchen. Get up and come with me, you
+naughty dog!" saying which the child tugged away at the ear of the dog.
+Jack promptly obeyed, and as they came marching through the dining room
+on their way to the study it was indeed wonderful to see that little
+child, whose beautiful curly head was not much higher than that of the
+great, powerful dog, yet so completely the master. Jack was led into
+the study and over to the great wolf-robe mat where he generally slept.
+As he promptly obeyed the child's command to lie down upon it, he
+received from him his final orders:</p>
+
+<p>"Now, Jack, you keep out of the kitchen"; and to a remarkable degree
+from that time on that order was obeyed.</p>
+
+<p>We have referred to the fact that Jack placed the billet of wood in the
+wood box when it had served his purpose in compelling Mary to open the
+door. Carrying in wood was one of his accomplishments. Living in that
+cold land, where we depended entirely on wood for our fuel, we required
+a large quantity of it. It was cut in the forests, sometimes several
+miles from the house. Dur<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span>ing the winters it was dragged home by the
+dogs. Here it was cut into the proper lengths for the stoves and piled
+up in the yard. When required, it was carried into the kitchen and
+piled up in a large wood box. This work was generally done by Indian
+men. When none were at hand the Indian girls had to do the work, but
+it was far from being enjoyed by them, especially in the bitter cold
+weather. It was suggested one day that Jack could be utilized for this
+work. With but little instruction and trouble he was induced to accept
+of the situation, and so after that the cry, "Jack, the wood box is
+empty!" would set him industriously to work at refilling it.</p>
+
+<p>To us, among many other instances of dog reasoning that came under
+our notice as the years rolled on, was one on the part of a large,
+powerful dog we called Cæsar. It occurred in the spring of the year,
+when the snow had melted on the land, and so, with the first rains, was
+swelling the rivers and creeks very considerably. On the lake before us
+the ice was still a great solid mass, several feet in thickness. Near
+our home was a now rapid stream that, rushing down into the lake, had
+cut a delta of open water in the ice at its mouth. In this open place
+Papanekis, one of my Indians, had placed a gill net for the purpose of
+catching fish. Living, as he did, all winter principally upon the fish
+caught the previous October or November and kept frozen for several
+months hung up in the open air, we were naturally pleased to get the
+fresh ones out of the water in the spring. Papanekis had so arranged
+his net, by fastening a couple of ropes about sixty feet long, one at
+each end, that when it was securely fastened at each side of the stream
+it was carried out into this open deltalike space by the force of the
+current, and there hung like the capital letter U. Its upper side was
+kept in position by light-wooded floats, while medium-sized stones, as
+sinkers, steadied it below.</p>
+
+<p>Every morning Papanekis would take a basket and, being followed by
+all the dogs of the kennels, would visit his net. Placed as we have
+described, he required no canoe or boat in order to overhaul it and
+take from it the fish there caught. All he had to do was to seize hold
+of the rope at the end fastened on the shore and draw it toward him. As
+he kept pulling it in, the deep bend in it gradually straightened out
+until the net was reached. His work was now to secure the fish as he
+gradually drew in the net and coiled it at his feet. The width of the
+opening in the water being about sixty feet, the result was that when
+he had in this way overhauled his net he had about reached the end of
+the rope attached to the other side. When all the fish in the net were
+secured, all Papanekis had to do to reset the net was to throw some
+of it out<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> in the right position in the stream. Here the force of the
+running waters acting upon it soon carried the whole net down into the
+open place as far as the two ropes fastened on the shores would admit.
+Papanekis, after placing the best fish in his basket for consumption
+in the mission house and for his own family, divided what was left
+among the eager dogs that had accompanied him. This work went on for
+several days, and the supply of fish continued to increase, much to our
+satisfaction.</p>
+
+<p>One day Papanekis came into my study in a state of great perturbation.
+He was generally such a quiet, stoical sort of an Indian that I was at
+once attracted by his mental disquietude. On asking the reason why he
+was so troubled, he at once blurted out, "Master, there is some strange
+animal visiting our net!"</p>
+
+<p>In answer to my request for particulars, he replied that for some
+mornings past when he went to visit it he found, entangled in the
+meshes, several heads of whitefish. Yet the net was always in its right
+position in the water. On my suggesting that perhaps otters, fishers,
+minks, or other fish-eating animals might have done the work, he most
+emphatically declared that he knew the habits of all these and all
+other animals living on fish, and it was utterly impossible for any of
+them to have thus done this work. The mystery continuing for several
+following mornings, Papanekis became frightened and asked me to get
+some other fisherman in his place, as he was afraid longer to visit the
+net. He had talked the matter over with some other Indians, and they
+had come to the conclusion that either a <i>windegoo</i> was at the bottom
+of it or the <i>meechee munedoo</i> (the devil). I laughed at his fears,
+and told him I would help him to try and find out who or what it was
+that was giving us this trouble. I went with him to the place, where we
+carefully examined both sides of the stream for evidences of the clever
+thief. There was nothing suspicious, and the only tracks visible were
+those of his own and of the many dogs that followed him to be fed each
+morning. About two or three hundred yards north of the spot where he
+overhauled the net there rose a small abrupt hill, densely covered with
+spruce and balsam trees. On visiting it we found that a person there
+securely hid from observation could with care easily overlook the whole
+locality.</p>
+
+<p>At my suggestion, Papanekis with his axe there arranged a sort of a
+nest or lookout spot. Orders were then given that he and another Indian
+man should, before daybreak on the next morning, make a long detour
+and cautiously reach that spot from the rear, and there carefully
+conceal themselves. This they succeeded in doing, and there, in perfect
+stillness, they waited for the morning. As soon as it was possible to
+see anything they were on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span> the alert. For some time they watched in
+vain. They eagerly scanned every point of vision, and for a time could
+observe nothing unusual.</p>
+
+<p>"Hush!" said one; "see that dog!"</p>
+
+<p>It was Cæsar, cautiously skulking along the trail. He would frequently
+stop and sniff the air. Fortunately for the Indian watchers, the wind
+was blowing toward them, and so the dog did not catch their scent. On
+he came, in a quiet yet swift gait, until he reached the spot where
+Papanekis stood when he pulled in the net. He gave one searching glance
+in every direction, and then he set to work. Seizing the rope in his
+teeth, Cæsar strongly pulled upon it, while he rapidly backed up some
+distance on the trail. Then, walking on the rope to the water's edge as
+it lay on the ground, to keep the pressure of the current from dragging
+it in, he again took a fresh grip upon it and repeated the process.
+This he did until the sixty feet of rope were hauled in, and the end
+of the net was reached to which it was attached. The net he now hauled
+in little by little, keeping his feet firmly on it to securely hold
+it down. As he drew it up, several varieties of inferior fish, such
+as suckers or mullets, pike or jackfish, were at first observed. To
+them Cæsar paid no attention. He was after the delicious whitefish,
+which dogs as well as human beings prefer to those of other kinds.
+When he had perhaps hauled twenty feet of the net, his cleverness was
+rewarded by the sight of a fine whitefish. Still holding the net with
+its struggling captives securely down with his feet, he began to devour
+this whitefish, which was so much more dainty than the coarser fish
+generally thrown to him. Papanekis and his comrade had seen enough. The
+mysterious culprit was detected in the act, and so with a "Whoop!" they
+rushed down upon him. Caught in the very act, Cæsar had to submit to a
+thrashing that ever after deterred him from again trying that cunning
+trick.</p>
+
+<p>Who can read this story, which I give exactly as it occurred, without
+having to admit that here Cæsar "combined means for the attainment of
+particular ends"? On the previous visits which he made to the net the
+rapid current of the stream, working against the greater part of it
+in the water, soon carried it back again into its place ere Papanekis
+arrived later in the morning. The result was that Cæsar's cleverness
+was undetected for some time, even by these most observant Indians.</p>
+
+<p>Many other equally clever instances convince me, and those who with
+me witnessed them, of the possession, in of course a limited degree,
+of reasoning powers. Scores of my dogs never seemed to reveal them,
+perhaps because no special opportunities were presented for their
+exhibition. They were just ordinary dogs, trained<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span> to the work of
+hauling their loads. When night came, if their feet were sore they
+had dog sense enough to come to their master and, throwing themselves
+on their backs, would stick up their feet and whine and howl until
+the warm duffle shoes were put on. Some of the skulking ones had wit
+enough, when they did not want to be caught, in the gloom of the early
+morning, while the stars were still shining, if they were white, to
+cuddle down, still and quiet, in the beautiful snow; while the darker
+ones would slink away into the gloom of the dense balsams, where they
+seemed to know that it would be difficult for them to be seen. Some of
+them had wit enough when traveling up steep places with heavy loads,
+where their progress was slow, to seize hold of small firm bushes in
+their teeth to help them up or to keep them from slipping back. Some
+of them knew how to shirk their work. Cæsar, of whom we have already
+spoken, at times was one of this class. They could pretend, by their
+panting and tugging at their collars, that they were dragging more
+than any other dogs in the train, while at the same time they were not
+pulling a pound!</p>
+
+<p>Of cats I do not write. I am no lover of them, and therefore am
+incompetent to write about them. This lack of love for them is, I
+presume, from the fact that when a boy I was the proud owner of some
+very beautiful rabbits, upon which the cats of the neighborhood used to
+make disastrous raids. So great was my boyish indignation then that the
+dislike to them created has in a measure continued to this day, and I
+have not as yet begun to cultivate their intimate acquaintance.</p>
+
+<p>But of dogs I have ever been a lover and a friend. I never saw one, not
+mad, of which I was afraid, and I never saw one with which I could not
+speedily make friends. Love was the constraining motive principally
+used in breaking my dogs in to their work in the trains. No whip was
+ever used upon Jack or Cuffy while they were learning their tasks.
+Some dogs had to be punished more or less. Some stubborn dogs at once
+surrendered and gave no more trouble when a favorite female dog was
+harnessed up in a train and sent on ahead. This affection in the dog
+for his mate was a powerful lever in the hands of his master, and,
+using it as an incentive, we have seen things performed as remarkable
+as any we have here recorded.</p>
+
+<p>From what I have written it will be seen that I have had unusual
+facilities for studying the habits and possibilities of dogs. I was
+not under the necessity of gathering up a lot of mongrels at random
+in the streets, and then, in order to see instances of their sagacity
+and the exercise of their highest reasoning powers, to keep them until
+they were "practically utterly hungry," and then<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> imprison them in a
+box a good deal less than four feet square, and then say to them, "Now,
+you poor, frightened, half-starved creatures, show us what reasoning
+powers you possess." About as well throw some benighted Africans into
+a slave ship and order them to make a telephone or a phonograph! My
+comparison is not too strong, considering the immense distance there is
+between the human race and the brute creation. And so it must be, in
+the bringing to light of the powers of memory and the clear exhibition
+of the reasoning powers, few though they be, that the tests are not
+conclusive unless made under the most favorable environment, upon dogs
+of the highest intelligence, and in the most congenial and sympathetic
+manner.</p>
+
+<p>Testing this most interesting question in this manner, my decided
+convictions are that animals do reason.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p class="ph2"><a name="SKETCH_OF_GEORGE_M_STERNBERG" id="SKETCH_OF_GEORGE_M_STERNBERG">SKETCH OF GEORGE M. STERNBERG.</a></p>
+
+
+<p>No man among Americans has studied the micro-organisms with more
+profit or has contributed more to our knowledge of the nature of
+infection, particularly of that of yellow fever, than Dr. <span class="smcap">George
+M. Sternberg</span>, of the United States Army. His merits are freely
+recognized abroad, and he ranks there, as well as at home, among the
+leading bacteriologists of the age. He was born at Hartwick Seminary,
+an institution of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (General
+Synod), Otsego, N. Y., June 8, 1838. His father, the Rev. Levi
+Sternberg, D. D., a graduate of Union College, a Lutheran minister,
+and for many years principal of the seminary and a director of it, was
+descended from German ancestors who came to this country in 1703 and
+settled in Schoharie County, New York. The younger Sternberg received
+his academical training at the seminary, after which, intending to
+study medicine, he undertook a school at New Germantown, N. J., as a
+means of earning a part of the money required to defray the cost of
+his instruction in that science. The record of his school was one of
+quiet sessions, thoroughness, and popularity of the teacher, and his
+departure was an occasion of regret among his patrons.</p>
+
+<p>When nineteen years old, young Sternberg began his medical studies
+with Dr. Horace Lathrop, in Cooperstown, N. Y. Afterward he attended
+the courses of the College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York,
+and was graduated thence in the class of 1860. Before he had fairly
+settled in practice the civil war began, and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span> attention of all
+young Americans was directed toward the military service. Among these
+was young Dr. Sternberg, who, having passed the examination, was
+appointed assistant surgeon May 28, 1861, and was attached to the
+command of General Sykes, Army of the Potomac. He was engaged in the
+battle of Bull Run, where, voluntarily remaining on the field with
+the wounded, he was taken prisoner, but was paroled to continue his
+humane work. On the expiration of his parole he made his way through
+the lines and reported at Washington for duty July 30, 1861&mdash;"weary,
+footsore, and worn." Of his conduct in later campaigns of the Army of
+the Potomac, General Sykes, in his official reports of the battles of
+Gaines Mill, Turkey Ridge, and Malvern Hill, said that "Dr. Sternberg
+added largely to the reputation already acquired on the disastrous
+field of Bull Run." He remained with General Sykes's command till
+August, 1862; was then assigned to hospital duty at Portsmouth Grove,
+R. I., till November, 1862; was afterward attached to General Banks's
+expedition as assistant to the medical director in the Department
+of the Gulf till January, 1864; was in the office of the medical
+director, Columbus, Ohio, and in charge of the United States General
+Hospital at Cleveland, Ohio, till July, 1865. Since the civil war he
+has been assigned successively to Jefferson Barracks, Mo.; Fort Harker
+and Fort Riley, Kansas; in the field in the Indian campaign, 1868
+to 1870; Forts Columbus and Hamilton, New York Harbor; Fort Warren,
+Boston Harbor; Department of the Gulf and New Orleans; Fort Barrancas,
+Fla.; Department of the Columbia; Department Headquarters; Fort Walla
+Walla, Washington Territory; California; and Eastern stations. He was
+promoted to be captain and assistant surgeon in 1866, major and surgeon
+in 1875, lieutenant colonel and deputy surgeon general in 1891, and
+brigadier general and surgeon general in 1893. He has also received the
+brevets of captain and major in the United States Army "for faithful
+and meritorious services during the war," and of lieutenant colonel
+"for gallant service in performance of his professional duty under fire
+in action against Indians at Clearwater, Idaho, July 12, 1877." In
+the discharge of his duties at his various posts Dr. Sternberg had to
+deal with a cholera epidemic in Kansas in 1867, with a "yellow-fever
+epidemic" in New York Harbor in 1871, and with epidemics of yellow
+fever at Fort Barrancas, Fla., in 1873 and 1875. He served under
+special detail as member and secretary of the Havana Yellow-Fever
+Commission of the National Board of Health, 1879 to 1881; as a delegate
+from the United States under special instructions of the Secretary of
+State to the International Sanitary Conference at Rome in 1885; as a
+commissioner, under<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span> the act of Congress of March 3, 1887, to make
+investigations in Brazil, Mexico, and Cuba relating to the etiology and
+prevention of yellow fever; by special request of the health officer of
+the port of New York and the advisory committee of the New York Chamber
+of Commerce as consulting bacteriologist to the health officer of the
+port of New York in 1892; and he was a delegate to the International
+Medical Congress in Moscow in 1897.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Sternberg has contributed largely to the literature of scientific
+medicine from the results of his observations and experiments which he
+has made in these various spheres of duty.</p>
+
+<p>His most fruitful researches have been made in the field of
+bacteriology and infectious diseases. He has enjoyed the rare advantage
+in pursuing these studies of having the material for his experiments
+close at hand in the course of his regular work, and of watching, we
+might say habitually, the progress of such diseases as yellow fever
+as it normally went on in the course of Nature. Of the quality of his
+bacteriological work, the writer of a biography in Red Cross Notes,
+reprinted in the North American Medical Review, goes so far as to say
+that "when the overzeal of enthusiasts shall have passed away, and the
+story of bacteriology in the nineteenth century is written up, it will
+probably be found that the chief who brought light out of darkness
+was George M. Sternberg. He was noted not so much for his brilliant
+discoveries, but rather for his exact methods of investigation, for
+his clear statements of the results of experimental data, for his
+enormous labors toward the perfection and simplification of technique,
+and finally for his services in the practical application of the
+truths taught by the science. His early labors in bacteriology were
+made with apparatus and under conditions that were crude enough." His
+work in this department is certainly among the most important that
+has been done. Its value has been freely acknowledged everywhere, it
+has given him a world-wide fame, and it has added to the credit of
+American science. The reviewer in Nature (June 22, 1893) of his Manual
+of Bacteriology, which was published in 1892, while a little disposed
+to criticise the fullness and large size of the book, describes it as
+"the latest, the largest, and, let us add, the most complete manual
+of bacteriology which has yet appeared in the English language. The
+volume combines in itself not only an account of such facts as are
+already established in the science from a morphological, chemical,
+and pathological point of view, discussions on such abstruse subjects
+as susceptibility and immunity, and also full details of the means by
+which these results have been obtained, and practical directions for
+the carrying on of laboratory<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> work." This was not the first of Dr.
+Sternberg's works in bacteriological research. It was preceded by a
+work on Bacteria, of 498 pages, including 152 pages translated from
+the work of Dr. Antoine Magnin (1884); Malaria and Malarial Diseases,
+and Photomicrographs and How to make Them. The manual is at once a
+book for reference, a text-book for students, and a handbook for the
+laboratory. Its four parts include brief notices of the history of
+the subject, classification, morphology, and an account of methods
+and practical laboratory work&mdash;"all clear and concise"; the biology
+and chemistry of bacteria, disinfection, and antiseptics; a detailed
+account of pathogenic bacteria, their modes of action, the way they
+may gain access to the system, susceptibility and immunity, to which
+Dr. Sternberg's own contributions have been not the least important;
+and saprophytic bacteria in water, in the soil, in or on the human
+body, and in food, the whole number of saprophytes described being
+three hundred and thirty-one. "The merit of a work of this kind,"
+Nature says, "depends not less on the number of species described than
+on the clearness and accuracy of the descriptions, and Dr. Sternberg
+has spared no pains to make these as complete as possible." The
+bibliography in this work fills more than a hundred pages, and contains
+2,582 references. A later book on a kindred subject is Immunity,
+Protective Inoculations, and Serum Therapy (1895). Dr. Sternberg has
+also published a Text-Book of Bacteriology.</p>
+
+<p>Bearing upon yellow fever are the Report upon the Prevention of Yellow
+Fever by Inoculation, submitted in March, 1888; Report upon the
+Prevention of Yellow Fever, illustrated by photomicrographs and cuts,
+1890; and Examination of the Blood in Yellow Fever (experiments upon
+animals, etc.), in the Preliminary Report of the Havana Yellow-Fever
+Commission, 1879. Other publications in the list of one hundred and
+thirty-one titles of Dr. Sternberg's works, and mostly consisting
+of shorter articles, relate to Disinfectants and their Value, the
+Etiology of Malarial Fevers, Septicæmia, the Germicide Value of
+Therapeutic Agents, the Etiology of Croupous Pneumonia, the Bacillus
+of Typhoid Fever, the Thermal Death Point of Pathogenic Organisms,
+the Practical Results of Bacteriological Researches, the Cholera
+Spirillum, Disinfection at Quarantine Stations, the Infectious Agent
+of Smallpox, official reports as Surgeon General of the United States
+Army, addresses and reports at the meetings of the American Public
+Health Association, and an address to the members of the Pan-American
+Congress. One paper is recorded quite outside of the domain of microbes
+and fevers, to show what the author might have done if he had allowed
+his attention to be diverted from his special absorb<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span>ing field of work.
+It is upon the Indian Burial Mounds and Shell Heaps near Pensacola, Fla.</p>
+
+<p>The medical and scientific societies of which Dr. Sternberg is a
+member include the American Public Health Association, of which he is
+also an ex-president (1886); the American Association of Physicians;
+the American Physiological Society; the American Microscopical
+Society, of which he is a vice-president; the American Association
+for the Advancement of Science, of which he is a Fellow; the New
+York Academy of Medicine (a Fellow); and the Association of Military
+Surgeons of the United States (president in 1896). He is a Fellow
+of the Royal Microscopical Society of London; an honorary member
+of the Epidemiological Society of London, of the Royal Academy of
+Medicine of Rome, of the Academy of Medicine of Rio de Janeiro, of
+the American Academy of Medicine, of the French Society of Hygiene,
+etc.; was President of the Section on Military Medicine and Surgery of
+the Pan-American Congress; was a Fellow by courtesy in Johns Hopkins
+University, 1885 to 1890; was President of the Biological Society
+of Washington in 1896, and of the American Medical Association in
+1897; and has been designated Honorary President of the Thirteenth
+International Medical Congress, which is to meet in Paris in 1900. He
+received the degree of LL. D. from the University of Michigan in 1894,
+and from Brown University in 1897.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Sternberg's view of the right professional standard of the
+physician is well expressed in the sentiment, "To maintain our
+standing in the estimation of the educated classes we must not rely
+upon our diplomas or upon our membership in medical societies. Work
+and worth are what count." He does not appear to be attached to any
+particular school, but, as his Red Cross Notes biographer says, "has
+placed himself in the crowd 'who have been moving forward upon the
+substantial basis of scientific research, and who, if characterized by
+any distinctive name, should be called <i>the New School of Scientific
+Medicine</i>.' He holds that if our practice was in accordance with our
+knowledge many diseases would disappear; he sees no room for creeds
+or patents in medicine. He is willing to acknowledge the right to
+prescribe either a bread pill or a leaden bullet. But if a patient
+dies from diphtheria because of a failure to administer a proper
+remedy, or if infection follows from dirty fingers or instruments,
+if a practitioner carelessly or ignorantly transfers infection, he
+believes he is not fit to practice medicine.... He rejects every theory
+or dictum that has not been clearly demonstrated to him as an absolute
+truth."</p>
+
+<p>While he is described as without assumption, Dr. Sternberg is
+represented as being evidently in his headquarters as surgeon gen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span>eral
+in every sense the head of the service, the chief whose will governs
+all. Modest and unassuming, he is described as being most exacting, a
+man of command, of thorough execution, a general whose eyes comprehend
+every detail, and who has studied the personality of every member
+of his corps. He is always busy, but seemingly never in a hurry;
+systematic, accepting no man's dictum, and taking nothing as an
+established fact till he has personal experimental evidence of its
+truth. He looks into every detail, and takes equal care of the health
+of the general in chief and of the private.</p>
+
+<p>His addresses are carefully prepared, based on facts he has
+himself determined, made in language so plain that they will not
+be misunderstood, free from sentiment, and delivered in an easy
+conversational style, and his writings are "pen pictures of his results
+in the laboratory and clinic room."</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>The thirty-first year of the Peabody Museum of American Archæology
+and Ethnology was signalized by the transfer of its property to
+the corporation of Harvard College, whereby simplicity and greater
+permanence have been given to its management. The four courses of
+instruction in the museum were attended by sixteen students, and
+these, with others, make twenty-one persons, besides the curator,
+who are engaged in study or special research in subjects included
+under the term anthropology. Special attention is given by explorers
+in the service of the museum to the investigation of the antiquities
+of Yucatan and Central America, of which its publications on Copan,
+the caves of Loltun, and Labná, have been noticed in the Monthly.
+These explorations have been continued when and where circumstances
+made it feasible. Among the gifts acknowledged in the report of the
+museum are two hundred facsimile copies of the Aztec Codex Vaticanus,
+from the Duke of Loubat, an original Mexican manuscript of 1531, on
+agave paper, from the Mary Hemenway estate; the extensive private
+archæological collection of Mr. George W. Hammond; articles from
+Georgia mounds, from Clarence B. Moore, and other gifts of perhaps
+less magnitude but equal interest. Mr. Andrew Gibb, of Edinburgh, has
+given five pieces of rudely made pottery from the Hebrides, which were
+made several years ago by a woman who is thought to have been the
+last one to make pottery according to the ancient method of shaping
+the clay with the hands, and without the use of any form of potter's
+wheel. Miss Maria Whitney, sister of the late Prof. J. D. Whitney,
+has presented the "Calaveras skull" and the articles found with it,
+and all the original documents relating to its discovery and history.
+Miss Phebe Ferris, of Madisonville, Ohio, has bequeathed to the museum
+about twenty-five acres of land, on which is situated the ancient
+mound where Dr. Metz and Curator Putnam have investigated for several
+years, and whence a considerable collection has been obtained. Miss
+Ferris expressed the desire that the museum continue the explorations,
+and after completing convert the tract into a public park. Mr. W. B.
+Nicker has explored some virgin mounds near Galena, Ill., and a rock
+shelter and stone grave near Portage, Ill. The library of the museum
+now contains 1,838 volumes and 2,479 pamphlets on anthropology.</p></blockquote>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<p class="ph2"><a name="Correspondence" id="Correspondence">Correspondence.</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="ph4">DO ANIMALS REASON?</p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Editor Popular Science Monthly:</i></p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Dear Sir</span>: In connection with the discussion of the interesting
+subject Do Animals Reason? permit me to relate the following incident
+in support of the affirmative side of the question:</p>
+
+<p>Some years ago, before the establishment of the National Zoölogical
+Park in this city, Dr. Frank Baker, the curator, kept a small nucleus
+of animals in the rear of the National Museum; among this collection
+were several monkeys. On a hot summer day, as I was passing the monkey
+cage I handed to one of the monkeys a large piece of fresh molasses
+taffy. The animal at once carried it to his mouth and commenced to bite
+it. The candy was somewhat soft, and stuck to the monkey's paws. He
+looked at his paws, licked them with his tongue, and then turned his
+head from side to side looking about the cage. Then, taking the candy
+in his mouth, he sprang to the farther end of the cage and picked up
+a wad of brown paper. This ball of paper he carefully unfolded, and,
+laying it down on the floor of the cage, carefully smoothed out the
+folds of the paper with both paws. After he had smoothed it out to his
+satisfaction, he took the piece of taffy from his mouth and laid it in
+the center of the piece of paper and folded the paper over the candy,
+leaving a part of it exposed. He then sat back on his haunches and ate
+the candy, first wiping one paw and then the other on his hip, just as
+any boy or man might do.</p>
+
+<p>If that monkey did not show reason, what would you call it?</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+Yours etc.,<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;"><span class="smcap">H. O. Hall</span></span>,</p>
+
+<p class="author"><i>Library Surgeon General's Office, United States Army.</i></p>
+
+<p><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Washington, D. C., <i>October 2, 1899</i>.</span>
+</p>
+
+
+
+
+<p class="ph2"><a name="Editors_Table" id="Editors_Table">Editor's Table.</a></p>
+
+<p class="ph4"><i>HOME BURDENS.</i></p>
+
+
+<p>The doctrine has gone abroad, suggested by the most popular poet of
+the day, that "white men" have the duty laid upon them of scouring the
+dark places of the earth for burdens to take up. Through a large part
+of this nation the idea has run like wildfire, infecting not a few
+who themselves are in no small degree burdens to the community that
+shelters them. The rowdier element of the population everywhere is
+strongly in favor of the new doctrine, which to their minds is chiefly
+illustrated by the shooting of Filipinos. We do not say that thousands
+of very respectable citizens are not in favor of it also; we only note
+that they are strongly supported by a class whose adhesion adds no
+strength to their cause.</p>
+
+<p>It is almost needless to remark that a very few years ago we were
+not in the way of thinking that the civilized nations of the earth,
+which had sliced up Asia and Africa in the interest of their trade,
+had done so in the performance of a solemn duty. The formula "the
+white man's burden" had not been invented then, and some of us used to
+think that there was more of the filibustering spirit than of a high
+humanitarianism in these raids upon barbarous races. Possibly we did
+less than justice to some of the countries concerned, notably Great
+Britain, which, having a teeming population in very narrow confines,
+and being of old accustomed to adventures by sea, had naturally been
+led to extend her influence and create outlets for her trade in distant
+parts of the earth. Be this as it may, we seemed to have our own<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span> work
+cut out for us at home. We had the breadth of a continent under our
+feet, rich in the products of every latitude; we had unlimited room for
+expansion and development; we had unlimited confidence in the destinies
+that awaited us as a nation, if only we applied ourselves earnestly
+to the improvement of the heritage which, in the order of Providence,
+had become ours. We thanked Heaven that we were not as other nations,
+which, insufficiently provided with home blessings, were tempted to put
+forth their hands and&mdash;steal, or something like it, in heathen lands.</p>
+
+<p>Well, we have changed all that: we give our sympathy to the nations
+of the Old World in their forays on the heathen, and are vigorously
+tackling "the white man's burden" according to the revised version.
+It is unfortunate and quite unpleasant that this should involve
+shooting down people who are only asking what our ancestors asked and
+obtained&mdash;the right of self-government in the land they occupy. Still,
+we must do it if we want to keep up with the procession we have joined.
+Smoking tobacco is not pleasant to the youth of fifteen or sixteen who
+has determined to line up with his elders in that manly accomplishment.
+He has many a sick stomach, many a flutter of the heart, before he
+breaks himself into it; but, of course, he perseveres&mdash;has he not taken
+up the white boy's burden? So we. Who, outside of that rowdy element to
+which we have referred, has not been, whether he has confessed it or
+not, sick at heart at the thought of the innocent blood we have shed
+and of the blood of our kindred that we have shed in order to shed that
+blood? Still, spite of all misgivings and qualms, we hold our course,
+Kipling leading on, and the colonel of the Rough Riders assuring us
+that it is all right.</p>
+
+<p>Revised versions are not always the best versions; and for our own
+part we prefer to think that the true "white man's burden" is that
+which lies at his own door, and not that which he has to compass land
+and sea to come in sight of. We have in this land the burden of a not
+inconsiderable tramp and hoodlum population. This is a burden of which
+we can never very long lose sight; it is more or less before us every
+day. It is a burden in a material sense, and it is a burden in what
+we may call a spiritual sense. It impairs the satisfaction we derive
+from our own citizenship, and it lies like a weight on the social
+conscience. It is the opprobrium alike of our educational system and
+of our administration of the law. How far would the national treasure
+and individual energy which we have expended in failing to subdue
+the Filipino "rebels" have gone&mdash;if wisely applied&mdash;in subduing the
+rebel elements in our own population, and rescuing from degradation
+those whom our public schools have failed to civilize? Shall the reply
+be that we can not interfere with individual liberty? It would be
+a strange reply to come from people who send soldiers ten thousand
+miles away for the express purpose of interfering with liberty as the
+American nation has always hitherto understood that term; but, in
+point of fact, there is no question of interfering with any liberty
+that ought to be respected. It is a question of the protection of
+public morals, of public decency, and of the rights of property. It is
+a question of the rescue of human beings&mdash;our fellow-citizens&mdash;from
+ignorance, vice, and wretchedness. It is a question of making us as
+a nation right with ourselves, and making citizenship under our flag
+something to be prized by every one entitled to claim it.</p>
+
+<p>It is not in the cities only that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> undesirable elements cluster. The
+editor of a lively little periodical, in which many true things are
+said with great force&mdash;The Philistine&mdash;has lately declared that his own
+village, despite the refining influences radiated from the "Roycroft
+Shop," could furnish a band of hoodlum youths that could give points in
+every form of vile behavior to any equal number gathered from a great
+city. He hints that New England villages may be a trifle better, but
+that the farther Western States are decidedly worse. It is precisely
+in New England, however, that a bitter cry on this very subject of
+hoodlumism has lately been raised. What are we to do about it?</p>
+
+<p>Manifestly the hoodlum or incipient tramp is one of two things: either
+he is a person whom a suitable education might have turned into some
+decent and honest way of earning a living, or he is a person upon whom,
+owing to congenital defect, all educational effort would have been
+thrown away. In either case social duty seems plain. If education would
+have done the work, society&mdash;seeing that it has taken the business of
+public education in hand&mdash;should have supplied the education required
+for the purpose, even though the amount of money available for waging
+war in the Philippines had been slightly reduced. If the case is one
+in which no educational effort is of avail, then, as the old Roman
+formula ran, "Let the magistrates see that the republic takes no harm."
+Before, therefore, our minds can be easy on this hoodlum question,
+we must satisfy ourselves thoroughly that our modes of education are
+not, positively or negatively, adapted to making the hoodlum variety
+of character. The hoodlum, it is safe to say, is an individual in whom
+no intellectual interest has ever been awakened, in whom no special
+capacity has ever been created. His moral nature has never been taught
+to respond to any high or even respectable principle of conduct. If
+there is any glory in earth or heaven, any beauty or harmony in the
+operations of natural law, any poetry or pathos or dignity in human
+life, anything to stir the soul in the records of human achievement,
+to all such things he is wholly insensible. Ought this to be so in
+the case of any human being, not absolutely abnormal, whom the state
+has undertaken to educate? If, as a community, we put our hands to
+the educational plow, and so far not only relieve parents of a large
+portion of their sense of responsibility, but actually suppress the
+voluntary agencies that would otherwise undertake educational work,
+surely we should see to it that our education educates. Direct moral
+instruction in the schools is not likely to be of any great avail
+unless, by other and indirect means, the mind is prepared to receive
+it. What is needed is to awaken a sense of capacity and power, to give
+to each individual some trained faculty and some direct and, as far as
+it goes, scientific cognizance of things. Does any one suppose that
+a youth who had gone through a judicious course of manual training,
+or one who had become interested in any such subject as botany,
+chemistry, or agriculture, or who even had an intelligent insight
+into the elementary laws of mechanics, could develop into a hoodlum?
+On the other hand, there is no difficulty in imagining that such a
+development might take place in a youth who had simply been plied
+with spelling-book, grammar, and arithmetic. Even what seem the most
+interesting reading lessons fall dead upon minds that have no hold upon
+the reality of things, and no sense of the distinctions which the most
+elementary study of Nature forces on the attention.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>But, as we have admitted, there may be cases where the nature of the
+individual is such as to repel all effort for its improvement. Here
+the law must step in, and secure the community against the dangers to
+which the existence of such individuals exposes it. There is a certain
+element in the population which wishes to live, and is determined
+to live, on a level altogether below anything that can be called
+civilization. Those who compose it are nomadic and predatory in their
+habits, and occasionally give way to acts of fearful criminality. It is
+foolish not to recognize the fact, and take the measures that may be
+necessary for the isolation of this element. To devise and execute such
+measures is a burden a thousand times better worth taking up than the
+burden of imposing our yoke upon the Philippine Islands and crushing
+out a movement toward liberty quite as respectable, to all outward
+appearance, as that to which we have reared monuments at Bunker Hill
+and elsewhere. The fact is, the work before us at home is immense;
+and it is work which we might attack, not only without qualms of
+conscience, but with the conviction that every unit of labor devoted to
+it was being directed toward the highest interests not of the present
+generation only, but of generations yet unborn. The "white man," we
+trust, will some day see it; but meanwhile valuable time is being
+lost, and the national conscience is being lowered by the assumption
+of burdens that are <i>not</i> ours, whatever Mr. Kipling may have said
+or sung, or whatever Governor Roosevelt may assert on his word as a
+soldier.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><i>SPECIALIZATION.</i></p>
+
+<p>That division of labor is as necessary in the pursuit of science as
+in the world of industry no one would think of disputing; but that,
+like division of labor elsewhere, it has its drawbacks and dangers is
+equally obvious. When the latter truth is insisted on by those who
+are not recognized as experts, the experts are apt to be somewhat
+contemptuous in resenting such interference, as they consider it.
+An expert himself has, however, taken up the parable, and his words
+merit attention. We refer to an address delivered by Prof. J. Arthur
+Thompson, at the University of Aberdeen, upon entering on his duties
+as Regius Professor of Natural History, a post to which he was lately
+appointed. "We need to be reminded," he said, "amid the undoubted and
+surely legitimate fascinations of dissection and osteology, of section
+cutting and histology, of physiological chemistry and physiological
+physics, of embryology and fossil hunting, and the like, that the chief
+end of our study is a better understanding of living creatures in their
+natural surroundings." He could see no reason, he went on to say, for
+adding aimlessly to the overwhelming mass of detail already accumulated
+in these and other fields of research. The aim of our efforts should
+rather be to grasp the chief laws of growth and structure, and to rise
+to a true conception of the meaning of organization.</p>
+
+<p>The tendency to over-specialization is manifest everywhere; it may be
+traced in physics and chemistry, in mathematics, in archæology, and in
+philology, as well as in biology. We can not help thinking that there
+is a certain narcotic influence arising from the steady accumulation
+of minute facts, so that what was in the first place, and in its early
+stages, an invigorating pursuit becomes not only an absorbing, but
+more or less a benumbing passion. We are accustomed to profess great
+admiration for Browning's Grammarian, who&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Gave us the doctrine of the enclitic <i>De</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4em;">Dead from the waist down,"</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>but really we don't feel quite sure that the cause for which the old
+gentleman struggled was quite worthy of such desperate heroism. The
+world could have got along fairly well for a while with an imperfect
+knowledge of the subtle ways of the "enclitic <i>De</i>," and indeed a large
+portion of the world has neither concerned itself with the subject nor
+felt the worse for not having done so.</p>
+
+<p>What we fear is that some people are "dead from the waist down," or
+even from higher up, without being aware of it, and all on account of
+a furious passion for "enclitic de's" or their equivalent in other
+lines of study. Gentlemen, it is not worth while! You can not all hope
+to be buried on mountain tops like the grammarian, for there are not
+peaks enough for all of you, and any way what good would it do you?
+There is need of specialization, of course; we began by saying that the
+drift of our remarks is simply this, that he who would go into minute
+specializing should be careful to lay in at the outset a good stock of
+common sense, a liberal dose (if he can get it) of humor, and <i>quantum
+suff</i>. of humanity. Thus provided he can go ahead.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p class="ph2"><a name="Scientific_Literature" id="Scientific_Literature">Scientific Literature.</a></p>
+
+<p class="ph4">SPECIAL BOOKS.</p>
+
+
+<p>The comparison between the United States in 1790 and Australia in 1891,
+with which Mr. <i>A. F. Weber</i> opens his essay on <i>The Growth of Cities
+in the Nineteenth Century</i><a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> well illustrates how the tendency of
+population toward agglomeration in cities is one of the most striking
+social phenomena of the present age. Both countries were in nearly
+a corresponding state of development at the time of bringing them
+into the comparison. The population of the United States in 1790 was
+3,929,214; that of Australia in 1891 was 3,809,895; while 3.14 per cent
+of the people of the United States were then living in cities of ten
+thousand or more inhabitants, 33.20 per cent of the Australians are
+now living in such cities. Similar conditions or the tendency toward
+them are evident in nearly every country of the world. What are the
+forces that have produced the shifting of population thus indicated;
+what the economic, moral, political, and social consequences of it; and
+what is to be the attitude of the publicist, the statesman, and the
+teacher toward the movement, are questions which Mr. Weber undertakes
+to discuss. The subject is a very complicated and intricate one, with
+no end of puzzles in it for the careless student, and requiring to be
+viewed in innumerable shifting lights, showing the case in changing
+aspects; for in the discussion lessons are drawn by the author from
+every country in the family of nations. Natural causes&mdash;variations in
+climate, soil, earth formation, political institutions, etc.&mdash;partly
+explain the distribution of population, but only partly. It sometimes
+contradicts what would be deduced from them. Increase and improvement
+in facilities for communication help the expansion of commercial
+and industrial centers,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span> but also contribute to the scattering of
+population over wider areas. The most potent factors in attracting
+people to the cities were, in former times, the commercial facilities
+they afforded, with opportunities to obtain employment in trade, and
+are now the opportunities for employment in trade and in manufacturing
+industries. The cities, however, do not grow merely by accretions
+from the outside, but they also enjoy a new element of natural growth
+within themselves in the greater certainty of living and longer
+duration of life brought about by improved management and ease of
+living in them, especially by improved sanitation, and it is only
+in the nineteenth century that any considerable number of cities
+have had a regular surplus of births over deaths. Migration cityward
+is not an economic phenomenon peculiar to the nineteenth century,
+but is shown by the study of the social statistics and the bills of
+mortality of the past to have been always a factor important enough
+to be a subject of special remark. It is, however, a very lively one
+now, and "in the immediate future we may expect to see a continuation
+of the centralizing movement; while many manufacturers are locating
+their factories in the small cities and towns, there are other
+industries that prosper most in the great cities. Commerce, moreover,
+emphatically favors the great centers rather than the small or
+intermediate centers." In examining the structure of city populations,
+a preponderance of the female sex appears, and is explained by the
+accentuated liability of men over women in cities to death from
+dangers of occupation, vice, crime, and excesses of all kinds. There
+are also present in the urban population a relatively larger number
+of persons in the active period of life, whence an easier and more
+animated career, more energy and enterprise, more radicalism and less
+conservatism, and more vice, crime, and impulsiveness generally may be
+expected. Of foreign immigrants, the least desirable class are most
+prone to remain in the great cities; and with the decline of railway
+building and the complete occupation of the public lands the author
+expects that immigrants in the future will disperse less readily than
+in the past, but in the never-tiring energy of American enterprise
+this may not prove to be the case. As to occupation, the growth of
+cities is found to favor the development of a body of artisans and
+factory workmen, as against the undertaker and employer, and "that
+the class of day laborers is relatively small in the cities is reason
+for rejoicing." It is found "emphatically true that the growth of
+cities not only increases a nation's economic power and energy, but
+quickens the national pulse.... A progressive and dynamic civilization
+implies the good and bad alike. The cities, as the foci of progress,
+inevitably contain both." The development of suburban life, stimulated
+by the railroad and the trolley, and the transference of manufacturing
+industries to the suburbs, are regarded as factors of great promise
+for the amelioration of the recognized evils of city life and for the
+solution of some of the difficulties it offers and the promotion of its
+best results.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Dr.</span> <i>James K. Crook</i>, author of <i>The Mineral Waters of the
+United States and their Therapeutic Uses</i>,<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> accepts it as proved
+by centuries of experience that in certain disorders the intelligent
+use of mineral<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> waters is a more potent curative agency than drugs.
+He believes that Americans have within their own borders the close
+counterparts of the best foreign springs, and that in charms of scenery
+and surroundings, salubrity of climate and facilities for comfort, many
+of our spas will compare as resorts with the most highly developed
+ones of Europe. The purpose of the present volume is to set forth
+the qualities and attractions of American springs, of which we have
+a large number and variety, and the author has aimed to present the
+most complete and advanced work on the subject yet prepared. To make
+it so, he has carefully examined all the available literature on the
+subject, has addressed letters of inquiry to proprietors and other
+persons cognizant of spring resorts and commercial springs, and has
+made personal visits. While a considerable number of the 2,822 springs
+enumerated by Dr. A. C. Peale in his report to the United States
+Geological Survey have dropped out through non-use or non-development,
+more than two hundred mineral-spring localities are here described for
+the first time in a book of this kind. Every known variety of mineral
+water is represented. The subject is introduced by chapters on what
+might be called the science of mineral waters and their therapeutic
+uses, including the definition, the origin of mineral waters, and the
+sources whence they are mineralized; the classification, the discussion
+of their value, and mode of action; their solid and gaseous components;
+their therapeutics or applications to different disorders; and baths
+and douches and their medicinal uses. The springs are then described
+severally by States. The treatise on potable waters in the appendix is
+brief, but contains much.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p class="ph2"><a name="GENERAL_NOTICES" id="GENERAL_NOTICES">GENERAL NOTICES.</a></p>
+
+
+<p>In <i>Every-Day Butterflies</i><a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> Mr. <i>Scudder</i> relates the story of the
+very commonest butterflies&mdash;"those which every rambler at all observant
+sees about him at one time or another, inciting his curiosity or
+pleasing his eye." The sequence of the stories is mainly the order of
+appearance of the different subjects treated&mdash;which the author compares
+to the flowers in that each kind has its own season for appearing in
+perfect bloom, both together variegating the landscape in the open
+season of the year. This order of description is modified occasionally
+by the substitution of a later appearance for the first, when the
+butterfly is double or triple brooded. As illustrations are furnished
+of each butterfly discussed, it is not necessary that the descriptions
+should be long and minute, hence they are given in brief and general
+terms. But it must be remembered that the describer is a thorough
+master of his subject, and also a master in writing the English
+language, so that nothing will be found lacking in his descriptions.
+They are literature as well as butterfly history. Of the illustrations,
+all of which are good, a considerable number are in colors.</p>
+
+
+<p>Dr. <i>M. E. Gellé's</i> <i>L'Audition et ses Organes</i><a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> (The Hearing and
+its Organs) is a full, not over-elaborate treatise on the subject,
+in which prominence is given to the physiological side. The first
+part treats of the excitant of the sense of hearing&mdash;sonorous
+vibrations&mdash;including the vibrations themselves, the length of the
+vibratory phenomena, the intensity of sound, range of audition, tone,
+and timbre of sounds. The second chapter relates to the organs of
+hearing, both the peripheric organs and the acoustic centers, the
+anatomy of which is described in detail, with excellent and ample
+illustrations. The third chapter is devoted to the sensation of hearing
+under its various aspects&mdash;the time<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> required for perception, "hearing
+in school," the influence of habit and attention, orientation of the
+sound, bilateral sensations, effects on the nervous centers, etc.,
+hearing of musical sounds, oscillations and aberrations of hearing,
+auditive memory, obsessions, hallucinations of the ear, and colored
+audition.</p>
+
+<p>Prof. <i>Andrew C. McLaughlin's History of the American Nation</i><a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> has
+many features to recommend it. It aims to trace the main outlines of
+national development, and to show how the American people came to be
+what they are. These outlines involve the struggle of European powers
+for supremacy in the New World, the victory of England, the growth
+of the English colonies and their steady progress in strength and
+self-reliance till they achieved their independence, the development
+of the American idea of government, its extension across the continent
+and its influence abroad&mdash;all achieved in the midst of stirring
+events, social, political, and moral, at the cost sometimes of wars,
+and accompanied by marvelous growth in material prosperity and
+political power. All this the author sets forth, trying to preserve
+the balance of the factors, in a pleasing, easy style. Especial
+attention is paid to political facts, to the rise of parties, to the
+development of governmental machinery, and to questions of government
+and administration. In industrial history those events have been
+selected for mention which seem to have had the most marked effect
+on the progress and make-up of the nation. It is to be desired that
+more attention had been given to social aspects and changes in which
+the development has not been less marked and stirring than in the
+other departments of our history. Indeed, the field for research and
+exposition here is extremely wide and almost infinitely varied, and
+it has hardly yet begun to be worked, and with any fullness only for
+special regions. When he comes to recent events, Professor McLaughlin
+naturally speaks with caution and in rather general terms. It seems
+to us, however, that in the matter of the war with Spain, without
+violating any of the proprieties, he might have given more emphasis
+to the anxious efforts of that country to comply with the demands of
+the administration for the institution of reforms in Cuba; and, in the
+interest of historical truth, he ought not to have left unmentioned the
+very important fact that the Spanish Government offered to refer the
+questions growing out of the blowing up of the Maine to arbitration
+and abide by the result, and our Government made no answer to the
+proposition.</p>
+
+
+<p>Mr. <i>W. W. Campbell's Elements of Practical Astronomy</i><a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> is an
+evolution. It grew out of the lessons of his experience in teaching
+rather large classes in astronomy in the University of Michigan, by
+which he was led to the conclusion that the extensive treatises on the
+subject could not be used satisfactorily except in special cases. Brief
+lecture notes were employed in preference. These were written out and
+printed for use in the author's classes. The first edition of the book
+made from them was used in several colleges and universities having
+astronomical departments of high character. The work now appears,
+slightly enlarged, in a second edition. In the present greatly extended
+field of practical astronomy numerous special problems arise, which
+require prolonged efforts on the part of professional astronomers.
+While for the discussion of the methods employed in solving such
+problems the reader is referred to special treatises and journals,
+these methods are all developed from the <i>elements</i> of astronomy and
+the related sciences, of which it is intended that this book shall
+contain the elements of practical astronomy, with numerous references
+to the problems first requiring solution. The author believes that the
+methods of observing employed are illustrations of the best modern
+practice.</p>
+
+
+<p>In <i>The Characters of Crystals</i><a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> Prof. <i>Alfred J. Moses</i> has
+attempted to describe, simply and concisely, the meth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span>ods and apparatus
+used in studying the physical characters of crystals, and to record
+and explain the observed phenomena without complex mathematical
+discussions. The first part of the book relates to the geometrical
+characteristics of crystals, or the relations and determination of
+their forms, including the spherical projection, the thirty-two classes
+of forms, the measurement of crystal angles, and crystal projection
+or drawing. The optical characters and their determination are the
+subject of the second part. In the third part the thermal, magnetic,
+and electrical characters and the characters dependent upon electricity
+(elastic and permanent deformations) are treated of. A suggested
+outline of a course in physical crystallography is added, which
+includes preliminary experiments with the systematic examination of the
+crystals of any substance, and corresponds with the graduate course
+in physical crystallography given in Columbia University. The book is
+intended to be useful to organic chemists, geologists, mineralogists,
+and others interested in the study of crystals. The treatment is
+necessarily technical.</p>
+
+
+<p>A book describing the <i>Practical Methods of identifying Minerals in
+Rock Sections with the Microscope</i><a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> has been prepared by Mr. <i>L.
+McI. Luquer</i> to ease the path of the student inexperienced in optical
+mineralogy by putting before him only those facts which are absolutely
+necessary for the proper recognition and identification of the minerals
+in thin sections. The microscopic and optical characters of the
+minerals are recorded in the order in which they would be observed with
+a petrographical microscope; when the sections are opaque, attention
+is called to the fact, and the characters are recorded as seen with
+incident light. The order of Rosenbusch, which is based on the symmetry
+of the crystalline form, is followed, with a few exceptions made
+for convenience. In an introductory chapter a practical elementary
+knowledge of optics as applied to optical mineralogy is attempted to
+be given, without going into an elaborate discussion of the subject.
+The petrographical microscope is described in detail. The application
+of it to the investigation of mineral characteristics is set forth in
+general and as to particular minerals. The preparation of sections and
+practical operations are described, and an optical scheme is appended,
+with the minerals grouped according to their common optical characters.</p>
+
+
+<p>Mr. <i>Herbert C. Whitaker's</i> <i>Elements of Trigonometry</i><a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> is concise
+and of very convenient size for use. The introduction and the first
+five of the seven chapters have been prepared for the use of beginners.
+The other two chapters concern the properties of triangles and
+spherical triangles; an appendix presents the theory of logarithms;
+and a second appendix, treating of goniometry, complex quantities,
+and complex functions, has been added for students intending to take
+up work in higher departments of mathematics. For assisting a clearer
+understanding of the several processes, the author has sought to
+associate closely with every equation a definite meaning with reference
+to a diagram. Other characteristics of the book are the practical
+applications to mechanics, surveying, and other everyday problems;
+its many references to astronomical problems, and the constant use of
+geometry as a starting point and standard.</p>
+
+
+<p>A model in suggestions for elementary teaching is offered in
+<i>California Plants in their Homes</i>,<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> by <i>Alice Merritt Davidson</i>,
+formerly of the State Normal School, California. The book consists
+of two parts, a botanical reader for children and a supplement for
+the use of teachers, both divisions being also published in separate
+volumes. It is well illustrated, provided with an index and an outline
+of lessons adapted to different grades. The treatment of each theme is
+fresh, and the grouping novel, as is indicated by the chapter headings:
+Some Plants that lead Easy Lives, Plants that know<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span> how to meet Hard
+Times, Plants that do not make their own Living, Plants with Mechanical
+Genius. Although specially designed for the study of the flora of
+southern California, embodying the results of ten years' observation by
+the author, it may be recommended to science teachers in any locality
+as an excellent guide. The pupil in this vicinity will have to forego
+personal inspection of the shooting-star and mariposa lily, while he
+finds the century plant, yuccas, and cacti domiciled in the greenhouse.
+In addition to these, however, attention is directed to a sufficient
+number of familiar flowers, trees, ferns, and fungi for profitable
+study, and the young novice in botany can scarcely make a better
+beginning than in company with this skillful instructor.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>Prof. <i>John M. Coulter's Plant Relations</i><a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> is one of two parts of a
+system of teaching botany proposed by the author. Each of the two books
+is to represent the work of half a year, but each is to be independent
+of the other, and they may be used in either order. The two books
+relate respectively, as a whole, to ecology, or the life relations of
+surroundings of plants, and to their morphology. The present volume
+concerns the ecology. While it may be to the disadvantage of presenting
+ecology first, that it conveys no knowledge of plant structures and
+plant groups, this disadvantage is compensated for, in the author's
+view, by the facts that the study of the most evident life relations
+gives a proper conception of the place of plants in Nature; that it
+offers a view of the plant kingdom of the most permanent value to those
+who can give but a half year to botany; and that it demands little or
+no use of the compound microscope, an instrument ill adapted to first
+contacts with Nature. The book is intended to present a connected,
+readable account of some of the fundamental facts of botany, and also
+to serve as a supplement to the three far more important factors
+of the teacher, who must amplify and suggest at every point; the
+laboratory, which must bring the pupil face to face with plants and
+their structure; and field work, which must relate the facts observed
+in the laboratory to their actual place in Nature, and must bring new
+facts to notice which can be observed nowhere else. Taking the results
+obtained from these three factors, the book seeks to organize them, and
+to suggest explanations, through a clear, untechnical, compact text and
+appropriate and excellent illustrations.</p>
+
+
+<p>The title of <i>The Wilderness of Worlds</i><a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> was suggested to the author
+by the contemplation of a wilderness of trees, in which those near him
+are very large, while in the distance they seem successively smaller,
+and gradually fade away till the limit of vision is reached. So of the
+wilderness of worlds in space, with its innumerable stars of gradually
+diminishing degrees of visibility&mdash;worlds "of all ages like the trees,
+and the great deep of space is covered with their dust, and pulsating
+with the potency of new births." The body of the book is a review of
+the history of the universe and all that is of it, in the light of
+the theory of evolution, beginning with the entities of space, time,
+matter, force, and motion, and the processes of development from the
+nebulæ as they are indicated by the most recent and best verified
+researches, and terminating with the ultimate extinction of life and
+the end of the planet. In the chapter entitled A Vision of Peace the
+author confronts religion and science. He regards the whole subject
+from the freethinker's point of view, with a denial of all agency of
+the supernatural.</p>
+
+
+<p>In a volume entitled <i>The Living Organism</i><a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> Mr. <i>Alfred Earl</i>
+has endeavored to make a philosophical introduction to the study of
+biology. The closing paragraph of his preface is of interest as showing
+his views regarding vitalism: "The object of the book will be attained
+if it succeeds, although it may be chiefly by negative criticism, in
+directing attention to the important truth that, though chemical and
+physical changes enter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> largely into the composition of vital activity,
+there is much in the living organism that is outside the range of these
+operations." The first three chapters discuss general conceptions,
+and are chiefly psychology. A discussion of the structures accessory
+to alimentation in man and the higher animals occupies Chapters IV
+and V. The Object of Classification, Certain General Statements
+concerning Organisms, A Description of the Organism as related to
+its Surroundings, The Material Basis of Life, The Organism as a
+Chemical Aggregate and as a Center for the Transformation of Energy,
+Certain Aspects of Form and Development, The Meaning of Sensation,
+and, finally, Some of the Problems presented by the Organism, are
+the remaining chapter headings. The volume contains many interesting
+suggestions, and might perhaps most appropriately be described as a
+Theoretical Biology.</p>
+
+
+<p>"<i>Stars and Telescopes</i>,"<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> Professor <i>Todd</i> says, "is intended
+to meet an American demand for a plain, unrhetorical statement of
+the astronomy of to-day." We might state the purpose to be to bring
+astronomy and all that pertains to it up to date. It is hard to do
+this, for the author has been obliged to put what was then the latest
+discovery, made while the book was going through the press, in a
+footnote at the end of the preface. The information embodied in the
+volume is comprehensive, and is conveyed in a very intelligible style.
