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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/44792-0.txt b/44792-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..1e344e7 --- /dev/null +++ b/44792-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,6690 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44792 *** + +Transcriber's Notes: Words in italics in the original are surrounded by +_underscores_. Depending on the font, there is one character that may +not be visible. It is a superscripted "5". Other notes follow the text. + + + + + _Barr's Buffon._ + + + Buffon's Natural History. + + CONTAINING + + A THEORY OF THE EARTH, + + A GENERAL + + _HISTORY OF MAN_, + + OF THE BRUTE CREATION, AND OF + VEGETABLES, MINERALS, + _&c. &c._ + + FROM THE FRENCH. + + WITH NOTES BY THE TRANSLATOR. + + IN TEN VOLUMES. + + VOL. I. + + + London: + PRINTED FOR THE PROPRIETOR, + AND SOLD BY H. D. SYMONDS, PATERNOSTER-ROW. + + 1797. + + + + +CONTENTS + +OF + +THE FIRST VOLUME. + + + _Page_ + _THE Theory of the Earth_ 1 + + Proof of the Theory of the Earth. + + Article I. _On the Formation of the Planets_ 69 + + Article II. _From the System of Whiston_ 115 + + Article III. _From the System of Burnet_ 128 + + Article IV. _From the System of Woodward_ 131 + + Article V. _Exposition of some other Systems_ 137 + + Article VI. _Geography_ 155 + + Article VII. _On the Production of the Strata, or Beds of + the Earth_ 183 + + Article VIII. _On Shells and other Marine Productions found + in the interior Parts of the Earth_ 219 + + Article IX. _On the Inequalities of the Surface + of the Earth_ 262 + + Article X. _Of Rivers_ 298 + + + + +PREFACE. + + +We should certainly be guilty of a gross absurdity if, in an age like +the present, we were to enter into an elaborate discussion on the +advantages to be derived from the study of NATURAL HISTORY; the ancients +recommended it as useful, instructive, and entertaining; and the moderns +have so far pursued and cultivated this first of sciences, that it is +now admitted to be the source of universal instruction and knowledge; +where every active mind may find subjects to amuse and delight, and the +artist a never failing field to enrich his glowing imagination. + +It would have been singular if, on such a subject, a number of authors +had not submitted the produce of their observations and labour; many +have written upon Natural Philosophy, but the Comte de BUFFON stands +eminently distinguished among them; he has entered into a minute +investigation, and drawn numberless facts from unwearied observations +far beyond any other, and this he has accomplished in a style fully +accordant with the importance of his subject. Ray, Linnæus, Rheaumur, +and other of his cotemporaries, deserve much credit for their classing +of animals, vegetables, &c. but it was BUFFON alone who entered into a +description of their nature, habits, uses, and properties. In his Theory +of the Earth he has displayed a wonderful ingenuity, and shewn the +general order of Nature with a masterly hand, although he may be subject +to some objections for preferring physical reasonings on general +causes, rather than allowing aught to have arisen from supernatural +agency, or the will of the Almighty. In this he has followed the example +of all great philosophers, who seem unwilling to admit that the +formation of any part of the Universe is beyond their comprehension. + +As the works of this Author will best speak for themselves, we shall +avoid unnecessary panegyric, hoping they will have received no material +injury in the following translation; we shall therefore content +ourselves with observing, that in our plan we have followed that adopted +by the Comte himself in a latter edition, from which he exploded his +long and minute treatises on anatomy and mensuration; though elegant and +highly finished in themselves, they appeared to us of too abstruse and +confined a nature for general estimation, and which we could not have +gone into without almost doubling the expence; a circumstance we had to +guard against, for the advantage of those of our readers to whom that +part would have been totally uninteresting. + +As to this edition, we presume it is no vain boast, that every exertion +has been made to do justice to a work of such acknowledged merit. In the +literary part, it has been the Proprietor's chief endeavour to preserve +the spirit and accuracy of the Author, as far as could be done in +translating from one language into another; and it is with gratitude he +acknowledges, that those endeavours have been amply supported by the +engraver; for the decorative executions of MILTON will remain a lasting +monument of his abilities, as long as delicacy in the arts is held in +estimation. + + + + +BUFFON's + +NATURAL HISTORY. + + + + +_THE THEORY OF THE EARTH._ + + +Neither the figure of the earth, its motion, nor its external +connections with the rest of the universe, pertain to our present +investigation. It is the internal structure of the globe, its +composition, form, and manner of existence which we purpose to examine. +The general history of the earth should doubtless precede that of its +productions, as a necessary study for those who wish to be acquainted +with Nature in her variety of shapes, and the detail of facts relative +to the life and manners of animals, or to the culture and vegetation of +plants, belong not, perhaps, so much to Natural History, as to the +general deductions drawn from the observations that have been made upon +the different materials which compose the terrestrial globe: as the +heights, depths, and inequalities of its form; the motion of the sea, +the direction of mountains, the situation of rocks and quarries, the +rapidity and effects of currents in the ocean, &c. This is the history +of nature in its most ample extent, and these are the operations by +which every other effect is influenced and produced. The theory of these +effects constitutes what may be termed a primary science, upon which the +exact knowledge of particular appearances as well as terrestrial +substances entirely depends. This description of science may fairly be +considered as appertaining to physics; but does not all physical +knowledge, in which no system is admitted, form part of the History of +Nature? + +In a subject of great magnitude, whose relative connections are +difficult to trace, and where some facts are but partially known, and +others uncertain and obscure, it is more easy to form a visionary +system, than to establish a rational theory; thus it is that the Theory +of the Earth has only hitherto been treated in a vague and hypothetical +manner; I shall therefore but slightly mention the singular notions of +some authors who have written upon the subject. + +The first hypothesis I shall allude to, deserves to be mentioned more +for its ingenuity than its reasonable solidity; it is that of an English +astronomer, (WHISTON) versed in the system of NEWTON, and an +enthusiastic admirer of his philosophy; convinced that every event which +happens on the terrestrial globe, depends upon the motions of the stars, +he endeavours to prove, by the assistance of mathematical calculations, +that the tail of a comet has produced every alteration the earth has +ever undergone. + +The next is the formation of an heterodox theologician, (BURNET) whose +brain was so heated with poetical visions, that he imagined he had seen +the creation of the universe. After explaining what the earth was in its +primary state, when it sprung from nothing; what changes were occasioned +by the deluge; what it has been and what it is, he then assumes a +prophetic style, and predicts what will be its state after the +destruction of the human race. + +The third comes from a writer (WOODWARD) certainly a better and more +extensive observer of nature than the two former, though little less +irregular and confused in his ideas; he explains the principal +appearances of the globe, by an immense abyss in the bowels of the +earth, which in his opinion is nothing more than a thin crust that +serves as a covering to the fluid it incloses. + +The whole of these hypotheses are raised on unstable foundations; have +given no light upon the subject, the ideas being unconnected, the facts +confused, and the whole confounded with a mixture of physic and fable; +and consequently have been adopted only by those who implicitly believe +opinions without investigation, and who, incapable of distinguishing +probability, are more impressed with the wonders of the marvellous than +the relation of truth. + +What we shall say on this subject will doubtless be less extraordinary, +and appear unimportant, if put in comparison with the grand systems just +mentioned, but it should be remembered that it is an historian's +business to describe, not invent; that no suppositions should be +admitted upon subjects that depend upon facts and observation; that his +imagination ought only to be exercised for the purpose of combining +observations, rendering facts more general, and forming one connected +whole, so as to present to the mind a distinct arrangement of clear +ideas and probable conjectures; I say probable, because we must not +expect to give exact demonstration on this subject, that being confined +to mathematical sciences, while our knowledge in physics and natural +history depends solely upon experience, and is confined to reasoning +upon inductions. + +In the history of the Earth, we shall therefore begin with those facts +that have been obtained from the experience of time, together with what +we have collected by our own observations. + +This immense globe exhibits upon its surface heights, depths, plains, +seas, lakes, marshes, rivers, caverns, gulphs, and volcanos; and upon +the first view of these objects we cannot discover in their dispositions +either order or regularity. If we penetrate into its internal part, we +shall there find metals, minerals, stones, bitumens, sands, earths, +waters, and matters of every kind, placed as it were by chance, and +without the smallest apparent design. Examining with a more strict +attention, we discover sunk mountains, caverns filled, rocks split and +broken, countries swallowed up, and new islands rising from the ocean; +we shall also perceive heavy substances placed above light ones, hard +bodies surrounded with soft; in short, we shall there find matter in +every form, wet and dry, hot and cold, solid and brittle, mixed in such +a sort of confusion as to leave room to compare them only to a mass of +rubbish and the ruins of a wrecked world. + +We inhabit these ruins however with a perfect security. The various +generations of men, animals, and plants, succeed each other without +interruption; the earth produces fully sufficient for their subsistence; +the sea has its limits; its motions and the currents of air are +regulated by fixed laws: the returns of the seasons are certain and +regular; the severity of the winter being constantly succeeded by the +beauties of the spring: every thing appears in order, and the earth, +formerly a CHAOS, is now a tranquil and delightful abode, where all is +animated, and regulated by such an amazing display of power and +intelligence as fills us with admiration, and elevates our minds with +the most sublime ideas of an all-potent and wonderful Creator. + +Let us not then draw any hasty conclusions upon the irregularities of +the surface of the earth, nor the apparent disorders in the interior +parts, for we shall soon discover the utility, and even the necessity of +them; and, by considering them with a little attention, we shall, +perhaps, find an order of which we had no conception, and a general +connection that we could neither perceive nor comprehend, by a slight +examination: but in fact, our knowledge on this subject must always be +confined. There are many parts of the surface of the globe with which we +are entirely unacquainted, and have but partial ideas of the bottom of +the sea, which in many places we have not been able to fathom. We can +only penetrate into the coat of the earth; the greatest caverns and the +deepest mines do not descend above the eight thousandth part of its +diameter, we can therefore judge only of the external and mere +superficial part; we know, indeed, that bulk for bulk the earth weighs +four times heavier than the sun, and we also know the proportion its +weight bears with other planets; but this is merely a relative +estimation; we have no certain standard nor proportion; we are so +entirely ignorant of the real weight of the materials, that the internal +part of the globe may be a void space, or composed of matter a thousand +times heavier than gold; nor is there any method to make further +discoveries on this subject; and it is with the greatest difficulty any +rational conjectures can be formed thereon. + +We must therefore confine ourselves to a correct examination and +description of the surface of the earth, and to those trifling depths to +which we have been enabled to penetrate. The first object which presents +itself is that immense quantity of water which covers the greatest part +of the globe; this water always occupies the lowest ground, its surface +always level, and constantly tending to equilibrium and rest; +nevertheless it is kept in perpetual agitation by a powerful agent, +which opposing its natural tranquillity, impresses it with a regular +periodical motion, alternately raising and depressing its waves, +producing a vibration in the total mass, by disturbing the whole body to +the greatest depths. This motion we know has existed from the +commencement of time, and will continue as long as the sun and moon, +which are the causes of it. + +By an examination of the bottom of the sea, we discover that to be fully +as irregular as the surface of the earth; we there find hills and +vallies, plains and cavities, rocks and soils of every kind: we there +perceive that islands are only the summits of vast mountains, whose +foundations are at the bottom of the Ocean; we also find other mountains +whose tops are nearly on a level with the surface of the water, and +rapid currents which run contrary to the general movement: they +sometimes run in the same direction, at others, their motions are +retrograde, but never exceeding their bounds, which appear to be as +fixed and invariable as those which confine the rivers of the earth. In +one part we meet with tempestuous regions, where the winds blow with +irresistible fury, where the sea and the heavens equally agitated, join +in contact with each other, are mixed and confounded in the general +shock: in others, violent intestine motions, tumultuous swellings, +water-spouts, and extraordinary agitations, caused by volcanos, whose +mouths though a considerable depth under water, yet vomit fire from the +midst of the waves, and send up to the clouds a thick vapour, composed +of water, sulphur, and bitumen. Further we perceive dreadful gulphs or +whirlpools, which seem to attract vessels, merely to swallow them up. On +the other hand, we discover immense regions, totally opposite in their +natures, always calm and tranquil, yet equally dangerous; where the +winds never exert their power, where the art of the mariner becomes +useless, and where the becalmed voyager must remain until death relieves +him from the horrors of despair. In conclusion, if we turn our eyes +towards the northern or southern extremities of the globe, we there +perceive enormous flakes of ice separating themselves from the polar +regions, advancing like huge mountains into the more temperate climes, +where they dissolve and are lost to the sight. + +Exclusive of these principal objects the vast empire of the sea abounds +with animated beings, almost innumerable in numbers and variety. Some of +them, covered with light scales, move with astonishing celerity; others, +loaded with thick shells, drag heavily along, leaving their track in the +sand; on others Nature has bestowed fins, resembling wings, with which +they raise and support themselves in the air, and fly to considerable +distances; while there are those to whom all motion has been denied, who +live and die immoveably fixed to the same rock: every species, however, +find abundance of food in this their native element. The bottom of the +sea, and the shelving sides of the various rocks, produce great +abundance of plants and mosses of different kinds; its soil is composed +of sand, gravel, rocks, and shells; in some parts a fine clay, in others +a solid earth, and in general it has a complete resemblance to the land +which we inhabit. + +Let us now take a view of the earth. What prodigious differences do we +find in different climates? What a variety of soils? What inequalities +in the surface? but upon a minute and attentive observation we shall +find the greatest chain of mountains are nearer the equator than the +poles; that in the Old Continent their direction is more from the east +to west than from the north to south; and that, on the contrary, in the +New World they extend more from north to south than from east to west; +but what is still more remarkable, the form and direction of those +mountains, whose appearance is so very irregular, correspond so +precisely, that the prominent angles of one mountain are always +opposite to the concave angles of the neighbouring mountain, and are of +equal dimensions, whether they are separated by a small valley or an +extensive plain. I have also observed that opposite hills are nearly of +the same height, and that, in general, mountains occupy the middle of +continents, islands, and promontories, which they divide by the greatest +lengths. + +In following the courses of the principal rivers, I have likewise found +that they are almost always perpendicular with those of the sea into +which they empty themselves; and that in the greatest part of their +courses they proceed nearly in the direction of the mountains from which +they derive their source. + +The sea shores are generally bounded with rocks, marble, and other hard +stones, or by earth and sand which has accumulated by the waters from +the sea, or been brought down by the rivers; and I observe that opposite +coasts, separated only by an arm of the sea, are composed of similar +materials, and the beds of the earth are exactly the same. Volcanos I +find exist only in the highest mountains; that many of them are entirely +extinct; that some are connected with others by subterraneous passages, +and that their explosions frequently happen at one and the same time. +There are similar correspondences between certain lakes and neighbouring +seas; some rivers suddenly disappear, and seem to precipitate themselves +into the earth. We also find internal, or mediterranean seas, constantly +receiving an enormous quantity of water from a number of rivers without +ever extending their bounds, most probably discharging by subterraneous +passages all their superfluous supplies. Lands which have been long +inhabited are easily distinguished from those new countries where the +soil appears in a rude state, where the rivers are full of cataracts, +where the earth is either overflowed with water, or parched up with +drought, and where every spot upon which a tree will grow is covered +with uncultivated woods. + +Pursuing our examination in a more extensive view, we find that the +upper strata that surrounds the globe, is universally the same. That +this substance which serves for the growth and nourishment of animals +and vegetables, is nothing but a composition of decayed animal and +vegetable bodies reduced into such small particles, that their former +organization is not distinguishable; or penetrating a little further, +we find the real earth, beds of sand, lime-stone, argol, shells, marble, +gravel, chalk, &c. These beds are always parallel to each other and of +the same thickness throughout their whole extent. In neighbouring hills +beds of the same materials are invariably found upon the same levels, +though the hills are separated by deep and extensive intervals. All beds +of earth, even the most solid strata, as rocks, quarries of marble, &c. +are uniformly divided by perpendicular fissures; it is the same in the +largest as well as smallest depths, and appears a rule which nature +invariably pursues. + +In the very bowels of the earth, on the tops of mountains, and even the +most remote parts from the sea, shells, skeletons of fish, marine +plants, &c. are frequently found, and these shells, fish, and plants, +are exactly similar to those which exist in the Ocean. There are a +prodigious quantity of petrified shells to be met with in an infinity of +places, not only inclosed in rocks, masses of marble, lime-stone, as +well as in earth and clays, but are actually incorporated and filled +with the very substance which surrounds them. In short, I find myself +convinced, by repeated observations, that marbles, stones, chalks, +marls, clay, sand, and almost all terrestrial substances, wherever they +may be placed, are filled with shells and other substances, the +productions of the sea. + +These facts being enumerated, let us now see what reasonable conclusions +are to be drawn from them. + +The changes and alterations which have happened to the earth, in the +space of the last two or three thousand years, are very inconsiderable +indeed, when compared with those important revolutions which must have +taken place in those ages which immediately followed the creation; for +as all terrestrial substances could only acquire solidity by the +continued action of gravity, it would be easy to demonstrate that the +surface of the earth was much softer at first than it is at present, and +consequently the same causes which now produce but slight and almost +imperceptible changes during many ages, would then effect great +revolutions in a very short space. It appears to be a certain fact, that +the earth which we now inhabit, and even the tops of the highest +mountains, were formerly covered with the sea, for shells and other +marine productions are frequently found in almost every part; it appears +also that the water remained a considerable time on the surface of the +earth, since in many places there have been discovered such prodigious +banks of shells, that it is impossible so great a multitude of animals +could exist at the same time: this fact seems likewise to prove, that +although the materials which composed the surface of the earth were then +in a state of softness, that rendered them easy to be disunited, moved +and transported by the waters, yet that these removals were not made at +once; they must indeed have been successive, gradual, and by degrees, +because these kind of sea productions are frequently met with more than +a thousand feet below the surface, and such a considerable thickness of +earth and stone could not have accumulated but by the length of time. If +we were to suppose that at the Deluge all the shell-fish were raised +from the bottom of the sea, and transported over all the earth; besides +the difficulty of establishing this supposition, it is evident, that as +we find shells incorporated in marble and in the rocks of the highest +mountains, we must likewise suppose that all these marbles and rocks +were formed at the same time, and that too at the very instant of the +Deluge; and besides, that previous to this great revolution there were +neither mountains, marble, nor rocks, nor clays, nor matters of any kind +similar to those we are at present acquainted with, as they almost all +contain shells and other productions of the sea. Besides, at the time of +the Deluge, the earth must have acquired a considerable degree of +solidity, from the action of gravity for more than sixteen centuries, +and consequently it does not appear possible that the waters, during the +short time the Deluge lasted, should have overturned and dissolved its +surface to the greatest depths we have since been enabled to penetrate. + +But without dwelling longer on this point, which shall hereafter be more +amply discussed, I shall confine myself to well-known observations and +established facts. There is no doubt but that the waters of the sea at +some period covered and remained for ages upon that part of the globe +which is now known to be dry land; and consequently the whole continents +of Asia, Europe, Africa, and America, were then the bottom of an ocean +abounding with similar productions to those which the sea at present +contains: it is equally certain that the different strata which compose +the earth are parallel and horizontal, and it is evident their being in +this situation is the operation of the waters which have collected and +accumulated by degrees the different materials, and given them the same +position as the water itself always assumes. We observe that the +position of strata is almost universally horizontal: in plains it is +exactly so, and it is only in the mountains that they are inclined to +the horizon, from their having been originally formed by a sediment +deposited upon an inclined base. Now I insist that these strata must +have been formed by degrees, and not all at once, by any revolution +whatever, because strata, composed of heavy materials, are very +frequently found placed above light ones, which could not be, if, as +some authors assert, the whole had been mixed with the waters at the +time of the Deluge, and afterwards precipitated; in that case every +thing must have had a very different appearance to that which now +exists. The heaviest bodies would have descended first, and each +particular stratum would have been arranged according to its weight and +specific gravity, and we should not see solid rocks or metals placed +above light sand any more than clay under coal. + +We should also pay attention to another circumstance; it confirms what +we have said on the formation of the strata; no other cause than the +motions and sediments of water could possibly produce so regular a +position of it, for the highest mountains are composed of parallel +strata as well as the lowest plains, and therefore we cannot attribute +the origin and formation of mountains to the shocks of earthquakes, or +eruptions of volcanos. The small eminences which are sometimes raised by +volcanos, or convulsive motions of the earth, are not by any means +composed of parallel strata, they are a mere disordered heap of matters +thrown confusedly together; but the horizontal and parallel position of +the strata must necessarily proceed from the operations of a constant +cause and motion, always regulated and directed in the same uniform +manner. + +From repeated observations, and these incontrovertible facts, we are +convinced that the dry part of the globe, which is now habitable, has +remained for a long time under the waters of the sea, and consequently +this earth underwent the same fluctuations and changes which the bottom +of the ocean is at present actually undergoing. To discover therefore +what formerly passed on the earth, let us examine what now passes at +the bottom of the sea, and from thence we shall soon be enabled to draw +rational conclusions with regard to the external form and internal +composition of that which we inhabit. + +From the Creation the sea has constantly been subject to a regular flux +and reflux: this motion, which raises and falls the waters twice in +every twenty-four hours, is principally occasioned by the action of the +moon, and is much greater under the equator than in any other climates. +The earth performs a rapid motion on its axis, and consequently has a +centrifugal force, which is also the greatest at the equator; this +latter, independent of actual observation, proves that the earth is not +perfectly spherical, but that it must be more elevated under the equator +then at the poles. + +From these combined causes, the ebbing and flowing of the tides, and the +motion of the earth, we may fairly conclude, that although the earth was +a perfect sphere in its original form, yet its diurnal motion, together +with the constant flux and reflux of the sea, must, by degrees, in the +course of time, have raised the equatorial parts, by carrying mud, +earth, sand, shells, &c. from other climes, and there depositing of +them. Agreeable to this idea the greatest irregularities must be found, +and, in fact, are found near the equator. Besides, as this motion of the +tides is made by diurnal alternatives, and been repeated, without +interruption, from the commencement of time, is it not natural to +imagine, that each time the tide flows the water carries a small +quantity of matter from one place to another, which may fall to the +bottom like a sediment, and form those parallel and horizontal strata +which are every where to be met with? for the whole motion of the water, +in the flux and reflux, being horizontal, the matters carried away with +them will naturally be deposited in the same parallel direction. + +But to this it may be said, that as the flux and reflux of the waters +are equal and regularly succeed, two motions would counterpoise each +other, and the matters brought by the flux would be returned by the +reflux, and of course this cause for the formation of the strata must be +chimerical; that the bottom of the sea could not experience any material +alteration by two uniform motions, wherein the effects of the one would +be regularly destroyed by the other; much less could they change the +original form by the production of heights and inequalities. + +To which it may be answered, that the alternate motions of the waters +are not equal, the sea having a constant motion from the east to the +west, besides, the agitation, caused by the winds, opposes and prevents +the equality of the tides. It will also be admitted, that by every +motion of which the sea is susceptible, particles of earth and other +matters will be carried from one place and deposited in another; and +these collections will necessarily assume the form of horizontal and +parallel strata, from the various combinations of the motions of the sea +always tending to move the earth, and to level these materials wherever +they fall, in the form of a sediment. But this objection is easily +obviated by the well-known fact, that upon all coasts, bordering the +sea, where the ebbing and flowing of the tide is observed, the flux +constantly brings in a number of things which the reflux does not carry +back. There are many places upon which the sea insensibly gains and +gradually covers over, while there are others from which it recedes, +narrowing as it were its limits, by depositing earth, sands, shells, +&c. which naturally take an horizontal position; these matters +accumulate by degrees in the course of time, and being raised to a +certain point gradually exclude the water, and so become part of the dry +land for ever after. + +But not to leave any doubt upon this important point, let us strictly +examine into the possibility of a mountain's being formed at the bottom +of the sea by the motions and sediments of the waters. It is certain +that on a coast which the sea beats with violence during the agitation +of its flow, that every wave must carry off some part of the earth; for +wherever the sea is bounded by rocks, it is a plain fact that the water +by degrees wears away those rocks, and consequently carries away small +particles every time the waves retire; these particles of earth and +stone will necessarily be transported to some distance, and being +arrived where the agitation of the water is abated, and left to their +own weight, they precipitate to the bottom in form of a sediment, and +there form a first stratum, either horizontal or inclined, according to +the position of the surface upon which they fall; this will shortly be +covered by a similar stratum produced by the same cause, and thus will a +considerable quantity of matter be almost insensibly collected +together, and the strata of which will be placed, parallel to each +other. + +This mass will continue to increase by new sediments, and by gradually +accumulating, in the course of time become a mountain at the bottom of +the sea, exactly similar to those we see on dry land, both as to outward +form and internal composition. If there happen to be shells in this part +of the sea, where we have supposed this deposit to be made, they will be +filled and covered with the sediment, and incorporated in the deposited +matter, making a part of the whole mass, and they will be found situated +in the parts of the mountain according to the time they had been there +deposited; those that lay at the bottom, previous to the formation of +the first stratum, will be found in the lowest, and so according to the +time of their being deposited, the latest in the most elevated parts. + +So likewise, when the bottom of the sea, at particular places, is +troubled by the agitation of the water, there will necessarily ensue, in +the same manner, a removal of earth, shells, and other matters, from the +troubled to other parts; for we are assumed by all divers, that at the +greatest depths they descend, i. e. twenty fathoms, the bottom of the +sea is so troubled by the agitation of the waters, that the mud and +shells are carried to considerable distances, consequently +transportations of this kind are made in every part of the sea, and this +matter falling must form eminences, composed like our mountains, and in +every respect similar; therefore the flux and reflux, by the winds, the +currents, and all the motions of the water, must inevitably create +inequalities at the bottom of the sea. + +Nor must we imagine that these matters cannot be transported to great +distances, because we daily see grain, and other productions of the East +and West Indies, arriving on our own coasts.[25:A] It is true these +bodies are specifically lighter than water, whereas the substances of +which we have been speaking are specifically heavier; but, however, +being reduced to an impalpable powder, they may be sustained a long time +in the water so as to be conveyed to considerable distances. + +It has been supposed that the sea is not troubled at the bottom, +especially if it is very deep, by the agitations produced by the winds +and tides; but it should be recollected that the whole mass, however +deep, is put in motion by the tides, and that in a liquid globe this +motion would be communicated to the very centre; that the power which +produces the flux and reflux is a penetrating force, which acts +proportionably upon every particle of its mass, so that we can determine +by calculation the quantity of its force at different depths; but, in +short, this point is so certain, that it cannot be contested but by +refusing the evidence of reason. + +Therefore, we cannot possibly have the least doubt that the tides, the +winds, and every other cause which agitates the sea, must produce +eminences and inequalities at the bottom, and those heights must ever be +composed of horizontal or equally inclined strata. These eminences will +gradually encrease until they become hills, which will rise in +situations similar to the waves that produce them; and if there is a +long extent of soil, they will continue to augment by degrees; so that +in course of time they will form a vast chain of mountains. Being formed +into mountains, they become an obstacle to and interrupt the common +motion of the sea, producing at the same time other motions, which are +generally called currents. Between two neighbouring heights at the +bottom of the sea a current will necessarily be formed, which will +follow their common direction, and, like a river, form a channel, whose +angles will be alternately opposite during the whole extent of its +course. These heights will be continually increasing, being subject only +to the motion of the flux, for the waters during the flow will leave the +common sediment upon their ridges; and those waters which are impelled +by the current will force along with them, to great distances, those +matters which would be deposited between both, at the same time +hollowing out a valley with corresponding angles at their foundation. By +the effects of these motions and sediments the bottom of the sea, +although originally smooth, must become unequal, and abounding with +hills and chains of mountains, as we find it at present. The soft +materials of which the eminences are originally composed will harden by +degrees with their own weight; some forming parts, purely angular, +produce hills of clay; others, consisting of sandy and crystalline +particles, compose those enormous masses of rock and flint from whence +crystal and other precious stones are extracted; those formed with stony +particles, mixed with shells, form those of lime-stone and marble, +wherein we daily meet with shells incorporated; and others, compounded +of matter more shelly, united with pure earth, compose all our beds of +marle and chalk. All these substances are placed in regular beds, and +all contain heterogeneous matter; marine productions are found among +them in abundance, and nearly according to the relation of their +specific weights; the lightest shells in chalk, and the heaviest in clay +and lime-stone; these shells are invariably filled with the matter in +which they have been inclosed, whether stones or earth; an incontestible +proof that they have been transported with the matter that fills and +surrounds them, and that this matter was at that time in an impalpable +powder. In short, all those substances whose horizontal situations have +been established by the level of the waters of the sea, will constantly +preserve their original position. + +But here it may be observed, that most hills, whose summits consist of +solid rocks, stone, or marble, are formed upon small eminences of much +lighter materials, such for instance as clay, or strata of sand, which +we commonly find extended over the neighbouring plains, upon which it +may be asked, how, if the foregoing theory be just, this seemingly +contradictory arrangement happens? To me this phenomenon appears to be +very easy and naturally explained. The water at first acts upon the +upper stratum of coasts, or bottom of the sea, which commonly consists +of clay or sand, and having transported this, and deposited the +sediment, it of course composes small eminences, which form a base for +the more heavy particles to rest upon. Having removed the lighter +substances, it operates upon the more heavy, and by constant attrition +reduces them to an impalpable powder; which it conveys to the same spot, +and where, being deposited, these stony particles, in the course of +time, form those solid rocks and quarries which we now find upon the +tops of hills and mountains. It is not unlikely that as these particles +are much heavier than sand or clay, that they were formerly a +considerable depth under a strata of that kind, and now owe their high +situations to having been last raised up and transported by the motion +of the water. + +To confirm what we here assert, let us more closely investigate the +situation of those materials which compose the superficial outer part of +the globe, indeed the only part with which we have any knowledge. The +different beds of strata in stone quarries are almost all horizontal, or +regularly inclined; those whose foundations are on clays or other solid +matters are clearly horizontal, especially in plains. The quarries +wherein we find flint, or brownish grey free-stone, in detached +portions, have a less regular position, but even in those the uniformity +of nature plainly appears, for the horizontal or regularly inclined +strata are apparent in quarries where these stones are found in great +masses. This position is universal, except in quarries where flint and +brown free-stone are found in small detached portions, the formation of +which we shall prove to have been posterior to those we have just been +treating of; for granite, vitrifiable sand, argol, marble, calcareous +stone, chalk, and marles, are always deposited in parallel strata, +horizontally or equally inclined; the original formation of these are +easily discovered, for the strata are exactly horizontal and very thin, +and are arranged above each other like the leaves of a book. Beds of +sand, soft and hard clay, chalk, and shells, are also either horizontal +or regularly inclined. Strata of every kind preserves the same thickness +throughout its whole extent, which often occupies the space of many +miles, and may be traced still farther by close and exact observations. +In a word, the materials of the globe, as far as mankind have been +enabled to penetrate, are arranged in an uniform position, and are +exactly similar. + +The strata of sand and gravel which have been washed down from mountains +must in some measure be excepted; in vallies they are sometimes of a +considerable extent, and are generally placed under the first strata of +the earth; in plains, they are as even as the most ancient and interior +strata, but near the bottom and upon the ridges of hills they are +inclined, and follow the inclination of the ground upon which they have +flowed. These being formed by rivers and rivulets, which are constantly +in vallies changing their beds, and dragging these sands and gravel with +them, they are of course very numerous. A small rivulet flowing from the +neighbouring heights, in the course of time will be sufficient to cover +a very spacious valley with a strata of sand and gravel, and I have +often observed in hilly countries, whose base, as well as the upper +stratum, was hard clay, that above the source of the rivulet the clay is +found immediately under the vegetable soil, and below it there is the +thickness of a foot of sand upon the clay, and which extends itself to a +considerable distance. These strata formed by rivers are not very +ancient, and are easily discovered by the inequality of their thickness, +which is constantly varying, while the ancient strata preserves the same +dimensions throughout; they are also to be known by the matter itself, +which bears evident marks of having been smoothed and rounded by the +motions of the water. The same may be said of the turf and perished +vegetables which are found below the first stratum of earth in marshy +grounds; they cannot be considered as ancient, but entirely produced by +successive heaps of decayed trees and other plants. Nor are the strata +of slime and mud, which are found in many countries, to be considered as +ancient productions, having been formed by stagnated waters or +inundations of rivers, and are neither so horizontal, nor equally +inclined, as the strata anciently produced by the regular motions of the +sea. In the strata formed by rivers we constantly meet with river, but +scarcely ever sea shells, and the few that are found are broken and +irregularly placed; whereas in the ancient strata there are no river +shells; the sea shells are in great quantities, well preserved, and all +placed in the same manner, having been transported at the same time and +by the same cause. How are we to account for this astonishing +regularity? Instead of regular strata, why do we not meet with the +matters that compose the earth jumbled together, without any kind of +order? Why are not rocks, marbles, clays, marles, &c. variously +dispersed, or joined by irregular or vertical strata? Why are not the +heaviest bodies uniformly found placed beneath the lightest? It is easy +to perceive that this uniformity of nature, this organization of earth, +this connection of different materials, by parallel strata, without +respect to their weights, could only be produced by a cause as powerful +and constant as the motion of the sea, whether occasioned by the regular +winds or by that of the flux and reflux, &c. + +These causes act with greater force under the equator than in other +climates, for there the winds are more regular and the tides run +higher; the most extensive chains of mountains are also near the +equator. The mountains of Africa and Peru are the highest known, they +frequently extend themselves through whole provinces, and stretch, to +considerable distances under the ocean. The mountains of Europe and +Asia, which extend from Spain to China, are not so high as those of +South America and Africa. The mountains of the North, according to the +relation of travellers, are only hills in comparison with those of the +Southern countries. Besides, there are very few islands in the Northern +Seas, whereas in the torrid zone they are almost innumerable, and as +islands are only the summits of mountains, it is evident that the +surface of the earth has many more inequalities towards the equator than +in the northerly climes. + +It is therefore evident that the prodigious chain of mountains which run +from the West to the East in the old continent, and from the North to +the South in the new, must have been produced by the general motion of +the tides; but the origin of all the inferior mountains must be +attributed to the particular motions of currents, occasioned by the +winds and other irregular agitations of the sea: they may probably have +been produced by a combination of all those motions, which must be +capable of infinite variations, since the winds and different positions +of islands and coasts change the regular course of the tides, and compel +them to flow in every possible direction: it is, therefore, not in the +least astonishing that we should see considerable eminences, whose +courses have no determined direction. But it is sufficient for our +present purpose to have demonstrated that mountains are not the produce +of earthquakes, or other accidental causes, but that they are the +effects resulting from the general order of nature, both as to their +organization and the position of the materials of which they are +composed. + +But how has it happened that this earth which we and our ancestors have +inhabited for ages, which, from time immemorial, has been an immense +continent, dry and removed from the reach of the waters, should, if +formerly the bottom of the ocean, be actually larger than all the +waters, and raised to such a height as to be distinctly separated from +them? Having remained so long on the earth, why have the waters now +abandoned it? What accident, what cause could produce so great a +change? Is it possible to conceive one possessed of sufficient power to +produce such an amazing effect? + +These questions are difficult to be resolved, but as the facts are +certain and incontrovertible, the exact manner in which they happened +may remain unknown, without prejudicing the conclusions that may be +drawn from them; nevertheless, by a little reflection, we shall find at +least plausible reasons for these changes. We daily observe the sea +gaining ground on some coasts and losing it on others; we know that