+The treatise begins with a running commentary or historical outline
+of astronomical discovery, with a rigid exclusion of all detail. The
+account of the earth and moon is followed by chapters on the Calendar
+and the Astronomical Relations of Light. The other members of the
+solar system are described and their relations reviewed, and then the
+comets and the stars. Closely associated with these subjects are the
+men who have contributed to knowledge respecting them, and consequently
+the names of the great discoverers and others who have helped in the
+advancement of astronomy are introduced in immediate connection with
+their work, in brief sketches and often with their portraits. Much
+importance is attributed by Professor Todd to the instruments with
+which astronomical discovery is carried on, and the book may be said to
+culminate in an account of the famous instruments, their construction,
+mounting, and use. The devisers of these instruments are entitled to
+more credit than the unthinking are always inclined to give them, for
+the value of an observation depends on the accuracy of the instrument
+as well as on the skill of the observer, and the skill which makes
+the instrument accurate is not to be underrated. So the makers of
+the instruments are given their place. Then the recent and improved
+processes have to be considered, and, altogether, Professor Todd has
+found material for a full and somewhat novel book, and has used it to
+good advantage.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Some Observations on the Fundamental Principles of Nature</i> is the
+title of an essay by <i>Henry Witt</i>, which, though very brief, takes
+the world of matter, mind, and society within its scope. One of the
+features of the treatment is that instead of the present theory of
+an order of things resulting from the condensation of more rarefied
+matter, one of the organization of converging waves of infinitesimal
+atoms filling all space is substituted. With this point prominently
+in view, the various factors and properties of the material
+universe&mdash;biology, psychology, sociology, ethics, and the future&mdash;are
+treated of.</p>
+
+
+<p>Among the later monographs published by the Field Columbian Museum,
+Chicago, is a paper in the Geological Series (No. 3) on <i>The Ores of
+Colombia, from Mines in Operation in 1892</i>, by <i>H. W. Nichols</i>. It
+describes the collection prepared for the Columbian Exposition by F.
+Pereira Gamba and afterward given to the museum&mdash;a collection which
+merits attention for the light it throws upon the nature and mode of
+occurrence of the ores of one of the most important gold-producing
+countries of the world, and also because it approaches more nearly
+than is usual the ideal of what a collection in economic geology
+should be. Other publications in the museum's Geological Series are
+<i>The Mylagauldæ, an Extinct Family of Sciuromorph Rodents</i> (No. 4),
+by <i>E. S. Riggs</i>, describing some squirrel-like animals from the
+Deep River beds, near White<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span> Sulphur Springs, Montana; <i>A Fossil Egg
+from South Dakota</i> (No. 5), by <i>O. C. Farrington</i>, relative to the
+egg of an anatine bird from the early Miocene; and <i>Contributions to
+the Paleontology of the Upper Cretaceous Series</i> (No. 6), by <i>W. N.
+Logan</i>, in which seven species of <i>Scaphites</i>, <i>Ostrea</i>, <i>Gasteropoda</i>,
+and corals are described. In the Zoölogical Series, <i>Preliminary
+Descriptions of New Rodents from the Olympic Mountains</i> (of Washington)
+(No. 11), by <i>D. G. Elliot</i>, relates to six species; <i>Notes on a
+Collection of Cold-blooded Vertebrates from the Olympic Mountains</i> (No.
+12), by <i>S. E. Meek</i>, to six trout and three other fish, four amphibia,
+and three reptiles; and a <i>Catalogue of Mammals from the Olympic
+Mountains, Washington</i>, with descriptions of new species (No. 13), by
+<i>D. G. Elliot</i>, includes a number of species of rodents, lynx, bear,
+and deer.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Some Notes on Chemical Jurisprudence</i> is the title given by <i>Harwood
+Huntington</i> (260 West Broadway, New York; 25 cents) to a brief digest
+of patent-law cases involving chemistry. The notes are designed to be
+of use to chemists intending to take out patents by presenting some
+of the difficulties attendant upon drawing up a patent strong enough
+to stand a lawsuit, and by explaining some points of law bearing on
+the subject. In most, if not all, cases where the chemist has devised
+a new method or application it is best, the author holds, to take out
+a patent for self-protection, else the inventor may find his device
+stolen from him and patented against him.</p>
+
+
+<p>A cave or fissure in the Cambrian limestone of Port Kennedy, Montgomery
+County, Pa., exposed by quarrymen the year before, was brought to the
+knowledge of geologists by Mr. Charles M. Wheatley in 1871, when the
+fossils obtained from it were determined by Prof. E. D. Cope as of
+thirty-four species. Attention was again called to the paleontological
+interest of the locality by President Dixon, of the Academy of Natural
+Sciences of Philadelphia, in 1894. The fissure was examined again by
+Dr. Dixon and others, and was more thoroughly explored by Mr. Henry C.
+Mercer. Mr. Mercer published a preliminary account of the work, which
+was followed by the successive studies of the material by Professor
+Cope preliminary to a complete and illustrated report to be made after
+a full investigation of all accessible material. Professor Cope did not
+live to publish this full report, which was his last work, prepared
+during the suffering of his final illness. It is now published, just
+as the author left it, as <i>Vertebrate Remains from the Port Kennedy
+Deposit</i>, from the Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of
+Philadelphia. Four plates of illustrations, photographed from the
+remains, accompany the text.</p>
+
+
+<p>The machinery of Mr. <i>Fred A. Lucas's</i> story of <i>The Hermit
+Naturalist</i> reminds us of that of the old classical French romances,
+like Télémaque, and the somewhat artificial, formal diction is not
+dissimilar. An accident brings the author into acquaintance and
+eventual intimacy with an old Sicilian naturalist, who, migrating to
+this country, has established a home, away from the world's life, on
+an island in the Delaware River. The two find a congenial subject of
+conversation in themes of natural history, and the bulk of the book is
+in effect a running discourse by the old Sicilian on snakes and their
+habits&mdash;a valuable and interesting lesson. The hermit has a romance,
+involving the loss of his motherless daughter, stolen by brigands and
+brought to America, his long search for her and resignation of hope,
+and her ultimate discovery and restoration to him. The book is of easy
+reading, both as to its natural history and the romance.</p>
+
+
+<p>We have two papers before us on the question of expansion. One is an
+address delivered by John Barrett, late United States Minister to
+Siam, before the Shanghai General Chamber of Commerce, and previous
+to the beginning of the attempt to subjugate the islands, on <i>The
+Philippine Islands and American Interests in the Far East</i>. This
+address has, we believe, been since followed by others, and in all
+Mr. Barrett favors the acquisition of the Philippine Islands on the
+grounds, among others, of commercial interests and the capacity of the
+Filipinos for development in further civilization and self-government;
+but his arguments, in the present aspect of the Philippine question,
+seem to us to bear quite as decidedly in the opposite direction. He
+gives the following picture of Aguinaldo and the Filipino govern<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span>ment:
+"He (Aguinaldo) captured all Spanish garrisons on the island of
+Luzon outside of Manila, so that when the Americans were ready to
+proceed against the city they were not delayed and troubled with a
+country campaign. Moreover, he has organized a government which has
+practically been administering the affairs of the great island since
+the American occupation of Manila, and which is certainly better
+than the former administration; he has a properly formed Cabinet and
+Congress, the members of which, in appearance and manners, would
+compare favorably with Japanese statesmen. He has among his advisers
+men of ability as international lawyers, while his supporters include
+most of the prominent educated and wealthy natives, all of which prove
+possibilities of self-government that we must consider." This pamphlet
+is published at Hong Kong. The other paper is an address delivered
+before the New York State Bar Association, by <i>Charles A. Gardiner</i>, on
+<i>Our Right to acquire and hold Foreign Territory</i>, and is published by
+G. P. Putnam's Sons in the Questions of the Day Series. Mr. Gardiner
+holds and expresses the broadest views of the constitutional power
+of our Government to commit the acts named, and to exercise all the
+attributes incidental to the possession of acquired territory, but he
+thinks that we need a great deal of legal advice in the matter.</p>
+
+
+<p>A pamphlet, <i>Anti-Imperialism</i>, by <i>Morrison L. Swift</i>, published by
+the Public Ownership Review, Los Angeles, Cal., covers the subject of
+English and American aggression in three chapters&mdash;Imperialism to bless
+the Conquered, Imperialism for the Sake of Mankind, and Our Crime in
+the Philippines. Mr. Swift is very earnest in respect to some of the
+subjects touched upon in his essays, and some persons may object that
+he is more forcible&mdash;even to excess&mdash;than polite in his denunciations.
+To such he may perhaps reply that there are things which language does
+not afford words too strong to characterize fitly.</p>
+
+
+<p>Among the papers read at the Fourth International Catholic Scientific
+Congress, held at Fribourg, Switzerland, in August, 1897, was one by
+<i>William J. D. Croke</i> on <i>Architecture, Painting, and Printing at
+Subiaco</i> as represented in the Abbey at Subiaco. The author regards the
+features of the three arts represented in this place as evidence that
+the record of the activity of the foundation constitutes a real chapter
+in the history of progress in general and of culture in particular.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p class="ph2"><a name="PUBLICATIONS_RECEIVED" id="PUBLICATIONS_RECEIVED">PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.</a></p>
+
+
+<p>Benson, E. F. Mammon &amp; Co. New York: D. Appleton and Company. Pp. 360.
+$1.50.</p>
+
+<p>Buckley, James A. Extemporaneous Oratory. For Professional and Amateur
+Speakers. New York: Eaton &amp; Mains. Pp. 480. $1.50.</p>
+
+<p>Canada, Dominion of, Experimental Farms: Reports for 1897. Pp. 449;
+Reports for 1898. Pp. 429.</p>
+
+<p>Conn, H. W. The Story of Germ Life. (Library of Useful Stories.) New
+York: D. Appleton and Company. Pp. 199. 40 cents.</p>
+
+<p>Dana, Edward S. First Appendix to the Sixth Edition of Dana's
+Mineralogy. New York: John Wiley &amp; Sons. Pp. 75. $1.</p>
+
+<p>Franklin Institute, The Drawing School, also School of Elementary
+Mathematics: Announcements. Pp. 4 each.</p>
+
+<p>Ganong, William F. The Teaching Botanist. New York: The Macmillan
+Company. Pp. 270. $1.10.</p>
+
+<p>Getman, F. H. The Elements of Blowpipe Analysis. New York: The
+Macmillan Company. Pp. 77. 60 cents.</p>
+
+<p>Halliday, H. M. An Essay on the Common Origin of Light, Heat, and
+Electricity. Washington, D. C. Pp. 46.</p>
+
+<p>Hardin, Willett L. The Rise and Development of the Liquefaction of
+Gases. New York: The Macmillan Company. Pp. 250. $1.10.</p>
+
+<p>Hillegas, Howard C. Oom Paul's People. A Narrative of the British-Boer
+Troubles in South Africa, with a History of the Boers, the Country, and
+its Institutions. New York: D. Appleton and Company. Pp. 308. $1.50.</p>
+
+<p>Ireland, Alleyne. Tropical Colonization. An Introduction to the Study
+of the Subject. New York: The Macmillan Company. $2.</p>
+
+<p>Kingsley, J. S. Text-Book of Elementary Zoölogy. New York: Henry Holt &amp;
+Co. Pp. 439.</p>
+
+<p>Knerr, E. B. Relativity in Science. Silico-Barite Nodules from near
+Salina. Concretions. (Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science.)
+Pp. 24.</p>
+
+<p>Kr&otilde;msk&otilde;p Color Photography.
+Philadelphia: Ives Kr&otilde;msk&otilde;p. Pp. 24.</p>
+
+<p>Liquid-Air Power and Automobile Company. Prospectus. Pp. 16.</p>
+
+<p>MacBride, Thomas A. The North American Slime Molds. Being a List of
+Species of Myxomycetes hitherto described from North America, Including
+Central America. New York: The Macmillan Company. Pp. 231, with 18
+plates. $2.25.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Meyer, A. B. The Distribution of the Negritos in the Philippine Islands
+and Elsewhere. Dresden (Saxony): Stengel &amp; Co. Pp. 92.</p>
+
+<p>Nicholson, H. H., and Avery, Samuel. Laboratory Exercises with Outlines
+for the Study of Chemistry, to accompany any Elementary Text. New York:
+Henry Holt &amp; Co. Pp. 134. 60 cents.</p>
+
+<p>Scharff, R. P. The History of the European Fauna. New York: Imported by
+Charles Scribner's Sons. Pp. 354. $1.50.</p>
+
+<p>Schleicher, Charles, and Schull, Duren. Rhenish Prussia. Samples of
+Special Filtering Papers. New York: Eimer &amp; Amend, agents.</p>
+
+<p>Sharpe, Benjamin F. An Advance in Measuring and Photographing Sounds.
+United States Weather Bureau. Pp. 18, with plates.</p>
+
+<p>Shinn, Milicent W. Notes on the Development of a Child. Parts III and
+IV. (University of California Studies.) Pp. 224.</p>
+
+<p>Shoemaker, M. M. Quaint Corners of Ancient Empires, Southern India,
+Burmah, and Manila. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. Pp. 212.</p>
+
+<p>Smith, Orlando J. A Short View of Great Questions. New York: The
+Brandur Company, 220 Broadway. Pp. 75.</p>
+
+<p>Smith, Walter. Methods of Knowledge. An Essay in Epistemology. New
+York: The Macmillan Company. Pp. 340. $1.25.</p>
+
+<p>Southern, The, Magazine. Monthly. Vol. I, No. 1. August, 1899. Pp. 203.
+10 cents. $1 a year.</p>
+
+<p>Suter, William N. Handbook of Optics. New York: The Macmillan Company.
+Pp. 209. $1.</p>
+
+<p>Tarde, G. Social Laws. An Outline of Sociology. With a Preface by James
+Mark Baldwin. New York: The Macmillan Company. Pp. 213. $1.25.</p>
+
+<p>Uline, Edwin B. Higinbothamia. A New Genus, and other New Dioscoreaceæ,
+New Amaranthaceæ. (Field Columbian Museum, Chicago Botanical Series.)
+Pp. 12.</p>
+
+<p>Underwood, Lucien M. Molds, Mildews, and Mushrooms. New York: Henry
+Holt &amp; Co. Pp. 227, with 9 plates. $1.50.</p>
+
+<p>United States Civil-Service Commission. Fifteenth Report, July 1, 1897,
+to June 30, 1898. Pp. 736. Washington.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p class="ph2"><a name="Fragments_of_Science" id="Fragments_of_Science">Fragments of Science.</a></p>
+
+
+<p><b>The Dover Meeting of the British Association.</b>&mdash;While the
+attendance on the meeting of the British Association at Dover was
+not large&mdash;the whole number of members being 1,403, of whom 127 were
+ladies&mdash;the occasion was in other respects eventful and one of marked
+interest. The papers read were, as a rule, of excellent quality, and
+the interchange of visits with the French Association was a novel
+feature that might bear many repetitions. The president, Sir Michael
+Foster, presented, in his inaugural address, a picture of the state
+of science one hundred years ago, illustrating it by portraying the
+conditions to which a body like the association meeting then at
+Dover would have found itself subject, and suggesting the topics
+it would have discussed. The period referred to was, however, that
+of the beginning of the present progress, and, after remarking on
+what had been accomplished in the interval, the speaker drew a very
+hopeful foreview for the future. Besides the intellectual triumphs of
+science, its strengthening discipline, its relation to politics, and
+the "international brotherhood of science" were brought under notice
+in the address. In his address as president of the Physical Section,
+Prof. J. H. Poynting showed how physicists are tending toward a general
+agreement as to the nature of the laws in which they embody their
+discoveries, of the explanations they give, and of the hypotheses they
+make, and, having considered what the form and terms of this agreement
+should be, passed to a discussion of the limitations of physical
+science. The subject of Dr. Horace T. Brown's Chemical Section address
+was The Assimilation of Carbon by the Higher Plants. Sir William
+H. White, president of the Section of Mechanical Science, spoke on
+Steam Navigation at High Speeds. President Adam Sedgwick addressed
+the Zoölogical Section on Variation and some Phenomena connected with
+Reproduction and Sex; Sir John Murray, the Geographical Section on
+The Ocean Floor; and Mr. J. N. Langley, the Physiological Section on
+the general relations of the motor nerves to the several tissues of
+the body, especially of those which run to tissues over which we have
+little or no control. The president of the Anthropological Section,
+Mr. C. H. Read, of the British Museum, spoke of the preservation
+and proper exploration of the prehistoric antiquities of the
+country, and offered a plan for increasing the amount of work done
+in an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span>thropological investigation by the use of Government aid. A
+peculiar distinction attaches to this meeting through its reception
+and entertainment of the French Association, and the subsequent return
+of the courtesy by the latter body at Boulogne. About three hundred of
+the French Associationists, among whom were many ladies, came over,
+on the Saturday of the meeting, under the lead of their president, M.
+Brouardel, and accompanied by a number of men of science from Belgium.
+They were met at the pier by the officers of the British Association,
+and were escorted to the place of meeting and to the sectional meetings
+toward which their several tastes directed them. The geological address
+of Sir Archibald Geikie on Geological Time had been appointed for
+this day out of courtesy to the French geologists, and in order that
+they might have an opportunity of hearing one of the great lights of
+British science. Among the listeners who sat upon the platform were
+M. Gosselet, president of the French Geological Society; M. Kemna,
+president of the Belgian Geological Society; and M. Rénard, of Ghent.
+Public evening lectures were delivered on the Centenary of the Electric
+Current, by Prof. J. A. Fleming, and (in French) on Nervous Vibration,
+by Prof. Charles Richet. Sir William Turner was appointed president
+for the Bradford meeting of the association (1900). The visit of the
+French Association was returned on September 22d, when the president,
+officers, and about three hundred members went to Boulogne. They were
+welcomed by the mayor of the city, the prefect of the department,
+and a representative of the French Government; were feasted by the
+municipality of Boulogne; were entertained by the members of the French
+Association; and special commemorative medals were presented by the
+French Association to the two presidents. The British visitors also
+witnessed the inauguration of a tablet in memory of Dr. Duchesne, and
+of a plaque commemorative of Thomas Campbell, the poet, who died in
+Boulogne.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Artificial India Rubber.</b>&mdash;A recent issue of the Kew Gardens
+Bulletin contains an interesting article on Dr. Tilden's artificial
+production of India rubber. India rubber, or caoutchouc, is chemically
+a hydrocarbon, but its molecular constitution is unknown. When
+decomposed by heat it is broken up into simpler hydrocarbons, among
+which is a substance called isoprene, a volatile liquid boiling
+at about 36° C. Its molecular formula is C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>8</sub>. Dr. Tilden
+obtained this same substance (isoprene) from oil of turpentine and
+other terpenes by the action of moderate heat, and then by treating
+the isoprene with strong acids succeeded, by means of a very slow
+reaction, in converting a small portion of it into a tough elastic
+solid, which seems to be identical in properties with true India
+rubber. This artificial rubber, like the natural, seems to consist of
+two substances, one of which is more soluble in benzene and carbon
+bisulphide than the other. It unites with sulphur in the same way as
+ordinary rubber, forming a tough, elastic compound. In a recent letter
+Professor Tilden says: "As you may imagine, I have tried everything I
+can think of as likely to promote this change, but without success.
+The polymerization proceeds <i>very</i> slowly, occupying, according to my
+experience, several years, and all attempts to hurry it result in the
+production not of rubber, but of 'colophene,' a thick, sticky oil quite
+useless for all purposes to which rubber is applied."</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Dangers of High Altitudes for Elderly People.</b>&mdash;"The public,
+and sometimes the inexperienced physician&mdash;inexperienced not in
+general therapeutics but in the physiological effects of altitude
+on a weak heart," says Dr. Findlater Zangger in the Lancet, "make
+light of a danger they can not understand. But if an altitude of
+from four thousand to five thousand feet above the sea level puts
+a certain amount of strain on a normal heart and by a rise of the
+blood-pressure indirectly also on the small peripheral arteries, must
+not this action be multiplied in the case of a heart suffering from
+even an early stage of myocarditis or in the case of arteries with
+thickened or even calcified walls? It is especially the rapidity of the
+change from one altitude to another, with differences of from three
+thousand to four thousand feet, which must be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span> considered. There is
+a call made on the contractibility of the small arteries on the one
+hand, and on the amount of muscular force of the heart on the other
+hand, and if the structures in question can not respond to this call,
+rupture of an artery or dilatation of the heart may ensue. In the
+case of a normal condition of the circulatory organs little harm is
+done beyond some transient discomfort, such as dizziness, buzzing in
+the ears, palpitation, general <i>malaise</i>, and this often only in the
+case of people totally unaccustomed to high altitudes. For such it is
+desirable to take the high altitude by degrees in two or three stages,
+say first stage 1,500 feet, second stage from 2,500 to 3,000 feet,
+and third stage from 4,000 to 6,000 feet, with a stay of one or two
+days at the intermediate places. The stay at the health resort will
+be shortened, it is true, but the patient will derive more benefit.
+On the return journey one short stay at one intermediate place will
+suffice. Even a fairly strong heart will not stand an overstrain in
+the first days spent at a high altitude. A Dutch lady, about forty
+years of age, who had spent a lifetime in the lowlands, came directly
+up to Adelboden (altitude, 4,600 feet). After two days she went on an
+excursion with a party up to an Alp 7,000 feet high, making the ascent
+quite slowly in four hours. Sudden heart syncope ensued, which lasted
+the best part of an hour, though I chanced to be near and could give
+assistance, which was urgently needed. The patient recovered, but
+derived no benefit from a fortnight's stay, and had to return to the
+low ground the worse for her trip and her inconsiderate enterprise.
+Rapid ascents to a high altitude are very injurious to patients with
+arterio-sclerosis, and the mountain railways up to seven thousand and
+ten thousand feet are positively dangerous to an unsuspecting public,
+for many persons between the ages of fifty-five and seventy years
+consider themselves to be hale and healthy, and are quite unconscious
+of having advanced arterio-sclerosis and perchance contracted kidney.
+An American gentleman, aged fifty-eight years, was under my care for
+slight symptoms of angina pectoris, pointing to sclerosis of the
+coronary arteries. A two-months' course of treatment at Zurich with
+massage, baths, and proper exercise and diet did away with all the
+symptoms. I saw him by chance some months later. 'My son is going to
+St. Moritz (six thousand feet) for the summer,' said he; 'may I go with
+him?' 'Most certainly not,' was my answer. The patient then consulted
+a professor, who allowed him to go. Circumstances, however, took him
+for the summer to Sachseln, which is situated at an altitude of only
+two thousand feet, and he spent a good summer. But he must needs go up
+the Pilatus by rail (seven thousand feet), relying on the professor's
+permission, and the result was disastrous, for he almost died from a
+violent attack of angina pectoris on the night of his return from the
+Pilatus, and vowed on his return to Zurich to keep under three thousand
+feet in future. I may here mention that bad results in the shape of
+heart collapse, angina pectoris, cardiac asthma, and last, not least,
+apoplexy, often occur only on the return to the lowlands."</p>
+
+
+<p><b>The Parliamentary Amenities Committee.</b>&mdash;Under the above rather
+misleading title there was formed last year, in the English Parliament,
+a committee for the purpose of promoting concerted action in the
+preservation and protection of landmarks of general public interest,
+historic buildings, famous battlefields, and portions of landscape of
+unusual scenic beauty or geological conformation, and also for the
+protection from entire extinction of the various animals and even
+plants which the spread of civilization is gradually pushing to the
+wall. In reality, it is an official society for the preservation of
+those things among the works of past man and Nature which, owing to
+their lack of direct money value, are in danger of destruction in
+this intensely commercial age. Despite the comparative newness of the
+American civilization, there are already many relics belonging to the
+history of our republic whose preservation is very desirable, as well
+as very doubtful, if some such public-spirited committee does not
+take the matter in hand; and, as regards the remains of the original
+Americans, in which the country abounds, the necessity is still more
+immediate. The official care of Nature's own curiosities is equally
+needed, as witness the way in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span> which the Hudson River palisades are
+being mutilated, and the constant raids upon our city parks for
+speedways, parade grounds, etc. The great value of a parliamentary or
+congressional committee of this sort lies in the fact that its opinions
+are not only based upon expert knowledge, but that they can be to an
+extent enforced; whereas such a body of men with no official position
+may go on making suggestions and protesting, as have numerous such
+bodies for years, without producing any practical results. The matter
+is, with us perhaps, one of more importance to future generations; but
+as all Nature seems ordered primarily with reference to the future
+welfare of the race, rather than for the comfort of its present
+members, the necessity for such an official body, whose specific
+business should be to look after the preservation of objects of
+historical interest to the succeeding centuries, ought to be inculcated
+in us as a part of the general evolutionary scheme.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Physical Measurements of Asylum Children.</b>&mdash;Dr. Ales Hrdlicka has
+published an account of anthropological investigations and measurements
+which he has made upon one thousand white and colored children in
+the New York Juvenile Asylum and one hundred colored children in
+the Colored Orphan Asylum, for information about the physical state
+of the children who are admitted and kept in juvenile asylums, and
+particularly to learn whether there is anything physically abnormal
+about them. Some abnormality in the social or moral condition of such
+children being assumed, if they are also physically inferior to other
+children, they would have to be considered generally handicapped in the
+struggle for life; but if they do not differ greatly in strength and
+constitution from the average ordinary children, then their state would
+be much more hopeful. Among general facts concerning the condition of
+the children in the Juvenile Asylum, Dr. Hrdlicka learned that when
+admitted to the institution they are almost always in some way morally
+and physically inferior to healthy children from good social classes
+at large&mdash;the result, usually, of neglect or improper nutrition or
+both. Within a month, or even a week, decided changes for the better
+are observed, and after their admission the individuals of the same sex
+and age seem gradually, while preserving the fundamental differences
+of their nature, to show less of their former diversity and grow more
+alike. In learning, the newcomers are more or less retarded when put
+into the school, but in a great majority of cases they begin to acquire
+rapidly, and the child usually reaches the average standing of the
+class. Inveterate backwardness in learning is rare. Physically, about
+one seventh of all the inmates of the asylum were without a blemish
+on their bodies&mdash;a proportion which will not seem small to persons
+well versed in analyses of the kind. The differences in the physical
+standing of the boys and the girls were not so great or so general as
+to permit building a hypothesis upon them, though the girls came out a
+little the better. The colored boys seemed to be physically somewhat
+inferior to the white ones, but the number of them was not large enough
+to justify a conclusion. Of the children not found perfect, two hundred
+presented only a single abnormality, and this usually so small as
+hardly to justify excluding them from the class of perfect. Regarding
+as decidedly abnormal only those in whom one half the parts of the body
+showed defects, the number was eighty-seven. "Should we, for the sake
+of illustration, express the physical condition of the children by such
+terms as fine, medium, and bad, the fine and bad would embrace in all
+192 individuals, while 808 would remain as medium." All the classes
+of abnormalities&mdash;congenital, pathological, and acquired&mdash;seemed more
+numerous in the boys than in the girls. The colored children showed
+fewer inborn abnormalities than the white, but more pathological and
+acquired. No child was found who could be termed a thorough physical
+degenerate, and the author concludes that the majority of the class of
+children dealt with are physically fairly average individuals.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Busy Birds.</b>&mdash;A close observation of a day's work of busy
+activity, of a day's work of the chipping sparrow hunting and catching
+insects to feed its young, is recorded by Clarence M. Weed in a
+Bulletin of the New Hampshire College Agricultural Experiment Station.
+Mr.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span> Weed began his watch before full daylight in the morning, ten
+minutes before the bird got off from its nest, and continued it till
+after dark. During the busy day Mr. Weed says, in his summary, the
+parent birds made almost two hundred visits to the nest, bringing
+food nearly every time, though some of the trips seem to have been
+made to furnish grit for the grinding of the food. There was no long
+interval when they were not at work, the longest period between visits
+being twenty-seven minutes. Soft-bodied caterpillars were the most
+abundant elements of the food, but crickets and crane flies were also
+seen, and doubtless a great variety of insects were taken, but precise
+determination of the quality of most of the food brought was of course
+impossible. The observations were undertaken especially to learn the
+regularity of the feeding habits of the adult birds. The chipping
+sparrow is one of the most abundant and familiar of our birds. It seeks
+its nesting site in the vicinity of houses, and spends most of its time
+searching for insects in grass lands or cultivated fields and gardens.
+In New England two broods are usually reared each season. That the
+young keep the parents busy catching insects and related creatures for
+their food is shown by the minute record which the author publishes in
+his paper. The bird deserves all the protection and encouragement that
+can be given it.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Park-making among the Sand Dunes.</b>&mdash;For the creation of Golden
+Gate Park the park-makers of San Francisco had a series of sand hills,
+"hills on hills, all of sand-dune formation." The city obtained a strip
+of land lying between the bay and the ocean, yet close enough to the
+center of population to be cheaply and easily reached from all parts
+of the town. Work was begun in 1869, and has been prosecuted steadily
+since, with increasing appropriations, and the results are a credit to
+the city, Golden Gate Park, Mr. Frank H. Lamb says in his account of
+it in The Forester, having a charm that distinguishes it from other
+city parks. It has a present area of 1,040 acres, of which 300 acres
+have been sufficiently reclaimed to be planted with coniferous trees."
+It is this portion of the park which the visitor sees as one of the
+sights of the Golden Gate." As he rides through the park out toward
+the Cliff House and Sutro Heights by the Sea," he sees still great
+stretches of sand, some loose, some still held in place by the long
+stems and rhizomes of the sand grass (<i>Arundo arenaria</i>). This is the
+preparatory stage in park-making. The method in brief is as follows:
+The shifting sand is seeded with <i>Arundo arenaria</i>, and this is allowed
+to grow two years, when the ground is sufficiently held in place to
+begin the second stage of reclamation, which consists in planting
+arboreal species, generally the Monterey pine (<i>Pinus insignis</i>) and
+the Monterey cypress (<i>Cupressus macrocarpus</i>); with these are also
+planted the smaller <i>Leptospermum lævigatum</i> and <i>Acacia latifolia</i>.
+These species in two or more years complete the reclamation, and then
+attention is directed to making up all losses of plants and encouraging
+growth as much as possible." The entire cost of reclamation by these
+methods is represented not to average more than fifty dollars per acre.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>A Fossiliferous Formation below the Cambrian.</b>&mdash;Mr. George F.
+Matthew said, in a communication to the New York Academy of Sciences,
+that he had been aware for several years of the existence of fauna in
+the rocks below those containing <i>Paradoxides</i> and <b>Protolenus</b>
+in New Brunswick, eastern Canada, but that the remains of the higher
+types of organisms found in those rocks were so poorly preserved and
+fragmentary that they gave a very imperfect knowledge of their nature.
+Only the casts of <i>Hyolithidæ</i>, the mold of an obolus, a ribbed shell,
+and parts of what appeared to be the arms and bodies of crinoids were
+known, to assure us that there had been living forms in the seas of
+that early time other than Protozoa and burrowing worms. These objects
+were found in the upper division of a series of rocks immediately
+subjacent to the Cambrian strata containing <i>Protolenus</i>, etc. As a
+decided physical break was discovered between the strata containing
+them and those having <i>Protolenus</i>, the underlying series was thought
+worthy of a distinctive name, and was called Etchemenian, after a tribe
+of aborigines that once inhabited the region. In most countries the
+basement of the Paleozoic sediments seems almost de<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span>void of organic
+remains. Only unsatisfactory results have followed the search for them
+in Europe, and America did not seem to promise a much better return.
+Nevertheless, the indications of a fauna obtained in the maritime
+provinces of Canada seemed to afford a hope that somewhere "these
+basement beds of the Paleozoic might yield remains in a better state
+of preservation." The author, therefore, in the summer of 1898, made
+a visit to a part of Newfoundland where a clear section of sediments
+had been found below the horizons of <i>Paradoxides</i> and <i>Agraulos
+strenuus</i>. These formations were examined at Manuel's Brook and Smith's
+Sound. In the beds defined as Etchemenian no trilobites were found,
+though other classes of animals, such as gastropods, brachiopods, and
+lamellibranchs, occur, with which trilobites elsewhere are usually
+associated in the Cambrian and later geological systems. The absence,
+or possibly the rarity of the trilobites appears to have special
+significance in view of their prominence among Cambrian fossils. The
+uniformity of conditions attending the depositions of the Etchemenian
+terrane throughout the Atlantic coast province of the Cambrian is
+spoken of as surprising and as pointing to a quiescent period of long
+continuance, during which the <i>Hyolithidæ</i> and <i>Capulidæ</i> developed
+so as to become the dominant types of the animal world, while the
+brachiopods, the lamellibranchs, and the other gastropods still were
+puny and insignificant. Mr. Matthew last year examined the red shales
+at Braintree, Mass., and was informed by Prof. W. O. Crosby that
+they included many of the types specified as characteristic of the
+Etchemenian fauna, and that no trilobites had with certainty been
+obtained from them. The conditions of their deposition closely resemble
+those of the Etchemenian of Newfoundland.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>The Paris Exposition, 1900, and Congresses.</b>&mdash;The grounds of
+the Paris Exposition of 1900 extend from the southwest angle of the
+Place de la Concorde along both banks of the Seine, nearly a mile and
+a half, to the Avenue de Suffren, which forms the western boundary
+of the Champ de Mars. The principal exhibition spaces are the Park
+of the Art palaces and the Esplanade des Invalides at the east, and
+the Champ de Mars and the Trocadéro at the west. Many entrances and
+exits will be provided, but the principal and most imposing one will
+be erected at the Place de la Concorde, in the form of a triumphal
+arch. Railways will be provided to bring visitors from the city to
+the grounds, and another railway will make their entire circuit. The
+total surface occupied by the exposition grounds is three hundred and
+thirty-six acres, while that of the exposition of 1889 was two hundred
+and forty acres. Another area has been secured in the Park of Vincennes
+for the exhibition of athletic games, sports, etc. The displays will
+be installed for the most part by groups instead of nations. The
+International Congress of Prehistoric Anthropology and Archæology
+will be held in connection with the exposition, August 20th to August
+25th. The arrangements for it are under the charge of a committee that
+includes the masters and leading representatives of the science in
+France, of which M. le Dr. Verneau, 148 Rue Broca, Paris, is secretary
+general. A congress of persons interested in aërial navigation will be
+held in the Observatory of Meudon, the director of which, M. Janssen,
+is president of the Organizing Committee. Correspondence respecting
+this congress should be addressed to the secretary general, M.
+Triboulet, Director de Journal l'Aeronaute, 10 Rue de la Pepinière,
+Paris.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>English Plant Names.</b>&mdash;Common English and American names of
+plants are treated by Britton and Brown, in their Illustrated Flora
+of the Northern United States, Canada, and the British possessions,
+as full of interest from their origin, history, and significance.
+As observed in Britton and Holland's Dictionary, "they are derived
+from a variety of languages, often carrying us back to the early
+days of our country's history and to the various peoples who, as
+conquerors or colonists, have landed on our shores and left an
+impress on our language. Many of these Old-World words are full of
+poetical association, speaking to us of the thoughts and feelings of
+the Old-World people who invented them; others tell of the ancient
+mythology of our ancestors, of strange old mediæval usages, and of
+superstitions now almost forgotten."<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span> Most of these names, Britton
+and Brown continue in the preface to the third volume of their work,
+suggest their own explanation. "The greater number are either derived
+from the supposed uses, qualities, or properties of the plants; many
+refer to their habitat, appearance, or resemblance, real or fancied,
+to other things; others come from poetical suggestion, affection, or
+association with saints or persons. Many are very graphic, as the
+Western name prairie fire (<i>Castillea coccinea</i>); many are quaint or
+humorous, as cling rascal (<i>Galium sparine</i>) or wait-a-bit (<i>Smilax
+rotundifolia</i>); and in some the corruptions are amusing, as Aunt
+Jerichos (New England) for <i>Angelica</i>. The words horse, ox, dog, bull,
+snake, toad, are often used to denote size, coarseness, worthlessness,
+or aversion. Devil or devil's is used as a prefix for upward of forty
+of our plants, mostly expressive of dislike or of some traditional
+resemblance or association. A number of names have been contributed
+by the Indians, such as chinquapin, wicopy, pipsissewa, wankapin,
+etc., while the term Indian, evidently a favorite, is applied as a
+descriptive prefix to upward of eighty different plants." There should
+be no antagonism in the use of scientific and popular names, since
+their purposes are quite different. The scientific names are necessary
+to students for accuracy, "but the vernacular names are a part of the
+development of the language of each people. Though these names are
+sometimes indicative of specific characters and hence scientifically
+valuable, they are for the most part not at all scientific, but
+utilitarian, emotional, or picturesque. As such they are invaluable not
+for science, but for the common intelligence and the appreciation and
+enjoyment of the plant world."</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Educated Colored Labor.</b>&mdash;In a paper published in connection
+with the Proceedings of the Trustees of the John F. Slater Fund, Mr.
+Booker T. Washington describes his efforts, made at the suggestion of
+the trustees, to bring the work done at the Tuskegee school to the
+knowledge of the white people of the South, and their success. Mr.
+Carver, instructor in agriculture, went before the Alabama Legislature
+and gave an exhibition of his methods and results before the Committee
+on Agriculture. The displays of butter and other farm products proved
+so interesting that many members of the Legislature and other citizens
+inspected the exhibit, and all expressed their gratification. A full
+description of the work in agriculture was published in the Southern
+papers: "The result is that the white people are constantly applying
+to us for persons to take charge of farms, dairies, etc., and in many
+ways showing that their interest in our work is growing in proportion
+as they see the value of it." A visit made by the President of the
+United States gave an opportunity of assembling within the institution
+five members of the Cabinet with their families, the Governor of
+Alabama, both branches of the Alabama Legislature, and thousands of
+white and colored people from all parts of the South. "The occasion
+was most helpful in bringing together the two sections of our country
+and the two races. No people in any part of the world could have acted
+more generously and shown a deeper interest in this school than did
+the white people of Tuskegee and Macon County during the visit of the
+President."</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Geology of Columbus, Ohio.</b>&mdash;In his paper, read at the meeting
+of the American Association, on the geology of Ohio, Dr. Orton spoke
+of the construction of glacial drifts as found in central Ohio and the
+source of the material of the drift, showing that the bowlder clay
+is largely derived from the comminution of black slake, the remnants
+of which appear in North Columbus. He spoke also of the bowlders
+scattered over the surface of the region about Columbus, the parent
+rocks of which may be traced to the shores of the northern lakes, and
+of Jasper's conglomerate, picturesque fragments of which may be found
+throughout central Ohio. Some of these bowlders are known to have come
+from Lake Ontario. Bowlders of native copper also occur, one of which
+was found eight feet below the surface in excavations carried on for
+the foundations of the asylum west of the Scioto.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Civilized and Savage.</b>&mdash;Professor Semon, in his book In the
+Australian Bush, characterizes the treatment of the natives by the
+settlers as constituting,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span> on the whole, one of the darkest chapters
+in the colonization of Australia. "Everywhere and always we find the
+same process: the whites arrive and settle in the hunting grounds of
+the blacks, who have frequented them since the remotest time. They
+raise paddocks, which the blacks are forbidden to enter. They breed
+cattle, which the blacks are not allowed to approach. Then it happens
+that these stupid savages do not know how to distinguish between a
+marsupial and a placental animal, and spear a calf or a cow instead
+of a kangaroo, and the white man takes revenge for this misdeed by
+systematically killing all the blacks that come before his gun. This,
+again, the natives take amiss, and throw a spear into his back when he
+rides through the bush, or invade his house when he is absent, killing
+his family and servants. Then arrive the 'native police,' a troop of
+blacks from another district, headed by a white officer. They know the
+tricks of their race, and take a special pleasure in hunting down their
+own countrymen, and they avenge the farmer's dead by killing all the
+blacks in the neighborhood, sometimes also their women and children.
+This is the almost typical progress of colonization, and even though
+such things are abolished in the southeastern colonies and in southeast
+and central Queensland, they are by no means unheard of in the north
+and west."</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p class="ph2"><a name="MINOR_PARAGRAPHS" id="MINOR_PARAGRAPHS">MINOR PARAGRAPHS.</a></p>
+
+
+<p>In a brood of five nestling sparrow-hawks, which he had the opportunity
+of studying alive and dead, Dr. R. W. Shufeldt remarked that the
+largest and therefore oldest bird was nearly double the size of the
+youngest or smallest one, while the three others were graduated down
+from the largest to the smallest in almost exact proportions." It was
+evident, then, that the female had laid the eggs at regular intervals,
+and very likely three or four days apart, and that incubation commenced
+immediately after the first egg was deposited. What is more worthy
+of note, however, is the fact that the sexes of these nestlings
+alternated, the oldest bird being a male, the next a female, followed
+by another male, and so on, the last or youngest one of all five being
+a male. This last had a plumage of pure white down, with the pin
+feathers of the primaries and secondaries of the wings, as well as the
+rectrices of the tail, just beginning to open at their extremities.
+From this stage gradual development of the plumage is exhibited
+throughout the series, the entire plumage of the males and females
+being very different and distinctive." If it be true, as is possibly
+indicated, that the sexes alternate in broods of young sparrow-hawks as
+a regular thing, the author has no explanation for the fact, and has
+never heard of any being offered.</p>
+
+
+<p>Architecture and Building gives the following interesting facts
+regarding the building trades in Chicago: "Reports from Chicago are
+that labor in building lines is scarce. The scarcity of men is giving
+the building trades council trouble to meet the requirements of
+contractors. It is said that half a dozen jobs that are ready to go
+ahead are at a standstill because men can not be had, particularly
+iron workers and laborers&mdash;the employees first to be employed in
+the construction of the modern building. It is also said that wages
+have never been better in the building line. The following is the
+schedule of wages, based on an eight-hour day: Carpenters, $3.40;
+electricians, $3.75; bridge and structural iron workers, $3.60; tin and
+sheet-iron workers, $3.20; plumbers, $4; steam fitters, $3.75; elevator
+constructors, $3; hoisting engineers, $4; derrick men, $2; gas-fitters,
+$3.75; plasterers, $4; marble cutters, $3.50; gravel roofers, $2.80;
+boiler-makers, $2.40; stone sawyers and rubbers, $3; marble enamel
+glassworkers' helpers, $2.25; slate and tile roofers, $3.80; marble
+setters' helpers, $2; steam-fitters' helpers, $2; stone cutters, $4;
+stone carvers, $5; bricklayers, $4; painters, $3; hod carriers and
+building laborers, $2; plasterers' hod carriers, $2.40; mosaic and
+encaustic tile layers, $4; helpers, $2.40."</p>
+
+
+<p>In presenting the fourth part of his memoir on The Tertiary Fauna
+of Florida (Transactions of the Wagner Free Institute of Science,
+Philadelphia), Mr. William Healey Dall observes that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> interest
+aroused in the explorations of Florida by the Wagner Institute and its
+friends and by the United States Geological Survey has resulted in
+bringing in a constantly increasing mass of material. The existence of
+Upper Oligocene beds in western Florida containing hundreds of species,
+many of which were new, added two populous faunas to the Tertiary
+series. It having been found that a number of the species belonging to
+these beds had been described from the Antillean tertiaries, it became
+necessary, in order to put the work on a sound foundation, besides the
+review of the species known to occur in the United States, to extend
+the revision to the tertiaries of the West Indies. It is believed that
+the results will be beneficial in clearing the way for subsequent
+students and putting the nomenclature on a more permanent and reliable
+basis.</p>
+
+
+<p>The numerical system of the natives of Murray Island, Torres Strait, is
+described by the Rev. A. E. Hunt, in the Journal of the Anthropological
+Society, as based on two numbers&mdash;<i>netat</i>, one, and <i>neis</i>, two. The
+numbers above two are expressed by composition&mdash;<i>neis-netat</i>, three;
+<i>neis i neis</i>, or two and two, four. Numbers above four are associated
+with parts of the body, beginning with the little and other fingers
+of the left hand, and going on to the wrist, elbow, armpit, shoulder,
+etc., on the left side and going down on the right side, to 21; and the
+toes give ten numbers more, to 31. Larger numbers are simply "many."</p>
+
+
+<p>President William Orton, of the American Association, in his address at
+the welcoming meeting, showed, in the light of the facts recorded in
+Alfred R. Wallace's book on The Wonderful Century, that the scientific
+achievements of the present century exceed all those of the past
+combined. He then turned to the purpose of the American Association to
+labor for the discovery of new truth, and said: "It is possible that
+we could make ourselves more interesting to the general public if we
+occasionally foreswore our loyalty to our name and spent a portion of
+our time in restating established truths. Our contributions to the
+advancement of science are often fragmentary and devoid of special
+interest to the outside world. But every one of them has a place in
+the great temple of knowledge, and the wise master builders, some of
+whom appear in every generation, will find them all and use them all at
+last, and then only will their true value come to light."</p>
+
+
+<p class="center">NOTES.</p>
+
+<p>The number of broods of seventeen-year and thirteen-year locusts has
+become embarrassing to those who seek to distinguish them, and the
+trouble is complicated by the various designations different authors
+have given them. The usual method is to give the brood a number in a
+series, written with a Roman numeral. Mr. C. L. Marlatt proposes a
+regular and uniform nomenclature, giving the first seventeen numbers to
+the seventeen-year broods, beginning with that of 1893 as number I, and
+the next thirteen numbers (XVIII to XXX) to the thirteen-year broods,
+beginning with the brood of 1842 and 1855 as number XVIII.</p>
+
+
+<p>Experimenting on the adaptability of carbonic acid to the inflation of
+pneumatic tires, M. d'Arsonval, of Paris, has found that the gas acts
+upon India rubber, and, swelling its volume out enormously, reduces it
+to a condition like that following maceration in petroleum. On exposure
+to the air the carbonic acid passes away and the India rubber returns
+to its normal condition. Carbonic acid, therefore, does not seem well
+adapted to use in inflation. Oxygen is likewise not adapted, because it
+permeates the India rubber and oxidizes it, but nitrogen is quite inert
+and answers the purpose admirably.</p>
+
+
+<p>Mr. Gifford Pinchot, Forester of the Department of Agriculture, has
+announced that a few well-qualified persons will be received in the
+Division of Forestry as student-assistants. They will be assigned to
+practical field work, and will be allowed their expenses and three
+hundred dollars a year. They are expected to possess, when they come,
+a certain degree of knowledge, which is defined in Mr. Pinchot's
+announcement, of botany, geology, and other sciences, with good general
+attainments.</p>
+
+
+<p>In a communication made to the general meeting of the French Automobile
+Club, in May, the Baron de Zeylen enumerates 600 manufacturers in
+France who have produced 5,250 motor-carriages and about 10,000
+motor-cycles; 110 makers in England, 80 in Germany, 60 in the United
+States, 55 in Belgium, 25 in Switzerland, and about 30 in the other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span>
+states of Europe. The manufacture outside of France does not appear
+to be on a large scale, for only three hundred carriages are credited
+to other countries, and half of these to Belgium. The United States,
+however, promises to give a good account of itself next time.</p>
+
+
+<p>Mine No. 8 of the Sunday Creek Coal Company, to which the American
+Association made its Saturday excursion from Columbus, Ohio, has
+recently been equipped with electric power, which is obtained by
+utilizing the waste gas from the oil wells in the vicinity. This, the
+Ohio State Journal says, is the first mine in the State to make use of
+this natural power.</p>
+
+
+<p>In a bulletin relating to a "dilution cream separator" which is now
+marketed among farmers, the Purdue University Agricultural Experiment
+Station refers to the results of experiments made several years ago as
+showing that an increased loss of fat occurs in skim milk when dilution
+is practiced, that the loss is greater with cold than with warm water,
+and that the value of the skim milk for feeding is impaired when it
+is diluted. Similar results have been obtained at other experiment
+stations. The results claimed to be realized with the separators can be
+obtained by diluting the milk in a comparatively inexpensive round can.</p>
+
+
+<p>To our death list of men known in science we have to add the names
+of John Cordreaux, an English ornithologist, who was eminent as a
+student, for thirty-six years, of bird migrations, and was secretary
+of the British Association's committee on that subject, at Great
+Cotes House, Lincolnshire, England, August 1st, in his sixty-ninth
+year; he was author of a book on the Birds of the Humber District,
+and of numerous contributions to The Zoölogist and The Ibis; Gaston
+Tissandier, founder, and editor for more than twenty years, of the
+French scientific journal <i>La Nature</i>, at Paris, August 30th, in
+his fifty-seventh year; besides his devotion to his journal, he was
+greatly interested in aërial navigation, to which he devoted much
+time and means in experiments, and was a versatile author of popular
+books touching various departments of science; Judge Charles P. Daly,
+of New York, who, as president for thirty-six years of the American
+Geographical Society, contributed very largely to the encouragement
+and progress of geographical study in the United States, September
+19th, in his eighty-fourth year; he was an honorary member of the Royal
+Geographical Society of London, of the Berlin Geographical Society,
+and of the Imperial Geographical Society of Russia; he was a judge of
+the Court of Common Pleas of New York from 1844 to 1858, and after
+that chief justice of the same court continuously for twenty-seven
+years, and was besides, a publicist of high reputation, whose opinion
+and advice were sought by men charged with responsibility concerning
+them on many important State and national questions; Henri Lévègne de
+Vilmorin, first vice-president of the Paris School of Horticulture;
+O. G. Jones, Physics Master of the City of London School, from an
+accident on the Dent Blanche, Alps, August 30th; Ambrose A. P. Stewart,
+formerly instructor in chemistry in the Lawrence Scientific School, and
+afterward Professor of Chemistry in the Pennsylvania State College and
+in the University of Illinois, at Lincoln, Neb., September 13th; Dr.
+Charles Fayette Taylor, founder of the New York Orthopedic Dispensary,
+and author of articles in the Popular Science Monthly on Bodily
+Conditions as related to Mental States (vol. xv), Gofio, Food, and
+Physique (vol. xxxi), and Climate and Health (vol. xlvii), and of books
+relating to his special vocation, died in Los Angeles, Cal., January
+25th, in his seventy-second year.</p>
+
+
+<p>Efforts are making for the formation of a Soppitt Memorial Library of
+Mycological Literature, to be presented to the Yorkshire (England)
+Naturalists' Union as a memorial of the services rendered to
+mycological science and to Yorkshire natural history generally, by the
+late Mr. H. T. Soppitt.</p>
+
+
+<p>The United States Department of Agriculture has published, for general
+information and in order to develop a wider interest in the subject,
+the History and Present Status of Instruction in Cooking in the
+Public Schools of New York City, by Mrs. Louise E. Hogan, to which an
+introduction is furnished by A. C. True, Ph. D.</p>
+
+
+<p>The United States Weather Bureau publishes a paper On Lightning and
+Electricity in the Air, by Alexander G. McAdie, representing the
+present knowledge on the subject, and, as supplementary to it or
+forming a second part, Loss of Life and Property by Electricity, by
+Alfred J. Henry.</p>
+
+
+<p>A gift of one thousand dollars has been made to the research fund of
+the American Association for the Advancement of Science by Mr. Emerson
+McMillin, of New York.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p class="ph4">FOOTNOTES</p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Dodd, Mead &amp; Co., New York, 1899.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> A paper read before Section F of the American Association
+for the Advancement of Science at the Columbus meeting in August, 1899.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> When the word "bite" is used in connection with these
+bugs, it must be remembered that it is really a puncture made with the
+sharp beak or proboscis (see illustration).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of
+Philadelphia, vol. vii, p. 404, 1854-'55.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of
+Philadelphia, vol. vii, p. 404 1854-'55.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> A report, published in Nature, from Major Ronald Ross to
+the Secretary to the Director General, Indian Medical Service, Simla.
+Dated Calcutta, February 16, 1899.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> Dr. A. Tripier. Assainissement des Théâtres, Ventilation,
+Éclairage et Chauffage.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> The reader will find the subject discussed and illustrated
+in the author's work, Sanitary Engineering of Buildings, vol. i, 1899.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> See the author's work, Theater Fires and Panics, 1895.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> The Growth of Cities in the Nineteenth Century. A Study
+in Statistics. By Adna Ferrln Weber. (Columbia University Studies In
+History, Economics, and Public Law.) New York: Published for Columbia
+University by the Macmillan Company. Pp. 495. Price, $3.50.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Mineral Waters of the United States and their Therapeutic
+Uses, with an Account of the Various Mineral Spring Localities, their
+Advantages as Health Resorts, Means of Access, etc.; to which is
+added an Appendix on Potable Waters. By James K. Crook. New York and
+Philadelphia: Lea Brothers &amp; Co. Pp. 588. Price, $3.50.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Every-Day Butterflies. A Group of Biographies. By Samuel
+Hubbard Scudder. Boston and New York: Houghton, Mifflin &amp; Co. Pp. 386.
+Price. $2.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> L'Audition et ses Organes. By Dr. M. E. Gellé. Paris:
+Félix Alcan (Bibliothèque Scientifique). Pp. 326. Price, six francs.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> A History of the American Nation. By Andrew C.
+McLaughlin. New York: D. Appleton and Company. Pp. 587. Price, $1.40.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> The Elements of Practical Astronomy. By W. W. Campbell.
+Second edition, revised and enlarged. New York: The Macmillan Company.
+Pp. 264. Price, $2.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> The Characters of Crystals. An Introduction to Physical
+Crystallography. By Alfred J. Moses. New York: D. Van Nostrand Company.
+Pp. 211. Price, $2.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> Minerals in Rock Sections; the Practical Method of
+identifying Minerals in Rock Sections with the Microscope. Especially
+arranged for Students in Scientific Schools. By Lea McIlvaine Luquer.
+New York: D. Van Nostrand Company. Pp. 117.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> Elements of Trigonometry, with Tables. By Herbert C.
+Whitaker. Philadelphia: Eldredge &amp; Brother. Pp. 200.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> California Plants in their Homes. By Alice Merritt
+Davidson. Los Angeles, Cal.: B .R. Baumgardt &amp; Co. Pp. 215-133.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> Plant Relations. A First Book of Botany. By John M.
+Coulter. New York: D. Appleton and Company. (Twentieth Century Text
+Books.) Pp. 264. Price, $1.10.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> The Wilderness of Worlds. A Popular Sketch of the
+Evolution of Matter from Nebula to Man and Return. The Life-Orbit of a
+Star. By George W. Morehouse. New York: Peter Eckler. Pp. 246. Price,
+$1.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> The Living Organism. By Alfred Earl, M. A. New York: The
+Macmillan Company. Pp. 271. Price, $1.75.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> Stars and Telescopes A Handbook of Popular Astronomy.
+Boston: Little, Brown &amp; Co. Pp. 419. Price, $2.</p></div></div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ph4">Transcriber's note:</p>
+
+<p class="center">The transcriber added a Table of Contents to help with navigation.</p>
+
+<p class="center">The scale shown below images in the original, is no longer accurate.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Appletons' Popular Science Monthly,
+November 1899, by Various
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK APPLETONS' POPULAR SCIENCE, NOV. 1899 ***
+
+***** This file should be named 44725-h.htm or 44725-h.zip *****
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+</body>
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@@ -0,0 +1,7153 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Appletons' Popular Science Monthly,
+November 1899, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Appletons' Popular Science Monthly, November 1899
+       Volume LVI, No. 1
+
+Author: Various
+
+Editor: William Jay Youmans
+
+Release Date: January 22, 2014 [EBook #44725]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK APPLETONS' POPULAR SCIENCE, NOV. 1899 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Greg Bergquist and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Established by Edward L. Youmans
+
+APPLETONS' POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY
+
+EDITED BY WILLIAM JAY YOUMANS
+
+VOL. LVI NOVEMBER, 1899, TO APRIL, 1900
+
+NEW YORK D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 1900
+
+
+
+
+COPYRIGHT, 1900, BY D. APPLETON AND COMPANY.
+
+[Illustration: GEORGE M. STERNBERG.]
+
+
+
+
+APPLETONS' POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.
+
+NOVEMBER, 1899.
+
+
+
+
+THE REAL PROBLEMS OF DEMOCRACY.
+
+BY FRANKLIN SMITH.
+
+
+Much has been written of late about "the real problems of democracy."
+According to some "thinkers," they consist of the invention of
+ingenious devices to prevent caucus frauds and the purchase of votes,
+to check the passage of special laws as well as too many laws, and
+to infuse into decent people an ardent desire to participate in
+the wrangles of politics. According to others, they consist of the
+invention of equally ingenious devices to compel corporations to manage
+their business in accordance with Christian principles, to transform
+the so-called natural monopolies into either State or municipal
+monopolies, and to effect, by means of the power of taxation, a more
+equitable distribution of wealth. According to still others, they
+consist of the invention of no less ingenious devices to force people
+to be temperate, to observe humanity toward children and animals, and
+to read and study what will make them model citizens. It is innocently
+and touchingly believed that with the solution of these problems, by
+the application of the authority that society has over the individual,
+"the social conscience" will be awakened. But such a belief can not
+be realized. It has its origin in a conception of democracy that has
+no foundation either in history or science. What are supposed to be
+the real problems of democracy are only the problems of despotism--the
+problems to which every tyrant from time immemorial has addressed
+himself, to the moral and industrial ruin of his subjects.
+
+If democracy be conceived not as a form of political government under
+the _regime_ of universal suffrage, but as a condition of freedom under
+moral control, permitting every man to do as he likes, so long as he
+does not trench upon the equal right of every other man, deliverance
+from the sophistries and absurdities of current social and political
+discussion becomes easy and inevitable. Its real problems cease to
+be an endless succession of political devices that stimulate cunning
+and evasion, and countless encroachments upon individual freedom that
+stir up contention and ill feeling. Instead of being innumerable and
+complex, defying the solvent power of the greatest intellects and the
+efforts of the most enthusiastic philanthropists, they become few and
+simple. While their proper solution is beset with difficulties, these
+difficulties are not as hopeless as the framing of a statute to produce
+a growth of virtue in a depraved heart. Indeed, no such task has ever
+been accomplished, and every effort in that direction has been worse
+than futile. It has encouraged the growth of all the savage traits that
+ages of conflict have stamped so profoundly in the nervous system of
+the race. But let it be understood that the real problems of democracy
+are the problems of self-support and self-control, the problems that
+appeared with the appearance of human life, and that their sole
+solution is to be found in the application of precisely the same
+methods with which Nature disciplines the meanest of her creatures,
+then we may expect a measure of success from the efforts of social
+and political reformers; for freedom of thought and action, coupled
+with the punishment that comes from a failure to comply with the laws
+of life and the conditions of existence, creates an internal control
+far more potent than any law. It impels men to depend upon their own
+efforts to gain a livelihood; it inspires them with a respect for the
+right of others to do the same.
+
+Simple and commonplace as the traits of self-support and self-control
+may seem, they are of transcendent importance. Every other trait sinks
+into insignificance. The society whose members have learned to care for
+themselves and to control themselves has no further moral or economic
+conquests to make. It will be in the happy condition dreamed of by all
+poets, philosophers, and philanthropists. There will be no destitution,
+for each person, being able to maintain himself and his family, will
+have no occasion, except in a case of a sudden and an unforeseen
+misfortune, to look to his friends and neighbors for aid. But in thus
+maintaining himself--that is, in pursuing the occupation best adapted
+to his ability and most congenial to his taste--he will contribute
+in the largest degree to the happiness of the other members of the
+community. While they are pursuing the occupations best adapted to
+their ability and most congenial to their tastes, they will be able to
+obtain from him, as he will be able to obtain from them, those things
+that both need to supplement the products of their own industry. Since
+each will be left in full possession of all the fruits of his own toil,
+he will be at liberty to make just such use of them as will contribute
+most to his happiness, thus permitting the realization, in the only
+practicable way, of Bentham's principle of "the greatest happiness
+of the greatest number." Since all of them will be free to make such
+contracts as they believe will be most advantageous to them, exchanging
+what they are willing to part with for what some one else is willing
+to give in return, there will prevail the only equitable distribution
+of the returns from labor and capital. No one will receive more and no
+one less than he is entitled to. Thus will benefit be in proportion to
+merit, and the most scrupulous justice be satisfied.
+
+But this _regime_ of equity in the distribution of property implies, as
+I have already said, the possession of a high degree of self-control.
+Not only must all persons have such a keen sense of their own rights
+as will never permit them to submit to infringement, but they must
+have such a keen sense of the rights of others that they will not be
+guilty themselves of infringement. Not only will they refrain from the
+commission of those acts of aggression whose ill effects are immediate
+and obvious; they will refrain from those acts whose ill effects are
+remote and obscure. Although they will not, for example, deceive or
+steal or commit personal assaults, they will not urge the adoption of
+a policy that will injure the unknown members of other communities,
+like the Welsh tin-plate makers and the Vienna pearl-button makers that
+the McKinley Bill deprived of employment. Realizing the vice of the
+plea of the opponents of international copyright that cheap literature
+for a people is better than scrupulous honesty, they will not refuse
+to foreign authors the same protection to property that they demand.
+They will not, finally, allow themselves to take by compulsion or by
+persuasion the property of neighbors to be used to alleviate suffering
+or to disseminate knowledge in a way to weaken the moral and physical
+strength of their fellows. But the possession of a sense of justice
+so scrupulous assumes the possession of a fellow-feeling so vivid
+that it will allow no man to refuse all needful aid to the victims of
+misfortune. As suffering to others will mean suffering to himself,
+he will be as powerfully moved to go to their rescue as he would to
+protect himself against the same misfortune. Indeed, he will be moved,
+as all others will be moved, to undertake without compulsion all the
+benevolent work, be it charitable or educational, that may be necessary
+to aid those persons less fortunate than himself to obtain the greatest
+possible satisfaction out of life.
+
+But the methods of social reform now in greatest vogue do not
+contribute to the realization of any such millennium. They are a
+flagrant violation of the laws of life and the conditions of existence.
+They make difficult, if not impossible, the establishment of the moral
+government of a democracy that insures every man and woman not only
+freedom but also sustentation and protection. In disregard of the
+principles of biology, which demand that benefit shall be in proportion
+to merit, the feeble members of society are fostered at the expense
+of the strong. Setting at defiance the principles of psychology,
+which insist upon the cultivation of the clearest perception of the
+inseparable relation of cause and effect and the equally inseparable
+relation of aggression and punishment, honest people are turned into
+thieves and murderers, and thieves and murderers are taught to believe
+that no retribution awaits the commission of the foulest crime.
+Scornful of the principles of sociology, which teach in the plainest
+way that the institutions of feudalism are the products of war and can
+serve no other purpose than the promotion of aggression, a deliberate
+effort, born of the astonishing belief that they can be transformed
+into the agencies of progress, is made in time of peace to restore them
+to life.
+
+To the American Philistine nothing is more indicative of the marvelous
+moral superiority of this age and country than the rapid increase
+in the public expenditures for enterprises "to benefit the people."
+Particularly enamored is he of the showy statistics of hospitals,
+asylums, reformatories, and other so-called charitable institutions
+supported by public taxation. "How unselfish we are!" he exclaims,
+swelling with pride as he points to them. "In what other age or in what
+other country has so much been done for the poor and unfortunate?"
+Naught shall ever be said by me against the desire to help others.
+The fellow-feeling that thrives upon the aid rendered to the sick and
+destitute I believe to be the most precious gift of civilization.
+Upon its growth depends the further moral advancement of the race. As
+I have already intimated, only as human beings are able to represent
+to themselves vividly the sufferings of others will they be moved to
+desist from the conduct that contributes to those sufferings. But the
+system of public charity that prevails in this country is not charity
+at all; it is a system of forcible public largesses, as odious and
+demoralizing as the one that contributed so powerfully to the downfall
+of Athens and Rome. By it money is extorted from the taxpayer with as
+little justification as the crime of the highwayman, and expended by
+politicians with as little love as he of their fellows. What is the
+result? Precisely what might be expected. He is infuriated because of
+the growing burden of his taxes. Instead of being made more humane and
+sympathetic with every dollar he gives under compulsion to the poor and
+suffering, he becomes more hard-hearted and bitter toward his fellows.
+The notion that society, as organized at present, is reducing him to
+poverty and degradation takes possession of him. He becomes an agitator
+for violent reforms that will only render his condition worse. At the
+same time the people he aids come to regard him simply as a person
+under obligations to care for them. They feel no more gratitude toward
+him than the wolf toward the victim of its hunger and ferocity.
+
+Akin to public charity are all those public enterprises undertaken to
+ameliorate the condition of the poor--parks, model tenement houses, art
+galleries, free concerts, free baths, and relief works of all kinds. To
+these I must add all those Federal, State, and municipal enterprises,
+such as the post office with the proposed savings attachment, a State
+system of highways and waterways, municipal water, gas and electric
+works, etc., that are supposed to be of inestimable advantage to the
+same worthy class. These likewise fill the heart of the American
+Philistine with immense satisfaction. Although he finds, by his study
+of pleasing romances on municipal government in Europe, that we have
+yet to take some further steps before we fall as completely as the
+inhabitants of Paris and Berlin into the hands of municipal despotism,
+he is convinced that we have made gratifying headway, and that the
+outlook for complete subjection to that despotism is encouraging. But
+it should be remembered that splendid public libraries and public
+baths, and extensive and expensive systems of highways and municipal
+improvements, built under a modified form of the old _corvee_, are
+no measure of the fellow-feeling and enlightenment of a community.
+On the contrary, they indicate a pitiful incapacity to appreciate
+the rights of others, and are, therefore, a measure rather of the
+low degree of civilization. It should be remembered also, especially
+by the impoverished victims of the delusions of the legislative
+philanthropist, that there is no expenditure that yields a smaller
+return in the long run than public expenditure; that however honest the
+belief that public officials will do their duty as conscientiously and
+efficiently as private individuals, history has yet to record the fact
+of any bureaucracy; that however profound the conviction that the cost
+of these "public blessings" comes out of the pockets of the rich and is
+on that account particularly justifiable, it comes largely out of the
+pockets of the poor; and that by the amount abstracted from the income
+of labor and capital by that amount is the sum divided between labor
+and capital reduced.
+
+"But," interposes the optimist, "have the Americans not their great
+public-school system, unrivaled in the world, to check and finally
+to end the evils that appear thus far to be inseparably connected
+with popular government? Is there any truth more firmly established
+than that it is the bulwark of American institutions, and that if we
+maintain it as it should be maintained they will be able to weather any
+storm that may threaten?" Precisely the same argument has been urged
+time out of mind in behalf of an ecclesiastical system supported at
+the expense of the taxpayer. Good men without number have believed,
+and have fought to maintain their belief, that only by the continuance
+of this form of aggression could society be saved from corruption and
+barbarism. Even in England to-day, where freedom and civilization
+have made their most brilliant conquests, this absurd contention
+is made to bolster up the rotten and tottering union of Church and
+state, and to justify the seizure of the property of taxpayers to
+support a particular form of ecclesiastical instruction. But no fact
+of history has received demonstrations more numerous and conclusive
+than that such instruction, whether Protestant or Catholic, Buddhist
+or Mohammedan, in the presence of the demoralizing forces of militant
+activities, is as impotent as the revolutions of the prayer wheel of
+a pious Hindu. To whatever country or people or age we may turn, we
+find that the spirit of the warrior tramples the spirit of the saint
+in the dust. Despite the lofty teachings of Socrates and Plato, the
+Athenians degenerated until the name of the Greek became synonymous
+with that of the blackest knave. With the noble examples and precepts
+of the Stoics in constant view, the Romans became beastlier than any
+beast. All through the middle ages and down to the present century
+the armies of ecclesiastics, the vast libraries of theology, and the
+myriads of homilies and prayers were impotent to prevent the social
+degradation that inundated the world with the outbreak of every great
+conflict. Take, for example, a page from the history of Spain. At the
+time of Philip II, who tried to make his people as rigid as monks, that
+country had no rival in its fanatical devotion to the Church, or its
+slavish observance of the forms of religion. Yet its moral as well as
+its intellectual and industrial life was sinking to the lowest level.
+Official corruption was rampant. The most shameless sexual laxity
+pervaded all ranks. The name of Spanish women, who had "in previous
+times been modest, almost austere and Oriental in their deportment,"
+became a byword and a reproach throughout the world. "The ladies are
+naturally shameless," says Camille Borghese, the Pope's delegate
+to Madrid in 1593, "and even in the streets go up and address men
+unknown to them, looking upon it as a kind of heresy to be properly
+introduced. They admit all sorts of men to their conversation, and
+are not in the least scandalized at the most improper proposals being
+made to them." To see how ecclesiastics themselves fall a prey to the
+ethics of militant activities, becoming as heartless and debauched as
+any other class, take a page from Italian history at the time of Pope
+Alexander VI. "Crimes grosser than Scythian," says a pious Catholic who
+visited Rome, "acts of treachery worse than Carthaginian, are committed
+without disguise in the Vatican itself under the eyes of the Pope.
+There are rapines, murders, incests, debaucheries, cruelties exceeding
+those of the Neros and Caligulas." Similar pages from the history of
+every other country in Europe given up to war, including Protestant
+England, might be quoted.
+
+But what is true of ecclesiastical effort in the presence of militant
+activities is true of pedagogic effort in the presence of political
+activities. For more than half a century the public-school system
+in its existing form has been in full and energetic operation. The
+money devoted to it every year now reaches the enormous total of one
+hundred and eighty million dollars. Simultaneously an unprecedented
+extension of secondary education has occurred. Since the war, colleges
+and universities, supported in whole or in part at the public expense,
+have been established in more than half of the States and Territories
+of the Union. To these must be added the phenomenal growth of normal
+schools, high schools, and academies, and of the equipment of the
+educational institutions already in existence. Yet, as a result, are
+the American people more moral than they were half a century ago? Have
+American institutions--that is, the institutions based upon the freedom
+of the individual--been made more secure? I venture to answer both
+questions with an emphatic negative. The construction and operation
+of the greatest machine of pedagogy recorded in history has been
+absolutely impotent to stem the rising tide of political corruption
+and social degeneration. If there are skeptics that doubt the truth
+of this indictment let them study the criminal history of the day
+that records the annual commission of more than six thousand suicides
+and more than ten thousand homicides, and the embezzlement of more
+than eleven million dollars. Let them study the lying pleas of the
+commercial interests of the country that demand protection against "the
+pauper labor of Europe," and thus commit a shameless aggression upon
+the pauper labor of America. Let them study the records of the deeds
+of intolerance and violence committed upon workingmen that refuse to
+exchange their personal liberty for membership of a despotic labor
+organization. Let them study the columns of the newspapers, crowded
+with records of crime, salacious stories, and ignorant comment on
+current questions and events that appeal to a population as unlettered
+and base as themselves. Let them study, finally, the appalling
+indictment of American political life, in a State where the native
+blood still runs pure in the veins of the majority of the inhabitants,
+that Mr. John Wanamaker framed in a great speech at the opening of
+his memorable campaign in Lancaster against the most powerful and
+most corrupt despotism that can be found outside of Russia or Turkey.
+"In the fourth century of Rome, in the time of Emperor Theodosius,
+Hellebichus was master of the forces," he said, endeavoring to describe
+a condition of affairs that exists in a similar degree in every State
+in the Union, "and Caesarius was count of the offices. In the nineteenth
+century, M. S. Quay is count of the offices, and W. A. Andrews, Prince
+of Lexow, is master of forces in Pennsylvania, and we have to come
+through the iron age and the silver age to the worst of all ages--the
+degraded, evil age of conscienceless, debauched politics.... Profligacy
+and extravagance and boss rule everywhere oppress the people. By the
+multiplication of indictments your district attorney has multiplied
+his fees far beyond the joint salaries of both your judges. The
+administration of justice before the magistrates has degenerated
+into organized raids on the county treasury.... Voters are corruptly
+influenced or forcibly coerced to do the bidding of the bosses, and
+thus force the fetters of political vassalage on the freemen of the
+old guard. School directors, supervisors, and magistrates, and the
+whole machinery of local government, are involved and dominated by this
+accursed system."
+
+But Mr. Wanamaker might have added that the whole social and industrial
+life of the country is involved and dominated by the same system. It
+is a well-established law of social science that the evil effects
+of a dominant activity are not confined to the persons engaged
+in it. Like a contagion, they spread to every part of the social
+organization, and poison the life farthest removed from their origin.
+Yet the public-school system, so impotent to save us from social and
+political degradation and still such an object of unbounded pride and
+adulation, is, as Mr. Wanamaker, all unconscious of the implication of
+his scathing criticism, points out in so many words, an integral part
+of the vast and complex machinery that political despotism has seized
+upon to plunder and enslave the American people. As in the case of
+every other extension of the duties of government beyond the limits
+of the preservation of order and the enforcement of justice, it is an
+aggression upon the rights of the individual, and, as in the case of
+every other aggression, contributes powerfully to the decay of national
+character and free institutions. It adds thousands upon thousands to
+the constantly growing army of tax eaters that are impoverishing the
+people still striving against heavy odds to gain an honest livelihood.
+It places in the hands of the political despots now ruling the country,
+without the responsibility that the most odious monarchs have to bear,
+a revenue and an army of mercenaries that make more and more difficult
+emancipation from their shackles. It is doing more than anything else
+except the post-office department to teach people that there is no
+connection between merit and benefit; that they have the right to look
+to the State rather than to themselves for maintenance; that they
+are under no obligations to see that they do not take from others,
+in the form of salaries not earned nor intended to be earned, what
+does not belong to them. In the face of this wholesale destruction of
+fellow-feeling such as occurred in France under the old _regime_ and is
+occurring to-day in Italy and Spain, and the inculcation of the ethics
+of militant activities, such as may be observed in these countries as
+well as elsewhere in Europe, is it any wonder that the mind-stuffing
+that goes on in the public schools has no more effect upon the morals
+of the American people than the creeds and prayers of the mediaeval
+ecclesiastics that joined in wars and the spoliation of oppressed
+populations throughout Europe?
+
+Since the path that all people under popular government as well
+as under forms more despotic are pursuing so energetically and
+hopefully leads to the certain destruction of the foundations of
+civilization, what is the path that social science points out? What
+must they do to prevent the extinction of the priceless acquisition
+of fellow-feeling, now vanishing so rapidly before the most unselfish
+efforts to promote it? The supposition is that the social teachings
+of the philosophy of evolution have no answer to these questions.
+Believing that they inculcate the hideous _laissez-faire_ doctrine of
+"each for himself and the devil take the hindmost," so characteristic
+of human relations among all classes of people in this country, the
+victims of this supposition have repudiated them. But I propose to
+show that they are the only teachings that give the slightest promise
+of social amelioration. Although they are ignorantly stigmatized as
+individualistic, and therefore necessarily selfish and inconsiderate
+of the welfare of others, they are in reality socialistic in the best
+sense of the word--that is, they enjoin voluntary, not coercive,
+co-operation, and insure the noblest humanity and the most perfect
+civilization, moral as well as material, that can be attained.
+
+Why a society organized upon the individualistic instead of the
+socialistic basis will realize every achievement admits of easy
+explanation. A man dependent upon himself is forced by the struggle
+for existence to exercise every faculty he possesses or can possibly
+develop to save himself and his progeny from extinction. Under
+such pitiless and irresistible pressure he acquires the highest
+physical and intellectual strength. Thus equipped with weapons
+absolutely indispensable in any state of society, whether civilized
+or uncivilized, he is prepared for the conquest of the world. He
+gains also the physical and moral courage needful to cope with the
+difficulties that terrify and paralyze the people that have not been
+subjected to the same rigid discipline. Energetic and self-reliant, he
+assails them with no thought of failure. If, however, he meets with
+reverses, he renews the attack, and repeats it until success finally
+comes to reward his efforts. Such prolonged struggles give steadiness
+and solidity to his character that do not permit him to abandon himself
+to trifles or to yield easily, if at all, to excitement and panic. He
+never falls a victim to Reigns of Terror. The more trying the times,
+the more self-possessed, clear-headed, and capable of grappling with
+the situation he becomes, and soon rises superior to it. With every
+triumph over difficulties there never fails to come the joy that
+more than balances the pain and suffering endured. But the pain and
+suffering are as precious as the joy of triumph. Indelibly registered
+in the nervous system, they enable their victim to feel as others feel
+passing through the same experience, and this fellow-feeling prompts
+him to render them the assistance they may need. In this way be becomes
+a philanthropist. Possessed of the abundant means that the success of
+his enterprises has placed in his hands, he is in a position to help
+them to a degree not within the reach nor the desires of the member of
+the society organized upon the socialistic basis.
+
+In the briefest appeal to history may be found the amplest support
+for these deductions from the principles of social science. Wherever
+the individual has been given the largest freedom to do whatever he
+pleases, as long as he does not trench upon the equal freedom of
+others, there we witness all those achievements and discover all
+those traits that indicate an advanced state of social progress.
+The people are the most energetic, the most resourceful, the most
+prosperous, the most considerate and humane, the most anxious, and the
+most competent to care for their less fortunate fellows. On the other
+hand, wherever the individual has been most repressed, deterred by
+custom or legislation from making the most of himself in every way,
+there are to be observed social immobility or retrogression and all
+the hateful traits that belong to barbarians. The people are inert,
+slavish, cruel, and superstitious. In the ancient world one type
+of society is represented by the Egyptians and Assyrians, and the
+other by the Greeks and Romans. In the modern world all the Oriental
+peoples, particularly the Hindus and Chinese, represent the former, and
+the Occidental peoples, particularly the Anglo-Saxons, represent the
+latter. So superior, in fact, are the Anglo-Saxons because of their
+observance of the sacred and fruitful principle of individual freedom
+that they control the most desirable parts of the earth's surface. If
+not checked by the practice of a philosophy that has destroyed all
+the great peoples of antiquity and paralyzed their competitors in the
+establishment of colonies in the New as well as the Old World, there is
+no reason to doubt that the time will eventually come when, like the
+Romans, there will be no other rule than theirs in all the choicest
+parts of the globe.
+
+It is the immense material superiority of the Anglo-Saxon peoples
+over all other nations that first arrests attention. No people in
+Europe possess the capital or conduct the enterprises that the
+English and Americans do. They have more railroads, more steamships,
+more factories, more foundries, more warehouses, more of everything
+that requires wealth and energy than their rivals. Though the fact
+evokes the sneers of the Ruskins and Carlyles, these enterprises are
+the indispensable agents of civilization. They have done more for
+civilization, for the union of distant peoples, and the development of
+fellow-feeling--for all that makes life worth living--than all the art,
+literature, and theology ever produced. Without industry and commerce,
+which these devotees of "the higher life" never weary of deprecating,
+how would the inhabitants of the Italian republics have achieved the
+intellectual and artistic conquests that make them the admiration of
+every historian? The Stones of Venice could not have been written. The
+artists could not have lived that enabled Vassari to hand his name
+down to posterity. The new learning would have been a flower planted
+in a barren soil, and even before it had come to bud it would have
+fallen withered. May we not, therefore, expect that in like manner the
+wealth and freedom of the Anglo-Saxon race will bring forth fruits
+that shall not evoke scorn and contempt? Already their achievements
+in every field except painting, sculpture, and architecture eclipse
+those of their rivals. Not excepting the literature of the Greeks,
+is any so rich, varied, powerful, and voluminous as theirs? If they
+have no Caesar or Napoleon, they have a long list of men that have been
+of infinitely greater use to civilization than those two products of
+militant barbarism. If judged by practical results, they are without
+rivals in the work of education. By their inventions and their
+applications of the discoveries of science they have distanced all
+competitors in the race for industrial and commercial supremacy. In
+the work of philanthropy no people has done as much as they. The volume
+of their personal effort and pecuniary contributions to ameliorate
+the condition of the poor and unfortunate are without parallel in the
+annals of charity. Yet Professor Ely, echoing the opinion of Charles
+Booth and other misguided philanthropists, has the assurance to tell us
+that "individualism has broken down." It is the social philosophy that
+they are trying to thrust upon the world again that stands hopelessly
+condemned before the remorseless tribunal of universal experience.
+
+In the light thus obtained from science and history, the duty of the
+American people toward the current social and political philosophy
+and all the quack measures it proposes for the amelioration of the
+condition of the unfortunate becomes clear and urgent. It is to
+pursue without equivocation or deviation the policy of larger and
+larger freedom for the individual that has given the Anglo-Saxon his
+superiority and present dominance in the world. To this end they should
+oppose with all possible vigor every proposed extension of the duty
+of the state that does not look to the preservation of order and the
+enforcement of justice. Regarding it as an onslaught of the forces of
+barbarism, they should make no compromise with it; they should fight it
+until freedom has triumphed. The next duty is to conquer the freedom
+they still lack. Here the battle must be for the suppression of the
+system of protective tariffs, for the transfer to private enterprise
+and beneficence, the duties of the post office, the public schools, and
+all public charities, for the repeal of all laws in regulation of trade
+and industry as well as those in regulation of habits and morals. As
+an inspiration it should be remembered that the struggle is not only
+for freedom but for honesty. For the truth can not be too loudly or
+too often proclaimed that every law taking a dollar from a man without
+his consent, or regulating his conduct not in accordance with his own
+notions, but in accordance with those of his neighbors, contributes to
+the education of a people in idleness and crime. The next duty is to
+encourage on every hand an appeal to voluntary effort to accomplish
+all tasks too great for the strength of the individual. Whether those
+tasks be moral, industrial, or educational, voluntary co-operation
+alone should assume them and carry them to a successful issue. The
+government should have no more to do with them than it has to do with
+the cultivation of wheat or the management of Sunday schools or the
+suppression of backbiting. The last and final duty should be to cheapen
+and, as fast as possible, to establish gratuitous justice. With the
+great diminution of crime that would result from the observance of the
+duties already mentioned there would be much less occasion than now
+to appeal to the courts. But, whenever the occasion arises, it should
+involve no cost to the person that feels that his rights have been
+invaded.
+
+Thus will be solved indirectly all the problems of democracy that
+social and political reformers seek in vain to solve directly. With the
+diminution of the duties of the state to the preservation of order and
+the enforcement of justice will be effected a reform as important and
+far reaching as the suppression of chronic warfare. When politicians
+are deprived of the immense plunder now involved in political warfare,
+it will not be necessary to devise futile plans for caucus reform, or
+ballot reform, or convention reform, or charter reform, or legislative
+reform. Having no more incentive to engage in their nefarious business
+than the smugglers that the abolition of the infamous tariff laws
+banished from Europe, they will disappear among the crowd of honest
+toilers. The suppression of the robberies of the tax collectors and
+tax eaters, who have become so vast an army in the United States,
+will effect also a solution of all labor problems. A society that
+permits every toiler to work for whomsoever he pleases and for whatever
+he pleases, protecting him in the full enjoyment of all the fruits
+of his labor, has done for him everything that can be done. It has
+taught him self-support and self-control. In thus guaranteeing him
+freedom of contract and putting an end to the plunder of a bureaucracy
+and privileged classes of private individuals, the beneficiaries of
+special legislation, it has effected the only equitable distribution
+of property possible. At the same time it has accomplished a vastly
+greater work. As I have shown, the indispensable condition of success
+of all movements for moral reform is the suppression not only of
+militant strife, but of political strife. While they prevail, all
+ecclesiastical and pedagogic efforts to better the condition of society
+must fail. Despite lectures, despite sermons and prayers, despite also
+literature and art, the ethics controlling the conduct of men and women
+will be those of war. But with the abolition of both forms of militant
+strife it becomes an easy task to teach the ethics of peace, and to
+establish a state of society that requires no other government than
+that of conscience. All the forces of industrialism contribute to the
+work and insure its success.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+"This thirst for shooting every rare or unwonted kind of bird," says
+the author of an article in the London Saturday Review, "is accountable
+for the disappearance of many interesting forms of life in the British
+Islands."
+
+
+
+
+AN ENGLISH UNIVERSITY.
+
+BY HERBERT STOTESBURY.
+
+
+[Illustration: MICHAEL FOSTER, K. C. B., M. A., F. R. S., Trinity.
+Professor of Physiology.]
+
+Most minds in America, as in England, if they think about the
+subject at all, impute to the two ancient centers of Anglo-Saxon
+learning--Oxford and Cambridge--an unquestionable supremacy. A halo
+of greatness surrounds these august institutions, none the less real
+because to the American mind, at least, it is vague. Half the books
+students at other institutions require in their various courses have
+the names of eminent Cambridge or Oxford men upon the fly leaf.
+Michael Foster's Physiology, Sidgwick's Methods of Ethics, and Bryce's
+American Commonwealth are recognized text-books wherever the subjects
+of which they treat are studied; while Sir G. G. Stokes, Jebb, Lord
+Acton, Caird, Max Mueller, and Ray Lankester are as well known to
+students of Leland Stanford or Princeton as they are to Englishmen.
+One can scarcely read a work on English literature or open an English
+novel which does not make some reference to one or other of the great
+universities or their colleges, inseparably associated as they are
+with English life and history, past and present. Our oldest college
+owes its existence to John Harvard, of Emmanuel, Cambridge, and the
+name of the mother university still clings to her transatlantic
+offspring. The English institutions have become firmly associated in
+the vulgar mind with all that is dignified, venerable, and thorough in
+learning, but, beyond a vague sentiment of admiration, little adequate
+knowledge on the subject is abroad. American or German universities are
+organizations not very difficult to comprehend, and a vague knowledge
+of them is perhaps sufficient. The understanding, however, of those
+complicated academic communities, Oxford and Cambridge, is a matter of
+intimate experience. They differ widely from their sister institutions
+in other countries, and in attempting to give some conception of
+their peculiarities the writer proposes to restrict himself chiefly
+to Cambridge, because there are not very many striking differences
+between the latter and Oxford, and because the scientific supremacy
+of Cambridge is sufficiently established to render her an object of
+greater interest to the readers of the Science Monthly.
+
+[Illustration: The Right Hon. LORD ACTON, M. A., LL. D., Trinity.
+Professor of Modern History.]
+
+First of all, it must be borne in mind that throughout most of their
+history these institutions have been closely related, not to the body
+of the people, but to the aristocracy. This was not so much the case
+at first, before the university became an aggregate of colleges. Then
+a rather poor and humble class were enabled, through the small expense
+involved, to acquire the rudiments of an education, and even to become
+proficient in the scholastic dialectic. But ere long, and with the
+gradual endowment of different colleges, the expenses of a student
+became much greater, and, save where scholarships could be obtained,
+it required some affluence before parents could afford to give their
+sons an academic training. Hence, the more fortunate or aristocratic
+classes came in time to contribute the large majority of the student
+body. Those whose intellectual attainments were so unusual as to
+constitute ways and means have never been debarred, but impecunious
+mediocrity had and still has little place or opportunity. It is well to
+remember, in addition, that the Church fostered these universities in
+their infancy, that it deserves unqualified credit for having nursed
+them through their early months, and that it continues to have some
+considerable influence over the modern institutions. Finally, the
+growth of Cambridge and Oxford has largely been occasioned by lack of
+rivals in their own class. In this branch or that, other institutions
+have become deservedly famous. Edinburgh has a high reputation in
+moral science; Manchester is renowned for her physics, chemistry,
+and engineering; and London for her medical schools. But Oxford and
+Cambridge are strong in many branches. Financially powerful, they are
+able to attract the majority of promising and eminent men, whence has
+resulted that remarkable _coterie_ of unrivaled intellects through whom
+the above-named universities are chiefly known to the outer and foreign
+world. This characteristic has its opposite illustrated in the United
+States, where the tendency is centrifugal, no one or two universities
+or colleges having advantages so decided as inevitably to attract most
+of the best minds, and where, in consequence, the best minds are found
+scattered from California to Harvard and Pennsylvania.
+
+[Illustration: J. J. THOMSON, M. A., F. R. S., Trinity. Professor of
+Experimental Physics.]
+
+The characteristic peculiar to Cambridge and Oxford, and which
+distinguishes them not only from American but also from all other
+universities in England and elsewhere, is the college system. Thus
+Cambridge is a collection of eighteen colleges which, though nominally
+united to form one institution, are really distinct, inasmuch as
+each is a separate community with its own buildings and grounds, its
+own resident students, its own lecturers, and Fellows--a community
+which is supported by its own moneys without aid from the university
+exchequer, and which in most matters legislates for itself. The
+system is not unlike the American Union on a small scale, with its
+cluster of governments and their relation to a supreme center. The
+advantages of this scheme might theoretically be very great. With
+each college handsomely endowed and, though managing its own affairs,
+entering freely, in addition, into those relations of reciprocity
+which make for the good of the whole, one can readily imagine an
+ideal academic commonwealth. And while the present condition of the
+university can scarcely be said to approximate very closely to such
+an academic Utopia, it yet derives from its constitution numerous
+obvious advantages which universities otherwise constituted would and
+do undoubtedly lack. The chief evils besetting the university are
+perhaps more adventitious than inherent; they are largely financial,
+and arise from carrying the system of college individualism too far. A
+description of the college and university organization may make this
+apparent. By its endowment a college must support a certain number
+of Fellows and scholars. The latter form a temporary body, while the
+former are more or less permanent, and therefore upon them devolves the
+management of the college. Business is usually done by a council chosen
+from the Fellows, and the election of new Fellows to fill vacancies is
+made by this select body. The head of a college is known as the master;
+he is elected by the Fellows save in one or two cases, where his
+appointment rests with the crown or with certain wealthy individuals.
+He lives in the college lodge especially built for him, draws a salary
+large in proportion to the wealth of his college, and exerts an
+influence corresponding to his intelligence.
+
+[Illustration: G. H. DARWIN, M. A., F. R. S., Trinity. Plumian
+Professor of Astronomy.]
+
+The Fellows are in most cases chosen from those men who have achieved
+the greatest success in an honor course. At Cambridge College
+individualism has progressed so far that the Fellows of, say, Magdalen
+must be Magdalen men, the students of Queens', St Catherine's, or any
+other being ineligible save for their own fellowships. Oxford obtains
+perhaps better men on the whole by throwing open the fellowships of
+each particular college to the graduates of all, thus producing a
+wider competition. A fellowship until recently was tenable for life,
+but it has been reduced to about six years, the Fellows as a whole,
+however, retaining the power to extend the period of possession. And,
+further, the holding of a college office for fifteen years in general
+qualifies for the holding of a fellowship for life, and for a pension
+as lecturer or tutor. Thus a man is able to devote himself to research
+with little fear that at the latter end of his career he will lack the
+means of support. It is perhaps not too much to say that the offices of
+college dean, tutor, and lecturer are more perquisites than anything
+else. They are meant to keep and attract men of ability and parts.
+However, their existence reacts upon the student body by augmenting
+the expenses of the latter out of proportion to the benefits to be
+obtained. For instance, instead of utilizing one set of lecturers for
+one class of subjects, which all students could attend for a small fee,
+each of the larger colleges, at any rate, pays special lecturers, drawn
+from its own Fellows, to speak upon the same subjects each to a mere
+handful of men from their own college only. The tutor is another luxury
+inherited from the middle ages and therefore retained, and one for
+which the students have to pay dearly. The chief business of the tutor
+is not to teach, but to "look after" a certain number of students who
+are theoretically relegated to his charge. He looks up their lodgings
+for them, pays their bills at the end of the term, gets them out of
+scrapes, and draws a large salary. The tutorships seem to the writer
+to be a good illustration of how an office necessary to one period
+persists after that for which it was instituted has ceased to exist.
+When the students of Oxford and Cambridge were many of them thirteen
+and fourteen years of age, as in the fourteenth century, nurses were
+doubtless necessary, but they are still retained when the greater
+maturity of the students renders them not only unnecessary but at times
+even an impertinence.
+
+The dean is not, as with us, the head of a department; his functions
+are not so many, his tasks far less onerous. It is before a college
+dean that students are "hauled" for such offenses as irregularity at
+chapel, returning to the college after 12 P. M., smoking in college
+precincts, bringing dogs into the college grounds, and other villainous
+offenses against regulations. A dean must also attend chapel. Some
+colleges require two deans to struggle through these complicated and
+laborious duties, though some possessing only a few dozen students
+succeed in getting along with one.
+
+The line of demarcation between the university and the colleges is
+very distinct. The legislative influence of the former extends over a
+comparatively restricted field. All professorial chairs and certain
+lectureships belong to and are paid by the university; the latter
+has the arranging of the curricula, the care of the laboratories,
+the disposition of certain noncollegiate scholarships; but, broadly
+speaking, its two functions are the examination of all students and the
+conferring of degrees. The supreme legislative body is the senate,
+and it is composed of all masters of arts, doctors, and bachelors
+of divinity whose names still remain on the university books--that
+is, who continue to pay certain fees into the university treasury.
+In addition to the legislative body there is an executive head or
+council of nineteen, including the chancellor--at present the Duke of
+Devonshire--and the vice-chancellor. Both these bodies must govern
+according to the statutes, no alteration in which can be effected
+without recourse being had to Parliament. The senate is a peculiar
+body, and on occasions becomes somewhat unwieldy. It consists at
+present of some 6,800 members, of whom only 452 are in residence at
+Cambridge. Upon ordinary occasions only these 452 vote upon questions
+proposed by the council; but on occasions of great moment, as when
+the question of granting university degrees to women came up, some
+thousands or more of the nonresident members, who in many cases have
+lost touch with the modern university and modern systems of education,
+swarm to their alma mater, annihilate the champions of reform, and are
+hailed by their brethren as the saviors of their university.
+
+[Illustration: R. C. JEBB, Litt. D., M. P., Trinity. Regius Professor
+of Greek.]
+
+The university's exchequer is supplied partly by its endowment, but
+chiefly by an assessment on the college incomes, a capitation tax on
+all undergraduates, and the fees attending matriculation, examinations,
+and the granting of degrees. The examinations are numerous. Every
+student on entering is required to pass, or to claim exemption from,
+an entrance examination. In either case he pays L3 to the university,
+and upon admission to any honor course or "tripos" to qualify for
+the degree of Bachelor of Arts L3 more is exacted. The income of the
+university from these examination fees alone amounts to L9,400 per
+annum, L4,600 of which goes to pay the examiners. In America this is
+supposed to be a part of the professor's or instructor's duty, no
+additional remuneration is allowed, and hence it does not become
+necessary to make an additional tax upon the students' resources. The
+conferring of degrees is also made a very profitable affair. Each
+candidate for the degree of B. A. pays out L7 to the voracious 'varsity
+chest, and upon proceeding to the M. A. a further contribution of L12
+is requested. In this way the university makes about L12,000 a year,
+and, as though this was not sufficient, she requires a matriculation
+fee of L5 for every student who becomes a member. By this means another
+annual L5,000 is obtained. It must be remembered that these fees are
+entirely separate from the college fees. When the L5 matriculation for
+the latter is taken into consideration and the L8 a term (at Trinity)
+for lectures, two thirds of which the student does not attend, when it
+is understood that all this and more does not include living expenses,
+which are by no means slight, and that there are three terms instead of
+two, as with us, it will be obvious that Cambridge adheres very closely
+to the rule that to them only who have wealth shall her refining
+influence be given. That the greatest universities in existence should
+render it almost totally impossible for aught but the rich to obtain
+the advantages of their unusual educational facilities jars with that
+idea of democracy of learning which an American training is apt to
+foster. But, as we shall point out later, an aristocracy of learning
+may also have its uses.
+
+[Illustration: HENRY SIDGWICK, Litt. D., Trinity. Knightbridge
+Professor of Moral Philosophy.]
+
+With all the revenues the university collects from colleges and
+students, amounting in all to about L65,000, Cambridge still finds
+herself poor. Some of the colleges, notably King's and Trinity,
+are extremely wealthy, but the university remains, if not exactly
+impecunious, at least on the ragged edge of financial difficulties.
+The various regius and other professorships, inadequately endowed by
+the munificence of the crown and of individuals, have each to be
+augmented from the university chest. The continual repairing of the old
+laboratories and scientific apparatus, the salaries to lecturers, to
+proctors, bedells, and other officers, cause a continual drain on the
+exchequer, which, with the rapidly growing need for larger laboratories
+and newer apparatus, has finally resulted in an appeal to the country
+for the sum of half a million pounds.
+
+[Illustration: DONALD MACALISTER, M. A., M. D., St. Johns. Linacre
+Lecturer of Physics.]
+
+It has been seen that the drains on a student's pocket are very
+considerable at Cambridge, owing to the number of perquisites showered
+by the colleges on their Fellows, and it may appear that this state
+of things is unjust and wrong. At present Oxford and Cambridge are
+practically within the reach of only the moneyed population. According,
+however, to a plausible and frequently repeated theory, it is not the
+function of these universities to meet the educational needs of the
+mediocre poor. The writer's critical attitude toward the financial
+system in vogue at Cambridge is a proper one, only on the assumption
+that a maximum of education to all classes alike at a minimum of
+expense is the final cause and desideratum of a university's existence.
+But if one assumes that Oxford and Cambridge exist for a different
+purpose, that the chief end they propose to themselves is individual
+research, and the advancement, not the promulgation, of learning, it
+must be admitted that their system has little that is reprehensible.
+According to this standpoint the students only exist by courtesy of
+the dons (a name for the Fellows), who have a perfect right to impose
+upon the students, in return for the condescension which is shown them,
+what terms they see fit. And they argue that this view is the historic
+one. The colleges were originally endowed solely for the benefit of
+a certain limited number of Fellows and scholars. The undergraduate
+body, as it at present exists, is a later growth, whose eventual
+existence and the importance of which to the university was probably
+not anticipated by the college founders. Starting with this, the
+defenders of the present _regime_ would point out, in addition, that
+there are other English institutions where the poorer classes may be
+educated, that Cambridge and Oxford are not only not bound to take upon
+themselves this task, but that they actually subserve a higher purpose
+and one just as necessary to the development of English science and
+letters and to the education of the English intellect by specializing
+in another direction. The good of a philosopher's lifelong reflections,
+they would say, is not always manifest, but the teachers who instruct
+the nation's youth are themselves dependent for rational standpoints
+upon the labor of the greater teacher, and they act as the instruments
+of communication between the most learned and the unlettered. So Oxford
+and Cambridge are the sources from whose fountains of wisdom and
+culture flow streams supplying all the academic mills of Britain, which
+in their turn are enabled to feed the inhabitants. It would be absurd,
+they maintain, to insist that the streams and the mills could equally
+well fulfill the same functions. Cambridge and Oxford instruct just so
+far as so doing is compatible with what for them is the main end--the
+furthering of various kinds of research and the offering of all sorts
+of inducements in order to keep and attract the interested attention of
+classical butterflies and scientific worms. How well they succeed in
+this noble ambition is known throughout the civilized world.
+
+Mr. G. H. Darwin, a son of Charles Darwin, has recently had occasion
+to mention the enormous scientific output of Cambridge University.
+After saying that the Royal Society is the Academy of Sciences in
+England, and that in its publications appear accounts of all the
+most important scientific discoveries in England and most of those
+in Scotland, Ireland, and other parts of Europe, he goes on to state
+that he examined the Transactions of this society for three years and
+discovered that out of the 5,480 pages published in that time 2,418
+were contributed by Cambridge men and 1,324 by residents.
+
+In view of these facts, and despite the shortcomings of this university
+as a teaching institution, it is to be hoped that private generosity
+will answer her appeal for financial assistance. Her laboratories are
+a mine of research, and it is in them and in the men who conduct them
+that Cambridge is perhaps most to be admired.
+
+[Illustration: SIR G. G. STOKES, Bart., M. A., LL. D., Sc. D., F. R.
+S., Pembroke. Lucasian Professor of Mathematics.]
+
+The Cavendish Laboratory of Physics, where Clerk-Maxwell and afterward
+Lord Rayleigh taught, and which is at present in the hand of their
+able successor, J. J. Thomson, is a building of considerable size
+and admirably fitted out, but the rapidly increasing number of young
+physicists who are being allured by the working facilities of the
+place, and by the fame of Professor Thomson, is rendering even this
+splendidly equipped hall of science inadequate. The physiological
+laboratories are many, they are completely furnished with appliances,
+and a large number of students are there trained annually under the
+supervision of one of England's most eminent living scientists,
+Michael Foster, and his scarcely less able associates--Langley, Hardy,
+and Gaskell. Chemistry, zoology, botany, anatomy, and geology have
+each their well-appointed halls and masterly exponents. The names
+MacAlister, Liveing, Dewar, Newton, Sedgwick, Marshall Ward, and Hughes
+are not easily matched in any other one institution. Indeed, it is
+when one stops to consider the intellects at Cambridge that it becomes
+a dangerous matter to institute comparisons, and to say that this
+discipline or that is most rich in eminent interpreters. In science,
+at any rate, and in all branches of science, Cambridge stands alone.
+Not even Oxford can be considered for a moment as in the same class
+with her. And of all the sciences it is undoubtedly in mathematics
+and astronomy that the supremacy of Cambridge is most pronounced. The
+names of Profs. Sir G. G. Stokes and Sir R. S. Ball will be familiar to
+every reader, while those of Profs. Forsythe and G. H. Darwin and Mr.
+Baker will be familiar to all mathematicians. In classics Cambridge,
+while not possessing a similar monopoly of almost all the talent,
+still holds her own even with Oxford. Professors Jebb, Mayor, and
+Ridgeway, and Drs. Verrall, Jackson, and Frazer constitute a group of
+men second to none in the subjects of which they treat. Professor Jebb
+is also one of the university's two representatives in Parliament.
+In philosophy Cambridge has two men, Henry Sidgwick and James Ward,
+the former of whom is perhaps by common consent the first living
+authority on moral science, while the latter ranks among the first of
+living psychologists. These men, while representing very different
+philosophical standpoints, unite in opposition not only to the
+Hegelian movement, which, led by Caird and Bradley of Oxford, Seth and
+Stirling of Edinburgh, threatens the invasion of England, but also to
+the Spencerian philosophy. The latter system has not many adherents at
+either university, but the writer has been told by Professor Sully that
+the ascendency of the neo-Hegelian and other systems is by no means
+so pronounced elsewhere in England. The Spencerian biology, on the
+contrary, has been largely defended at Cambridge, while Weismannism,
+for the most part, is repudiated there and at Oxford.
+
+The teaching at Cambridge, as at all universities, is of many grades.
+In many subjects the lectures are not meant to give a student
+sufficient material to get him through an examination, and a "coach"
+becomes requisite, or at any rate is employed. This system of coaching
+has attained large dimensions; its results are often good, but it
+means an additional expense and seems an incentive to laziness, making
+it unnecessary for a student to exert his own mental aggressiveness
+or powers of application as he who fights his own battles must do.
+The Socratic form of instruction, producing a more intimate and
+unrestricted relation between instructor and student, and which is
+largely in operation in the States, is little practiced in England.
+In science the methods of instruction at Cambridge are ideal. That
+practical acquaintance with the facts of Nature which Huxley and
+Tyndall taught is the only true means of knowing Nature, is the key
+according to which all biological and physical instruction at these
+institutions is conducted.
+
+[Illustration: JAMES WARD, Sc. D., Trinity. Professor of Mental
+Philosophy and Logic.]
+
+In the last half dozen years two radical steps have been taken by both
+Oxford and Cambridge--steps leading, to many respectable minds, in
+diametrically opposite directions. The step backward (in the writer's
+view) occurred when the universities, after much excitement, defeated
+with slaughter the proposition granting university degrees to women.
+It was simply proposed that the students of Newnham and Girton, who
+should successfully compete with male students in an honor course,
+should have an equal right with the latter to receive the usual degrees
+from their alma mater. After industrious inquiry among those who were
+foremost in supporting and opposing this movement the writer has
+unearthed no objection of weight against the change. "If the women
+were granted degrees they would have votes in the senate," and "It
+never has been done"--these are the two reasons most persistently
+urged in defense of the conservative view; while justice and utility
+alike appear to be for once, at any rate, unequivocally on the side
+of the women. Prejudice defeated progress, and students celebrated
+the auspicious occasion with bonfires. The step forward was taken
+when the universities and their colleges decided to throw open their
+gates to the graduates of other universities in England, America, and
+elsewhere for the purpose of advanced study. But here, as in other
+things, Cambridge leads the way, and Oxford follows falteringly. The
+advanced students at Cambridge are treated like Cambridge men, they
+have the status of Bachelors of Arts, and possess in most respects
+the advantages, such as they are, of the latter; while at Oxford the
+advanced students are a restricted class, with restricted advantages,
+and their relation to the university is not that of the other
+students. In Cambridge the movement which has resulted in the present
+admirable condition of affairs was largely brought about by the zeal
+and enterprise of Dr. Donald MacAlister, of St. John's College, the
+University Lecturer in Therapeutics, a man of wide sympathies and
+ability, and whose name is closely associated with this university's
+metamorphosis into a more modern institution.
+
+
+
+
+THE WONDERFUL CENTURY.[1]
+
+A REVIEW BY W. K. BROOKS,
+
+PROFESSOR OF ZOOLOGY IN THE JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY.
+
+
+Every naturalist has in his heart a warm affection for the author of
+the Malay Archipelago, and is glad to acknowledge with gratitude his
+debt to this great explorer and thinker and teacher who gave us the law
+of natural selection independently of Darwin. When the history of our
+century is written, the foremost place among those who have guided the
+thought of their generation and opened new fields for discovery will
+assuredly be given to Wallace and Darwin.
+
+[1] Dodd, Mead & Co., New York, 1899.
+
+Few of the great men who have helped to make our century memorable
+in the history of thought are witnesses of its end, and all who have
+profited by the labors of Wallace will rejoice that he has been
+permitted to stand on the threshold of a new century, and, reviewing
+the past, to give us his impressions of the wonderful century.
+
+We men of the nineteenth century, he says, have not been slow to praise
+it. The wise and the foolish, the learned and the unlearned, the poet
+and the pressman, the rich and the poor, alike swell the chorus of
+admiration for the marvelous inventions and discoveries of our own age,
+and especially for those innumerable applications of science which now
+form part of our daily life, and which remind us every hour of our
+immense superiority over our comparatively ignorant forefathers.
+
+Our century, he tells us, has been characterized by a marvelous and
+altogether unprecedented progress in the knowledge of the universe and
+of its complex forces, and also in the application of that knowledge
+to an infinite variety of purposes calculated, if properly utilized,
+to supply all the wants of every human being and to add greatly to the
+comforts, the enjoyments, and the refinements of life. The bounds of
+human knowledge have been so far extended that new vistas have opened
+to us in nearly all directions where it had been thought that we could
+never penetrate, and the more we learn the more we seem capable of
+learning in the ever-widening expanse of the universe. It may, he
+says, be truly said of the men of science that they have become as
+gods knowing good and evil, since they have been able not only to
+utilize the most recondite powers of Nature in their service, but have
+in many cases been able to discover the sources of much of the evil
+that afflicts humanity, to abolish pain, to lengthen life, and to add
+immensely to the intellectual as well as the physical enjoyments of our
+race.
+
+In order to get any adequate measure for comparison with the nineteenth
+century we must take not any preceding century, but the whole preceding
+epoch of human history. We must take into consideration not only the
+changes effected in science, in the arts, in the possibilities of
+human intercourse, and in the extension of our knowledge both of the
+earth and of the whole visible universe, but the means our century has
+furnished for future advancement.
+
+Our author, who has borne such a distinguished part in the intellectual
+progress of our century, shows clearly that in means for the discovery
+of truth, for the extension of our control over Nature, and for the
+alleviation of the ills that beset mankind, the inheritance of the
+twentieth century from the nineteenth will be greater than our own
+inheritance from all the centuries that have gone before.
+
+Some may regret that, while only one third of Wallace's book is
+devoted to the successes of the wonderful century, the author finds
+the remaining two thirds none too much for the enumeration of some of
+its most notable failures; but it is natural for one who has borne his
+own distinguished part in all this marvelous progress to ask where the
+century has fallen short of the enthusiastic hopes of its leaders, what
+that it might have done it has failed to do, and what lies ready at
+the hand of the workers who will begin the new century with this rich
+inheritance of new thoughts, new methods, and new resources.
+
+The more we realize the vast possibilities of human welfare which
+science has given us the more, he says, must we recognize our total
+failure to make any adequate use of them.
+
+Along with this continuous progress in science, in the arts, and in
+wealth-production, which has dazzled our imaginations to such an extent
+that we can hardly admit the possibility of any serious evils having
+accompanied or been caused by it, there has, he says, been many serious
+failures--intellectual, social, and moral. Some of our great thinkers,
+he says, have been so impressed by the terrible nature of these
+failures that they have doubted whether the final result of the work
+of the century has any balance of good over evil, of happiness over
+misery, for mankind at large.
+
+Wallace is no pessimist, but one who believes that the first step in
+retrieving our failures is to perceive clearly where we have failed,
+for he says there can be no doubt of the magnitude of the evils that
+have grown up or persisted in the midst of all our triumphs over
+natural forces and our unprecedented growth in wealth and luxury, and
+he holds it not the least important part of his work to call attention
+to some of these failures.
+
+With ample knowledge of the sources of health, we allow and even
+compel the bulk of our population to live and work under conditions
+which greatly shorten life. In our mad race for wealth we have made
+gold more sacred than human life; we have made life so hard for many
+that suicide and insanity and crime are alike increasing. The struggle
+for wealth has been accompanied by a reckless destruction of the
+stored-up products of Nature, which is even more deplorable because
+irretrievable. Not only have forest growths of many hundred years been
+cleared away, often with disastrous consequences, but the whole of
+the mineral treasures of the earth's surface, the slow productions of
+long-past eras of time and geological change, have been and are still
+being exhausted with reckless disregard of our duties to posterity and
+solely in the interest of landlords and capitalists. With all our
+labor-saving machinery and all our command over the forces of Nature,
+the struggle for existence has become more fierce than ever before,
+and year by year an ever-increasing proportion of our people sink into
+paupers' graves.
+
+When the brightness of future ages shall have dimmed the glamour of our
+material progress he says that the judgment of history will surely be
+that our ethical standard was low and that we were unworthy to possess
+the great and beneficent powers that science had placed in our hands,
+for, instead of devoting the highest powers of our greatest men to
+remedy these evils, we see the governments of the most advanced nations
+arming their people to the teeth and expending most of the wealth and
+all the resources of their science in preparation for the destruction
+of life, of property, and of happiness.