the +ocean has a continued regular motion from East to West; that it makes +loud and violent efforts against the low lands and rocks which confine +it; that there are whole provinces which human industry can hardly +secure from the rage of the sea; that there are instances of islands +rising above, and others being sunk under the waters. History speaks of +much greater deluges and inundations. Ought not this to incline us to +believe that the surface of the earth has undergone great revolutions, +and that the sea may have quitted the greatest part of the earth which +it formerly covered? Let us but suppose that the old and new worlds were +formerly but one continent, and that the Atlantis of Plato was sunk by +a violent earthquake; the natural consequence would be, that the sea +would necessarily have flowed in from all sides, and formed what is now +called the Atlantic Ocean, leaving vast continents dry, and possibly +those which we now inhabit. This revolution, therefore, might be made of +a sudden by the opening of some vast cavern in the interior part of the +globe, which an universal deluge must inevitably succeed; or possibly +this change was not effected at once, but required a length of time, +which I am rather inclined to think; however these conjectures may be, +it is certain the revolution has occurred, and in my opinion very +naturally; for to judge of the future, as well as the past, we must +carefully attend to what daily happens before our eyes. It is a fact +clearly established by repeated observations of travellers, that the +ocean has a constant motion from the East to West; this motion, like the +trade winds, is not only felt between the tropics, but also throughout +the temperate climates, and as near the poles as navigators have gone; +of course the Pacific Ocean makes a continual effort against the coasts +of Tartary, China, and India; the Indian Ocean acts against the east +coast of Africa; and the Atlantic in like manner against all the eastern +coasts of America; therefore the sea must have always and still +continues to gain land on the east and lose it on the west; and this +alone is sufficient to prove the possibility of the change Of earth into +sea, and sea into land. If, in fact, such are the effects of the sea's +motion from east to west, may we not very reasonably suppose that Asia +and the eastern continent is the oldest country in the world, and that +Europe and part of Africa, especially the western coasts of these +continents, as Great Britain, France, Spain, Muratania, &c. are of a +more modern date? Both history and physics agree in confirming this +conjecture. + +There are, however, many other causes which concur with the continual +motion of the sea from east to west, in producing these effects. + +In many places there are lands lower than the level of the sea, and +which are only defended from it by an isthmus of rocks, or by banks and +dykes of still weaker materials; these barriers must gradually be +destroyed by the constant action of the sea, when the lands will be +overflowed, and constantly make part of the ocean. Besides, are not +mountains daily decreasing by the rains, which loosen the earth, and +carry it down into the vallies? It is also well known that floods wash +the earth from the plains and high grounds into the small brooks and +rivers, which in their turn convey it into the sea. By these means the +bottom of the sea is filling up by degrees, the surface of the earth +lowering to a level, and nothing but time is necessary for the sea's +successively changing places with the earth. + +I speak not here of those remote causes which stand above our +comprehension; of those convulsions of nature, whose least effects would +be fatal to the world; the near approach of a comet, the absence of the +moon, the introduction of a new planet, &c. are suppositions on which it +is easy to give scope to the imagination. Such causes would produce any +effects we chose, and from a single hypothesis of this nature, a +thousand physical romances might be drawn, and which the authors might +term, THE THEORY OF THE EARTH. As historians we reject these vain +speculations; they are mere possibilities which suppose the destruction +of the universe, in which our globe, like a particle of forsaken matter, +escapes our observation, and is no longer an object worthy regard; but +to preserve consistency, we must take the earth as it is, closely +observing every part, and by inductions judge of the future from what +exists at present; in other respects we ought not to be affected by +causes which seldom happen, and whose effects are always sudden and +violent; they do not occur in the common course of nature; but effects +which are daily repeated, motions which succeed each other without +interruption, and operations that are constant, ought alone to be the +ground of our reasoning. + +We will add some examples thereto; we will combine particular effects +with general causes, and give a detail of facts which will render +apparent, and explain the different changes that the earth has +undergone, whether by the eruption of the sea upon the land, or by +retiring from that which it had formerly covered. + +The greatest eruption was certainly that which gave rise to the +Mediterranean sea. The ocean flows through a narrow channel between two +promontories with great rapidity, and then forms a vast sea, which, +without including the Black sea, is about seven times larger than the +kingdom of France. Its motion through the straits of Gibraltar is +contrary to all other straits, for the general motion of the sea is from +east to west, but in that alone it is from the west to the east, which +proves that the Mediterranean sea is not an ancient gulph, but that it +has been formed by an eruption, produced by some accidental cause; as an +earthquake which might swallow up the earth in the strait, or by a +violent effort of the ocean, caused by the wind, which might have forced +its way through the banks between the promontories of Gibraltar and +Ceuta. This opinion is authorised by the testimony of the ancients, who +declare in their writings, that the Mediterranean sea did not formerly +exist; and confirmed by natural history and observations made on the +opposite coasts of Spain, where similar beds of stones and earth are +found upon the same levels, in like manner as they are in two mountains, +separated by a small valley. + +The ocean having forced this passage, it ran at first through the +straits with much greater rapidity than at present, and overflowed the +continent that joined Europe to Africa. The waters covered all the low +countries, of which we can only now perceive the tops of some of the +considerable mountains, such as parts of Italy, the islands of Sicily, +Malta, Corsica, Sardinia, Cyprus, Rhodes, and those of the Archipelago. + +In this eruption I have not included the Black sea, because the quantity +of water it receives from the Danube, Nieper, Don, and various other +rivers, is fully sufficient to form and support it; and besides, it +flows with great rapidity through the Bosphorus into the Mediterranean. +It might also be presumed that the Black and Caspian seas were formerly +only two large lakes, joined by a narrow communication, or by a morass, +or small lake, which united the Don and the Wolga near Tria, where these +two rivers flow near each other; nor is it improbable that these two +seas or lakes were then of much greater extent, for the immense rivers +which fall into the Black and Caspian seas may have brought down a +sufficient quantity of earth to shut up the communication, and form that +neck of land by which they are now separated; for we know great rivers, +in the course of time, fill up seas and form new land, as the province +at the mouth of the Yellow river in China; Louisania at the mouth of the +Mississippi, and the northern part of Egypt, which owes its existence to +the inundations of the Nile; the rapidity of which brings down such +quantities of earth from the internal parts of Africa, as to deposit on +the shores, during the inundations, a body of slime and mud of more than +fifty feet in depth. The province of the Yellow river and Louisania +have, in like manner, been formed by the soil from the rivers. + +The Caspian sea is actually a real lake; having no communication with +other seas, not even with the lake Aral, which seems to have been a part +of it, being only separated from it by a large track of sand, in which +neither rivers nor canals for communication the waters have as yet been +found. This sea, therefore, has no external communication with any +other; and I do not know that we are authorised to suspect that it has +an internal one with the Black sea, or with the Gulph of Persia. It is +true the Caspian sea receives the Wolga and many other rivers, which +seem to furnish it with more water than is lost by evaporation; but +independent of the difficulty of such calculation, if it had a +communication with any other sea, a constant and rapid current towards +the opening would have marked its course, and I never heard of any such +discovery being made; travellers of the best credit affirm to the +contrary, and consequently the Caspian sea must lose by evaporation just +as much water as it receives from the Wolga and other rivers. + +Nor is it any improbable conjecture that the Black sea will at some +period be separated from the Mediterranean; and that the Bosphorus will +be shut up, whenever the great rivers shall have accumulated a +sufficient quantity of earth to answer that effect; this may be the case +in the course of time by the successive diminution of waters in rivers, +in proportion as the mountains from whence they draw their sources are +lowered by the rains, and those other causes we have just alluded to. + +The Caspian and Black seas must therefore be looked upon rather as lakes +than gulphs of the ocean, for they resemble other lakes which receive a +number of rivers without any apparent outlet, such as the Dead sea, +many lakes in Africa and other places. These two seas are not near so +salt as the Mediterranean or the ocean; and all voyagers affirm that the +navigation in the Black and Caspian seas, upon account of its +shallowness and quantity of rocks and quicksands, is so extremely +dangerous, that only small vessels can be used with safety which farther +proves they must not be looked upon as gulphs of the ocean, but as +immense bodies of water collected from great rivers. + +A considerable eruption of the sea would doubtless take place upon the +earth, if the isthmus which separates Africa from Asia was divided, as +the Kings of Egypt, and afterwards the Caliphs projected; and I do not +know that the communication between the Red sea and Mediterranean is +sufficiently established, as the former must be higher than the latter. +The Red sea is a narrow branch of the ocean, and does not receive into +it a single river on the side of Egypt, and very few on the opposite +coast; it will not therefore be subject to diminution, like those seas +and lakes which are constantly receiving slime and sand from those +rivers that flow into them. The ocean supplies the Red sea with all its +water, and the motion of the tides is very evident in it, of course it +must be affected by every movement of the ocean. But the Mediterranean +must be lower than the ocean, because the current passes with great +rapidity through the straits; besides, it receives the Nile, which flows +parallel to the west coast of the Red sea, and which divides Egypt, a +very low country; from all which it appears probable, that the Red sea +is higher than the Mediterranean, and that if the isthmus of Suez was +cut through, there Would be a great inundation, and a considerable +augmentation of the Mediterranean would ensue; at least if the waters +were not restrained by dykes and sluices placed at proper distances, and +which was most likely the case if the ancient canal of communication +ever had existence. + +Without dwelling longer upon conjectures, which, although well founded, +may appear hazardous and rash, we shall give some recent and certain +examples of the change of the sea into land, and the land into sea. At +Venice the bottom of the Adriatic is daily rising, and if great care had +not been taken to clean and empty the canals, the whole would long +since have formed part of the continent; the same may be said of most +ports, bays, and mouths of rivers. In Holland the bottom of the sea has +risen in many places; the gulph of Zuyderzee and the strait of the Texel +cannot receive such large vessels as formerly. At the mouth of all +rivers we find small islands, and banks of sand and earth brought down +by the waters, and it is certain the sea will be filled up in every part +where great rivers empty themselves. The Rhine is lost in the sands +which itself accumulated. The Danube and the Nile, and all great rivers, +after bringing down much sand and earth, no longer come to the sea by a +single channel; they divide into different branches, and the intervals +are filled up by the materials they have themselves brought thither. +Morasses daily dry up; lands forsaken by the sea are cultivated; we +navigate countries now covered by waters; in short, we see so many +instances of land changing into water, and water into land, that we must +be convinced of these alterations having, and will continue to take +place; so that in time gulphs will become continents; isthmusses, +straits; morasses, dry lands; and the tops of our mountains, the shoals +of the sea. + +Since then the waters have covered, and may successively cover, every +part of the present dry land, our surprise must cease at finding every +where marine productions and compositions, which could only be the works +of the waters. We have already explained how the horizontal strata of +the earth were formed, but the perpendicular divisions that are commonly +found in rocks, clays, and all matters of which the globe is composed, +still remain to be considered. These perpendicular stratas are, in fact, +placed much farther from each other than the horizontal, and the softer +the matter the greater the distance; in marble and hard earths they are +frequently found only a few feet; but if the mass of rock be very +extensive, then these fissures are at some fathoms distant; sometimes +they descend from the top of the rock to the bottom, and sometimes +terminate at an horizontal fissure. They are always perpendicular in the +strata of calcinable matters, as chalk, marle, marble, &c. but are more +oblique and irregularly placed in vitrifiable substances, brown +freestone, and rocks of flint, where they are frequently adorned with +chrystals, and other minerals. In quarries of marble or calcinable +stone, the divisions are filled with spar, gypsum, gravel, and an earthy +sand, which contains a great quantity of chalk. In clay, marls, and +every other kind of earth, excepting turf, these perpendicular divisions +are either empty or filled with such matters as the water has +transported thither. + +We need seek very little farther for the cause and origin of those +perpendicular cracks. The materials by which the different strata are +composed being carried by the water, and deposited as a kind of +sediment, must necessarily, at first, contain a considerable share of +water, the which, as they began to harden, they would part with by +degrees, and, as they must necessarily lessen in the course of drying, +that decrease would occasion them to split at irregular distances. They +naturally split in a perpendicular direction, because in that direction +the action of gravity of one particle upon another has no actual effect, +while, on the contrary, it is directly opposite in a horizontal +situation; the diminution of bulk therefore could have no sensible +effect but in a vertical line. I say it is the diminution of drying, and +not the contained water forcing a place to issue, is the cause of these +perpendicular fissures, for I have often observed that the two sides of +those fissures answer throughout their whole height, as exactly as two +sides of a split piece of wood; their insides are rough and irregular, +whereas if they had been made by the motion of the water, they would +have been smooth and polished; therefore these cracks must be produced +suddenly and at once or by degrees in drying, like the flaws in wood, +and the greatest part of the water they contained evaporated through the +pores. The divisions of these perpendicular cracks vary greatly as to +the extent of their openings; some of them being not more than half an +inch, others increasing to one or two feet; there are some many fathoms, +and which form those precipices so often met with in the Alps and other +high mountains. The small ones are produced by drying alone, but those +which extend to several feet are the effects of other causes; for +instance, the sinking of the foundation on one side while the other +remains unmoved; if the base sinks but a line or two, it is sufficient +to produce openings of many feet in a rock of considerable height. +Sometimes rocks, which are founded on clay or sand, incline to one +side, by which motion the perpendicular cracks become extended. + +I have not yet mentioned those large openings which are found in rocks +and mountains; they must have been produced by great sinkings, as of +immense caverns, unable longer to support the weight with which they +were encumbered, but these intervals are very different from +perpendicular fissures; they appear to be vacancies opened by the hand +of Nature for the communication of nations. In this manner all vacancies +in large mountains and divisions, by straits in the sea, seem to present +themselves; such as the straits of Thermopylæ, the ports of Caucasus, +the Cordeliers, the extremity of the straits of Gibraltar, the entrance +of the Hellespont, &c. These could not have been occasioned by the +simple separation by drying of matter, but by considerable parts of the +lands themselves being sunk, swallowed up, or overturned. + +These great sinkings, though produced by accidental causes, hold a first +place in the principal circumstances in the History of the Earth, and +not a little contributed to change the face of the Globe; the greatest +part of them have been produced by subterraneous fires, whose +explosions cause earthquakes and volcanos; the force of these inflamed +and confined matters in the bowels of the earth is beyond compare; by it +cities have been swallowed up, provinces overturned, and mountains +overthrown. But however great this force may be, and prodigious as the +effects appear, we cannot assent to the opinion of those authors who +suppose these subterraneous fires proceed from an immense abyss of flame +in the centre of the earth, neither give we credit to the common notion +that they proceed from a great depth below the surface of the earth, air +being absolutely necessary for the support of inflammation. In examining +the materials which issue from volcanos, even in the most violent +eruptions, it appears very plain, that the furnace of the inflamed +matters is not at any great depth, as they are similar to those found in +mountains, disfigured only by the calcination, and the melting of the +metallic parts which they contain; and to be convinced that the matters +cast out by volcanos do not come from any great depth, we have only to +consider of the height of the mountain, and judge of the immense force +that would be necessary to cast up stones and minerals to the height of +half a league; for Ætna, Hecla, and many other volcanos have at least +that elevation from the plains. Now it is perfectly well known that the +action of fire is equal in every direction; it cannot therefore act +upwards, with a force capable of throwing large stones half a league +high, without an equal re-action downwards, and on the sides, and which +re-action must very soon pierce and destroy the mountain on every side, +because the materials which compose it are not more dense and firm than +those thrown out; how then can it be imagined that the cavity, which +must be considered as the type or cannon, could resist so great a force +as would be necessary to raise those bodies to the mouth of the volcano? +Besides, if this cavity was deeper, as the external orifice is not +great, it would be impossible for so large a quantity of inflamed and +liquid matter to issue out at once, without clashing against each other, +and against the sides of the tube, and by passing through so long a +space they would run the chance of being extinguished and hardened. We +often see rivers of bitumen and melted sulphur, thrown out of the +volcanos with stones and minerals, flow from the tops of the mountains +into the plains; is it natural to imagine that matters so fluid, and so +little able to resist violent action, should be elevated from any great +depth? All the observations that can be made on this subject will prove +that the fire of the volcano is not far from the summit of the mountain, +and that it never descends to the level of the plain. + +This idea of volcanos does not, however, render it inconsistent that +they are the cause of earthquakes, and that their shocks may be felt on +the plains to very considerable distances; nor that one volcano may not +communicate with another by means of subterraneous passages; but it is +of the depth of the fire's confinement that we now speak, and which can +only be at a small distance from the mouth of the volcano. It is not +necessary to produce an earthquake on a plain, that the bottom of the +volcano should be below the level of that plain; nor that there should +be internal cavities filled with the same combustible matter, for a +violent explosion, such as generally attends an eruption, may, like that +of a powder magazine give so great a shock by its re-action, as to +produce an earthquake that might be felt at a considerable distance. + +I do not mean to say that there are no earthquakes produced by +subterraneous fires, but merely that there are some which proceed only +from the explosion of volcanos. In confirmation of what has been +advanced on this subject, it is certain that volcanos are seldom met +with on plains; on the contrary, they are constantly found in the +highest mountains, and their mouths at the very summit of them. If the +internal fires of the volcanos extended below the plains, would not +passages be opened in them during violent eruptions? In the first +eruption would not these fires rather have pierced the plains, where, by +comparison, the resistance must be infinitely weaker, than force their +way through a mountain more than half a league in height. + +The reason why volcanos appear alone in mountains, is, because much +greater quantities of minerals, sulphur, and pyrites, are contained in +mountains, and more exposed than in the plains; besides which, those +high places are more subject to the impressions of air, and receive +greater quantities of rain and damps, by which mineral substances are +capable of being heated and fermented into an absolute state of +inflammation. + +In short, it has often been observed, that, after violent eruptions, the +mountains have shrunk and diminished in proportion to the quantity of +matter which has been thrown out; another proof that the volcanos are +not situated at the bottom of the mountain, but rather at no great +distance from the summit itself. + +In many places earthquakes have formed considerable hollows, and even +separations in mountains; all other inequalities have been produced at +the same time with the mountains themselves by the currents of the sea, +for in every place where there has not been a violent convulsion, the +strata of the mountains are parallel, and their angles exactly +correspond. Those subterraneous caverns which have been produced by +volcanos are easily to be distinguished from those formed by water; for +the water, having washed away the sand and clay with which they are +filled, leaves only the stones and rocks, and this is the origin of +caverns upon hills; while those found upon the plains are commonly +nothing but ancient pits and quarries, such as the salt quarries of +Maestricht, the mines of Poland, &c. But natural caverns belong to +mountains: they receive the water from the summit and its environs, from +whence it issues over the surface wherever it can obtain a passage; and +these are the sources of springs and rivers, and whenever a cavern is +filled by any part falling in, an inundation generally ensues. + +From what we have related, it is easy to be seen how much subterraneous +fires contribute to change the surface and internal part of the globe. +This cause is sufficiently powerful to produce very great effects: but +it is difficult to conceive how the winds should occasion any sensible +alterations upon the earth. The sea appears to be their empire, and +indeed, excepting the tides, nothing has so powerful an influence upon +the ocean; even the flux and reflux move in an uniform manner, and their +effects are regularly the same; but the action of the winds is +capricious and violent; they sometimes rush on with such impetuosity, +and agitate the sea with such violence, that from a calm, smooth, and +tranquil plain, it becomes furrowed with waves rolling mountains high, +and dashing themselves to pieces against the rocks and shores. The winds +cause constant alterations on the surface of the sea, but the surface of +the land, which has so solid an appearance, we should suppose would not +be subject to similar effects; by experience, however, it is known that +the winds raise mountains of sand in Arabia and Africa; and that they +cover plains with it; they frequently transport sand to great distances, +and many miles into the sea, where they accumulate in such quantities as +to form banks, downs, and even islands. It is also known that hurricanes +are the scourge of the Antilles, Madagascar, and other countries, where +they act with such fury, as to sweep away trees, plants, and animals, +together with the soil which gave them subsistence: they cause rivers to +ascend and descend, and produce new ones; they overthrow rocks and +mountains; they make holes and gulphs on the earth, and entirely change +the face of those unfortunate countries where they exist. Happily there +are but few climates exposed to the impetuosity of those dreadful +agitations of the air. + +But the greatest and most general changes in the surface of the earth +are produced by rains, floods, and torrents from the high lands. Their +origins proceed from the vapours which the sun raises above the surface +of the ocean, and which the wind transports through every climate. These +vapours, which are sustained in the air, and conveyed at the will of the +winds, are stopped in their progress by the tops of the hills which they +encounter, where they accumulate until they become clouds and fall in +the form of rain, dew, or snow. These waters at first descend upon the +plains without any fixed course, but by degrees hollow out a bed for +themselves; by their natural bent they run to the bottom of mountains, +and penetrating or dissolving the land easiest to divide, they carry +earth and sand away with them, cut deep channels in the plains, form +themselves into rivers, and open a passage into the sea, which +constantly receives as much water from the land rivers as it loses by +evaporation. The windings in the channels of rivers have sinuosities, +whose angles are correspondent to each other, so that where the waves +form a saliant angle on one side, the other has an exactly opposite one; +and as hills and mountains, which may be considered as the banks of the +vallies which separate them, have also sinuosities in corresponding +angles, it seems to demonstrate that the vallies have been formed, by +degrees, by the currents of the sea, in the same manner as the rivers +have hollowed out their beds on the earth. + +The waters which run on the surface of the earth, and support its +verdure and fertility, are not perhaps one half of those which the +vapours produce; for there are many veins of water which sink to great +depths in the internal part of the earth. In some places we are certain +to meet with water by digging; in others, not any can be found. In +almost all vallies and low grounds water is certain to be met with at +moderate depths; but, on the contrary, in all high places it cannot be +extracted from the bowels of the earth, but must be collected from the +heavens. There are countries of great extent where a spring cannot be +found, and where all the water which supplies the inhabitants and +animals with drink is contained in pools and cisterns. In the east, +especially in Arabia, Egypt, and Persia, wells are extremely scarce, and +the people have been obliged to make reservoirs of a considerable extent +to collect the waters as it falls from the heavens. These works, +projected and executed from public necessity, are the most beautiful and +magnificent monuments of the eastern nations; some of the reservoirs +occupy a space of two square miles, and serve to fertilize whole +provinces, by means of baths and small rivulets that let it out on every +side. But in low countries, where the greatest rivers flow, we cannot +dig far from the surface, without meeting with water, and in fields +situate in the environs of rivers it is often obtained by a few strokes +with a pick-axe. + +The water, found in such quantities in low grounds, comes principally +from the neighbouring hills and eminences; at the time of great rains or +sudden melting of snow, a part of the water flows on the surface, but +most of it penetrates through the small cracks and crevices it finds in +the earth and rocks. This water springs up again to the surface wherever +it can find vent; but it often filters through the sand until it comes +to a bottom of clay or solid earth, where it forms subterraneous lakes, +rivulets, and perhaps rivers, whose courses are entirely unknown; they +must, however, follow the general laws of nature, and constantly flow +from the higher grounds to the lower, and consequently these +subterraneous waters must, in the end, fall into the sea, or collect in +some low place, either on the surface or in the interior part of the +earth; for there are several lakes into which no rivers enter, nor from +which there are not any issue; and a much greater number, which do not +receive any considerable river, that are the sources of the greatest +rivers on earth; such as the lake of St. Laurence; the lake Chiamè, +from whence spring two great rivers that water the kingdoms of Asam and +Pegu; the lake of Assiniboil in America; those of Ozera in Muscovy, that +give rise to the river Irtis, and a great number of others. These lakes, +it is evident, must be produced by the waters from the high lands +passing through subterraneous passages, and collecting in the lowest +places. Some indeed have asserted that lakes are to be found on the +summit of the highest mountains; but to this no credit can be given, for +those found on the Alps, and other elevated places, are all surrounded +by much more lofty mountains, and derive their origin from the waters +which run down the sides, or are filtered through those eminences in the +same manner as the lakes in the plains obtain their sources from the +neighbouring hills which overtop them. + +It is apparent, therefore, that lakes have existence in the bowels of +the earth, especially under large plains and extensive vallies. +Mountains, hills, and all eminences have either a perpendicular or +inclined situation, and are exposed on all sides; the waters which fall +on their summits, after having penetrated into the earth, cannot fail, +from the declivity of the ground, of finding issue in many places, and +breaking in forms out of springs and fountains, and consequently there +will be little, if any water, remain in the mountains. On the contrary, +in plains, as the water which filters through the earth can find no +vent, it must collect in subterraneous caverns, or be dispersed and +divided among sand and gravel. It is these waters which are so +universally diffused through low grounds. The bottom of a pit or well is +nothing else but a kind of bason into which the waters that issue from +the adjoining lands insinuate themselves, at first falling drop by drop, +but afterwards, as the passages are opened, it receives supplies from +greater distances, and then continually runs in little streams or rills; +from which circumstance, although we can find water in any part of a +plain, yet we can obtain a supply but for a certain number of wells, +proportionate to the quantity of water dispersed, or rather to the +extent of the higher lands from whence they come. + +It is unnecessary to dig below the level of the river to find water; it +is generally met with at much less depths, and there is no appearance +that waters of rivers filter far through the earth. The origin of waters +found in the earth below the level of rivers is not to be attributed to +them; for in rivers or torrents which are dried up, or whose courses +have been turned, we find no greater quantity of water by digging in +their beds than in the neighbouring lands at an equal depth. + +A piece of land of five or six feet in thickness is sufficient to +contain water, and prevent it from escaping; and I have often observed +that the banks of brooks and pools are not sensibly wet at six inches +distance from the water. + +It is true that the extent of the filtration is in proportion as the +soil is more or less penetrable; but if we examine the standing pools +with sandy bottoms, we shall perceive the water confined in the small +compass it had hollowed itself, and the moisture spread but a very few +inches; even in vegetable earth it has no great extent, which must be +more porous than sand or hard soil. It is a certain fact, that in a +garden we may almost inundate one bed without those nearly adjoining +feeling any moisture from it[65:A]. I have examined pieces of garden +ground, eight or ten feet thick, which had not been stirred for many +years, and whose surface was nearly level, and found that the rain water +never penetrated deeper than three or four feet; and on turning it up in +the spring, after a wet winter, I found it as dry as when first heaped +together. + +I made the same observation on earth which had laid in ridges two +hundred years; below three or four feet it was as dry as dust; from +which it is plain that water does not extend so far by filtration as has +been generally imagined. + +By this means, therefore, the internal part of the earth can be supplied +with a very small part; but water by its own weight descends from the +surface to the greatest depths; it sinks through natural conduits, or +penetrates small passages for itself; it follows the roots of trees, the +cracks in rocks, the interstices in the earth, and divides and extends +on all sides into an infinity of small branches and rills, always +descending until its passage is opposed by clay or some solid body, +where it continues collecting, and at length breaks out in form of +springs upon the surface. + +It would be very difficult to make an exact calculation of the quantity +of subterraneous waters which have no apparent vent. Many have pretended +that it greatly surpasses all the waters that are on the surface of the +earth. + +Without mentioning those who have advanced that the interior part of the +globe is entirely filled with water, there are some who believe there +are an infinity of floods, rivulets, and lakes in the bowels of the +earth. But this opinion does not seem to be properly founded, and it is +more probable that the quantity of subterraneous water, which never +appears on the surface, is not very considerable; for if these +subterraneous rivers are so very numerous, why do we never see any of +their mouths forcing their way through the surface? Besides, rivers, and +all running waters, produce great alterations on the surface of the +earth; they transport the soil, wear away the most solid rocks, and +displace all matters which oppose their passage. It would certainly be +the same in subterraneous rivers; the same effects would be produced; +but no such alterations have ever as yet been observed; the different +strata remains parallel, and every where preserves its original +position; and it is but in a very few places that any considerable +subterraneous veins of water have been discovered. Thus water in the +internal part of the earth, though great, acts but in a small degree, as +it is divided in an infinity of little streams, and retained by a number +of obstacles; and being so generally dispersed, it gives rise to many +substances totally different from primitive matters, both in form and +organization. + +From all these observations we may fairly conclude, that it is the +continual motion of the flux and reflux of the sea which has produced +mountains, vallies, and other inequalities on the surface of the earth; +that it is the currents of the ocean which have hollowed vallies, raised +hills, and given them corresponding directions; that it is those waters +of the sea which, by transporting earth, &c. and depositing them in +horizontal layers, have formed the parallel strata; that it is the +waters from heaven, which by degrees destroy the effects of the sea, by +continually lowering the summit of mountains, filling up vallies, and +stopping the mouths of gulphs and rivers, and which, by bringing all to +a level, will, in the course of time, return this earth to the sea, +which, by its natural operations, will again form new continents, +containing vallies and mountains exactly similar to those which we at +present inhabit. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[25:A] Particularly Scotland and Ireland. + +[65:A] These facts are so easily demonstrated, that the smallest +observation will prove their veracity. + + + + +PROOF + +OF + +_THE THEORY OF THE EARTH_. + + + + +ARTICLE I. + +ON THE FORMATION OF THE PLANETS. + + +Our subject being Natural History, we would willingly dispense with +astronomical observations; but as the nature of the earth is so closely +connected with the heavenly bodies, and such observations being +calculated to illustrate more fully what has been said, it is necessary +to give some general ideas of the formation, motion, figure of the earth +and other planets. + +The earth is a globe of about three thousand leagues diameter; it is +situate one thousand millions of leagues from the sun, around which it +makes its revolution in three hundred and sixty-five days. This +revolution is the result of two forces; the one may be considered as an +impulse from right to left, or from left to right, and the other an +attraction from above downwards, or beneath upwards, to a common centre. +The direction of these two forces, and their quantities, are so nicely +combined and proportioned, that they produce an almost uniform motion in +an ellipse, very near to a circle. Like the other planets the earth is +opaque, it throws out a shadow; it receives and reflects the light of +the sun, round which it revolves in a space of time proportioned to its +relative distance and density. It also turns round its own axis once in +twenty-four hours, and its axis is inclined 66-1/4 degrees on the plane +of the orbit. Its figure is spheroidical, the two axes of which differ +about 160th part from each other, and the smallest axis is that round +which the revolution is made. + +These are the principal phenomena of the earth, the result of +discoveries made by means of geometry, astronomy, and navigation. We +shall not here enter into the detail of the proofs and observations by +which those facts have been ascertained, but only make a few remarks to +clear up what is still doubtful, and at the same time give our ideas +respecting the formation of the planets, and the different changes thro' +which it is possible they have passed before they arrived at the state +we at present see them. + +There have been so many systems and hypotheses framed upon the formation +of the terrestrial globe, and the changes which it has undergone, that +we may presume to add our conjectures to those who have written upon the +subject, especially as we mean to support them with a greater degree of +probability than has hitherto been done: and we are the more inclined to +deliver our opinion upon this subject, from the hope that we shall +enable the reader to pronounce on the difference between an hypothesis +drawn from possibilities, and a theory founded in facts; between a +system, such as we are here about to present, on the formation and +original state of the earth, and a physical history of its real +condition, which has been given in the preceding discourse. + +Galileo having found the laws of falling bodies, and Kepler having +observed that the area described by the principal planets in moving +round the sun, and those of the satellites round the planets to which +they belong, are proportionable to the time of their revolutions, and +that such periods were also in proportion to the square roots of the +cubes of their distances from the sun, or principal planets. Newton +found that the force which caused heavy bodies to fall on the surface of +the earth, extended to the moon, and retained it in its orbit; that this +force diminished in the same proportion as the square of the distance +increased, and consequently that the moon is attracted by the earth; +that the earth and planets are attracted by the sun; and that in general +all bodies which revolve round a centre, and describe areas proportioned +to the times of their revolution, are attracted towards that point. This +power, known by the name of GRAVITY, is therefore diffused throughout +all matter; planets, comets, the sun, the earth, and all nature, is +subject to its laws, and it serves as a basis to the general harmony +which reigns in the universe. Nothing is better proved in physics than +the actual existence of this power in every material substance. +Observation has confirmed the effects of this power, and geometrical +calculations have determined the quantity and relations of it. + +This general cause being known, the effects would easily be deduced from +it, if the action of the powers which produce it were not too +complicated. A single moment's reflection upon the solar system will +fully demonstrate the difficulties that have attended this subject; the +principal planets are attracted by the sun, and the sun by the planets; +the satellites are also attracted by their principal planets, and each +planet attracts all the rest, and is attracted by them. All these +actions and reactions vary according to the quantities of matter and the +distances, and produce great inequalities and irregularities. How is so +great a number of connections to be combined and estimated? It appears +almost impossible in such a crowd of objects to follow any particular +one; nevertheless those difficulties have been surmounted, and +calculation has confirmed the suppositions of them, each observation is +become a new demonstration, and the systematic order of the universe is +laid open to the eyes of all those who can distinguish truth from error. + +We feel some little stop, by the force of impulsion remaining unknown; +but this, however, does not by any means affect the general theory. We +evidently see the force of attraction always draws the planets towards +the sun, they would fall in a perpendicular line, on that planet, if +they were not repelled by some other power that obliges them to move in +a straight line, and which impulsive force would compel them to fly off +the tangents of their respective orbits, if the force of attraction +ceased one moment. The force of impulsion was certainly communicated to +the planets by the hand of the Almighty, when he gave motion to the +universe; but we ought as much as possible to abstain in physics from +having recourse to supernatural causes; and it appears that a probable +reason may be given for this impulsive force, perfectly accordant with +the law of mechanics, and not by any means more astonishing than the +changes and revolutions which may and must happen in the universe. + +The sphere of the sun's attraction does not confine itself to the orbs +of the planets, but extends to a remote distance, always decreasing in +the same ratio as the square of the distance increases; it is +demonstrated that the comets which are lost to our sight, in the regions +of the sky, obey this power, and by it their motions, like that of the +planets, are regulated. All these stars, whose tracts are so different, +move round the sun, and describe areas proportioned to the time; the +planets in ellipses more or less approaching a circle, and the comets in +narrow ellipses of a great extent. Comets and planets move, therefore, +by virtue of the force of attraction and impulsion, which continually +acting at one time obliges them to describe these courses; but it must +be remarked that comets pass over the solar system in all directions, +and that the inclinations of their orbits are very different, insomuch +that, although subject like the planets to the force of attraction, they +have nothing in common with respect to their progressive or impulsive +motions, but appear in this respect independent of each other: the +planets, on the contrary, move round the sun in the same direction, and +almost in the same plane, never exceeding 7-1/2 degrees of inclination +in their planes, the most distant from their orbits. This conformity of +position and direction in the motion of the planets, necessarily implies +that their impulsive force has been communicated to them by one and the +same cause. + +May it not be imagined, with some degree of probability, that a comet +falling into the body of the sun, will displace and separate some parts +from the surface, and communicate to them a motion of impulsion, +insomuch that the planets may formerly have belonged to the body of the +sun, and been detached therefrom by an impulsive force, and which they +still preserve. + +This supposition appears to be at least as well founded as the opinion +of Leibnitz, who supposes that the earth and planets had formerly been +suns; and his system, of which an account will be given in the fifth +article, would have been more comprehensive and more agreeable to +probability, if he had raised himself to this idea. We agree with him in +thinking that this effect was produced at the time when Moses said that +God divided light from darkness; for, according to Leibnitz, light was +divided from darkness when the planets were extinguished; but in our +supposition there was a real physical separation, since the opaque +bodies