+
+He reminds us that the first International Exhibition, in 1851,
+fostered the hope that men would soon perceive that peace and
+commercial intercourse are essential to national well-being. Poets and
+statesmen joined in hailing the dawn of an era of peaceful industry,
+and exposition following exposition taught the nations how much they
+have to learn from each other and how much to give to each other for
+the benefit and happiness of all.
+
+Dueling, which had long prevailed, in spite of its absurdity and
+harmfulness, as a means of settling disputes, was practically abolished
+by the general diffusion of a spirit of intolerance of private war; and
+as the same public opinion which condemns it should, if consistent,
+also condemn war between nations, many thought they perceived the dawn
+of a wiser policy between nations.
+
+Yet so far are we from progress toward its abolition that the latter
+half of the century has witnessed not the decay, but a revival of the
+war spirit, and at its end we find all nations loaded with the burden
+of increasing armies and navies.
+
+The armies are continually being equipped with new and more deadly
+weapons at a cost which strains the resources of even the most wealthy
+nations and impoverishes the mass of the people by increasing burdens
+of debt and taxation, and all this as a means of settling disputes
+which have no sufficient cause and no relation whatever to the
+well-being of the communities which engage in them.
+
+The evils of war do not cease with the awful loss of life and
+destruction of property which are their immediate results, since they
+form the excuse for inordinate increase of armaments--an increase
+which has been intensified by the application to war purposes of those
+mechanical inventions and scientific discoveries which, properly used,
+should bring peace and plenty to all, but which when seized upon by the
+spirit of militarism directly lead to enmity among nations and to the
+misery of the people.
+
+The first steps in this military development were the adoption of a new
+rifle by the Prussian army in 1846, the application of steam to ships
+of war in 1840, and the use of armor for battle ships in 1859. The
+remainder of the century has witnessed a mad race between the nations
+to increase the death-dealing power of their weapons and to add to
+the number and efficiency of their armies, while all the resources of
+modern science have been utilized in order to add to the destructive
+power of cannon and both the defensive and the offensive power of
+ships. The inability of industrious laboring men to gain any due share
+of the benefits of our progress in scientific knowledge is due, beyond
+everything else, to the expense of withdrawing great armies of men
+in the prime of life from productive labor, joined to the burden of
+feeding and clothing them and of keeping weapons and ammunition, ships,
+and fortifications in a state of readiness, of continually renewing
+stores of all kinds, of pensions, and of all the laboring men who must,
+besides making good the destruction caused by war, be withdrawn from
+productive labor and be supported by others that they may support the
+army.
+
+And what a horrible mockery is this when viewed in the light of either
+Christianity or advancing civilization! All the nations armed to the
+teeth and watching stealthily for some occasion to use their vast
+armaments for their own aggrandizement and for the injury of their
+neighbors are Christian nations, but their Christian governments do not
+exist for the good of the governed, still less for the good of humanity
+or civilization, but for the aggrandizement and greed and lust of the
+ruling classes.
+
+The devastation caused by the tyrants and conquerors of the middle
+ages and of antiquity has been reproduced in our times by the rush to
+obtain wealth. Even the lust of conquest, in order to obtain slaves
+and tribute and great estates, by means of which the ruling classes
+could live in boundless luxury, so characteristic of the earlier
+civilization, is reproduced in our time.
+
+Witness the recent conduct of the nations of Europe toward Crete and
+Greece, upholding the most terrible despotism in the world because each
+hopes for a favorable opportunity to obtain some advantage, leading
+ultimately to the largest share of the spoil.
+
+Witness the struggles in Africa and Asia, where millions of foreign
+people may be enslaved and bled for the benefit of their new rulers.
+
+The whole world, says Wallace, is but a gambling table. Just as
+gambling deteriorates and demoralizes the individual, so the greed
+for dominion demoralizes governments. The welfare of the people is
+little cared for, except so far as to make them submissive taxpayers,
+enabling the ruling and moneyed classes to extend their sway over new
+territories and to create well-paid places and exciting work for their
+sons and relatives.
+
+Hence, says Wallace, comes the force that ever urges on the increase
+of armaments and the extension of empire. Great vested interests
+are at stake, and ever-growing pressure is brought to bear upon the
+too-willing governments in the name of the greatness of the country,
+the extension of commerce, or the advance of civilization. This state
+of things is not progress, but retrogression. It will be held by the
+historian of the future to show that we of the nineteenth century were
+morally and socially unfit to possess the enormous powers for good and
+evil which the rapid advance of scientific discovery has given us,
+that our boasted civilization was in many respects a mere superficial
+veneer, and that our methods of government were not in accord with
+either Christianity or civilization.
+
+Comparing the conduct of these modern nations, who call themselves
+Christian and civilized, with that of the Spanish conquerors of
+the West Indies, Mexico, and Peru, and making some allowances for
+differences of race and public opinion, Wallace says there is not much
+to choose between them.
+
+Wealth and territory and native labor were the real objects in both
+cases, and if the Spaniards were more cruel by nature and more reckless
+in their methods the results were much the same. In both cases the
+country was conquered and thereafter occupied and governed by the
+conquerors frankly for their own ends, and with little regard for
+the feelings or the well-being of the conquered. If the Spaniards
+exterminated the natives of the West Indies, we, he says, have done the
+same thing in Tasmania and about the same in temperate Australia. Their
+belief that they were really serving God in converting the heathen,
+even at the point of the sword, was a genuine belief, shared by priests
+and conquerors alike--not a mere sham as ours is when we defend our
+conduct by the plea of "introducing the blessings of civilization."
+
+It is quite possible, says Wallace, that both the conquest of Mexico
+and Peru by the Spaniards and our conquest of South Africa may have
+been real steps in advance, essential to human progress, and helping on
+the future reign of true civilization and the well-being of the human
+race. But if so, we have been and are unconscious agents in hastening
+the "far-off divine event." We deserve no credit for it. Our aims have
+been for the most part sordid and selfish, and our rule has often
+been largely influenced and often entirely directed by the necessity
+of finding well-paid places for young men with influence, and also by
+the constant demands for fresh markets by the influential class of
+merchants and manufacturers.
+
+More general diffusion of the conviction that while all share the
+burdens of war, such good as comes from it is appropriated by the few,
+will no doubt do much to discourage wars; but we must ask whether there
+may not be another incentive to war which Wallace does not give due
+weight--whether love of fighting may not have something to do with wars.
+
+As we look backward over history we are forced to ask whether the greed
+and selfishness of the wealthy and influential and those who hope to
+gain are the only causes of war. We went to war with Spain because our
+people in general demanded war. If we have been carried further than
+we intended and are now fighting for objects which we did not foresee
+and may not approve, this is no more than history might have led us to
+expect. War with Spain was popular with nearly all our people a year
+ago, and, while wise counsels might have stemmed this popular tide,
+there can be no doubt that it existed, for the evil passions of the
+human race are the real cause of wars.
+
+The great problem of the twentieth century, as of all that have gone
+before, is the development of the wise and prudent self-restraint which
+represses natural passions and appetites for the sake of higher and
+better ends.
+
+
+
+
+SPIDER BITES AND "KISSING BUGS."[2]
+
+BY L. O. HOWARD,
+
+CHIEF OF THE DIVISION OF ENTOMOLOGY, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF
+AGRICULTURE.
+
+
+On several occasions during the past ten years, and especially at
+the Brooklyn meeting of the American Association for the Advancement
+of Science in 1894, the writer has endeavored to show that most of
+the newspaper stories of deaths from spider bite are either grossly
+exaggerated or based upon misinformation. He has failed to thoroughly
+substantiate a single case of death from a so-called spider bite,
+and has concluded that there is only one spider in the United States
+which is capable of inflicting a serious bite--viz., _Latrodectus
+mactans_, a species belonging to a genus of world-wide distribution,
+the other species of which have universally a bad reputation among the
+peoples whose country they inhabit. In spite of these conclusions, the
+accuracy of which has been tested with great care, there occur in the
+newspapers every year stories of spider bites of great seriousness,
+often resulting in death or the amputation of a limb. The details of
+negative evidence and of lack of positive evidence need not be entered
+upon here, except in so far as to state that in the great majority
+of these cases the spider supposed to have inflicted the bite is not
+even seen, while in almost no case is the spider seen to inflict the
+bite; and it is a well-known fact that there are practically no spiders
+in our more northern States which are able to pierce the human skin,
+except upon a portion of the body where the skin is especially delicate
+and which is seldom exposed. There arises, then, the probability that
+there are other insects capable of piercing tough skin, the results of
+whose bites may be more or less painful, the wounds being attributed
+to spiders on account of the universally bad reputation which these
+arthropods seem to have.
+
+[2] A paper read before Section F of the American Association for the
+Advancement of Science at the Columbus meeting in August, 1899.
+
+[Illustration: DIFFERENT STAGES OF CONORHINUS SANGUISUGUS. Twice
+natural size. (After Marlatt.)]
+
+These sentences formed the introduction to a paper read by the writer
+at a meeting of the Entomological Society of Washington, held June
+1st last. I went on to state that some of these insects are rather
+well known, as, for example, the blood-sucking cone-nose (_Conorhinus
+sanguisugus_) and the two-spotted corsairs (_Rasatus thoracicus_ and
+_R. biguttatus_), both of which occur, however, most numerously in the
+South and West, and then spoke of _Melanotestis picipes_, a species
+which had been especially called to my attention by Mr. Frank M.
+Jones, of Wilmington, Del., who submitted the report of the attending
+physician in a case of two punctures by this insect inflicted upon
+the thumb and forefinger of a middle-aged man in Delaware. I further
+reported upon occasional somewhat severe results from the bites[3] of
+the old _Reduvius personatus_, now placed in the genus _Opsicostes_,
+and stated that a smaller species, _Coriscus subcoleoptratus_, had
+bitten me rather severely under circumstances similar to some of those
+which have given rise in the past to spider-bite stories. In the
+course of the discussion which followed the reading of this paper, Mr.
+Schwarz stated that twice during the present spring he had been bitten
+rather severely by _Melanotestis picipes_ which had entered his room,
+probably attracted by light. He described it as the worst biter among
+heteropterous insects with which he had had any experience, and said
+he thought it was commoner than usual in Washington during the present
+year.
+
+[3] When the word "bite" is used in connection with these bugs, it must
+be remembered that it is really a puncture made with the sharp beak or
+proboscis (see illustration).
+
+No account of this meeting was published, but within a few weeks
+thereafter several persons suffering from swollen faces visited the
+Emergency Hospital in Washington and complained that they had been
+bitten by some insect while asleep; that they did not see the insect,
+and could not describe it. This happened during one of the temporary
+periods when newspaper men are most actively engaged in hunting for
+items. There was a dearth of news. These swollen faces offered an
+opportunity for a good story, and thus began the "kissing-bug" scare
+which has grown to such extraordinary proportions. I have received
+the following letter and clipping from Mr. J. F. McElhone, of the
+Washington Post, in reply to a request for information regarding the
+origin of this curious epidemic:
+
+"WASHINGTON, D. C., _August 14, 1899_.
+
+"_Dr. L. O. Howard, Cosmos Club, Washington, D. C._
+
+"DEAR SIR: Attached please find clipping from the Washington Post of
+June 20, 1899, being the first story that ever appeared in print, so
+far as I can learn, of the depredations of the _Melanotestis picipes_,
+better known now as the kissing bug. In my rounds as police reporter of
+the Post, I noticed, for two or three days before writing this story,
+that the register of the Emergency Hospital of this city contained
+unusually frequent notes of 'bug-bite' cases. Investigating, on the
+evening of June 19th I learned from the hospital physicians that a
+noticeable number of patients were applying daily for treatment for
+very red and extensive swellings, usually on the lips, and apparently
+the result of an insect bite. This led to the writing of the story
+attached.
+
+"Very truly yours, "James F. McElhone."
+
+[Illustration:
+
+The Washington Post.
+
+TUESDAY, JUNE 20, 1899.
+
+BITE OF A STRANGE BUG.
+
+Several Patients Have Appeared at the Hospitals Very Badly Poisoned.
+
+Lookout for the new bug. It is an insidious insect that bites without
+causing pain and escapes unnoticed. But afterward the place where it
+has bitten swells to ten times its normal size. The Emergency Hospital
+has had several victims of this insect as patients lately and the
+number is increasing. Application for treatment by other victims are
+being made at other hospitals, and the matter threatens to become
+something like a plague. None of those who have been bitten saw the
+insect whose sting proves so disastrous. One old negro went to sleep
+and woke up to find both his eyes nearly closed by the swelling from
+his nose and cheeks, where the insect had alighted. The lips seems to
+be the favorite point of attack.
+
+William Smith, a newspaper agent, of 327 Trumbull street, went to the
+Emergency last night with his upper lip swollen to many times its
+natural size. The symptoms are in every case the same, and there is
+indication of poisoning from an insect's bite. The matter is beginning
+to interest the physicians, and every patient who comes in with the now
+well-known marks is closely questioned as to the description of the
+insect. No one has yet been found who has seen it. ]
+
+It would be an interesting computation for one to figure out the amount
+of newspaper space which was filled in the succeeding two months by
+items and articles about the "kissing bug." Other Washington newspapers
+took the matter up. The New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore papers
+soon followed suit. The epidemic spread east to Boston and west to
+California. By "epidemic" is meant the _newspaper_ epidemic, for every
+insect bite where the biter was not at once recognized was attributed
+to the popular and somewhat mysterious creature which had been given
+such an attractive name, and there can be no doubt that some mosquito,
+flea, and bedbug bites which had by accident resulted in a greater than
+the usual severity were attributed to the prevailing osculatory insect.
+In Washington professional beggars seized the opportunity, and went
+around from door to door with bandaged faces and hands, complaining
+that they were poor men and had been thrown out of work by the results
+of "kissing-bug" stings! One beggar came to the writer's door and
+offered, in support of his plea, a card supposed to be signed by the
+head surgeon of the Emergency Hospital. In a small town in central
+New York a man arrested on the charge of swindling entered the plea
+that he was temporarily insane owing to the bite of the "kissing
+bug." Entomologists all through the East were also much overworked
+answering questions asked them about the mysterious creature. Men of
+local entomological reputations were applied to by newspaper reporters,
+by their friends, by people who knew them, in church, on the street,
+and under all conceivable circumstances. Editorials were written about
+it. Even the Scientific American published a two-column article on
+the subject; and, while no international complications have resulted
+as yet, the kissing bug, in its own way and in the short space of two
+months, produced almost as much of a scare as did the San Jose scale in
+its five years of Eastern excitement. Now, however, the newspapers have
+had their fun, the necessary amount of space has been filled, and the
+subject has assumed a castaneous hue, to Latinize the slang of a few
+years back.
+
+The experience has been a most interesting one. To the reader familiar
+with the old accounts of the hysterical craze of south Europe,
+based upon supposed tarantula bites, there can not fail to come the
+suggestion that we have had in miniature and in modernized form,
+aided largely by the newspapers, a hysterical craze of much the same
+character. From the medical and psychological point of view this aspect
+is interesting, and deserves investigation by competent persons.
+
+As an entomologist, however, the writer confines himself to the actual
+authors of the bites so far as he has been able to determine them. It
+seems undoubtedly true that while there has been a great cry there
+has been very little wool. It is undoubtedly true, also, that there
+have been a certain number of bites by heteropterous insects, some
+of which have resulted in considerable swelling. It seems true that
+_Melanotestis picipes_ and _Opsicostes personatus_ have been more
+numerous than usual this year, at least around Washington. They have
+been captured in a number of instances while biting people, and have
+been brought to the writer's office for determination in such a way
+that there can be no doubt about the accuracy of this statement. As
+the story went West, bites by _Conorhinus sanguisuga_ and _Rasatus
+thoracicus_ were without doubt termed "kissing-bug" bites. With regard
+to other cases, the writer has known of an instance where the mosquito
+bite upon the lip of a sleeping child produced a very considerable
+swelling. Therefore he argues that many of these reported cases may
+have been nothing more than mosquito bites. With nervous and excitable
+individuals the symptoms of any skin puncture become exaggerated not
+only in the mind of the individual but in their actual characteristics,
+and not only does this refer to cases of skin puncture but to certain
+skin eruptions, and to some of those early summer skin troubles which
+are known as strawberry rash, etc. It is in this aspect of the subject
+that the resemblance to tarantulism comes in, and this is the result of
+the hysterical wave, if it may be so termed.
+
+Six different heteropterous insects were mentioned in the early part
+of this article, and it will be appropriate to give each of them
+some little detailed consideration, taking the species of Eastern
+distribution first, since the scare had its origin in the East, and has
+there perhaps been more fully exploited.
+
+[Illustration: MELANOTESTIS ABDOMINALIS. Female at right; male at left,
+with enlarged beak at side. Twice natural size. (Original.)]
+
+[Illustration: HEAD AND PROBOSCIS OF CONORHINUS SANGUISUGUS. (After
+Marlatt.)]
+
+_Opsicostes personatus_, also known as _Reduvius personatus_, and which
+has been termed the "cannibal bug," is a European species introduced
+into this country at some unknown date, but possibly following close in
+the wake of the bedbug. In Europe this species haunts houses for the
+purpose of preying upon bedbugs. Riley, in his well-known article on
+Poisonous Insects, published in Wood's Reference Handbook of Medical
+Science, states that if a fly or another insect is offered to the
+cannibal bug it is first touched with the antennae, a sudden spring
+follows, and at the same time the beak is thrust into the prey. The
+young specimens are covered with a glutinous substance, to which
+bits of dirt and dust adhere. They move deliberately, with a long
+pause between each step, the step being taken in a jerky manner. The
+distribution of the species, as given by Reuter in his Monograph of the
+Genus _Reduvius_, is Europe to the middle of Sweden, Caucasia, Asia
+Minor, Algeria, Madeira; North America, Canada, New York, Philadelphia,
+Indiana; Tasmania, Australia--from which it appears that the insect is
+already practically cosmopolitan, and in fact may almost be termed
+a household insect. The collections of the United States National
+Museum and of Messrs. Heidemann and Chittenden, of Washington, D. C.,
+indicate the following localities for this species: Locust Hill, Va.;
+Washington, D. C.; Baltimore, Md.; Ithaca, N. Y.; Cleveland, Ohio;
+Keokuk, Iowa.
+
+[Illustration: CORISCUS SUBCOLEOPTRATUS: _a_, wingless form; _b_,
+winged form; _c_, proboscis. All twice natural size. (Original.)]
+
+The bite of this species is said to be very painful, more so than that
+of a bee, and to be followed by numbness (Lintner). One of the cases
+brought to the writer's attention this summer was that of a Swedish
+servant girl, in which the insect was caught, where the sting was
+upon the neck, and was followed by considerable swelling. Le Conte,
+in describing it under the synonymical name _Reduvius pungens_, gives
+Georgia as the locality, and makes the following statement: "This
+species is remarkable for the intense pain caused by its bite. I do not
+know whether it ever willingly plunges its rostrum into any person, but
+when caught or unskillfully handled it always stings. In this case the
+pain is almost equal to that of the bite of a snake, and the swelling
+and irritation which result from it will sometimes last for a week. In
+very weak and irritable constitutions it may even prove fatal."[4]
+
+[4] Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia,
+vol. vii, p. 404, 1854-'55.
+
+The second Eastern species is _Melanotestis picipes_. This and the
+closely allied and possibly identical _M. abdominalis_ are not rare in
+the United States, and have been found all along the Atlantic States,
+in the West and South, and also in Mexico. They live underneath stones
+and logs, and run swiftly. Both sexes of _M. picipes_ in the adult
+are fully winged, but the female of _M. abdominalis_ is usually found
+in the short-winged condition. Prof. P. R. Uhler writes (in litt.):
+"_Melanotestis abdominalis_ is not rare in this section (Baltimore),
+but the winged female is a great rarity. At the present time I have not
+a specimen of the winged female in my collection. I have seen specimens
+from the South, in North Carolina and Florida, but I do not remember
+one from Maryland. I am satisfied that _M. picipes_ is distinct from
+_M. abdominalis_. I have not known the two species to unite sexually,
+but I have seen them both united to their proper consorts. Both species
+are sometimes found under the same flat stone or log, and they both
+hibernate in our valleys beneath stones and rubbish in loamy soils."
+Specimens in Washington collections show the following localities
+for _M. abdominalis_: Baltimore, Md.; Washington, D. C.; Wilmington,
+Del.; New Jersey; Long Island; Fort Bliss, Texas; Louisiana; and
+Keokuk, Iowa;, and for _M. picipes_, Washington, D. C.; Roslyn, Va.;
+Baltimore, Md.; Derby, Conn.; Long Island; a series labeled New Jersey;
+Wilmington, Del.; Keokuk, Iowa; Cleveland and Cincinnati, Ohio;
+Louisiana; Jackson, Miss.; Barton County, Mo.; Fort Bliss, Texas; San
+Antonio, Texas; Crescent City, Fla.; Holland, S. C.
+
+This insect has been mentioned several times in entomological
+literature. The first reference to its bite probably was made by
+Townend Glover in the Annual Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture
+for 1875 (page 130). In Maryland, he states, _M. picipes_ is found
+under stones, moss, logs of wood, etc., and is capable of inflicting a
+severe wound with its rostrum or piercer. In 1888 Dr. Lintner, in his
+Fourth Report as State Entomologist of New York (page 110), quotes from
+a correspondent in Natchez, Miss., concerning this insect: "I send a
+specimen of a fly not known to us here. A few days ago it punctured the
+finger of my wife, inflicting a painful sting. The swelling was rapid,
+and for several days the wound was quite annoying." Until recent years
+this insect has not been known to the writer as occurring in houses
+with any degree of frequency. In May, 1895, however, I received a
+specimen from an esteemed correspondent--Dr. J. M. Shaffer, of Keokuk,
+Iowa--together with a letter written on May 7th, in which the statement
+was made that four specimens flew into his window the night before. The
+insect, therefore, is attracted to light or is becoming attracted to
+light, is a night-flier, and enters houses through open windows. Among
+the several cases coming under the writer's observation of bites by
+this insect, one has been reported by the well-known entomologist Mr.
+Charles Dury, of Cincinnati, Ohio, in which this species (_M. picipes_)
+bit a man on the back of the hand, making a bad sore. In another case,
+where the insect was brought for our determination and proved to be
+this species, the bite was upon the cheek, and the swelling was said to
+be great, but with little pain. In a third case, occurring at Holland,
+S. C., the symptoms were more serious. The patient was bitten upon
+the end of the middle finger, and stated that the first paroxysm of
+pain was about like that resulting from a hornet or a bee sting, but
+almost immediately it grew ten times more painful, with a feeling of
+weakness followed by vomiting. The pain was felt to shoot up the arm to
+the under jaw, and the sickness lasted for a number of days. A fourth
+case, at Fort Bliss, Texas, is interesting as having occurred in bed.
+The patient was bitten on the hand, with very painful results and bad
+swelling.
+
+The third of the Eastern species, _Coriscus subcoleoptratus_, is said
+by Uhler to have a general distribution in the Northern States, and is
+like the species immediately preceding a native insect. There is no
+record of any bite by this species, and it is introduced here for the
+reason that it attracted the writer's attention crawling upon the walls
+of an earth closet in Greene County, New York, where on one occasion it
+bit him between the fingers. The pain was sharp, like the prick of a
+pin, but only a faint swelling followed, and no further inconvenience.
+The insect is mentioned, however, for the reason that, occurring in
+such situations, it is one of the forms which are liable to carry
+pathogenic bacteria.
+
+[Illustration: RASATUS BIGUTTATUS. Twice natural size. (Original.)]
+
+[Illustration: REDUVIUS (OPSICOSTES) PERSONATUS. Twice natural size.
+(Original.)]
+
+There remain for consideration the Southern and Western forms--_Rasatus
+thoracicus_ and _R. biguttatus_, and _Conorhinus sanguisugus_.
+
+The two-spotted corsair, as _Rasatus biguttatus_ is popularly termed,
+is said by Riley to be found frequently in houses in the Southern
+States, and to prey upon bedbugs. Lintner, referring to the fact that
+it preys upon bedbugs, says: "It evidently delights in human blood, but
+prefers taking it at second hand." Dr. A. Davidson, formerly of Los
+Angeles, Cal., in an important paper entitled So-called Spider Bites
+and their Treatment, published in the Therapeutic Gazette of February
+15, 1897, arrives at the conclusion that almost all of the so-called
+spider bites met with in southern California are produced by no spider
+at all, but by _Rasatus biguttatus_. The symptoms which he describes
+are as follows: "Next day the injured part shows a local cellulitis,
+with a central dark spot; around this spot there frequently appears
+a bullous vesicle about the size of a ten-cent piece, and filled with
+a dark grumous fluid; a small ulcer forms underneath the vesicle, the
+necrotic area being generally limited to the central part, while the
+surrounding tissues are more or less swollen and somewhat painful. In
+a few days, with rest and proper care, the swelling subsides, and in
+a week all traces of the cellulitis are usually gone. In some of the
+cases no vesicle forms at the point of injury, the formation probably
+depending on the constitutional vitality of the individual or the
+amount of poison introduced." The explanation of the severity of the
+wound suggested by Dr. Davidson, and in which the writer fully concurs
+with him, is not that the insect introduces any specific poison of
+its own, but that the poison introduced is probably accidental and
+contains the ordinary putrefactive germs which may adhere to its
+proboscis. Dr. Davidson's treatment was corrosive sublimate--1 to 500
+or 1 to 1,000--locally applied to the wound, keeping the necrotic part
+bathed in the solution. The results have in all cases been favorable.
+Uhler gives the distribution of _R. biguttatus_ as Arizona, Texas,
+Panama, Para, Cuba, Louisiana, West Virginia, and California. After a
+careful study of the material in the United States National Museum,
+Mr. Heidemann has decided that the specimens of _Rasatus_ from the
+southeastern part of the country are in reality Say's _R. biguttatus_,
+while those from the Southwestern States belong to a distinct species
+answering more fully, with slight exceptions, to the description of
+Stal's _Rasatus thoracicus_. The writer has recently received a large
+series of _R. thoracicus_ from Mr. H. Brown, of Tucson, Arizona, and
+had a disagreeable experience with the same species in April, 1898, at
+San Jose de Guaymas, in the State of Sonora, Mexico. He had not seen
+the insect alive before, and was sitting at the supper table with his
+host--a ranchero of cosmopolitan language. One of the bugs, attracted
+by the light, flew in with a buzz and flopped down on the table. The
+writer's entomological instinct led him to reach out for it, and was
+warned by his host in the remarkable sentence comprising words derived
+from three distinct languages: "Guardez, guardez! Zat animalito sting
+like ze dev!" But it was too late; the writer had been stung on the
+forefinger, with painful results. Fortunately, however, the insect's
+beak must have been clean, and no great swelling or long inconvenience
+ensued.
+
+Perhaps the best known of any of the species mentioned in our list is
+the blood-sucking cone-nose (_Conorhinus sanguisugus_). This ferocious
+insect belongs to a genus which has several representatives in the
+United States, all, however, confined to the South or West. _C.
+rubro-fasciatus_ and _C. variegatus_, as well as _C. sanguisugus_,
+are given the general geographical distribution of "Southern States."
+_C. dimidiatus_ and _C. maculipennis_ are Mexican forms, while _C.
+gerstaeckeri_ occurs in the Western States. The more recently described
+species, _C. protractus_ Uhl., has been taken at Los Angeles, Cal.;
+Dragoon, Ariz.; and Salt Lake City, Utah. All of these insects are
+blood-suckers, and do not hesitate to attack animals. Le Conte, in his
+original description of _C. sanguisugus_,[5] adds a most significant
+paragraph or two which, as it has not been quoted of late, will be
+especially appropriate here: "This insect, equally with the former"
+(see above), "inflicts a most painful wound. It is remarkable also
+for sucking the blood of mammals, particularly of children. I have
+known its bite followed by very serious consequences, the patient not
+recovering from its effects for nearly a year. The many relations which
+we have of spider bites frequently proving fatal have no doubt arisen
+from the stings of these insects or others of the same genera. When
+the disease called spider bite is not an anthrax or carbuncle it is
+undoubtedly occasioned by the bite of an insect--by no means however,
+of a spider. Among the many species of _Araneidae_ which we have in the
+United States I have never seen one capable of inflicting the slightest
+wound. Ignorant persons may easily mistake a _Cimex_ for a spider. I
+have known a physician who sent to me the fragments of a large ant,
+which he supposed was a spider, that came out of his grandchild's
+head." The fact that Le Conte was himself a physician, having graduated
+from the College of Physicians and Surgeons in 1846, thus having been
+nine years in practice at the time, renders this statement all the
+more significant. The life history and habits of _C. sanguisugus_ have
+been so well written up by my assistant, Mr. Marlatt, in Bulletin No.
+4, New Series, of the Division of Entomology, United States Department
+of Agriculture, that it is not necessary to enter upon them here.
+The point made by Marlatt--that the constant and uniform character
+of the symptoms in nearly all cases of bites by this insect indicate
+that there is a specific poison connected with the bite--deserves
+consideration, but there can be no doubt that the very serious results
+which sometimes follow the bite are due to the introduction of
+extraneous poison germs. The late Mr. J. B. Lembert, of Yosemite, Cal.,
+noticed particularly that the species of _Conorhinus_ occurring upon
+the Pacific coast is attracted by carrion. Professor Toumey, of Tucson,
+Arizona, shows how a woman broke out all over the body and limbs with
+red blotches and welts from a single sting on the shoulders. Specimens
+of _C. sanguisugus_ received in July, 1899, from Mayersville, Miss.,
+were accompanied by the statement--which is appropriate, in view of the
+fact that the newspapers have insisted that the "kissing bug" prefers
+the lip--that a friend of the writer was bitten on the lip, and that
+the effect was a burning pain, intense itching, and much swelling,
+lasting three or four days. The writer of the letter had been bitten
+upon the leg and arm, and his brother was bitten upon both feet and
+legs and on the arm, the symptoms being the same in all cases.
+
+[5] Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia,
+vol. vii, p. 404 1854-'55.
+
+More need hardly be said specifically concerning these biting bugs.
+The writer's conclusions are that a puncture by any one of them may
+be and frequently has been mistaken for a spider bite, and that
+nearly all reported spider-bite cases have had in reality this cause,
+that the so-called "kissing-bug" scare has been based upon certain
+undoubted cases of the bite of one or the other of them, but that other
+bites, including mosquitoes, with hysterical and nervous symptoms
+produced by the newspaper accounts, have aided in the general alarm.
+The case of Miss Larson, who died in August, 1898, as the result of
+a mosquito bite, at Mystic, Conn., is an instance which goes to show
+that no mysterious new insect need be looked for to explain occasional
+remarkable cases. One good result of the "kissing-bug" excitement will
+prove in the end to be that it will have relieved spiders from much
+unnecessary discredit.
+
+
+
+
+THE MOSQUITO THEORY OF MALARIA.[6]
+
+BY MAJOR RONALD ROSS.
+
+
+I have the honor to address you, on completion of my term of special
+duty for the investigation of malaria, on the subject of the practical
+results as regard the prevention of the disease which may be expected
+to arise from my researches; and I trust that this letter may be
+submitted to the Government if the director general thinks fit.
+
+[6] A report, published in Nature, from Major Ronald Ross to the
+Secretary to the Director General, Indian Medical Service, Simla. Dated
+Calcutta, February 16, 1899.
+
+It has been shown in my reports to you that the parasites of malaria
+pass a stage of their existence in certain species of mosquitoes, by
+the bites of which they are inoculated into the blood of healthy men
+and birds. These observations have solved the problem--previously
+thought insolvable--of the mode of life of these parasites in external
+Nature.
+
+My results have been accepted by Dr. Laveran, the discoverer of the
+parasites of malaria; by Dr. Manson, who elaborated the mosquito
+theory of malaria; by Dr. Nuttall, of the Hygienic Institute of
+Berlin, who has made a special study of the relations between insects
+and disease; and, I understand, by M. Metchnikoff, Director of the
+Laboratory of the Pasteur Institute in Paris. Lately, moreover, Dr. C.
+W. Daniels, of the Malaria Commission, who has been sent to study with
+me in Calcutta, has confirmed my observations in a special report to
+the Royal Society; while, lastly, Professor Grassi and Drs. Bignami
+and Bastianelli, of Rome, have been able, after receiving specimens
+and copies of my reports from me, to repeat my experiments in detail,
+and to follow two of the parasites of human malaria through all their
+stages in a species of mosquito called the _Anopheles claviger_.
+
+It may therefore be finally accepted as a fact that malaria is
+communicated by the bites of some species of mosquito; and, to judge
+from the general laws governing the development of parasitic animals,
+such as the parasites of malaria, this is very probably the only way in
+which infection is acquired, in which opinion several distinguished men
+of science concur with me.
+
+In considering this statement it is necessary to remember that it does
+not refer to the mere recurrences of fever to which people previously
+infected are often subject as the result of chill, fatigue, and so on.
+When I say that malaria is communicated by the bites of mosquitoes, I
+allude only to the original infection.
+
+It is also necessary to guard against assertions to the effect that
+malaria is prevalent where mosquitoes and gnats do not exist. In my
+experience, when the facts come to be inquired into, such assertions
+are found to be untrue. Scientific research has now yielded so absolute
+a proof of the mosquito theory of malaria that hearsay evidence opposed
+to it can no longer carry any weight.
+
+Hence it follows that, in order to eliminate malaria wholly or partly
+from a given locality, it is necessary only to exterminate the various
+species of insect which carry the infection. This will certainly
+remove the malaria to a large extent, and will almost certainly remove
+it altogether. It remains only to consider whether such a measure is
+practicable.
+
+Theoretically the extermination of mosquitoes is a very simple matter.
+These insects are always hatched from aquatic larvae or grubs which can
+live only in small stagnant collections of water, such as pots and tubs
+of water, garden cisterns, wells, ditches and drains, small ponds,
+half-dried water courses, and temporary pools of rain-water. So far as
+I have yet observed, the larvae are seldom to be found in larger bodies
+of water, such as tanks, rice fields, streams, and rivers and lakes,
+because in such places they are devoured by minnows and other small
+fish. Nor have I ever seen any evidence in favor of the popular view
+that they breed in damp grass, dead leaves, and so on.
+
+Hence, in order to get rid of these insects from a locality, it will
+suffice to empty out or drain away, or treat with certain chemicals,
+the small collections of water in which their larvae must pass their
+existence.
+
+But the practicability of this will depend on
+circumstances--especially, I think, on the species of mosquito with
+which we wish to deal. In my experience, different species select
+different habitations for their larvae. Thus the common "brindled
+mosquitoes" breed almost entirely in pots and tubs of water; the
+common "gray mosquitoes" only in cisterns, ditches, and drains; while
+the rarer "spotted-winged mosquitoes" seem to choose only shallow
+rain-water puddles and ponds too large to dry up under a week or more,
+and too small or too foul and stagnant for minnows.
+
+Hence the larvae of the first two varieties are found in large numbers
+round almost all human dwellings in India; and, because their breeding
+grounds--namely, vessels of water, drains, and wells--are so numerous
+and are so frequently contained in private tenements, it will be almost
+impossible to exterminate them on a large scale.
+
+On the other hand, spotted-winged mosquitoes are generally much
+more rare than the other two varieties. They do not appear to breed
+in wells, cisterns, and vessels of water, and therefore have no
+special connection with human habitations. In fact, it is usually
+a matter of some difficulty to obtain their larvae. Small pools of
+any permanence--such as they require--are not common in most parts
+of India, except during the rains, and then pools of this kind are
+generally full of minnows which make short work of any mosquito
+larvae they may find. In other words, the breeding grounds of the
+spotted-winged varieties seem to be so isolated and small that I
+think it may be possible to exterminate this species under certain
+circumstances.
+
+The importance of these observations will be apparent when I add
+that hitherto the parasites of human malaria have been found only in
+spotted-winged mosquitoes--namely, in two species of them in India and
+in one species in Italy. As a result of very numerous experiments I
+think that the common brindled and gray mosquitoes are quite innocuous
+as regards human malaria--a fortunate circumstance for the human race
+in the tropics; and Professor Grassi seems to have come to the same
+conclusion as the result of his inquiries in Italy.
+
+But I wish to be understood as writing with all due caution on these
+points. Up to the present our knowledge, both as regards the habits
+of the various species of mosquito and as regards the capacity of each
+for carrying malaria, is not complete. All I can now say is that if
+my anticipations be realized--if it be found that the malaria-bearing
+species of mosquito multiply only in small isolated collections of
+water which can easily be dissipated--we shall possess a simple mode of
+eliminating malaria from certain localities.
+
+I limit this statement to certain localities only, because it is
+obvious that where the breeding pools are very numerous, as in
+water-logged country, or where the inhabitants are not sufficiently
+advanced to take the necessary precautions, we can scarcely expect the
+recent observations to be of much use--at least for some years to come.
+And this limitation must, I fear, exclude most of the rural areas in
+India.
+
+Where, however, the breeding pools are not very numerous, and where
+there is anything approaching a competent sanitary establishment, we
+may, I think, hope to reap the benefit of these discoveries. And this
+should apply to the most crowded areas, such as those of cities, towns
+and cantonments, and also to tea, coffee, and indigo estates, and
+perhaps to military camps.
+
+For instance, malaria causes an enormous amount of sickness among the
+poor in most Indian cities. Here the common species of mosquitoes breed
+in the precincts of almost all the houses, and can therefore scarcely
+be exterminated; but pools suitable for the spotted-winged varieties
+are comparatively scarce, being found only on vacant areas, ill-kept
+gardens, or beside roads in very exceptional positions where they can
+neither dry up quickly nor contain fish. Thus a single small puddle
+may supply the dangerous mosquitoes to several square miles containing
+a crowded population: if this be detected and drained off--which will
+generally cost only a very few rupees--we may expect malaria to vanish
+from that particular area.
+
+The same considerations will apply to military cantonments and estates
+under cultivation. In many such malaria causes the bulk of the
+sickness, and may often, I think, originate from two or three small
+puddles of a few square yards in size. Thus in a malarious part of
+the cantonment of Secunderabad I found the larvae of spotted-winged
+mosquitoes only after a long search in a single little pool which could
+be filled up with a few cart-loads of town rubbish.
+
+In making these suggestions I do not wish to excite hopes which may
+ultimately prove to have been unfounded. We do not yet know all the
+dangerous species of mosquito, nor do we even possess an exhaustive
+knowledge of the haunts and habits of any one variety. I wish merely
+to indicate what, so far as I can see at present, may become a very
+simple means of eradicating malaria.
+
+One thing may be said for certain. Where previously we have been unable
+to point out the exact origin of the malaria in a locality, and have
+thought that it rises from the soil generally, we now hope for much
+more precise knowledge regarding its source; and it will be contrary to
+experience if human ingenuity does not finally succeed in turning such
+information to practical account.
+
+More than this, if the distinguishing characteristics of the
+malaria-bearing mosquitoes are sufficiently marked (if, for instance,
+they all have spotted wings), people forced to live or travel in
+malarious districts will ultimately come to recognize them and to take
+precautions against being bitten by them.
+
+Before practical results can be reasonably looked for, however, we must
+find precisely--
+
+(_a_) What species of Indian mosquitoes do and do not carry human
+malaria.
+
+(_b_) What are the habits of the dangerous varieties.
+
+I hope, therefore, that I may be permitted to urge the desirability of
+carrying out this research. It will no longer present any scientific
+difficulties, as only the methods already successfully adopted will be
+required. The results obtained will be quite unequivocal and definite.
+
+But the inquiry should be exhaustive. It will not suffice to
+distinguish merely one or two malaria-bearing species of mosquito in
+one or two localities; we should learn to know all of them in all parts
+of the country.
+
+The investigation will be abbreviated if the dangerous species be found
+to belong only to one class of mosquito, as I think is likely; and the
+researches which are now being energetically entered upon in Germany,
+Italy, America, and Africa will assist any which may be undertaken in
+India, though there is reason for thinking that the malaria-bearing
+species differ in various countries.
+
+As each species is detected it will be possible to attempt measures at
+once for its extermination in given localities as an experiment.
+
+I regret that, owing to my work connected with _kala-azar_, I have not
+been able to advance this branch of knowledge as much during my term
+of special duty as I had hoped to do; but I think that the solution of
+the malaria problem which has been obtained during this period will
+ultimately yield results of practical importance.
+
+
+
+
+FOOD POISONING.
+
+BY VICTOR C. VAUGHAN,
+
+PROFESSOR OF HYGIENE IN THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN.
+
+
+Within the past fifteen or twenty years cases of poisoning with foods
+of various kinds have apparently become quite numerous. This increase
+in the number of instances of this kind has been both apparent and
+real. In the first place, it is only within recent years that it has
+been recognized that foods ordinarily harmless may become most powerful
+poisons. In the second place, the more extensive use of preserved
+foods of various kinds has led to an actual increase in the number of
+outbreaks of food poisoning.
+
+The harmful effects of foods may be due to any of the following causes:
+
+1. Certain poisonous fungi may infect grains. This is the cause of
+epidemics of poisoning with ergotized bread, which formerly prevailed
+during certain seasons throughout the greater part of continental
+Europe, but which are now practically limited to southern Russia and
+Spain. In this country ergotism is practically unknown, except as a
+result of the criminal use of the drug ergot. However, a few herds of
+cattle in Kansas and Nebraska have been quite extensively affected with
+this disease.
+
+2. Plants and animals may feed upon substances that are not harmful
+to them, but which may seriously affect man on account of his greater
+susceptibility. It is a well-known fact that hogs may eat large
+quantities of arsenic or antimony without harm to themselves, and thus
+render their flesh unfit for food for man. It is believed that birds
+that feed upon the mountain laurel furnish a food poisonous to man.
+
+3. During periods of the physiological activity of certain glands
+in some of the lower animals the flesh becomes harmful to man. Some
+species of fish are poisonous during the spawning season.
+
+4. Both animal and vegetable foods may become infected with the
+specific germs of disease and serve as the carriers of the infection to
+man. Instances of the distribution of typhoid fever by the milkman are
+illustrations of this.
+
+5. Animals may be infected with specific diseases, which may be
+transmitted to man in the meat or milk. This is one of the means by
+which tuberculosis is spread.
+
+6. Certain nonspecific, poison-producing germs may find their way into
+foods of various kinds, and may by their growth produce chemical
+poisons either before or after the food has been eaten. This is the
+most common form of food poisoning known in this country.
+
+We will briefly discuss some foods most likely to prove harmful to man.
+
+MUSSEL POISONING.--It has long been known that this bivalve is
+occasionally poisonous. Three forms of mussel poisoning are recognized.
+The first, known as _Mytilotoxismus gastricus_, is accompanied by
+symptoms practically identical with those of cholera morbus. At first
+there is nausea, followed by vomiting, which may continue for hours.
+In severe cases the walls of the stomach are so seriously altered that
+the vomited matter contains considerable quantities of blood. Vomiting
+is usually accompanied by severe and painful purging. The heart may be
+markedly affected, and death may result from failure of this organ.
+Examination after death from this cause shows the stomach and small
+intestines to be highly inflamed.
+
+The second form of mussel poisoning is known as _Mytilotoxismus
+exanthematicus_ on account of visible changes in the skin. At first
+there is a sensation of heat, usually beginning in the eyelids, then
+spreading to the face, and finally extending over the whole body.
+This sensation is followed by an eruption, which is accompanied by
+intolerable itching. In severe cases the breathing becomes labored, the
+face grows livid, consciousness is lost, and death may result within
+two or three days.
+
+The most frequently observed form of mussel poisoning is that
+designated as _Mytilotoxismus paralyticus_. As early as 1827 Combe
+reported his observations upon thirty persons who had suffered from
+this kind of mussel poisoning. The first symptoms, as a rule, appeared
+within two hours after eating the poisonous food. Some suffered from
+nausea and vomiting, but these were not constant or lasting symptoms.
+All complained of a prickly feeling in the hands, heat and constriction
+of the throat, difficulty of swallowing and speaking, numbness about
+the mouth, gradually extending over the face and to the arms, with
+great debility of the limbs. Most of the sufferers were unable to
+stand; the action of the heart was feeble, and the face grew pale and
+expressed much anxiety. Two of the thirty cases terminated fatally.
+Post-mortem examination showed no abnormality.
+
+Many opinions have been expressed concerning the nature of harmful
+mussels. Until quite recently it was a common belief that certain
+species are constantly toxic. Virchow has attempted to describe the
+dangerous variety of mussels, stating that it has a brighter shell,
+sweeter, more penetrating, bouillonlike odor than the edible kind, and
+that the flesh of the poisonous mussel is yellow; the water in which
+they are boiled becomes bluish.
+
+However, this belief in a poisonous species is now admitted to be
+erroneous. At one time it was suggested that mussels became hurtful
+by absorbing the copper from the bottoms of vessels, but Christison
+made an analysis of the mussels that poisoned the men mentioned by
+Combe, with negative results, and also pointed out the fact that the
+symptoms were not those of poisoning with copper. Some have held that
+the ill effects were due wholly to idiosyncrasies in the consumers,
+but cats and dogs are affected in the same way as men are. It has also
+been believed that all mussels are poisonous during the period of
+reproduction. This theory is the basis of the popular superstition that
+shellfish should not be eaten during the months in the name of which
+the letter "r" does not occur. At one time this popular idea took the
+form of a legal enactment in France forbidding the sale of shellfish
+from May 1st to September 1st. This widespread idea has a grain of
+truth in it, inasmuch as decomposition is more likely to alter food
+injuriously during the summer months. However, poisoning with mussels
+may occur at any time of the year.
+
+It has been pretty well demonstrated that the first two forms of mussel
+poisoning mentioned above are due to putrefactive processes, while
+the paralytic manifestations seen in other cases are due to a poison
+isolated a few years ago by Brieger, and named by him mytilotoxin. Any
+mussel may acquire this poison when it lives in filthy water. Indeed,
+it has been shown experimentally that edible mussels may become harmful
+when left for fourteen days or longer in filthy water; while, on the
+other hand, poisonous mussels may become harmless if kept four weeks
+or longer in clear water. This is true not only of mussels, but of
+oysters as well. Some years ago, many cases of poisoning from oysters
+were reported at Havre. The oysters had been taken from a bed near the
+outlet of a drain from a public water closet. Both oysters and mussels
+may harbor the typhoid bacillus, and may act as carriers of this germ
+to man.
+
+There should be most stringent police regulations against the sale of
+all kinds of mollusks, and all fish as well, taken from filthy waters.
+Certainly one should avoid shellfish from impure waters, and it is not
+too much to insist that those offered for food should be washed in
+clean water. All forms of clam and oyster broth should be avoided when
+it has stood even for a few hours at summer heat. These preparations
+very quickly become infected with bacteria, which develop most potent
+poisons.
+
+FISH POISONING.--Some fish are supplied with poisonous glands, by means
+of which they secure their prey and protect themselves from their
+enemies. The "dragon weaver," or "sea weaver" (_Trachinus draco_),
+is one of the best known of these fish. There are numerous varieties
+widely distributed in salt waters. The poisonous spine is attached
+partly to the maxilla and partly to the gill cover at its base. This
+spine is connected with a poisonous gland; the spine itself is grooved
+and covered with a thin membrane, which converts the grooves into
+canals. When the point enters another animal its membrane is stripped
+back and the poison enters the wound. Men sometimes wound their feet
+with the barbs of this fish while bathing. It also occasionally happens
+that a fisherman pricks his fingers with one of these barbs. The most
+poisonous variety of this fish known is found in the Mediterranean Sea.
+Wounds produced by these animals sometimes cause death. In _Synanceia
+brachio_ there are in the dorsal fin thirteen barbs, each connected
+with two poison reservoirs. The secretion from these glands is clear,
+bluish in color, and acid in reaction, and when introduced beneath the
+skin causes local gangrene and, if in sufficient quantity, general
+paralysis. In _Plotosus lineatus_ there is a powerful barb in front of
+the ventral fin, and the poison is not discharged unless the end of
+the barb is broken. The most poisonous variety of this fish is found
+only in tropical waters. In _Scorpaena scrofa_ and other species of this
+family there are poison glands connected with the barbs in the dorsal
+and in some varieties in the caudal fin.
+
+A disease known as _kakke_ was a few years ago quite prevalent in
+Japan and other countries along the eastern coast of Asia. With
+the opening up of Japan to the civilized world the study of this
+disease by scientific methods was undertaken by the observant and
+intelligent natives who acquired their medical training in Europe and
+America. In Tokio the disease generally appears in May, reaches its
+greatest prevalence in August, and gradually disappears in September
+and October. The researches of Miura and others have fairly well
+demonstrated that this disease is due to the eating of fish belonging
+to the family of _Scombridae_. There are other kinds of fish in
+Japanese waters that undoubtedly are poisonous. This is true of the
+_tetrodon_, of which, according to Remey, there are twelve species
+whose ovaries are poisonous. Dogs fed upon these organs soon suffered
+from salivation, vomiting, and convulsive muscular contractions. When
+some of the fluid obtained by rubbing the ovaries in a mortar was
+injected subcutaneously in dogs the symptoms were much more severe, and
+death resulted. Tahara states that he has isolated from the roe of the
+tetrodon two poisons, one of which is a crystalline base, while the
+other is a white, waxy body. From 1885 to 1892 inclusive, 933 cases of
+poisoning with this fish were reported in Tokio, with a mortality of
+seventy-two per cent.
+
+Fish poisoning is quite frequently observed in the West Indies, where
+the complex of symptoms is designated by the Spanish term _siguatera_.
+It is believed by the natives that the poisonous properties of the fish
+are due to the fact that they feed upon decomposing medusae and corals.
+In certain localities it is stated that all fish caught off certain
+coral reefs are unfit for food. However, all statements concerning the
+origin and nature of the poison in these fish are mere assumptions,
+since no scientific work has been done. Whatever the source of the
+poison may be, it is quite powerful, and death not infrequently
+results. The symptoms are those of gastro-intestinal irritation
+followed by collapse.
+
+In Russia fish poisoning sometimes causes severe and widespread
+epidemics. The Government has offered a large reward for any one who
+will positively determine the cause of the fish being poisonous and
+suggest successful means of preventing these outbreaks. Schmidt, after
+studying several of these epidemics, states the following conclusions:
+
+(_a_) The harmful effects are not due to putrefactive processes. (_b_)
+Fish poisoning in Russia is always due to the eating of some member of
+the sturgeon tribe. (_c_) The ill effects are not due to the method of
+catching the fish, the use of salt, or to imperfections in the methods
+of preservation. (_d_) The deleterious substance is not uniformly
+distributed through the fish, but is confined to certain parts. (_e_)
+The poisonous portions are not distinguishable from the nonpoisonous,
+either macroscopically or microscopically. (_f_) When the fish is
+cooked it may be eaten without harm. (_g_) The poison is an animal
+alkaloid produced most probably by bacteria that cause an infectious
+disease in the fish during life.
+
+The conclusion reached by Schmidt is confirmed by the researches of
+Madame Sieber, who found a poisonous bacillus in fish which had caused
+an epidemic.
+
+In the United States fish poisoning is most frequently due to
+decomposition in canned fish. The most prominent symptoms are nausea,
+vomiting, and purging. Sometimes there is a scarlatinous rash, which
+may cover the whole body. The writer has studied two outbreaks of
+this kind of fish poisoning. In both instances canned salmon was the
+cause of the trouble. Although a discussion of the treatment of food
+poisoning is foreign to this paper, the writer must call attention to
+the danger in the administration of opiates in cases of poisoning with
+canned fish. Vomiting and purging are efforts on the part of Nature to
+remove the poison, and should be assisted by the stomach tube and by
+irrigation of the colon. In one of the cases seen by the writer large
+doses of morphine had been administered in order to check the vomiting
+and purging and to relieve the pain; in this case death resulted. The
+danger of arresting the elimination of the poison in all cases of food
+poisoning can not be too emphatically condemned.
+
+MEAT POISONING.--The diseases most frequently transmitted from the
+lower animals to man by the consumption of the flesh or milk of the
+former by the latter are tuberculosis, anthrax, symptomatic anthrax,
+pleuro-pneumonia, trichinosis, mucous diarrhoea, and actinomycosis.
+It hardly comes within the scope of this article to discuss in detail
+the transmission of these diseases from the lower animals to man.
+However, the writer must be allowed to offer a few opinions concerning
+some mooted questions pertaining to the consumption of the flesh
+of tuberculous animals. Some hold that it is sufficient to condemn
+the diseased part of the tuberculous cow, and that the remainder
+may be eaten with perfect safety. Others teach that "total seizure"
+and destruction of the entire carcass by the health authorities are
+desirable. Experiments consisting of the inoculation of guinea pigs
+with the meat and meat juices of tuberculous animals have given
+different results to several investigators. To one who has seen
+tuberculous animals slaughtered, these differences in opinion and in
+experimental results are easily explainable. The tuberculous invasion
+may be confined to a single gland, and this may occur in a portion
+of the carcass not ordinarily eaten; while, on the other hand, the
+invasion may be much more extensive and the muscles may be involved.
+The tuberculous portion may consist of hard nodules that do not break
+down and contaminate other tissues in the process of removal, but the
+writer has seen a tuberculous abscess in the liver holding nearly a
+pint of broken-down infected matter ruptured or cut in removing this
+organ, and its contents spread over the greater part of the carcass.
+This explains why one investigator succeeds in inducing tuberculosis
+in guinea pigs by introducing small bits of meat from a tuberculous
+cow into the abdominal cavity, while another equally skillful
+bacteriologist follows the same details and fails to get positive
+results. No one desires to eat any portion of a tuberculous animal, and
+the only safety lies in "total seizure" and destruction. That the milk
+from tuberculous cows, even when the udder is not involved, may contain
+the specific bacillus has been demonstrated experimentally. The writer
+has suggested that every one selling milk should be licensed, and the
+granting of a license should be dependent upon the application of the
+tuberculin test to every cow from which milk is sold. The frequency
+with which tuberculosis is transmitted to children through milk should
+justify this action.
+
+That a profuse diarrhoea may render the flesh of an animal unfit
+food for man was demonstrated by the cases studied by Gaertner. In this
+instance the cow was observed to have a profuse diarrhoea for two
+days before she was slaughtered. Both the raw and cooked meat from this
+animal poisoned the persons who ate it. Medical literature contains the
+records of many cases of meat poisoning due to the eating of the flesh
+of cows slaughtered while suffering from puerperal fever. It has been
+found that the flesh of animals dead of symptomatic anthrax may retain
+its infection after having been preserved in a dry state for ten years.
+
+One of the most frequently observed forms of meat poisoning is that
+due to the eating of decomposed sausage. Sausage poisoning, known
+as _botulismus_, is most common in parts of Germany. Germans who
+have brought to the United States their methods of preparing sausage
+occasionally suffer from this form of poisoning. The writer had
+occasion two years ago to investigate six cases of this kind, two
+of which proved fatal. The sausage meat had been placed in uncooked
+sections of the intestines and alternately frozen and thawed and
+then eaten raw. In this instance the meat was infected with a highly
+virulent bacillus, which resembled very closely the _Bacterium coli_.
+
+In England, Ballard has reported numerous epidemics of meat poisoning,
+in most of which the meat had become infected with some nonspecific,
+poison-producing germ. In 1894 the writer was called upon to
+investigate cases of poisoning due to the eating of pressed chicken.
+The chickens were killed Tuesday afternoon and left hanging in a market
+room at ordinary temperature until Wednesday forenoon, when they were
+drawn and carried to a restaurant and here left in a warm room until
+Thursday, when they were cooked (not thoroughly), pressed, and served
+at a banquet in which nearly two hundred men participated. All ate
+of the chicken, and were more or less seriously poisoned. The meat
+contained a slender bacillus, which was fatal to white rats, guinea
+pigs, dogs, and rabbits.
+
+Ermengem states that since 1867 there have been reported 112 epidemics
+of meat poisoning, in which 6,000 persons have been affected. In 103 of
+these outbreaks the meat came from diseased animals, while in only five
+was there any evidence that putrefactive changes in the meat had taken
+place. My experience convinces me that in this country meat poisoning
+frequently results from putrefactive changes.
+
+Instances of poisoning from the eating of canned meats have become
+quite common. Although it may be possible that in some instances the
+ill effects result from metallic poisoning, in a great majority of
+cases the poisonous substances are formed by putrefactive changes. In
+many cases it is probable that decomposition begins after the can has
+been opened by the consumer; in others the canning is imperfectly done,
+and putrefaction is far advanced before the food reaches the consumer.
+In still other instances the meat may have been taken from diseased
+animals, or it may have undergone putrefactive changes before the
+canning. It should always be remembered that canned meat is especially
+liable to putrefactive changes after the can has been opened, and when
+the contents of the open can are not consumed at once the remainder
+should be kept in a cold place or should be thrown away. People are
+especially careless on this point. While every one knows that fresh
+meat should be kept in a cold place during the summer, an open can of
+meat is often allowed to stand at summer temperature and its contents
+eaten hours after the can has been opened. This is not safe, and has
+caused several outbreaks of meat poisoning that have come under the
+observation of the writer.
+
+MILK POISONING.--In discussing this form of food poisoning we will
+exclude any consideration of the distribution of the specific
+infectious diseases through milk as the carrier of the infection,
+and will confine ourselves to that form of milk poisoning which is
+due to infection with nonspecific, poison-producing germs. Infants
+are highly susceptible to the action of the galactotoxicons (milk
+poisons). There can no longer be any doubt that these poisons are
+largely responsible for much of the infantile mortality which is
+alarmingly high in all parts of the world. It has been positively shown
+that the summer diarrhoea of infancy is due to milk poisoning. The
+diarrhoeas prevalent among infants during the summer months are not
+due to a specific germ, but there are many bacteria that grow rapidly
+in milk and form poisons which induce vomiting and purging, and may
+cause death. These diseases occur almost exclusively among children
+artificially fed. It is true that there are differences in chemical
+composition between the milk of woman and that of the cow, but these
+variations in percentage of proteids, fats, and carbohydrates are of
+less importance than the infection of milk with harmful bacteria. The
+child that takes its food exclusively from the breast of a healthy
+mother obtains a food that is free from poisonous bacteria, while the
+bottle-fed child may take into its body with its food a great number
+and variety of germs, some of which may be quite deadly in their
+effects. The diarrhoeas of infancy are practically confined to the
+hot months, because a high temperature is essential to the growth and
+wide distribution of the poison-producing bacteria. Furthermore, during
+the summer time these bacteria grow abundantly in all kinds of filth.
+Within recent years the medical profession has so urgently called
+attention to the danger of infected milk that there has been a great
+improvement in the care of this article of diet, but that there is yet
+room for more scientific and thorough work in this direction must be
+granted. The sterilization and Pasteurization of milk have doubtlessly
+saved the lives of many children, but every intelligent physician knows
+that even the most careful mother or nurse often fails to secure a milk
+that is altogether safe.
+
+It is true that milk often contains germs the spores of which
+are not destroyed by the ordinary methods of sterilization and
+Pasteurization. However, these germs are not the most dangerous ones
+found in milk. Moreover, every mother and nurse should remember
+that in the preparation of sterilized milk for the child it is not
+only necessary to heat the milk, but, after it has been heated to a
+temperature sufficiently high and sufficiently prolonged, the milk must
+subsequently be kept at a low temperature until the child is ready to
+take it, when it may be warmed. It should be borne in mind that the
+subsequent cooling of the milk and keeping it at a low temperature is a
+necessary feature in the preparation of it as a food for the infant.
+
+CHEESE POISONING.--Under this heading we shall include the ill effects
+that may follow the eating of not only cheese but other milk products,
+such as ice cream, cream custard, cream puffs, etc. Any poison formed
+in milk may exist in the various milk products, and it is impossible
+to draw any sharp line of distinction between milk poisoning and
+cheese poisoning. However, the distinction is greater than is at first
+apparent. Under the head of milk poisoning we have called especial
+attention to those substances formed in milk to which children are
+particularly susceptible, while in cheese and other milk products
+there are formed poisonous substances against which age does not give
+immunity. Since milk is practically the sole food during the first year
+or eighteen months of life, the effect of its poisons upon infants is
+of the greatest importance; on the other hand, milk products are seldom
+taken by the infant, but are frequent articles of diet in after life.
+
+In 1884 the writer succeeded in isolating from poisonous cheese a
+highly active basic substance, to which he gave the name _tyrotoxicon_.
+The symptoms produced by this poison are quite marked, but differ in
+degree according to the amount of the poison taken. At first there is
+dryness of the mouth, followed by constriction of the fauces, then
+nausea, vomiting, and purging. The first vomited matter consists of
+food, then it becomes watery and is frequently stained with blood. The
+stools are at first semisolid, and then are watery and serous. The
+heart is depressed, the pulse becomes weak and irregular, and in severe
+cases the face appears cyanotic. There may be dilatation of the pupil,
+but this is not seen in all. The most dangerous cases are those in
+which the vomiting is slight and soon ceases altogether, and the bowels
+are constipated from the beginning. Such cases as these require prompt
+and energetic treatment. The stomach and bowels should be thoroughly
+irrigated in order to remove the poison, and the action of the heart
+must be sustained.
+
+At one time the writer believed that tyrotoxicon was the active agent
+in all samples of poisonous cheese, but more extended experimentation
+has convinced him that this is not the case. Indeed, this poison is
+rarely found, while the number of poisons in harmful cheese is no doubt
+considerable. There are numerous poisonous albumins found in cheese
+and other milk products. While all of these are gastro-intestinal
+irritants, they differ considerably in other respects.
+
+In 1895 the writer and Perkins made a prolonged study of a bacillus
+found in cheese which had poisoned fifty people. Chemically the
+poison produced by this germ is distinguished from tyrotoxicon by
+the fact that it is not removed from alkaline solution with ether.
+Physiologically the new poison has a more pronounced effect on the
+heart, in which it resembles muscarin or neurin more closely than it
+does tyrotoxicon. Pathologically, the two poisons are unlike, inasmuch
+as the new poison induces marked congestion of the tissues about the
+point of injection when used upon animals hypodermically. Furthermore,
+the intestinal constrictions which are so uniformly observed in animals
+poisoned by tyrotoxicon was not once seen in our work with this new
+poison, although it was carefully looked for in all our experiments.
+
+In 1898 the writer, with McClymonds, examined samples of cheese from
+more than sixty manufacturers in this country and in Europe. In all
+samples of ordinary American green cheese poisonous germs were found in
+greater or less abundance. These germs resemble very closely the colon
+bacillus, and most likely their presence in the milk is to be accounted
+for by contamination with bits of fecal matter from the cow. It is more
+than probable that the manufacture of cheese is yet in its infancy,
+and we need some one to do for this industry what Pasteur did for the
+manufacture of beer. At present the flavor of a given cheese depends
+upon the bacteria and molds which accidentally get into it. The time
+will probably come when all milk used for the manufacture of cheese
+will be sterilized, and then selected molds and bacteria will be sown
+in it. In this way the flavor and value of a cheese will be determined
+with scientific accuracy, and will not be left to accident.
+
+CANNED FOODS.--As has been stated, the increased consumption of
+preserved foods is accountable for a great proportion of the cases
+of food poisoning. The preparation of canned foods involves the
+application of scientific principles, and since this work is done by
+men wholly ignorant of science it is quite remarkable that harmful
+effects do not manifest themselves more frequently than they do. Every
+can of food which is not thoroughly sterilized may become a source of
+danger to health and even to life. It may be of interest for us to
+study briefly the methods ordinarily resorted to in the preparation
+of canned foods. With most substances the food is cooked before being
+put into the can. This is especially true of meats of various kinds.
+Thorough cooking necessarily leads to the complete sterilization of
+the food; but after this, it must be transferred to the can, and the
+can must be properly closed. With the handling necessary in canning
+the food, germs are likely to be introduced. Moreover, it is possible
+that the preliminary cooking is not thoroughly done and complete
+sterilization is not reached. The empty can should be sterilized. If
+one wishes to understand the _modus operandi_ of canning foods, let him
+take up a round can of any fruit, vegetable, or meat and examine the
+bottom of the can, which is in reality the top during the process of
+canning and until the label is put on. The food is introduced through
+the circular opening in this end, now closed by a piece which can be
+seen to be soldered on. After the food has been introduced through this
+opening the can and contents are heated either in a water bath or by
+means of steam. The opening through which the food was introduced is
+now closed by a circular cap of suitable size, which is soldered in
+position.
+
+This cap has near its center a "prick-hole" through which the steam
+continues to escape. This "prick-hole" is then closed with solder, and
+the closed can again heated in the water bath or with steam. If the
+can "blows" (if the ends of the can become convex) during this last
+heating the "prick-hole" is again punctured and the heated air allowed
+to escape, after which the "prick-hole" is again closed. Cans thus
+prepared should be allowed to stand in a warm chamber for four or five
+days. If the contents have not been thoroughly sterilized gases will
+be evolved during this time, or the can will "blow" and the contents
+should be discarded. Unscrupulous manufacturers take cans which have
+"blown," prick them to allow the escape of the contained gases, and
+then resterilize the cans with their contents, close them again, and
+put them on the market. These "blowholes" may be made in either end of
+the can, or they may be made in the sides of the can, where they are
+subsequently covered with the label. Of course, it does not necessarily
+follow that if a can has "blown" and been subsequently resterilized its
+contents will prove poisonous, but it is not safe to eat the contents
+of such cans. Reputable manufacturers discard all "blown" cans.
+
+Nearly all canned jellies sold in this country are made from apples.
+The apples are boiled with a preparation sold under the trade
+name "tartarine." This consists of either dilute hydrochloric or
+sulphuric acid. Samples examined by the writer have invariably been
+found to consist of dilute hydrochloric acid. The jelly thus formed
+by the action of the dilute acid upon the apple is converted into
+quince, pear, pineapple, or any other fruit that the pleasure of the
+manufacturer may choose by the addition of artificial flavoring agents.
+There is no reason for believing that the jellies thus prepared are
+harmful to health.
+
+Canned fruits occasionally contain salicylic acid in some form. There
+has been considerable discussion among sanitarians as to whether or
+not the use of this preservative is admissible. Serious poisoning with
+canned fruits is very rare. However, there can be but little doubt that
+many minor digestive disturbances are caused by acids formed in these
+foods. There has been much apprehension concerning the possibility of
+poisoning resulting from the soluble salts of tin formed by the action
+of fruit acids upon the can. The writer believes that anxiety on this
+point is unnecessary, and he has failed to find any positive evidence
+of poisoning resulting from this cause.
+
+There are two kinds of condensed milk sold in cans. These are known as
+condensed milk "with" and "without" sugar. In the preparation of the
+first-mentioned kind a large amount of cane sugar is added to condensed
+milk, and this acting as a preservative renders the preparation and
+successful handling of this article of food comparatively easy. On
+the other hand, condensed milk to which sugar has not been added is
+very liable to decomposition, and great care must be used in its
+preparation. The writer has seen several cases of severe poisoning that
+have resulted from decomposed canned milk. Any of the galactotoxicons
+(milk poisons) may be formed in this milk. In these instances the cans
+were "blown," both ends being convex.
+
+One of the most important sanitary questions in which we are concerned
+to-day is that pertaining to the subject of canned meats. It is
+undoubtedly true that unscrupulous manufacturers are putting upon the
+market articles of this kind of food which no decent man knowingly
+would eat, and which are undoubtedly harmful to all.
+
+The knowledge gained by investigations in chemical and bacteriological
+science have enabled the unscrupulous to take putrid liver and other
+disgusting substances and present them in such a form that the most
+fastidious palate would not recognize their origin. In this way the
+flesh from diseased animals and that which has undergone putrefactive
+changes may be doctored up and sold as reputable articles of diet.
+The writer does not believe that this practice is largely resorted
+to in this country, but that questionable preservatives have been
+used to some extent has been amply demonstrated by the testimony of
+the manufacturers of these articles themselves, given before the
+Senate committee now investigating the question of food and food
+adulterations. It is certainly true that most of the adulterations
+used in our foods are not injurious to health, but are fraudulent in a
+pecuniary sense; but when the flesh of diseased animals and substances
+which have undergone putrefactive decomposition can be doctored up and
+preserved by the addition of such agents as formaldehyde, it is time
+that the public should demand some restrictive measures.
+
+
+
+
+WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY.
+
+BY PROF. JOHN TROWBRIDGE,
+
+DIRECTOR OF JEFFERSON PHYSICAL LABORATORY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY.
+
+
+I never visit the historical collection of physical apparatus in the
+physical laboratory of Harvard University without a sense of wonderment
+at the marvelous use that has been made of old and antiquated pieces
+of apparatus which were once considered electrical toys. There can
+be seen the first batteries, the model of dynamo machines, and the
+electric motor. Such a collection is in a way a Westminster Abbey--dead
+mechanisms born to new uses and a great future.
+
+There is one simple piece of apparatus in the collection, without which
+telephony and wireless telegraphy would be impossible. To my mind it
+is the most interesting skeleton there, and if physicists marked the
+resting places of their apparatus laid to apparent rest and desuetude,
+this merits the highest sounding and most suggestive inscription. It
+is called a transformer, and consists merely of two coils of wire
+placed near each other. One coil is adapted to receive an electric
+current; the other coil, entirely independent of the first, responds
+by sympathy, or what is called induction, across the space which
+separates the coils. Doubtless if man knew all the capabilities of this
+simple apparatus he might talk to China, or receive messages from the
+antipodes. He now, by means of it, analyzes the light of distant suns,
+and produces the singular X rays which enable him to see through the
+human body. By means of it he already communicates his thoughts between
+stations thousands of miles apart, and by means of its manifestations I
+hope to make this article on wireless telegraphy intelligible. My essay
+can be considered a panegyric of this buried form--a history of its new
+life and of its unbounded possibilities.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Disposition of batteries and coils at the
+sending station, showing the arrangement of the vertical wire and the
+spark gap.]
+
+For convenience, one of the coils of the transformer is placed inside
+the other, and the combination is called a Ruhmkorf coil. It is
+represented in the accompanying photograph (Fig. 1), with batteries
+attached to the inner coil, while the outer coil is connected to two
+balls, between which an electric spark jumps whenever the battery
+circuit is broken. In fact, any disturbance in the battery circuit--a
+weakening, a strengthening, or a break--provided that the changes are
+sudden, produces a corresponding change in the neighboring circuit. One
+coil thus responds to the other, in some mysterious way, across the
+interval of air which separates them. Usually the coils are placed very
+near to each other--in fact, one embraces the other, as shown in the
+photograph.
+
+The coils, however, if placed several miles apart, will still respond
+to each other if they are made sufficiently large, if they are properly
+placed, and if a powerful current is used to excite one coil. Thus,
+by simply varying the distance between the coils of wire we can send
+messages through the air between stations which are not connected
+with a wire. This method, however, does not constitute the system of
+wireless telegraphy of Marconi, which it is the object of this paper
+to describe. Marconi has succeeded in transmitting messages over forty
+miles between points not connected by wires, and he has accomplished
+this feat by merely slightly modifying the disposition of the coils,
+thus revealing a new possibility of the wondrous transformer. If the
+reader will compare the following diagram (Fig. 2) with the photograph
+(Fig. 1), he will see how simple the sending apparatus of Marconi is.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Diagram of the arrangement of wires and
+batteries at the receiving station.]
+
+S is a gap between the ends of one coil, across which an electric spark
+is produced whenever the current from the batteries B flowing through
+the coil C is broken by an arrangement at D. This break produces an
+electrical pulsation in the coil C', which travels up and down the
+wire W, which is elevated to a considerable height above the ground.
+This pulsation can not be seen by the eye. The wire does not move;
+it appears perfectly quiescent and dead, and seems only a wire and
+nothing more. At night, under favorable circumstances, one could see a
+luminosity on the wire, especially at the end, when messages are being
+transmitted, by a powerful battery B.
+
+It is very easy to detect the electric lines which radiate from every
+part of such a wire when a spark jumps between the terminals S of
+the coil. All that is necessary to do is to pass the wire through a
+sensitive film and to develop the film. The accompanying photograph
+(Fig. 3) was taken at the top of such a wire, by means of a very
+powerful apparatus at my command. When the photograph is examined
+with a microscope the arborescent electric lines radiating from the
+wire, like the rays of light from a star, exhibit a beautiful fernlike
+structure. These lines, however, are not chiefly instrumental in
+transmitting the electric pulse across space.
+
+There are other lines, called magnetic lines of force, which emanate
+from every portion of the vertical wire W just as ripples spread out
+on the surface of placid water when it is disturbed by the fall of a
+stone. These magnetic ripples travel in the ether of space, and when
+they embrace a neighboring wire or coil they produce similar ripples,
+which whirl about the distant wire and produce in some strange way an
+electrical current in the wire. These magnetic pulsations can travel
+great distances.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+FIG. 2_a_ represents a more complete electrical arrangement of the
+receiver circuit. The vertical wire, W', is connected to one wire of
+the coherer, L. The other wire of the coherer is led to the ground, G.
+The wires in the coherer, L, are separated by fine metallic particles.
+B represents a battery. E, an electro-magnet which attracts a piece of
+iron, A (armature), and closes a local battery, B, causing a click of
+the sounder (electro-magnet), S. The magnetic waves (Fig. 5) embracing
+the wire, W', cause a pulsation in this wire which produces an
+electrical disturbance in the coherer analogous to that shown in Fig.
+3, by means of which an electrical current is enabled to pass through
+the electro-magnet, E.]
+
+In the photographs of these magnetic whirls, Fig. 4 is the whirl
+produced in the circuit C' by the battery B (Fig. 2), while Fig. 5 is
+that produced by electrical sympathy, or as it is called induction,
+in a neighboring wire. These photographs were obtained by passing the
+circuits through the sensitive films, perpendicularly to the latter,
+and then sprinkling very fine iron filings on these surfaces and
+exposing them to the light. In order to obtain these photographs a
+very powerful electrical current excited the coil C (Fig. 2), and the
+neighboring circuit W' (Fig. 5) was placed very near the circuit W.
+
+When the receiving wire is at the distance of several miles from
+the sending wire it is impossible to detect by the above method the
+magnetic ripples or whirls. We can, however, detect the electrical
+currents which these magnetic lines of force cause in the receiving
+wire; and this leads me to speak of the discovery of a remarkable
+phenomenon which has made Marconi's system of wireless telegraphy
+possible. In order that an electrical current may flow through a mass
+of particles of a metal, a mass, for instance, of iron filings, it
+is necessary either to compress them or to cause a minute spark or
+electrical discharge between the particles. Now, it is supposed that
+the magnetic whirls, in embracing the distant receiving circuit, cause
+these minute sparks, and thus enable the electric current from the
+battery B to work a telegraphic sounder or bell M. The metallic filings
+are inclosed in a glass tube between wires which lead to the battery,
+and the arrangement is called a coherer. It can be made small and
+light. Fig. 6 is a representation in full size of one that has been
+found to be very sensitive. It consists of two silver wires with a few
+iron filings contained in a glass tube between the ends of the wires.
+It is necessary that this little tube should be constantly shaken up
+in order that after the electrical circuit is made the iron filings
+should return to their non-conducting condition, or should cease to
+cohere together, and should thus be ready to respond to the following
+signal. My colleague, Professor Sabine, has employed a very small
+electric motor to cause the glass tube to revolve, and thus to keep the
+filings in motion while signals are being received. Fig. 7 shows the
+arrangement of the receiving apparatus.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Photograph of the electric lines which emanate
+from the end of the wire at the sending station, and which are probably
+reproduced among the metallic filings of the coherer at the receiving
+station.]
+
+The coherer and the motor are shown between two batteries, one of
+which drives the motor while the other serves to work the bell or
+sounder when the electric wire excites the iron filings. In Fig. 2
+this receiving apparatus is shown diagrammatically. B is the battery
+which sends a current through the sounder M and the coherer N when the
+magnetic whirls coming from the sending wire W embrace the receiving
+wire W'.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Magnetic whirls about the sending wire.]
+
+The term wireless telegraphy is a misnomer, for without wires the
+method would not be possible. The phenomenon is merely an enlargement
+of one that we are fully conscious of in the case of telegraph and
+telephone circuits, which is termed electro-magnetic induction.
+Whenever an electric current suddenly flows or suddenly ceases to
+flow along a wire, electrical currents are caused by induction in
+neighboring wires. The receiver employed by Marconi is a delicate
+spark caused by this induction, which forms a bridge so that an
+electric current from the relay battery can pass and influence magnetic
+instruments.
+
+Many investigators had succeeded before Marconi in sending telegraphic
+messages several miles through the air or ether between two points
+not directly connected by wires. Marconi has extended the distance by
+employing a much higher electro-motive force at the sending station
+and using the feeble inductive effect at a distance to set in action a
+local battery.
+
+It is evident that wires are needed at the sending station from every
+point of which magnetic and electric waves are sent out, and wires at
+the receiving station which embrace, so to speak, these waves in the
+manner shown by our photographs. These waves produce minute sparks in
+the receiving instrument, which act like a suddenly drawn flood gate in
+allowing the current from a local battery to flow through the circuit
+in which the spark occurs, and thus produce a click on a telegraphic
+instrument.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Magnetic whirls about the receiving wire.]
+
+We have said that messages had been sent by what is called wireless
+telegraphy before Marconi made his experiments. These messages had
+also been sent by induction, signals on one wire being received by a
+parallel and distant wire. To Marconi is due the credit of greatly
+extending the method by using a vertical wire. The method of using the
+coherer to detect electric pulses is not due, however, to Marconi.
+It is usually attributed to Branly; it had been employed, however,
+by previous observers, among whom is Hughes, the inventor of the
+microphone, an instrument analogous in its action to that of the
+coherer. In the case of the microphone, the waves from the human voice
+shake up the particles of carbon in the microphone transmitter, and
+thus cause an electrical current to flow more easily through the minute
+contacts of the carbon particles.
+
+The action of the telephone transmitter, which also consists of minute
+conducting particles in which a battery terminals are immersed, and
+the analogous coherer is microscopic, and there are many theories to
+account for their changes of resistance to electrical currents. We can
+not, I believe, be far wrong in thinking that the electric force breaks
+down the insulating effect of the infinitely thin layers of air between
+the particles, and thus allows an electric current to flow. This action
+is doubtless of the nature of an electric spark. An electric spark,
+in the case of wireless telegraphy, produces magnetic and electric
+lines of force in space, these reach out and embrace the circuit
+containing the coherer, and produce in turn minute sparks. _Similia
+similibus_--one action perfectly corresponds to the other.
+
+The Marconi system, therefore, of what is called wireless telegraphy
+is not new in principle, but only new in practical application. It had
+been used to show the phenomena of electric waves in lecture rooms.
+Marconi extended it from distances of sixty to one hundred feet to
+fifty or sixty miles. He did this by lifting the sending-wire spark on
+a lofty pole and improving the sensitiveness of the metallic filings
+in the glass tube at the receiving station. He adopted a mechanical
+arrangement for continually tapping the coherer in order to break up
+the minute bridges formed by the cohering action, and thus to prepare
+the filings for the next magnetic pulse. The system of wireless
+telegraphy is emphatically a spark system strangely analogous to
+flash-light signaling, a system in which the human eye with its rods
+and cones in the retina acts as the coherer, and the nerve system, the
+local battery, making a signal or sensation in the brain.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--The coherer employed to receive the electric
+waves. (One and a third actual size.)]
+
+Let us examine the sending spark a little further. An electric spark
+is perhaps the most interesting phenomenon in electricity. What causes
+it--how does the air behave toward it--what is it that apparently flows
+through the air, sending out light and heat waves as well as magnetic
+and electric waves? If we could answer all these questions, we should
+know what electricity is. A critical study of the electric spark has
+not only its scientific but its practical side. We see the latter side
+evidenced by its employment in wireless telegraphy and in the X rays;
+for in the latter case we have an electric discharge in a tube from
+which the air is removed--a special case of an electric spark. In
+order to understand the capabilities of wireless telegraphy we must
+turn to the scientific study of the electric spark; for its practical
+employment resides largely in its strength, in its frequency in its
+position, and in its power to make the air a conductor for electricity.
+All these points are involved in wireless telegraphy. How, then, shall
+we study the electric spark? The eye sees only an instantaneous flash
+following a devious path. It can not tell in what direction a spark
+flies (a flash of lightning, for instance), or indeed whether it has
+a direction. There is probably no commoner fallacy mankind entertains
+than the belief that the direction of lightning, or any electric spark,
+can be ascertained by the eye--that is, the direction from the sky
+to the earth or from the earth to the sky. I have repeatedly tested
+numbers of students in regard to this question, employing sparks four
+to six feet in length, taking precautions in regard to the concealment
+of the directions in which I charged the poles of the charging
+batteries, and I have never found a consensus of opinion in regard to
+directions. The ordinary photograph, too, reveals no more than the eye
+can see--a brilliant, devious line or a flaming discharge.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Arrangement of batteries of motor (to disturb
+the coherer) and the sounder by which the messages are received.]
+
+A large storage battery forms the best means of studying electric
+sparks, for with it one can run the entire gamut of this
+phenomenon--from the flaming discharge which we see in the arc light
+on the street to the crackling spark we employ in wireless telegraphy,
+and the more powerful discharges of six or more feet in length which
+closely resemble lightning discharges. A critical study of this gamut
+throws considerable light on the problem of the possibility of secret
+wireless telegraphy--a problem which it is most important to solve if
+the system is to be made practical; for at present the message spreads
+out from the sending spark in great circular ripples in all directions,
+and may be received by any one.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Photograph of electrical pulses. The interval
+between the pulses is one millionth of a second.]
+
+Several methods enable us to transform electrical energy so as to
+obtain suitable quick and intense blows on the surrounding medium.
+Is it possible that there is some mysterious vibration in the spark
+which is instrumental in the effective transmission of electrical
+energy across space? If the spark should vibrate or oscillate to and
+fro faster than sixteen times a second the human eye could not detect
+such oscillations; for an impression remains on the eye one sixteenth
+of a second, and subsequent ones separated by intervals shorter than a
+sixteenth would mingle together and could not be separated. The only
+way to ascertain whether the spark is oscillatory, or whether it is
+not one spark, as it appears to the eye, but a number of to-and-fro
+impulses, is to photograph it by a rapidly revolving mirror. The
+principle is similar to that of the biograph or the vitoscope, in
+which the quick to-and-fro motions of the spark are received on a
+sensitive film, which is in rapid motion. One terminal of the spark
+gap, the positive terminal so called, is always brighter than the
+other. Hence, if the sensitive film is moved at right angles to the
+path of the discharge, we shall get a row of dots which are the images
+of the brighter terminal, and these dots occur alternately first
+on one terminal and then on the other, showing that the discharge
+oscillates--that is, leaps in one discharge (which seems but one to the
+eye) many times in a hundred thousandth of a second. In practice it is
+found better to make an image of the spark move across the sensitive
+film instead of moving the film. This is accomplished by the same
+method that a boy uses in flashing sunlight by means of a mirror. The
+faster the mirror moves the faster moves the image of the light. In
+this way a speed of a millionth of a second can be attained. In this
+case the distance between the dots on the film may be one tenth of
+an inch, sufficient to separate them to the eye. The photograph of
+electric sparks (Fig. 8) was taken in this manner. The distance between
+any two bright spots in the trail of the photographic images represents
+the time of the electric oscillation or the time of the magnetic pulse
+or wave which is sent out from the spark, and which will cause a
+distant circuit to respond by a similar oscillation.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Photograph of a pilot spark, which is the
+principal factor in the method of wireless telegraphy.]
+
+At present the shortest time that can, so to speak, be photographed
+in this manner is about one two-millionth of a second. This is the
+time of propagation of a magnetic wave over four hundred feet long.
+The waves used in wireless telegraphy are not more than four feet in
+length--about one hundredth the length of those we can photograph.
+The photographic method thus reveals a mechanism of the spark which
+is entirely hidden from the eye and will always be concealed from
+human sight. It reveals, however, a greater mystery which it seems
+incompetent to solve--the mystery of what is called the pilot spark,
+the first discharge which we see on our photograph (Fig. 9) stretching
+intact from terminal to terminal, having the prodigious velocity of one
+hundred and eighty thousand miles a second. None of our experimental
+devices suffice to penetrate the mystery of this discharge. It is this
+pilot spark which is chiefly instrumental in sending out the magnetic
+pulses or waves which are powerful enough to reach forty or fifty
+miles. The preponderating influence of this pilot spark--so called
+since it finds a way for the subsequent surgings or oscillations--is
+a bar to the efforts to make wireless telegraphy secret. We can see
+from the photograph how much greater its strength is than that of the
+subsequent discharges shown by the mere brightening of the terminals.
+A delicate coherer will immediately respond to the influence of this
+pilot spark, and the subsequent oscillations of this discharge will
+have little effect. How, then, can we effectively time a receiving
+circuit so that it will respond to only one sending station? We can not
+depend upon the oscillatory nature of the spark, or adopt, in other
+words, its rate of vibration and form a coherer with the same rate.
+
+It seems as if it would be necessary to invent some method of sending
+pilot sparks at a high and definite rate of vibration, and of employing
+coherers which will only respond to definite powerful rates of magnetic
+pulsation. Various attempts have been made to produce by mechanical
+means powerful electric surgings, but they have been unsuccessful. Both
+high electro-motive force and strength of current are needed. These can
+be obtained by the employment of a great number of storage cells. The
+discharge from a large number of these cells, however, is not suitable
+for the purpose of wireless telegraphy, although it may possess the
+qualifications of both high electrical pressure and strength of current.
+
+The only apparatus we have at command to produce quick blows on the
+ether is the Ruhmkorf coil. This coil, I have said, has been in all our
+physical cabinets for fifty years. It contained within itself the germ
+of the telephone transmitter and the method of wireless telegraphy,
+unrecognized until the present. In its elements it consists, as we have
+seen, of two electrical circuits, placed near each other, entirely
+unconnected. A battery is connected with one of these circuits, and
+any change in the strength of the electrical current gives a blow to
+the ether or medium between the two circuits. A quick stopping of the
+electrical current gives the strongest impulse to the ether, which
+is taken up by the neighboring circuit. For the past fifty years
+very little advance has been made in the method of giving strong
+electrical impulses to the medium of space. It is accomplished simply
+by a mechanical breaking of the connection to the battery, either by
+a revolving wheel with suitable projections, or by a vibrating point.
+All the various forms of mechanical breaks are inefficient. They do not
+give quick and uniform breaks. Latterly, hopes have been excited by the
+discovery of a chemical break, called the Weynelt interrupter, shown in
+Fig. 1. The electrical current in passing through a vessel of diluted
+sulphuric acid from a point of platinum to a disk of lead causes
+bubbles of gas which form a barrier to its passage which is suddenly
+broken down, and this action goes on at a high rate of speed, causing
+a torrent of sparks in the neighboring circuit. The medium between
+the two circuits is thereby submitted to rapid and comparatively
+powerful impulses. The discovery of this and similar chemical or
+molecular interruptions marks an era in the history of the electrical
+transformer, and the hopes of further progress by means of them is far
+greater than in the direction of mechanical interruptions.
+
+We are still, however, unable to generate sufficiently powerful and
+sufficiently well-timed electrical impulses to make wireless telegraphy
+of great and extended use. Can we not hope to strengthen the present
+feeble impulses in wireless telegraphy by some method of relaying or
+repeating? In the analogous subject of telephony many efforts have
+also been made to render the service secret, and to extend it to great
+distances by means of relays. These efforts have not been successful up
+to the present. We still have our neighbors' call bells, and we could
+listen to their messages if we were gossips. The telephone service
+has been extended to great distances--for instance, from Boston to
+Omaha--not by relays, but by strengthening the blows upon the medium
+between the transmitting circuit and the receiving one, just as we
+desire to do in what is called wireless telegraphy, the apparatus of
+which is almost identical in principle to that employed in telephony.
+The individual call in telephony is not a success for nearly the same
+reasons that exist in the case of wireless telegraphy. Perfectly
+definite and powerful rates of vibration can not be sent from point to
+point over wires to which only certain definite apparatus will respond.
+There are so many ways in which the energy of the electric current can
+be dissipated in passing over wires and through calling bells that the
+form of the waves and their strength becomes attenuated. The form of
+the electrical waves is better preserved in free space, where there
+are no wires or where there is no magnetic matter. The difficulty
+in obtaining individual calls in wireless telegraphy resides in the
+present impossibility of obtaining sufficiently rapid and powerful
+electrical impulses, and a receiver which will properly respond to a
+definite number of such impulses.
+
+The question of a relay seems as impossible of solution as it does in
+telephony. The character of speech depends upon numberless delicate
+inflections and harmonies. The form, for instance, of the wave
+transmitting the vowel _a_ must be preserved in order that the sound
+may be recognized. A relay in telephony acts very much like one's
+neighbor in the game called gossip, in which a sentence repeated more
+or less indistinctly, after passing from one person to another, becomes
+distorted and meaningless. No telephone relay has been invented which
+preserves the form of the first utterance, the vowel _a_ loses its
+delicate characteristics, and becomes simply a meaningless noise. It is
+maintained by some authorities that such a relay can not be invented,
+that it is impossible to preserve the delicate inflections of the
+human voice in passing from one circuit to another, even through an
+infinitesimal air gap or ether space. It is well, however, to reflect
+upon Hosea Bigelow's sapient advice "not to prophesy unless you know."
+It was maintained in the early days of the telephone that speech would
+lose so many characteristics in the process of transmission over wires
+and through magnetic apparatus that it would not be intelligible.
+It is certain that at present long-distance transmission of speech
+can only be accomplished by using more powerful transmitters, and by
+making the line of copper better fitted for the transmission--just as
+quick transportation from place to place has not been accomplished by
+quitting the earth and by flying through space, but by obtaining more
+powerful engines and by improving the roadbeds.
+
+The hopes of obtaining a relay for wireless telegraphy seem as small
+as they do in telephony. The present method is practically limited to
+distances of fifty or sixty miles--distances not much exceeding those
+which can be reached by a search-light in fair weather. Indeed, there
+is a close parallelism between the search-light and the spark used in
+Marconi's experiments: both send out waves which differ only in length.
+The waves of the search-light are about one forty-thousandth of an
+inch long, while the magnetic waves of the spark, invisible to the
+eye, are three to four feet--more than a million times longer than the
+light waves. These very long waves have this advantage over the short
+light waves: they are able to penetrate fog, and even sand hills and
+masonry. One can send messages into a building from a point outside. A
+prisoner could communicate with the outer world, a beleaguered garrison
+could send for help, a disabled light-ship could summon assistance, and
+possibly one steamer could inform another in a fog of its course.
+
+Wireless telegraphy is the nearest approach to telepathy that has
+been vouchsafed to our intelligence, and it serves to stimulate our
+imagination and to make us think that things greatly hoped for can be
+always reached, although not exactly in the way expected. The nerves
+of the whole world are, so to speak, being bound together, so that a
+touch in one country is transmitted instantly to a far-distant one. Why
+should we not in time speak through the earth to the antipodes? If the
+magnetic waves can pass through brick and stone walls and sand hills,
+why should we not direct, so to speak, our trumpet to the earth,
+instead of letting its utterances skim over the horizon? In regard
+to this suggestion, we know certainly one fact from our laboratory
+experiences: that these magnetic waves, meeting layers of electrically
+conducting matter, like layers of iron ore, would be reflected back,
+and would not penetrate. Thus a means may be discovered through the
+instrumentality of such waves of exploring the mysteries of the earth
+before success is attained in completely penetrating its mass.
+
+
+
+
+EMIGRANT DIAMONDS IN AMERICA.
+
+BY PROF. WILLIAM HERBERT HOBBS.
+
+
+To discover the origin of the diamond in Nature we must seek it in
+its ancestral home, where the rocky matrix gave it birth in the form
+characteristic of its species. In prosecuting our search we should very
+soon discover that, in common with other gem minerals, the diamond has
+been a great wanderer, for it is usually found far from its original
+home. The disintegrating forces of the atmosphere, by acting upon the
+rocky material in which the stones were imbedded, have loosed them from
+their natural setting, to be caught up by the streams, sorted from
+their disintegrated matrix, and transported far from the parent rock,
+to be at last set down upon some gravelly bed over which the force of
+the current is weakened. The mines of Brazil and the Urals, of India,
+Borneo, and the "river diggings" of South Africa either have been or
+are now in deposits of this character.
+
+The "dry diggings" of the Kimberley district, in South Africa, afford
+the unique locality in which the diamond has thus far been found in
+its original home, and all our knowledge of the genesis of the mineral
+has been derived from study of this locality. The mines are located
+in "pans," in which is found the "blue ground" now recognized as the
+disintegrated matrix of the diamond. These "pans" are known to be the
+"pipes," or "necks," of former volcanoes, now deeply dissected by the
+forces of the atmosphere--in fact, worn down if not to their roots, at
+least to their stumps. These remnants of the "pipes," through which
+the lava reached the surface, are surrounded in part by a black shale
+containing a large percentage of carbon, and this is believed to be the
+material out of which the diamonds have been formed. What appear to
+be modified fragments of the black shale inclosed within the "pipes"
+afford evidence that portions of the shale have been broken from the
+parent beds by the force of the ascending current of lava--a common
+enough accompaniment to volcanic action--and have been profoundly
+altered by the high temperature and the extreme hydrostatic pressure
+under which the mass must have been held. The most important feature
+of this alteration has been the recrystallization of the carbon of the
+shale into diamond.
+
+[Illustration: GLACIAL MAP OF THE GREAT LAKES REGION
+
+Driftless Areas. Older Drift. Newer Drift.
+
+Moraines. Glacial Striae. Track of Diamonds.
+
+
+Diamond Localities E. Eagle O. Oregon K. Kohlsville D. Dowagiac M.
+Milford. P. Plum Crk. B. Burlington.
+
+We are indebted to the University of Chicago Press for the above
+illustration.]
+
+[Illustration: Copyright, 1899, by George F. Kunz.
+
+FIVE VIEWS OF THE EAGLE DIAMOND (sixteen carats); enlarged about three
+diameters. (Owned by Tiffany and Company.)
+
+We are indebted to the courtesy of Mr. G. F. Kunz, of Tiffany and
+Company, for the illustrations of the Oregon and Eagle diamonds.]
+
+This apparent explanation of the genesis of the diamond finds strong
+support in the experiments of Moissan, who obtained artificial diamond
+by dissolving carbon in molten iron and immersing the mass in cold
+water until a firm surface crust had formed. The "chilled" mass was
+then removed, to allow its still molten core to solidify slowly. This
+it does with the development of enormous pressures, because the natural
+expansion of the iron on passing into the solid condition is resisted
+by the strong shell of "chilled" metal. The isolation of the diamond
+was then accomplished by dissolving the iron in acid.
+
+The prevailing form of the South African diamonds is that of a rounded
+crystal, with eight large and a number of minute faces--a form called
+by crystallographers a _modified octahedron_. Their shapes would be
+roughly simulated by the Pyramids of Egypt if they could be seen,
+combined with their reflected images, in a placid lake, or, better
+to meet the conditions of the country, in a desert mirage. It is a
+peculiar property of diamond crystals to have convexly rounded faces,
+so that the edges which separate the faces are not straight, but gently
+curving. Less frequently in the African mines, but commonly in some
+other regions, diamonds are bounded by four, twelve, twenty-four, or
+even forty-eight faces. These must not, of course, be confused with the
+faces of cut stones, which are the product of the lapidary's art.
+
+Geological conditions remarkably like those observed at the Kimberley
+mines have recently been discovered in Kentucky, with the difference
+that here the shales contain a much smaller percentage of carbon, which
+may be the reason that diamonds have not rewarded the diligent search
+that has been made for them.
+
+Though now found in the greatest abundance in South Africa and in
+Brazil, diamonds were formerly obtained from India, Borneo, and from
+the Ural Mountains of Russia. The great stones of history have, with
+hardly an exception, come from India, though in recent years a number
+of diamond monsters have been found in South Africa. One of these,
+the "Excelsior," weighed nine hundred and seventy carats, which is in
+excess even of the supposed weight of the "Great Mogul."
+
+[Illustration: Copyright, 1899, by George F. Kunz.
+
+FOUR VIEWS OF THE OREGON DIAMOND; enlarged about three diameters.
+(Owned by Tiffany and Company.)]
+
+Occasionally diamonds have come to light in other regions than those
+specified. The Piedmont plateau, at the southeastern base of the
+Appalachians, has produced, in the region between southern Virginia and
+Georgia, some ten or twelve diamonds, which have varied in weight from
+those of two or three carats to the "Dewey" diamond, which when found
+weighed over twenty-three carats.
+
+It is, however, in the territory about the Great Lakes that the
+greatest interest now centers, for in this region a very interesting
+problem of origin is being worked out. No less than seven diamonds,
+ranging in size from less than four to more than twenty-one carats, not
+to mention a number of smaller stones, have been recently found in the
+clays and gravels of this region, where their distribution was such
+as to indicate with a degree of approximation the location of their
+distant ancestral home.
+
+In order clearly to set forth the nature of this problem and the method
+of its solution it will be necessary, first, to plot upon a map of the
+lake region the locality at which each of the stones has been found,
+and, further, to enter upon the same map the data which geologists
+have gleaned regarding the work of the great ice cap of the Glacial
+period. During this period, not remote as geological time is reckoned,
+an ice mantle covered the entire northeastern portion of our continent,
+and on more than one occasion it invaded for considerable distances
+the territory of the United States. Such a map as has been described
+discloses an important fact which holds the clew for the detection of
+the ancestral home of these diamonds. Each year is bringing with it new
+evidence, and we may look forward hopefully to a full solution of the
+problem.
+
+In 1883 the "Eagle Stone" was brought to Milwaukee and sold for
+the nominal sum of one dollar. When it was submitted to competent
+examination the public learned that it was a diamond of sixteen carats'
+weight, and that it had been discovered seven years earlier in earth
+removed from a well-opening. Two events which were calculated to arouse
+local interest followed directly upon the discovery of the real nature
+of this gem, after which it passed out of the public notice. The woman
+who had parted with the gem for so inadequate a compensation brought
+suit against the jeweler to whom she had sold it, in order to recover
+its value. This curious litigation, which naturally aroused a great
+deal of interest, was finally carried to the Supreme Court of the State
+of Wisconsin, from which a decision was handed down in favor of the
+defendant, on the ground that he, no less than the plaintiff, had been
+ignorant of the value of the gem at the time of purchasing it. The
+other event was the "boom" of the town of Eagle as a diamond center,
+which, after the finding of two other diamonds with unmistakable marks
+of African origin upon them, ended as suddenly as it had begun, with
+the effect of temporarily discrediting, in the minds of geologists, the
+genuineness of the original "find."
+
+Ten years later a white diamond of a little less than four carats'
+weight came to light in a collection of pebbles found in Oregon,
+Wisconsin, and brought to the writer for examination. The stones had
+been found by a farmer's lad while playing in a clay bank near his
+home. The investigation of the subject which was thereupon made brought
+out the fact that a third diamond, and this the larges of all, had
+been discovered at Kohlsville, in the same State, in 1883, and was
+still in the possession of the family on whose property it had been
+found.
+
+As these stones were found in the deposits of "drift" which were left
+by the ice of the Glacial period, it was clear that they had been
+brought to their resting places by the ice itself. The map reveals
+the additional fact, and one of the greatest significance, that all
+these diamonds were found in the so-called "kettle moraine." This
+moraine or ridge was the dumping ground of the ice for its burden of
+bowlders, gravel, and clay at the time of its later invasion, and hence
+indicates the boundaries of the territory over which the ice mass was
+then extended. In view of the fact that two of the three stones found
+had remained in the hands of the farming population, without coming
+to the knowledge of the world, for periods of eleven and seven years
+respectively, it seems most probable that others have been found,
+though not identified as diamonds, and for this reason are doubtless
+still to be found in many cases in association with other local
+"curios" on the clock shelves of country farmhouses in the vicinity
+of the "kettle moraine." The writer felt warranted in predicting, in
+1894, that other diamonds would occasionally be brought to light in the
+"kettle moraine," though the great extent of this moraine left little
+room for hope that more than one or two would be found at any one point
+of it.
+
+[Illustration: THREE VIEWS OF THE SAUKVILLE DIAMOND (six carats);
+enlarged about three diameters. (Owned by Bunde and Upmeyer, Milwaukee.)
+
+We are indebted to the courtesy of Bunde and Upmeyer, of Milwaukee, for
+the illustrations showing the Burlington and Saukville diamonds.]
+
+In the time that has since elapsed diamonds have been found at the rate
+of about one a year, though not, so far as I am aware, in any case
+as the result of search. In Wisconsin have been found the Saukville
+diamond, a beautiful white stone of six carats' weight, and also the
+Burlington stone, having a weight of a little over two carats. The
+former had been for more than sixteen years in the possession of the
+finder before he learned of its value. In Michigan has been found the
+Dowagiac stone, of about eleven carats' weight, and only very recently
+a diamond weighing six carats and of exceptionally fine "water" has
+come to light at Milford, near Cincinnati. This augmentation of the
+number of localities, and the nearness of all to the "kettle moraines,"
+leaves little room for doubt that the diamonds were conveyed by the ice
+at the time of its later invasion of the country.
+
+Having, then, arrived at a satisfactory conclusion regarding not only
+the agent which conveyed the stones, but also respecting the period
+during which they were transported, it is pertinent to inquire by what
+paths they were brought to their adopted homes, and whether, if these
+may be definitely charted, it may not be possible to follow them in a
+direction the reverse of that taken by the diamonds themselves until we
+arrive at the point from which each diamond started upon its journey.
+If we succeed in this we shall learn whether they have a common home,
+or whether they were formed in regions more or less widely separated.
+From the great rarity of diamonds in Nature it would seem that the
+hypothesis of a common home is the more probable, and this view finds
+confirmation in the fact that certain marks of "consanguinity" have
+been observed upon the stones already found.
+
+[Illustration: FOUR VIEWS OF THE BURLINGTON DIAMOND (a little over two
+carats); enlarged about three diameters. (Owned by Bunde and Upmeyer,
+Milwaukee.)]
+
+Not only did the ice mantle register its advance in the great ridge
+of morainic material which we know as the "kettle moraine," but it
+has engraved upon the ledges of rock over which it has ridden, in a
+simple language of lines and grooves, the direction of its movement,
+after first having planed away the disintegrated portions of the rock
+to secure a smooth and lasting surface. As the same ledges have been
+overridden more than once, and at intervals widely separated, they
+are often found, palimpsestlike, with recent characters superimposed
+upon earlier, partly effaced, and nearly illegible ones. Many of
+the scattered leaves of this record have, however, been copied by
+geologists, and the autobiography of the ice is now read from maps
+which give the direction of its flow, and allow the motion of the ice
+as a whole, as well as that of each of its parts, to be satisfactorily
+studied. Recent studies by Canadian geologists have shown that one of
+the highest summits of the ice cap must have been located some distance
+west of Hudson Bay, and that another, the one which glaciated the lake
+region, was in Labrador, to the east of the same body of water. From
+these points the ice moved in spreading fans both northward toward the
+Arctic Ocean and southward toward the States, and always approached the
+margins at the moraines in a direction at right angles to their extent.
+Thus the rock material transported by the ice was spread out in a great
+fan, which constantly extended its boundaries as it advanced.
+
+The evidence from the Oregon, Eagle, and Kohlsville stones, which
+were located on the moraine of the Green Bay glacier, is that their
+home, in case they had a common one, is between the northeastern
+corner of the State of Wisconsin and the eastern summit of the ice
+mantle--a narrow strip of country of great extent, but yet a first
+approximation of the greatest value. If we assume, further, that the
+Saukville, Burlington, and Dowagiac stones, which were found on the
+moraine of the Lake Michigan glacier, have the same derivation, their
+common home may confidently be placed as far to the northeast as
+the wilderness beyond the Great Lakes, since the Green Bay and Lake
+Michigan glaciers coalesced in that region. The small stones found at
+Plum Creek, Wisconsin, and the Cincinnati stone, if the locations of
+their discovery be taken into consideration, still further circumscribe
+the diamond's home territory, since the lobes of the ice mass which
+transported them made a complete junction with the Green Bay and Lake
+Michigan lobes or glaciers considerably farther to the northward than
+the point of union of the latter glaciers themselves.
+
+[Illustration: THREE VIEWS OF A LEAD CAST OF THE MILFORD STONE (six
+carats); enlarged about three diameters.
+
+We are indebted to the courtesy of Prof. T. H. Norton, of the
+University of Cincinnati, for the above illustrations.]
+
+If, therefore, it is assumed that all the stones which have been found
+have a common origin, the conclusion is inevitable that the ancestral
+home must be in the wilderness of Canada between the points where the
+several tracks marking their migrations converge upon one another, and
+the former summit of the ice sheet. The broader the "fan" of their
+distribution, the nearer to the latter must the point be located.
+
+It is by no means improbable that when the barren territory about
+Hudson Bay is thoroughly explored a region for profitable diamond
+mining may be revealed, but in the meantime we may be sure that
+individual stones will occasionally be found in the new American homes
+into which they were imported long before the days of tariffs and ports
+of entry. Mother Nature, not content with lavishing upon our favored
+nation the boundless treasures locked up in her mountains, has robbed
+the territory of our Canadian cousins of the rich soils which she has
+unloaded upon our lake States, and of the diamonds with which she has
+sowed them.
+
+[Illustration: COMMON FORMS OF QUARTZ CRYSTALS.]
+
+[Illustration: COMMON FORMS OF DIAMONDS. The African stones most
+resemble the figure above at the left (octahedron). The Wisconsin
+stones most resemble the figure above at the right (dodecahedron).]
+
+The range of the present distribution of the diamonds, while perhaps
+not limited exclusively to the "kettle moraine," will, as the events
+have indicated, be in the main confined to it. This moraine, with
+its numerous subordinate ranges marking halting places in the final
+retreat of the ice, has now been located with sufficient accuracy by
+the geologists of the United States Geological Survey and others,
+approximately as entered upon the accompanying map. Within the
+territory of the United States the large number of observations of the
+rock scorings makes it clear that the ice of each lobe or glacier moved
+from the central portion toward the marginal moraines, which are here
+indicated by dotted bands. In the wilderness of Canada the observations
+have been rare, but the few data which have been gleaned are there
+represented by arrows pointed in the direction of ice movement.
+
+There is every encouragement for persons who reside in or near the
+marginal moraines to search in them for the scattered jewels, which
+may be easily identified and which have a large commercial as well as
+scientific value.
+
+The Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey is now interesting
+itself in the problem of the diamonds, and has undertaken the task of
+disseminating information bearing on the subject to the people who
+reside near the "kettle moraine." With the co-operation of a number of
+mineralogists who reside near this "diamond belt," it offers to make
+examination of the supposed gem stones which may be collected.
+
+The success of this undertaking will depend upon securing the
+co-operation of the people of the morainal belt. Wherever gravel
+ridges have there been opened in cuts it would be advisable to look
+for diamonds. Children in particular, because of their keen eyes and
+abundant leisure, should be encouraged to search for the clear stones.
+
+The serious defect in this plan is that it trusts to inexperienced
+persons to discover the buried diamonds which in the "rough" are
+probably unlike anything that they have ever seen. The first result of
+the search has been the collection of large numbers of quartz pebbles,
+which are everywhere present but which are entirely valueless. There
+are, however, some simple ways of distinguishing diamonds from quartz.
+
+Diamonds never appear in thoroughly rounded forms like ordinary
+pebbles, for they are too hard to be in the least degree worn by
+contact with their neighbors in the gravel bed. Diamonds always show,
+moreover, distinct forms of crystals, and these generally bear some
+resemblance to one of the forms figured. They are never in the least
+degree like crystals of quartz, which are, however, the ones most
+frequently confounded with them. Most of the Wisconsin diamonds have
+either twelve or forty-eight faces. Crystals of most minerals are
+bounded by plane surfaces--that is to say, their faces are flat--the
+diamond, however, is inclosed by distinctly curving surfaces.
+
+The one property of the diamond, however, which makes it easy of
+determination is its extraordinary hardness--greater than that of any
+other mineral. Put in simple language, the hardness of a substance
+may be described as its power to scratch other substances when drawn
+across them under pressure. To compare the hardness of two substances
+we should draw a sharp point of one across a surface of the other
+under a pressure of the fingers, and note whether a permanent scratch
+is left. The harder substances will always scratch the softer, and if
+both have the same hardness they may be made to mutually scratch each
+other. Since diamond, sapphire, and ruby are the only minerals which
+are harder than emery they are the only ones which, when drawn across a
+rough emery surface, will not receive a scratch. Any stone which will
+not take a scratch from emery is a gem stone and of sufficient interest
+to be referred to a competent mineralogist.
+
+The dissemination of information regarding the lake diamonds through
+the region of the moraine should serve the twofold purpose of
+encouraging search for the buried stones and of discovering diamonds
+in the little collections of "lucky stones" and local curios which
+accumulate on the clock shelves of country farmhouses. When it is
+considered that three of the largest diamonds thus far found in
+the region remained for periods of seven, eight, and sixteen years
+respectively in the hands of the farming population, it can hardly be
+doubted that many other diamonds have been found and preserved as local
+curiosities without their real nature being discovered.
+
+If diamonds should be discovered in the moraines of eastern Ohio, of
+western Pennsylvania, or of western New York, considerable light would
+thereby be thrown upon the problem of locating the ancestral home. More
+important than this, however, is the mapping of the Canadian wilderness
+to the southeastward and eastward of James Bay, in order to determine
+the direction of ice movement within the region, so that the _tracking_
+of the stones already found may be carried nearer their home. The
+Director of the Geological Survey of Canada is giving attention to this
+matter, and has also suggested that a study be made of the material
+found in association with the diamonds in the moraine, so that if
+possible its source may be discovered.
+
+With the discovery of new localities of these emigrant stones and the
+collection of data regarding the movement of the ice over Canadian
+territory, it will perhaps be possible the more accurately and
+definitely to circumscribe their home country, and as its boundaries
+are drawn closer and closer to pay this popular jewel a visit in its
+ancestral home, there to learn what we so much desire to know regarding
+its genesis and its life history.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+William Pengelly related, in one of his letters to his wife from the
+British Association, Oxford meeting, 1860, of Sedgwick's presidency
+of the Geological Section, that his opening address was "most
+characteristic, full of clever fun, most imperative that papers should
+be as brief as possible--about ten minutes, he thought--he himself
+amplifying marvelously." The next day Pengelly himself was about to
+read his paper, when "dear old Sedgwick wished it compressed. I replied
+that I would do what I could to please him, but did not know which to
+follow, his precept or example. The roar of laughter was deafening. Old
+Sedgwick took it capitally, and behaved much better in consequence."