of the planets were divided from the luminous matter which +composes the sun. + +This idea of the cause of the impulsive force of the planets will be +found much less objectionable, when an estimation is made of the +analogies and degrees of probability, by which it may be supported. In +the first place, the motion of the planets are in the same direction, +from West to East, and therefore, according to calculation, it is +sixty-four to one that such would not have been the case, if they had +not been indebted to the same cause for their impulsive forces. + +This, probably, will be considerably augmented by the second analogy, +viz. that the inclination of the planes of the orbits do not exceed +7-1/2 degrees; for, by comparing the spaces, we shall find there is +twenty-four to one, that two planets are found in their most distant +places at the same time, and consequently âµ, or 7,692,624 to one, +that all six would by chance be thus placed; or, what amounts to the +same, there is a great degree of probability that the planets have been +impressed with one common moving force, and which has given them this +position. But what can have bestowed this common impulsive motion, but +the force and direction of the bodies by which it was originally +communicated? It may therefore be concluded, with great probability, +that the planets received their impulsive motion by one single stroke. +This likelihood, which is almost equivalent to a certainty, being +established, I seek to know what moving bodies could produce this +effect, and I find nothing but comets capable of communicating a motion +to such vast bodies. + +By examining the course of comets, we shall be easily persuaded, that it +is almost necessary for some of them occasionally to fall into the sun. +That of 1680 approached so near, that at its perihelium it was not more +distant from the sun than a sixteenth part of its diameter, and if it +returns, as there is every appearance it will, in 2255, it may then +possibly fall into the sun; that must depend on the rencounters it will +meet with in its road, and of the retardment it suffers in passing +through the atmosphere of the sun[78:A]. + +We may, therefore, presume with the great Newton, that comets sometimes +fall into the sun; but this fall may be made in different directions. If +they fall perpendicular, or in a direction not very oblique, they will +remain in the sun, and serve for food to the fire which that luminary +consumes, and the motion of impulsion which they will have communicated +to the sun, will produce no other effect than that of removing it more +or less, according as the mass of the comet will be more or less +considerable; but if the fall of the comet is in a very oblique +direction, which will most frequently happen, then the comet will only +graze the surface of the sun, or slightly furrow it; and in this case it +may drive out some parts of matter to which it will communicate a common +motion of impulsion, and these parts so forced out of the body of the +sun, and even the comet itself, may then become planets, and turn round +this luminary in the same direction, and in almost the same plane. We +might perhaps calculate what quantity of matter, velocity, and direction +a comet should have, to impel from the sun an equal quantity of matter +to that which the six planets and their satellites contain; but it will +be sufficient to observe here, that all the planets, with their +satellites, do not make the 650th part of the mass of the sun,[79:A] +because the density of the large planets, Saturn and Jupiter, is less +than that of the sun; and although the earth be four times, and the moon +near five times more dense than the sun, they are nevertheless but as +atoms in comparison with his extensive body. + +However inconsiderable the 650th part may be, yet it certainly at first +appears to require a very powerful comet to separate even that much +from the body of the sun; but if we reflect on the prodigious velocity +of comets in their perihelion, a velocity so much the greater as they +approach nearer the sun; if, besides, we pay attention to the density +and solidity of the matter of which they must be composed, to suffer, +without being destroyed, the inconceivable heat they endure; and +consider the bright and solid light which shines through their dark and +immense atmospheres, which surround, and must obscure them, it cannot be +doubted that the comets are composed of extremely solid and dense +matters, and that they contain a greater quantity of matter in a small +compass; that consequently a comet of no extraordinary bulk may have +sufficient weight and velocity to displace the sun, and give a +projectile motion to a quantity of matter, equal to the 650th part of +the mass of this luminary. This perfectly agrees with what is known +concerning the density of planets, which always decreases as their +distance from the sun is increased, they having less heat to support; so +that Saturn is less dense than Jupiter, and Jupiter much less than the +earth; therefore if the density of the planets be, as Newton asserts, +proportionable to the quantity of heat which they have to support, +Mercury will be seven times more dense than the earth, and twenty-eight +times denser than the sun; and the comet of 1680 would be 28,000 times +denser than the earth, or 112,000 times denser than the sun, and by +supposing it as large as the earth, it would contain nearly an equal +quantity of matter to the ninth part of the sun, or by giving it only +the 100th part of the size of the earth, its mass would still be equal +to the 900th part of the sun. From whence it is easy to conclude, that +such a body, though it would be but a small comet, might separate and +drive off from the sun a 900th or a 650th part, particularly if we +attend to the immense velocity with which comets move when they pass in +the vicinity of the sun. + +Besides this, the conformity between the density of the matter of the +planets, that of the sun deserves some attention. It is well known, +that, both on and near the surface of the earth, there are some matters +14 or 1500 times denser than others. The densities of gold and air are +nearly in this relation. But the internal parts of the earth and planets +are composed of a more uniform matter, whose comparative density varies +much less; and the conformity in the density of the planets and that of +the sun is such, that of 650 parts which compose the whole of the matter +of the planets, there are more than 640 of the same density as the +matter of the sun, and only ten parts out of these 650 which are of a +greater density, for Saturn and Jupiter are nearly of the same density +as the sun, and the quantity of matter which these planets contain, is +at least 64 times greater than that of the four inferior planets, Mars, +the Earth, Venus, and Mercury. We must therefore admit, that the matter +of which the planets are generally composed is nearly the same as that +of the sun, and that consequently the one may have been separated from +the other. + +But it may be said, if the comet, by falling obliquely on the sun, drove +off the matter which compose the planets, they, instead of describing +circles of which the sun is the centre, would, on the contrary, at each +revolution, have returned to the same point from whence they departed, +as every projectile would which might be thrown off with sufficient +force from the surface of the earth, to oblige it to turn perpetually: +for it is easy to demonstrate that such, in that instance, would be the +case, and therefore that the projection of the planets from the sun +cannot be attributed to the impulsion of a comet. + +To this I reply, that the matter which composes the planets did not come +from the sun, in ready formed globes, but in the form of torrents, the +motion of the anterior parts of which were accelerated by that of the +posterior; and that the attraction of the anterior parts also +accelerated the motion of the posterior, and that this acceleration +produced by one or other of these causes, or perhaps by both, might be +so great as to change the original direction of the motion occasioned by +the impulse of the comet, from which cause a motion has resulted, such +as we at present observe in the planets; especially when it is +considered the sun is displaced from its station by the shock of the +comet. An example will render this more reasonable; let us suppose, that +from the top of a mountain a musket ball is discharged, and that the +strength of the powder was sufficient to send it beyond the +semi-diameter of the earth, it is certain that this ball would pass +round the earth, and at each revolution return to the spot from whence +it had been discharged: but, if instead of a musket-ball, we suppose a +rocket had been discharged, wherein the action of the fire being +durable, would greatly accelerate the motion of impulsion; this rocket, +or rather the cartouch which contained it, would not return to the same +place like the musket-ball, but would describe an orbit, whose perigee +would be much farther distant from the earth, as the force of +acceleration would be greater, and have changed the first direction. + +Thus, provided there had been any acceleration in the motion of +impulsion communicated to the torrent of matter by the fall of the +comet, it is probable that the planets formed in this torrent, acquired +the motion which we know they have in the circles and ellipsis of which +the sun is the centre and focus. + +The manner in which the great eruptions of volcanos are made, may afford +us an idea of this acceleration of motion. It has been remarked that +when Vesuvius begins to roar and eject the inflamed matter it contains, +the first cloud has but a small degree of velocity, but which is soon +accelerated by the impulse of the second; the second by the action of a +third, and so on, until the heavy mass of bitumen, sulphur, cinders, +melted metal, and huge stones, appear like massive clouds, and although +they succeed each other nearly in the same directions, yet they greatly +change that of the first, and drive it far beyond what it would have +reached of itself. + +In answer to this objection, it may be further observed, that the sun +having been struck by the comet, received a degree of motion by the +impulse, which displaced it from its former situation; and that although +this motion of the sun is at present too little sensible for the notice +of astronomers, nevertheless it may still exist, and the sun describe a +curve round the centre of gravity of the whole system and if this is so, +as I presume it is, we see perfectly that the planets, instead of +returning near the sun at each revolution, will, on the contrary, have +described orbits, the points of the perihelion of which will be as far +distant from the sun, as it is itself from the place it originally +occupied. + +It may also be said, that if this acceleration of motion is made in the +same direction, no change in the perihelion will be produced: but can it +be thought that in a torrent, the particles of which succeed each other, +there has been no change of direction; it is, on the contrary, very +probable that a considerable change did take place, sufficient to cause +the planets to move in the course they at present occupy. + +It may be further urged, that if the sun had been displaced by the shock +of a comet, it would move uniformly, and that hence this motion being +common to the whole system, no alteration was necessary; but might not +the sun before the shock have had a motion round the centre of the +cometry system, to which primitive motion the stroke of the comet may +have added or diminished? and would not that fully account for the +actual motion of the planets? + +If these suppositions are not admitted, may it not be presumed, that in +the stroke of the comet against the sun, there was an elastic force +which raised the torrent above the surface of the sun, instead of +directly impelling it? which alone would be sufficient to remove the +perihelion, and give the planets the motion they have retained. This +supposition is not without probability, for the matter of the sun may +possibly be very elastic, since light, the only part of it we are +acquainted with, seems, by its effects, to be perfectly so. I own that +I cannot say whether it is by the one or the other of these reasons, +that the direction of the first motion of the impulse of the planets has +changed, but they suffice to shew that such an alteration is not only +possible but even probable, and that is sufficient for my purpose. + +But, without dwelling any longer on the objections which might be made, +I shall pursue the subject, and draw the fair conclusions on the proofs +which analogies might furnish in favour of my hypothesis: let us, +therefore, first see what might happen when these planets, and +particularly the earth, received their impulsive motion, and in what +state they were after having been separated from the sun. The comet +having, by a single stroke, communicated a projectile motion to a +quantity of matter equal to the 650th part of the sun's mass, the light +particles would of course separate from the dense, and form, by their +mutual attraction, globes of different densities: Saturn being composed +of the most gross and light parts, would be the most remote from the +sun: Jupiter being more dense than Saturn, would be less distant, and so +on. The larger and least solid planets are the most remote, because +they received an impulsive motion stronger than the smallest, and more +dense: for, the force of impulsion communicating itself according to the +surface, the same stroke would have moved the grosser and lighter parts +of the matter of the sun with more velocity than the smallest and more +weighty; a separation therefore will be made of the dense parts of +different degrees, so that the density of the sun being equal to 100, +that of Saturn will be equal to 67, that of Jupiter to 94-1/2, that of +Mars to 200, that of the Earth to 400, that of Venus to 800, and that of +Mercury to 2800. But the force of attraction not communicating like that +of impulsion, according to the surface, but acting on the contrary on +all parts of the mass, it will have checked the densest portions of +matter; and it is for this reason that the densest planets are the +nighest the sun, and turn round that planet with greater rapidity than +the less dense planets, which are also the most remote. + +Jupiter and Saturn, which are the largest and principal planets of the +solar system, have retained the relation between their density and +impulsive motions, in the most exact proportions; the density of Saturn +is to that of Jupiter as 67 to 94-1/2 and their velocities are nearly +as 88-2/3 to 120-1/72, or as 67 to 90-11/16; it is seldom that pure +conjectures can draw such exact relations. It is true, that by following +this relation between the velocity and density of planets, the density +of the earth ought to be only as 206-7/18, and not 400, which is its +real density; from hence it may be conceived, that our globe was +formerly less dense than it is at present. With respect to the other +planets, Mars, Venus, and Mercury, as their densities are known only by +conjecture, we cannot be certain whether this circumstance will destroy +or confirm our hypothesis. The opinion of Newton is, that density is so +much the greater, as the heat to which the planet is exposed is the +stronger; and it is on this idea that we have just said that Mars is one +time less dense than the Earth, Venus one time, Mercury seven times, and +the comet in 1680, 28,000 times denser than the earth: but this +proportion between the density of the planets and the heat which they +sustain, seems not well founded, when we consider Saturn and Jupiter, +which are the principal objects; for, according to this relation between +the density and heat, the density of Saturn would be about 4-7/18, and +that of Jupiter as 14-17/22, instead of 67 and 94-1/2, a difference too +great to be admitted, and must destroy the principles upon which it was +founded. Thus, notwithstanding the confidence which the conjectures of +Newton merit, I can but think that the density of the planets has more +relation with their velocity than with the degree of heat to which they +are exposed. This is only a final cause, and the other a physical +relation, the preciseness of which is remarkable in Jupiter and Saturn: +it is nevertheless true, that the density of the earth, instead of being +206-7/8, is found to be 400, and that consequently the terrestrial globe +must be condensed in this ratio of 206-7/8 to 400. + +But have not the condensations of the planets some relation with the +quantity of the heat of the sun which they sustain? If so, Saturn, which +is the most distant from that luminary, will have suffered little or no +condensation; and Jupiter will be condensed from 90-11/16 to 94-1/2. Now +the heat of the sun in Jupiter being to that of the sun upon the earth +as 14-17/22 are to 400, the condensations ought to be in the same +proportion. For instance, if Jupiter be condensed, as 90-11/16 to +94-1/2, and the earth had been placed in his orbit, it would have been +condensed from 206-7/8 to 215-990/1451, but the earth being nearer the +sun, and receiving a heat, whose relation to that which Jupiter receives +is from 400 to 14-17/22, the quantity of condensation it would have +experienced on the orbit of Jupiter by the proportion of 400 to +14-17/22, which gives nearly 234-1/3 for the quantity which the earth +would be condensed. Its density was 206-7/8, by adding the quantity of +its acquired condensation, we find 400-7/8 for its actual density, which +nearly approaches the real density 400, determined to be so by the +parallax of the moon. As to other planets, I do not here pretend to give +exact proportions, but only approximations, to point out that their +densities have a strong relation to their velocity in their respective +orbits. + +The comet, therefore, by its oblique fall upon the surface of the sun, +having driven therefrom a quantity of matter equal to the 650th part of +its whole mass; this matter, which must be considered in a liquid state, +will at first have formed a torrent, the grosser and less dense parts of +which will have been driven the farthest, and the smaller and more +dense, having received only the like impulsion, will remain nearest its +source; the force of the sun's attraction would inevitably act upon all +the parts detached from him, and constrain them to circulate around his +body, and at the same time the mutual attraction of the particles of +matter would form themselves into globes at different distances from the +sun, the nearest of which necessarily moving with greater rapidity in +their orbits than those at a distance. + +But another objection may be started, and it may be said, if the matter +which composes the planets had been separated from the sun, they, like +him, would have been burning and luminous bodies, not cold and opaque, +for nothing resembles a globe of fire less than a globe of earth and +water; and by comparison, the matter of the earth and planets is +perfectly different from that of the sun? + +To this it may be answered, that in the separation the matter changed +its form, and the light or fire was extinguished by the stroke which +caused this motion of impulsion. Besides, may it not be supposed that if +the sun, or a burning star, moved with such velocity as the planet, that +the fire would soon be extinguished; and that is the reason why all +luminous stars are fixed, and that those stars which are called new, and +which have probably changed places, are frequently extinguished and +lost? This remark is somewhat confirmed by what has been observed in +comets; they must burn to the centre when they pass to their perihelium: +nevertheless they do not become luminous themselves, they only exhale +burning vapours, of which they leave a considerable part behind them in +their course. + +I own, that in a medium where there is very little or no resistance, +fire may subsist and suffer a very great motion without being +extinguished: I also own, that what I have just said extends only to the +stars which totally disappear, and not to those which have periodical +returns, and appear and disappear alternately without changing place in +the heavens. The phenomena of these stars has been explained in a very +satisfactory manner by M. de Maupertuis, in his discourse on the figures +of the planets. But the stars which appear and afterwards disappear +entirely, must certainly have been extinguished, either by the velocity +of their motion, or some other cause. We have not a single example of +one luminous star revolving round another; and among the number of +planets which compose our system, and which move round the sun with +more or less rapidity, there is not one luminous of itself. + +It may also be added, that fire cannot subsist so long in the small as +in large masses, and that the planets must have burnt for some time +after they were separated from the sun, but were at length extinguished +for want of combustible matter, as probably would be the sun itself, and +for the same reason; but in a length of time as far beyond that which +extinguished the planets, as it exceeds in quantity of matter. Be this +as it may, the matter of which the planets are formed being separated +from the sun, by the stroke of a comet, that appears a sufficient reason +for the extinction of their fires. + +The earth and planets at the time of their quitting the sun, were in a +state of total liquid fire; in this state they remained only as long as +the violence of the heat which had produced it; and which heat +necessarily underwent a gradual decay: it was in this state of fluidity +that they took their circular forms, and that their regular motions +raised the parts of their equators, and lowered their poles. This +figure, which agrees so perfectly with the laws of hydrostatics, I am of +opinion with Leibnitz, necessarily supposes that the earth and planets +have been in a state of fluidity, caused by fire, and that the internal +part of the earth must be a vitrifiable matter, of which sand, granite, +&c. are the fragments and scoria. + +It may, therefore, with some probability, be thought that the planets +appertained to the sun, that they were separated by a single stroke, +which gave to them a motion of impulsion, and that their position at +different distances from the sun proceeds only from their different +densities. It now only remains, to complete this theory, to explain the +diurnal motion of the planets, and the formation or the satellites; but +this, far from adding difficulties to my hypothesis, seems, on the +contrary, to confirm it. + +For the diurnal motion, or rotation, depends solely on the obliquity of +the stroke, an oblique impulse therefore on the surface of a body will +necessarily give it a rotative motion; this motion will be equal and +always the same, if the body which receives it is homogeneous, and it +will be unequal if the body is composed of heterogeneous parts, or of +different densities; hence we may conclude that in all the planets the +matter is homogeneous, since their diurnal motions are equal, and +regularly performed in the same period of time. Another proof that the +separation of the dense or less dense parts were originally from the +sun. + +But the obliquity of the stroke might be such, as to separate from the +body of the principal planet a small part of matter, which would of +course continue to move in the same direction; these parts would be +united, according to their densities, at different distances from the +planet, by the force of their mutual attraction, and at the same time +follow its course round the sun, by revolving about the body of the +planet, nearly in the plane of its orbit. It is plain, that those small +parts so separated are the satellites: thus the formation, position, and +direction of the motions of the satellites perfectly agree with our +theory; for they have all the same motion in concentrical circles round +their principal planet; their motion is in the same direction, and that +nearly in the plane of their orbits. All these effects, which are common +to them, and which depend on an impulsive force, can proceed only from +one common cause, which is, impulsive motion, communicated to them by +one and the same oblique stroke. + +What we have just said on the cause of the motion and formation of the +satellites, will acquire more probability, if we consider all the +circumstances of the phenomena. The planets which turn the swiftest on +their axis, are those which have satellites. The earth turns quicker +than Mars in the relation of about 24 to 15; the earth has a satellite, +but Mars has none. Jupiter, whose rapidity round its axis is five to six +hundred times greater than that of the earth, has four satellites, and +there is a great appearance that Saturn, which has five, and a ring, +turns still more quickly than Jupiter. + +It may even be conjectured with some foundation, that the ring of Saturn +is parallel to the equator of the planet, so that the plane of the +equator of the ring, and that of Saturn, are nearly the same; for by +supposing, according to the preceding theory, that the obliquity of the +stroke by which Saturn has been set in motion was very great, the +velocity around the axis will, at first, have been in proportion as the +centrifugal force exceeds that of gravity, and there will be detached +from its equator and neighbouring parts, a considerable quantity of +matter, which will necessarily have taken the figure of a ring, whose +plane must be nearly the same as that of the equator of the planet; and +this quantity of matter having been detached from the vicinity of the +equator of Saturn, must have lowered the equator of that planet, which +causes that, notwithstanding its rapidity, the diameters of Saturn +cannot be so unequal as those of Jupiter, which differ from each other +more than an eleventh part. + +However great the probability of what I have advanced on the formation +of the planets and their satellites may appear to me, yet, every man has +his particular measurement, to estimate probabilities of this nature; +and as this measurement depends on the strength of the understanding to +combine more or less distant relations, I do not pretend to convince the +incredulous. I have not only thought it my duty to offer these ideas, +because they appear to me reasonable, and calculated to clear up a +subject, on which, however important, nothing has hitherto been written, +but because the impulsive motion in the planets enter at least as one +half of the composition of the universe, which gravity alone cannot +unfold. I shall only add the following questions to those who are +inclined to deny the possibility of my system. + +1. Is it not natural to imagine, that a body in motion has received that +motion by the stroke of another body? + +2. Is it not very probable, that when many bodies move in the same +direction, that they have received this direction by one single stroke, +or by many strokes directed in the same manner? + +3. Is it not more probable that when many bodies have the same direction +in their motion, and are placed in the same plane, that they received +this direction and this position by one and the same stroke, rather than +by a number? + +4. At the time a body is put in motion by the force of impulsion, is it +not probable that it receives it obliquely, and, consequently, is +obliged to turn on its axis so much the quicker, as the obliquity of the +stroke will have been greater? If these questions should not appear +unreasonable, the theory, of which we have presented the outlines, will +cease to appear an absurdity. + +Let us now pass on to something which more nearly concerns us, and +examine the figure of the earth, on which so many researches and such +great observations have been made. The earth being, as it appears by the +equality of its diurnal motion and the constancy of the inclination of +its axis, composed of homogeneous parts, which attract each other in +proportion to their quantity of matter, it would necessarily have taken +the figure of a globe perfectly spherical, if the motion of impulsation +had been given it in a perpendicular direction to the surface; but this +stroke having been obliquely given, the earth turned on its axis at the +moment it took its form; and from the combination of this impulsive +force, the attraction of the parts, there has resulted a spheroid +figure, more elevated under the great circle of rotation, and lower at +the two extremities of the axis, and this because the action of the +centrifugal force proceeding from the diurnal rotation must diminish the +action of gravity. Thus, the earth being homogeneous, and having +received a rotative motion, necessarily took a spheroidical figure, the +two axes of which differ a 230th part from each other. This may be +clearly demonstrated, and does not depend on any hypothesis whatever. +The laws of gravity are perfectly known, and we cannot doubt that +bodies attract each other in a direct ratio of their masses, and in an +inverted ratio, at the squares of their distances; so likewise we cannot +doubt, that the general action of any body is not composed of all the +particular actions of its parts. Thus each part of matter mutually +attracts in a direct ratio of its mass and an inverted ratio of its +distance, and from all these attractions there results a sphere when +there is no rotatory motion, and a spheroid when there is one. This +spheroid is longer or shorter at the two extremities of the axis of +rotation, in proportion to the velocity of its diurnal motion, and the +earth has then, by virtue of its rotative velocity, and of the mutual +attraction of all its parts, the figure of a spheroid, the two axes of +which are as 229 to 230 to one another. + +Thus, by its original constituent, by its homogeneousness, and +independent of every hypothesis from the direction of gravity, the earth +has taken this figure of a spheroid at its formation, and agreeable to +mechanical laws: its equatorial diameter was raised about 6-1/2 leagues +higher than under the poles. + +I shall dwell on this article, because there are still geometricians who +think that the figure of the earth depends upon theory, and this from a +system of philosophy they have embraced, and from a supposed direction +of gravity. The first thing we have to demonstrate is, the mutual +attraction of every part of matter, and the second the homogeneousness +of the terrestrial globe; if we clearly prove, that these two +circumstances are really so, there will no longer be any hypothesis to +be made on the direction of gravity: the earth will necessarily have the +figure Newton decided in favour of, and every other figure given to it +by virtue of vortexes or other hypotheses, will not be able to subsist. + +It cannot be doubted, that it is the force of gravity which retains the +planets in their orbits; the satellites of Saturn gravitate towards +Saturn, those of Jupiter towards Jupiter, the Moon gravitates towards +the Earth: and Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, the Earth, Venus, and Mercury, +gravitate towards the Sun: so likewise Saturn and Jupiter gravitate +towards their satellites, the Earth gravitates towards the Moon, and the +Sun towards the whole of the planets. Gravitation is therefore general +and mutual in all the planetary system, for action cannot be exercised +without a re-action; all the planets, therefore, act mutually one on the +other. This mutual attraction serves as a foundation to the laws of +their motion, and is demonstrated to exist by its effects. When Saturn +and Jupiter are in conjunction, they act one on the other, and this +attraction produces an irregularity in their motion round the Sun. It is +the same with the Earth and the Moon, they also mutually attract each +other; but the irregularities of the motion of the Moon, proceeds from +the attraction of the Sun, so that the Earth, the Sun, and the Moon, +mutually act one on the other. Now this mutual attraction of the +planets, when the distances are equal, is proportional to their quantity +of matter, and the same force of gravity which causes heavy matter to +fall on the surface of the Earth, and which extends to the Moon, is also +proportional to the quantity of matter; therefore the total gravity of a +planet is composed of the gravity of each of its parts; from whence all +the parts of the matter, either in the Earth or in the planets, mutually +attract each other and the Earth, by its rotation round its own axis, +has necessarily taken the figure of a spheroid, the axes of which are as +229 to 230. The direction of the weight must be perpendicular to the +Earth's surface; consequently no hypothesis, drawn from the direction of +gravity, can be sustained, unless the general attraction of the parts of +matter be denied; but the existence of this mutual attraction is +demonstrated by observations, and the experiment of pendulums prove, +that its extension is general; therefore we cannot support an hypothesis +on the direction of gravity without going against experience and reason. + +Let us now proceed to examine whether the matter of which the +terrestrial globe is composed be homogeneous. I admit, that if it is +supposed the globe is more dense in some parts than in others, the +direction of gravity must be different from what we have just assigned, +and that the figure of the Earth would also differ agreeable to those +suppositions. But what reason have we to make these suppositions? Why, +for example, should we suppose that the parts near the centre are denser +than those which are more remote? Are not all the particles which +compose the globe collected together by their mutual attraction? hence, +each particle is a centre, and there is no reason to believe, that the +parts which surround the centre are denser than those which are about +any other point. Besides, if one considerable part of the globe was +denser than another, the axis of rotation would be found near the dense +parts, and an inequality would ensue in the diurnal revolution; we +should remark an inequality in the apparent motion of the fixed stars; +they would appear to move more quick or slow in the zenith, or horizon, +according as we should be placed on the denser or lighter parts of the +earth; and the axis of the globe no longer passing through the centre of +gravity, would also very sensibly change its position: but nothing like +this ever happens; on the contrary, the diurnal motion of the earth is +equal and uniform. At all parts of the Earth's surface, the stars appear +to move with the same velocity at all heights, and if there be any +rotation in its axis, it is so trifling as to have escaped observation: +it must therefore be concluded, that the globe is homogeneous, or nearly +so in all its parts. + +If the earth was a hollow and void globe, and the crust of which, for +example, not more than two or three miles thick; it would produce these +effects. 1. The mountains would be such considerable parts of the whole +thickness of the crust, that great irregularities in the motions of the +Earth would be occasioned by the attraction of the Moon and Sun: for +when the highest parts of the globe, as the Cordeliers, should have the +Moon at noon, the attraction would be much stronger on the whole globe +than when she was in the meridian of the lowest parts. 2. The attraction +of mountains would be much more considerable than it is in comparison +with the attraction of the whole globe, and experiments made at the +mountain of Chimboraco, in Peru, would in this case give more degrees +than they have given seconds for the deviation of the plumb line. 3. The +weight of bodies would be greater on the tops of high mountains than on +the planes; so that we should feel ourselves considerably heavier, and +should walk with more difficulty in high than in low places. These +observations, with many others that might be added, must convince us, +that the inner parts of the globe is not void, but filled with a dense +matter. + +On the other hand, if below the depth of two or three miles, the earth +was filled with a matter much more dense than any known, it would +necessarily occur, that every time we descended to moderate depths, we +should weigh much more, and the motion of pendulums would be more +accelerated than in fact they are when carried from an eminence into a +plain: thus, we may presume that the internal part of the Earth is +filled with a matter nearly similar to that which composes its surface. +What may complete our determination in favour of this opinion is, that +in the first formation of the globe, when it took its present +spheroidical figure, the matter which composed it was in fusion, and, +consequently, all its parts were homogeneous, and nearly equally dense. +From that time the matter on the surface, although originally the same +with the interior, has undergone a variety of changes by external +causes, which has produced materials of such different densities; but it +must be remarked, that the densest matters, as gold and metals, are also +those the most seldom to be met with, and consequently the greatest part +of the matter at the surface of the globe has not undergone any very +great changes with relation to its density; the most common materials, +as sand and clay, differ very little, insomuch, that we may conjecture, +with great probability, that the internal part of the earth is composed +of a vitrified matter, the density of which is nearly the same as that +of sand, and that consequently the terrestrial globe in general may be +regarded as homogeneous. + +Notwithstanding this, it may be urged, that although the globe was +composed of concentrical strata of different densities, the diurnal +motion might be equally certain, and the uniform inclination of the axis +as constant and undisturbed as it could be, on the supposition of its +being composed of homogeneous matter. I acknowledge it, but I ask at the +same time, if there is any reason to believe that strata of different +densities do exist? If these conclusions be not rather a desire to +adjust the works of Nature to our own ideas? And whether in physics we +ought to admit suppositions which are not founded on observations or +analogy? + +It appears, therefore, that the earth, by virtue of the mutual +attraction of its parts and its diurnal motion, assumed the figure of a +spheroid; that it necessarily took that form from being in a state of +fluidity; that, agreeable to the laws of gravity and of a centrifugal +force, it could have no other figure: that in the moment of its +formation as at present, there was a difference between the two +diameters equal to a 230th part, and that, consequently, every +hypothesis in which we find greater or less difference are fictions +which merit no attention. + +But it may be said, if this theory is true, and if 229 to 230 is the +just relation of the axis, why did the mathematicians, sent to Lapland +and Peru, agree to the relation of 174 to 175? From whence does this +difference arise between theory and practice? And is it not more +reasonable to give the preference to practice and measures, especially +when we have been taken by the most able mathematicians of +Europe[109:A], and with all necessary apparatus to establish the result. + +To this I answer, that I have paid attention to the observations made at +the equator and near the polar circle; that I have no doubt of their +being exact, and that the earth may possibly be elevated an 175th part +more at the equator than at the poles. But, at the same time, I maintain +my theory, and I see clearly how the two conclusions may be reconciled. +This difference is about four leagues in the two axes, so that the parts +at the equator are raised two leagues more than they ought to be, +according to my theory; this height answers exactly to the greatest +inequalities on the surface of the globe, produced by the motion of the +sea, and the action of the fluids. I will explain; it appears that when +the earth was formed, it must necessarily have taken, by virtue of the +mutual attraction of its parts, and the action of the centrifugal force, +a spheroidical figure, the axes of which differ a 230th part: the +original earth must have had this figure, which it took when it was +fluid, or rather liquified by the fire; but after its formation the +vapours which were extended and rarefied, as in the atmosphere and tail +of a comet, became condensed, and fell on the surface in form of air and +water: and when these waters became agitated by the flux and reflux, the +matters were, by degrees, carried from the poles towards the equatorial +parts; so that the poles were lowered about a league, and those of the +equator raised in the same proportion; this was not suddenly done, but +by degrees in succession of time; the earth being also exposed to the +action of the winds, air, and sun; all these irregular causes concurred +with the flux and reflux to furrow its surface, hollow it into valleys, +and raise it into mountains; and producing other inequalities and +irregularities, of which, nevertheless, the greatest thickness does not +exceed one league at the equator; this inequality of two leagues, is, +perhaps, the greatest which can be on the surface of the earth, for the +highest mountains are scarce above one league in height, and there is +much probability of the sea's not being more at its greatest depth. The +theory is therefore true, and practice may be so likewise; the earth at +first could not be raised above 6-1/2 leagues more at the equator than +the poles, but the changes which have happened to its surface might +afterwards raise it still more. Natural History wonderfully confirms +this opinion, for we have proved in the preceding discourse that the +flux and reflux, and other motions of the water, have produced mountains +and all the inequalities on the surface of the globe, that this surface +has undergone considerable changes, and that at the greatest depths, as +well as on the greatest heights, bones, shells and other wrecks of +animals, which inhabit the sea and earth, are met with. + +It may be conjectured, from what has been said, that to find ancient +earth, and matters which have never been removed from the spot in which +they were first placed, we must dig near the poles, where the bed of the +earth must be thinner than in the Southern climates. + +On the whole, if we strictly examine the measures by which the figure of +the earth is determined, we shall perceive this hypothesis enters into +such determination; for it supposes the earth to have the figure of a +regular curve, whereas from the constant changes the earth is +continually undergoing from a variety and combination of causes, it is +almost impossible that it should have retained any regular figure, and +hence the poles might, originally, only be flattened a 230th part, as +Newton says, and as my theory requires. Besides, although we had exactly +the length of the degree at the polar circle and equator, have we not +also the length of the degree as exactly in France? And the measure of +M. Picard, has it not been verified? Add to this that the augmentation +and diminution in the motion of the pendulum, do not agree with the +result drawn from measurement, and that, on the contrary, they differ +very little from the theory of Newton. This is surely more than is +requisite to convince us that the poles are not flattened more than a +230th part, and that if there is any difference, it can proceed only +from the inequalities, which the water and other external causes have +produced on its surface; but these inequalities being more irregular +than regular, we must not form any hypothesis thereon, nor suppose, that +the meridians are ellipses, or any other regular curves. From whence we +perceive, that if we should successively measure many degrees of the +earth in all directions, we still should not be certain by that alone, +of the exact situation of the poles, nor whether they were depressed +more or less than the 230th part. + +May it not also be conjectured, that if the inclination of the axis of +the earth has changed, it can only be produced by the changes which have +happened to the surface, since all the rest of the globe is homogeneous; +that consequently this variation is too little sensible to be perceived +by astronomers, and that if the earth is not encountered with a comet, +or deranged, by any other external cause, its axis will remain +perpetually inclined as it is at present, and as it has always been? + +In order not to omit any conjecture which appears reasonable, may it not +be said, that as the mountains and inequalities which are on the +surface of the earth have been formed by the flux and reflux of the sea, +the mountains and inequalities which we remark on the surface of the +moon, have been produced by a similar cause? they certainly are much +higher than those of the earth, but then her tides are also much +stronger, occasioned by the earth's being considerably larger than the +moon, and consequently producing her tides with a superior force; and +this effect would be much greater if the moon had, like the earth, a +rapid rotation; but as the moon presents always the same surface to the +earth, the tides cannot operate but in proportion to the motion arising +from her libration, by which it alternatively discovers to us a segment +of its other hemisphere; this, however, must produce a kind of flux and +reflux, quite different from that of our sea, and the effects of which +will be much less considerable than if the moon had from its course a +revolution round its axis, as quick as the rotation of the terrestrial +globe. + +I should furnish a volume as large as that of Burnet or Whiston's, if I +were to enlarge on the ideas which arise in support of the above; by +giving them a geometrical air, in imitation of the last author, I might +add considerably to their weight; but, in my opinion, hypothesis, +however probable, ought not to be treated with such pomposity; it being +a dress which borders so much on quackery. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[78:A] Vide Newton, 2d edit. page 525. + +[79:A] Vid. Newton, page 405. + +[109:A] M. de Maupertuis' Figure of the Earth. + + + + +ARTICLE II. + +FROM THE SYSTEM OF WHISTON[115:A]. + + +This Author commences his treatise by a dissertation on the creation of +the world; he says that the account of it given by Moses in the text of +Genesis has not been rightly understood; that the translators have +confined themselves too much to the letter and superficial views, +without attending to nature, reason, and philosophy. The common notion +of the world being made in six days, he says is absolutely false, and +that the description given by Moses, is not an exact and philosophical +narration of the creation and origin of the universe, but only an +historical representation of the terrestrial globe. The earth, +according to him, existed in the chaos; and, at the time mentioned by +Moses, received the form, situation and consistency necessary to be +inhabited by the human race. I shall not enter into a detail of his +proofs, nor undertake their refutation. The exposition we have just +made, is sufficient to demonstrate the difference of his opinion with +public facts, its contrariety with scripture, and consequently the +insufficiency of his proofs. On the whole, he treats this matter as a +theological controvertist, rather than as an enlightened philosopher. + +Leaving these erroneous principles, he flies to ingenious suppositions, +which, although extraordinary, yet have a degree of probability to those +who, like him, incline to the enthusiasm of system. He says, that the +ancient chaos, the origin of our earth, was the atmosphere of a comet: +that the annual motion of the earth began at the time it took its new +form, but that its diurnal motion began only when the first man fell. +That the ecliptic cut the tropic of cancer, opposite to the terrestrial +paradise, which was situated on the north-west side of the frontiers of +Assyria: that before the deluge, the year began at the autumnal +equinox: that the orbits of the planets, and the earth were then +perfect circles. That the deluge began the 18th of November, 2365 of the +Julian period, or 2349 years before Christ. That the solar and lunar +year were then the same, and that they exactly contained 360 days. That +a comet descending in the plane of the ecliptic towards its perihelion, +passed near the globe of the earth the same day as the deluge began: +that there is a great heat in the internal part of the terrestrial +globe, which constantly diffuses itself from the centre to the +circumference; that the form of the earth is like that of an egg, the +ancient emblem of the globe; that mountains are the lightest part of the +earth, &c. He afterwards attributes all the alterations and changes +which have happened to the earth, to the universal deluge; then blindly +adopts the theory of Woodward, and indiscriminately makes use of all the +observations of that author on the present state of the globe; but +assumes originality when he speaks of its future state: according to him +it will be consumed by fire, and its destruction will be preceded by +terrible earthquakes, thunder, and frightful meteors; the Sun and Moon +will have an hideous aspect, the heavens will appear to fall, and the +flames will be general over all the earth; but when the fire shall have +devoured all the impurities it contains; when it shall be vitrified and +rendered transparent as crystal, the saints and the blessed spirits will +return and take possession of it, and there remain till the day of +judgment. + +These hypotheses, at the first glance, appear to be rash and extravagant +assertions; nevertheless the author has managed them with such address, +and treated them with such strength, that they cease to appear +absolutely chimerical. He supports his subjects with much science, and +it is surprising that, from a mixture of ideas so very absurd, a system +could be formed with an air of probability. It has not affected vulgar +minds so much as it has dazzled the eyes of the learned, because they +are more easily deceived by the glare of erudition, and the power of +novel ideas. Mr. Whiston was a celebrated astronomer, in the constant +habit of considering the heavens, observing the stars, and contemplating +the wonderful course of nature; he could never persuade himself that +this small grain of sand, this Earth which we inhabit, occupied more the +attention of the Creator than the universe, the vast extent of which +contains millions of other Suns and Earths. He pretends, that Moses has +not given us the history of the first creation of this globe, but only a +detail of the new form that it took when the Almighty turned it from the +mass of a comet into a planet, and formed it into a proper habitation +for men. Comets are, in fact, subjected to terrible vicissitudes by +reason of the eccentricity of their orbits. Sometimes, like that in +1680, it is a thousand times hotter there than red-hot iron; and +sometimes a thousand times colder than ice; if they are, therefore, +inhabited it must be by strange creatures, of which we can have no +conception. + +The planets, on the contrary, are places of rest, where the distance of +the sun not varying much, the temperature remains nearly the same, and +permits different kinds of plants and animals to grow and multiply. + +In the beginning God created the world; but, observes our author, the +earth was then an uninhabitable comet, suffering alternatively the +excess of heat and cold, its liquifying and freezing by turns formed a +chaos, or an abyss, surrounded with thick darkness: "and darkness +covered the face of the deep," _& tenebræ erant superfaciam abissi_. +This chaos was the atmosphere of the comet, a body composed of +heterogeneous matters, the centre occupied by spherical, solid, and hot +substances, of about two thousand leagues in diameter, round which a +very great surface of a thick fluid extended, mixed with an unshapen and +confused matter, like the chaos of the ancient _rudis & indigestaque +moles_. + +This vast atmosphere contained but very few dry, solid, or terrestrial +particles, still less aqueous or aerial, but a great quantity of fluid, +dense and heavy matters, mixed, agitated and jumbled together in the +greatest disorder and confusion. Such was the earth before the six days, +but on the first day of the creation, when the eccentrical orbit of the +comet had been changed, every thing took its place, and bodies arranged +themselves according to the law of gravity, the heavy fluid descended to +the lowest places, and left the upper regions to the terrestrial, +aqueous and aerial parts; those likewise descended according to their +order of gravity; first the earth, then the water, and last of all the +air. The immense volume of chaos was thus reduced to a globe of a +moderate size, in the centre of which is the solid body that still +retains the heat which the sun formerly communicated to it, when it +belonged to a comet. This heat may possibly endure six thousand years, +since the comet of 1680 required fifty thousand years to cool. Around +this solid and burning matter, which occupies the centre of the earth, +the dense and heavy fluid which descended the first is to be found, and +this is the fluid which forms the great abyss on which the earth is +borne, like cork on quicksilver; but as the terrestrial parts were +originally mixed with a large quantity of water, in descending they have +dragged with them a part of this water, which, not being able to +re-ascend after the earth was consolidated, formed a concentrical bed +with the heavy fluid which surrounds this hot substance, insomuch that +the great abyss is composed of two concentrical orbs, the most internal +of which is a heavy fluid, and the other water; the last of which serves +for a foundation to the earth. It is from this admirable arrangement, +produced by the atmosphere of a comet, that the Theory of the Earth, and +the explanation of all its phenomena are to depend. + +When the atmosphere of the comet was once disembarrassed from all the +solid and terrestrial matters, there remained only the lighter air, +through which the rays of the sun freely passed and instantly produced +light: "Let there be light, and there was light." The columns which +composed the orb of the Earth being formed with such great precipitation +is the cause of their different densities: consequently the heaviest +sunk deeper into this subterraneous fluid than the lightest; and it is +this which has produced the vallies and mountains on the surface of the +earth. These inequalities were, before the deluge, dispersed and +situated otherwise than they are at present. Instead of the vast valley, +which contains the ocean, there were many small divided cavities on the +surface of the globe, each of which contained a part of this water; the +mountains were also more divided, and did not form chains as at present: +nevertheless, the earth contained a thousand times more people, and was +a thousand times more fertile; and the life of man and other animals +were ten times longer, all which was affected by the internal heat of +the earth that proceeded from the centre, and gave birth to a great +number of plants and animals, bestowing on them a degree of vigour +necessary for them to subsist a long time, and multiply in great +abundance. But this heat, by increasing the strength of bodies, +unfortunately extended to the heads of men and animals; it augmented +their passions; it deprived man of his innocence, and the brute creation +of part of their intelligence; all creatures, excepting fish, who +inhabited a colder element, felt the effects of this heat, became +criminal and merited death. It therefore came, and this universal death +happened on Wednesday the 28th of November, by a terrible deluge of +forty days and forty nights, and was caused by the tail of another comet +which encountered the earth in returning from its perihelion. + +The tail of a comet is the lightest part of its atmosphere; it is a +transparent mist, a subtile vapour, which the heat of the sun exhales +from the body of the comet: this vapour composed of extremely rarefied +aqueous and aerial particles, follows the comet when it descends to its +perihelion, and precedes when it re-ascends, so that it is always +situate opposite to the sun, as if it sought to be in the shade, and +avoid the too great heat of that luminary. The column which this vapour +forms is often of an immense length, and the more a comet approaches the +sun, the longer and more extended is its tail, and as many comets +descend below the annual orb of the earth, it is not surprising that +the earth is sometimes found surrounded with the vapour of this tail; +this is precisely what happened at the time of the deluge. In two hours +the tail of a comet will evacuate a quantity of water equal to what is +contained in the whole ocean. In short, this tail was what Moses calls +the cataracts of Heaven, "and the cataracts of Heaven were opened." The +terrestrial globe meeting with the tail of a comet, must, in going its +course through this vapour, appropriate to itself a part of the matter +which it contains; all which, coming within the sphere of the earth's +attraction, must fall on it, and fall in the form of rain, since this +tail is partly composed of aqueous vapours. Thus rain may come down in +such abundance as to produce an universal deluge the waters of which +might easily surmount the tops of the highest mountains. Nevertheless, +our author, cautious of not going directly against the letter of holy +writ, does not say that this rain was the sole cause of the universal +deluge, but takes the water from every place he can find it. The great +abyss as we see contains a considerable quantity. The earth, at the +approach of the comet, would prove the force of its attraction; and the +waters contained in the great abyss would be agitated by so violent a +kind of flux and reflux, that the superficial crust would not resist, +but split in several places, and the internal waters be dispersed over +the surface, "And the fountains of the abyss were opened." + +But what became of these waters, which the tail of the comet and great +abyss furnished so liberally? our author is not the least embarrassed +thereon. As soon as the earth, continuing its course, removed from the +comet, the effects of its attraction, the flux and reflux in the great +abyss ceased of course, and immediately the upper waters precipitated +back with violence by the same roads as they had been forced upon the +surface. The great abyss absorbed all the superfluous waters, and was of +a sufficient capacity not only to receive its own waters, but also all +those which the tail of the comet had left, because during its +agitation, and the rupture of its crust, it had enlarged the space by +driving out on all sides the earth that surrounded it. It was at this +time also the figure of the earth, which till then was spherical, became +elliptic. This effect was occasioned by the centrifugal force caused by +its diurnal motion, and by the attraction of the comet, for the earth, +in passing through the tail of the comet, found itself so placed that it +presented the parts of the equator to that planet; and the power of the +attraction of the comet, concurring with the centrifugal force of the +earth, caused the parts of the equator to be elevated, and that with the +more facility as the crust was broken and divided in an infinity of +places, and because the flux and reflux of the abyss drove against the +equator more violently than elsewhere. + +Here then is Mr. Whiston's history of the creation; the causes of the +universal deluge; the length of the life of the first men; and the +figure of the Earth; all which seem to have cost our author little or no +labour; but Noah's ark appears to have greatly disquieted him. In the +midst of so terrible a disorder occasioned by the conjunction of the +tail of a comet with the waters of the great abyss, in the terrible +moments wherein not only the elements of the earth were confused, but +when new elements still concurred to augment the chaos, how can it be +imagined that the ark floated quietly with its numerous cargo on the top +of the waves? Here our author makes great efforts to arrive at and give +a physical reason for the preservation of the ark, but which has always +appeared to me insufficient, poorly imagined, and but little +orthodoxical: I will not here relate it, but only observe how hard it is +for a man who has explained objects so great and wonderful, without +having recourse to a supernatural power, to be stopt by one particular +circumstance; our author, however, chose rather to risk drowning with +the ark, than to attribute to the immediate bounty of the Almighty the +preservation of this precious vessel. + +I shall only make one remark on this system, of which I have made a +faithful abridgement: which is, whenever we are rash enough to attempt +to explain theological truths by physical reasons, or interpret purely +by human views, the divine text of holy writ, or that we endeavour to +reason on the will of the Most High, and on the execution of his +decrees, we consequently shall involve ourselves in the darkness and +chaos of obscurity and confusion, like the author of this system, which, +in defiance of its absurdities, has been received with great applause. +He neither doubts the truth of the deluge, nor the authenticity of the +sacred writ; but as he was less employed with it than with physic and +astronomy, he has taken passages of the scripture for physical facts, +and the results of astronomical observations; and has so strangely +blended the divine knowledge with human science as to give birth to the +most extraordinary system that possibly ever was or will be conceived. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[115:A] A New Theory of the Earth by William Whiston, 1708. + + + + +ARTICLE III. + +FROM THE SYSTEM OF BURNET.[128:A] + + +This author is the first who has treated this subject generally and in a +systematical matter. He was possessed of much understanding, and was a +person well acquainted with the _belles lettres_. His work acquired +great reputation, and was criticised by many of the learned, among the +rest by Mr. Keil, who has geometrically demonstrated the errors of Mr. +Burnet, in a treatise called "Examination of the Theory of the Earth." +Mr. Keil also refuted Whiston's system; but he treats the last author +very different from the first, and seems even to be of his opinion in +several cases, and looks upon the tail of a comet to be a very probable +cause for the deluge. But, to return to Burnet, his book is elegantly +written; he knew how to paint noble images and magnificent scenes. His +plan is great, but the execution is deficient for want of proper +materials: his reasoning is good, but his proofs are weak; yet his +confidence in his writings is so great, that he frequently causes his +readers to pass over his errors. + +He begins by telling us, that before the deluge the earth had a very +different form from that which it has at present; it was at first, he +says, a fluid mass, compounded of matters of all kinds, and all sorts of +figures, the heaviest descended towards the centre, and formed a hard +and solid body; round which the waters collected, and the air, and all +the liquors lighter than water, surmounted them. Between the orb of air +and that of water, was an orb of oily matter, but as the air was still +very impure, and contained a great quantity of small particles of +terrestrial matter, they by degrees descended on the coat of oil, and +formed a terrestrial orb blended with earth and oil; and this was the +first habitable earth, and the first abode of man. This was an excellent +soil, light, and calculated to yield to the tenderness of the first +germs. The surface of the terrestrial globe was at first equal, uniform, +without mountains, without seas, and without inequalities; but it +remained only about sixteen centuries in this state, for the heat of the +sun by degrees drying the crust, split it at first on the surface, soon +after these cracks penetrated farther and increased so considerably by +time, that at length they entirely opened the crust; in an instant the +whole earth fell into pieces in the abyss of water it surrounded; and +this was the cause of the deluge. + +But all these masses of earth, by falling into the abyss, dragged along +with them a great quantity of air; these struck against each other, +divided, and accumulated so irregularly, that great cavities filled with +air were left between them. The waters by degrees opened these cavities, +and in proportion as they filled them, the surface of the earth +discovered itself in the highest parts; at length water alone remained +in the lowest parts; that is to say, the vast vallies which contain the +sea. Thus our ocean is a part of the ancient abyss, the rest is entered +into the internal cavities with which the ocean communicates. The +islands and sea rocks are the small fragments, and continents are the +great masses of the old crust. As the rupture and the fall of this crust +are made of a sudden, and with confusion, it was not surprising to find +eminences, depths, plains, and inequalities of all kinds on the surface +of the earth. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[128:A] Thomas Burnet. Telluris theoria sacra, orbis nostri originem & +mutationes generales, quas aut jam subut, aut olim Subiturus est +complectens. Londina, 1681. + + + + +ARTICLE IV. + +FROM THE SYSTEM OF WOODWARD. + + +It may be said of this author, that he attempted to raise an immense +monument on a less solid base than the moving sand, and to construct a +world with dust; for he pretends, that at the time of the deluge a total +dissolution of the earth was made. The first idea which presents, after +having gone through his book,[132:A] is, that this dissolution was made +by the waters of the great abyss. He asserts, that the abyss where the +water was included opened all at once at the command of God, and +dispersed over the surface an enormous quantity of water necessary to +cover the tops of the highest mountains, and that God suspended the +cause of cohesion which reduced all solid bodies into dust, &c. He did +not consider that by these suppositions he added other miracles to that +of the universal deluge, or at least physical impossibilities, which +agree neither with the letter of the holy writ, nor with the +mathematical principles of natural philosophy. But as this author has +the merit of having collected many important observations, and as he was +better acquainted with the materials of which the globe is composed than +those who preceded him, his system, although badly conceived, and worse +digested, has nevertheless dazzled many people, who, seduced by the +truth of some particular circumstances, put confidence in his general +conclusions; we shall, therefore, give a short view of his theory, in +which, by doing justice to the author's merit, and the exactness of his +observations, we shall put the reader in a state of judging of the +insufficiency of his system, and of the falsity of some of his remarks. +Mr. Woodward speaks of having discovered by his sight that all matters +which compose the English earth, from the surface to the deepest places +which had been dug, were disposed by beds of strata, and that in a great +number of these there were shells and other marine productions; he +afterwards adds, that by his correspondents and friends he was assured, +that in other countries the earth is composed of the same materials, and +that shells are found there, not only in the plains but on the highest +mountains, in the deepest quarries, and in an infinity of different +places. He perceived their strata to be horizontal and disposed one over +the other, as matters are which are transported by the waters, and +deposited in form of sediment. These general remarks, which are true, +are followed by particular observations, by which he evidently shews, +that fossils found incorporated in the strata are real shells and marine +productions, not minerals and singular bodies, the sport of nature, &c. + +To these observations, though partly made before him, which he has +collected and proved, he adds others less exact. He asserts, that all +matters of different strata are placed one on the other in the order of +their specific gravity. + +This general assertion is not true, for we daily see rocks placed above +clay, sand, coal, and bitumen, and which certainly are specifically +heavier than either of these latter materials. If, in fact, we found +throughout the earth that the first strata was bitumen, then chalk, then +marl, clay, sand, stone, marble, and at last metals, so that the +composition of the earth exactly followed the law of gravity, there +would be an appearance that they might have been precipitated at the +same time, which our author asserts with confidence, in spite of the +evidence to the contrary; for, without being a naturalist, we need only +have our eye-sight to be convinced that heavy strata are often found +above lighter, and that consequently these sediments were not +precipitated all at one time, but have been brought and deposited +successively by the water. As this is the foundation of his system, and +is manifestly false, we shall follow it no farther than to show how far +an erroneous principle may produce false combinations and erroneous +conclusions. + +All the matters, says our author, which compose the earth, from the +summits of the highest mountains, to the greatest depths of mines, are +disposed by strata, according to their specific weights; therefore he +concludes the whole has been dissolved and precipitated at one time. But +in what manner, and at what time was it dissolved? In water, replies he, +and at the time of the deluge. But there is not a sufficient quantity of +water on the globe for this to be effected, since there is more land +than water, and the bottom of the sea itself is earth. This he admits, +but says, there is more water than is requisite at the centre of the +earth, that it was only necessary for it to ascend, and possess a power +of dissolving every substance but shells, afterwards to find the means +for this water to re-enter the abyss, and to make all this agree with +the history of the deluge. This then is the system, of which the author +does not entertain the least doubt; for when it is opposed to him that +water cannot dissolve marble, stone, and metals, especially in forty +days, the duration of the deluge, he answers simply, that nevertheless +it did happen so. When he is asked, what the virtue of this water of +the abyss was, to dissolve all the earth, and at the same time preserve +the shells? he says, that he never pretended that this water was a +dissolvent; but that it is clear, by facts, that the earth has been +dissolved and the shells preserved. When he was evidently shown that if +he had no reason to give, or facts to support, for these phenomena, his +system was useless, he said, we have only to imagine that, during the +deluge, the force of gravity and the coherency of matter ceased on a +sudden, and by this supposition the dissolution of the old world would +be explained in a very easy and satisfactory manner. But, it was said to +him, if the power which holds the parts of matter united was suspended, +why were not the shells dissolved as well as all the rest? Here he makes +a discourse on the organization of shells and bones of animals, by which +he pretends to prove that their texture being fibrous, and different +from that of minerals, their power of cohesion was different also; after +all, we have, says he, only to suppose that the power of gravity and +cohesion did not entirely cease, but that it was only diminished +sufficient to disunite all the parts of minerals, and not those of +animals. To all this we cannot be prevented from discovering, that our +author's philosophy was not equal to his talents for observation; and I +do not think it necessary seriously to refute opinions which have no +foundation, especially when they have been imagined against the rules of +probability, and drawn from consequences contrary to mechanical laws. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[132:A] An Essay towards the Natural History of the Earth, &c. by John +Woodward. + + + + +ARTICLE V. + +EXPOSITION OF SOME OTHER SYSTEMS. + + +It is plain that the three forementioned hypotheses have much in common +with each other. They all agree in this point, that during the deluge +the earth changed its form, as well externally as internally; but these +speculators have not considered that the earth before the deluge was +inhabited by the same species of men and animals, and must necessarily +have been nearly such as it is at present. The sacred writings teach us, +that before the deluge there were rivers, seas, mountains, and forests. +That these rivers and mountains were, for the most part, retained in the +same situations; the Tigris and Euphrates were the rivers of the ancient +paradise; that the mountain of Armenia, on which the ark rested, was one +of the highest mountains in the world at the deluge, as it is at +present: that the same plants and animals which exist now, existed then; +for we read of the serpent, of the raven, of the crow, and of the dove, +which brought the olive branch into the ark. Although Tournefort asserts +there are no olive trees for more than 400 miles from Mount Ararat, and +passes some absurd jokes thereon[138:A], it is nevertheless certain +there were olives in this neighbourhood at the time of the deluge, since +holy writ assures us of it in the most express terms; but it is by no +means astonishing that in the space of 4000 years the olive trees should +have been destroyed in those quarters, and multiplied in others; it is +therefore contrary to scripture and reason, that those authors have +supposed the earth was quite different from its present state before the +deluge; and this contradiction between their hypothesis and the sacred +text, as well as physical truths, must cause their systems to be +rejected, if even they should agree with some phenomena. Burnet gives +neither observations, nor any real facts, for the support of his system. +Woodward has only given us an essay, in which he promised much more than +he could perform: his book is a project, the execution of which has not +been seen. He has made use of two general observations; the first, that +the earth is every where composed of matters which formerly were in a +state of fluidity, transported by the waters, and deposited in +horizontal strata. The second, that there are abundance of marine +productions in most parts of the bowels of the earth. To give a reason +for these facts, he has recourse to the universal deluge, or rather it +appears that he gives them as proofs of the deluge; but, like Burnet, he +falls into evident contradictions, for it is not to be supposed with +them that there were no mountains prior to the deluge, since it is +expressly stated, that the waters rose fifteen cubits above the tops of +the highest mountains. On the other hand, it is not said that these +waters destroyed or dissolved these mountains; but, on the contrary, +these mountains remained in their places, and the ark rested on that +which the water first deserted. Besides how can it be imagined that, +during the short duration of the deluge, the waters were able to +dissolve the mountains and the whole body of the earth? Is it not an +absurdity to suppose that in forty days all marble, rocks, stones, and +minerals, were dissolved by water? Is it not a manifest contradiction to +admit this total dissolution, and at the same time maintain that shells, +bones, and marine productions were preserved entire, and resisted that +which had dissolved the most solid substances? I shall not therefore +hesitate to say, that Woodward, with excellent facts and observations, +has formed but a poor and inconsistent system. + +Whiston, who came last, greatly enriched the other two, and +notwithstanding he gave a vast scope to his imagination has not fallen +into contradiction; he speaks of matters not very credible, but they are +neither absolutely nor evidently impossible. As we are ignorant of the +centre of the earth, he thought he might suppose it was a solid matter, +surrounded with a ring of heavy fluid, and afterwards with a ring of +water, on which the external crust was sustained; in the latter the +different parts of this crust were more or less sunk, in proportion to +their relative weights, which produced mountains and inequalities on the +surface of the earth. Here, however, this astronomer has committed a +mechanical blunder; he did not recollect that the earth, according to +this hypothesis, must be an uniform arch, and that consequently it could +not be borne on the water it contains, and much less sunk therein. I do +not know that there are any other physical errors; but he has made a +great number of errors, both in metaphysics and theology. On the whole +it cannot be denied absolutely that the earth meeting with the tail of a +comet might not be inundated, especially allowing the author that the +tail of a comet may contain aqueous vapours; nor can it be denied as an +absolute impossibility that the tail of a comet, in returning from its +perihelium, might not burn the earth, if we suppose, with Mr. Whiston, +that the comet passed very near the sun; it is the same with the rest of +the system. But though his ideas are not absolutely impossibilities, +there is so little probability to each thing, when taken separately, +that the result upon the whole taken together puts it beyond +credibility. + +The three systems we have spoken of are not the only works which have +been composed on the theory of the earth; a Memoir of M. Bourguet +appeared in 1729, printed at Amsterdam, with his "Philosophical Letters +on the Formation of Salts, &c." in which he gives a specimen of the +system he meditated, but which was prevented completion by the death of +the author. It is but justice to admit, that no person was more +industrious in making observations or collecting facts. To him we owe +that great and beautiful observation, the correspondence between the +angles of mountains. He presents every thing which he had collected in +great order; but with all those advantages, it appears that he has +succeeded no better than the rest in making a physical and reasonable +history of the changes which had happened to the globe, and that he was +very wide from having found the real cause of those effects which he +relates. To be convinced of this we need only cast our eyes on the +propositions which he deduces from the phenomena, and which ought to +serve for the basis of his theory. He says, that the whole globe took +its form at one time, and not successively; that its form and +disposition prove that it has been in a state of fluidity; that the +present state of the earth is very different from that in which it was +for many ages after its first formation; that the matter of the globe +was at the beginning less dense than since it altered its appearance; +that the condensation of its solid parts diminished by degrees with its +velocity, so that after having made a number of revolutions on its axis, +and round the sun, it found itself on a sudden in a state of +dissolution, which destroyed its first structure. This happened about +the vernal equinox. That the sea-shells introduced themselves into the +dissolved matters; that after this dissolution the earth took the form +it now has, and that the fire which directly infused itself therein +consumed it by degrees, and it will be one day destroyed by a terrible +explosion, accompanied with a general conflagration, which will augment +the atmosphere of the globe, and diminish its diameter, and that then +the earth, instead of beds of sand or earth, will have only strata of +calcined metal and mountains composed of amalgamas of different metals. + +This is sufficient to shew the system M. Bourguet meditated; to divine +in this manner the past, and predict the future, nearly as others have +predicted, does not appear to me to be an effort of judgment: this +author had more erudition than sound and general views: he appears to be +deficient in that capaciousness of ideas necessary to follow the extent +of the subject, and enable him to comprehend the chain of causes and +effects. + +In the acts of Leipsic, the famous Leibnitz published a scheme of quite +a different system, under the title of _Protogaea_. The earth, according +to Bourguet and others, must end by fire; according to Leibnitz it began +by it, and has suffered many more changes and revolutions than is +imagined. The greatest part of the terrestrial matter was surrounded by +violent flames at the time when Moses says light was divided from +darkness. The planets, as well as the earth, were fixed stars, luminous +of themselves. After having burnt a long time, he pretends that they +were extinguished for want of combustible matter, and are become opaque +bodies. The fire, by melting the matter, produced a vitrified crust, +and the basis of all the matter which composes the globe is glass, of +which sand and gravel are only fragments. The other kinds of earth are +formed from a mixture of this sand, with fixed salts and water, and when +the crust cooled, the humid particles, which were raised in form of +vapours, refel, and formed the sea. They at first covered the whole +surface, and even surmounted the highest mountains. According to this +author, the shells, and other wrecks of the sea, which are every where +to be found, positively prove that the sea has covered the whole earth; +and the great quantity of fixed salts, sand, and other melted and +calcined matters, which are included in the bowels of the earth, prove +that the conflagration had been general, and that it preceded the +existence of the sea. Although these thoughts are void of proofs, they +are capital. The ideas have connection, the hypotheses are not +impossible, and the consequences that may be drawn therefrom are not +contradictory: but the grand defect of this theory is, that it is not +applicable to the present state of the earth; it is the past which it +explains, and this past is so far back, and has left us so few remains, +that we may say what we please of it, and the probability will be in +proportion as a man has talents to elucidate what he asserts. To affirm +as Whiston has done, that the earth was originally a comet, or, with +Leibnitz, that it has been a sun, is saying things equally possible or +impossible, and to which it would be ridiculous to apply the rules of +probability. To say that the sea formerly covered all the earth, that it +surrounded the whole globe, and that it is for this reason shells are +every where found, is not paying attention to a very essential point, +the unity of the time of the creation; for if that was so, it must +necessarily be admitted, that shell-fish, and other inhabitants of the +sea, of which we find the remains in the internal part of the earth, +existed long before man, and all terrestrial animals. Now, independent +of the testimony of holy writ, is it not reasonable to think, that all +animals and vegetables are nearly as ancient as each other? + +M. Scheutzer, in a Dissertation, addressed to the Academy of Sciences in +1728, attributes, like Woodward, the change, or rather the second +formation of the globe, to the universal deluge; to explain that of +mountains, he says, that after the deluge, God chusing to return the +waters into subterraneous reservoirs, broke and displaced with his +all-powerful hand a number of beds, before horizontal, and raised them +above the surface of the globe, which was originally level. The whole +Dissertation is composed to imply this opinion. As it was requisite +these eminences should be of a solid consistence, M. Scheutzer remarks, +that God only drew them from places where there were many stones; from +hence, says he, it proceeds that those countries, like Switzerland, +which are very stony, are also mountainous; and on the contrary, those, +as Holland, Flanders, Hungary and Poland, have only sand or clay, even +to a very great depth, and are almost entirely without mountains.[147:A] + +This author, more than any other, is desirous of blending Physic with +Theology, and though he has given some good observations, the +systematical part of his works is still weaker than those who preceded +him. On this subject he has even made declamations and ridiculous +witticisms, as may be seen in his _Visciam quærelæ_, &c. without +speaking of his large work in many folio volumes, _Physica Sacra_, a +puerile work, which appears to be composed less for the instruction of +men than for the amusement of children. + +Steno, and some others, have attributed the cause of the inequalities of +the earth to particular inundations, earthquakes, &c. but the effects of +these secondary causes have been only able to produce some slight +changes. We admit of these causes after the first cause, the motion of +the flux and reflux, and of the sea from east to west. Neither Steno, +nor the rest, have given theory, nor even any general facts on this +matter.[148:A] + +Ray pretends that all mountains have been produced by earthquakes, and +he has composed a treatise to prove it; we shall shew under the article +of Volcanos what little foundation his opinion is built upon. + +We cannot dispense with observing that Burnet, Woodward, Whiston, and +most of these other authors, have committed an error which deserves to +be cleared up; which is, to have looked upon the deluge as possible by +the action of natural causes, whereas scripture presents it to us as +produced by the immediate will of God; there is no natural cause which +can produce on the whole surface of the earth, the quantity of water +required to cover the highest mountains; and if even we could imagine a +cause proportionate to this effect, it would still be impossible to find +another cause capable of causing the water to disappear: allowing +Whiston, that these waters proceeded from the tail of a comet, we deny +that any could proceed from the great abyss, or that they all returned +into it, since the great abyss, according to him, being surrounded on +every side by the crust, or terrestrial orb, it is impossible that the +attraction of the comet could cause any motion to the fluids it +contained; much less, as he says, a violent flux and reflux; hence there +could not be issued from, nor entered into, the great abyss, a single +drop of water; and unless it is supposed that the waters which fell from +the comet have been destroyed by a miracle, they would still be on the +surface of the earth, covering the summits of the highest mountains. +Nothing better characterises a miracle, than the impossibility of +explaining the effect of it by natural causes. Our authors have made +vain efforts to give a reason for the deluge; their physical efforts, +and the secondary causes, which they made use of, prove the truth of the +fact as reported in the scriptures, and demonstrate that it could only +have been performed by the first cause, the will of the Almighty. + +Besides, it is certain that it was neither at one time, nor by the +effect of the deluge, that the sea left dry these continents we inhabit: +for it is certain by the testimony of holy writ, that the terrestrial +paradise was in Asia, and that Asia was inhabited before the deluge; +consequently the sea, at that time, did not cover this considerable part +of the globe. The earth, before the deluge, was nearly as it is at +present, and this enormous quantity of water, which divine justice +caused to fall on the earth to punish guilty men, in fact, brought death +on every creature; but it produced no change on the surface of the +earth, it did not even destroy plants which grew upon it, since the dove +brought an olive branch to the ark in her beak. + +Why, therefore, imagine, as many of our naturalists have done, that this +water totally changed the surface of the globe even to a depth of two +thousand feet? Why do they desire it to be the deluge which has brought +the shells on the earth which we meet with at 7 or 800 feet depth in +rocks and marble? Why say, that the hills and mountains were formed at +that time? And how can we figure to ourselves, that it is possible for +these waters to have brought masses and banks of shells 100 miles long? +I see not how they can persist in this opinion, at least, without +admitting a double miracle in the deluge; the first, for the +augmentation of the waters; and the second, for the transportation of +the shells; but as there is only the first which is related in the +Bible, I do not see it necessary to make the second an article of our +creed. + +On the other hand, if the waters of the deluge had retired all at once, +they would have carried so great a quantity of mud and other impurities, +that the Earth would not have been capable of culture till many ages +after this inundation; as is known, by the deluge which happened in +Greece, where the overflowed country was totally forsaken, and could not +receive any cultivation for more than three centuries.[151:A] We ought +also to look on the universal deluge as a supernatural means of which +the Almighty made use for the chastisement of mankind, and not as an +effect of a natural cause. The universal deluge is a miracle both in its +cause and effects; we see clearly by the scripture that it was designed +for the destruction of men and animals, and that it did not in any mode +change the earth, since after the retreat of the waters, the mountains, +and even the trees, were in their places, and the surface of the earth +was proper to receive culture and produce vines and fruits. How could +all the race of fish, which did not enter the ark, be preserved, if the +earth had been dissolved in the water, or only if the waters had been +sufficiently agitated to transport shells from India to Europe, &c.? + +Nevertheless, this supposition, that it was the deluge which transported +the shells of the sea into every climate, is the opinion, or rather the +superstition, of naturalists. Woodward, Scheutzer, and some more, call +these petrified shells the remains of the deluge; they look on them as +the medals and monuments which God has left us of this terrible event, +in order that it never should be effaced from the human race. In short, +they have adopted this hypothesis with so much enthusiasm, that they +appear only desirous to reconcile holy scripture with their opinion; and +instead of making use of their observations, and deriving light +therefrom, they envelope themselves in the clouds of a physical +theology, the obscurity of which is derogatory to the simplicity and +dignity of religion, and only leaves the absurd to perceive a ridiculous +mixture of human ideas and divine truths. To pretend to explain the +universal Deluge, and its physical causes; to attempt to teach what +passed in the time of that great revolution; to divine what were the +effects of it; to add facts to those of Holy Writ, to draw consequences +from such facts, is only a presumptuous attempt to measure the power of +the Most High. The natural wonders which his benevolent hand performs in +an uniform and regular manner, are incomprehensible; and by the +strongest reason, these wonderful operations and miracles ought to hold +us in awful wonder, and in silent adoration. + +But they will say, the universal Deluge being a certain fact, is it not +permitted to reason on its consequences? It may be so; but it is +requisite that you should begin by allowing that the Deluge could not be +performed by physical causes; you ought to consider it is an immediate +effect of the will of the Almighty; you ought to confine yourselves to +know only what the Holy Writ teaches, and particularly not to blend bad +philosophy with the purity of divine truth. These precautions, which the +respect we owe to the Almighty exacts, being taken, what remains for +examination on the subject of the Deluge? Does the Scripture say +mountains were formed by the Deluge? No, it says the contrary. Is it +said that the agitation of the waters was so great as to raise up shells +from the bottom of the sea, and transport them all over the earth? No; +the ark floated quietly on the surface of the waters. Is it said, that +the earth suffered a total dissolution? None at all: the recital of the +sacred historian is simple and true, that of these naturalists complex +and fabulous. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[138:A] Voyage du Levant, vol. 2, page 336. + +[147:A] See the Hist. of the Acad. 1708, page 32. + +[148:A] See the Diss. de Solido intra Solidum, &c. + +[151:A] See Acta erudit, Lepiss, Ann. 1691, page 100. + + + + +ARTICLE VI. + +GEOGRAPHY. + + +The surface of the Earth, like that of Jupiter, is not divided by bands +alternative and parallel to the equator; on the contrary, it is divided +from one pole to the other, by two bands of earth, and two of sea; the +first and principal is the ancient continent, the greatest length of +which is found to be in a line, beginning on the east point of the +northern part of Tartary, and extending from thence to the land which +borders on the gulph of Linchidolkin, where the Muscovites fish for +whales; from thence to Tobolski, from Tobolski to the Caspian sea, from +the Caspian sea to Mecca, and from Mecca to the western part of the +country inhabited by the Galli, in Africa; afterwards to Monoemuci or +Monomotapa, and at last to the Cape of Good Hope; this line, which is +the greatest length of the old continent, is about 3600 leagues, Paris +measure; it is only interrupted by the Caspian and Red seas, the +breadths of which are not very considerable, and we must not pay any +regard to these interruptions, when it is considered, the surface of the +globe is divided only in four parts. + +This greatest length is found by measuring the old continent diagonally; +for if measured according to the meridians, we shall find that there are +only 2500 leagues from the northernmost Cape of Lapland to the Cape of +Good Hope; and that the Baltic and Mediterranean cause a much greater +interruption than is met with in the other way. With respect to all the +other distances that might be measured in the old continent under the +same meridian, we shall find them to be much smaller than this; having, +for example, only 1800 leagues from the most southern point of the +island of Ceylon to the northernmost coast of Nova Zembla. Likewise, if +we measure the continent parallel to the equator, we find that the +greatest uninterrupted length is found from Trefna, on the western coast +of Africa, to Ninpo, on the eastern coast of China, and that it is about +2800 leagues. Another course may be measured from the point of Brittany +near Brest, extending to the Chinese Tartary; about 2300 leagues. From +Bergen, in Norway, to the coast of Kamschatka, is no more than 1800 +leagues. All these lines have much less length than the first, therefore +the greatest extent of the old continent, is, in fact, from the eastern +point of Tartary to the Cape of Good Hope, that is about 3600 leagues. + +There is so great an equality of surface on each side of this line, +which is also the longest, that there is every probability to suppose it +really divides the contents of the ancient continent; for in measuring +on one side is found 2,471,092-3/4 square leagues, and on the other +2,469,687. + +Agreeable to this, the old continent consists of about 4,940,780 square +leagues, which is nearly one-fifth of the whole surface of the globe, +and has an inclination towards the equator of about 30 degrees. + +The greatest length of the new continent may be taken in a line from the +mouth of the river Plata to the lake of Assiniboils. From the former it +passes to the lake Caracara; from thence to Mataguais, Pocona, Zongo, +Mariana, Morua, St. Fe, and Carthagena; it then proceeds through the +gulph of Mexico, Jamaica, and Cuba, passes along the peninsula of +Florida, through Apolache, Chicachas, and from thence to St. Louis, Fort +le Suer, and ends on the borders of lake Assiniboils; the whole extent +of which is still unknown. + +This line, which is interrupted only by the Mexican gulph (which must be +looked upon as a mediterranean sea) may be about 2500 leagues long, and +divides the new continent into nearly two equal parts, the left of which +contains about 1,069,286-5/6 leagues square, and that on the right about +1,070,926-1/12; this line, which forms the middle of the band of the new +continent, is inclined to the equator about 30 degrees, but in an +opposite direction, for that of the old continent extends from the +north-east to the south-west, and that of the new continent from the +north-west to the south-east. All those lands together of the old and +new continent, make about 7,080,993 leagues square, which is not near +the third of the whole surface, which contains 25 millions of square +leagues. + +It must be remarked, that these two lines, which divide the continents +into two equal parts, both terminate at the same degree of southern and +northern latitude, and that the two continents make opposite +projections, which exactly face each other; to wit, the coasts of +Africa, from the Canary islands to the coasts of Guinea, and those of +America from Guiana to the mouth of Rio Janeiro. + +It appears, therefore, that the most ancient land of the globe, is on +the two sides of these lines, at the distance of from 2 to 250 leagues +on each side. By following this idea, which is founded on the +observations before related, we shall find in the old continent that the +most ancient lands of Africa are those which extend from the Cape of +Good Hope to the Red Sea, as far as Egypt, about 500 leagues broad, and +that, consequently, all the western coasts of Africa, from Guinea to the +straits of Gibraltar, are the newest lands. So likewise we shall +discover that in Asia, if we follow the line on the same breadth, the +most ancient lands are Arabia Felix and Deserta, Persia, Georgia, +Turcomania, part of Tartary, Circassia, part of Muscovy, &c. that +consequently Europe, and perhaps also China, and the eastern part of +Tartary, are more modern. In the new continent we shall find the Terra +Magellanica, the eastern part of Brasil, the country of the Amazons, +Guiana, and Canada, to be the new lands, in comparison with Peru, Terra +Firma, the islands in the gulph of Mexico, Florida, the Mississippi, and +Mexico. + +To these observations we may add two very remarkable facts, the old and +new continent are almost opposite each other; the old is more extensive +to the north of the equator than the south; the new is more to the south +than the north. The centre of the old continent is in the 16th or 18th +degree of north latitude, and the centre of the new is in the 16th or +18th degree south latitude, so that they seem to be made to +counterbalance each other. There is also a singular connexion between +the two continents, although it appears to be more accidental than those +which I have spoken of, which is, that if the two continents were +divided into two parts, all four would be surrounded by the sea, if it +were not for the two small isthmuses, Suez and Panama. + +This is the most general idea which an attentive inspection of the globe +furnishes us with, on the division of the earth. We shall abstain from +forming hypotheses thereon, and hazarding reasonings which might lead +into false conclusions; but no one as yet having considered the +division of the globe under this point of view, I shall submit a few +remarks. It is very singular that the line which forms the greatest +length of the terrestrial continents divides them also into two equal +parts; it is no less so that these two lines commence and end at the +same degrees of latitude, and are both alike inclined to the equator. +These relations may belong to some general conclusions, but of which we +are ignorant. The inequalities in the figure of the two continents we +shall hereafter examine more fully: it is sufficient here to observe, +that the most ancient countries are the nearest to these lines, and are +the highest; that the more modern lands are the farthest, and also the +lowest. Thus in America, the country of the Amazons, Guiana and Canada +will be the most modern parts; by casting our eyes on the map of this +country we see the waters on every side, and that they are divided by +numberless lakes and rivers, which also indicates that these lands are +of a late formation; while on the other hand Peru and Mexico are high +mountains, and situate at no great distance from the line that divides +the continent, which are circumstances that seem to prove their +antiquity. Africa is very mountainous, and that part of the world is +also very ancient. There are only Egypt, Barbary, and the western coasts +of Africa, as far as Senegal, in this part of the globe, which can be +looked upon as modern countries. Asia is an old land, and perhaps the +most ancient of all, particularly Arabia, Persia, and Tartary; but the +inequalities of this vast part of the globe, as well as those of Europe, +we will consider in a separate article. It might be said in general, +that Europe is a new country, and such position would be supported both +by the universal traditions relative to the emigrations of different +people, and the origin of arts and sciences. It is not long since it was +filled with morasses, and covered with forests, whereas in the land +anciently inhabited, there are but few woods, little water, no morasses, +much land, and a number of mountains, whose summits are dry and barren; +for men destroy the woods, drain the waters, confine rivers, dry up +morasses, and in time give a different appearance to the face of the +earth, from that, of uninhabited or newly-peopled countries. + +The ancients were acquainted with but a small part of the globe. All +America, the Magellanic, and a great part of the interior of Africa, +was entirely unknown to them. They knew not that the torrid zone was +inhabited, although they had navigated around Africa, for it is 2200 +years since Neco, king of Egypt, gave vessels to the Phenicians, who +sailed along the Red Sea, coasted round Africa, doubled the Cape of Good +Hope, and having employed two years in this voyage, the third year they +entered the straits of Gibraltar.[163:A] The ancients were unacquainted +with the property of the loadstone, if turned towards the poles, +although they knew that it attracted iron. They were ignorant of the +general cause of the flux and reflux of the sea, nor were they certain +the ocean surrounded the globe; some indeed suspected it might be so, +but with so little foundation, that no one dared to say, or even +conjecture, it was possible to make a voyage round the world. Magellan +was the first who attempted it in the year 1519, and accomplished the +great voyage in 1124 days. Sir Francis Drake was the second in 1577, and +he performed it in 1056 days; afterwards Thomas Cavendish made this +great voyage in 777 days, in the year 1586. These celebrated navigators +were the first who demonstrated physically the sphericity and the +extent of the earth's circumference; for the ancients had no conception +of the extent of this circumference, although they had travelled a great +deal. The trade winds, so useful in long voyages, were also unknown to +them; therefore we must not be surprised at the little progress they +made in geography. Notwithstanding the knowledge we have acquired by the +aid of mathematical sciences, and the discovery of navigators, many +things remain still unsettled, and vast countries undiscovered. Almost +all the land on the side of the Atlantic pole is unknown to us; we only +know that there is some, and that it is separated from all the other +continents by the ocean. Much land also remains to be discovered on the +side of the Arctic pole, and it is to be regretted that for more than a +century the ardour of discovering new countries is extremely abated. +European governments seem to prefer, and possibly with reason, +increasing the value of those countries we are acquainted with to the +glory of conquering new ones. + +Nevertheless, the discovery of the southern continent would be a great +object of curiosity, and might be useful. We have discovered only some +few of its coasts; those navigators who have attempted this discovery, +have always been stopt by the ice. The thick fogs, which are in those +latitudes, is another obstacle; yet, in defiance of these +inconveniencies, it is probable that by sailing from the Cape of Good +Hope at different seasons, we might at last discover a part of these +lands, which hitherto make a separate world. + +There is another method, which possibly might succeed better. The ice +and fogs having hitherto prevented the discovery, might it not be +attempted by the Pacific Sea; sailing from Baldivia, or any other port +on the coast of Chili, and traversing this sea under the 50th degree +south latitude? There is not the least appearance that this navigation +is perilous, and it is probable would be attended with the discovery of +new countries; for what remains for us to know on the coast of the +southern pole, is so considerable, that we may estimate it at a fourth +part of the globe, and of course may contain a continent, as large as +Europe, Asia, and Africa, all together. + +As we are not at all acquainted with this part of the globe, we cannot +justly know the proportion between the surface of the earth and that of +the sea; only as much as may be judged by inspection of what is known, +there is more sea than land. + +If we would have an idea of the enormous quantity of water which the sea +contains, we must suppose a medium depth, and by computing it only at +200 fathom, or the sixth part of a league, we shall find that there is +sufficient to cover the whole globe to the height of 600 feet of water, +and if we would reduce this water into one mass, it would form a globe +of more than 60 miles diameter. + +Navigators pretend, that the latitudes near the south pole are much +colder than those of the north, but there is no appearance that this +opinion is founded on truth, and probably has been adopted, because ice +is found in latitudes where it is scarcely ever seen in the southern +seas; but that may proceed from some particular cause. We find no ice in +April on this side 67 and 68 degrees northern latitude: and the savages +of Arcadia and Canada say, when it is not all melted in that month, it +is a sign the rest of the year will be cold and rainy. In 1725 there may +be said to have been no summer, it rained almost continually; and the +ice of the northern sea was not only not melted in April in the 67th +degree, but even it was found the 15th of June towards the 41st and 42d +degree[167:A]. + +A great quantity of floating ice appears in the northern sea, especially +at some distance from land. It comes from the Tartarian sea into that of +Nova Zembla, and other parts of the Frozen Ocean. I have been assured by +people of credit, that an English Captain, named Monson, instead of +seeking a passage between the northern land to go to China, directed his +course strait to the pole, and had approached it within two degrees; +that in this course he had found an open sea, without any ice, which +proves that the ice is formed near land, and never in open sea; for if +we should suppose, against all probability, that it might be cold enough +at the pole to freeze over the surface of the sea, it is still not +conceivable how these enormous floating mountains of ice could be +formed, if they did not find a fixed point against land, from whence +afterwards they were loosened by the heat of the sun. The two vessels +which the East India Company sent, in 1739, to discover land in the +South Seas, found ice in the latitude of 47 and 48 degrees, but this +ice was not far from shore, that being in sight although they were +unable to land. This must have been separated from the adjoining lands +of the south pole, and it may be conjectured that they follow the course +of some great rivers, which water the unknown land, the same as the Oby, +Jenisca, and other great floods, which fall into the North Seas, carry +with them the ice, which, during the greatest part of the year, stops up +the straits of Waigat, and renders the Tartarian sea unnavigable by this +course; whereas beyond Nova Zembla, and nearer the poles, where there +are few rivers, and but little land, ice is not so frequently met with, +and the sea is more navigable; so that if they would still attempt the +voyage to China and Japan by the North Seas, we should possibly, to keep +clear from the land and ice, shape our course to the pole, and seek the +open seas, where certainly there is but little or no ice; for it is +known that salt water can, without freezing, become colder than fresh +water when frozen, and consequently the excessive cold of the pole may +possibly render the sea colder than the ice, without the surface being +frozen: so much the more as at 80 or 82 degrees, the surface of the +sea, although mixed with much snow and fresh water, is only frozen near +the shore. By collecting the testimonies of travellers, on the passage +from Europe to China, it appears that one does exist by the north sea; +and the reason it has been so often attempted in vain is, because they +have always feared to go sufficiently far from land, and approach the +pole. + +Captain William Barents, who, as well as others, run aground in his +voyage, yet did not doubt but there was a passage, and that if he had +gone farther from shore, he should have found an open sea free from ice. +The Russian navigators, sent by the Czar to survey the north seas, +relate that Nova Zembla is not an island, but belonging to the continent +of Tartary, and that to the north of it is a free and open sea. A Dutch +navigator asserts, that the sea throws up whales on the coasts of Corea +and Japan, which have English and Dutch harpoons on their backs. Another +Dutchman has pretended to have been at the pole, and asserts it is as +warm there as it is at Amsterdam in the middle of the summer. An +Englishman, named Golding, who made more than thirty voyages to +Greenland, related to King Charles II. that two Dutch vessels with which +he had sailed, having found no whales on the coast of the island of +Edges, resolved to proceed farther north, and that upon their return at +the expiration of fifteen days, they told him that they had been as far +as 89 degrees latitude (within one degree of the pole), and that they +found no ice there, but an open deep sea like that of the Bay of Biscay, +and that they shewed him the journals of the two vessels, as a proof of +what they affirmed. In short, it is related in the Philosophical +Transactions that two navigators, who had undertaken the discovery of +this passage, shaped a course 300 leagues to the east of Nova Zembla, +but that the East India Company, who thought it their interest this +passage should not be discovered, hindered them from returning[170:A]. +But the Dutch East India Company thought, on the contrary, that it was +their interest to find this passage; having attempted it in vain on the +side of Europe, they sought it by that of Japan, and they would probably +have succeeded, if the Emperor of Japan had not forbidden all strangers +from navigating on the side of the land of Jesso. This passage, +therefore, cannot be found but by sailing to the pole, beyond +Spitzbergen, or by keeping the open sea between Nova Zembla and +Spitzbergen under the 79th degree of latitude. We need not fear to find +it frozen even under the pole itself, for reasons we have alledged; in +fact, there is no example of the sea being frozen at a considerable +distance from the shore; the only example of a sea being frozen entirely +over, is that of the Black Sea, which is narrow, contains but little +salt, and receives a number of rivers from the northern countries, and +which bring ice with them: and if we may credit historians, it was +frozen in the time of the Emperor Copronymus, thirty cubits deep, +without reckoning twenty cubits of snow above the ice. This appears to +be exaggerated, but it is certain that it freezes almost every winter; +whereas the open seas, a thousand leagues nearer the pole, do not freeze +at all: this can only proceed from the saltness, and the little ice +which they receive, in comparison with that transported into the Black +Sea. + +This ice, which is looked upon as a barrier that opposes the navigation +near the poles, and the discovery of the southern continent, proves only +that there are large rivers adjacent to the places where it is met +with; and indicates also there are vast continents from whence these +rivers flow; nor ought we to be discouraged at the sight of these +obstacles; for if we consider, we shall easily perceive, this ice must +be confined to some particular places; that it is almost impossible that +it should occupy the whole circle which encompasses, as we suppose, the +southern continent, and therefore we should probably succeed if we were +to direct our course towards some other point of this circle. The +description which Dampier and some others have given of New Holland, +leads us to suspect that this part of the globe is perhaps a part of the +southern lands, and is a country less ancient than the rest of this +unknown continent. New Holland is a low country, without water or +mountains, but thinly inhabited, and the natives without industry; all +this concurs to make us think that they are in this continent nearly +what the savages of Amaconia or Paraguais are in America. We have found +polished men, empires, and kings, at Peru and Mexico, which are the +highest, and consequently the most ancient countries of America. +Savages, on the contrary, are found in the lowest and most modern +countries; therefore we may presume that we should also find men united +by the bands of society in the upper countries, from whence these great +rivers, which bring this prodigious ice to the sea, derive their +sources. + +The interior parts of Africa are unknown to us, almost as much as they +were to the ancients: they had, like us, made the tour of that vast +peninsula, but they have left us neither charts, nor descriptions of the +coasts. Pliny informs us, that the tour of Africa was made in the time +of Alexander the Great, that the wrecks of some Spanish vessels had been +discovered in the Arabian sea, and that Hanno, a Carthaginian general, +had made a voyage from Gades to the Arabian sea, and that he had written +a relation of it. Besides that, he says Cornelius Nepos tells us that in +his time one Eudoxus, persecuted by the king Lathurus, was obliged to +fly from his country; that departing from the Arabian gulph, he arrived +at Gades, and that before this time they traded from Spain to Ethiopia +by sea[173:A]. Notwithstanding these testimonies of the ancients, we are +persuaded that they never doubled the Cape of Good Hope, and the course +which the Portuguese took the first to go to the East-Indies, was +looked upon as a new discovery; it will not perhaps, therefore, be +deemed amiss to give the belief of the 9th century on this subject. + +"In our time an entire new discovery has been made, which was wholly +unknown to those who lived before us. No one thought, or even suspected, +that the sea, which extends from India to China, had a communication +with the Syrian sea. We have found, according to what I have learnt, in +the sea Roum, or Mediterranean, the wreck of an Arabian vessel, +shattered to pieces by the tempest, some of which were carried by the +wind and waves to the Cozar sea, and from thence to the Mediterranean, +and was at length thrown on the coast of Syria. This proves that the sea +surrounds China and Cila, the extremity of Turqueston and the country of +the Cozars; that it afterwards flows by the strait till it has washed +the coast of Syria. The proof is drawn from the construction of the +vessel; for no other vessels but those of Siraf are built without nails, +which, as was the wreck we speak of, are joined together in a particular +manner, as if they were sewed. Those, of all the vessels of the +Mediterranean and of the coast of Syria, are nailed and not joined in +this manner[175:A]." + +To this the translator of this ancient relation adds.-- + +"Abuziel remarks, as a new and very extraordinary thing, that a vessel +was carried from the Indian sea, and cast on the coasts of Syria. To +find a passage into the Mediterranean, he supposes there is a great +extent above China, which has a communication with the Cozar sea, that +is, with Muscovia. The sea which is below Cape Current, was entirely +unknown to the Arabs, by reason of the extreme danger of the navigation, +and from the continent being inhabited by such a barbarous people, that +it was not easy to subject them, nor even to civilize them by commerce. +From the Cape of Good Hope to Soffala, the Portuguese found no +established settlement of Moors, like those in all the maritime towns as +far as China, which was the farthest place known to geographers; but +they could not tell whether the Chinese sea, by the extremity of Africa, +had a communication with the sea of Barbary, and they contented +themselves with describing it as far as the coast of Zing, or +Caffraria. This is the reason why we cannot doubt but that the first +discovery of the passage of this sea, by the Cape of Good Hope, was made +by the Europeans, under the conduct of Vasco de Gama, or at least some +years before he doubled the Cape, if it is true there are marine charts +of an older date, where the Cape is called by the name of Frontiera du +Africa. Antonio Galvin testifies, from the relation of Francisco de +Sousa Tavares, that, in 1528, the Infant Don Ferdinand shewed him such a +chart, which he found in the monastery of Acoboca, dated 120 years +before, copied perhaps from that said to be in the treasury of St. Mark, +at Venice, which also marks the point of Africa, according to the +testimony of Ramusio, &c." + +The ignorance of those ages, on the subject of the navigation around +Africa, will appear perhaps less singular than the silence of the editor +of this ancient relation on the subject of the passages of Herodotus, +Pliny, &c. which we have quoted, and which proves the ancients had made +the tour of Africa. + +Be it as it may, the African coasts are now well known; but whatever +attempts have been made to penetrate into the inner parts of the +country, we have not been able to attain sufficient knowledge of it to +give exact relations[177:A]. It might, nevertheless, be of great +advantage, if we were, by Senegal, or some other river, to get farther +up the country and establish settlements, as we should find, according +to all appearances, a country as rich in precious mines as Peru or the +Brazils. It is perfectly known that the African rivers abound with gold, +and as this country is very mountainous, and situated under the equator, +it is not to be doubted but it contains, as well as America, mines of +heavy metals, and of the most compact and hard stones. + +The vast extent of north and east Tartary has only been discovered in +these latter times. If the Muscovite maps are just, we are at present +acquainted with the coasts of all this part of Asia; and it appears that +from the point of eastern Tartary to North America, it is not more than +four or five hundred leagues: it has even been pretended that this tract +was much shorter, for in the Amsterdam Gazette, of the 24th of January, +1747, it is said, under the article of Petersburgh, that Mr. +Stalleravoit had discovered one of these American islands beyond +Kamschatca, and demonstrated that we might go thither from Russia by a +shorter tract. The Jesuits, and other missionaries, have also pretended +to have discovered savages in Tartary, whom they had catechised in +America, which should in fact suppose that passage to be still +shorter[178:A]. This author even pretends, that the two continents of +the old and new world join by the north, and says, that the last +navigations of the Japanese afford room to judge, that the tract of +which we have spoken is only a bay, above which we may pass by land from +Asia to America. But this requires confirmation, for hitherto it has +been thought that the continent of the north pole is separated from the +other continents, as well as that of the south pole. + +Astronomy and Navigation are carried to so high a pitch of perfection, +that it may reasonably be expected we shall soon have an exact +knowledge of the whole surface of the globe. The ancients knew only a +small part of it, because they had not the mariner's compass. Some +people have pretended that the Arabs invented the compass, and used it a +long time before we did, to trade on the Indian sea, as far as China; +but this opinion has always appeared destitute of all probability; for +there is no word in the Arab, Turkish, or Persian languages, which +signifies the compass; they make use of the Italian word Bossola; they +do not even at present know how to make a compass, nor give the +magnetical quality to the needle, but purchase them from the Europeans. +Father Maritini says, that the Chinese have been acquainted with the +compass for upwards of 3000 years; but if that was the case, how comes +it that they have made so little use of it? Why did they, in their +voyages to Cochinchina, take a course much longer than was necessary? +And why did they always confine themselves to the same voyages, the +greatest of which were to Java and Sumatra? And why did not they +discover, before the Europeans, an infinity of fertile islands, +bordering on their own country, if they had possessed the art of +navigating in the open seas? For a few years after the discovery of +this wonderful property of the loadstone, the Portuguese doubled the +Cape of Good Hope, traversed the African and Indian seas, and +Christopher Columbus made his voyage to America. + +By a little consideration, it was easy to divine there were immense +spaces towards the west; for, by comparing the known part of the globe, +as for example, the distance of Spain to China, and attending to the +revolution of the Earth and Heavens, it was easy to see that there +remained a much greater extent towards the west to be discovered, than +what they were acquainted with towards the east. It, therefore, was not +from the defect of astronomical knowledge that the ancients did not find +the new world, but only for want of the compass. The passages of Plato +and Aristotle, where they speak of countries far distant from the +Pillars of Hercules, seem to indicate that some navigators had been +driven by tempest as far as America, from whence they returned with much +difficulty; and it may be conjectured, that if even the ancients had +been persuaded of the existence of this continent, they would not have +even thought it possible to strike out the road, having no guide nor +any knowledge of the compass. + +I own, that it is not impossible to traverse the high seas without a +compass, and that very resolute people might have undertaken to seek +after the new world by conducting themselves simply by the stars. The +Astrolabe being known to the ancients, it might strike them they could +leave France or Spain, and sail to the west, by keeping the polar star +always to the right, and by frequent soundings might have kept nearly in +the same latitude; without doubt the Carthaginians, of whom Aristotle +makes mention, found the means of returning from these remote countries +by keeping the polar star to the left; but it must be allowed that a +like voyage would be looked upon as a rash enterprize, and that +consequently we must not be astonished that the ancients had not even +conceived the project. + +Previous to Christopher Columbus's expedition, the Azores, the Canaries, +and Madeira were discovered. It was remarked, that when the west winds +lasted a long time, the sea brought pieces of foreign wood on the coast +of these islands, canes of unknown species, and even dead bodies, which +by many marks were discovered to be neither European nor African. +Columbus himself remarked, that on the side of the west certain winds +blew only a few days, and which he was persuaded were land winds; but +although he had all these advantages over the ancients, and the +knowledge of the compass, the difficulties still to conquer were so +great, that there was only the success he met with which could justify +the enterprise. Suppose, for a moment, that the continent of the new +world had been 1000 or 1500 miles farther than it in fact is, a thing +with Columbus could neither know nor foresee, he would not have arrived +there, and perhaps this great country might still have remained unknown. +This conjecture is so much the better founded, as Columbus, although the +most able navigator of his time, was seized with fear and astonishment +in his second voyage to the new world; for as in his first, he only +found some islands, he directed his course more to the south to discover +a continent, and was stopt by currents, the considerable extent and +direction of which always opposed his course, and obliged him to direct +his search to the west; he imagined that what had hindered him from +advancing on the southern side was not currents, but that the sea flowed +by raising itself towards the heavens, and that perhaps both one and the +other touched on the southern side. True it is, that in great +enterprises the least unfortunate circumstance may turn a man's brain, +and abate his courage. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[163:A] Vide Herodotus, lib. iv. + +[167:A] See the Hist. of the Acad. Ann. 1725. + +[170:A] See the collection of Northern Voyages, page 200. + +[173:A] Vide Pliny, Hist. Nat. Vol. I. lib. 2. + +[175:A] See the ancient relations of travels by land to China, page 53 +and 54. + +[177:A] Since this time, however, great discoveries, have been made; +Mons. Vaillant has given a particular description of the country from +the Cape to the borders of Caffraria; and much information has also been +acquired by the Society for Asiatic Researches. + +[178:A] See the Hist. of New France, by the Pere Charlevoix. Vol. III. +page 30 and 31. + + + + +ARTICLE VII. + +ON THE PRODUCTION OF THE STRATA, OR BEDS OF EARTH. + + +We have shewn, in the first article, that by virtue of the mutual +attraction between the parts of matter, and of the centrifugal force, +which results from its diurnal rotation, the earth has necessarily taken +the form of a spheroid, the diameters of which differ about a 230th +part, and that it could only proceed from the changes on the surface, +caused by the motion of the air and water, that this difference could +become greater, as is pretended to be the case from the measures taken +under the equator, and within the polar circle. This figure of the +earth, which so well agrees with hydrostatical laws, and with our +theory, supposes the globe to have been in a state of liquefaction when +it assumed its form, and we have proved that the motions of projection +and rotation were imprinted at the same time by a like impulsion. We +shall the more easily believe that the earth has been in a state of +liquefaction produced by fire, when we consider the nature of the +matters which the globe incloses, the greatest part of which are +vitrified or vitrifiable; especially when we reflect on the +impossibility there is that the earth should ever have been in a state +of fluidity, produced by the waters; since there is infinitely more +earth than water, and that water has not the power of dissolving stone, +sand, and other matters of which the earth is composed. + +It is plain then that the earth took its figure at the time when it was +liquefied by fire: by pursuing our hypothesis it appears, that when the +sun quitted it, the earth had no other form than that of a torrent of +melted and inflamed vapour matter; that this torrent collected itself by +the mutual attraction of its parts, and became a globe, to which the +rotative motion gave the figure of a spheroid; and when the earth was +cooled, the vapours, which were first extended like the tails of comets, +by degrees condensed and fell upon the surface, depositing, at the same +time, a slimy substance mixed with sulphurous and saline matters, a part +of which, by the motion of the waters, was swept into the perpendicular +cracks, where it produced metals, while the rest remained on the +surface, and produced that reddish earth which forms the first strata; +and which, according to different places, is more or less blended with +animal and vegetable particles, so reduced that the organization is no +longer perceptible. + +Therefore, in the first state of the earth, the globe was internally +composed of vitrified matter, as I believe it is at present, above which +were placed those bodies the fire had most divided, as sand, which are +only fragments of glass; and above these, pumice stones and the scoria +of the vitrified matter, which formed the various clays; the whole was +covered with water 5 or 600 feet deep, produced by the condensation of +the vapours, when the globe began to cool. This water every where +deposited a muddy bed, mixed with waters which sublime and exhale by the +fire; and the air was formed of the most subtile vapours, which, by +their lightness, disengaged themselves from the waters, and surmounted +them. + +Such was the state of the globe when the action of the tides, the winds, +and the heat of the sun, began to change the surface of the earth. The +diurnal motion, and the flux and reflux, at first raised the waters +under the southern climate, which carried with them mud, clay, and sand, +and by raising the parts of the equator, they by degrees perhaps lowered +those of the poles about two leagues, as we before mentioned; for the +waters soon reduced into powder the pumice stones and other spongeous +parts of the vitrified matter that were at the surface, they hollowed +some places, and raised others, which in course of time became +continents, and produced all the inequalities, and which are more +considerable towards the equator than the poles; for the highest +mountains are between the tropics and the middle of the temperate zones, +and the lowest are from the polar circle to the poles; between the +tropics are the Cordeliers, and almost all the mountains of Mexico and +Brazil, the great and little Atlas, the Moon, &c. Beside the land which +is between the tropics, from the superior number of islands found in +those parts, is the most unequal of all the globe, as evidently is the +sea. + +However independent my theory may be of that hypothesis of what passed +at the time of the first state of the globe, I refer to it in this +article, in order to shew the connection and possibility of the system +which I endeavoured to maintain in the first article. It must only be +remarked, that my theory does not stray far from it, as I take the earth +in a state nearly similar to what it appears at present, and as I do not +make use of any of the suppositions which are used on reasoning on the +past state of the terrestrial globe. But as I here present a new idea on +the subject of the sediment deposited by the water, which, in my +opinion, has perforated the upper bed of earth, it appears to me also +necessary to give the reason on which I found this opinion. + +The vapours which rise in the air produce rain, dew, aerial fires, +thunder, and other meteors. These vapours are therefore blended with +aqueous, aerial, sulphurous and terrestrial particles, &c. and it is the +solid and earthy particles which form the mud or slime we are now +speaking of. When rain water is suffered to rest, a sediment is formed +at bottom; and having collected a quantity, if it is suffered to stand +and corrupt, it produces a kind of mud which falls to the bottom of the +vessel. Dew produces much more of this mud than rain water, which is +greasy, unctuous, and of a reddish colour. + +The first strata of the earth is composed of this mud, mixed with +perished vegetable or animal parts, or rather stony and sandy particles. +We may remark that almost all land proper for cultivation is reddish, +and more or less mixed with these different matters; the particles of +sand or stone found there are of two kinds, the one coarse and heavy, +the other fine and sometimes impalpable. The largest comes from the +lower strata loosened in cultivating the earth, or rather the upper +mould, by penetrating into the lower, which is of sand and other divided +matters, and forms those earths we call fat and fertile. The finer sort +proceeds from the air, and falls with dew and rain, and mixes intimately +with the soil. This is properly the residue of the powder, which the +wind continually raises from the surface of the earth, and which falls +again after having imbibed the humidity of the air. When the earth +predominates, and the stony and sandy parts are but few, the earth is +then reddish and fertile: if it is mixed with a considerable quantity of +perished animal or vegetable substances, it is blackish, and often more +fertile than the first; but if the mould is only in a small quantity, as +well as the animal or vegetable parts, the earth is white and sterile, +and when the sandy, stony, or cretaceous parts which compose these +sterile lands, are mixed with a sufficient quantity of perished animal +or vegetable substances, they form the black and lighter earths, but +have little fertility; so that according to the different combinations +of these three different matters, the land is more or less fecund and +differently coloured. + +To fix some ideas relative to these stratas; let us take, for example, +the earth of Marly-la-ville, where the pits are very deep: it is a high +country, but flat and fertile, and its strata lie arranged horizontally. +I had samples brought me of all these strata which M. Dalibard, an able +botanist, versed in different sciences, had dug under his inspection; +and after having proved the matters of which they consisted in +aquafortis, I formed the following table of them. + + + The state of the different beds of earth, found at Marly-la-ville, + to the depth of 100 feet. + + Feet. In. + + 1. A free reddish earth, mixed with + much mud, a very small quantity of + vitrifiable sand, and somewhat more of + calcinable sand 13 0 + + 2. A free earth mixed with gravel, + and a little more vitrifiable sand 2 6 + + 3. Mud mixed with vitrifiable sand + in a great quantity, and which made + but very little effervescence with + aquafortis 3 0 + + 4. Hard marl, which made a very + great effervescence with aquafortis 2 0 + + 5. Pretty hard marl stone 4 0 + + 6. Marl in powder, mixed with vitrifiable + sand 5 0 + + 7. Very fine vitrified sand 1 6 + + 8. Marl very like earth mixed with + a very little vitrifiable sand 3 6 + + 9. Hard marl, in which was real flint 3 6 + + 10. Gravel, or powdered marl 1 0 + + 11. Eglantine, a stone of the grain + and hardness of marble, and sonorous 1 6 + + 12. Marly gravel 1 6 + + 13. Marl in hard stone, whose grain + was very fine 1 6 + + 14. Marl in stone, whose grain was + not so fine 1 6 + + 15. More grained and thicker marl 2 6 + + 16. Very fine vitrifiable sand, mixed + with fossil sea-shells, which had no + adherence with the sand, and whose + colours were perfect 1 6 + + 17. Very small gravel, or fine marl + powder 2 0 + + 18. Marl in hard stone 3 6 + + 19. Very coarse powdered marl 1 6 + + 20. Hard and calcinable stone, like + marble 1 0 + + 21. Grey vitrifiable sand mixed with + fossil shells, particularly oysters and + muscles which have no adherence + with the sand, and which were not + petrified 3 0 + + 22. White vitrifiable sand mixed with + similar shells 2 0 + + 23. Sand streaked red and white, + vitrifiable and mixed with the like + shells 1 0 + + 24. Larger sand, but still vitrifiable + and mixed with the like shells 1 0 + + 25. Fine and vitrifiable grey sand + mixed with the like shells 8 6 + + 26. Very fine fat sand, with only a + few shells 3 0 + + 27. Brown free stone 3 0 + + 28. Vitrifiable sand, streaked red and + white 4 0 + + 29. White vitrifiable sand 3 6 + + 30. Reddish vitrifiable sand 15 0 + -------- + Total depth 101 0 + -------- + +I have before said that I tried all these matters in aquafortis, because +where the inspection and comparison of matters with others that we are +acquainted with is not sufficient to permit us to denominate and range +them in the class which they belong, there is no means more ready, nor +perhaps more sure, than to try by aquafortis the terrestrial or +lapidific matter: those which acid spirits dissolve immediately with +heat and ebullition, are generally calcinable, and those on which they +make no impression are vitrifiable. + +By this enumeration we perceive, that the soil of Marly-la-ville was +formerly the bottom of the sea, which has been raised above 75 feet, +since we find shells at that depth below the surface. Those shells have +been transported by the motion of the water, at the same time as the +sand in which they are met with, and the whole of the upper strata, even +to the first, have been transported after the same manner by the motion +of the water, and deposited in form of a sediment; which we cannot +doubt, as well by reason of their horizontal position, as of the +different beds of sand mixed with shells and marl, the last of which are +only the fragments of the shells. The last stratum itself has been +formed almost entirely by the mould we have spoken of, mixed with a +small part of the marl which was at the surface. + +I have chosen this example, as the most disadvantageous to my theory, +because it at first appears very difficult to conceive that the dust of +the air, rain and dew, could produce strata of free earth thirteen feet +thick; but it ought to be observed, that it is very rare to find, +especially in high lands, so considerable a thickness of cultivateable +earth; it is generally about three or four feet, and often not more than +one. In plains surrounded with hills, this thickness of good earth is +the greatest, because the rain loosens the earth of the hills, and +carries it into the vallies; but without supposing any thing of that +kind, I find that the last strata formed by the waters are thick beds of +marl. It is natural to imagine that the upper stratum had, at the +beginning, a still greater thickness, besides the thirteen feet of marl, +when the sea quitted the land and left it naked. This marl, exposed to +the air, melted with the rain; the action of the air and heat of the sun +produced flaws, and reduced it into powder on the surface; the sea would +not quit this land precipitately, but sometimes cover it, either by the +alternative motion of the tides, or by the extraordinary elevation of +the waters in foul weather, when it mixed with this bed of marl, mud, +clay, and other matters. When the land was raised above the waters, +plants would begin to grow, and it was then that the dust in the rain or +dew by degrees added to its substance and gave it a reddish colour; this +thickness and fertility was soon augmented by culture; by digging and +dividing its surface, and thus giving to the dust, in the dew or rain, +the facility of more deeply penetrating it, which at last produced that +bed of free earth thirteen feet thick. + +I shall not here examine whether the reddish colour of vegetable earth +proceeds from the iron which is contained in the earths that are +deposited by the rains and dews, but being of importance, shall take +notice of it when we come to treat of minerals; it is sufficient to have +explained our conception of the formation of the superficial strata of +the earth, and by other examples we shall prove, that the formation of +the interior strata, can only be the work of the waters. + +The surface of the globe, says Woodward, this external stratum on which +men and animals walk, which serves as a magazine for the formation of +vegetables and animals, is, for the greatest part, composed of vegetable +or animal matter, and is in continual motion and variation. All animals +and vegetables which have existed from the creation of the world, have +successively extracted from this stratum the matter which composes it, +and have, after their deaths, restored to it this borrowed matter: it +remains there always ready to be retaken, and to serve for the formation +of other bodies of the same species successively, for the matter which +composes one body is proper and natural to form another body of the same +kind. In uninhabited countries, where the woods are never cut, where +animals do not brouze on the plants, this stratum of vegetable earth +increases considerably. In all woods, even in those which are sometimes +cut, there is a bed of mould, of six or eight inches thick, formed +entirely by the leaves, small branches, and barks which have perished. I +have often observed on the ancient Roman way, which crosses Burgundy in +a long extent of soil, that there is formed a bed of black earth more +than a foot thick upon the stones, which nourishes very high trees; and +this stratum could be composed only of a black mould formed by the +leaves, bark, and perished wood. As vegetables inhale for their +nutriment much more from the air and water than the earth, it happens +that when they perish, they return to the earth more than they have +taken from it. Besides, forests collect the rain water, and by stopping +the vapours increase their moisture; so in a wood which is preserved a +long time, the stratum of earth which serves for vegetation increases +considerably. But animals restoring less to the earth than they take +from it, and men making enormous consumption of wood and plants for +fire, and other uses, it follows that the vegetable soil of inhabited +countries must diminish, and become, in time, like the soil of Arabia +Petrea, and other eastern provinces, which, in fact, are the most +ancient inhabited countries, where only sand and salt are now to be met +with; for the fixed salts of plants and animals remain, whereas all the +other parts volatilise, and are transported by the air. + +Let us now examine the position and formation of the interior strata: +the earth, says Woodward, appears in places that have been dug, composed +of strata placed one on the other, as so many sediments which +necessarily fell to the bottom of the water; the deepest strata are +generally the thickest, and those above the thinnest, and so gradually +lessening to the surface. We find sea shells, teeth, and bones of fish +in these different beds, and not only in those that are soft, as chalk +and clay, but even in those of hard stone, marble, &c. These marine +productions are incorporated with the stone, and when separated from +them, leave the impressions of the shells with the greatest exactness. +"I have been most clearly and positively assured," says this author, +"that in France, Flanders, Holland, Spain, Italy, Germany, Denmark, +Norway, and Sweden, stone, and other terrestrial substances are disposed +in strata, precisely the same as they are in England; that these strata +are divided by parallel fissures; that there are inclosed within stones +and other terrestrial and compact substances, a great quantity of shells +and other productions of the sea, disposed in the same manner as in this +island. I am also informed that these strata are found the same in +Barbary, Egypt, Guinea, and in other parts of Africa; in Arabia, Syria, +Persia, Malabar, China, and the rest of the provinces of Asia; in +Jamaica, Barbadoes, Virginia, New-England, Brazil, and other parts of +America[198:A]." + +This author does not say how he learnt, or by whom he was told, that the +strata of Peru contained shells; yet as in general his observations are +exact, I do not doubt but he was well informed; and am persuaded that +shells may be found in the earth of Peru, as well as elsewhere. This +remark is made from a doubt having been formed some time since on the +subject, and which I shall hereafter consider. + +In a trench made at Amsterdam, to the depth of 230 feet, the strata were +found as follows: 7 feet of vegetable earth, 9 of turf, 9 of soft clay, +8 of sand, 4 of earth, 10 of clay, 4 of earth, 10 of sand, then 2 feet +of clay, 4 of white sand, 5 of dry earth, 1 of soft earth, 14 of sand, 8 +of argil, mixed with earth; 4 of sand, mixed with shells; then clay 102 +feet thick, and at last 31 feet of sand, at which depth they ceased +digging[199:A]. + +It is very singular to dig so deep without meeting with water: and this +circumstance is remarkable in many particulars. 