+On the third day Pengelly went to committee, where, he says, "I found
+Sedgwick very cordial, took my address, and talks of paying me a
+visit."
+
+
+
+
+NEEDED IMPROVEMENTS IN THEATER SANITATION.
+
+BY WILLIAM PAUL GERHARD, C. E.,
+
+CONSULTING ENGINEER FOR SANITARY WORKS.
+
+
+Buildings for the representation of theatrical plays must fulfill
+three conditions: they must be (1) comfortable, (2) safe, and (3)
+healthful. The last requirement, of _healthfulness_, embraces the
+following conditions: plenty of pure air, freedom from draughts,
+moderate warming in winter, suitable cooling in summer, freedom at
+all times from dust, bad odors, and disease germs. In addition to the
+requirements for the theater audience, due regard should be paid to the
+comfort, healthfulness, and safety of the performers, stage hands, and
+mechanics, who are required to spend more hours in the stage part of
+the building than the playgoers.
+
+It is no exaggeration to state that in the majority of theater
+buildings disgracefully unsanitary conditions prevail. In the older
+existing buildings especially sanitation and ventilation are sadly
+neglected. The air of many theaters during a performance becomes
+overheated and stuffy, pre-eminently so in the case of theaters where
+illumination is effected by means of gaslights. At the end of a long
+performance the air is often almost unbearably foul, causing headache,
+nausea, and dizziness.
+
+In ill-ventilated theaters a chilly air often blows into the auditorium
+from the stage when the curtain is raised. This air movement is the
+cause of colds to many persons in the audience, and it is otherwise
+objectionable, for it carries with it noxious odors from the stage
+or under stage, and in gas-lighted theaters this air is laden with
+products of combustion from the footlights and other means of stage
+illumination.
+
+Attempts at ventilation are made by utilizing the heat due to the
+numerous flames of the central chandelier over the auditorium, to
+create an ascending draught, and thereby cause a removal of the
+contaminated air, but seldom is provision made for the introduction
+of fresh air from outdoors, hence the scheme of ventilation results
+in failure. In other buildings, openings for the introduction of pure
+air are provided under the seats or in the floor, but are often found
+stuffed up with paper because the audience suffered from draughts. The
+fear of draughts in a theater also leads to the closing of the few
+possibly available outside windows and doors. The plan of a theater
+building renders it almost impossible to provide outside windows,
+therefore "air flushing" during the day can not be practiced. In the
+case of the older theaters, which are located in the midst or rear of
+other buildings, the nature of the site precludes a good arrangement of
+the main fresh-air ducts for the auditorium.
+
+Absence of fresh air is not the only sanitary defect of theater
+buildings; there are many other defects and sources of air pollution.
+In the parts devoted to the audience, the carpeted floors become
+saturated with dirt and dust carried in by the playgoers, and with
+expectorations from careless or untidy persons which in a mixed theater
+audience are ever present. The dust likewise adheres to furniture,
+plush seats, hangings, and decorations, and intermingled with it are
+numerous minute floating organisms, and doubtless some germs of disease.
+
+Behind the curtain a general lack of cleanliness exists--untidy actors'
+toilet rooms, ill-drained cellars, defective sewerage, leaky drains,
+foul water closets, and overcrowded and poorly located dressing rooms
+into which no fresh air ever enters. The stage floor is covered with
+dust; this is stirred up by the frequent scene shifting or by the
+dancing of performers, and much of it is absorbed and retained by the
+canvas scenery.
+
+Under such conditions the state of health of both theater goers
+and performers is bound to suffer. Many persons can testify from
+personal experience to the ill effects incurred by spending a few
+hours in a crowded and unventilated theater; yet the very fact that
+the stay in such buildings is a brief one seems to render most people
+indifferent, and complaints are seldom uttered. It really rests with
+the theater-going public to enforce the much-needed improvements. As
+long as they will flock to a theater on account of some attractive play
+or "star actor," disregarding entirely the unsanitary condition of the
+building, so long will the present notoriously bad conditions remain.
+When the public does not call for reforms, theater managers and owners
+of playhouses will not, as a rule, trouble themselves about the matter.
+We have a right to demand theater buildings with less outward and
+inside gorgeousness, but in which the paramount subjects of comfort,
+safety, and health are diligently studied and generously provided
+for. Let the general public but once show a determined preference for
+sanitary conditions and surroundings in theaters and abandon visits to
+ill-kept theaters, and I venture to predict that the necessary reforms
+in sanitation will soon be introduced, at least in the better class
+of playhouses. In the cheaper theaters, concert and amusement halls,
+houses with "continuous" shows, variety theaters, etc., sanitation
+is even more urgently required, and may be readily enforced by a few
+visits and peremptory orders from the Health Board.
+
+When, a year ago, the writer, in a paper on Theater Sanitation
+presented at the annual meeting of the American Public Health
+Association, stated that "chemical analyses show the air in the dress
+circle and gallery of many a theater to be in the evening more foul
+than the air of street sewers," the statement was received by some of
+his critics with incredulity. Yet the fact is true of many theaters.
+Taking the amount of carbonic acid in the air as an indication of its
+contamination, and assuming that the organic vapors are in proportion
+to the amount of carbonic acid (not including the CO_{2} due to the
+products of illumination), we know that normal outdoor air contains
+from 0.03 to 0.04 parts of CO_{2} per 100 parts of air, while a few
+chemical analyses of the air in English theaters, quoted below, suffice
+to prove how large the contamination sometimes is:
+
+
+  Strand Theater, 10 P. M., gallery             0.101 parts CO_{2} per 100.
+  Surrey Theater, 10 P. M., boxes               0.111  "      "        "
+  Surrey Theater, 12 P. M., boxes               0.218  "      "        "
+  Olympia Theater, 11.30 P. M., boxes           0.082  "      "        "
+  Olympia Theater, 11.55 P. M.., boxes          0.101  "      "        "
+  Victoria Theater, 10 P. M., boxes             0.126  "      "        "
+  Haymarket Theater, 11.30 P. M., dress circle  0.076  "      "        "
+  City of London Theater, 11.15 P. M., pit      0.252  "      "        "
+  Standard Theater, 11 P. M., pit               0.320  "      "        "
+  Theater Royal, Manchester, pit                0.2734 "      "        "
+  Grand Theater, Leeds, pit                     0.150  "      "        "
+  Grand Theater, Leeds, upper circle            0.143  "      "        "
+  Grand Theater, balcony                        0.142  "      "        "
+  Prince's Theater, Manchester                  0.11-0.17     "        "
+
+  (Analyses made by Drs. Smith, Bernays, and De Chaumont.)
+
+
+Compare with these figures some analyses of the air of sewers. Dr.
+Russell, of Glasgow, found the air of a well-ventilated and flushed
+sewer to contain 0.051 vols. of CO_{2}. The late Prof. W. Ripley
+Nichols conducted many careful experiments on the amount of carbonic
+acid in the Boston sewers, and found the following averages, viz.,
+0.087, 0.082, 0.115, 0.107, 0.08, or much less than the above analyses
+of theater air showed. He states: "It appears from these examinations
+that the air even in a tide-locked sewer does not differ from the
+standard as much as many no doubt suppose."
+
+A comparison of the number of bacteria found in a cubic foot of air
+inside of a theater and in the street air would form a more convincing
+statement, but I have been unable to find published records of any
+such bacteriological tests. Nevertheless, we know that while the
+atmosphere contains some bacteria, the indoor air of crowded assembly
+halls, laden with floating dust, is particularly rich in living
+micro-organisms. This has been proved by Tyndall, Miquel, Frankland,
+and other scientists; and in this connection should be mentioned one
+point of much importance, ascertained quite recently, namely, that the
+air of sewers, contrary to expectation, is remarkably free from germs.
+An analysis of the air in the sewers under the Houses of Parliament,
+London, showed that the number of micro-organisms was much less than
+that in the atmosphere outside of the building.
+
+In recent years marked improvements in theater planning and equipment
+have been effected, and corresponding steps in advance have been
+made in matters relating to theater hygiene. It should therefore
+be understood that my remarks are intended to apply to the average
+theater, and in particular to the older buildings of this class. There
+are in large cities a few well-ventilated and hygienically improved
+theaters and opera houses, in which the requirements of sanitation
+are observed. Later on, when speaking more in detail of theater
+ventilation, instances of well-ventilated theaters will be mentioned.
+Nevertheless, the need of urgent and radical measures for comfort and
+health in the majority of theaters is obvious. Much is being done
+in our enlightened age to improve the sanitary condition of school
+buildings, jails and prisons, hospitals and dwelling houses. Why, I
+ask, should not our theaters receive some consideration?
+
+The efficient ventilation of a theater building is conceded to be an
+unusually difficult problem. In order to ventilate a theater properly,
+the causes of noxious odors arising from bad plumbing or defective
+drainage should be removed; outside fumes or vapors must not be
+permitted to enter the building either through doors or windows, or
+through the fresh-air duct of the heating apparatus. The substitution
+of electric lights in place of gas is a great help toward securing
+pure air. This being accomplished, a standard of purity of the air
+should be maintained by proper ventilation. This includes both the
+removal of the vitiated air and the introduction of pure air from
+outdoors and the consequent entire change of the air of a hall three
+or four times per hour. The fresh air brought into the building must
+be ample in volume; it should be free from contamination, dust and
+germs (particularly pathogenic microbes), and with this in view must in
+cities be first purified by filtering, spraying, or washing. It should
+be warmed in cold weather by passing over hot-water or steam-pipe
+stacks, and cooled in warm weather by means of ice or the brine of
+mechanical refrigerating machines. The air should be of a proper degree
+of humidity, and, what is most important of all, it should be admitted
+into the various parts of the theater imperceptibly, so as not to cause
+the sensation of draught; in other words, its velocity at the inlets
+must be very slight. The fresh air should enter the audience hall at
+numerous points so well and evenly distributed that the air will be
+equally diffused throughout the entire horizontal cross-section of the
+hall. The air indoors should have as nearly as possible the composition
+of air outdoors, an increase of the CO_{2} from 0.3 to 0.6 being the
+permissible limit. The vitiated air should be continuously removed by
+mechanical means, taking care, however, not to remove a larger volume
+of air than is introduced from outdoors.
+
+Regarding the amount of fresh outdoor air to be supplied to keep the
+inside atmosphere at anything like standard purity, authorities differ
+somewhat. The theoretical amount, 3,000 cubic feet per person per hour
+(50 cubic feet per minute), is made a requirement in the Boston theater
+law. In Austria, the law calls for 1,050 cubic feet. The regulations
+of the Prussian Minister of Public Works call for 700 cubic feet,
+Professor von Pettenkofer suggests an air supply per person of from
+1,410 to 1,675 cubic feet per hour (23 to 28 cubic feet per minute),
+General Morin calls for 1,200 to 1,500 cubic feet, and Dr. Billings, an
+American authority, requires 30 cubic feet per minute, or 1,800 cubic
+feet per hour. In the Vienna Opera House, which is described as one of
+the best-ventilated theaters in the world, the air supply is 15 cubic
+feet per person per minute. The Madison Square Theater, in New York, is
+stated to have an air supply of 25 cubic feet per person.
+
+In a moderately large theater, seating twelve hundred persons, the
+total hourly quantity of air to be supplied would, accordingly, amount
+to from 1,440,000 to 2,160,000 cubic feet. It is not an easy matter to
+arrange the fresh-air conduits of a size sufficient to furnish this
+volume of air; it is obviously costly to warm such a large quantity of
+air, and it is a still more difficult problem to introduce it without
+creating objectionable currents of air; and, finally, inasmuch as this
+air can not enter the auditorium unless a like amount of vitiated air
+is removed, the problem includes providing artificial means for the
+removal of large air volumes.
+
+Where gas illumination is used, each gas flame requires an additional
+air supply--from 140 to 280 cubic feet, according to General Morin.
+
+A slight consideration of the volumes of air which must be moved
+and removed in a theater to secure a complete change of air three
+or four times an hour, demonstrates the impossibility of securing
+satisfactory results by the so-called natural method of ventilation--i.
+e., the removal of air by means of flues with currents due either to
+the aspirating force of the wind or due to artificially increased
+temperature in the flues. It becomes necessary to adopt mechanical
+means of ventilation by using either exhaust fans or pressure blowers
+or both, these being driven either by steam engines or by electric
+motors. In the older theaters, which were lighted by gas, the heat of
+the flames could be utilized to a certain extent in creating ascending
+currents in outlet shafts, and this accomplished some air renewal. But
+nowadays the central chandelier is almost entirely dispensed with;
+glowing carbon lamps, fed by electric currents, replace the gas flames;
+hence mechanical ventilation seems all the more indicated.
+
+Two principal methods of theater ventilation may be arranged: in one
+the fresh air enters at or near the floor and rises upward to the
+ceiling, to be removed by suitable outlet flues; in this method the
+incoming air follows the naturally existing air currents; in the other
+method pure air enters at the top through perforated cornices or holes
+in the ceiling, and gradually descends, to be removed by outlets
+located at or near the floor line. The two systems are known as the
+"upward" and the "downward" systems; each of them has been successfully
+tried, each offers some advantages, and each has its advocates. In both
+systems separate means for supplying fresh air to the boxes, balconies,
+and galleries are required. Owing to the different opinions held by
+architects and engineers, the two systems have often been made the
+subject of inquiry by scientific and government commissions in France,
+England, Germany, and the United States.
+
+A French scientist, Darcet, was the first to suggest a scientific
+system of theater ventilation. He made use of the heat from the central
+chandelier for removing the foul air, and admitted the air through
+numerous openings in the floor and through inlets in the front of the
+boxes.
+
+Dr. Reid, an English specialist in ventilation, is generally regarded
+as the originator of the upward method in ventilation. He applied the
+same with some success to the ventilation of the Houses of Parliament
+in London. Here fresh air is drawn in from high towers, and is
+conducted to the basement, where it is sprayed and moistened. A part
+of the air is warmed by hot-water coils in a sub-basement, while part
+remains cold. The warm and the cold air are mixed in special mixing
+chambers. From here the tempered air goes to a chamber located directly
+under the floor of the auditorium, and passes into the hall at the
+floor level through numerous small holes in the floor. The air enters
+with low velocity, and to prevent unpleasant draughts the floor is
+covered in one hall with hair carpet and in the other with coarse hemp
+matting, both of which are cleaned every day. The removal of the foul
+air takes place at the ceiling, and is assisted by the heat from the
+gas flames.
+
+The French engineer Peclet, an authority on heating and ventilation,
+suggested a similar system of upward ventilation, but instead of
+allowing the foul air to pass out through the roof, he conducted it
+downward into an underground channel which had exhaust draught. Trelat,
+another French engineer, followed practically the same method.
+
+A large number of theaters are ventilated on the upward system. I will
+mention first the large Vienna Opera House, the ventilation of which
+was planned by Dr. Boehm. The auditorium holds about three thousand
+persons, and a fresh-air supply of about fifteen cubic feet per minute,
+or from nine hundred to one thousand cubic feet per hour, per person
+is provided. The fresh air is taken in from the gardens surrounding
+the theater and is conducted into the cellar, where it passes through
+a water spray, which removes the dust and cools the air in summer.
+A suction fan ten feet in diameter is provided, which blows the air
+through a conduit forty-five square feet in area into a series of three
+chambers located vertically over each other under the auditorium. The
+lowest of these chambers is the cold-air chamber; the middle one is the
+heating chamber and contains steam-heating stacks; the highest chamber
+is the mixing chamber. The air goes partly to the heating and partly
+to the mixing chamber; from this it enters the auditorium at the rate
+of one foot per second velocity through openings in the risers of the
+seats in the parquet, and also through vertical wall channels to the
+boxes and upper galleries. The total area of the fresh-air openings
+is 750 square feet. The foul air ascends, assisted by the heat of the
+central chandelier, and is collected into a large exhaust tube. The
+foul air from the gallery passes out through separate channels. In the
+roof over the auditorium there is a fan which expels the entire foul
+air. Telegraphic thermometers are placed in all parts of the house and
+communicate with the inspection room, where the engineer in charge of
+the ventilation controls and regulates the temperature.
+
+The Vienna Hofburg Theater was ventilated on the same system.
+
+The new Frankfort Opera House has a ventilation system modeled upon
+that of the Vienna Opera House, but with improvements in some details.
+The house has a capacity of two thousand people, and for each person
+fourteen hundred cubic feet of fresh air per hour are supplied. A fan
+about ten feet in diameter and making ninety to one hundred revolutions
+per minute brings in the fresh air from outdoors and drives it into
+chambers under the auditorium arranged very much like those at Vienna.
+The total quantity of fresh air supplied per hour is 2,800,000 cubic
+feet. The air enters the auditorium through gratings fixed above the
+floor level in the risers. The foul air is removed by outlets in the
+ceilings, which unite into a large vertical shaft below the cupola.
+An exhaust fan of ten feet diameter is placed in the cupola shaft,
+and is used for summer ventilation only. Every single box and stall
+is ventilated separately. The cost of the entire system was about one
+hundred and twenty-five thousand dollars; it requires a staff of two
+engineers, six assistant engineers, and a number of stokers.
+
+Among well-ventilated American theaters is the Madison Square Theater
+(now Hoyt's), in New York. Here the fresh air is taken down through a
+large vertical shaft on the side of the stage. There is a seven-foot
+suction fan in the basement which drives the air into a number of boxes
+with steam-heating stacks, from which smaller pipes lead to openings
+under each row of seats. The foul air escapes through openings in the
+ceiling and under the galleries. A fresh-air supply of 1,500 cubic feet
+per hour, or 25 cubic feet per minute, per person is provided.
+
+The Metropolitan Opera House is ventilated on the plenum system, and
+has an upward movement of air, the total air supply being 70,000 cubic
+feet per hour.
+
+In the Academy of Music, Baltimore, the fresh air is admitted mainly
+from the stage and the exits of foul air are in the ceiling at the
+auditorium.
+
+Other theaters ventilated by the upward method are the Dresden Royal
+Theater, the Lessing Theater in Berlin, the Opera House in Buda-Pesth,
+the new theater in Prague, the new Municipal Theater at Halle, and the
+Criterion Theatre in London.
+
+The French engineer General Arthur Morin is known as the principal
+advocate of the downward method of ventilation. This was at that
+time a radical departure from existing methods because it apparently
+conflicted with the well-known fact that heated air naturally rises.
+Much the same system was advocated by Dr. Tripier in a pamphlet
+published in 1864.[7] The earlier practical applications of this system
+to several French theaters did not prove as much of a success as
+anticipated, the failure being due probably to the gas illumination,
+the central chandelier, and the absence of mechanical means for
+inducing a downward movement of the air.
+
+[7] Dr. A. Tripier. Assainissement des Theatres, Ventilation, Eclairage
+et Chauffage.
+
+In 1861 a French commission, of which General Morin was a member,
+proposed the reversing of the currents of air by admitting fresh air
+at both sides of the stage opening high up in the auditorium, and also
+through hollow floor channels for the balconies and boxes; in the
+gallery the openings for fresh air were located in the risers of the
+steppings. The air was exhausted by numerous openings under the seats
+in the parquet. This ventilating system was carried out at the Theatre
+Lyrique, the Theatre du Cirque, and the Theatre de la Gaiete.
+
+Dr. Tripier ventilated a theater in 1858 with good success on a similar
+plan, but he introduced the air partly at the rear of the stage and
+partly in the tympanum in the auditorium. He removed the foul air
+at the floor level and separately in the rear of the boxes. He also
+exhausted the foul air from the upper galleries by special flues heated
+by the gas chandelier.
+
+The Grand Amphitheater of the Conservatory of Arts and Industries, in
+Paris, was ventilated by General Morin on the downward system. The
+openings in the ceiling for the admission of fresh air aggregated 120
+square feet, and the air entered with a velocity of only eighteen
+inches per second; the total air supply per hour was 630,000 cubic
+feet. The foul air was exhausted by openings in steps around the
+vertical walls, and the velocity of the outgoing air was about two and
+a half feet per second.
+
+The introduction of the electric light in place of gas gave a fresh
+impetus to the downward method of ventilation, and mechanical means
+also helped to dispel the former difficulties in securing a positive
+downward movement.
+
+The Chicago Auditorium is ventilated on this system, a part of the air
+entering from the rear of the stage, the other from the ceiling of the
+auditorium downward. This plan coincides with the proposition made in
+1846 by Morrill Wyman, though he admits that it can not be considered
+the most desirable method.
+
+A good example of the downward method is given by the New York Music
+Hall, which has a seating capacity of three thousand persons and
+standing room for one thousand more. Fresh air at any temperature
+desired is made to enter through perforations in or near the ceilings,
+the outlets being concealed by the decorations, and passes out through
+exhaust registers near the floor line, under the seats, through
+perforated risers in the terraced steps. About 10,000,000 cubic feet
+of air are supplied per hour, and the velocity of influx and efflux is
+one foot per second. The air supplied per person per hour is figured
+at 2,700 cubic feet, and the entire volume is changed from four and a
+half to five times per hour. The fresh air is taken in at roof level
+through a shaft of seventy square feet area. The air is heated by steam
+coils, and cooled in summer by ice. The mechanical plant comprises four
+blowers and three exhaust fans of six and seven feet in diameter.
+
+The downward method of ventilation was suggested in 1884 for the
+improvement of the ventilation of the Senate chamber and the chamber
+of the House of Representatives in the Capitol at Washington, but the
+system was not adopted by the Board of Engineers appointed to inquire
+into the methods.
+
+The downward method is also used in the Hall of the Trocadero, Paris;
+in the old and also the new buildings for the German Parliament,
+Berlin; in the Chamber of Deputies, Paris; and others.
+
+Professor Fischer, a modern German authority on heating and
+ventilation, in a discussion of the relative advantages of the two
+methods, reaches the conclusion that both are practical and can be
+made to work successfully. For audience halls lighted by gaslights he
+considers the upward method as preferable.
+
+In arranging for the removal of foul air it is necessary, particularly
+in the downward system, to provide separate exhaust flues for the
+galleries and balconies. Unless this is provided for, the exhaled air
+of the occupants of the higher tiers would mingle with the descending
+current of pure air supplied to the occupants of the main auditorium
+floor.
+
+Mention should also be made of a proposition originating in Berlin
+to construct the roof of auditoriums domelike, by dividing it in
+the middle so that it can be partly opened by means of electric or
+hydraulic machinery; such a system would permit of keeping the ceiling
+open in summer time, thereby rendering the theater not only airy,
+but also free from the danger of smoke. A system based on similar
+principles is in actual use at the Madison Square Garden, in New York,
+where part of the roof consists of sliding skylights which in summer
+time can be made to open or close during the performance.
+
+From the point of view of safety in case of fire, which usually in
+a theater breaks out on the stage, it is without doubt best to have
+the air currents travel in a direction from the auditorium toward the
+stage roof. This has been successfully arranged in some of the later
+Vienna theaters, but from the point of view of good acoustics, it
+is better to have the air currents travel from the stage toward the
+auditorium. Obviously, it is a somewhat difficult matter to reconcile
+the conflicting requirements of safety from smoke and fire gases, good
+acoustics and perfect ventilation.
+
+The stage of a theater requires to be well ventilated, for often it
+becomes filled with smoke or gases due to firing of guns, colored
+lights, torches, representations of battles, etc. There should be in
+the roof over the stage large outlet flues, or sliding skylights,
+controlled from the stage for the removal of the smoke. These, in
+case of an outbreak of fire on the stage, become of vital importance
+in preventing the smoke and fire gases from being drawn into the
+auditorium and suffocating the persons in the gallery seats.
+
+Where the stage is lit with gaslights it is important to provide a
+separate downward ventilation for the footlights. This, I believe, was
+first successfully tried at the large Scala Theater, of Milan, Italy.
+
+The actors' and supers' dressing rooms, which are often overcrowded,
+require efficient ventilation, and other parts of the building, like
+the foyers and the toilet, retiring and smoking rooms, must not be
+overlooked.
+
+The entrance halls, vestibules, lobbies, staircases, and corridors
+do not need so much ventilation, but should be kept warm to prevent
+annoying draughts. They are usually heated by abundantly large direct
+steam or hot-water radiators, whereas the auditorium and foyers,
+and often the stage, are heated by indirect radiation. Owing to the
+fact that during a performance the temperature in the auditorium is
+quickly raised by contact of the warm fresh air with the bodies of
+persons (and by the numerous lights, when gas is used), the temperature
+of the incoming air should be only moderate. In the best modern
+theater-heating plants it is usual to gradually reduce the temperature
+of the air as it issues from the mixing chambers toward the end of the
+performance. Both the temperature and the hygrometric conditions of the
+air should be controlled by an efficient staff of intelligent heating
+engineers.
+
+But little need be said regarding theater lighting. Twice during the
+present century have the system and methods been changed. In the early
+part of the present century theaters were still lighted with tallow
+candles or with oil lamps. Next came what was at the time considered
+a wonderful improvement, namely, the introduction of gaslighting.
+The generation who can remember witnessing a theater performance by
+candle or lamp lights, and who experienced the excitement created
+when the first theater was lit up by gas, will soon have passed
+away. Scarcely twenty years ago the electric light was introduced,
+and there are to-day very few theaters which do not make use of this
+improved illuminant. It generates much less heat than gaslight, and
+vastly simplifies the problem of ventilation. The noxious products
+of combustion, incident to all other methods of illumination, are
+eliminated: no carbonic-acid gas is generated to render the air
+of audience halls irrespirable, and no oxygen is drawn to support
+combustion from the air introduced for breathing.
+
+It being now an established fact that the electric light increases the
+safety of human life in theaters and other places of amusement, its use
+is in many city or building ordinances made imperative--at least on
+the stage and in the main body of the auditorium. Stairs, corridors,
+entrances, etc., may, as a matter of precaution, be lighted by a
+different system, by means of either gas or auxiliary vegetable oil or
+candle lamps, protected by glass inclosures against smoke or draught,
+and provided with special inlet and outlet flues for air.
+
+Passing to other desirable internal improvements of theaters, I would
+mention first the floors of the auditorium. The covering of the floor
+by carpets is objectionable--in theaters more so even than in dwelling
+houses. Night after night the carpet comes in contact with thousands
+of feet, which necessarily bring in a good deal of street dirt and
+dust. The latter falls on the carpets and attaches to them, and as
+it is not feasible to take the carpets up except during the summer
+closing, a vast accumulation of dirt and organic matter results, some
+of the dirt falling through the crevices between the floor boards. Many
+theater-goers are not tidy in their habits regarding expectoration, and
+as there must be in every large audience some persons afflicted with
+tuberculosis, the danger is ever present of the germs of the disease
+drying on the carpet, and becoming again detached to float in the air
+which we are obliged to breathe in a theater.
+
+As a remedy I would propose abolishing carpets entirely, and using
+instead a floor covering of linoleum, or thin polished parquetry oak
+floors, varnished floors of hard wood, painted and stained floors,
+interlocked rubber-tile floors, or, at least for the aisles, encaustic
+or mosaic tiling. Between the rows of seats, as well as in the aisles,
+long rugs or mattings may be laid down loose, for these can be taken
+up without much trouble. They should be frequently shaken, beaten, and
+cleaned.
+
+Regarding the walls, ceilings, and cornices, the surfaces should be of
+a material which can be readily cleaned and which is non-absorbent.
+Stucco finish is unobjectionable, but should be kept flat, so as not to
+offer dust-catching projections. Oil painting of walls is preferable
+to a covering with rough wall papers, which hold large quantities
+of dust. The so-called "sanitary" or varnished wall papers have a
+smooth, non-absorbent, easily cleaned surface, and are therefore
+unobjectionable. All heavy decorations, draperies, and hangings in the
+boxes, and plush covers for railings, are to be avoided.
+
+The theater furniture should be of a material which does not catch or
+hold dust. Upholstered plush-covered chairs and seats retain a large
+amount of it, and are not readily cleaned. Leather-covered or other
+sanitary furniture, or rattan seats, would be a great improvement.
+
+In the stage building we often find four or five actors placed in
+one small, overheated, unventilated dressing room, located in the
+basement of the building, without outside windows, and fitted with
+three or four gas jets, for actors require a good light in "making
+up." More attention should be paid to the comfort and health of the
+players, more space and a better location should be given to their
+rooms. Every dressing room should have a window to the outer air, also
+a special ventilating flue. Properly trapped wash basins should be
+fitted up in each room. In the dressing rooms and in the corridors and
+stairs leading from them to the stage all draughts must be avoided,
+as the performers often become overheated from the excitement of the
+acting, and dancers in particular leave the heated stage bathed in
+perspiration. Sanitation, ventilation, and cleanliness are quite as
+necessary for this part of the stage building as for the auditorium and
+foyers.
+
+It will suffice to mention that defects in the drainage and sewerage
+of a theater building must be avoided. The well-known requirements
+of house drainage should be observed in theaters as much as in other
+public buildings.[8]
+
+[8] The reader will find the subject discussed and illustrated in the
+author's work, Sanitary Engineering of Buildings, vol. i, 1899.
+
+The removal of ashes, litter, sweepings, oily waste, and other refuse
+should be attended to with promptness and regularity. It is only by
+constant attention to properly carried out cleaning methods that such
+a building for the public can be kept in a proper sanitary condition.
+Floating air impurities, like dust and dirt, can not be removed or
+rendered innocuous by the most perfect ventilating scheme. Mingled with
+the dust floating in the auditorium or lodging in the stage scenery
+are numbers of bacteria or germs. Among the pathogenic germs will be
+those of tuberculosis, contained in the sputum discharged in coughing
+or expectorating. When this dries on the carpeted floor, the germs
+become readily detached, are inhaled by the playgoers, and thus become
+a prolific source of danger. It is for this reason principally that the
+processes of cleaning, sweeping, and dusting should in a theater be
+under intelligent management.
+
+To guard against the ever-present danger of infection by germs, the
+sanitary floor coverings recommended should be wiped every day with a
+moist rag or cloth. Carpeted floors should be covered with moist tea
+leaves or sawdust before sweeping to prevent the usual dust-raising.
+The common use of the feather duster is to be deprecated, for it only
+raises and scatters the dust, but it does not remove it. Dusting of
+the furniture should be done with a dampened dust cloth. The cleaning
+should include the hot-air registers, where a large amount of dust
+collects, which can only be removed by occasionally opening up the
+register faces and wiping out the pipe surfaces; also the baseboards
+and all cornice projections on which dust constantly settles. While
+dusting and sweeping, the windows should be opened; an occasional
+admission of sunlight, where practicable, would likewise be of the
+greatest benefit.
+
+The writer believes that a sanitary inspection of theater buildings
+should be instituted once a year when they are closed up in summer. He
+would also suggest that the granting of the annual license should be
+made dependent not only, as at present, upon the condition of safety
+of the building against fire and panic, but also upon its sanitary
+condition. In connection with the sanitary inspection, a thorough
+disinfection by sulphur, or better with formaldehyde gas, should be
+carried out by the health authorities. If necessary, the disinfection
+of the building should be repeated several times a year, particularly
+during general epidemics of influenza or pneumonia.
+
+Safety measures against outbreaks of fire, dangers from panic,
+accidents, etc., are in a certain sense also sanitary improvements, but
+can not be discussed here.[9]
+
+[9] See the author's work, Theater Fires and Panics, 1895.
+
+In order to anticipate captious criticisms, the writer would state
+that in this paper he has not attempted to set forth new theories, nor
+to advocate any special system of theater ventilation. His aim was
+to describe existing defects and to point out well-known remedies.
+The question of efficient theater sanitation belongs quite as much to
+the province of the sanitary engineer as to that of the architect.
+It is one of paramount importance--certainly more so than the purely
+architectural features of exterior and interior decoration.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+In presenting to the British Association the final report on the
+northwestern tribes of Canada, Professor Tylor observed that, while
+the work of the committee has materially advanced our knowledge of
+the tribes of British Columbia, the field of investigation is by no
+means exhausted. The languages are still known only in outlines. More
+detailed information on physical types may clear up several points
+that have remained obscure, and a fuller knowledge of the ethnology of
+the northern tribes seems desirable. Ethnological evidence has been
+collected bearing upon the history of the development of the area under
+consideration, but no archaeological investigations, which would help
+materially in solving these problems, have been carried on.
+
+
+
+
+THE NEW FIELD BOTANY.
+
+BY BYRON D. HALSTED, Sc. D.,
+
+OF RUTGERS COLLEGE.
+
+
+There is something novel every day; were it not so this earth would
+grow monotonous to all, even as it does now to many, and chiefly
+because such do not have the opportunity or the desire to learn some
+new thing. Facts unknown before are constantly coming to the light, and
+principles are being deduced that serve as a stepping stone to other
+and broader fields of knowledge. So accustomed are we to this that
+even a new branch of science may dawn upon the horizon without causing
+a wonder in our minds. In this day of ologies the birth of a new one
+comes without the formal two-line notice in the daily press, just as
+old ones pass from view without tear or epitaph.
+
+_Phytoecology_ as a word is not long as scientific terms go, and the
+Greek that lies back of it barely suggests the meaning of the term, a
+fact not at all peculiar to the present instance. Of course, it has to
+do with plants, and is therefore a branch of botany.
+
+In one sense that which it stands for is not new, and, as usual, the
+word has come in the wake of the facts and principles it represents,
+and therefore becomes a convenient term for a branch of knowledge--a
+handle, so to say--by which that group of ideas may be held up for
+study and further growth. The word _ecology_ was first employed by
+Haeckel, a leading light in zoology in our day, to designate the
+environmental side of animal life.
+
+We will not concern ourselves with definitions, but discuss the field
+that the term is coined to cover, and leave the reader to formulate a
+short concise statement of its meaning.
+
+Within the last year a new botanical guide book for teachers has
+been published, of considerable originality and merit, in which
+the subject-matter is thrown into four groups, and one of these is
+Ecology. Another text-book for secondary schools is now before us in
+which ecology is the heading of one of the three parts into which the
+treatise is divided. The large output of the educational press at the
+present time along the line in hand suggests that the magazine press
+should sound the depths of the new branch of science that is pushing
+its way to the front, or being so pushed by its adherents, and echo the
+merits of it along the line.
+
+Botany in its stages of growth is interesting historically. It
+fascinated for a time one of the greatest minds in the modern school,
+and as a result we have the rich and fruitful history of the science
+as seen through eyes as great as Julius Sachs's, the master of botany
+during the last half century. From this work it can be gathered that
+early in the centuries since the Christian era botany was little more
+than herborizing--the collecting of specimens, and learning their gross
+parts, as size of stem and leaf and blossom.
+
+This branch of botany has been cultivated to the present day, and the
+result is the systematist, with all the refinements of species making
+and readjustment of genera and orders with the nicety of detail in
+specific descriptions that only a systematist can fully appreciate.
+
+Later on the study of function was begun, and along with it that of
+structure; for anatomy and physiology, by whatever terms they may be
+known, advance hand in hand, because inseparable. One worker may look
+more to the activities than another who toils with the structural
+relations and finds these problems enough for a lifetime.
+
+This botany of the dissecting table in contrast with that of the
+collector and his dried specimens grew apace, taking new leases of
+life at the uprising of new hypotheses, and long advances with the
+improvement of implements for work. It was natural that the cell and
+all that is made from it should invite the inspector to a field of
+intense interest, somewhat at the expense of the functions of the
+parts. In short, the field was open, the race was on, and it was a
+matter of self-restraint that a man did not enter and strive long and
+well for some anatomical prize. This branch of botany is still alive,
+and never more so than to-day, when cytology offers many attractive
+problems for the cytologist. What with his microtome that cuts his
+imbedded tissue into slices so thin that twenty-five hundred or more
+are needed to measure an inch in thickness, with his fixing solutions
+that kill instantly and hold each particle as if frozen in a cake of
+ice, and his stains and double stains that pick out the specks as the
+magnet draws iron filing from a bin of bran--with all these and a
+hundred more aids to the refinement of the art there is no wonder that
+the cell becomes a center of attraction, beyond the periphery of which
+the student can scarcely live. In our closing days of the century it
+may be known whether the blephroblasts arise antipodally, and whether
+they are a variation of the centrosomes or should be classed by
+themselves!
+
+One of the general views of phytoecology is that the forms of plants
+are modified to adapt them to the conditions under which they exist.
+Thus the size of a plant is greatly modified by the environment.
+Two grains of corn indistinguishable in themselves and borne by the
+same cob may be so situated that one grows into a stately stalk with
+the ear higher than a horse's head, while the other is a dwarf and
+unproductive. Below ground the conditions are many, and all subject
+to infinite variation. Thus, the soil may be deep or shallow, the
+particles small or large, the moisture abundant or scant, and the food
+elements close at hand or far to seek--all of which will have a marked
+influence upon the root system, its size, and form.
+
+Coming to the aerial portion, there are all the factors of weather and
+climate to work singly or in union to affect the above-ground structure
+of the plant. Temperature varies through wide ranges of heat and
+cold, scorching and freezing; while humidity or aridity, sunshine or
+cloudiness, prevailing winds or sudden tornadoes all have an influence
+in shaping the structure, developing the part, and fashioning the
+details of form of the aerial portions. Phytoecology deals with all
+these, and includes the consideration of that struggle for life that
+plants are constantly waging, for environment determines that the forms
+best suited to a given set of conditions will survive. This struggle
+has been going on since the vegetable life of the earth began, and as
+a result certain prevailing conditions have brought about groups of
+plants found as a rule only where these conditions prevail. As water
+is a leading factor in plant growth, a classification is made upon
+this basis into the plants of the arid regions called xerophytes. The
+opposite to desert vegetation is that of the fresh ponds and lakes,
+called hydrophytes. A third group, the halophytes, includes the
+vegetation of sea or land where there is an excess of various saline
+substances, the common salt being the leading one. The last group is
+the mesophytes, which include plants growing in conditions without the
+extremes accorded to the other three groups.
+
+This somewhat general classification of the conditions of the
+environment lends much of interest to that form of field botany now
+under consideration. As the grouping is made chiefly upon the aqueous
+conditions, it is fair to assume that plants are especially modified
+to accommodate themselves to this compound. Plants, for example,
+unless they are aquatics, need to use large quantities of water to
+carry on the vital functions. Thus the salts from the soil need to
+rise dissolved in the crude sap to the leaves, and in order that a
+sufficient current be kept up there is transpiration going on from
+all thin or soft exposed parts. The leaves are the chief organs where
+aqueous vapor is being given off, sometimes to the extent of tons of
+water upon an acre of area in a single day. This evaporation being
+largely surface action, it is possible for the plant to check this by
+reducing the surface, and the leaf is coiled or folded. Other plants
+have through the ages become adapted to the destructive actions of
+drought and a dry, hot atmosphere, and have only needle-shaped leaves
+or even no true ones at all, as many of the cacti in the desert lands
+of the Western plains.
+
+Again, the surface of the plant may become covered with a felt of fine
+hairs to prevent rapid evaporation, while other plants with ordinary
+foliage have the acquired power of moving the leaves so that they will
+expose their surfaces broadside to the sun, or contrariwise the edges
+only, as heat and light intensity determine.
+
+Phytoecology deals with all those adaptations of structure, and from
+which permit the plants to take advantage of the habits and wants of
+animals. If we are studying the vegetation of a bog, and note the
+adaptation of the hydrophytic plants, the chances are that attention
+will soon be called to colorations and structures that indicate a more
+complete and far-reaching adjustment than simply to the conditions of
+the wet, spongy bog. A plant may be met with having the leaves in the
+form of flasks or pitchers, and more or less filled with water. These
+strange leaves are conspicuously purplish, and this adds to their
+attractiveness. The upper portion may be variegated, resembling a
+flower and for the same purpose--namely, to attract insects that find
+within the pitchers a food which is sought at the risk of life. Many
+of the entrapped creatures never escape, and yield up their life for
+the support of that of the captor. Again, the mossy bog may glisten
+in the sun, and thousands of sundew plants with their pink leaves are
+growing upon the surface. Each leaf is covered with adhesive stalked
+glands, and insects lured to and caught by them are devoured by this
+insectivorous vegetation.
+
+In the pools in the same lowland there may be an abundance of the
+bladderwort, a floating plant with flowers upon long stalks that raise
+them into the air and sunshine. With the leaves reduced to a mere
+framework that bears innumerable bladders, water animals of small
+size are captured in vast numbers and provide a large part of the
+nourishment required by the highly specialized hydrophyte.
+
+These are but everyday instances of adaptation between plants and
+animals for the purpose of nutrition, the adjustment of form being
+more particularly upon the vegetative side. Zoologists may be able to
+show, however, that certain species of animals are adapted to and quite
+dependent upon the carnivorous plants.
+
+An ecological problem has been worked out along the above line to a
+larger extent than generally supposed. If we should take the case of
+ants only in their relation to structural adaptations for them in
+plants, it would be seen that fully three thousand species of the
+latter make use of ants for purposes of protection. The large fighting
+ants of the tropics, when provided with nectar, food, and shelter,
+will inhabit plants to the partial exclusion of destructive insects
+and larger foraging animals. Interesting as all this is, it is not the
+time and place to go into the details of how the ant-fostering plants
+have their nectar glands upon stems or leaf, rich soft hairs in tufts
+for food, and homes provided in hollows and chambers. There is still a
+more intimate association of termites with some of the toadstool-like
+plants, where the ants foster the fungi and seem to understand some of
+the essentials of veritable gardening in miniature form.
+
+The most familiar branch of phytoecology, as it concerns adaptations
+for insect visitations, is that which relates to the production of
+seed. Floral structures, so wonderfully varied in form and color and
+withal attractive to every lover of the beautiful, are familiar to all,
+and it only needs to be said in passing that these infinite forms are
+for the same end--namely, the union of the seed germs, if they may be
+so styled, of different and often widely separated blossoms.
+
+Sweetness and beauty are not the invariable rule with insect-visited
+blossoms, for in the long ages that have elapsed during which these
+adaptations have come about some plants have established an unwritten
+agreement between beetles and bugs with unsavory tastes. Thus there are
+the "carrion flowers," so called because of their fetid odor, designed
+for the sense organs of carrion insects. The "stink-horn" fungi have
+their offensive spores distributed by a similar set of carrion carriers.
+
+Water and wind claim a share of the species, but here adaptation to
+the method of fertilization is as fully realized as when insects
+participate, and the uselessness of showy petals and fantastic forms is
+emphasized by their absence.
+
+Coming now to the fruits of plants, it is again seen that plants have
+adapted their offspring, the seed, to the surrounding conditions,
+not forgetting the wind, the waves, and the tastes and the exterior
+of passing animals. The breezes carry up and hurl along the light
+wing-possessed seeds, and the river and ocean bear these and many
+others onward to a distant land, while by grappling hooks many kinds
+cling to the hair of animals, or, provided with a pleasing pulp, are
+carried willingly by birds and other creatures. In short, the devices
+for seed dispersion are multitudinous, and they provide a large chapter
+in that branch of botany now styled phytoecology.
+
+How different is the old field botany from the new! Then there was the
+collector of plants and classifier of his finds, and an arranger of all
+he could get by exchange or otherwise. His success was measured by the
+size of his herbarium and his stock in trade as so many duplicates
+all taken in bloom, but the time of year, locality, and the various
+conditions of growth were all unknown.
+
+His implements for work were, first, a can or basket, a plant press,
+and a manual; and, secondly, a lot of paper, a paste pot, and some way
+of holding the mounts in packets or pigeonholes.
+
+The eyes grew keen as the hunter scoured the forest and field for some
+kind of plant he had not already possessed. There was a keen relish in
+discoveries, and it heightened into ecstasy when the specimen needed
+to be sent away for a name and was returned with his own Latinized and
+appended to that of the genus.
+
+This was all well and good so far as it went, but looked at from the
+present vantage ground there was not so much in it. However, his was an
+essential step to other things, as much so as that of the census taker.
+
+We need to know the species of plants our fair land possesses, and have
+them described and named. But when the nine hundred and ninety-nine
+are known, it is a waste of time to be continually hunting for the
+thousandth. Look for it, but let it be secondary to that of an actual
+study of the great majority already known. The older botany was a study
+of the dried plants in all those details that are laid down in the
+manuals. It lacked something of the true vitality that is inherent in a
+biological science, for often the life had gone out before the subject
+came up for study. To the phytoecologist it was somewhat as the shell
+without the meat, or the bird's nest of a previous year.
+
+Since those days of our forefathers there has come the minute anatomy
+of plants, followed closely by physiology; and now with the working
+knowledge of these two modern branches of botany the student has
+again taken to the field. He is making the wood-lot his laboratory,
+and the garden, so to say, his lecture room. He has a fair knowledge
+of systematic botany, but finds himself rearranging the families
+and genera to fit the facts determined by his ecological study. If
+two species of the same genus are widely separated in habitat, he
+is determining the factors that led to the separation. Why did one
+smart weed become a climber, another an upright herb, and a third a
+prostrate creeper, are questions that may not have entered the mind of
+the plant collector; but now the phytoecologist finds much interest in
+considering questions of this type. What are the differences between
+a species inhabiting the water and another of the same genus upon dry
+land, or what has led one group of the morning-glory family to become
+parasites and exist as the dodders upon other living plants?
+
+The older botanist held his subject under the best mental illumination
+of his time, but his physical light, that of a pine knot or a tallow
+dip, also contrasts strongly with that of the present gas jet and
+electric arc.
+
+The wonder should be that he saw so well, and all who follow him can
+not but feel grateful for the path he blazed through the dense forests
+of ignorance and the bridges he made over the streams of doubt in
+specific distinctions. It was a noble work, but it is nearly past in
+the older parts of our country; and while some of that school should
+linger to readjust their genera, make new combinations of species,
+and attempt to satisfy the claims of priority, the rank and file will
+largely leave systematic botany and the herborizing it embraces, and
+betake themselves to the open fields of phytoecology. It may be along
+the line of structural adaptations when we will have morphological
+phytoecology, or the adjustment of function to the environment when
+there will be physiological phytoecology. These two branches when
+combined to elucidate problems of relationship between the plant and
+its surroundings as involved in accommodation in its comprehensive
+sense there will be phytoecology with climate, geology, geography, or
+fossils as the leading feature, as the case may be.
+
+In the older botany the plant alone in itself was the subject of study.
+The newer botany takes the plant in its surroundings and all that its
+relationships to other plants may suggest as the subject for analysis.
+In the one case the plant was all and its place of growth accidental,
+a dried specimen from any unknown habitat was enough; but now the
+environment and the numerous lines of relationship that reach out from
+the living plant _in situ_ are the major subjects for study. The former
+was field botany because the field contained the plant, the latter is
+field botany in that the plant embraces in its study all else in the
+field in which it lives. The one had as its leading question, What is
+your name and where do you belong in my herbarium? while the other
+raises an endless list of queries, of which How came you here and when?
+Why these curious glands and this strange movement or mimicry? are but
+average samples. Every spot of color, bend of leaf, and shape of fruit
+raises a question.
+
+The collector of fifty years ago pulled up or cut off a portion of
+his plant for a specimen, and rarely measured, weighed, and counted
+anything about it. The phytoecologist to-day watches his subject as
+it grows, and if removed it is for the purpose of testing its vital
+functions under varying circumstances of moisture, heat, or sunlight,
+and exact recording instruments are a part of the equipment for the
+investigation.
+
+The underlying thought in the seashore school and the tropical
+laboratory in botany is this of getting nearer to the haunts of the
+living plant. Forestry schools that have for their class room the
+wooded mountains and the botanical gardens with their living herbaria
+are welcome steps toward the same end of phytoecology.
+
+In view of the above facts, and many more that might be mentioned did
+space permit, the writer has felt that the present incomplete and
+faulty presentation of the subject of the newer botany should be placed
+before the great reading public through the medium of a journal that
+has as its watchword Progress in Education.
+
+
+
+
+DO ANIMALS REASON?
+
+BY THE REV. EGERTON R. YOUNG.
+
+
+This interesting subject has been ably handled from the negative side
+by Edward Thorndike, Ph. D., in the August number of the Popular
+Science Monthly. Dr. Thorndike, with all his skill in treating this
+very interesting subject, seems to have forgotten one very important
+point. His expectation has not only been higher than any fair claim of
+an animal's reasoning power, but he has overlooked the fact that there
+are different ways of reasoning. Men of different races and those of
+little intelligence can be placed in new environments and be asked to
+perform things which, while utterly impossible to them, are simple and
+crude to those of higher intelligence and who have all their days been
+accustomed to high mental exercise. If such difference exists between
+the highest and most intelligent of the human race and the degraded
+and uncultured, vastly greater is the gulf that separates the lowest
+stratum of humanity from the most intelligent of the brute creation.
+The fair way to test the intelligence of the so-called lower orders
+of men is to go to their native lands and study them in their own
+environments and in possession of the equipments of life to which they
+have been accustomed. The same is true of the brute creation. Only
+the highest results can be expected from congenial environments. To
+pass final judgment upon the animal kingdom, having for data only the
+results of the doctor's experiments, seems to us manifestly unfair.
+He takes a few cats and dogs and submits them to environments which
+are altogether foreign to them, and then expects feats of mind from
+them which would be far greater than the mastering of the reason why
+two and two make four is to the stupidest child of man. As the doctor
+has been permitted to tell the results of his experiments, may I claim
+a similar privilege? While I did not use dogs merely to test their
+intelligence--my business demanding of myself and them the fullest use
+of all our energies and all the intelligence, be it more or less, that
+was possessed by man or beast--I had the privilege of seeing in my dogs
+actions that were, at least to me, convincing that they possessed the
+rudiments of reasoning powers, and, in the more intelligent, that which
+will be utterly inexplicable if it is not the product of reasoning
+faculties.
+
+For a number of years I was a resident missionary in the Hudson Bay
+Territories, where, in the prosecution of my work, I kept a large
+number of dogs of various breeds. With these dogs I traveled several
+thousands of miles every winter over an area larger than the State of
+New York. In summer I used them to plow my garden and fields. They
+dragged home our fish from the distant fisheries, and the wood from the
+forests for our numerous fires. They cuddled around me on the edges of
+my heavy fur robes in wintry camps, where we often slept out in a hole
+dug in the snow, the temperature ranging from 30 deg. to 60 deg. below zero.
+When blizzard storms raged so terribly that even the most experienced
+Indian guides were bewildered, and knew not north from south or east
+from west, our sole reliance was on our dogs, and with an intelligence
+and an endurance that ever won our admiration they succeeded in
+bringing us to our desired destination.
+
+It is conceded at the outset that these dogs of whom I write were the
+result of careful selection. There are dogs and dogs, as there are
+men and men. They were not picked up in the street at random. I would
+no more keep in my personal service a mere average mongrel dog than I
+would the second time hire for one of my long trips a sulky Indian. As
+there are some people, good in many ways, who can not master a foreign
+tongue, so there are many dogs that never rise above the one gift of
+animal instinct. With such I too have struggled, and long and patiently
+labored, and if of them only I were writing I would unhesitatingly say
+that of them I never saw any act which ever seemed to show reasoning
+powers. But there are other dogs than these, and of them I here would
+write and give my reason why I firmly believe that in a marked degree
+some of them possessed the powers of reasoning.
+
+Two of my favorite dogs I called Jack and Cuffy. Jack was a great black
+St. Bernard, weighing nearly two hundred pounds. Cuffy was a pure
+Newfoundland, with very black curly hair. These two dogs were the gift
+of the late Senator Sanford. With other fine dogs of the same breeds,
+they soon supplanted the Eskimo and mongrels that had been previously
+used for years about the place.
+
+[Illustration: JACK AND HIS MASTER.]
+
+I had so much work to do in my very extensive field that I required to
+have at least four trains always fit for service. This meant that,
+counting puppies and all, there would be about the premises from twenty
+to thirty dogs. However, as the lakes and rivers there swarmed with
+fish, which was their only food, we kept the pack up to a state of
+efficiency at but little expense. Jack and Cuffy were the only two dogs
+that were allowed the full liberty of the house. They were welcome in
+every room. Our doors were furnished with the ordinary thumb latches.
+These latches at first bothered both dogs. All that was needed on our
+part was to show them how they worked, and from that day on for years
+they both entered the rooms as they desired without any trouble, if
+the doors opened from them. There was a decided difference, however,
+in opening a door if it opened toward them. Cuffy was never able to
+do it. With Jack it was about as easily done as it was by the Indian
+servant girl. Quickly and deftly would he shove up the exposed latch
+and the curved part of the thumb piece and draw it toward him. If the
+door did not easily open, the claws in the other fore paw speedily
+and cleverly did the work. The favorite resting place of these two
+magnificent dogs was on some fur rugs on my study floor. Several times
+have we witnessed the following action in Cuffy, who was of a much more
+restless temperament than Jack: When she wanted to leave the study she
+would invariably first go to the door and try it. If it were in the
+slightest degree ajar she could easily draw it toward her and thus
+open it. If, on the contrary, it were latched, she would at once march
+over to Jack, and, taking him by an ear with her teeth, would lead him
+over to the door, which he at once opened for her. If reason is that
+power by which we "are enabled to combine means for the attainment of
+particular ends," I fail to understand the meaning of words if it were
+not displayed in these instances.
+
+Both Jack and Cuffy were, as is characteristic of such dogs, very fond
+of the water, and in our short, brilliant summers would frequently
+disport themselves in the beautiful little lake, the shores of which
+were close to our home. Cuffy, as a Newfoundland dog, generally
+preferred to continue her sports in the waves some time after Jack had
+finished his bath. As they were inseparable companions, Jack was too
+loyal to retire to the house until Cuffy was ready to accompany him.
+As she was sometimes whimsical and dilatory, she seemed frequently to
+try his patience. It was, however, always interesting to observe his
+deference to her. To understand thoroughly what we are going to relate
+in proof of our argument it is necessary to state that the rocky shore
+in front of our home was at this particular place like a wedge, the
+thickest part in front, rising up about a dozen feet or so abruptly
+from the water. Then to the east the shore gradually sloped down into
+a little sandy cove. When Jack had finished his bath he always swam
+to this sandy beach, and at once, as he shook his great body, came
+gamboling along the rocks, joyously barking to his companion still in
+the waters. When Cuffy had finished her watery sports, if Jack were
+still on the rocks, instead of swimming to the sandy cove and there
+landing she would start directly for the place where Jack was awaiting
+her. If it were at a spot where she could not alone struggle up, Jack,
+firmly bracing himself, would reach down to her and then, catching hold
+of the back of her neck, would help her up the slippery rocks. If it
+were at a spot where he could not possibly reach her, he would, after
+several attempts, all the time furiously barking as though expressing
+his anxiety and solicitude, rush off to a spot where some old oars,
+paddles, and sticks of various kinds were piled. There he searched
+until he secured one that suited his purpose. With this in his mouth,
+he hurried back to the spot where Cuffy was still in the water at the
+base of the steep rocks. Here he would work the stick around until he
+was able to let one end down within reach of his exacting companion in
+the water. Seizing it in her teeth and with the powerful Jack pulling
+at the other end she was soon able to work her way up the rough but
+almost perpendicular rocks. This prompt action, often repeated on
+the part of Jack, looked very much like "the specious appearance of
+reasoning." It was a remarkable coincidence that if Jack were called
+away, Cuffy at once swam to the sandy beach and there came ashore.