1. It shews, that the +water of the sea does not communicate with the interior part of the +earth, by means of filtration. 2. That shells are found at the depth of +100 feet below the surface, and that consequently the soil of Holland +has been raised 100 feet by the sediment of the sea. 3. We may draw an +induction, that this strata of thick clay of 102 feet, and the bed of +sand below it, in which they dug to 31 feet, and whose entire thickness +is unknown, are perhaps not very far distant from the first strata of +the original earth, such as it was before the motion of the water had +changed its surface. We have said in the first article, that if we +desired to find the ancient earth, we should dig in the northern +countries, rather than towards the south; in plains rather than in +mountainous regions. The circumstances in this instance, appear to be +nearly so, only it is to be wished they had continued the digging to a +greater depth, and that the author had informed us, whether there were +not shells and other marine productions, in the last bed of clay, and in +that of sand below it. The experiment confirms what we have already +said; and the more we dig, the greater thickness we shall find the +strata. + +The earth is composed of parallel and horizontal beds, not only in +plains, but hills and mountains are in general composed after the same +manner: it may be said, that the strata in hills and mountains are more +apparent there than in the plains, because the plains are generally +covered with a very considerable quantity of sand and earth, which the +water has brought from the higher grounds, and therefore, to find the +ancient strata, must dig deeper in the plains than in the mountains. + +I have often observed, that when a mountain is level at its summit, the +strata which compose it are also level; but if the summit is not placed +horizontally, the strata inclines also in the same direction. I have +heard that, in general, the beds of quarries inclined a little to the +east; but having myself observed all the chains of rocks which offered, +I discovered this opinion to be erroneous, and that the strata inclines +to the same side as the hill, whether it be east, west, north, or south. +When we dig stone and marble from the quarry, we take great care to +separate them according to their natural position, and we cannot even +get them of a large size, if we cut them in any other direction. Where +they are made use of for good masonry, the workmen are particular in +placing them as they stood in the quarry, for if they were placed in any +other direction, they would split, and would not resist the weight with +which they are loaded. This perfectly confirms that stones, are found +in parallel and horizontal strata, which have been successively heaped +one on the other, and that these strata composed masses where resistance +is greater in that direction than in any other. + +Every strata, whether horizontal or inclined, has an equal thickness +throughout its whole extent. In the quarries about Paris the bed of good +stone is not thick, scarcely more than 18 or 20 feet: in those of +Burgundy the stone is much thicker. It is the same with marble; the +black and white marble have a thicker bed than the coloured; and I know +beds of very hard stone, which the farmers in Burgundy make use of to +cover their houses, that are not above an inch thick. The different +strata vary much in thickness, but each bed preserves the same thickness +throughout its extent. The thickness of strata is so greatly varied, +that it is found from less than a line to 1, 10, 20, 30, or 100 feet +thick. The ancient and modern quarries, which are horizontally dug, the +perpendicular and other divisions of mines, prove that there are +extensive strata in all directions. "It is thoroughly proved," says the +historian of the academy, "that all stones have formerly been a soft +paste, and as there are quarries almost in every part, the surface of +the earth has therefore consisted, in all these places, of mud and +slime, at least to certain depths. The shells found in most quarries +prove that this mud was an earth diluted by the water of the sea, and +consequently that the sea covered all these places; and it could not +cover them without also covering all that was level with or lower than +it: and it is plain that it could not cover every place where there were +quarries, without covering the whole face of the terrestrial globe. We +do not here consider the mountains which the sea must also at one time +have covered, since quarries and shells are often found in them. + +"The sea," continues he, "therefore, covered the whole earth, and from +thence it proceeds that all the beds of stone in the plains are +horizontal and parallel; fish must have also been the most ancient +inhabitants of the globe, as there was no sustenance for either birds or +terrestrial animals." But how did the sea retire into these vast basins +which it at present occupies? What presents itself the most natural to +the mind is, that the earth, at least at a certain depth, was not +entirely solid, but intermixed with some great vacuums, whose vaults +were supported for a time, but at length, sunk in suddenly: then the +waters must have fallen into these vacancies, filled them, and left +naked a part of the earth's surface, which became an agreeable abode to +terrestrial animals and birds. The shells found in quarries perfectly +agree with this idea, for only the bony parts of fish could be preserved +till now. In general, shells are heaped up in great abundance in certain +parts of the sea, where they are immovable, and form a kind of rock, and +could not follow the water, which suddenly forsook them: this is the +reason that we find more shells than bones of the fish, and this even +proves a sudden fall of the sea into its present basins. At the same +time as our supposed vaults gave way, it is very possible that other +parts of the globe were raised by the same cause, and that mountains +were placed on this surface with quarries already formed, but the beds +of these quarries could not preserve the horizontal direction they +before had, unless the mountains were raised precisely perpendicular to +the surface of the earth, which could happen but very seldom: so also, +as we have already observed, in 1705, the beds of stone in mountains are +always inclined to the horizon, though parallel with each other; for +they have not changed their position with respect to each other, but +only with respect to the surface of the earth[205:A]. + +These parallel strata, these beds of earth and stone, which have been +formed by the sediment of the sea, often extend to considerable +distances, and we often find in hills, separated by a valley, the same +beds and the same matters at the same level. This observation agrees +perfectly with that of the height of the opposite hills. We may easily +be assured of the truth of these facts, for in all narrow vallies, where +rocks are discovered, we shall find the same beds of stone and marble on +both sides at the same height. In a country where I frequently reside, I +found a quarry of marble which extended more than 12 leagues in length, +and whose breadth was very considerable, although I have never been able +precisely to determine it. I have often observed that this bed of marble +is throughout of the same thickness, and in hills divided from this +quarry by a valley of 100 feet depth, and a quarter of a mile in +breadth, I found the same bed of marble at the same height. I am +persuaded it is the same in every stone and marble quarry where shells +are found; but this observation does not hold good in quarries of +freestone. In the course of this work, we shall give reasons for this +difference, and describe why freestone is not dispersed, like other +matters, in horizontal beds, and why it is in irregular blocks, both in +form and position. + +We have likewise observed that the strata are the same on both sides the +straits of the sea. This observation, which is important, may lead us to +discover the lands and islands which have been separated from the +continent; it proves, for example, that England has been divided from +France; Spain from Africa; Sicily from Italy; and it is to be wished +that the same observation had been made in all the straits. I am +persuaded that we should find it almost every where true. We do not know +whether the same beds of stone are found at the same height on both +sides the straits of Magellan, which is the longest; but we see, by the +particular maps and exact charts, that the two high coasts which confine +it, form nearly, like the mountains of the earth, correspondent angles, +which also proves that the Terra del Fuega, must be regarded as part of +the continent of America; it is the same with Forbisher's Strait and +the island of Friesland, which appear to have been divided from the +continent of Greenland. + +The Maldivian islands are only separated by small tracts of the sea, on +each side of which banks and rocks are found composed of the same +materials; and these islands, which, taken together, are near 200 miles +long, formed anciently only one land; they are now divided into 13 +provinces, called Clusters. Each cluster contains a great number of +small islands, most of which are sometimes overflowed and sometimes dry; +but what is remarkable, these thirteen clusters are each surrounded with +a chain of rocks of the same stone, and there are only three or four +dangerous inlets by which they can be entered. They are all placed one +after the other, and it evidently appears that these islands were +formerly a long mountain capped with rocks[216:A]. + +Many authors, as Verstegan, Twine, Somner, and especially Campbell, in +his Description of England, in the chapter of Kent, gives very strong +reasons, to prove that England was formerly joined to France, and has +been separated from it by an effort of the sea, which carried away the +neck of land that joined them, opened the channel, and left naked a +great quantity of low and marshy ground along the southern coasts of +England. Dr. Wallis, as a corroboration of this supposition, shews the +conformity of the ancient Gallic and British tongues, and adds many +observations, which we shall relate in the following articles. + +If we consider the form of lands, the position of mountains, and the +windings of rivers, we shall perceive that generally opposite hills are +not only composed of the same matters on the same level, but are nearly +of an equal height. This equality I have observed in my travels, and +have mostly found them the same on the two sides, especially in vallies +that were not more than a quarter or a third of a league broad, for in +vallies which are very broad, it is difficult to judge of the height and +equality of hills, because, by looking over a level plain of any great +extent, it appears to rise, and hills at a distance appear to lower; but +this is not the place to give a mathematical reason for this difference. +It is also very difficult to judge by the naked sight of the middle of a +great valley, at least if there is no river in it; whereas in confined +vallies our sight is less equivocal and our judgment more certain. That +part of Burgundy comprehended between Auxerre, Dijon, Autun, and +Bar-sur-seine, a considerable extent of which is called _la Bailliage de +la Montagne_, is one of the highest parts of France; from one side of +most of these mountains, which are only of the second class, the water +flows towards the Ocean, and on the other side towards the +Mediterranean. This high country is divided with many small vallies, +very confined, and almost all watered with rivulets. I have a thousand +times observed the correspondence of the angles of these hills and their +equality of height, and I am certain that I have every where found the +saliant angles opposite to the returning angles, and the heights nearly +equal on both sides. The farther we advance into the higher country, +where the points of division are, the higher are the mountains; but this +height is always the same on both sides of the vallies, and the hills +are raised or lowered alike. I have frequently made the like +observations in many other parts of France. It is this equality in the +height of the hills which forms the plains in the mountains, and these +plains form lands higher than others. But high mountains do not appear +so equal in height, most of them terminate in points and irregular +peaks; and I have seen, in crossing the Alps, and the Apennine +mountains, that the angles are, in fact, correspondent; but it is almost +impossible to judge by the eye of the equality or inequality in the +height of opposite mountains, because their summits are lost in mists +and clouds. + +The different strata of which the earth is composed are not disposed +according to their specific weight, for we often find strata of heavy +matters placed on those of lighter. To be assured of this, we have only +to examine the earth on which rocks are placed, and we shall find that +it is generally clay or sand, which is specifically lighter. In hills, +and other small elevations, we easily discover this to be the case; but +it is not so with large mountains, for not only their summits are rocks, +but those rocks are placed on others; there mountains are placed upon +mountains, and rocks upon rocks, to such a considerable height, and +through so great an extent of country, that we can scarcely be certain +whether there is earth at bottom, or of what nature it is. I have seen +cavities made in rocks to some hundred feet deep, without being able to +form an idea where they ended, for these rocks were supported by +others; nevertheless, may we not compare great with small? and since +the rocks of little mountains, whose bases are to be seen, rest on the +earth less heavy and solid than stone, may we not suppose that earth is +also the base of high mountains? All that I have here to prove by these +arguments is, that, by the motion of the waters, it may naturally happen +that the more ponderous matters accumulated on the lighter; and that, if +this in fact is found to be so in most hills, it is probable that it +happened as explained by my theory; but should it be objected that I am +not grounded in supposing, that before the formation of mountains the +heaviest matters were below the lighter; I answer, that I assert nothing +general in this respect, because this effect may have been produced in +many manners, whether the heaviest matters were uppermost or undermost, +or placed indiscriminately. To conceive how the sea at first formed a +mountain of clay, and afterwards capt it with rocks, it is sufficient to +consider the sediments may successively come from different parts, and +that they might be of different materials. In some parts, the sea may at +first have deposited sediments of clay, and the waters afterwards +brought sediment of strong matter, either because they had transported +all the clay from the bottom and sides, and then the waves attacked the +rocks, possibly because the first sediment came from one part, and the +second from another. This perfectly agrees with observation, by which we +perceive that beds of earth, stone, gravel, sand, &c. followed no rule +in their arrangement, but are placed indifferently one on the other as +it were by chance. + +But this chance must have some rules, which can be known only by +estimating the value of probabilities, and the truth of conjectures. +According to our hypothesis, on the formation of the globe, we have seen +that the interior part of the globe must have been a vitrified matter, +similar to vitrified sand, which is only the fragments of glass, and of +which the clays are perhaps the scoria; by this supposition, the centre +of the earth, and almost as far as the external circumference, must be +glass, or a vitrified matter; and above this we shall find sand, clay, +and other scoria. Thus the earth, in its first state, was a nucleus of +glass, or vitrified matter; either massive like glass, or divided like +sand, because that depends on the degree of heat it has undergone. Above +this matter was sand, and lastly clay. The soil of the waters and air +produced the external crust, which is thicker or thinner, according to +the situation of the ground; more or less coloured, according to the +different mixtures of mud, sand, clay, and the decayed parts of animals +and vegetables; and more or less fertile, according to the abundance or +want of these parts. To shew that this supposition on the formation of +sand and clay is not chimerical, I shall add some particular remarks. + +I conceive, that the earth, in its first state, was a globe, or rather a +spheroid of compact glass, covered with a light crust of pumice stone +and other scoria of the matter in fusion. The motion and agitation of +the waters and air soon reduced this crust into powder or sand, which, +by uniting afterwards, produced flints, and owe their hardness, colour, +or transparency and variety, to the different degrees of purity of the +sand which entered into their composition. + +These sands, whose constituting parts unite by fire, assimilate, and +become very dense, compact, and the more transparent as the sand is more +pure; on the contrary, being exposed a long time to the air, they +disunite and exfoliate, descend in the form of earth, and it is +probable the different clays are thus produced. This dust, sometimes of +a brightish yellow, and sometimes like silver, is nothing else but a +very pure sand somewhat perished, and almost reduced to an elementary +state. By time, particles will be so far attenuated and divided, that +they will no longer have power to reflect the light, and acquire all the +properties of clay. + +This theory is conformable to what every day is seen; let us immediately +wash sand upon its being dug, and the water will be loaded with a black +ductile and fat earth, which is genuine clay. In streets paved with +freestone, the dirt is always black and greasy, and when dried appears +to be an earth of the same nature as clay. Let us wash the earth taken +from a spot where there are neither freestone nor flints, and there will +always precipitate a great quantity of vitrifiable sand. + +But what perfectly proves that sand, and even flint and glass, exist in +clay, is, that the action of fire, by uniting the parts, restores it to +its original form. Clay, if heated to the degree of calcination, will +cover itself with a very hard enamel; if it is not vitrified internally, +it nevertheless will have acquired a very great hardness, so as to +resist the file; it will emit fire under the hammer, and it has all the +properties of flint; a greater degree of heat causes it to flow, and +converts it into real glass. + +Clay and sand are therefore matters perfectly analogous, and of the same +class; if clay, by condensing, may become flint and glass, why may not +sand, by dissolution, become clay? Glass appears to be true elementary +earth, and all mixed substances disguised glass. Metals, minerals, +salts, &c. are only vitrifiable earth; common stone and other matters +analogous to it, and testaceous and crustaceous shells, &c. are the only +substances which cannot be vitrified, and which seem to form a separate +class. Fire, by uniting the divided parts of the first, forms an +homogeneous matter, hard and transparent, without any diminution of +weight, and to which it is not possible to cause any alteration; those, +on the contrary, in which a greater quantity of active and volatile +principles enter, and which calcine, lose more than one-third of their +weight in the fire, and retake the form of simple earth, without any +other alteration than a disunion of their different parts: these bodies +excepted, which are no great number, and whose combinations produce no +great varieties in nature, every other substance, and particularly +clay, may be converted into glass, and are consequently only decomposed +glass. If the fire suddenly causes the form of these substances to +change, by vitrifying them, glass itself, whether pure, or in the form +of sand or flint, naturally, but by a slow and insensible progress, +changes into clay. + +Where flint is the predominant stone, the country is generally strewed +with parts of it, and if the place is uncultivated, and these stones +have been long exposed to the air, without having been stirred, their +upper superficies is always white, whereas the opposite side, which +touches the earth, is very brown, and preserves its natural colour. If +these flints are broken, we shall perceive that the whiteness is not +only external, but penetrates internally, and there forms a kind of +band, not very deep in some, but which in others occupies almost the +whole flint. This white part is somewhat grainy, entirely opaque, as +soft as freestone, and adheres to the tongue like the boles; whereas the +other part is smooth, has neither thread nor grain, and preserves its +natural colour, transparency, and hardness. If this flint is put into a +furnace, its white part becomes of a brick colour, and its brown part +of a very fine white. Let us not say with one of our most celebrated +naturalists, that these stones are imperfect flints of different ages, +which have not acquired their perfection; for why should they be all +imperfect? Why should they be imperfect only on the side exposed to the +weather? It, on the contrary, appears to me more reasonable that they +are flints changed from their original state, gradually decomposed, and +assuming the form and property of clay or bole. If this is thought to be +only conjecture, let the hardest and blackest flint be exposed to the +weather, in less than a year its surface will change colour; and if we +have patience to pursue this experiment, we shall see it by degrees lose +its hardness, transparency, and other specific characters, and approach +every day nearer and nearer the nature of clay. + +What happens to flint happens to sand; each grain of sand may possibly +be considered as a small flint, and each flint as a mass of extremely +fine grains of sand. The first example of the decomposition of sand is +found in the brilliant opaque powder called Mica, in which clay and +slate are always diffused. The entirely transparent flints, the Quartz, +produce, by decomposition, fat and soft talks, such as those of Venice +and Russia, which are as ductile and vitrifiable as clay: and it appears +to me, that talk is a mediate between glass, or transparent flint, and +clay; whereas coarse and impure flint, by decomposing, passes to clay +without any intermedium. + +Our factitious glass undergoes the same alterations: it decomposes and +perishes, as it were, in the air. At first, it assumes a variety of +colours, then exfoliates, and by working it, we perceive brilliant +scales fall off; but when its decomposition is more advanced, it +crumbles between the fingers, and is reduced into a very white fine +talky powder. Art has even imitated nature in the decomposition of glass +and flint. "Est etiam certa methodus solius aquæ communis ope, silices & +arenam in liquorem viscosum, eumdemque in sal viride convertendi, & hoc +in aleum rubicundum, &c. Solius ignis & aqua ope, speciali experimento, +durissimos quosque lapides in mucorem resolvo, qui distillan subtilem +spiritum exhibet & oleum nullus laudibus prÅ“dicabile[218:A]." + +These matters more particularly belong to metals, and when we come to +them, shall be fully treated on, therefore we shall content ourselves +here with adding, that the different strata which cover the terrestrial +globe, being materials to be considered as actual vitrifications or +analogous to glass, and possessing its most essential qualities; and as +it is evident, that from the decomposition of glass and flint, which is +every day made before our eyes, a genuine clay remains, it is not a +precarious supposition to advance, that clays and sands have been formed +by scoria, and vitrified drops of the terrestrial globe, especially when +we join the proofs _a priori_, which we have given to evince the earth +has been in a state of liquefaction caused by fire. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[198:A] Essay on the Natural History of the Earth, pages 40, 41, 42, &c. + +[199:A] See Varennii, Geograph. General, page 46. + +[205:A] See the Mem. of the Acad. 1716, page 14. + +[216:A] See the Voyages of Francis Piriard, vol. 1, page 108. + +[218:A] See Becher. Phys. subter. + + + + +ARTICLE VIII. + +ON SHELLS, AND OTHER MARINE PRODUCTIONS FOUND IN THE INTERIOR PARTS OF +THE EARTH. + + +I have often examined quarries, the banks of which were filled with +shells; I have seen entire hills composed of them, and chains of rocks +which contained them throughout their whole extent. The quantity of +these marine productions is astonishing, and the number in many places +so prodigious, that it appears scarcely possible that any should now +remain in the sea; it is by considering this innumerable multitude of +shells, that no doubt is left of our earth having been a long time under +the water of the ocean. The quantity found in a fossil, or petrified +state, is beyond conception, and it is only from the number of those +that have been discovered that we could possibly have formed an idea of +their multiplicity. We must imagine, like those who reason on matters +they never saw, that shells are only found at random, dispersed here and +there, or in small heaps, as oyster shells thrown before our doors; on +the contrary, they form mountains, are met with in shoals of 100 or 200 +miles length, nay, they may sometimes be traced through whole provinces +in masses of 50 or 60 feet thick. It is from these circumstances alone +that we can reason on the subject. + +We cannot give a more striking example on this subject than the shells +of Touraine. The following is the description given of them by the +historian of the Academy[220:A]. + +"The number of figured stones and fossil shells found in the bowels of +the earth were remarked in all ages and nations, but they were +considered merely as the sports of nature, and even by philosophers +themselves, as the productions of chance or accident; they regarded them +with a degree of surprise, but passed them over with a slight attention, +and all this phenomena perished without any fruit for the progress of +knowledge. A potter in Paris, who knew neither Latin nor Greek, towards +the end of the 16th century, was the first man who dared affirm, in +opposition to the learned, that the fossil shells were real shells +formerly deposited by the sea in those places where they were found; +that animals, and particularly fish, had given to stones all these +different figures, &c. and he desired the whole school of Aristotle to +contradict his proofs. This was Bernard Palissy, as great a natural +genius as nature could form: his system slept near 100 years, and even +his name was almost forgot. At length the ideas of Palissy were revived +in the mind of several philosophers; and science has profited by all the +shells and figured stones the earth furnishes us with; perhaps they are +at present become only too common, and the consequences drawn from them +too incontestable. + +"Notwithstanding this, the observations presented by M. Reaumer must +appear wonderful. He discovered a mass of 130 million, 680 thousand +cubical fathoms of shells, either whole or in fragments, without any +mixture of stone, earth, sand, or other extraneous matter: hitherto +fossil shells have never appeared in such an enormous quantity, nor +without mixture. It is in Touraine this prodigious mass is found, more +than 36 leagues from the sea; this is perfectly known there, as the +farmers of that province make use of these shells, which they dig up, as +manure for their lands, to fertilize their plains, which otherwise would +be absolutely sterile. + +"What is dug from the earth, and which generally is no more than eight +or nine feet deep, are only small fragments of shells, very +distinguishable as fragments, for they retain their original channels +and hollows, having only lost their gloss and colour, as almost all +shells do which we find in the earth. The smallest pieces, which are +only dust, are still distinguishable because they are perfectly of the +same matter as the rest, as well as of the whole shells which are +sometimes found. We discover the species as well in the whole shells as +in the larger fragments. Some of these species are known at Poictou, +others belong to more remote coasts. There are even fragments of +madrepores, coral, and other productions of the sea; all this matter in +the country is termed _Fallun_, and is found wherever the ground is dug +in that province for the space of nine leagues square. The peasants do +not dig above twenty feet deep, because they think it would not repay +them for their trouble, but they are certainly deeper. The calculation +of the quantity is however taken upon the supposition of only 18 feet +and 2200 fathoms to the league. This mass of shells of course exceeds +the calculation, and possibly contains double the quantity. + +"In physical points the smallest circumstances, which most people do not +think worthy of remarking, sometimes lead to consequences and afford +great lights. M. de Reaumer observed, that all these fragments of shells +lie horizontally, and hence he has concluded that this infinity of +fragments does not proceed from the heap being formed at one time, or of +whole shells, for the uppermost, by their weight, would have crushed +the others, and of course their fallings would have given an infinity of +different positions. They must, therefore, have been brought there by +the sea, either whole or broken, and necessarily placed horizontal; and +although the extreme length of time was of itself sufficient to break, +and almost calcine the greatest part, it could not change their +position. + +"By this it appears, that they must have been brought gradually, and, in +fact, how was it possible that the sea could convey at once such an +immense quantity of shells, and at the same time preserve a position +perfectly horizontal? they must have collected in one spot, and +consequently this spot must have been the bottom of a gulph or basin. + +"All this proves, that although there must remain upon the earth many +vestiges of the universal deluge, as recorded in scripture, the mass of +shells at Touraine was not produced by that deluge; there is perhaps not +so great a mass in any part of the sea; but even had the deluge forced +them away, it would have been with an impetuosity and violence that +would not have permitted them to retain one uniform position. They must +have been brought and deposited gently and slowly, and consequently +their accumulation required a space of time much longer than a year." + +The surface of the earth, it is evident, must have been before or after +the deluge very differently disposed to what it is at present, that the +sea and continent had another arrangement, and formerly there was a +great gulph in the middle of Touraine. The changes which are known from +history, or even ancient fable, are inconsiderable, but they give us +room to imagine those which a longer time might bring about. M. de +Reaumur supposes that Touraine was a gulph of the sea which communicated +with the ocean, and that the shells were carried there by a current; but +this is a simple conjecture laid down in room of the real unknown fact. +To speak with certainty on this matter, we should have geographical maps +of all the places where shells have been dug from the earth, to obtain +which would require almost an infinity of time and observation, yet it +is possible that hereafter science may accomplish it. + +This quantity of shells, considerable as it is, will astonish us less if +we consider the following circumstances: first, shell fish multiply +prodigiously, and are full grown in a very short time; the abundance of +individuals in each kind proves to us their fertility. We have a strong +example of this increase in oysters, a mass of many fathoms of which are +frequently raised in a single day. In a very short time the rocks to +which they are attached are considerably diminished, and some banks +quite exhausted, nevertheless the ensuing year we find them as plentiful +as before, nor do they appear to be in the least diminished; indeed I +know not whether a natural bed of oysters was ever entirely exhausted. +Secondly, the substance of shells is analogous to stone; they are a long +time preserved in soft matters, and petrify readily in hard; these +shells and marine productions therefore found on the earth, being the +wrecks of many ages, must of course have formed very considerable +masses. + +There are a prodigious quantity of shells in marble, lime, stone, chalk, +marl, &c. we find them, as before observed, in hills and mountains, and +they often make more than one half of the bodies which contain them; for +the most part they appear well preserved, others are in fragments, but +large enough to distinguish to what kind of shells they belong. Here our +knowledge on this subject, from observation, finds its limits; but I +shall go further and assert that shells are the intermedium which Nature +adopts for the formation of most kind of stones; that chalks, marls, and +lime-stone are composed only of the powder and pieces of shells; that +consequently the quantities of shells destroyed are infinitely more +considerable than those preserved. I shall here content myself with +indicating the point of view in which we ought to consider the strata of +which the globe is composed. The first stratum is composed of the dust +of the air, the sediment of the rain, dew, and vegetable or animal +parts, reduced to particles; the strata of chalk, marl, lime, stone, and +marble, are composed of the ruins of shells, and other marine +productions, mixed with fragments or whole shells; but the vitrifiable +sand or clay are the matters of which the internal parts of the globe +are composed. They were vitrified when the globe received its form, +which necessarily supposes that the matter was in fusion. The granate, +rock, flint, &c. owe their origin to sand and clay, and are likewise +disposed by strata; but tuffa[227:A], free-stone, and flints (not in +great masses), crystals, metals, pyrites, most minerals, sulphurs, &c. +are matters whose formation is novel, in comparison with marbles, +calcinable stones, chalk, marl, and all other materials disposed in +horizontal strata, and which contain shells and other productions of the +sea. + +As the denominations I make use of may appear obscure or equivocal, it +is necessary to explain them. By the term _clay_, I mean not only the +white and yellow, but also blue, soft, hard, foliated, and other clays, +which I look on as the scoria of glass, or as decomposed glass. By the +word _sand_ I always understand vitrifiable sand; and not only +comprehend under this denomination the fine sand which produces +freestone, and which I look upon as powdered glass, or rather pumice +stone, but also the sand which proceeds from the freestone destroyed by +friction, and also the larger sand, as small gravel, which proceeds from +the granate and rock-stone, and is sharp, angular, red, and commonly +found in the bed of rivers or rivulets that derive their waters +immediately from the higher mountains, or hills composed of stone or +granate. The river Armanson conveys a great quantity of this sand; it is +large and brittle, and in fact is only fragments of rock-stone, as +calcinable gravel is of freestone. _Rock-stone_ and _granate_ are one +and the same substance, but I have used both denominations, because +there are many persons who make two different species of them. It is the +same with respect to flints and free-stone in large pieces; I look on +them as kinds of granate, and I call them _large flints_, because they +are disposed like calcinable stone in strata, and to distinguish them +from the flints and free-stone in small masses, and the round flints +which have no regular quarries, and whose beds have a certain extent; +these are of a modern formation, and have not the same origin as the +flints and free-stone in large lumps, which are disposed in regular +strata. + +I understand by the term _slate_, not only the blue, which all the world +knows, but white, grey, and red slate: these bodies are generally met +with below laminated clay, and have every appearance of being nothing +more than clay hardened in this strata. Pit coal and jet are matters +which also belong to clay, and are commonly under slate. By the word +_tuffa_, I understood not only the common pumice which appears full of +holes, and, as I may say, organized, but all the beds of stone made by +the sediment of running waters, all the stalactites, incrustations, and +all kinds of stone that dissolve by fire. It is no ways doubtful that +these matters are not modern, and that they every day grow. Tuffa is +only a mass of lapidific matter in which we perceive no distinct strata: +this matter is disposed generally in small hollow cylinders, irregularly +grouped and formed by waters dropt at the foot of mountains, or on the +slope of hills, which contain beds of marl or soft and calcareous earth; +these cylinders, which make one of the specific characters of this kind +of tuffa, is either oblique or vertical according to the direction of +the streams or water which form them. These sort of spurious quarries +have no continuation; their extent is very confined, and proportionate +to the height of the mountains which furnish them with the matter of +their growth. The tuffa every day receiving lapidific juices, those +small cylindrical columns, between which intervals are left, close at +last, and the whole becomes one compact body, but never acquires the +hardness of stone, and is what Agricola terms _Marga tofocea fistulosa_. +In this tuffa are generally found impressions of leaves, trees, and +plants, like those which grow in the environs: terrestrial shells also +are often met with, but never any of the marine kind. The tuffa is +certainly therefore a new matter, which must be ranked with stalactites, +incrustations, &c. all these new matters are kinds of spurious stones, +formed at the expence of the rest, but which never arrive at true +petrification. + +Crystal, precious stones, and all those which have a regular figure, +even small flints formed by concentrical beds, whether found in +perpendicular cavities of rocks, or elsewhere, are only exudations of +large flints, or concrete juices of the like matters, and are therefore +spurious stones, and real stalactites of flint or rock. + +Shells are never found either in rock, granate, or free-stone, although +they are often met with in vitrifiable sand, from which these matters +derive their origin; this seems to prove that sand cannot unite to form +free-stone or rock but when it is pure, and that if it is mixed with +shells or substances of other kinds, which are heterogeneous to it, its +union is prevented. I have observed the little pebbles which are often +found in beds of sand mixed with shells, but never found any shell +therein: these pebbles are real concretions of free-stone formed in the +sand in the places where it is not mixed with heterogeneous matters +which oppose the formation of larger masses. + +We have before observed, that at Amsterdam, which is a very low country, +sea shells were found at 100 feet below the earth, and at +Marly-la-Ville, six miles from Paris, at 75 feet; we likewise meet with +the same at the bottom of mines, and in banks of rocks, beneath a height +of stone 50, 100, 200, and 1000 feet thick, as is apparent in the Alps +and Pyrennees, where, in the lower beds, shells and other marine +productions are constantly found. But to proceed in order, we find +shells on the mountains of Spain, France, and England; in all the marble +quarries of Flanders, in the mountains of Gueldres, in all hills around +Paris, Burgundy, and Champagne; in one word, in every place where the +basis of the soil is not free-stone or tuffa; and in most of these +places there are more shells than other matters in the substance of the +stones. By _shells_, I mean not only the wrecks of shell-fish, but those +of crustaceous animals, the bristles of sea hedge-hogs, and all +productions of the sea insects, as coral, madrepores, astroites, &c. We +may easily be convinced by inspection, that in most calculable stones +and marble, there is so great a quantity of these marine productions +that they appear to surpass the matter which unites them. + +But let us proceed; we meet with these marine productions even on the +tops of the highest mountains; for example, on Mount Cenis, in the +mountains of Genes, in the Apennines, and in most of the stone and +marble quarries in Italy; also in the stones of the most ancient +edifices of the Romans; in the mountains of Tirol; in the centre of +Italy, on the summits of Mount Paterne, near Bologna; in the hills of +Calabria; in many parts of Germany and Hungary, and generally in all the +high parts of Europe[233:A]. + +In Asia and Africa, travellers have remarked them in several parts; for +example, on the mountains of Castravan, above Barut, there is a bed of +white stone as thin as slate, each leaf of which contains a great number +and diversity of fishes; they lie for the most part very flat and +compressed, as does the fossil fearn-plants, but they are +notwithstanding so well preserved, that the smallest traces of the fins, +scales, and all the parts which distinguish each kind of fish, are +perfectly visible. So likewise we find many sea muscles, and petrified +shells between Suez and Cairo, and on all the hills and eminences of +Barbary; the greatest part are conformable to the kinds at present +caught in the Red Sea[234:A]. In Europe, we meet with