+
+Jack never had any special love for the Indians, although we were then
+living among them. He was, however, too well instructed ever to injure
+or even growl at any of them. The changing of Indian servant girls in
+the kitchen was always a matter of perplexity to him. He was suspicious
+of these strange Indians coming in and so familiarly handling the
+various utensils of their work. Not daring to injure them, it was
+amusing to watch him in his various schemes to tease them. If one of
+them seemed especially anxious to keep the doors shut, Jack took the
+greatest delight in frequently opening them. This he took care only
+to do when no member of the family was around. These tricks he would
+continue to do until formal complaints were lodged against him. One
+good scolding was sufficient to deter him from thus teasing that girl,
+but he would soon begin to try it with others.
+
+One summer we had a fat, good-natured servant girl whom we called
+Mary. Soon after she was installed in her place Jack began, as usual,
+to try to annoy her, but found it to be a more difficult job than it
+had been with some of her predecessors. She treated him with complete
+indifference, and was not in the least afraid of him, big as he was.
+This seemed to very much humiliate him, as most of the other girls had
+so stood in awe of the gigantic fellow that they had about given way to
+him in everything. Mary, however, did nothing of the kind. She would
+shout, "Get out of my way!" as quickly to "his mightiness" as she would
+to the smallest dog on the place. This very much offended Jack, but he
+had been so well trained, even regarding the servants, that he dare not
+retaliate even with a growl. Mary, however, had one weakness, and after
+a time Jack found it out. Her mistress observing that this girl, who
+had been transferred from a floorless wigwam into a civilized kitchen,
+was at first careless about keeping the floor as clean as it should be,
+had, by the promise of some desired gift in addition to her wages, so
+fired her zeal that it seemed as though every hour that could be saved
+from her other necessary duties was spent in scrubbing that kitchen
+floor. Mary was never difficult to find, as was often the case with
+other Indian girls; if missed from other duties, she was always found
+scrubbing her kitchen.
+
+In some way or other--how we do not profess to know--Jack discovered
+this, which had become to us a source of amusement, and here he
+succeeded in annoying her, where in many other ways which he had tried
+he had only been humiliated and disgraced. He would, when the floor
+had just been scrubbed, march in and walk over it with his feet made
+as dirty as tramping in the worst places outside could make them. At
+other times he would plunge into the lake, and instead of, as usual,
+thoroughly shaking himself dry on the rocks, would wait until he had
+marched in upon Mary's spotless floor. At other times, when Jack
+noticed that Mary was about to begin scrubbing her floor he would
+deliberately stretch himself out in a prominent place on it, and
+doggedly resist, yet without any growling or biting, any attempt on her
+part to get him to move. In vain would she coax or scold or threaten.
+Once or twice, by some clever stratagem, such as pretending to feed
+the other dogs outside or getting them excited and furiously barking,
+as though a bear or some other animal were being attacked, did she
+succeed in getting him out. But soon he found her out, and then he paid
+not the slightest attention to any of these things. Once when she had
+him outside she securely fastened the door to keep him out until her
+scrubbing would be done. Furiously did Jack rattle at the latch, but
+the door was otherwise so secured that he could not open it. Getting
+discouraged in his efforts to open the door in the usual way, he went
+to the woodpile and seizing a large billet in his mouth he came and so
+pounded the door with it that Mary, seeing that there was great danger
+of the panel being broken in, was obliged to open the door and let in
+the dog. Jack proudly marched in to the kitchen with the stick of wood
+in his mouth. This he carried to the wood box, and, when he had placed
+it there, he coolly stretched himself out on the floor where he would
+be the biggest nuisance.
+
+Seeing Jack under such circumstances on her kitchen floor, poor Mary
+could stand it no longer, and so she came marching in to my study, and
+in vigorous picturesque language in her native Cree described Jack's
+various tricks and schemes to annoy her and thus hinder her in her
+work. She ended up by the declaration that she was sure the _meechee
+munedoo_ (the devil) was in that dog. While not fully accepting the
+last statement, we felt that the time had come to interfere, and
+that Jack must be reproved and stopped. In doing this we utilized
+Jack's love for our little ones, especially for Eddie, the little
+four-year-old boy. His obedience as well as loyalty to that child was
+marvelous and beautiful. The slightest wish of the lad was law to Jack.
+
+As soon as Mary had finished her emphatic complaints, I turned to
+Eddie, who with his little sister had been busily playing with some
+blocks on the floor, and said:
+
+"Eddie, go and tell that naughty Jack that he must stop teasing Mary.
+Tell him his place is not in the kitchen, and that he must keep out of
+it."
+
+Eddie had listened to Mary's story, and, although he generally sturdily
+defended Jack's various actions, yet here he saw that the dog was in
+the wrong, and so he gallantly came to her rescue. Away with Mary he
+went, while the rest of us, now much interested, followed in the rear
+to see how the thing would turn out. As Eddie and Mary passed through
+the dining room we remained in that room, while they went on into the
+adjoining kitchen, leaving the door open, so that it was possible for
+us to distinctly hear every word that was uttered. Eddie at once strode
+up to the spot where Jack was stretched upon the floor. Seizing him by
+one of his ears, and addressing him as with the authority of a despot,
+the little lad said:
+
+"I am ashamed of you, Jack. You naughty dog, teasing Mary like this!
+So you won't let her wash her kitchen. Get up and come with me, you
+naughty dog!" saying which the child tugged away at the ear of the dog.
+Jack promptly obeyed, and as they came marching through the dining room
+on their way to the study it was indeed wonderful to see that little
+child, whose beautiful curly head was not much higher than that of the
+great, powerful dog, yet so completely the master. Jack was led into
+the study and over to the great wolf-robe mat where he generally slept.
+As he promptly obeyed the child's command to lie down upon it, he
+received from him his final orders:
+
+"Now, Jack, you keep out of the kitchen"; and to a remarkable degree
+from that time on that order was obeyed.
+
+We have referred to the fact that Jack placed the billet of wood in the
+wood box when it had served his purpose in compelling Mary to open the
+door. Carrying in wood was one of his accomplishments. Living in that
+cold land, where we depended entirely on wood for our fuel, we required
+a large quantity of it. It was cut in the forests, sometimes several
+miles from the house. During the winters it was dragged home by the
+dogs. Here it was cut into the proper lengths for the stoves and piled
+up in the yard. When required, it was carried into the kitchen and
+piled up in a large wood box. This work was generally done by Indian
+men. When none were at hand the Indian girls had to do the work, but
+it was far from being enjoyed by them, especially in the bitter cold
+weather. It was suggested one day that Jack could be utilized for this
+work. With but little instruction and trouble he was induced to accept
+of the situation, and so after that the cry, "Jack, the wood box is
+empty!" would set him industriously to work at refilling it.
+
+To us, among many other instances of dog reasoning that came under
+our notice as the years rolled on, was one on the part of a large,
+powerful dog we called Caesar. It occurred in the spring of the year,
+when the snow had melted on the land, and so, with the first rains, was
+swelling the rivers and creeks very considerably. On the lake before us
+the ice was still a great solid mass, several feet in thickness. Near
+our home was a now rapid stream that, rushing down into the lake, had
+cut a delta of open water in the ice at its mouth. In this open place
+Papanekis, one of my Indians, had placed a gill net for the purpose of
+catching fish. Living, as he did, all winter principally upon the fish
+caught the previous October or November and kept frozen for several
+months hung up in the open air, we were naturally pleased to get the
+fresh ones out of the water in the spring. Papanekis had so arranged
+his net, by fastening a couple of ropes about sixty feet long, one at
+each end, that when it was securely fastened at each side of the stream
+it was carried out into this open deltalike space by the force of the
+current, and there hung like the capital letter U. Its upper side was
+kept in position by light-wooded floats, while medium-sized stones, as
+sinkers, steadied it below.
+
+Every morning Papanekis would take a basket and, being followed by
+all the dogs of the kennels, would visit his net. Placed as we have
+described, he required no canoe or boat in order to overhaul it and
+take from it the fish there caught. All he had to do was to seize hold
+of the rope at the end fastened on the shore and draw it toward him. As
+he kept pulling it in, the deep bend in it gradually straightened out
+until the net was reached. His work was now to secure the fish as he
+gradually drew in the net and coiled it at his feet. The width of the
+opening in the water being about sixty feet, the result was that when
+he had in this way overhauled his net he had about reached the end of
+the rope attached to the other side. When all the fish in the net were
+secured, all Papanekis had to do to reset the net was to throw some
+of it out in the right position in the stream. Here the force of the
+running waters acting upon it soon carried the whole net down into the
+open place as far as the two ropes fastened on the shores would admit.
+Papanekis, after placing the best fish in his basket for consumption
+in the mission house and for his own family, divided what was left
+among the eager dogs that had accompanied him. This work went on for
+several days, and the supply of fish continued to increase, much to our
+satisfaction.
+
+One day Papanekis came into my study in a state of great perturbation.
+He was generally such a quiet, stoical sort of an Indian that I was at
+once attracted by his mental disquietude. On asking the reason why he
+was so troubled, he at once blurted out, "Master, there is some strange
+animal visiting our net!"
+
+In answer to my request for particulars, he replied that for some
+mornings past when he went to visit it he found, entangled in the
+meshes, several heads of whitefish. Yet the net was always in its right
+position in the water. On my suggesting that perhaps otters, fishers,
+minks, or other fish-eating animals might have done the work, he most
+emphatically declared that he knew the habits of all these and all
+other animals living on fish, and it was utterly impossible for any of
+them to have thus done this work. The mystery continuing for several
+following mornings, Papanekis became frightened and asked me to get
+some other fisherman in his place, as he was afraid longer to visit the
+net. He had talked the matter over with some other Indians, and they
+had come to the conclusion that either a _windegoo_ was at the bottom
+of it or the _meechee munedoo_ (the devil). I laughed at his fears,
+and told him I would help him to try and find out who or what it was
+that was giving us this trouble. I went with him to the place, where we
+carefully examined both sides of the stream for evidences of the clever
+thief. There was nothing suspicious, and the only tracks visible were
+those of his own and of the many dogs that followed him to be fed each
+morning. About two or three hundred yards north of the spot where he
+overhauled the net there rose a small abrupt hill, densely covered with
+spruce and balsam trees. On visiting it we found that a person there
+securely hid from observation could with care easily overlook the whole
+locality.
+
+At my suggestion, Papanekis with his axe there arranged a sort of a
+nest or lookout spot. Orders were then given that he and another Indian
+man should, before daybreak on the next morning, make a long detour
+and cautiously reach that spot from the rear, and there carefully
+conceal themselves. This they succeeded in doing, and there, in perfect
+stillness, they waited for the morning. As soon as it was possible to
+see anything they were on the alert. For some time they watched in
+vain. They eagerly scanned every point of vision, and for a time could
+observe nothing unusual.
+
+"Hush!" said one; "see that dog!"
+
+It was Caesar, cautiously skulking along the trail. He would frequently
+stop and sniff the air. Fortunately for the Indian watchers, the wind
+was blowing toward them, and so the dog did not catch their scent. On
+he came, in a quiet yet swift gait, until he reached the spot where
+Papanekis stood when he pulled in the net. He gave one searching glance
+in every direction, and then he set to work. Seizing the rope in his
+teeth, Caesar strongly pulled upon it, while he rapidly backed up some
+distance on the trail. Then, walking on the rope to the water's edge as
+it lay on the ground, to keep the pressure of the current from dragging
+it in, he again took a fresh grip upon it and repeated the process.
+This he did until the sixty feet of rope were hauled in, and the end
+of the net was reached to which it was attached. The net he now hauled
+in little by little, keeping his feet firmly on it to securely hold
+it down. As he drew it up, several varieties of inferior fish, such
+as suckers or mullets, pike or jackfish, were at first observed. To
+them Caesar paid no attention. He was after the delicious whitefish,
+which dogs as well as human beings prefer to those of other kinds.
+When he had perhaps hauled twenty feet of the net, his cleverness was
+rewarded by the sight of a fine whitefish. Still holding the net with
+its struggling captives securely down with his feet, he began to devour
+this whitefish, which was so much more dainty than the coarser fish
+generally thrown to him. Papanekis and his comrade had seen enough. The
+mysterious culprit was detected in the act, and so with a "Whoop!" they
+rushed down upon him. Caught in the very act, Caesar had to submit to a
+thrashing that ever after deterred him from again trying that cunning
+trick.
+
+Who can read this story, which I give exactly as it occurred, without
+having to admit that here Caesar "combined means for the attainment of
+particular ends"? On the previous visits which he made to the net the
+rapid current of the stream, working against the greater part of it
+in the water, soon carried it back again into its place ere Papanekis
+arrived later in the morning. The result was that Caesar's cleverness
+was undetected for some time, even by these most observant Indians.
+
+Many other equally clever instances convince me, and those who with
+me witnessed them, of the possession, in of course a limited degree,
+of reasoning powers. Scores of my dogs never seemed to reveal them,
+perhaps because no special opportunities were presented for their
+exhibition. They were just ordinary dogs, trained to the work of
+hauling their loads. When night came, if their feet were sore they
+had dog sense enough to come to their master and, throwing themselves
+on their backs, would stick up their feet and whine and howl until
+the warm duffle shoes were put on. Some of the skulking ones had wit
+enough, when they did not want to be caught, in the gloom of the early
+morning, while the stars were still shining, if they were white, to
+cuddle down, still and quiet, in the beautiful snow; while the darker
+ones would slink away into the gloom of the dense balsams, where they
+seemed to know that it would be difficult for them to be seen. Some of
+them had wit enough when traveling up steep places with heavy loads,
+where their progress was slow, to seize hold of small firm bushes in
+their teeth to help them up or to keep them from slipping back. Some
+of them knew how to shirk their work. Caesar, of whom we have already
+spoken, at times was one of this class. They could pretend, by their
+panting and tugging at their collars, that they were dragging more
+than any other dogs in the train, while at the same time they were not
+pulling a pound!
+
+Of cats I do not write. I am no lover of them, and therefore am
+incompetent to write about them. This lack of love for them is, I
+presume, from the fact that when a boy I was the proud owner of some
+very beautiful rabbits, upon which the cats of the neighborhood used to
+make disastrous raids. So great was my boyish indignation then that the
+dislike to them created has in a measure continued to this day, and I
+have not as yet begun to cultivate their intimate acquaintance.
+
+But of dogs I have ever been a lover and a friend. I never saw one, not
+mad, of which I was afraid, and I never saw one with which I could not
+speedily make friends. Love was the constraining motive principally
+used in breaking my dogs in to their work in the trains. No whip was
+ever used upon Jack or Cuffy while they were learning their tasks.
+Some dogs had to be punished more or less. Some stubborn dogs at once
+surrendered and gave no more trouble when a favorite female dog was
+harnessed up in a train and sent on ahead. This affection in the dog
+for his mate was a powerful lever in the hands of his master, and,
+using it as an incentive, we have seen things performed as remarkable
+as any we have here recorded.
+
+From what I have written it will be seen that I have had unusual
+facilities for studying the habits and possibilities of dogs. I was
+not under the necessity of gathering up a lot of mongrels at random
+in the streets, and then, in order to see instances of their sagacity
+and the exercise of their highest reasoning powers, to keep them until
+they were "practically utterly hungry," and then imprison them in a
+box a good deal less than four feet square, and then say to them, "Now,
+you poor, frightened, half-starved creatures, show us what reasoning
+powers you possess." About as well throw some benighted Africans into
+a slave ship and order them to make a telephone or a phonograph! My
+comparison is not too strong, considering the immense distance there is
+between the human race and the brute creation. And so it must be, in
+the bringing to light of the powers of memory and the clear exhibition
+of the reasoning powers, few though they be, that the tests are not
+conclusive unless made under the most favorable environment, upon dogs
+of the highest intelligence, and in the most congenial and sympathetic
+manner.
+
+Testing this most interesting question in this manner, my decided
+convictions are that animals do reason.
+
+
+
+
+SKETCH OF GEORGE M. STERNBERG.
+
+
+No man among Americans has studied the micro-organisms with more profit
+or has contributed more to our knowledge of the nature of infection,
+particularly of that of yellow fever, than Dr. GEORGE M. STERNBERG, of
+the United States Army. His merits are freely recognized abroad, and
+he ranks there, as well as at home, among the leading bacteriologists
+of the age. He was born at Hartwick Seminary, an institution of the
+Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (General Synod), Otsego, N. Y.,
+June 8, 1838. His father, the Rev. Levi Sternberg, D. D., a graduate of
+Union College, a Lutheran minister, and for many years principal of the
+seminary and a director of it, was descended from German ancestors who
+came to this country in 1703 and settled in Schoharie County, New York.
+The younger Sternberg received his academical training at the seminary,
+after which, intending to study medicine, he undertook a school at New
+Germantown, N. J., as a means of earning a part of the money required
+to defray the cost of his instruction in that science. The record of
+his school was one of quiet sessions, thoroughness, and popularity of
+the teacher, and his departure was an occasion of regret among his
+patrons.
+
+When nineteen years old, young Sternberg began his medical studies
+with Dr. Horace Lathrop, in Cooperstown, N. Y. Afterward he attended
+the courses of the College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York,
+and was graduated thence in the class of 1860. Before he had fairly
+settled in practice the civil war began, and the attention of all
+young Americans was directed toward the military service. Among these
+was young Dr. Sternberg, who, having passed the examination, was
+appointed assistant surgeon May 28, 1861, and was attached to the
+command of General Sykes, Army of the Potomac. He was engaged in the
+battle of Bull Run, where, voluntarily remaining on the field with
+the wounded, he was taken prisoner, but was paroled to continue his
+humane work. On the expiration of his parole he made his way through
+the lines and reported at Washington for duty July 30, 1861--"weary,
+footsore, and worn." Of his conduct in later campaigns of the Army of
+the Potomac, General Sykes, in his official reports of the battles of
+Gaines Mill, Turkey Ridge, and Malvern Hill, said that "Dr. Sternberg
+added largely to the reputation already acquired on the disastrous
+field of Bull Run." He remained with General Sykes's command till
+August, 1862; was then assigned to hospital duty at Portsmouth Grove,
+R. I., till November, 1862; was afterward attached to General Banks's
+expedition as assistant to the medical director in the Department
+of the Gulf till January, 1864; was in the office of the medical
+director, Columbus, Ohio, and in charge of the United States General
+Hospital at Cleveland, Ohio, till July, 1865. Since the civil war he
+has been assigned successively to Jefferson Barracks, Mo.; Fort Harker
+and Fort Riley, Kansas; in the field in the Indian campaign, 1868
+to 1870; Forts Columbus and Hamilton, New York Harbor; Fort Warren,
+Boston Harbor; Department of the Gulf and New Orleans; Fort Barrancas,
+Fla.; Department of the Columbia; Department Headquarters; Fort Walla
+Walla, Washington Territory; California; and Eastern stations. He was
+promoted to be captain and assistant surgeon in 1866, major and surgeon
+in 1875, lieutenant colonel and deputy surgeon general in 1891, and
+brigadier general and surgeon general in 1893. He has also received the
+brevets of captain and major in the United States Army "for faithful
+and meritorious services during the war," and of lieutenant colonel
+"for gallant service in performance of his professional duty under fire
+in action against Indians at Clearwater, Idaho, July 12, 1877." In
+the discharge of his duties at his various posts Dr. Sternberg had to
+deal with a cholera epidemic in Kansas in 1867, with a "yellow-fever
+epidemic" in New York Harbor in 1871, and with epidemics of yellow
+fever at Fort Barrancas, Fla., in 1873 and 1875. He served under
+special detail as member and secretary of the Havana Yellow-Fever
+Commission of the National Board of Health, 1879 to 1881; as a delegate
+from the United States under special instructions of the Secretary of
+State to the International Sanitary Conference at Rome in 1885; as a
+commissioner, under the act of Congress of March 3, 1887, to make
+investigations in Brazil, Mexico, and Cuba relating to the etiology and
+prevention of yellow fever; by special request of the health officer of
+the port of New York and the advisory committee of the New York Chamber
+of Commerce as consulting bacteriologist to the health officer of the
+port of New York in 1892; and he was a delegate to the International
+Medical Congress in Moscow in 1897.
+
+Dr. Sternberg has contributed largely to the literature of scientific
+medicine from the results of his observations and experiments which he
+has made in these various spheres of duty.
+
+His most fruitful researches have been made in the field of
+bacteriology and infectious diseases. He has enjoyed the rare advantage
+in pursuing these studies of having the material for his experiments
+close at hand in the course of his regular work, and of watching, we
+might say habitually, the progress of such diseases as yellow fever
+as it normally went on in the course of Nature. Of the quality of his
+bacteriological work, the writer of a biography in Red Cross Notes,
+reprinted in the North American Medical Review, goes so far as to say
+that "when the overzeal of enthusiasts shall have passed away, and the
+story of bacteriology in the nineteenth century is written up, it will
+probably be found that the chief who brought light out of darkness
+was George M. Sternberg. He was noted not so much for his brilliant
+discoveries, but rather for his exact methods of investigation, for
+his clear statements of the results of experimental data, for his
+enormous labors toward the perfection and simplification of technique,
+and finally for his services in the practical application of the
+truths taught by the science. His early labors in bacteriology were
+made with apparatus and under conditions that were crude enough." His
+work in this department is certainly among the most important that
+has been done. Its value has been freely acknowledged everywhere, it
+has given him a world-wide fame, and it has added to the credit of
+American science. The reviewer in Nature (June 22, 1893) of his Manual
+of Bacteriology, which was published in 1892, while a little disposed
+to criticise the fullness and large size of the book, describes it as
+"the latest, the largest, and, let us add, the most complete manual
+of bacteriology which has yet appeared in the English language. The
+volume combines in itself not only an account of such facts as are
+already established in the science from a morphological, chemical,
+and pathological point of view, discussions on such abstruse subjects
+as susceptibility and immunity, and also full details of the means by
+which these results have been obtained, and practical directions for
+the carrying on of laboratory work." This was not the first of Dr.
+Sternberg's works in bacteriological research. It was preceded by a
+work on Bacteria, of 498 pages, including 152 pages translated from
+the work of Dr. Antoine Magnin (1884); Malaria and Malarial Diseases,
+and Photomicrographs and How to make Them. The manual is at once a
+book for reference, a text-book for students, and a handbook for the
+laboratory. Its four parts include brief notices of the history of
+the subject, classification, morphology, and an account of methods
+and practical laboratory work--"all clear and concise"; the biology
+and chemistry of bacteria, disinfection, and antiseptics; a detailed
+account of pathogenic bacteria, their modes of action, the way they
+may gain access to the system, susceptibility and immunity, to which
+Dr. Sternberg's own contributions have been not the least important;
+and saprophytic bacteria in water, in the soil, in or on the human
+body, and in food, the whole number of saprophytes described being
+three hundred and thirty-one. "The merit of a work of this kind,"
+Nature says, "depends not less on the number of species described than
+on the clearness and accuracy of the descriptions, and Dr. Sternberg
+has spared no pains to make these as complete as possible." The
+bibliography in this work fills more than a hundred pages, and contains
+2,582 references. A later book on a kindred subject is Immunity,
+Protective Inoculations, and Serum Therapy (1895). Dr. Sternberg has
+also published a Text-Book of Bacteriology.
+
+Bearing upon yellow fever are the Report upon the Prevention of Yellow
+Fever by Inoculation, submitted in March, 1888; Report upon the
+Prevention of Yellow Fever, illustrated by photomicrographs and cuts,
+1890; and Examination of the Blood in Yellow Fever (experiments upon
+animals, etc.), in the Preliminary Report of the Havana Yellow-Fever
+Commission, 1879. Other publications in the list of one hundred and
+thirty-one titles of Dr. Sternberg's works, and mostly consisting
+of shorter articles, relate to Disinfectants and their Value, the
+Etiology of Malarial Fevers, Septicaemia, the Germicide Value of
+Therapeutic Agents, the Etiology of Croupous Pneumonia, the Bacillus
+of Typhoid Fever, the Thermal Death Point of Pathogenic Organisms,
+the Practical Results of Bacteriological Researches, the Cholera
+Spirillum, Disinfection at Quarantine Stations, the Infectious Agent
+of Smallpox, official reports as Surgeon General of the United States
+Army, addresses and reports at the meetings of the American Public
+Health Association, and an address to the members of the Pan-American
+Congress. One paper is recorded quite outside of the domain of microbes
+and fevers, to show what the author might have done if he had allowed
+his attention to be diverted from his special absorbing field of work.
+It is upon the Indian Burial Mounds and Shell Heaps near Pensacola, Fla.
+
+The medical and scientific societies of which Dr. Sternberg is a
+member include the American Public Health Association, of which he is
+also an ex-president (1886); the American Association of Physicians;
+the American Physiological Society; the American Microscopical
+Society, of which he is a vice-president; the American Association
+for the Advancement of Science, of which he is a Fellow; the New
+York Academy of Medicine (a Fellow); and the Association of Military
+Surgeons of the United States (president in 1896). He is a Fellow
+of the Royal Microscopical Society of London; an honorary member
+of the Epidemiological Society of London, of the Royal Academy of
+Medicine of Rome, of the Academy of Medicine of Rio de Janeiro, of
+the American Academy of Medicine, of the French Society of Hygiene,
+etc.; was President of the Section on Military Medicine and Surgery of
+the Pan-American Congress; was a Fellow by courtesy in Johns Hopkins
+University, 1885 to 1890; was President of the Biological Society
+of Washington in 1896, and of the American Medical Association in
+1897; and has been designated Honorary President of the Thirteenth
+International Medical Congress, which is to meet in Paris in 1900. He
+received the degree of LL. D. from the University of Michigan in 1894,
+and from Brown University in 1897.
+
+Dr. Sternberg's view of the right professional standard of the
+physician is well expressed in the sentiment, "To maintain our
+standing in the estimation of the educated classes we must not rely
+upon our diplomas or upon our membership in medical societies. Work
+and worth are what count." He does not appear to be attached to any
+particular school, but, as his Red Cross Notes biographer says, "has
+placed himself in the crowd 'who have been moving forward upon the
+substantial basis of scientific research, and who, if characterized by
+any distinctive name, should be called _the New School of Scientific
+Medicine_.' He holds that if our practice was in accordance with our
+knowledge many diseases would disappear; he sees no room for creeds
+or patents in medicine. He is willing to acknowledge the right to
+prescribe either a bread pill or a leaden bullet. But if a patient
+dies from diphtheria because of a failure to administer a proper
+remedy, or if infection follows from dirty fingers or instruments,
+if a practitioner carelessly or ignorantly transfers infection, he
+believes he is not fit to practice medicine.... He rejects every theory
+or dictum that has not been clearly demonstrated to him as an absolute
+truth."
+
+While he is described as without assumption, Dr. Sternberg is
+represented as being evidently in his headquarters as surgeon general
+in every sense the head of the service, the chief whose will governs
+all. Modest and unassuming, he is described as being most exacting, a
+man of command, of thorough execution, a general whose eyes comprehend
+every detail, and who has studied the personality of every member
+of his corps. He is always busy, but seemingly never in a hurry;
+systematic, accepting no man's dictum, and taking nothing as an
+established fact till he has personal experimental evidence of its
+truth. He looks into every detail, and takes equal care of the health
+of the general in chief and of the private.
+
+His addresses are carefully prepared, based on facts he has
+himself determined, made in language so plain that they will not
+be misunderstood, free from sentiment, and delivered in an easy
+conversational style, and his writings are "pen pictures of his results
+in the laboratory and clinic room."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The thirty-first year of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology
+and Ethnology was signalized by the transfer of its property to
+the corporation of Harvard College, whereby simplicity and greater
+permanence have been given to its management. The four courses of
+instruction in the museum were attended by sixteen students, and
+these, with others, make twenty-one persons, besides the curator, who
+are engaged in study or special research in subjects included under
+the term anthropology. Special attention is given by explorers in
+the service of the museum to the investigation of the antiquities of
+Yucatan and Central America, of which its publications on Copan, the
+caves of Loltun, and Labna, have been noticed in the Monthly. These
+explorations have been continued when and where circumstances made it
+feasible. Among the gifts acknowledged in the report of the museum are
+two hundred facsimile copies of the Aztec Codex Vaticanus, from the
+Duke of Loubat, an original Mexican manuscript of 1531, on agave paper,
+from the Mary Hemenway estate; the extensive private archaeological
+collection of Mr. George W. Hammond; articles from Georgia mounds,
+from Clarence B. Moore, and other gifts of perhaps less magnitude but
+equal interest. Mr. Andrew Gibb, of Edinburgh, has given five pieces
+of rudely made pottery from the Hebrides, which were made several
+years ago by a woman who is thought to have been the last one to make
+pottery according to the ancient method of shaping the clay with the
+hands, and without the use of any form of potter's wheel. Miss Maria
+Whitney, sister of the late Prof. J. D. Whitney, has presented the
+"Calaveras skull" and the articles found with it, and all the original
+documents relating to its discovery and history. Miss Phebe Ferris,
+of Madisonville, Ohio, has bequeathed to the museum about twenty-five
+acres of land, on which is situated the ancient mound where Dr. Metz
+and Curator Putnam have investigated for several years, and whence a
+considerable collection has been obtained. Miss Ferris expressed the
+desire that the museum continue the explorations, and after completing
+convert the tract into a public park. Mr. W. B. Nicker has explored
+some virgin mounds near Galena, Ill., and a rock shelter and stone
+grave near Portage, Ill. The library of the museum now contains 1,838
+volumes and 2,479 pamphlets on anthropology.
+
+
+
+
+Correspondence.
+
+
+DO ANIMALS REASON?
+
+_Editor Popular Science Monthly:_
+
+DEAR SIR: In connection with the discussion of the interesting subject
+Do Animals Reason? permit me to relate the following incident in
+support of the affirmative side of the question:
+
+Some years ago, before the establishment of the National Zoological
+Park in this city, Dr. Frank Baker, the curator, kept a small nucleus
+of animals in the rear of the National Museum; among this collection
+were several monkeys. On a hot summer day, as I was passing the monkey
+cage I handed to one of the monkeys a large piece of fresh molasses
+taffy. The animal at once carried it to his mouth and commenced to bite
+it. The candy was somewhat soft, and stuck to the monkey's paws. He
+looked at his paws, licked them with his tongue, and then turned his
+head from side to side looking about the cage. Then, taking the candy
+in his mouth, he sprang to the farther end of the cage and picked up
+a wad of brown paper. This ball of paper he carefully unfolded, and,
+laying it down on the floor of the cage, carefully smoothed out the
+folds of the paper with both paws. After he had smoothed it out to his
+satisfaction, he took the piece of taffy from his mouth and laid it in
+the center of the piece of paper and folded the paper over the candy,
+leaving a part of it exposed. He then sat back on his haunches and ate
+the candy, first wiping one paw and then the other on his hip, just as
+any boy or man might do.
+
+If that monkey did not show reason, what would you call it?
+
+Yours etc., H. O. HALL, _Library Surgeon General's Office, United
+States Army._ WASHINGTON, D. C., _October 2, 1899_.
+
+
+
+
+Editor's Table.
+
+_HOME BURDENS._
+
+
+The doctrine has gone abroad, suggested by the most popular poet of
+the day, that "white men" have the duty laid upon them of scouring the
+dark places of the earth for burdens to take up. Through a large part
+of this nation the idea has run like wildfire, infecting not a few
+who themselves are in no small degree burdens to the community that
+shelters them. The rowdier element of the population everywhere is
+strongly in favor of the new doctrine, which to their minds is chiefly
+illustrated by the shooting of Filipinos. We do not say that thousands
+of very respectable citizens are not in favor of it also; we only note
+that they are strongly supported by a class whose adhesion adds no
+strength to their cause.
+
+It is almost needless to remark that a very few years ago we were
+not in the way of thinking that the civilized nations of the earth,
+which had sliced up Asia and Africa in the interest of their trade,
+had done so in the performance of a solemn duty. The formula "the
+white man's burden" had not been invented then, and some of us used to
+think that there was more of the filibustering spirit than of a high
+humanitarianism in these raids upon barbarous races. Possibly we did
+less than justice to some of the countries concerned, notably Great
+Britain, which, having a teeming population in very narrow confines,
+and being of old accustomed to adventures by sea, had naturally been
+led to extend her influence and create outlets for her trade in distant
+parts of the earth. Be this as it may, we seemed to have our own work
+cut out for us at home. We had the breadth of a continent under our
+feet, rich in the products of every latitude; we had unlimited room for
+expansion and development; we had unlimited confidence in the destinies
+that awaited us as a nation, if only we applied ourselves earnestly
+to the improvement of the heritage which, in the order of Providence,
+had become ours. We thanked Heaven that we were not as other nations,
+which, insufficiently provided with home blessings, were tempted to put
+forth their hands and--steal, or something like it, in heathen lands.
+
+Well, we have changed all that: we give our sympathy to the nations
+of the Old World in their forays on the heathen, and are vigorously
+tackling "the white man's burden" according to the revised version.
+It is unfortunate and quite unpleasant that this should involve
+shooting down people who are only asking what our ancestors asked and
+obtained--the right of self-government in the land they occupy. Still,
+we must do it if we want to keep up with the procession we have joined.
+Smoking tobacco is not pleasant to the youth of fifteen or sixteen who
+has determined to line up with his elders in that manly accomplishment.
+He has many a sick stomach, many a flutter of the heart, before he
+breaks himself into it; but, of course, he perseveres--has he not taken
+up the white boy's burden? So we. Who, outside of that rowdy element to
+which we have referred, has not been, whether he has confessed it or
+not, sick at heart at the thought of the innocent blood we have shed
+and of the blood of our kindred that we have shed in order to shed that
+blood? Still, spite of all misgivings and qualms, we hold our course,
+Kipling leading on, and the colonel of the Rough Riders assuring us
+that it is all right.
+
+Revised versions are not always the best versions; and for our own
+part we prefer to think that the true "white man's burden" is that
+which lies at his own door, and not that which he has to compass land
+and sea to come in sight of. We have in this land the burden of a not
+inconsiderable tramp and hoodlum population. This is a burden of which
+we can never very long lose sight; it is more or less before us every
+day. It is a burden in a material sense, and it is a burden in what
+we may call a spiritual sense. It impairs the satisfaction we derive
+from our own citizenship, and it lies like a weight on the social
+conscience. It is the opprobrium alike of our educational system and
+of our administration of the law. How far would the national treasure
+and individual energy which we have expended in failing to subdue
+the Filipino "rebels" have gone--if wisely applied--in subduing the
+rebel elements in our own population, and rescuing from degradation
+those whom our public schools have failed to civilize? Shall the reply
+be that we can not interfere with individual liberty? It would be
+a strange reply to come from people who send soldiers ten thousand
+miles away for the express purpose of interfering with liberty as the
+American nation has always hitherto understood that term; but, in
+point of fact, there is no question of interfering with any liberty
+that ought to be respected. It is a question of the protection of
+public morals, of public decency, and of the rights of property. It is
+a question of the rescue of human beings--our fellow-citizens--from
+ignorance, vice, and wretchedness. It is a question of making us as
+a nation right with ourselves, and making citizenship under our flag
+something to be prized by every one entitled to claim it.
+
+It is not in the cities only that undesirable elements cluster. The
+editor of a lively little periodical, in which many true things are
+said with great force--The Philistine--has lately declared that his own
+village, despite the refining influences radiated from the "Roycroft
+Shop," could furnish a band of hoodlum youths that could give points in
+every form of vile behavior to any equal number gathered from a great
+city. He hints that New England villages may be a trifle better, but
+that the farther Western States are decidedly worse. It is precisely
+in New England, however, that a bitter cry on this very subject of
+hoodlumism has lately been raised. What are we to do about it?
+
+Manifestly the hoodlum or incipient tramp is one of two things: either
+he is a person whom a suitable education might have turned into some
+decent and honest way of earning a living, or he is a person upon whom,
+owing to congenital defect, all educational effort would have been
+thrown away. In either case social duty seems plain. If education would
+have done the work, society--seeing that it has taken the business of
+public education in hand--should have supplied the education required
+for the purpose, even though the amount of money available for waging
+war in the Philippines had been slightly reduced. If the case is one
+in which no educational effort is of avail, then, as the old Roman
+formula ran, "Let the magistrates see that the republic takes no harm."
+Before, therefore, our minds can be easy on this hoodlum question,
+we must satisfy ourselves thoroughly that our modes of education are
+not, positively or negatively, adapted to making the hoodlum variety
+of character. The hoodlum, it is safe to say, is an individual in whom
+no intellectual interest has ever been awakened, in whom no special
+capacity has ever been created. His moral nature has never been taught
+to respond to any high or even respectable principle of conduct. If
+there is any glory in earth or heaven, any beauty or harmony in the
+operations of natural law, any poetry or pathos or dignity in human
+life, anything to stir the soul in the records of human achievement,
+to all such things he is wholly insensible. Ought this to be so in
+the case of any human being, not absolutely abnormal, whom the state
+has undertaken to educate? If, as a community, we put our hands to
+the educational plow, and so far not only relieve parents of a large
+portion of their sense of responsibility, but actually suppress the
+voluntary agencies that would otherwise undertake educational work,
+surely we should see to it that our education educates. Direct moral
+instruction in the schools is not likely to be of any great avail
+unless, by other and indirect means, the mind is prepared to receive
+it. What is needed is to awaken a sense of capacity and power, to give
+to each individual some trained faculty and some direct and, as far as
+it goes, scientific cognizance of things. Does any one suppose that
+a youth who had gone through a judicious course of manual training,
+or one who had become interested in any such subject as botany,
+chemistry, or agriculture, or who even had an intelligent insight
+into the elementary laws of mechanics, could develop into a hoodlum?
+On the other hand, there is no difficulty in imagining that such a
+development might take place in a youth who had simply been plied
+with spelling-book, grammar, and arithmetic. Even what seem the most
+interesting reading lessons fall dead upon minds that have no hold upon
+the reality of things, and no sense of the distinctions which the most
+elementary study of Nature forces on the attention.
+
+But, as we have admitted, there may be cases where the nature of the
+individual is such as to repel all effort for its improvement. Here
+the law must step in, and secure the community against the dangers to
+which the existence of such individuals exposes it. There is a certain
+element in the population which wishes to live, and is determined
+to live, on a level altogether below anything that can be called
+civilization. Those who compose it are nomadic and predatory in their
+habits, and occasionally give way to acts of fearful criminality. It is
+foolish not to recognize the fact, and take the measures that may be
+necessary for the isolation of this element. To devise and execute such
+measures is a burden a thousand times better worth taking up than the
+burden of imposing our yoke upon the Philippine Islands and crushing
+out a movement toward liberty quite as respectable, to all outward
+appearance, as that to which we have reared monuments at Bunker Hill
+and elsewhere. The fact is, the work before us at home is immense;
+and it is work which we might attack, not only without qualms of
+conscience, but with the conviction that every unit of labor devoted to
+it was being directed toward the highest interests not of the present
+generation only, but of generations yet unborn. The "white man," we
+trust, will some day see it; but meanwhile valuable time is being
+lost, and the national conscience is being lowered by the assumption
+of burdens that are _not_ ours, whatever Mr. Kipling may have said
+or sung, or whatever Governor Roosevelt may assert on his word as a
+soldier.
+
+
+_SPECIALIZATION._
+
+That division of labor is as necessary in the pursuit of science as
+in the world of industry no one would think of disputing; but that,
+like division of labor elsewhere, it has its drawbacks and dangers is
+equally obvious. When the latter truth is insisted on by those who
+are not recognized as experts, the experts are apt to be somewhat
+contemptuous in resenting such interference, as they consider it.
+An expert himself has, however, taken up the parable, and his words
+merit attention. We refer to an address delivered by Prof. J. Arthur
+Thompson, at the University of Aberdeen, upon entering on his duties
+as Regius Professor of Natural History, a post to which he was lately
+appointed. "We need to be reminded," he said, "amid the undoubted and
+surely legitimate fascinations of dissection and osteology, of section
+cutting and histology, of physiological chemistry and physiological
+physics, of embryology and fossil hunting, and the like, that the chief
+end of our study is a better understanding of living creatures in their
+natural surroundings." He could see no reason, he went on to say, for
+adding aimlessly to the overwhelming mass of detail already accumulated
+in these and other fields of research. The aim of our efforts should
+rather be to grasp the chief laws of growth and structure, and to rise
+to a true conception of the meaning of organization.
+
+The tendency to over-specialization is manifest everywhere; it may be
+traced in physics and chemistry, in mathematics, in archaeology, and in
+philology, as well as in biology. We can not help thinking that there
+is a certain narcotic influence arising from the steady accumulation
+of minute facts, so that what was in the first place, and in its early
+stages, an invigorating pursuit becomes not only an absorbing, but
+more or less a benumbing passion. We are accustomed to profess great
+admiration for Browning's Grammarian, who--
+
+"Gave us the doctrine of the enclitic _De_ Dead from the waist down,"
+
+but really we don't feel quite sure that the cause for which the old
+gentleman struggled was quite worthy of such desperate heroism. The
+world could have got along fairly well for a while with an imperfect
+knowledge of the subtle ways of the "enclitic _De_," and indeed a large
+portion of the world has neither concerned itself with the subject nor
+felt the worse for not having done so.
+
+What we fear is that some people are "dead from the waist down," or
+even from higher up, without being aware of it, and all on account of
+a furious passion for "enclitic de's" or their equivalent in other
+lines of study. Gentlemen, it is not worth while! You can not all hope
+to be buried on mountain tops like the grammarian, for there are not
+peaks enough for all of you, and any way what good would it do you?
+There is need of specialization, of course; we began by saying that the
+drift of our remarks is simply this, that he who would go into minute
+specializing should be careful to lay in at the outset a good stock of
+common sense, a liberal dose (if he can get it) of humor, and _quantum
+suff_. of humanity. Thus provided he can go ahead.
+
+
+
+
+Scientific Literature.
+
+SPECIAL BOOKS.
+
+
+The comparison between the United States in 1790 and Australia in 1891,
+with which Mr. _A. F. Weber_ opens his essay on _The Growth of Cities
+in the Nineteenth Century_[10] well illustrates how the tendency of
+population toward agglomeration in cities is one of the most striking
+social phenomena of the present age. Both countries were in nearly
+a corresponding state of development at the time of bringing them
+into the comparison. The population of the United States in 1790 was
+3,929,214; that of Australia in 1891 was 3,809,895; while 3.14 per cent
+of the people of the United States were then living in cities of ten
+thousand or more inhabitants, 33.20 per cent of the Australians are
+now living in such cities. Similar conditions or the tendency toward
+them are evident in nearly every country of the world. What are the
+forces that have produced the shifting of population thus indicated;
+what the economic, moral, political, and social consequences of it; and
+what is to be the attitude of the publicist, the statesman, and the
+teacher toward the movement, are questions which Mr. Weber undertakes
+to discuss. The subject is a very complicated and intricate one, with
+no end of puzzles in it for the careless student, and requiring to be
+viewed in innumerable shifting lights, showing the case in changing
+aspects; for in the discussion lessons are drawn by the author from
+every country in the family of nations. Natural causes--variations in
+climate, soil, earth formation, political institutions, etc.--partly
+explain the distribution of population, but only partly. It sometimes
+contradicts what would be deduced from them. Increase and improvement
+in facilities for communication help the expansion of commercial
+and industrial centers, but also contribute to the scattering of
+population over wider areas. The most potent factors in attracting
+people to the cities were, in former times, the commercial facilities
+they afforded, with opportunities to obtain employment in trade, and
+are now the opportunities for employment in trade and in manufacturing
+industries. The cities, however, do not grow merely by accretions
+from the outside, but they also enjoy a new element of natural growth
+within themselves in the greater certainty of living and longer
+duration of life brought about by improved management and ease of
+living in them, especially by improved sanitation, and it is only
+in the nineteenth century that any considerable number of cities
+have had a regular surplus of births over deaths. Migration cityward
+is not an economic phenomenon peculiar to the nineteenth century,
+but is shown by the study of the social statistics and the bills of
+mortality of the past to have been always a factor important enough
+to be a subject of special remark. It is, however, a very lively one
+now, and "in the immediate future we may expect to see a continuation
+of the centralizing movement; while many manufacturers are locating
+their factories in the small cities and towns, there are other
+industries that prosper most in the great cities. Commerce, moreover,
+emphatically favors the great centers rather than the small or
+intermediate centers." In examining the structure of city populations,
+a preponderance of the female sex appears, and is explained by the
+accentuated liability of men over women in cities to death from
+dangers of occupation, vice, crime, and excesses of all kinds. There
+are also present in the urban population a relatively larger number
+of persons in the active period of life, whence an easier and more
+animated career, more energy and enterprise, more radicalism and less
+conservatism, and more vice, crime, and impulsiveness generally may be
+expected. Of foreign immigrants, the least desirable class are most
+prone to remain in the great cities; and with the decline of railway
+building and the complete occupation of the public lands the author
+expects that immigrants in the future will disperse less readily than
+in the past, but in the never-tiring energy of American enterprise
+this may not prove to be the case. As to occupation, the growth of
+cities is found to favor the development of a body of artisans and
+factory workmen, as against the undertaker and employer, and "that
+the class of day laborers is relatively small in the cities is reason
+for rejoicing." It is found "emphatically true that the growth of
+cities not only increases a nation's economic power and energy, but
+quickens the national pulse.... A progressive and dynamic civilization
+implies the good and bad alike. The cities, as the foci of progress,
+inevitably contain both." The development of suburban life, stimulated
+by the railroad and the trolley, and the transference of manufacturing
+industries to the suburbs, are regarded as factors of great promise
+for the amelioration of the recognized evils of city life and for the
+solution of some of the difficulties it offers and the promotion of its
+best results.
+
+[10] The Growth of Cities in the Nineteenth Century. A Study in
+Statistics. By Adna Ferrln Weber. (Columbia University Studies In
+History, Economics, and Public Law.) New York: Published for Columbia
+University by the Macmillan Company. Pp. 495. Price, $3.50.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+DR. _James K. Crook_, author of _The Mineral Waters of the United
+States and their Therapeutic Uses_,[11] accepts it as proved by
+centuries of experience that in certain disorders the intelligent
+use of mineral waters is a more potent curative agency than drugs.
+He believes that Americans have within their own borders the close
+counterparts of the best foreign springs, and that in charms of scenery
+and surroundings, salubrity of climate and facilities for comfort, many
+of our spas will compare as resorts with the most highly developed
+ones of Europe. The purpose of the present volume is to set forth
+the qualities and attractions of American springs, of which we have
+a large number and variety, and the author has aimed to present the
+most complete and advanced work on the subject yet prepared. To make
+it so, he has carefully examined all the available literature on the
+subject, has addressed letters of inquiry to proprietors and other
+persons cognizant of spring resorts and commercial springs, and has
+made personal visits. While a considerable number of the 2,822 springs
+enumerated by Dr. A. C. Peale in his report to the United States
+Geological Survey have dropped out through non-use or non-development,
+more than two hundred mineral-spring localities are here described for
+the first time in a book of this kind. Every known variety of mineral
+water is represented. The subject is introduced by chapters on what
+might be called the science of mineral waters and their therapeutic
+uses, including the definition, the origin of mineral waters, and the
+sources whence they are mineralized; the classification, the discussion
+of their value, and mode of action; their solid and gaseous components;
+their therapeutics or applications to different disorders; and baths
+and douches and their medicinal uses. The springs are then described
+severally by States. The treatise on potable waters in the appendix is
+brief, but contains much.
+
+[11] Mineral Waters of the United States and their Therapeutic Uses,
+with an Account of the Various Mineral Spring Localities, their
+Advantages as Health Resorts, Means of Access, etc.; to which is
+added an Appendix on Potable Waters. By James K. Crook. New York and
+Philadelphia: Lea Brothers & Co. Pp. 588. Price, $3.50.
+
+
+
+
+GENERAL NOTICES.
+
+
+In _Every-Day Butterflies_[12] Mr. _Scudder_ relates the story of the
+very commonest butterflies--"those which every rambler at all observant
+sees about him at one time or another, inciting his curiosity or
+pleasing his eye." The sequence of the stories is mainly the order of
+appearance of the different subjects treated--which the author compares
+to the flowers in that each kind has its own season for appearing in
+perfect bloom, both together variegating the landscape in the open
+season of the year. This order of description is modified occasionally
+by the substitution of a later appearance for the first, when the
+butterfly is double or triple brooded. As illustrations are furnished
+of each butterfly discussed, it is not necessary that the descriptions
+should be long and minute, hence they are given in brief and general
+terms. But it must be remembered that the describer is a thorough
+master of his subject, and also a master in writing the English
+language, so that nothing will be found lacking in his descriptions.
+They are literature as well as butterfly history. Of the illustrations,
+all of which are good, a considerable number are in colors.
+
+[12] Every-Day Butterflies. A Group of Biographies. By Samuel Hubbard
+Scudder. Boston and New York: Houghton, Mifflin & Co. Pp. 386. Price.
+$2.
+
+
+Dr. _M. E. Gelle's_ _L'Audition et ses Organes_[13] (The Hearing and its
+Organs) is a full, not over-elaborate treatise on the subject, in which
+prominence is given to the physiological side. The first part treats of
+the excitant of the sense of hearing--sonorous vibrations--including
+the vibrations themselves, the length of the vibratory phenomena, the
+intensity of sound, range of audition, tone, and timbre of sounds. The
+second chapter relates to the organs of hearing, both the peripheric
+organs and the acoustic centers, the anatomy of which is described in
+detail, with excellent and ample illustrations. The third chapter is
+devoted to the sensation of hearing under its various aspects--the
+time required for perception, "hearing in school," the influence of
+habit and attention, orientation of the sound, bilateral sensations,
+effects on the nervous centers, etc., hearing of musical sounds,
+oscillations and aberrations of hearing, auditive memory, obsessions,
+hallucinations of the ear, and colored audition.
+
+[13] L'Audition et ses Organes. By Dr. M. E. Gelle. Paris: Felix Alcan
+(Bibliotheque Scientifique). Pp. 326. Price, six francs.
+
+Prof. _Andrew C. McLaughlin's History of the American Nation_[14] has
+many features to recommend it. It aims to trace the main outlines of
+national development, and to show how the American people came to be
+what they are. These outlines involve the struggle of European powers
+for supremacy in the New World, the victory of England, the growth
+of the English colonies and their steady progress in strength and
+self-reliance till they achieved their independence, the development
+of the American idea of government, its extension across the continent
+and its influence abroad--all achieved in the midst of stirring
+events, social, political, and moral, at the cost sometimes of wars,
+and accompanied by marvelous growth in material prosperity and
+political power. All this the author sets forth, trying to preserve
+the balance of the factors, in a pleasing, easy style. Especial
+attention is paid to political facts, to the rise of parties, to the
+development of governmental machinery, and to questions of government
+and administration. In industrial history those events have been
+selected for mention which seem to have had the most marked effect
+on the progress and make-up of the nation. It is to be desired that
+more attention had been given to social aspects and changes in which
+the development has not been less marked and stirring than in the
+other departments of our history. Indeed, the field for research and
+exposition here is extremely wide and almost infinitely varied, and
+it has hardly yet begun to be worked, and with any fullness only for
+special regions. When he comes to recent events, Professor McLaughlin
+naturally speaks with caution and in rather general terms. It seems
+to us, however, that in the matter of the war with Spain, without
+violating any of the proprieties, he might have given more emphasis
+to the anxious efforts of that country to comply with the demands of
+the administration for the institution of reforms in Cuba; and, in the
+interest of historical truth, he ought not to have left unmentioned the
+very important fact that the Spanish Government offered to refer the
+questions growing out of the blowing up of the Maine to arbitration
+and abide by the result, and our Government made no answer to the
+proposition.
+
+[14] A History of the American Nation. By Andrew C. McLaughlin. New
+York: D. Appleton and Company. Pp. 587. Price, $1.40.
+
+
+Mr. _W. W. Campbell's Elements of Practical Astronomy_[15] is an
+evolution. It grew out of the lessons of his experience in teaching
+rather large classes in astronomy in the University of Michigan, by
+which he was led to the conclusion that the extensive treatises on the
+subject could not be used satisfactorily except in special cases. Brief
+lecture notes were employed in preference. These were written out and
+printed for use in the author's classes. The first edition of the book
+made from them was used in several colleges and universities having
+astronomical departments of high character. The work now appears,
+slightly enlarged, in a second edition. In the present greatly extended
+field of practical astronomy numerous special problems arise, which
+require prolonged efforts on the part of professional astronomers.
+While for the discussion of the methods employed in solving such
+problems the reader is referred to special treatises and journals,
+these methods are all developed from the _elements_ of astronomy and
+the related sciences, of which it is intended that this book shall
+contain the elements of practical astronomy, with numerous references
+to the problems first requiring solution. The author believes that the
+methods of observing employed are illustrations of the best modern
+practice.
+
+[15] The Elements of Practical Astronomy. By W. W. Campbell. Second
+edition, revised and enlarged. New York: The Macmillan Company. Pp.
+264. Price, $2.
+
+
+In _The Characters of Crystals_[16] Prof. _Alfred J. Moses_ has
+attempted to describe, simply and concisely, the methods and apparatus
+used in studying the physical characters of crystals, and to record
+and explain the observed phenomena without complex mathematical
+discussions. The first part of the book relates to the geometrical
+characteristics of crystals, or the relations and determination of
+their forms, including the spherical projection, the thirty-two classes
+of forms, the measurement of crystal angles, and crystal projection
+or drawing. The optical characters and their determination are the
+subject of the second part. In the third part the thermal, magnetic,
+and electrical characters and the characters dependent upon electricity
+(elastic and permanent deformations) are treated of. A suggested
+outline of a course in physical crystallography is added, which
+includes preliminary experiments with the systematic examination of the
+crystals of any substance, and corresponds with the graduate course
+in physical crystallography given in Columbia University. The book is
+intended to be useful to organic chemists, geologists, mineralogists,
+and others interested in the study of crystals. The treatment is
+necessarily technical.
+
+[16] The Characters of Crystals. An Introduction to Physical
+Crystallography. By Alfred J. Moses. New York: D. Van Nostrand Company.
+Pp. 211. Price, $2.
+
+
+A book describing the _Practical Methods of identifying Minerals in
+Rock Sections with the Microscope_[17] has been prepared by Mr. _L.
+McI. Luquer_ to ease the path of the student inexperienced in optical
+mineralogy by putting before him only those facts which are absolutely
+necessary for the proper recognition and identification of the minerals
+in thin sections. The microscopic and optical characters of the
+minerals are recorded in the order in which they would be observed with
+a petrographical microscope; when the sections are opaque, attention
+is called to the fact, and the characters are recorded as seen with
+incident light. The order of Rosenbusch, which is based on the symmetry
+of the crystalline form, is followed, with a few exceptions made
+for convenience. In an introductory chapter a practical elementary
+knowledge of optics as applied to optical mineralogy is attempted to
+be given, without going into an elaborate discussion of the subject.
+The petrographical microscope is described in detail. The application
+of it to the investigation of mineral characteristics is set forth in
+general and as to particular minerals. The preparation of sections and
+practical operations are described, and an optical scheme is appended,
+with the minerals grouped according to their common optical characters.
+
+[17] Minerals in Rock Sections; the Practical Method of identifying
+Minerals in Rock Sections with the Microscope. Especially arranged for
+Students in Scientific Schools. By Lea McIlvaine Luquer. New York: D.
+Van Nostrand Company. Pp. 117.
+
+
+Mr. _Herbert C. Whitaker's_ _Elements of Trigonometry_[18] is concise
+and of very convenient size for use. The introduction and the first
+five of the seven chapters have been prepared for the use of beginners.