petrified fish in +Sweden and Germany, and in the quarry of Oningen, &c. + +The long chain of mountains, says Bourguet, which extends from Portugal +to the most eastern parts of China, the mountains of Africa and America, +and the vallies of Europe, all inclose stones filled with shell-fish, +and from hence, he says, we may conclude the same of all the other parts +of the world unknown to us. + +The islands in Europe, Asia, and America, where men have had occasion to +dig, whether in mountains or plains, furnish examples of fossil shells, +which evince that they have that in common with the bordering +continents. + +Here then is sufficient facts to prove that sea shells, petrified fish, +and other marine productions are to be found in almost every place we +are disposed to seek them. + +"It is certain, says an English author (Tancred Robinson), that there +have been sea-shells dispersed on the earth by armies, and the +inhabitants of towns and villages, and that Loubere relates in his +Voyage to Siam, that the monkies of the Cape of Good Hope, continually +amuse themselves with carrying shells from the sea shores to the tops of +the mountains; but that cannot resolve the question, why these shells +are dispersed over all the earth, and even in the interior parts of +mountains, where they are deposited in beds like those in the bottom of +the sea." + +On reading an Italian letter on the changes happened to the terrestrial +globe, printed at Paris in the year 1746, I was surprised to find these +sentiments of Loubere exactly corresponded. Petrified fish, according to +this writer, are only fish rejected from the Roman tables, because they +were not esteemed wholesome; and with respect to fossil-shells, he says +the pilgrims of Syria brought, during the times of the Crusades, those +of the Levant Sea, into France, Italy, and other Christian states; why +has he not added that it was the monkies who transported the shells to +the tops of these mountains, which were never inhabited by men? This +would not have spoiled but rendered his explanation still more +probable. + +How comes it that enlightened persons, who pique themselves on +philosophy, have such various ideas on this subject? But doing so, we +shall not content ourselves with having said that petrified shells are +found in almost every part of the earth which has been dug, nor with +having related the testimonies of authors of natural history; as it +might be suspected, that with a view of some system, they perceived +shells where there were none; but quote the authority of some authors, +who merely remarked them accidentally, and whose observations went no +farther than recognising those that were whole and in the best +preservation. Their testimony will perhaps be of a still greater +authority with people who have it not in their power to be assured of +the truth of these facts, and who know not the difference between shells +and petrifications. + +All the world may see the banks of shells in the hills in the environs +of Pans, especially in the quarries of stone, as at ChaussĂ©e, near SĂ©ve, +at Issy, Passy, and elsewhere. We find a great quantity of lenticular +stones at Villers-Cotterets; these rocks are entirely formed thereof, +and they are blended without any order with a kind of stony mortar, +which binds them together. At Chaumont so great a quantity of petrified +shells are found that the hills appear to be composed of nothing else. +It is the same at Courtagnon, near Rheims, where there is a bank of +shells near four leagues broad, and whose length is considerably more. I +mention these places as being famous and striking the eye of every +beholder. + +With respect to foreign countries, here follows the observations of some +travellers: + +"In Syria and PhÅ“nicia, the rocks, particularly in the neighbourhood +of Latikea, are a kind of chalky substance, and it is perhaps from +thence that the city has taken the name of the white promontory. +Nakoura, anciently termed Scala Tyriorum, or the Tyrians Ladder, is +nearly of the same nature, and we still find there, by digging, +quantities of all sorts of shells, corals, and other remains of the +deluge[237:A]." + +On mount Sinai, we find only a few fossil shells, and other marks of the +deluge, at least if we do not rank the fossil Tarmarin of the +neighbouring mountains of Siam among this number, perhaps the first +matter of which their marble is formed, had a corrosive virtue not +proper to preserve them. But at Corondel, where the rocks approach +nearer our free-stone, I found many shells, as also a very singular sea +muscle, of the descoid kind, but closer and rounder. The ruins of the +little village Ain le Mousa, and many canals which conduct the water +thereto, furnish numbers of fossil shells. The ancient walls of Suez, +and what yet remains of its harbour, have been constructed of the same +materials, which seem to have been taken from the same quarry. Between, +as well as on all the mountains, eminences and hills of Lybia, near +Egypt, we meet with a great quantity of sea weed, as well as vivalvous +shells, and of these which terminate in a point, most of which are +exactly conformable to the kinds at present caught in the Red Sea. + +The moving sand in the neighbourhood of Ras Sem, in the kingdom of +Barca, covers many palm trees with petrifications. Ras Sem signifies the +head of a fish, and is what we term the petrified village, where it is +said men, women, and children are found, who with their cattle, +furniture, &c. have been converted into stone; but these, says Shaw, are +vain tales and fables, as I have not only learnt from M. le Maire, who +at the time he was Consul at Tripoly, sent several persons thither to +take cognizance of it, but also from very respectable persons who had +been at those places. + +Near the pyramids certain pieces of stone worked by the sculptor, were +found by Mr. Shaw, and among these stones many rude ones of the figure +and size of lentils; some even resemble barley half-peeled; these, he +says, were reported to be the remains of what the workmen ate, but which +does not appear probable, &c. These lentils and barley are nothing but +petrified shells called by naturalists lentil stones. + +According to Misson, several sorts of these shell-fish are found in the +environs of Maestricht, especially towards the village of Zicken, or +Tichen, and at the little mountain called Huns. In the environs of +Sienna, near Ceraldo, are many mountains of sand crammed with divers +sorts of shells. Montemario, a mile from Rome, is entirely filled with +them; I have seen them in the Alps, France, and elsewhere. Olearius, +Steno, Cambden, Speed, and a number of other authors, as well ancient as +modern, relate the same phenomena. + +"The island of Cerigo, says Thevenot, was anciently called Porphyris, +from the quantity of Porphyry which was taken out of it[240:A]. + +"Opposite the village of Inchene, and on the eastern shore of the Nile, +I found petrified plants, which grow naturally in a space about two +leagues long, by a very moderate breadth; this is one of the most +singular productions of nature. These plants resemble the white coral +found in the Red Sea[240:B]." + +"There are petrifications of divers kinds on Mount Libanus, and among +others flat stones, where the skeletons of fish are found well preserved +and entire; red chesnuts and small branches of coral, the same as grow +in the Red Sea, are also found on this mountain." + +"On Mount Carmel we find a great quantity of hollow stones, which have +something of the figure of melons, peaches, and other fruits, which are +said to be so petrified: they are commonly sold to pilgrims, not only as +mere curiosities, but also as remedies against many disorders. The +olives which are the _lapides jadaici_, are to be met with at the +druggists, and have always been looked upon, when dissolved in the +juice of lemon, as a specific for the stone and gravel." + +"M. la Roche, a physician, gave me some of these petrified olives, which +grew in great plenty in these mountains, where I am told are found other +stones, the inside of which perfectly resemble the natural parts of men +and women. These are Hysterolithes." + +"In going from Smyrna to Tauris, when we were at Tocat, says Tavernier, +the heat was so great, as obliged us to quit the common road, and go by +the mountains, where there is constantly shade and refreshing air. In +many places we found snow and a quantity of very fine sorrel, and on the +top of some of those mountains we found shells like those upon the sea +shores, which was very extraordinary." + +Here follows what Olearius says on the subject of petrified shells, +which he remarked in Persia, and in the rocks where the sepulchres are +cut out, near to the village of Pyrmaraus: + +"We were three in company that ascended to the top of the rock by the +most frightful precipices, mutually assisting each other; having gained +the summit, we found four large chambers, and within many niches cut in +the rocks to serve for beds: but what the most surprised us was to find +in this vault, on the top of the mountain, muscle shells; and in some +places they were in such great quantities, that the whole rock appeared +to be composed only of sand and shells. Returning to Persia, we +perceived many of these shelly mountains along the coast of the Caspian +sea." + +To these I could subjoin many other authorities which I suppress, not +willing to tire those who have no need of superabundant proofs, and who +are convinced by their sight, as I have been, of the existence of shells +wherever we chuse to seek for them. + +In France, we not only find the shells of the French coast, but also +such as have never been seen in those seas. Some philosophers assert, +that the quantity of these foreign petrified shells is much greater than +those of our climate; but I think this opinion unfounded; for, +independent of the shell-fish which inhabit the bottom of the sea, and +are seldom brought up by the fishermen, and which consequently may be +looked on as foreigners, although they exist in our seas, I see, by +comparing the petrifactions with the living analagous animals, there +are more of those of our coasts than of others: for example, most of the +cockles, muscles, oysters, ear-shells, limpets, nautili, stars, +tubulites, corals, madrepores, &c. found in so many places, are +certainly the productions of our seas; and though a great number appear +which are foreign or unknown, the cornu ammonis, the lapides juduica, +&c. yet I am convinced, from repeated observations, that the number of +these kinds is small in comparison with the shells of our own coasts: +besides, what composes the bottom of almost all our marble and +lime-stone but madrepores, astroites, and all those other productions +which are formed by sea insects, and formerly called marine plants? +Shells, however abundant, form only a small part of these productions, +many of which originate in our seas, and particularly in the +Mediterranean. + +The Red sea produces corals, madrepores, and marine plants in the +greatest abundance: no part furnishes a greater variety than the port of +Tor; in calm weather so great a quantity present themselves, that the +bottom of the sea resembles a forest; some of the branched madrepores +are eight or ten feet high. In the Mediterranean sea, at Marseilles, +near the coasts of Italy and Sicily; in most of the gulphs of the +ocean, around islands, on banks, and in all temperate climates, where +the sea is but of a moderate depth, they are very common. + +M. Peyssonel was the first who discovered that corals, madrepores, &c. +owed their origin to animals, and were not plants as had been supposed. +The observation of M. Peyssonel was a long time doubted; some +naturalists, at first, rejected it with a kind of disdain, nevertheless +they have been obliged since to acknowledge its truth, and the whole +world is at length satisfied that these formerly supposed marine plants, +are nothing but hives or cells formed by insects, in which they live as +fish do in their shells. These bodies were, at first, placed in the +class of minerals, then passed into that of vegetables, and now remain +fixed in that of animals, the genuine operations of which they must ever +be considered. + +There are shell-fish which live at the bottom of the sea, and which are +never cast on the shore; authors call them Pelogiæ, to distinguish them +from the others which they call Litterales. It is to be supposed the +cornu ammonis, and some other kinds that are only found in a petrified +state, belong to the former, and that they were filled with the stony +sediment in the very places they are found. There might also have been +certain animals, whose species are perished, and of which number this +shell-fish might be ranked. The extraordinary fossil bones found in +Siberia, Canada, Ireland, and many other places, seem to confirm this +conjecture, for no animal has hitherto been discovered to whom such +bones could belong, as they are, for the most part, of an enormous size. + +These shells, according to Woodward, are met with from the top to the +bottom of quarries, pits, and at the bottom of the deepest mines of +Hungary. And Mr. Ray assures us, they are found a thousand feet deep in +the rocks which border the isle of Calda, and in Pembrokeshire in +England. + +Shells are not only found in a petrified state, at great depths, and at +the tops of the highest mountains, but there are some met with in their +natural condition, and which have the gloss, colours, and lightness of +sea-shells; and to convince ourselves entirely of this matter, we have +only to compare them with those found on the sea shores. A slight +examination will prove that these fossil and petrified shells are the +same as those of the sea; they are marked with the same articulations +and in the glossopetri, and other teeth of fishes, which are sometimes +found adhering to the jaw-bone, the teeth of the fish are remarked to be +smooth and worn at the extremities, and that they have been made use of +when the animals were alive. + +Almost every where on land we meet with fossil-shells, and of those of +the same kind, some are small, others large, some young, others old; +some imperfect, others extremely perfect and we likewise sometimes see +the young ones adhering to the old. + +The shell-fish called _purpura_ has a long tongue, the extremity of +which is bony, and so sharp, that it pierces the shells of other fish; +by which means it draws nutriment from them. Shells pierced in this +manner are frequently found in the earth, which is an incontestible +proof that they formerly inclosed living fish, and existed in those +parts where there were the Purpura. + +The obelisks of St. Peter's at Rome, according to John of Latran, were +said to come from the pyramids of Egypt; they are of red granite, which +is a kind of rock-stone, and, as we have observed, contains no shells; +but the African and Egyptian marble, and the porphyry said to have been +cut from the temple of Solomon, and the palaces of the kings of Egypt, +and used at Rome in different buildings, are filled with shells. Red +porphyry is composed of an infinite number of prickles of the species of +echinus, or sea chesnut; they are placed pretty near each other, and +form all the small white spots which are in the porphyry. Each of these +white spots has a black one in its centre, which is the section of the +longitudinal tube of the prickles of the echinus. At Fichen, three +leagues from Dijon, in Burgundy, is a red stone perfectly similar in its +composition to porphyry, and which differs from it only in hardness, not +being more so than marble; it appears almost formed of prickles of the +echini, and its beds are of a very great extent. Many beautiful pieces +of workmanship have been made of it in this province, and particularly +the steps of the pedestal of the equestrian statue of Louis le Grand, at +Dijon. + +This species of stone is also found at Montbard, in Burgundy, where +there is an extensive quarry; it is not so hard as marble, contains more +of the echini, and less of the red matter. From this it appears that +the ancient porphyry of Egypt differs only from that of Burgundy in the +degree of hardness, and the number of the points of the echini. + +With respect to what the curious call green porphyry, I rather suppose +it to be a granite than a porphyry; it is not composed of spots like the +red porphyry, and its substance appears to be similar to that of a +common granite. In Tuscany, in the stone with which the ancient walls of +Volatera were built, there are a great quantity of shells, and this wall +was built 2500 years ago. Most marbles, porphyries, and other stones of +the most ancient buildings, contain shells and other wrecks of marine +productions, as well as the marble we at present take from the quarry; +therefore it cannot be doubted, independent even of the sacred testimony +of holy writ, that before the deluge the earth was composed of the same +materials at it is at present. + +From all these facts it is plain that petrified shells are found in +Europe, Asia, Africa, and in every place where the observations have +been made; they are also found in America, in the Brasils; for example, +in Tucumama, in Terra Magellinica, and in such a great quantity in the +Antilles, that directly below the cultivable land, the bottom of which +the inhabitants call lime, is nothing but a composition of shells, +madrepores, astroites, and other productions of the sea. These facts +would have made me think that shells and other petrified marine +productions were to be found in the greatest part of the continent of +America, and especially in the mountains, as Woodward asserts; but M. +Condamine, who lived several years at Peru, has assured me he could not +discover any in the Cordeliers, although he had carefully sought for +them. This exception would be singular, and the consequences that might +be drawn from it would be still more so; but I own that, in spite of the +testimony of this celebrated naturalist, I am much inclined to suppose, +that in the mountains of Peru, as well as elsewhere, there are shells +and other marine petrifications, although they have not been discovered. +It is well known, that in matter of testimonies, two positive witnesses, +who assert to have seen a thing, is sufficient to make a complete proof; +whereas ten thousand negative witnesses, and who can only assert not to +have seen a thing, can only raise a slight doubt. This reason, united +with the strength of analogy, induces me to persist in thinking the +shells will be found on the mountains of Peru, especially if we search +for them on the rise of the mountain, and not at the summit. + +The tops of the highest mountains are generally composed of rock, stone +granite, and other vitrifiable matters, which contain no shells. + +All these matters were formed out of the beds of the sand of the sea, +which covered the tops of these mountains. When the sea left them, the +sand and other light bodies were carried by the waters into the plains, +so that there remained only rocks on the tops of the mountains, which +had been formed under those beds of sand. At two, three, or four hundred +fathoms below the tops of these mountains, are often found marble and +other calcinable matter, which are disposed in parallel strata, and +contain shells and other marine productions; therefore it is not +surprising that M. de la Condamine did not find any shells on these +mountains, especially if he sought for them in the elevated parts of +those mountains which are composed of rock, free-stone, or vitrifiable +sand; but had he examined the lower parts of the Cordeliers, he would +undoubtedly have found strata of stone, marble, earth, &c. mixed with +shells; for in every country where observations have been made, such +beds have always been met with. + +But suppose that in fact there are no marine productions in the +mountains of Peru, all that may be concluded from it will no ways affect +our theory; and it might be possible, that there are some parts of the +globe which never were covered with water, especially of such elevation +as the Cordeliers. But in this case there might be some curious +observations made on those mountains, for they would not be composed of +parallel strata, the materials also would be very different from those +we are acquainted with; they would not have perpendicular cracks; the +composition of the rocks and stones would not at all resemble those of +other countries; and lastly, in these mountains we should find the +ancient structure of the earth such as it originally was before it was +changed by the motion of the waters; we should see the first state of +the globe, the old matters of which it was composed, its form, and the +natural arrangement of its parts; but this is too much to expect, and on +too slight foundations; and it is more conformable to reason to conclude +that fossil-shells are to be found in those mountains, as well as in +every other place. + +With respect to the manner in which shells are placed in the strata of +earth or sand, Woodward says, "All shells that are met with in an +infinity of strata of earth, and banks of rocks, in the highest +mountains, and in the deepest quarries and mines, in flints, &c. &c. in +masses of sulphur, marcasites, and other metallic and mineral bodies, +are filled with similar substances to that which includes them, and +never any heterogeneous matter, &c. + +"In the sand stones of all countries (the specific weight of the +different kinds of which vary but little, being generally with respect +to water as 2-1/2 or 9/16 to 1), we find only the conchae, and other +shells which are nearly of the same weight, but they are usually found +in very great numbers, whereas it is very rare to meet with +oyster-shells (whose specific weight is but as 2-1/3 to 1), or sea +cockles (whose weight is but as 2 or 2-1/8 to 1), or other sorts of +lighter shells; but on the contrary in chalk, (which is lighter than +stone, being to water but as 2-1/10 to 1), we find only cockles and +other kinds of lighter shells, page 32, 33." + +It must be remarked, that what Woodward says in this place with respect +to specific gravity, must not be looked upon as a general rule, for we +find lighter and heavier shells in the same matters; for example, shells +of cockles, of oysters, of echini, &c. are found in the same stones and +earth; and even in the royal cabinet may be seen a petrified cockle in a +cornelian, and echini petrified in an agate, &c. therefore the specific +weight of the shells has not influenced so much as Woodward supposes +their position in the earth. The reason why such light shells are found +more abundantly in chalk is, that chalk is only the ruinated part of +shells, and that those of the echini being lighter and thinner than +others, would have been most easily reduced into powder or chalk, so +that the strata of chalk are only met with in the places where formerly +a great abundance of these light shells were collected, the destruction +of which formed that chalk, in which we find those shells, which having +resisted the frictions, are preserved entire, or at least in parts large +enough to discover their species. + +But this subject is treated more fully in our discourse on minerals; we +shall here content ourselves with saying, that a modification must be +given to Woodward's expressions: he seems to say, that shells are found +in flints, cornelians, in ores, and sulphur, as often, and in as great +a number as in other matters; whereas the truth is, that they are very +rare in all vitrifiable or purely inflammable substances; and, on the +contrary, are in prodigious abundance in chalk, marl, and marbles, +insomuch that we cannot absolutely pretend to say, that the lightest and +heaviest shells are found in corresponding strata, but only that in +general they are oftener found so than otherwise. They are all filled +with the substance which surrounds them, whether found in horizontal +strata or in perpendicular fissures, because both have been formed by +the waters, although at different times and in different manners. Those +found in horizontal strata of stone, marble, &c. have been deposited by +the motion of the waves of the sea, and those in flints, cornelians, and +all matters which are in the perpendicular fissures, have been produced +by the particular motion of a small quantity of water, loaded with +lapidific or metallic substances. In both cases these matters were +reduced into a fine and impalpable powder, which has filled the shells +so fully and absolutely, as not to have left the least vacuum. + +There is therefore in stone, marble, &c. a great multitude of shells +which are whole, beautiful, and so little changed, that they may be +easily compared with the shells preserved in cabinets, or found on the +sea shores. + +Woodward, in pages 23 and 24, proceeds, "There are, besides these, great +multitudes of shells contained in stones, &c. which are entire and +absolutely free from any such mineral mixture; which may be compared +with those at this time seen on our shores, and which will be found not +to have any difference, being precisely of the same figure and size; of +the same substance and texture as the peculiar matter which composes +them is the same, and is disposed and arranged in the same manner; the +direction of their fibres and spiral lines are the same, the composition +of the small lama formed by their fibres is the same in the one as the +other; we see in the same part vestigia of tendons, by means of which +the animal was fastened and joined to its shell; we see the same +tubercles, stria and pipes; in short, the whole is alike, whether within +or without the shell, in its cavity or on its convexity, in its +substance or on its superficies. In other respects these fossil +shell-fish are subject to the same common accidents as those of the sea; +for example, they sometimes grow to one another, the least are adherent +to the large; they have vermicular conduits; pearls are found therein, +and other similar matters which have been produced by the animal when it +inhabited its shell; and what is very considerable, their specific +gravity is exactly the same as that of their kind found actually in the +sea; in all chymical experiments they answer exactly with sea-shells; +when dissolved they have the same appearance, smell and taste; in a +word, their resemblance is perfectly exact." + +I have often observed with astonishment, as I have already said, whole +mountains, chains of rocks, enormous banks of quarries, so full of +shells and other wrecks of marine productions, that their bulk surpassed +that of the matter in which they were deposited. + +I have seen cultivated fields so full of petrified cockles that a man +might pick them up with his eyes shut, others covered with cornu +ammonis, and some with cardites; and the more we examine the earth, the +more we shall be convinced that the number of these petrifications is +infinite, and conclude, that it is impossible that all the animals which +inhabited these shells existed at one time. + +I have made an observation, that in all countries where we find a very +great number of petrified shells in the cultivated lands which are +whole, well preserved, and totally apart, have been divided by the +action of the frost, which destroys the stone and suffers the petrified +shells to subsist a longer time. + +This immense quantity of marine fossils found in so many places, proves +that they could not have been transported thither by the deluge; for if +these shells had been brought on the earth by a deluge, the greatest +part would have remained on the surface of the earth, or at least would +not have entered to the depth of seven or eight hundred feet in the most +solid marble. + +In all quarries these shells form a share of the internal part of the +stone, sometimes externally covered with stalactites, which is much less +ancient matter than stone, which contains shells. Another proof this +happened not by a deluge is, that bones, horns, claws, &c. of land +animals, are found but very rarely, and not at all in marble and other +hard stone whereas if it was the effect of a deluge, where all must have +perished, we should meet with the remains of land animals as well as +those of the sea. + +It is a vain supposition to pretend that all the earth was dissolved at +the deluge, nor can we give any foundation to such idea, but by +supposing a second miracle, to give the water the property of a +universal dissolvent. Besides, what annihilates the supposition, and +renders it even contradictory, is, that if all matters were dissolved by +that water, yet shells have not been so, since we find them entire and +well preserved in all the masses which are said to have been dissolved; +this evidently proves that there never was such dissolution, and that +the arrangement of the parallel strata was not made in an instant, but +by successive sediments: for it is evident to all who will take the +trouble of observing, that the arrangement of all the materials which +compose the globe, is the work of the waters. The question therefore is +only whether this arrangement was made at once, or in a length of time: +now we have shewn it could not be done all at once, because the +materials have not kept the order of specific weight, and there has not +been a general dissolution; therefore this arrangement must have been +produced by sediments deposited in succession of time; any other +revolution, motion, or cause, would have produced a very different +arrangement. Besides, particular revolutions, or accidental causes, +could not have produced a similar effect on the whole globe. + +Let us see what the historian of the Academy says on this subject anno +1718, p. 3. "The numerous remains of extensive inundations, and the +manner in which we must conceive mountains to have been formed, +sufficiently proves that great revolutions have happened to the surface +of the earth. As far as we have been able to penetrate we find little +else but ruins, wrecks, and vast bodies heaped up together and +incorporated into one mass, without the smallest appearance of order or +design. If there is some kind of regular organization in the terrestrial +globe it is deeper than we have been able to examine, and all our +researches must terminate in digging among the ruins of the external +coat, but which will still find sufficient employment for our +philosophers. + +"M. de Jussieu found in the environs of St. Chaumont a great quantity of +slaty or foliated stones, every foliage of which was marked with the +impression of a branch, a leaf, or the fragment of a leaf of some plant: +the representations of leaves were exactly extended, as if they had been +carefully spread on the stone by the hand; this proves they had been +brought thither by the water, which always keeps leaves in that state: +they were in different situations, sometimes two or three together. It +may easily be supposed that a leaf deposited by water upon soft mud, and +afterwards covered with another layer of mud, imprints on the upper the +image of one of its two surfaces, and on the under the image of the +other; and on being hardened and petrified would appear to have taken +different impressions; but, however natural this supposition may be, the +fact is not so, for the two laminæ of stone bear impressions of the same +side of the leaf, the one in alto, the other in bas releaf. It was M. +Jussieu who made these observations on the figured stones of St. +Chaumont; to him we shall leave the explication, and pass to objects +which are more general and interesting. + +"All the impressions on the stones of St. Chaumont are of foreign +plants; they are not to be found in any part of France, but only in the +East Indies or the hot climates of America; they are for the most part +capillary plants, generally of the species of fern, whose hard and +compact coat renders them more able to imprint and preserve themselves. +Some leaves of Indian plants imprinted on the stones of Germany appeared +astonishing to M. Leibnitz, but here we find the same wonderful affair +infinitely multiplied. There even seems in this respect to be an +unaccountable destination of nature, for in all the stones of St. +Chaumont not a single plant of the country has been found. + +"It is certain, by the number of fossil-shells in the quarries and +mountains, that this country, as well as many others, must have formerly +been covered with the sea. But how has the American or Indian sea +reached thither? To explain this, and many other wonderful phenomena, it +may be supposed, with much probability, that the sea originally covered +the whole terrestrial globe: but this supposition will not hold good, +because how were terrestrial plants to exist? It evidently, therefore, +must have been great inundations which have conveyed the plants of one +country into the others. + +"M. de Jussieu thinks, that as the bed of the sea is continually rising, +in consequence of the mud and sand which the rivers incessantly convey +there, the sea, at first confined between natural dykes, surmounted +them, and was dispersed over the land, and that the dykes were +themselves undermined by the waters and overthrown therein. In the +earliest time of the formation of the earth, when no one thing had taken +a regular form, prodigious and sudden revolutions might then have been +made, of which we no longer have examples, because the whole is now in +such a permanent state, that the changes must be inconsiderable and by +degrees. + +"By some of these great revolutions the East and West Indian seas may +have been driven to Europe, and carried with them foreign plants +floating on its waters, which they tore up in their road, and deposited +gently in places where the water was but shallow and would soon +evaporate." + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[220:A] Anno 1720; page 5. + +[227:A] A kind of soft gravelly stone. + +[233:A] On this subject see Stenon, Ray, Woodward, and others. + +[234:A] See Shaw's Voyages, Vol. ii, pages 40 and 41. + +[237:A] See Shaw's Travels. + +[240:A] Thevenot, Vol. I, page 25. + +[240:B] Voyage of Paul Lucus, Vol. II, page 380. + + + + +ARTICLE IX. + +ON THE INEQUALITIES OF THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH. + + +The inequalities which are on the surface of the earth, and which might +be regarded as an imperfection to its figure, are necessary to preserve +vegetation and life on the terrestrial globe. To be assured of this, it +is only requisite to conceive what the earth would be if it was even and +regular. Instead of agreeable hills, from whence pure streams of waters +flow, to support the verdure of the earth; instead of those rich and +flourishing meadows, where plants and animals find agreeable +subsistence; a dismal sea would cover the whole globe, and the earth, +deprived of all its valuable qualities, would only remain an obscure and +forsaken planet, at best only destined for the abode of fishes. + +But independent of moral considerations, which seldom form a proof in +philosophy, there is a physical necessity why the earth must be +irregular on its surface; for supposing it was perfectly regular in its +origin, the motion of the waters, the subterraneous fires, the wind, and +other external causes, would, in course of time, have necessarily +produced irregularities similar to those now seen. + +The greatest inequalities next to the elevations of mountains, are the +depths of the ocean; this depth is very different even at great +distances from land; it is said there are parts above a league deep, but +those are few, and the most general depths are from 60 to 150 fathoms. +The gulphs bordering on the coasts are much less deep, and the straits +are generally the most shallow. + +To sound the depths of the sea, a piece of lead of 30 or 40lb. is made +use of, fastened to a small cord; this is a good method for common +depths, but is not to be depended upon when the depth is considerable; +because the cord being specifically lighter than the water, after it has +descended to a certain degree, the weight of the lead and that of the +cord is no more than a like volume of water; then the lead descends no +longer, but moves in an oblique line, and floats at the same depth: to +sound great depths, therefore, an iron chain is requisite, or some +substance heavier than water. It is very probable that for want of +considering this circumstance, navigators tell us that the sea in many +places has no bottom. + +In general, the profundities in open seas increase or diminish in a +pretty uniform manner, and commonly the farther from shore the greater +the depth; yet this is not without exception, there are places in the +midst of the sea where shoals are found, as at Abrolhos in the Atlantic; +and others where there are banks of a very considerable extent, as are +daily experienced by the navigators to the East Indies. + +So likewise along shore the depths are very unequal, nevertheless we may +lay it down as a certain rule, that the depth there is always +proportionate to the height of that shore. It is the same in great +rivers, where the high shores always announce a great depth. + +It is more easy to measure the heights of mountains, whether by means of +practical geometry, or by the barometer. This instrument gives the +height of a mountain very exactly, especially in a country where its +variation is not considerable, as at Peru, and under the other parts of +the equator. By one or other of these methods, the height of most +eminences has been measured; for example, it has been found that the +highest mountains of Switzerland are about 1600 fathoms higher than +Canigau, which is one of the most elevated of the Pyrennees; those +mountains appear to be the highest in Europe, since a great quantity of +rivers flow from them, which carry their water into very remote and +different seas, as the Po, which flows into the Adriatic; the Rhine, +which loses itself in the sands in Holland; the Rhone, which falls into +the Mediterranean; and the Danube, which goes to the Black Sea. These +four rivers, whose mouths are so remote from each other, all derive a +part of their waters from Mount Saint Godard and the neighbouring +mountain, which proves that this place is the highest in all Europe. +The highest mountains in Asia are Mount Taurus, Mount Imaus, Caucasus, +and the mountains of Japan, all which are loftier than those of Europe; +the mountains in Africa, as the Great Atlas, and the mountains of the +Moon, are at least as high as those in Asia, and the highest of all are +in South America, particularly those of Peru, which are more than 3000 +fathoms above the level of the sea. In general the mountains between the +tropics are loftier than those of the temperate zones, and these more +than the frigid zones, so that the nearer we approach the equator, the +greater are the inequalities of the earth. These inequalities, although +very considerable with respect to us, are scarcely any thing when +considered with respect to the whole globe. Three thousand fathom +difference to 3000 leagues diameter, is but one fathom to a league, or +one foot to 2200 feet, which on a globe of 2-1/2 feet diameter, does not +make the 16th part of a French line. Thus the earth, which appears to us +crossed and intersected by the enormous height of mountains, and by a +frightful depth of sea, is nevertheless, relative to its size, but +slightly furrowed with irregularities, so very trifling, that they can +cause no difference to the general figure of the globe. In continents +the mountains are continued and form chains. In islands, they are more +interrupted, and generally raised above the sea, in the forms of cones +or pyramids, and are called peaks. The peak of Teneriffe, in the island +of Fer, is one of the highest mountains on the earth; it is near a +league and a half perpendicular above the level of the sea; the peak of +St. George, in one of the Azores, and the peak of Adam, in the island of +Ceylon, are also very lofty. These peaks are composed of rocks, heaped +one upon the other, and they vomit from their summits fire, cinders, +bitumen, minerals, and stones. There are islands which are only tops of +mountains, as of St. Helena, Ascension, most of the Azores, and +Canaries. We must remark, that in most of the islands, promontories, and +other projecting lands in the sea, the middle is always the highest; and +they are generally separated by chains of mountains, which divide them +in their greatest length, as (Gransbain) the Grampian mountains in +Scotland, which extend from east to west, and divide Great Britain into +two parts. It is the same with the islands of Sumatra, Lucca, Borneo, +Celebes, Cuba, St. Domingo, and the peninsula of Malaya, &c. and also +Italy, which is traversed through its whole length by the Apennine +mountains. + +Mountains, as we find, differ greatly in height; the hills are lowest, +after them come the mountains of a moderate height, which are followed +by a third rank still higher, which, like the preceding, are generally +loaded with trees and plants, but which furnish no springs except at +their bottoms. In the highest mountains we find only sand, stones, +flints, and rocks, whose summits often rise above the clouds. Exactly at +the foot of these rocks there are small spaces, plains, hollows, and +kinds of vallies, where the rain, snow, and ice remain, and form ponds, +morasses, and springs, from whence rivers derive their origin. + +The form of mountains is also very different: some form chains whose +height is nearly equal in a long extent of soil, others are divided by +deep vallies; some are regular, and others as irregular as possible; and +sometimes in the middle of a valley or plain, we find a little mountain. +There are also two sorts of plains, the one in the low lands, the other +in mountains. The first are generally divided by some large river: the +others, though of a very considerable extent, are dry, and at farthest +have only a small rivulet. These plains on mountains are often very +high, and difficult of access; they form countries above other +countries, as in Auvergne, Savoy, and many other high places: the soil +is firm, and produces much grass, and odoriferous plants, which render +these plains the best pasture in the world. + +The summits of high mountains are composed of rocks of different +heights, which resemble from a distance the waves of the sea. It is not +on this observation alone we can rely that the mountains have been +formed by the waves, I only relate it because it accords with the rest: +but that which evidently proves that the sea once covered and formed +mountains, are the shells and other marine productions found throughout +in such great quantities, that it is not possible for them to have been +transported by the sea into such remote continents, and deposited to +such considerable depths; to this may be added, the horizontal and +parallel strata every where met with, and which can only have been +formed by the waters. The composition even of the hardest matters, as +stone and marble, prove they had been reduced into fine powder before +their formation, and precipitated to the bottom of the water in form of +a sediment: it is also proved by the exactness with which fossil-shells +are moulded in those matters in which they are found; the inside of +these shells are absolutely filled with the same matters as that in +which they are enclosed; the corresponding angles of mountains and +hills, which no other cause than the currents of the sea could have been +able to form; the equality in the height of opposite hills, and beds of +different matters, formed at the same levels, and, in short, the +direction of mountains, whose chains extend in length in the same +direction as the waves of the sea extend, incontestibly demonstrate the +fact. + +With respect to the depths on the surface of the earth, the greatest, +without contradiction, are the depths of the sea; but as they do not +present themselves to our sight, and as we can only judge of them by the +plumb line, we shall only speak of those which appear on dry land, such +as the deep vallies between mountains, the precipices between rocks, the +abysses perceived from the tops of mountains, as the abyss of Mount +Ararat, the precipices of the Alps, the vallies of the Pyrennees, &c. +These depths are a natural consequence of the elevation of mountains; +they receive the waters and the earth which flow from the mountains, and +the soil is generally very fertile, and are fully inhabited. + +The precipices which are between rocks are frequently formed by the +sinking of one side, the base of which sometimes gives way more on one +side than the other, by the action of the air and frost, which splits +and divides them, or by the impetuous violence of torrents. But these +abysses, or vast and enormous precipices, found at the summits of +mountains, and to the bottom of which it is not possible sometimes to +descend, although they are above a mile, or a mile and a half round, +have been formed by the fire. These were formerly the funnels of +volcanos, and all the matter which is there deficient has been ejected +by the action and explosion of these fires, which are since extinguished +through a defect of combustible matter. The abyss of Mount Ararat, of +which M. Tournefort gives a description in his voyage to the Levant, is +surrounded with black and burnt rocks, as one day the abysses of Etna, +Vesuvius, and other volcanos, will be, when they have consumed all the +combustible matters they include. + +In Plots' Natural History of Staffordshire, in England, a kind of gulph +is spoken of which has been sounded to the depth of 2600 perpendicular +feet without meeting with any water, or the bottom being found, as the +rope was not of sufficient length to reach it. + +Greatest cavities and deepest mines are generally in mountains, and they +never descend to a level with the plains, therefore by these cavities we +are only acquainted with the inside of a mountain, and not with the +internal part of the globe itself. + +Besides, these depths are not very considerable. Ray asserts that the +deepest mines are not above half a mile deep. The mine of Cotteberg, +which in the time of Agricola passed for the deepest of all known mines, +was only 2500 feet perpendicular. It is evident there are holes in +certain places, as that in Staffordshire, or Pool's Hole, in Derbyshire, +the depth of which is perhaps greater; but all this is nothing in +comparison with the thickness of the globe. + +If the kings of Egypt, instead of having erected pyramids, and raised +such sumptuous monuments of their riches and vanity, had