+The other two chapters concern the properties of triangles and
+spherical triangles; an appendix presents the theory of logarithms;
+and a second appendix, treating of goniometry, complex quantities,
+and complex functions, has been added for students intending to take
+up work in higher departments of mathematics. For assisting a clearer
+understanding of the several processes, the author has sought to
+associate closely with every equation a definite meaning with reference
+to a diagram. Other characteristics of the book are the practical
+applications to mechanics, surveying, and other everyday problems;
+its many references to astronomical problems, and the constant use of
+geometry as a starting point and standard.
+
+[18] Elements of Trigonometry, with Tables. By Herbert C. Whitaker.
+Philadelphia: Eldredge & Brother. Pp. 200.
+
+
+A model in suggestions for elementary teaching is offered in
+_California Plants in their Homes_,[19] by _Alice Merritt Davidson_,
+formerly of the State Normal School, California. The book consists
+of two parts, a botanical reader for children and a supplement for
+the use of teachers, both divisions being also published in separate
+volumes. It is well illustrated, provided with an index and an outline
+of lessons adapted to different grades. The treatment of each theme is
+fresh, and the grouping novel, as is indicated by the chapter headings:
+Some Plants that lead Easy Lives, Plants that know how to meet Hard
+Times, Plants that do not make their own Living, Plants with Mechanical
+Genius. Although specially designed for the study of the flora of
+southern California, embodying the results of ten years' observation by
+the author, it may be recommended to science teachers in any locality
+as an excellent guide. The pupil in this vicinity will have to forego
+personal inspection of the shooting-star and mariposa lily, while he
+finds the century plant, yuccas, and cacti domiciled in the greenhouse.
+In addition to these, however, attention is directed to a sufficient
+number of familiar flowers, trees, ferns, and fungi for profitable
+study, and the young novice in botany can scarcely make a better
+beginning than in company with this skillful instructor.
+
+[19] California Plants in their Homes. By Alice Merritt Davidson. Los
+Angeles, Cal.: B .R. Baumgardt & Co. Pp. 215-133.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Prof. _John M. Coulter's Plant Relations_[20] is one of two parts of a
+system of teaching botany proposed by the author. Each of the two books
+is to represent the work of half a year, but each is to be independent
+of the other, and they may be used in either order. The two books
+relate respectively, as a whole, to ecology, or the life relations of
+surroundings of plants, and to their morphology. The present volume
+concerns the ecology. While it may be to the disadvantage of presenting
+ecology first, that it conveys no knowledge of plant structures and
+plant groups, this disadvantage is compensated for, in the author's
+view, by the facts that the study of the most evident life relations
+gives a proper conception of the place of plants in Nature; that it
+offers a view of the plant kingdom of the most permanent value to those
+who can give but a half year to botany; and that it demands little or
+no use of the compound microscope, an instrument ill adapted to first
+contacts with Nature. The book is intended to present a connected,
+readable account of some of the fundamental facts of botany, and also
+to serve as a supplement to the three far more important factors
+of the teacher, who must amplify and suggest at every point; the
+laboratory, which must bring the pupil face to face with plants and
+their structure; and field work, which must relate the facts observed
+in the laboratory to their actual place in Nature, and must bring new
+facts to notice which can be observed nowhere else. Taking the results
+obtained from these three factors, the book seeks to organize them, and
+to suggest explanations, through a clear, untechnical, compact text and
+appropriate and excellent illustrations.
+
+[20] Plant Relations. A First Book of Botany. By John M. Coulter. New
+York: D. Appleton and Company. (Twentieth Century Text Books.) Pp. 264.
+Price, $1.10.
+
+
+The title of _The Wilderness of Worlds_[21] was suggested to the author
+by the contemplation of a wilderness of trees, in which those near him
+are very large, while in the distance they seem successively smaller,
+and gradually fade away till the limit of vision is reached. So of the
+wilderness of worlds in space, with its innumerable stars of gradually
+diminishing degrees of visibility--worlds "of all ages like the trees,
+and the great deep of space is covered with their dust, and pulsating
+with the potency of new births." The body of the book is a review of
+the history of the universe and all that is of it, in the light of
+the theory of evolution, beginning with the entities of space, time,
+matter, force, and motion, and the processes of development from the
+nebulae as they are indicated by the most recent and best verified
+researches, and terminating with the ultimate extinction of life and
+the end of the planet. In the chapter entitled A Vision of Peace the
+author confronts religion and science. He regards the whole subject
+from the freethinker's point of view, with a denial of all agency of
+the supernatural.
+
+[21] The Wilderness of Worlds. A Popular Sketch of the Evolution of
+Matter from Nebula to Man and Return. The Life-Orbit of a Star. By
+George W. Morehouse. New York: Peter Eckler. Pp. 246. Price, $1.
+
+
+In a volume entitled _The Living Organism_[22] Mr. _Alfred Earl_ has
+endeavored to make a philosophical introduction to the study of
+biology. The closing paragraph of his preface is of interest as showing
+his views regarding vitalism: "The object of the book will be attained
+if it succeeds, although it may be chiefly by negative criticism, in
+directing attention to the important truth that, though chemical and
+physical changes enter largely into the composition of vital activity,
+there is much in the living organism that is outside the range of these
+operations." The first three chapters discuss general conceptions,
+and are chiefly psychology. A discussion of the structures accessory
+to alimentation in man and the higher animals occupies Chapters IV
+and V. The Object of Classification, Certain General Statements
+concerning Organisms, A Description of the Organism as related to
+its Surroundings, The Material Basis of Life, The Organism as a
+Chemical Aggregate and as a Center for the Transformation of Energy,
+Certain Aspects of Form and Development, The Meaning of Sensation,
+and, finally, Some of the Problems presented by the Organism, are
+the remaining chapter headings. The volume contains many interesting
+suggestions, and might perhaps most appropriately be described as a
+Theoretical Biology.
+
+[22] The Living Organism. By Alfred Earl, M. A. New York: The Macmillan
+Company. Pp. 271. Price, $1.75.
+
+
+"_Stars and Telescopes_,"[23] Professor _Todd_ says, "is intended
+to meet an American demand for a plain, unrhetorical statement of
+the astronomy of to-day." We might state the purpose to be to bring
+astronomy and all that pertains to it up to date. It is hard to do
+this, for the author has been obliged to put what was then the latest
+discovery, made while the book was going through the press, in a
+footnote at the end of the preface. The information embodied in the
+volume is comprehensive, and is conveyed in a very intelligible style.
+The treatise begins with a running commentary or historical outline
+of astronomical discovery, with a rigid exclusion of all detail. The
+account of the earth and moon is followed by chapters on the Calendar
+and the Astronomical Relations of Light. The other members of the
+solar system are described and their relations reviewed, and then the
+comets and the stars. Closely associated with these subjects are the
+men who have contributed to knowledge respecting them, and consequently
+the names of the great discoverers and others who have helped in the
+advancement of astronomy are introduced in immediate connection with
+their work, in brief sketches and often with their portraits. Much
+importance is attributed by Professor Todd to the instruments with
+which astronomical discovery is carried on, and the book may be said to
+culminate in an account of the famous instruments, their construction,
+mounting, and use. The devisers of these instruments are entitled to
+more credit than the unthinking are always inclined to give them, for
+the value of an observation depends on the accuracy of the instrument
+as well as on the skill of the observer, and the skill which makes
+the instrument accurate is not to be underrated. So the makers of
+the instruments are given their place. Then the recent and improved
+processes have to be considered, and, altogether, Professor Todd has
+found material for a full and somewhat novel book, and has used it to
+good advantage.
+
+[23] Stars and Telescopes A Handbook of Popular Astronomy. Boston:
+Little, Brown & Co. Pp. 419. Price, $2.
+
+
+_Some Observations on the Fundamental Principles of Nature_ is the
+title of an essay by _Henry Witt_, which, though very brief, takes
+the world of matter, mind, and society within its scope. One of the
+features of the treatment is that instead of the present theory of
+an order of things resulting from the condensation of more rarefied
+matter, one of the organization of converging waves of infinitesimal
+atoms filling all space is substituted. With this point prominently
+in view, the various factors and properties of the material
+universe--biology, psychology, sociology, ethics, and the future--are
+treated of.
+
+
+Among the later monographs published by the Field Columbian Museum,
+Chicago, is a paper in the Geological Series (No. 3) on _The Ores of
+Colombia, from Mines in Operation in 1892_, by _H. W. Nichols_. It
+describes the collection prepared for the Columbian Exposition by F.
+Pereira Gamba and afterward given to the museum--a collection which
+merits attention for the light it throws upon the nature and mode of
+occurrence of the ores of one of the most important gold-producing
+countries of the world, and also because it approaches more nearly
+than is usual the ideal of what a collection in economic geology
+should be. Other publications in the museum's Geological Series are
+_The Mylagauldae, an Extinct Family of Sciuromorph Rodents_ (No. 4),
+by _E. S. Riggs_, describing some squirrel-like animals from the
+Deep River beds, near White Sulphur Springs, Montana; _A Fossil Egg
+from South Dakota_ (No. 5), by _O. C. Farrington_, relative to the
+egg of an anatine bird from the early Miocene; and _Contributions to
+the Paleontology of the Upper Cretaceous Series_ (No. 6), by _W. N.
+Logan_, in which seven species of _Scaphites_, _Ostrea_, _Gasteropoda_,
+and corals are described. In the Zoological Series, _Preliminary
+Descriptions of New Rodents from the Olympic Mountains_ (of Washington)
+(No. 11), by _D. G. Elliot_, relates to six species; _Notes on a
+Collection of Cold-blooded Vertebrates from the Olympic Mountains_ (No.
+12), by _S. E. Meek_, to six trout and three other fish, four amphibia,
+and three reptiles; and a _Catalogue of Mammals from the Olympic
+Mountains, Washington_, with descriptions of new species (No. 13), by
+_D. G. Elliot_, includes a number of species of rodents, lynx, bear,
+and deer.
+
+
+_Some Notes on Chemical Jurisprudence_ is the title given by _Harwood
+Huntington_ (260 West Broadway, New York; 25 cents) to a brief digest
+of patent-law cases involving chemistry. The notes are designed to be
+of use to chemists intending to take out patents by presenting some
+of the difficulties attendant upon drawing up a patent strong enough
+to stand a lawsuit, and by explaining some points of law bearing on
+the subject. In most, if not all, cases where the chemist has devised
+a new method or application it is best, the author holds, to take out
+a patent for self-protection, else the inventor may find his device
+stolen from him and patented against him.
+
+
+A cave or fissure in the Cambrian limestone of Port Kennedy, Montgomery
+County, Pa., exposed by quarrymen the year before, was brought to the
+knowledge of geologists by Mr. Charles M. Wheatley in 1871, when the
+fossils obtained from it were determined by Prof. E. D. Cope as of
+thirty-four species. Attention was again called to the paleontological
+interest of the locality by President Dixon, of the Academy of Natural
+Sciences of Philadelphia, in 1894. The fissure was examined again by
+Dr. Dixon and others, and was more thoroughly explored by Mr. Henry C.
+Mercer. Mr. Mercer published a preliminary account of the work, which
+was followed by the successive studies of the material by Professor
+Cope preliminary to a complete and illustrated report to be made after
+a full investigation of all accessible material. Professor Cope did not
+live to publish this full report, which was his last work, prepared
+during the suffering of his final illness. It is now published, just
+as the author left it, as _Vertebrate Remains from the Port Kennedy
+Deposit_, from the Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of
+Philadelphia. Four plates of illustrations, photographed from the
+remains, accompany the text.
+
+
+The machinery of Mr. _Fred A. Lucas's_ story of _The Hermit
+Naturalist_ reminds us of that of the old classical French romances,
+like Telemaque, and the somewhat artificial, formal diction is not
+dissimilar. An accident brings the author into acquaintance and
+eventual intimacy with an old Sicilian naturalist, who, migrating to
+this country, has established a home, away from the world's life, on
+an island in the Delaware River. The two find a congenial subject of
+conversation in themes of natural history, and the bulk of the book is
+in effect a running discourse by the old Sicilian on snakes and their
+habits--a valuable and interesting lesson. The hermit has a romance,
+involving the loss of his motherless daughter, stolen by brigands and
+brought to America, his long search for her and resignation of hope,
+and her ultimate discovery and restoration to him. The book is of easy
+reading, both as to its natural history and the romance.
+
+
+We have two papers before us on the question of expansion. One is an
+address delivered by John Barrett, late United States Minister to
+Siam, before the Shanghai General Chamber of Commerce, and previous
+to the beginning of the attempt to subjugate the islands, on _The
+Philippine Islands and American Interests in the Far East_. This
+address has, we believe, been since followed by others, and in all
+Mr. Barrett favors the acquisition of the Philippine Islands on the
+grounds, among others, of commercial interests and the capacity of the
+Filipinos for development in further civilization and self-government;
+but his arguments, in the present aspect of the Philippine question,
+seem to us to bear quite as decidedly in the opposite direction. He
+gives the following picture of Aguinaldo and the Filipino government:
+"He (Aguinaldo) captured all Spanish garrisons on the island of
+Luzon outside of Manila, so that when the Americans were ready to
+proceed against the city they were not delayed and troubled with a
+country campaign. Moreover, he has organized a government which has
+practically been administering the affairs of the great island since
+the American occupation of Manila, and which is certainly better
+than the former administration; he has a properly formed Cabinet and
+Congress, the members of which, in appearance and manners, would
+compare favorably with Japanese statesmen. He has among his advisers
+men of ability as international lawyers, while his supporters include
+most of the prominent educated and wealthy natives, all of which prove
+possibilities of self-government that we must consider." This pamphlet
+is published at Hong Kong. The other paper is an address delivered
+before the New York State Bar Association, by _Charles A. Gardiner_, on
+_Our Right to acquire and hold Foreign Territory_, and is published by
+G. P. Putnam's Sons in the Questions of the Day Series. Mr. Gardiner
+holds and expresses the broadest views of the constitutional power
+of our Government to commit the acts named, and to exercise all the
+attributes incidental to the possession of acquired territory, but he
+thinks that we need a great deal of legal advice in the matter.
+
+
+A pamphlet, _Anti-Imperialism_, by _Morrison L. Swift_, published by
+the Public Ownership Review, Los Angeles, Cal., covers the subject of
+English and American aggression in three chapters--Imperialism to bless
+the Conquered, Imperialism for the Sake of Mankind, and Our Crime in
+the Philippines. Mr. Swift is very earnest in respect to some of the
+subjects touched upon in his essays, and some persons may object that
+he is more forcible--even to excess--than polite in his denunciations.
+To such he may perhaps reply that there are things which language does
+not afford words too strong to characterize fitly.
+
+
+Among the papers read at the Fourth International Catholic Scientific
+Congress, held at Fribourg, Switzerland, in August, 1897, was one by
+_William J. D. Croke_ on _Architecture, Painting, and Printing at
+Subiaco_ as represented in the Abbey at Subiaco. The author regards the
+features of the three arts represented in this place as evidence that
+the record of the activity of the foundation constitutes a real chapter
+in the history of progress in general and of culture in particular.
+
+
+
+
+PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.
+
+
+Benson, E. F. Mammon & Co. New York: D. Appleton and Company. Pp. 360.
+$1.50.
+
+Buckley, James A. Extemporaneous Oratory. For Professional and Amateur
+Speakers. New York: Eaton & Mains. Pp. 480. $1.50.
+
+Canada, Dominion of, Experimental Farms: Reports for 1897. Pp. 449;
+Reports for 1898. Pp. 429.
+
+Conn, H. W. The Story of Germ Life. (Library of Useful Stories.) New
+York: D. Appleton and Company. Pp. 199. 40 cents.
+
+Dana, Edward S. First Appendix to the Sixth Edition of Dana's
+Mineralogy. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Pp. 75. $1.
+
+Franklin Institute, The Drawing School, also School of Elementary
+Mathematics: Announcements. Pp. 4 each.
+
+Ganong, William F. The Teaching Botanist. New York: The Macmillan
+Company. Pp. 270. $1.10.
+
+Getman, F. H. The Elements of Blowpipe Analysis. New York: The
+Macmillan Company. Pp. 77. 60 cents.
+
+Halliday, H. M. An Essay on the Common Origin of Light, Heat, and
+Electricity. Washington, D. C. Pp. 46.
+
+Hardin, Willett L. The Rise and Development of the Liquefaction of
+Gases. New York: The Macmillan Company. Pp. 250. $1.10.
+
+Hillegas, Howard C. Oom Paul's People. A Narrative of the British-Boer
+Troubles in South Africa, with a History of the Boers, the Country, and
+its Institutions. New York: D. Appleton and Company. Pp. 308. $1.50.
+
+Ireland, Alleyne. Tropical Colonization. An Introduction to the Study
+of the Subject. New York: The Macmillan Company. $2.
+
+Kingsley, J. S. Text-Book of Elementary Zoology. New York: Henry Holt &
+Co. Pp. 439.
+
+Knerr, E. B. Relativity in Science. Silico-Barite Nodules from near
+Salina. Concretions. (Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science.)
+Pp. 24.
+
+Kromskop, Color Photography. Philadelphia: Ives Kromskop. Pp. 24.
+
+Liquid-Air Power and Automobile Company. Prospectus. Pp. 16.
+
+MacBride, Thomas A. The North American Slime Molds. Being a List of
+Species of Myxomycetes hitherto described from North America, Including
+Central America. New York: The Macmillan Company. Pp. 231, with 18
+plates. $2.25.
+
+Meyer, A. B. The Distribution of the Negritos in the Philippine Islands
+and Elsewhere. Dresden (Saxony): Stengel & Co. Pp. 92.
+
+Nicholson, H. H., and Avery, Samuel. Laboratory Exercises with Outlines
+for the Study of Chemistry, to accompany any Elementary Text. New York:
+Henry Holt & Co. Pp. 134. 60 cents.
+
+Scharff, R. P. The History of the European Fauna. New York: Imported by
+Charles Scribner's Sons. Pp. 354. $1.50.
+
+Schleicher, Charles, and Schull, Duren. Rhenish Prussia. Samples of
+Special Filtering Papers. New York: Eimer & Amend, agents.
+
+Sharpe, Benjamin F. An Advance in Measuring and Photographing Sounds.
+United States Weather Bureau. Pp. 18, with plates.
+
+Shinn, Milicent W. Notes on the Development of a Child. Parts III and
+IV. (University of California Studies.) Pp. 224.
+
+Shoemaker, M. M. Quaint Corners of Ancient Empires, Southern India,
+Burmah, and Manila. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. Pp. 212.
+
+Smith, Orlando J. A Short View of Great Questions. New York: The
+Brandur Company, 220 Broadway. Pp. 75.
+
+Smith, Walter. Methods of Knowledge. An Essay in Epistemology. New
+York: The Macmillan Company. Pp. 340. $1.25.
+
+Southern, The, Magazine. Monthly. Vol. I, No. 1. August, 1899. Pp. 203.
+10 cents. $1 a year.
+
+Suter, William N. Handbook of Optics. New York: The Macmillan Company.
+Pp. 209. $1.
+
+Tarde, G. Social Laws. An Outline of Sociology. With a Preface by James
+Mark Baldwin. New York: The Macmillan Company. Pp. 213. $1.25.
+
+Uline, Edwin B. Higinbothamia. A New Genus, and other New Dioscoreaceae,
+New Amaranthaceae. (Field Columbian Museum, Chicago Botanical Series.)
+Pp. 12.
+
+Underwood, Lucien M. Molds, Mildews, and Mushrooms. New York: Henry
+Holt & Co. Pp. 227, with 9 plates. $1.50.
+
+United States Civil-Service Commission. Fifteenth Report, July 1, 1897,
+to June 30, 1898. Pp. 736. Washington.
+
+
+
+
+Fragments of Science.
+
+
+The Dover Meeting of the British Association.--While the attendance
+on the meeting of the British Association at Dover was not large--the
+whole number of members being 1,403, of whom 127 were ladies--the
+occasion was in other respects eventful and one of marked interest. The
+papers read were, as a rule, of excellent quality, and the interchange
+of visits with the French Association was a novel feature that might
+bear many repetitions. The president, Sir Michael Foster, presented, in
+his inaugural address, a picture of the state of science one hundred
+years ago, illustrating it by portraying the conditions to which a
+body like the association meeting then at Dover would have found
+itself subject, and suggesting the topics it would have discussed.
+The period referred to was, however, that of the beginning of the
+present progress, and, after remarking on what had been accomplished
+in the interval, the speaker drew a very hopeful foreview for the
+future. Besides the intellectual triumphs of science, its strengthening
+discipline, its relation to politics, and the "international
+brotherhood of science" were brought under notice in the address. In
+his address as president of the Physical Section, Prof. J. H. Poynting
+showed how physicists are tending toward a general agreement as to
+the nature of the laws in which they embody their discoveries, of the
+explanations they give, and of the hypotheses they make, and, having
+considered what the form and terms of this agreement should be, passed
+to a discussion of the limitations of physical science. The subject of
+Dr. Horace T. Brown's Chemical Section address was The Assimilation
+of Carbon by the Higher Plants. Sir William H. White, president of
+the Section of Mechanical Science, spoke on Steam Navigation at High
+Speeds. President Adam Sedgwick addressed the Zoological Section on
+Variation and some Phenomena connected with Reproduction and Sex; Sir
+John Murray, the Geographical Section on The Ocean Floor; and Mr. J.
+N. Langley, the Physiological Section on the general relations of
+the motor nerves to the several tissues of the body, especially of
+those which run to tissues over which we have little or no control.
+The president of the Anthropological Section, Mr. C. H. Read, of the
+British Museum, spoke of the preservation and proper exploration of
+the prehistoric antiquities of the country, and offered a plan for
+increasing the amount of work done in anthropological investigation
+by the use of Government aid. A peculiar distinction attaches to
+this meeting through its reception and entertainment of the French
+Association, and the subsequent return of the courtesy by the latter
+body at Boulogne. About three hundred of the French Associationists,
+among whom were many ladies, came over, on the Saturday of the meeting,
+under the lead of their president, M. Brouardel, and accompanied by a
+number of men of science from Belgium. They were met at the pier by the
+officers of the British Association, and were escorted to the place
+of meeting and to the sectional meetings toward which their several
+tastes directed them. The geological address of Sir Archibald Geikie
+on Geological Time had been appointed for this day out of courtesy to
+the French geologists, and in order that they might have an opportunity
+of hearing one of the great lights of British science. Among the
+listeners who sat upon the platform were M. Gosselet, president of
+the French Geological Society; M. Kemna, president of the Belgian
+Geological Society; and M. Renard, of Ghent. Public evening lectures
+were delivered on the Centenary of the Electric Current, by Prof. J.
+A. Fleming, and (in French) on Nervous Vibration, by Prof. Charles
+Richet. Sir William Turner was appointed president for the Bradford
+meeting of the association (1900). The visit of the French Association
+was returned on September 22d, when the president, officers, and about
+three hundred members went to Boulogne. They were welcomed by the mayor
+of the city, the prefect of the department, and a representative of
+the French Government; were feasted by the municipality of Boulogne;
+were entertained by the members of the French Association; and special
+commemorative medals were presented by the French Association to the
+two presidents. The British visitors also witnessed the inauguration of
+a tablet in memory of Dr. Duchesne, and of a plaque commemorative of
+Thomas Campbell, the poet, who died in Boulogne.
+
+
+Artificial India Rubber.--A recent issue of the Kew Gardens Bulletin
+contains an interesting article on Dr. Tilden's artificial production
+of India rubber. India rubber, or caoutchouc, is chemically a
+hydrocarbon, but its molecular constitution is unknown. When decomposed
+by heat it is broken up into simpler hydrocarbons, among which is a
+substance called isoprene, a volatile liquid boiling at about 36 deg. C.
+Its molecular formula is C_{5}H_{8}. Dr. Tilden obtained this same
+substance (isoprene) from oil of turpentine and other terpenes by the
+action of moderate heat, and then by treating the isoprene with strong
+acids succeeded, by means of a very slow reaction, in converting a
+small portion of it into a tough elastic solid, which seems to be
+identical in properties with true India rubber. This artificial rubber,
+like the natural, seems to consist of two substances, one of which is
+more soluble in benzene and carbon bisulphide than the other. It unites
+with sulphur in the same way as ordinary rubber, forming a tough,
+elastic compound. In a recent letter Professor Tilden says: "As you may
+imagine, I have tried everything I can think of as likely to promote
+this change, but without success. The polymerization proceeds _very_
+slowly, occupying, according to my experience, several years, and all
+attempts to hurry it result in the production not of rubber, but of
+'colophene,' a thick, sticky oil quite useless for all purposes to
+which rubber is applied."
+
+
+Dangers of High Altitudes for Elderly People.--"The public, and
+sometimes the inexperienced physician--inexperienced not in general
+therapeutics but in the physiological effects of altitude on a weak
+heart," says Dr. Findlater Zangger in the Lancet, "make light of
+a danger they can not understand. But if an altitude of from four
+thousand to five thousand feet above the sea level puts a certain
+amount of strain on a normal heart and by a rise of the blood-pressure
+indirectly also on the small peripheral arteries, must not this
+action be multiplied in the case of a heart suffering from even an
+early stage of myocarditis or in the case of arteries with thickened
+or even calcified walls? It is especially the rapidity of the change
+from one altitude to another, with differences of from three thousand
+to four thousand feet, which must be considered. There is a call
+made on the contractibility of the small arteries on the one hand,
+and on the amount of muscular force of the heart on the other hand,
+and if the structures in question can not respond to this call,
+rupture of an artery or dilatation of the heart may ensue. In the
+case of a normal condition of the circulatory organs little harm is
+done beyond some transient discomfort, such as dizziness, buzzing in
+the ears, palpitation, general _malaise_, and this often only in the
+case of people totally unaccustomed to high altitudes. For such it is
+desirable to take the high altitude by degrees in two or three stages,
+say first stage 1,500 feet, second stage from 2,500 to 3,000 feet,
+and third stage from 4,000 to 6,000 feet, with a stay of one or two
+days at the intermediate places. The stay at the health resort will
+be shortened, it is true, but the patient will derive more benefit.
+On the return journey one short stay at one intermediate place will
+suffice. Even a fairly strong heart will not stand an overstrain in
+the first days spent at a high altitude. A Dutch lady, about forty
+years of age, who had spent a lifetime in the lowlands, came directly
+up to Adelboden (altitude, 4,600 feet). After two days she went on an
+excursion with a party up to an Alp 7,000 feet high, making the ascent
+quite slowly in four hours. Sudden heart syncope ensued, which lasted
+the best part of an hour, though I chanced to be near and could give
+assistance, which was urgently needed. The patient recovered, but
+derived no benefit from a fortnight's stay, and had to return to the
+low ground the worse for her trip and her inconsiderate enterprise.
+Rapid ascents to a high altitude are very injurious to patients with
+arterio-sclerosis, and the mountain railways up to seven thousand and
+ten thousand feet are positively dangerous to an unsuspecting public,
+for many persons between the ages of fifty-five and seventy years
+consider themselves to be hale and healthy, and are quite unconscious
+of having advanced arterio-sclerosis and perchance contracted kidney.
+An American gentleman, aged fifty-eight years, was under my care for
+slight symptoms of angina pectoris, pointing to sclerosis of the
+coronary arteries. A two-months' course of treatment at Zurich with
+massage, baths, and proper exercise and diet did away with all the
+symptoms. I saw him by chance some months later. 'My son is going to
+St. Moritz (six thousand feet) for the summer,' said he; 'may I go with
+him?' 'Most certainly not,' was my answer. The patient then consulted
+a professor, who allowed him to go. Circumstances, however, took him
+for the summer to Sachseln, which is situated at an altitude of only
+two thousand feet, and he spent a good summer. But he must needs go up
+the Pilatus by rail (seven thousand feet), relying on the professor's
+permission, and the result was disastrous, for he almost died from a
+violent attack of angina pectoris on the night of his return from the
+Pilatus, and vowed on his return to Zurich to keep under three thousand
+feet in future. I may here mention that bad results in the shape of
+heart collapse, angina pectoris, cardiac asthma, and last, not least,
+apoplexy, often occur only on the return to the lowlands."
+
+
+The Parliamentary Amenities Committee.--Under the above rather
+misleading title there was formed last year, in the English Parliament,
+a committee for the purpose of promoting concerted action in the
+preservation and protection of landmarks of general public interest,
+historic buildings, famous battlefields, and portions of landscape of
+unusual scenic beauty or geological conformation, and also for the
+protection from entire extinction of the various animals and even
+plants which the spread of civilization is gradually pushing to the
+wall. In reality, it is an official society for the preservation of
+those things among the works of past man and Nature which, owing to
+their lack of direct money value, are in danger of destruction in
+this intensely commercial age. Despite the comparative newness of the
+American civilization, there are already many relics belonging to the
+history of our republic whose preservation is very desirable, as well
+as very doubtful, if some such public-spirited committee does not
+take the matter in hand; and, as regards the remains of the original
+Americans, in which the country abounds, the necessity is still more
+immediate. The official care of Nature's own curiosities is equally
+needed, as witness the way in which the Hudson River palisades are
+being mutilated, and the constant raids upon our city parks for
+speedways, parade grounds, etc. The great value of a parliamentary or
+congressional committee of this sort lies in the fact that its opinions
+are not only based upon expert knowledge, but that they can be to an
+extent enforced; whereas such a body of men with no official position
+may go on making suggestions and protesting, as have numerous such
+bodies for years, without producing any practical results. The matter
+is, with us perhaps, one of more importance to future generations; but
+as all Nature seems ordered primarily with reference to the future
+welfare of the race, rather than for the comfort of its present
+members, the necessity for such an official body, whose specific
+business should be to look after the preservation of objects of
+historical interest to the succeeding centuries, ought to be inculcated
+in us as a part of the general evolutionary scheme.
+
+
+Physical Measurements of Asylum Children.--Dr. Ales Hrdlicka has
+published an account of anthropological investigations and measurements
+which he has made upon one thousand white and colored children in
+the New York Juvenile Asylum and one hundred colored children in
+the Colored Orphan Asylum, for information about the physical state
+of the children who are admitted and kept in juvenile asylums, and
+particularly to learn whether there is anything physically abnormal
+about them. Some abnormality in the social or moral condition of such
+children being assumed, if they are also physically inferior to other
+children, they would have to be considered generally handicapped in the
+struggle for life; but if they do not differ greatly in strength and
+constitution from the average ordinary children, then their state would
+be much more hopeful. Among general facts concerning the condition of
+the children in the Juvenile Asylum, Dr. Hrdlicka learned that when
+admitted to the institution they are almost always in some way morally
+and physically inferior to healthy children from good social classes
+at large--the result, usually, of neglect or improper nutrition or
+both. Within a month, or even a week, decided changes for the better
+are observed, and after their admission the individuals of the same sex
+and age seem gradually, while preserving the fundamental differences
+of their nature, to show less of their former diversity and grow more
+alike. In learning, the newcomers are more or less retarded when put
+into the school, but in a great majority of cases they begin to acquire
+rapidly, and the child usually reaches the average standing of the
+class. Inveterate backwardness in learning is rare. Physically, about
+one seventh of all the inmates of the asylum were without a blemish
+on their bodies--a proportion which will not seem small to persons
+well versed in analyses of the kind. The differences in the physical
+standing of the boys and the girls were not so great or so general as
+to permit building a hypothesis upon them, though the girls came out a
+little the better. The colored boys seemed to be physically somewhat
+inferior to the white ones, but the number of them was not large enough
+to justify a conclusion. Of the children not found perfect, two hundred
+presented only a single abnormality, and this usually so small as
+hardly to justify excluding them from the class of perfect. Regarding
+as decidedly abnormal only those in whom one half the parts of the body
+showed defects, the number was eighty-seven. "Should we, for the sake
+of illustration, express the physical condition of the children by such
+terms as fine, medium, and bad, the fine and bad would embrace in all
+192 individuals, while 808 would remain as medium." All the classes
+of abnormalities--congenital, pathological, and acquired--seemed more
+numerous in the boys than in the girls. The colored children showed
+fewer inborn abnormalities than the white, but more pathological and
+acquired. No child was found who could be termed a thorough physical
+degenerate, and the author concludes that the majority of the class of
+children dealt with are physically fairly average individuals.
+
+
+Busy Birds.--A close observation of a day's work of busy activity, of
+a day's work of the chipping sparrow hunting and catching insects to
+feed its young, is recorded by Clarence M. Weed in a Bulletin of the
+New Hampshire College Agricultural Experiment Station. Mr. Weed began
+his watch before full daylight in the morning, ten minutes before the
+bird got off from its nest, and continued it till after dark. During
+the busy day Mr. Weed says, in his summary, the parent birds made
+almost two hundred visits to the nest, bringing food nearly every time,
+though some of the trips seem to have been made to furnish grit for the
+grinding of the food. There was no long interval when they were not at
+work, the longest period between visits being twenty-seven minutes.
+Soft-bodied caterpillars were the most abundant elements of the food,
+but crickets and crane flies were also seen, and doubtless a great
+variety of insects were taken, but precise determination of the quality
+of most of the food brought was of course impossible. The observations
+were undertaken especially to learn the regularity of the feeding
+habits of the adult birds. The chipping sparrow is one of the most
+abundant and familiar of our birds. It seeks its nesting site in the
+vicinity of houses, and spends most of its time searching for insects
+in grass lands or cultivated fields and gardens. In New England two
+broods are usually reared each season. That the young keep the parents
+busy catching insects and related creatures for their food is shown by
+the minute record which the author publishes in his paper. The bird
+deserves all the protection and encouragement that can be given it.
+
+
+Park-making among the Sand Dunes.--For the creation of Golden Gate Park
+the park-makers of San Francisco had a series of sand hills, "hills on
+hills, all of sand-dune formation." The city obtained a strip of land
+lying between the bay and the ocean, yet close enough to the center of
+population to be cheaply and easily reached from all parts of the town.
+Work was begun in 1869, and has been prosecuted steadily since, with
+increasing appropriations, and the results are a credit to the city,
+Golden Gate Park, Mr. Frank H. Lamb says in his account of it in The
+Forester, having a charm that distinguishes it from other city parks.
+It has a present area of 1,040 acres, of which 300 acres have been
+sufficiently reclaimed to be planted with coniferous trees." It is this
+portion of the park which the visitor sees as one of the sights of the
+Golden Gate." As he rides through the park out toward the Cliff House
+and Sutro Heights by the Sea," he sees still great stretches of sand,
+some loose, some still held in place by the long stems and rhizomes of
+the sand grass (_Arundo arenaria_). This is the preparatory stage in
+park-making. The method in brief is as follows: The shifting sand is
+seeded with _Arundo arenaria_, and this is allowed to grow two years,
+when the ground is sufficiently held in place to begin the second
+stage of reclamation, which consists in planting arboreal species,
+generally the Monterey pine (_Pinus insignis_) and the Monterey cypress
+(_Cupressus macrocarpus_); with these are also planted the smaller
+_Leptospermum laevigatum_ and _Acacia latifolia_. These species in
+two or more years complete the reclamation, and then attention is
+directed to making up all losses of plants and encouraging growth as
+much as possible." The entire cost of reclamation by these methods is
+represented not to average more than fifty dollars per acre.
+
+
+A Fossiliferous Formation below the Cambrian.--Mr. George F. Matthew
+said, in a communication to the New York Academy of Sciences, that he
+had been aware for several years of the existence of fauna in the rocks
+below those containing _Paradoxides_ and Protolenus in New Brunswick,
+eastern Canada, but that the remains of the higher types of organisms
+found in those rocks were so poorly preserved and fragmentary that
+they gave a very imperfect knowledge of their nature. Only the casts
+of _Hyolithidae_, the mold of an obolus, a ribbed shell, and parts of
+what appeared to be the arms and bodies of crinoids were known, to
+assure us that there had been living forms in the seas of that early
+time other than Protozoa and burrowing worms. These objects were found
+in the upper division of a series of rocks immediately subjacent
+to the Cambrian strata containing _Protolenus_, etc. As a decided
+physical break was discovered between the strata containing them and
+those having _Protolenus_, the underlying series was thought worthy
+of a distinctive name, and was called Etchemenian, after a tribe of
+aborigines that once inhabited the region. In most countries the
+basement of the Paleozoic sediments seems almost devoid of organic
+remains. Only unsatisfactory results have followed the search for them
+in Europe, and America did not seem to promise a much better return.
+Nevertheless, the indications of a fauna obtained in the maritime
+provinces of Canada seemed to afford a hope that somewhere "these
+basement beds of the Paleozoic might yield remains in a better state
+of preservation." The author, therefore, in the summer of 1898, made
+a visit to a part of Newfoundland where a clear section of sediments
+had been found below the horizons of _Paradoxides_ and _Agraulos
+strenuus_. These formations were examined at Manuel's Brook and Smith's
+Sound. In the beds defined as Etchemenian no trilobites were found,
+though other classes of animals, such as gastropods, brachiopods, and
+lamellibranchs, occur, with which trilobites elsewhere are usually
+associated in the Cambrian and later geological systems. The absence,
+or possibly the rarity of the trilobites appears to have special
+significance in view of their prominence among Cambrian fossils. The
+uniformity of conditions attending the depositions of the Etchemenian
+terrane throughout the Atlantic coast province of the Cambrian is
+spoken of as surprising and as pointing to a quiescent period of long
+continuance, during which the _Hyolithidae_ and _Capulidae_ developed
+so as to become the dominant types of the animal world, while the
+brachiopods, the lamellibranchs, and the other gastropods still were
+puny and insignificant. Mr. Matthew last year examined the red shales
+at Braintree, Mass., and was informed by Prof. W. O. Crosby that
+they included many of the types specified as characteristic of the
+Etchemenian fauna, and that no trilobites had with certainty been
+obtained from them. The conditions of their deposition closely resemble
+those of the Etchemenian of Newfoundland.
+
+
+The Paris Exposition, 1900, and Congresses.--The grounds of the Paris
+Exposition of 1900 extend from the southwest angle of the Place de la
+Concorde along both banks of the Seine, nearly a mile and a half, to
+the Avenue de Suffren, which forms the western boundary of the Champ de
+Mars. The principal exhibition spaces are the Park of the Art palaces
+and the Esplanade des Invalides at the east, and the Champ de Mars and
+the Trocadero at the west. Many entrances and exits will be provided,
+but the principal and most imposing one will be erected at the Place
+de la Concorde, in the form of a triumphal arch. Railways will be
+provided to bring visitors from the city to the grounds, and another
+railway will make their entire circuit. The total surface occupied by
+the exposition grounds is three hundred and thirty-six acres, while
+that of the exposition of 1889 was two hundred and forty acres. Another
+area has been secured in the Park of Vincennes for the exhibition of
+athletic games, sports, etc. The displays will be installed for the
+most part by groups instead of nations. The International Congress of
+Prehistoric Anthropology and Archaeology will be held in connection
+with the exposition, August 20th to August 25th. The arrangements for
+it are under the charge of a committee that includes the masters and
+leading representatives of the science in France, of which M. le Dr.
+Verneau, 148 Rue Broca, Paris, is secretary general. A congress of
+persons interested in aerial navigation will be held in the Observatory
+of Meudon, the director of which, M. Janssen, is president of the
+Organizing Committee. Correspondence respecting this congress should be
+addressed to the secretary general, M. Triboulet, Director de Journal
+l'Aeronaute, 10 Rue de la Pepiniere, Paris.
+
+
+English Plant Names.--Common English and American names of plants
+are treated by Britton and Brown, in their Illustrated Flora of the
+Northern United States, Canada, and the British possessions, as full of
+interest from their origin, history, and significance. As observed in
+Britton and Holland's Dictionary, "they are derived from a variety of
+languages, often carrying us back to the early days of our country's
+history and to the various peoples who, as conquerors or colonists,
+have landed on our shores and left an impress on our language. Many of
+these Old-World words are full of poetical association, speaking to
+us of the thoughts and feelings of the Old-World people who invented
+them; others tell of the ancient mythology of our ancestors, of strange
+old mediaeval usages, and of superstitions now almost forgotten."
+Most of these names, Britton and Brown continue in the preface to
+the third volume of their work, suggest their own explanation. "The
+greater number are either derived from the supposed uses, qualities,
+or properties of the plants; many refer to their habitat, appearance,
+or resemblance, real or fancied, to other things; others come from
+poetical suggestion, affection, or association with saints or persons.
+Many are very graphic, as the Western name prairie fire (_Castillea
+coccinea_); many are quaint or humorous, as cling rascal (_Galium
+sparine_) or wait-a-bit (_Smilax rotundifolia_); and in some the
+corruptions are amusing, as Aunt Jerichos (New England) for _Angelica_.
+The words horse, ox, dog, bull, snake, toad, are often used to denote
+size, coarseness, worthlessness, or aversion. Devil or devil's is used
+as a prefix for upward of forty of our plants, mostly expressive of
+dislike or of some traditional resemblance or association. A number
+of names have been contributed by the Indians, such as chinquapin,
+wicopy, pipsissewa, wankapin, etc., while the term Indian, evidently
+a favorite, is applied as a descriptive prefix to upward of eighty
+different plants." There should be no antagonism in the use of
+scientific and popular names, since their purposes are quite different.
+The scientific names are necessary to students for accuracy, "but the
+vernacular names are a part of the development of the language of
+each people. Though these names are sometimes indicative of specific
+characters and hence scientifically valuable, they are for the most
+part not at all scientific, but utilitarian, emotional, or picturesque.
+As such they are invaluable not for science, but for the common
+intelligence and the appreciation and enjoyment of the plant world."
+
+
+Educated Colored Labor.--In a paper published in connection with the
+Proceedings of the Trustees of the John F. Slater Fund, Mr. Booker
+T. Washington describes his efforts, made at the suggestion of the
+trustees, to bring the work done at the Tuskegee school to the
+knowledge of the white people of the South, and their success. Mr.
+Carver, instructor in agriculture, went before the Alabama Legislature
+and gave an exhibition of his methods and results before the Committee
+on Agriculture. The displays of butter and other farm products proved
+so interesting that many members of the Legislature and other citizens
+inspected the exhibit, and all expressed their gratification. A full
+description of the work in agriculture was published in the Southern
+papers: "The result is that the white people are constantly applying
+to us for persons to take charge of farms, dairies, etc., and in many
+ways showing that their interest in our work is growing in proportion
+as they see the value of it." A visit made by the President of the
+United States gave an opportunity of assembling within the institution
+five members of the Cabinet with their families, the Governor of
+Alabama, both branches of the Alabama Legislature, and thousands of
+white and colored people from all parts of the South. "The occasion
+was most helpful in bringing together the two sections of our country
+and the two races. No people in any part of the world could have acted
+more generously and shown a deeper interest in this school than did
+the white people of Tuskegee and Macon County during the visit of the
+President."
+
+
+Geology of Columbus, Ohio.--In his paper, read at the meeting of the
+American Association, on the geology of Ohio, Dr. Orton spoke of the
+construction of glacial drifts as found in central Ohio and the source
+of the material of the drift, showing that the bowlder clay is largely
+derived from the comminution of black slake, the remnants of which
+appear in North Columbus. He spoke also of the bowlders scattered over
+the surface of the region about Columbus, the parent rocks of which
+may be traced to the shores of the northern lakes, and of Jasper's
+conglomerate, picturesque fragments of which may be found throughout
+central Ohio. Some of these bowlders are known to have come from
+Lake Ontario. Bowlders of native copper also occur, one of which was
+found eight feet below the surface in excavations carried on for the
+foundations of the asylum west of the Scioto.
+
+
+Civilized and Savage.--Professor Semon, in his book In the Australian
+Bush, characterizes the treatment of the natives by the settlers
+as constituting, on the whole, one of the darkest chapters in the
+colonization of Australia. "Everywhere and always we find the same
+process: the whites arrive and settle in the hunting grounds of
+the blacks, who have frequented them since the remotest time. They
+raise paddocks, which the blacks are forbidden to enter. They breed
+cattle, which the blacks are not allowed to approach. Then it happens
+that these stupid savages do not know how to distinguish between a
+marsupial and a placental animal, and spear a calf or a cow instead
+of a kangaroo, and the white man takes revenge for this misdeed by
+systematically killing all the blacks that come before his gun. This,
+again, the natives take amiss, and throw a spear into his back when he
+rides through the bush, or invade his house when he is absent, killing
+his family and servants. Then arrive the 'native police,' a troop of
+blacks from another district, headed by a white officer. They know the
+tricks of their race, and take a special pleasure in hunting down their
+own countrymen, and they avenge the farmer's dead by killing all the
+blacks in the neighborhood, sometimes also their women and children.
+This is the almost typical progress of colonization, and even though
+such things are abolished in the southeastern colonies and in southeast
+and central Queensland, they are by no means unheard of in the north
+and west."
+
+
+
+
+MINOR PARAGRAPHS.
+
+
+In a brood of five nestling sparrow-hawks, which he had the opportunity
+of studying alive and dead, Dr. R. W. Shufeldt remarked that the
+largest and therefore oldest bird was nearly double the size of the
+youngest or smallest one, while the three others were graduated down
+from the largest to the smallest in almost exact proportions." It was
+evident, then, that the female had laid the eggs at regular intervals,
+and very likely three or four days apart, and that incubation commenced
+immediately after the first egg was deposited. What is more worthy
+of note, however, is the fact that the sexes of these nestlings
+alternated, the oldest bird being a male, the next a female, followed
+by another male, and so on, the last or youngest one of all five being
+a male. This last had a plumage of pure white down, with the pin
+feathers of the primaries and secondaries of the wings, as well as the
+rectrices of the tail, just beginning to open at their extremities.
+From this stage gradual development of the plumage is exhibited
+throughout the series, the entire plumage of the males and females
+being very different and distinctive." If it be true, as is possibly
+indicated, that the sexes alternate in broods of young sparrow-hawks as
+a regular thing, the author has no explanation for the fact, and has
+never heard of any being offered.
+
+
+Architecture and Building gives the following interesting facts
+regarding the building trades in Chicago: "Reports from Chicago are
+that labor in building lines is scarce. The scarcity of men is giving
+the building trades council trouble to meet the requirements of
+contractors. It is said that half a dozen jobs that are ready to go
+ahead are at a standstill because men can not be had, particularly
+iron workers and laborers--the employees first to be employed in
+the construction of the modern building. It is also said that wages
+have never been better in the building line. The following is the
+schedule of wages, based on an eight-hour day: Carpenters, $3.40;
+electricians, $3.75; bridge and structural iron workers, $3.60; tin and
+sheet-iron workers, $3.20; plumbers, $4; steam fitters, $3.75; elevator
+constructors, $3; hoisting engineers, $4; derrick men, $2; gas-fitters,
+$3.75; plasterers, $4; marble cutters, $3.50; gravel roofers, $2.80;
+boiler-makers, $2.40; stone sawyers and rubbers, $3; marble enamel
+glassworkers' helpers, $2.25; slate and tile roofers, $3.80; marble
+setters' helpers, $2; steam-fitters' helpers, $2; stone cutters, $4;
+stone carvers, $5; bricklayers, $4; painters, $3; hod carriers and
+building laborers, $2; plasterers' hod carriers, $2.40; mosaic and
+encaustic tile layers, $4; helpers, $2.40."
+
+
+In presenting the fourth part of his memoir on The Tertiary Fauna
+of Florida (Transactions of the Wagner Free Institute of Science,
+Philadelphia), Mr. William Healey Dall observes that the interest
+aroused in the explorations of Florida by the Wagner Institute and its
+friends and by the United States Geological Survey has resulted in
+bringing in a constantly increasing mass of material. The existence of
+Upper Oligocene beds in western Florida containing hundreds of species,
+many of which were new, added two populous faunas to the Tertiary
+series. It having been found that a number of the species belonging to
+these beds had been described from the Antillean tertiaries, it became
+necessary, in order to put the work on a sound foundation, besides the
+review of the species known to occur in the United States, to extend
+the revision to the tertiaries of the West Indies. It is believed that
+the results will be beneficial in clearing the way for subsequent
+students and putting the nomenclature on a more permanent and reliable
+basis.
+
+
+The numerical system of the natives of Murray Island, Torres Strait, is
+described by the Rev. A. E. Hunt, in the Journal of the Anthropological
+Society, as based on two numbers--_netat_, one, and _neis_, two. The
+numbers above two are expressed by composition--_neis-netat_, three;
+_neis i neis_, or two and two, four. Numbers above four are associated
+with parts of the body, beginning with the little and other fingers
+of the left hand, and going on to the wrist, elbow, armpit, shoulder,
+etc., on the left side and going down on the right side, to 21; and the
+toes give ten numbers more, to 31. Larger numbers are simply "many."
+
+
+President William Orton, of the American Association, in his address at
+the welcoming meeting, showed, in the light of the facts recorded in
+Alfred R. Wallace's book on The Wonderful Century, that the scientific
+achievements of the present century exceed all those of the past
+combined. He then turned to the purpose of the American Association to
+labor for the discovery of new truth, and said: "It is possible that
+we could make ourselves more interesting to the general public if we
+occasionally foreswore our loyalty to our name and spent a portion of
+our time in restating established truths. Our contributions to the
+advancement of science are often fragmentary and devoid of special
+interest to the outside world. But every one of them has a place in
+the great temple of knowledge, and the wise master builders, some of
+whom appear in every generation, will find them all and use them all at
+last, and then only will their true value come to light."
+
+
+NOTES.
+
+The number of broods of seventeen-year and thirteen-year locusts has
+become embarrassing to those who seek to distinguish them, and the
+trouble is complicated by the various designations different authors
+have given them. The usual method is to give the brood a number in a
+series, written with a Roman numeral. Mr. C. L. Marlatt proposes a
+regular and uniform nomenclature, giving the first seventeen numbers to
+the seventeen-year broods, beginning with that of 1893 as number I, and
+the next thirteen numbers (XVIII to XXX) to the thirteen-year broods,
+beginning with the brood of 1842 and 1855 as number XVIII.
+
+
+Experimenting on the adaptability of carbonic acid to the inflation of
+pneumatic tires, M. d'Arsonval, of Paris, has found that the gas acts
+upon India rubber, and, swelling its volume out enormously, reduces it
+to a condition like that following maceration in petroleum. On exposure
+to the air the carbonic acid passes away and the India rubber returns
+to its normal condition. Carbonic acid, therefore, does not seem well
+adapted to use in inflation. Oxygen is likewise not adapted, because it
+permeates the India rubber and oxidizes it, but nitrogen is quite inert
+and answers the purpose admirably.
+
+
+Mr. Gifford Pinchot, Forester of the Department of Agriculture, has
+announced that a few well-qualified persons will be received in the
+Division of Forestry as student-assistants. They will be assigned to
+practical field work, and will be allowed their expenses and three
+hundred dollars a year. They are expected to possess, when they come,
+a certain degree of knowledge, which is defined in Mr. Pinchot's
+announcement, of botany, geology, and other sciences, with good general
+attainments.
+
+
+In a communication made to the general meeting of the French Automobile
+Club, in May, the Baron de Zeylen enumerates 600 manufacturers in
+France who have produced 5,250 motor-carriages and about 10,000
+motor-cycles; 110 makers in England, 80 in Germany, 60 in the United
+States, 55 in Belgium, 25 in Switzerland, and about 30 in the other
+states of Europe. The manufacture outside of France does not appear
+to be on a large scale, for only three hundred carriages are credited
+to other countries, and half of these to Belgium. The United States,
+however, promises to give a good account of itself next time.
+
+
+Mine No. 8 of the Sunday Creek Coal Company, to which the American
+Association made its Saturday excursion from Columbus, Ohio, has
+recently been equipped with electric power, which is obtained by
+utilizing the waste gas from the oil wells in the vicinity. This, the
+Ohio State Journal says, is the first mine in the State to make use of
+this natural power.
+
+
+In a bulletin relating to a "dilution cream separator" which is now
+marketed among farmers, the Purdue University Agricultural Experiment
+Station refers to the results of experiments made several years ago as
+showing that an increased loss of fat occurs in skim milk when dilution
+is practiced, that the loss is greater with cold than with warm water,
+and that the value of the skim milk for feeding is impaired when it
+is diluted. Similar results have been obtained at other experiment
+stations. The results claimed to be realized with the separators can be
+obtained by diluting the milk in a comparatively inexpensive round can.
+
+
+To our death list of men known in science we have to add the names
+of John Cordreaux, an English ornithologist, who was eminent as a
+student, for thirty-six years, of bird migrations, and was secretary
+of the British Association's committee on that subject, at Great
+Cotes House, Lincolnshire, England, August 1st, in his sixty-ninth
+year; he was author of a book on the Birds of the Humber District,
+and of numerous contributions to The Zoologist and The Ibis; Gaston
+Tissandier, founder, and editor for more than twenty years, of the
+French scientific journal _La Nature_, at Paris, August 30th, in
+his fifty-seventh year; besides his devotion to his journal, he was
+greatly interested in aerial navigation, to which he devoted much
+time and means in experiments, and was a versatile author of popular
+books touching various departments of science; Judge Charles P. Daly,
+of New York, who, as president for thirty-six years of the American
+Geographical Society, contributed very largely to the encouragement
+and progress of geographical study in the United States, September
+19th, in his eighty-fourth year; he was an honorary member of the Royal
+Geographical Society of London, of the Berlin Geographical Society,
+and of the Imperial Geographical Society of Russia; he was a judge of
+the Court of Common Pleas of New York from 1844 to 1858, and after
+that chief justice of the same court continuously for twenty-seven
+years, and was besides, a publicist of high reputation, whose opinion
+and advice were sought by men charged with responsibility concerning
+them on many important State and national questions; Henri Levegne de
+Vilmorin, first vice-president of the Paris School of Horticulture;
+O. G. Jones, Physics Master of the City of London School, from an
+accident on the Dent Blanche, Alps, August 30th; Ambrose A. P. Stewart,
+formerly instructor in chemistry in the Lawrence Scientific School, and
+afterward Professor of Chemistry in the Pennsylvania State College and
+in the University of Illinois, at Lincoln, Neb., September 13th; Dr.
+Charles Fayette Taylor, founder of the New York Orthopedic Dispensary,
+and author of articles in the Popular Science Monthly on Bodily
+Conditions as related to Mental States (vol. xv), Gofio, Food, and
+Physique (vol. xxxi), and Climate and Health (vol. xlvii), and of books
+relating to his special vocation, died in Los Angeles, Cal., January
+25th, in his seventy-second year.
+
+
+Efforts are making for the formation of a Soppitt Memorial Library of
+Mycological Literature, to be presented to the Yorkshire (England)
+Naturalists' Union as a memorial of the services rendered to
+mycological science and to Yorkshire natural history generally, by the
+late Mr. H. T. Soppitt.
+
+
+The United States Department of Agriculture has published, for general
+information and in order to develop a wider interest in the subject,
+the History and Present Status of Instruction in Cooking in the
+Public Schools of New York City, by Mrs. Louise E. Hogan, to which an
+introduction is furnished by A. C. True, Ph. D.
+
+
+The United States Weather Bureau publishes a paper On Lightning and
+Electricity in the Air, by Alexander G. McAdie, representing the
+present knowledge on the subject, and, as supplementary to it or
+forming a second part, Loss of Life and Property by Electricity, by
+Alfred J. Henry.
+
+
+A gift of one thousand dollars has been made to the research fund of
+the American Association for the Advancement of Science by Mr. Emerson
+McMillin, of New York.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Appletons' Popular Science Monthly,
+November 1899, by Various
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK APPLETONS' POPULAR SCIENCE, NOV. 1899 ***
+
+***** This file should be named 44725.txt or 44725.zip *****
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