been at the +same expence to sound the earth, and make a deep excavation to the depth +of a league, they, perhaps, might have found substances which would have +amply recompensed the trouble, labour, and expence, or at least we +should have received information on the matters of which the internal +part of the globe is composed, which might have been very useful, and +which we at present have not. + +But let us return to the mountains; the highest are in the southern +countries, and the nearer we approach the equator, the more inequalities +we find on the surface of the globe. This is easy to prove, by a short +enumeration of the mountains and islands. + +In America, the chain of the Cordeliers, the highest mountains of the +earth, is exactly under the equator, and extends on the two sides far +beyond the tropic circles. + +In Africa, the highest mountains of the Moon, and Monomotapa, the great +and the little Atlas, are under the equator, or not far from it. + +In Asia, Mount Caucasus, the chain of which extends under different +names as far as the mountains of China, is nearer the equator than the +poles. + +In Europe, the Pyrennees, the Alps, and mountains of Greece, which are +only the same chain, are still less distant from the equator than the +poles. + +Now these mountains which we have enumerated, are all higher, more +considerable and extended in length and breadth than the mountains of +the northern countries. + +With respect to their direction, the Alps form a chain which crosses the +whole continent from Spain to China. These mountains begin at the sea +coast of Galicia, reach to the Pyrennees, cross France, by Vivares, and +Auvergne, pass through Italy and extend into Germany, beyond Dalmatia, +as far as Macedonia; from thence they join with the mountains of +Armenia, Caucasus, Taurus, Imaus, and extend as far as the Tartarian +sea. So likewise Mount Atlas traverses the whole continent of Africa, +from west to east, from the kingdom of Fez to the Straits of the Red +Sea; and the mountains of the Moon have the same direction. + +But in America, the direction is quite contrary, and the chains of the +Cordeliers and other mountains extend from south to north more than from +east to west. + +What we have now said on the great eminences of the earth, may also be +observed on the greatest depths of the sea. The vast and highest seas +are nearer the equator than the poles; and there results from this +observation, that the greatest inequalities of the globe are in the +southern climate. These irregularities on the surface of the earth, are +the causes of an infinity of extraordinary effects: for example, between +the Indus and the Ganges, there is a large peninsula, which is divided +through its middle, by a chain of high mountains called the Gate, and +which extends from north to south, from the extremities of Mount +Caucasus to Cape Comorin; on one is the coast of Malabar, and the other +Coromandel; on the side of Malabar, between this chain of mountains and +the sea, the summer season lasts from September to April, during which +the sky is serene and dry; on the other side the Coromandel the above +period is their winter, and it rains every day plentifully and from the +month of April to the month of September is their summer, whereas it is +winter in Malabar; insomuch, that in many places, which are scarcely 20 +miles distant, we may, by crossing the mountains, change seasons. It is +said that the same thing takes place at Razalgat in Arabia, and at +Jamaica, which is divided through its middle by a chain of mountains, +whose direction is from east to west, and that the plantations to the +south of these mountains feel the summer heat, at the time those to the +north endure the rigor of winter. + +Peru, which is situated under the line, and extends about a thousand +leagues to the south, is divided into three long and narrow parts; these +the natives call Lanos, Sierras, and Andes. The Lanos, which comprehends +the plains, extends along the coast of the South Sea: the Sierras are +hills with some vallies, and the Andes are the famous Cordeliers, the +highest mountains that are known. The Lanos is about ten leagues in +breadth; in many places the Sierras are twenty leagues broad, and the +Andes in some places more and in some less. The breadth is from east to +west, and the length from north to south. This part of the world is +remarkable for the following particulars: first, in the Lanos the wind +almost constantly blows from the south-west, which is contrary to what +happens in the torrid zone: secondly, it never rains nor thunders in the +Lanos, although there is plenty of dew: thirdly, it almost continually +rains in the Andes: fourthly, in the Sierras, between the Lanos and the +Andes, it rains from September to April. + +It was for a long time supposed, that the chains of the high mountains +run from west to east, till the contrary was found in America. But no +person before M. Bourguet discovered the surprising regularity of the +structure of those great masses: he found (after having crossed the Alps +thirty times in fourteen different parts of it, twice over the Apennine +mountains, and made divers tours in the environs of these mountains, and +of Mount Jura) that all mountains are formed nearly after the manner of +works of a fortification. When the body of the mountain runs from east +to west, it forms prominences, which face the north and south; this +wonderful regularity is so striking in vallies, that we seem to walk in +a very regular covered way; if, for example, we travel in a valley from +north to south, we perceive that the mountain on the right forms +projections which front the east, and those of the mountain on the left +front the west, so that the saliant angles of one side reciprocally +answer the returning angles of the other, which are always alternatively +opposed to them. The angles which mountains form in great vallies are +less acute, because the direction is less steep, and they are farther +distant from each other. In plains they are not so perceptible, except +by the banks of rivers, which are generally in the middle of them, and +whose natural windings answer the most advanced angles or striking +projections of the mountains. It is astonishing so visible a thing was +so long unobserved, for when in a valley the inclination of one of the +mountains which border it is less steep than that of the other, the +river takes its course much nearer the steepest mountain, and does not +flow through its middle. + +To these observations we may join other particular ones, which confirm +them; for example, the mountains of Switzerland are much more steep, and +their direction much greater on the south side than on the north, and on +the west side than on the east. This may be perceived in the mountains +of Gemmi, Brisa, and almost every other mountain in this country. The +highest are those which separate Valesia and the Grisons from Savoy, +Piedmont, and Tirol. These countries are only a continuation of these +mountains, the chain of which extends to the Mediterranean, and +continues even pretty far under the sea. The Pyrennees are also only a +continuation of that vast mountain which begins in Upper Valesia, and +whose branches extend very far to the west and south, preserving +throughout the same great height; whereas on the side of the north and +of the east these mountains grow lower by degrees, till they become +plains; as we see by the large tract which the Rhine and Danube water +before they reach their mouths, whereas the Rhone descends with rapidity +towards the south into the Mediterranean. The same observation is found +to hold good in the mountains of England and Norway; but the part of the +world where this is most evidently seen is at Peru and Chili; the +Cordeliers are cut very sharply on the western side, the length of the +Pacific Ocean, whereas on the eastern side they lower by degrees into +large plains, watered by the greatest rivers of the world.[279:A] + +M. Bourguet, to whom we owe this great discovery of the correspondence +of the angles of mountains, terms it "_The Key of the Theory of the +Earth_;" nevertheless, it appears to me, that if he had conceived all +the importance of it, he would more successfully have made use of it, +by connecting it with suitable facts, and would have given a more +probable theory of the earth; whereas in his treatise he presents only +the skeleton of an hypothetical system, most of the conclusions of which +are false or precarious. The theory we have given turns on four +principal facts, which cannot be doubted, after the proofs have been +examined on which they are founded. The first is, that the earth is +every where, and to considerable depths, composed of parallel strata, +and matters which have formerly been in a state of softness: the second, +that the sea has for ages covered the earth which we now inhabit; the +third, that the tides and other motions of the waters produce +inequalities at the bottom of the sea; and the fourth, that the +mountains have taken their form and the correspondent direction from the +currents of the sea. + +After having read the proofs which the following articles contain, it +may be determined, whether I was wrong to assert, that these +circumstances solidly established also ascertains the truth of the +theory of the earth. What I have said on the formation of mountains has +no need of a more ample explanation; but as it might be objected that I +do not assign a reason for the formation of the peaks or points of +mountains, no more than for some other particular circumstances, shall +add the observations and reflections which I have made on this subject. + +I have endeavoured to form a clear and general idea of the manner in +which the different matters that compose the earth are arranged, and it +appears to me they may be reduced into two general classes; the first +includes all the matters we find placed in strata, or beds horizontally +or regularly inclined; and the second comprehends all matters formed in +masses, or in veins, either perpendicular or irregularly inclined. In +the first class are included sands, clays, granite, flints, free-stone, +coals, slates, marls, chalks, calcinable stones, marbles, &c. In the +second I rank metals, minerals, crystals, precious stones and small +flints: these two classes generally comprehend all the known materials +of the earth. The first owe their origin to the sediments carried away +and deposited by the sea, and should be distinguished into those which +being assayed in the fire, calcine and are reduced into lime, and those +which fuse and are convertible into glass. The materials of the second +class are all vitrifiable excepting those which the fire entirely +consumes by inflammation. + +In the first class we distinguish two kinds of sands; the one, which is +more abundant than any other matter of the globe, is vitrifiable, or +rather is only fragments of actual glass; the other, whose quantity is +much less, is calcinable, and must be looked upon as the powder of +stone, and which differs only from gravel by the size of the grains. The +vitrifiable sand is, in general, deposited in beds, which are often +interrupted by masses of free-stone, granite, and flint; and sometimes +these matters are also in banks of great extent. + +By examining these vitrifiable matters, we find only a few sea shells +there, and those not placed in beds, but dispersed about as if thrown +there by chance. For example, I have never seen them in free-stone; that +stone which is very plenty in certain places, is only composed of sandy +parts, which are re-united, and are only met with in sandy soils; and +the quarries of it are generally in peaked hills and in divided +eminences. We may work these quarries in all directions, and if they are +in large beds, they are much farther from each other than in quarries of +calcinable stone or marble. Blocks of free-stone may be cut of all +dimensions and in all directions, although it is difficult to work, it +nevertheless has but a degree of hardness sufficient to resist powerful +strokes without splitting; for friction easily reduces it into sand, +excepting certain black pieces found therein, and which are so very +hard, that the best files cannot touch them. Rock is vitrifiable as +free-stone, and of the same nature, only it is harder and the parts more +connected. This also contains many hard pieces, as may easily be +remarked on the summits of high mountains, which cut and tear the shoes +of travellers. This rocky stone, which is found at the top of high +mountains, and which I look upon as a kind of granite, contains a great +quantity of talky leaves, and is so hard as not to be worked but by an +infinite deal of labour. + +I have narrowly examined these sharp pieces which are found in +free-stone and rock, and have discovered it to be a metallic matter, +melted and calcined by a very violent fire, and which perfectly +resembles certain substances thrown out by the volcanos, of which I saw +a great quantity when I was in Italy, where the people called them +Schiarri. They are very heavy black masses, on which neither water nor +the file can make any impression, and the matter of which is different +from that of the lava; for this is a kind of glass, whereas the other +appears to be more metallic than vitreous. The sharp pieces in +free-stone, and rock, resemble greatly the first matter, which seems +still to prove that all these matters have been formerly liquified by +fire. + +We sometimes see on the upper parts of mountains, a prodigious quantity +of blocks of this mixed rock; their position is so irregular that they +appear to have been thrown there by chance, and it might be thought they +had fallen from some neighbouring height, if the places where they are +found were not raised above the other parts. But their vitrifiable +nature, and their angular and square figures, like those of free-stone, +discover them to be of one common origin. Thus in the great beds of +vitrifiable sand, blocks of free-stone and rock are formed, whose +figures and situations do not exactly follow the horizontal position of +these strata. The rain, by degrees, carried away from the summits of the +hills and mountains the sand which at first covered them, and then began +to furrow and cut those hills into the spaces which are found between +the nucleus in free-stone, as the hills of Fontainbleau are intersected. +Each hilly point answers to a nucleus in a quarry of free-stone, and +each interval has been excavated and loosened by the rain, which has +caused the sand, they at first contained, to flow into the vallies; so +likewise the highest mountains, whose summits are composed of rocks, and +terminated by these angular blocks of granite, have formerly been +covered with vitrifiable sand, and the rain having carried away the sand +which covered them, they remained on the tops of the mountains in the +position they were formed. These blocks generally present points; they +increase in size in proportion as they descend; one block often rests +upon another, the second upon a third, and so on, leaving irregular +intervals between them: and as in time the rain washed away all the sand +which covered these different parts on the top of the high mountains, +they would remain naked, forming larger or lesser points; and this is +the origin of the peaks or horns of mountains. + +For supposing, as it is easy to prove by the marine productions we find +there, that the chain of the Alps was formerly covered by the sea, and +that above this chain there was a great thickness of vitrifiable sand, +which rendered the whole mountains a flat and level country. In this +depth of sand, there would necessarily be formed granite, free-stone, +flint, and all matters which take their origin and figure in sand, +nearly in a similar manner to that of the crystallisation of salts. +These blocks once formed would support their original positions, after +the rains and torrents had carried away the sand which surrounded them, +and being left bare formed all those peaks or pointed eminences we see +in so many places. This is also the origin of those high and detached +rocks found in China and other countries, as in Ireland, where they are +called the Devil's stones, and whose formation as well as that of the +peaks of mountains, had hitherto appeared so difficult to explain; +nevertheless the explanation which I have given is so natural, that it +directly presents itself to the mind of those who examine these objects, +and I must here quote what Father Tatre says, "From Yanchu-in-yen, we +came to Hoytcheou, and on the road met with something particular, rocks +of an extraordinary height, of the shape of a large square tower, and +situate in the midst of vast plains: I cannot account for it, unless by +supposing they were formerly mountains, from which the rain having +washed away the earth that surrounded them, thus left the rocks entirely +bare. What strengthens this conjecture is, that we saw some which, +towards the base, are still covered with earth to a considerable +height." + +The summits of the highest mountains are composed of rocks, of granite, +free-stone, and other hard and vitrifiable matters, and this often as +deep as two or three hundred fathoms; below which we often meet with +quarries of marble, or hard stone, filled with fossil-shells, and whose +matter is calcinable; as may be remarked at Great Chartreuse, in +Dauphiny, and on Mount Cenis, where the stone and marble, which contains +shells, are some hundred fathoms below the summits, points and peaks of +high mountains; although these stones are more than a thousand fathom +above the level of the sea. Thus mountains, whereon we see points or +peaks, are generally vitrifiable rock, and those whose summits are flat, +mostly contain marble and hard stones filled with marine productions. It +is the same with respect to hills, for those containing granite, or +free-stone, are mostly intersected with points, eminences, cavities, +depths, and small intermediate valleys; on the contrary, those which +are composed of calcinable stone are nearly equal in height, and are +only interrupted by greater and more regular vallies, whose angles are +correspondent; and they are crowned with rocks whose position is regular +and level. + +Whatever difference may appear at first between these two species of +mountains, their forms proceed from the same cause, as we have already +observed; only it may be remarked, that the calcinable stones have not +undergone any alteration nor change since the formation of the +horizontal strata; whereas those of vitrifiable sand have been changed +and interrupted by the posterior production of rocks and angular blocks +formed within this sand. These two kinds of mountains have cracks which +are almost always perpendicular in those of calcinable stones; but those +of granite and free-stone appear to be a little more irregular in their +direction. It is in these cracks metal, minerals, crystals, sulphurs, +and all matters of the second class are found, and it is below these +cracks that the water collects to penetrate the earth, and form those +veins of water which are every where found below the surface. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[279:A] See Phil. Trans. Abr. Vol. VI. part ii. p. 153. + + + + +ARTICLE X. + +OF RIVERS. + + +We have before said that, generally speaking, the greatest mountains are +in islands and in the projections in the sea. That in the old continent +the greatest chains of mountains are directed from west to east, and +that those which incline towards the north or south are only branches of +these principal chains; we shall likewise find that the greatest rivers +are directed as the greatest mountains, and that there are but few which +follow the course of the branches of those mountains. To be assured of +this, we have only to look on a common globe, and trace the old +continent from Spain to China. We shall find, by beginning at Spain, +that the Vigo, Douro, Tagos, and Guadiana run from east to west, and the +Ebro from west to east, and that there is not one remarkable river whose +course is directed from south to north, or from north to south, although +Spain is entirely surrounded by the sea on the west side, and almost so +on the north. This observation on the directions of rivers in Spain not +only proves that the mountains in this country are directed from west to +east, but also that the southern lands, which border on the straits, are +higher than the coasts of Portugal; and on the northern coast, that the +mountains of Galicia, the Asturias, &c. are only a continuation of the +Pyrennees, and that it is this elevation of the country, as well north +as south, which does not permit the rivers to run into the sea that way. + +It will also be seen, by looking on the map of France, that there is +only the Rhone which runs from north to south, and nearly half its +course, from the mountains to Lyons, is directed from the east towards +the west; but that on the contrary all the other great rivers, as the +Loir, the Charantee, the Garonne, and even the Seine, have a direction +from east to west. + +It will be likewise perceived, that in Germany there is only the Rhine, +which like the Rhone shapes the greatest part of its course from north +to south, but that the others, as the Danube, the Drave, and all the +great rivers which fall into them, flow from the west to east into the +Black Sea. + +It will be perceived that this Black Sea, which should rather be +considered as a great lake, has almost three times more extent from east +to west than from north to south, and consequently its direction is +similar to the rivers in general. It is the same with the Mediterranean, +whose length from east to west is about six times greater than from +north to south. + +The Caspian Sea, according to the chart drawn by the order of Czar Peter +I. has more extent from the south to the north than from east to west; +whereas in the ancient charts it appears almost round, or rather more +broad from east to west than from south to north; but if we consider the +lake Aral as a part of the Caspian Sea, from which it is separated only +by plains of sand, we shall find the length is from the western coast of +the Caspian Sea as far as the greatest border of Lake Aral. + +So likewise the Euphrates, the Persian gulph, and almost all the rivers +in China run from west to east; all the rivers in Africa beyond Barbary +flow from east to west, or from west to east, and there are only the +rivers of Barbary and the Nile which flow from south to north. There +are, in fact, great rivers in Asia which partly run from north to +south, as the Wolga, the Don, &c. but by taking the whole length of +their course, we find, that they only turn from the south to run into +the Black and Caspian seas, which are only inland lakes. + +It may therefore in general be said, that in Europe, Asia, and Africa, +the rivers, and other mediterranean waters, extend more from east to +west than from north to south, which proceeds from the chains of +mountains being for the most part so directed, and that the whole +continent of Europe and Asia is broader in this direction than the +other; for there are two modes of considering the direction of +mountains. In a long and narrow continent like South America, in which +there is only one principal chain of mountains which stretches from +south to north, the river not being confined by any parallel range, +necessarily runs perpendicular to the course of the mountains, that is +from east to west, or from west to east; in fact, it is in this +direction all the rivers of America flow. In the old as well as the new +continent most of the waters have their greatest extent from west to +east, and most of the rivers flow in this direction; but yet this +similar direction is produced by different causes; for instance, those +in the old continent flow from east to west, because they are bounded +by mountains whose direction is from west to east; whereas those in +America preserve the same course from there being only one chain of +mountains that extends from north to south. + +In general, rivers run through the centre of vallies, or rather the +lowest ground betwixt two opposite hills or mountains; if the two hills +have nearly an equal inclination, the river will be nearly in the middle +of the intermediate valley, let the valley be broad or narrow. On the +contrary, if one of the hills has a more steep inclination than the +other, the river will not be in the middle of the valley, but much +nearer the hill whose inclination is greatest, and that too in +proportion to the superiority of its declivity: in this case, the lowest +ground is not in the middle of the valley, but inclines towards the +highest hill, and which the river must necessarily occupy. In all places +where there is any considerable difference in the height of the +mountains, the rivers flow at the foot of the steepest hills, and follow +them throughout all their directions, never quitting their course while +they maintain the superiority of height. In the length of time, however, +the steepest hills are diminished by the rain acting upon them with a +greater degree of force, proportionate to their height, and consequently +carry away the sand and gravel in more considerable quantities, and with +greater violence; the river is then constrained to change its bed, and +seek the lowest part of the valley: to this may be added, that as all +rivers overflow at times, they transport and deposit mud and sand in +different places, and that sands often accumulate in their own beds, and +cause a swell of the water, which changes the direction of its course. +It is very common to meet in vallies with a great number of old channels +of the river, particularly if it is subject to frequent inundations, and +carries off much sand and mud. + +In plains and large vallies, where there are great rivers, the beds are +generally the lowest part of the valley, but the surface of the water is +very often higher than the ground adjacent. For example, when a river +begins to overflow, the plain will presently be inundated to a +considerable breadth, and it will be observed that the borders of the +river will be covered the last; which proves that they are higher than +the rest of the ground, and that from the banks to a certain part of +the plain, there is an insensible inclination, so that the surface of +the water must be higher than the plain when the river is full. This +elevation on the banks of rivers proceeds from the deposit of the mud +and sand at the time of inundations. The water is commonly very muddy in +the great swellings of rivers; when it begins to overflow, it runs very +gently over the banks, and by depositing the mud and sand purifies +itself as it advances into the plain; so that all the soil which the +currents of the river does not carry along, is deposited on the banks, +which raises them by degrees above the rest of the plain. + +Rivers are always broadest at their mouths; in proportion as we advance +in the country, and are more remote from the sea, their breadth +diminishes; but what is more remarkable, in the inland parts they flow +in a direct line, and in proportion as they approach their mouths the +windings of their course increase. I have been informed by M. Fabry, a +sensible traveller, who went several times by land into the western part +of North America, that travellers, and even the savages, are seldom +deceived in the distance they are from the sea if they follow the bank +of a large river; when the direction of the river is straight for 15 or +20 leagues, they know themselves to be a great distance from the coast; +but, on the contrary, if the river winds, and often changes its +direction, they are certain of not being far from the sea. M. Fabry +himself verified this remark in his travels over that unknown and almost +uninhabited country. In large rivers there is a considerable eddy along +the banks, which is so much the more considerable as the river is less +remote from the sea, which may also serve as a guide to judge whether we +are at a great or short distance from the mouth; and as the windings of +rivers increase in proportion as they approach the sea, it is not +surprising that some of them should give way to the water, and be one +reason why great rivers generally divide into many arms before they gain +the sea. + +The motion of the waters in rivers is quite different from that supposed +by authors who attempt to give mathematical theories on this subject; +the surface of a river in motion is not level when taken from one bank +to the other, but according to circumstances the current in the middle +is considerably higher or lower than the water close to the banks; when +a river swells by a sudden melting of snow, or when by some other cause +its rapidity is augmented, if the direction of the river is straight, +the middle of the water where the current is rises, and the river forms +a convex curve, of a very sensible elevation. This elevation is +sometimes very considerable; M. Hupeau, an able engineer of bridges, +once measured the river Avieron, and found the middle was three feet +higher than near the bank. This, in fact, must happen every time the +water has a very great rapidity; the velocity with which it is carried, +diminishing the action of its weight in the middle of the current, so +that it has not time to sink to a level with that near shore, and +therefore remains higher. On the other hand, near the mouths, it often +happens that the water which is near the banks is higher than that of +the middle, although the current be ever so rapid. This happens wherever +the action of the tides is felt in a river, which in great ones often +sensibly extends as far as one or two hundred leagues from the sea; it +is also a well known fact that the current of a river preserves its +motion in the sea to a considerable distance; there is, in this case, +therefore, two contrary motions in a river; the middle, which forms the +current, precipitates itself towards the sea, and the action of the +tide forms a counter-current, which causes the water near the banks to +ascend, while that in the middle descends, and as then all the water +must be carried down by the current in the middle, that of the banks +continually descends thereto, and descends so much the more as it is +higher, and counteracted with more force by the tide. + +There are two kinds of ebbings in rivers; the first above-mentioned is a +strong power occasioned by the tide, which not only opposes the natural +motion of the river, but even forces a contrary and opposite current. +The other arises from an inactive cause, such as a projection of land, +an island, &c. This does not commonly occasion a very sensible +counter-current, yet it is sufficient to impede the progress of boats +and craft, and necessarily produces what is called a dead water, which +does not flow like the rest of the river, but whirls about in such a +manner that when boats are drawn therein they require great strength to +get them out. These dead waters are very perceptible at the arches of +bridges in rapid rivers. The velocity of the water increases in +proportion as the diameter of the channel through which it passes +diminishes, the impelling force being the same; the velocity of a +river, therefore, increases at the passage of a bridge, in an inverse +proportion of the breadth of the arches to the whole breadth of the +river; the rapidity being very considerable in coming through the arch, +it forces the water against the banks, from whence it is reflected with +such violence as to form dangerous eddies and whirlpools. In going +through the bridge St. Esprit, the men are forced to be careful not to +lose the stream, even after they are past the bridge, for if they suffer +the boat to go either to the right or left, it might be driven against +the shore, or forced into the whirling waters, which would be attended +with great danger. When this eddy is very considerable, it forms a kind +of small gulph, the middle of which appears hollow and to form a kind of +cylindrical cavity, around which the water whirls with rapidity: this +appearance of a cylindrical cavity is produced by the centrifugal force, +which causes the water to endeavour to remove itself from the centre of +the whirlpool. When a great swell of water happens, the watermen know it +by a particular motion; they then say the water at the bottom flows +quicker than common: this augmentation of rapidity at the bottom, +according to them, always announces a sudden rise of the water. The +motion and weight of the upper water communicates this motion to them; +for in certain respects we must consider a river as a pillar of water +contained in a tube, and the whole channel as a very long canal where +every motion must be communicated from one end to the other. Now, +independent of the motion of the upper waters, their weight alone might +cause the rapidity of the river to increase, and perhaps move it at +bottom; for it is known, that by putting many boats at one time into the +water, at that instant we increase the rapidity of the under part of the +river, as well as retard that of the upper. + +The rapidity of running waters does not exactly, nor even nearly, follow +the proportion of the declivity of their channels. One river whose +inclination is uniform and double that of another, ought, according to +appearance, to flow only as rapid again, but in fact it flows much +faster. Its rapidity, instead of being doubled, is sometimes triple, +quadruple, &c. This rapidity depends much more on the quantity of water +and the weight of the upper waters than on the declivity. When we are +desirous to hollow the bed of a river, we need not equally distribute +the inclination throughout its whole length, in order to give a greater +rapidity, as it is more easily effected by making the descent much +greater at the beginning, than at the mouth, where it may almost be +insensible, as we see it in natural rivers, and yet they preserve a +rapidity so much the greater as the river is fuller of water; in great +rivers, where the ground is level, the water does not cease flowing, and +even rapidly, not only with its original velocity, but also with the +addition of that which it has acquired by the action and weight of the +upper waters. To render this fact more conceivable, let us suppose the +Seine between the Pont-neuf and Pont-royal to be perfectly level, and +ten feet deep throughout: let us then suppose that the bed of the river +below Pont-royal and above Pont-neuf were left entirely dry, the water +would instantly run up and down the channel, and continue to do so until +it had recovered an equilibrium; for the weight of the water would keep +it in motion, nor would it cease flowing until its particles became +equally pressed and have sunk to a perfect level. The weight of water +therefore greatly contributes to its velocity, and this is the reason +that the greatest rapidity of the current is neither of the surface nor +at the bottom of the water, but nearly in the middle of its depth, being +pressed by the action of its weight at its surface, and by the re-action +from the bottom. Still more, if a river has acquired a great rapidity, +it will not only preserve it in passing a level country, but even +surmount an eminence without spreading much on either side, or at least +without causing any great inundation. + +We might be inclined to think that bridges, locks, and other obstacles +raised on rivers, considerably diminishes the celerity of the water's +course; nevertheless that occasions but little difference. Water rises +on meeting with any obstacle, and having surmounted it, the elevation +causes it to act with more rapidity in its fall, so that in fact it +suffers little or no diminution in its celerity, by these seeming +retardments. Sinuosities, projections, and islands, also but very little +diminish the velocity of the course of rivers. A considerable diminution +is produced by the sinking of the water, and, on the contrary, its +augmentation increases its velocity; thus if a river is shallow the +stream passes slowly along, and if deep with a proportionate rapidity. + +If rivers were always nearly of an equal fulness, the best means of +diminishing their rapidity, and confining them within their banks, would +be to enlarge their channel; but as almost all rivers are subject to +increase and diminish, to confine them we must retrench the channel, +because in shallow waters, if the channel is very broad, the water which +passes in the middle hollows a winding bed, and when it begins to swell +follows the direction it took in this particular bed, and striking +forcibly against the banks of the channel destroys them and does great +injuries. These effects of the water's fury might be prevented by +making, at particular distances, small gulphs in the earth; that is, by +cutting through one of these banks to a certain distance in the land. In +order that these gulphs might be advantageously placed, they should be +made in the obtuse angle of the river, for then the current of the water +in turning would run into them, and of course its velocity would be +diminished. This mode might be proper to prevent the fall of bridges in +places where it is not possible to make bars near the bridge which +sustain the action of the weight of the water. + +The manner in which inundations are occasioned merits peculiar +attention. When a river swells, the rapidity of the water always +increases till it begins to overflow the banks; at that instant the +velocity diminishes, which causes inundations to continue for several +days; for when even a less quantity of water comes after the overflowing +than before, the inundation will still be made, because it depends much +more on the velocity of the water than on the quantity; if it was not so +rivers would overflow for an hour or two and then return to their beds, +which never occurs; the inundations always remaining for several days; +whether the rain ceases, or a less quantity of water is brought, because +the overflowing has diminished the velocity, and consequently, although +the like quantity of water is no longer carried in the same time as +before, yet the effects are the same as if the greater quantity had come +there. It might be remarked on the occasion of this diminution, that if +a constant wind blows against the current of the river, the inundation +will be much greater than it would have been without this accidental +cause, which diminishes the celerity of the water; on the contrary, if +the wind blows in the same directions with the current, the inundation +will be much less, and will more speedily decline. + +"The swelling of the Nile, says M. Granger, and its inundations, has a +long time employed the learned; most of them have looked upon it as +marvellous, although nothing can be more natural, and is every day to be +seen in every country throughout the world. It is the rains which fall +in Abyssinia and Ethiopia which cause the swelling and inundation of +that river, though the north wind must be regarded as the principal +cause. 1. Because the north wind drives the clouds which contain this +rain into Abyssinia. 2. Because, blowing against the mouths of the Nile, +it causes the waters to return against the stream, and thus prevents +them from running out in any great quantity: this circumstance may be +every season observed, for when the wind, being at the north, suddenly +veers to the south, the Nile loses in one day more than it gathers in +four." + +Inundations are generally greatest in the upper part of rivers, because +the velocity of a river continues always increasing until it arrives at +the sea, for the reasons we have related. Father Costelli, who has +written very sensibly on this subject, remarks, that the height of the +banks made to confine the Po from overflowing diminishes as they advance +towards the sea; so that at Ferrara, which is 50 or 60 miles from the +sea, they are near 20 feet high above the common surface of the Po, but +that at 10 or 12 miles from it they are not above 12 feet, although the +channel of the river is as narrow there as at Ferrara[306:A]. + +On the whole, the theory of the motion of running waters is still +subject to many difficulties, nor is it easy to lay down rules which +might be applied to every particular case. Experience is here more +useful than speculation. We must not only know the general effects of +rivers, but we must also know in particular the river we have to do +with, if we would reason justly, make useful observations, and draw +stable conclusions. The remarks I have above given are mostly new; it is +to be wished that others may be collected, and then, possibly, in time, +we may obtain a sufficient knowledge of the subject to lay down certain +rules to confine and direct rivers, and prevent the ruin of bridges, +banks, and other damages which the violent impetuosity of the water +occasions. + +The greatest rivers in Europe are the Wolga, which is about 650 leagues +in its course from Reschow to Astracan, on the Caspian Sea; the Danube, +whose course is about 450 leagues from the mountains of Switzerland to +the Black Sea; the Don, which is 400 leagues in its course from the +source of the Sosnia, which it receives, to its mouth in the Black Sea; +the Dnieper, whose course is about 350 leagues, and which also runs into +the Black Sea; the Duine is about 400 leagues in its course, and empties +itself into the White Sea, &c. + +The greatest rivers in Asia are the Hoanho of China, whose course is 850 +leagues, taking its source at Raja-Ribron, and falls into the sea of +China, in the middle of the gulph Changi: the Jenisca of Tartary, which +is about 800 leagues in extent, from the lake Seligna to the northern +sea of Tartary; the river Oby, which is about 600 leagues from Lake +Kila, to the Northern Sea, beyond the Strait of Waigats. The river +Amour, of eastern Tartary, which is about 575 leagues in its course, +reckoning it from the source of the river Kerlon, to the sea of +Kamschatka. The river Menan, whose mouth is at Poulo Condor, may be +measured from the surface of the Longmu which falls into it; the Kian, +whose course is about 550 leagues from the source of the river Kinxa, +which it receives, to its mouth in the China Sea; the Ganges is also +about 550 leagues, and the Euphrates 500, taking it from the source of +Irma, which it receives. The Indus about 400 leagues, and which falls +into the Arabian Sea, on the east of Guzarat. The Sirderious, which is +about 400 leagues long, and falls into Lake Aral. + +The greatest rivers in Africa are Senegal, which is 1125 leagues long, +comprehending the Niger, which in fact is a continuation of it, and the +source of Gombarou, which falls into the Niger. The Nile 970 leagues +long, and which derives its source in Upper Ethiopia, where it makes +many windings. There are also the Zaira, the Coanza, and the Couma, +which are known as far as 400 leagues, but extend much farther; the +Quilmanci, whose course is 400 leagues, and which derives its source in +the kingdom of Gingiro. + +The greatest rivers of America, and which are also the greatest in the +world, are the river Amazons, whose course is 1200 leagues, if we go up +as far as the Lake near Guanuco, 30 leagues from Lima, where the +Maragnon takes its source; and even reckoning from the source of the +river Napo, some distance from Quito, the course of the river Amazons is +more than a thousand leagues. + +It might be said that the course of the river St. Lawrence, in Canada, +is more than 900 leagues from its mouth to the lake Ontaro, from thence +to lake Huron, afterwards to the lake Alemipigo, and to the lake +Assiniboils; the waters of these lakes falling one into another, and at +last into St. Lawrence. + +The river Mississippi more than 700 leagues long from its mouth to any +of its sources, which are not remote from the lake of the Assiniboils. + +The river de la Plata is more than 800 leagues long, from the source of +the river Parana, which it receives. + +The river Oroonoko runs more than 575 leagues, reckoning from the source +of the river Caketa, near Pasto, part of which falls into the Oroonoko, +and part flows also towards the river Amazons. + +The river Madera, which falls into the Amazons, is more than 660 +leagues. + +To know nearly the quantity of water the sea receives by all the rivers +which fall into it, let us suppose that one half of the globe is covered +by the sea, and that the other half is land, which is nearly the fact; +let us suppose also, that the mediate depth of the sea is 230 fathom. +The surface of all the earth being 170,981,012 square miles; and that of +the sea 85,490,506 square miles, which being multiplied by 1/4, the +depth of the sea gives 21,372,626, cubical miles for the quantity of +water contained in the ocean. Now, to calculate the quantity of water +which the ocean receives from the rivers, let us take some great river, +whose rapidity and quantity of waters are known; for example, the Po, +which runs through Lombardy, and waters a tract of land 380 miles long; +according to Riccioli, its breadth, before it divides into many +trenches, is 100 perches of Boulogne, or 1000 feet, its depth 10 feet, +and it runs four miles an hour; therefore the Po supplies the sea with +200,000 cubical perches of water in an hour, or 4 millions 800 thousand +in a day; but a cubical mile contains 125 millions cubical perches; +therefore 26 days is required to convey a cubical mile of water to the +sea: it remains therefore only to determine the proportion between the +river Po and all the rivers of the earth taken together, which is +impossible to do precisely. But to know it pretty exactly, let us +suppose that the quantity of water which the sea receives by the large +rivers in all countries is proportional to the extent and surface of +these countries, and that consequently the country watered by the Po, +and other rivers which fall therein, is in the same proportion on the +surface of the whole earth, as the Po is to all the rivers of the earth. +Now by the most correct charts, the Po, from its source to its mouth, +traverses a tract 380 miles long, and the rivers which fall therein, on +each side, proceed from the springs and rivers 60 miles distant from the +Po; therefore this great river, and the others it receives, waters a +tract 380 miles long, and 120 miles broad, which makes 450,600 square +miles, but the surface of all the dry land is 85,490,506 square miles; +consequently all the water which the rivers carry to the sea, will be +1974 times greater than the quantity which the Po furnishes; but as 26 +rivers equal to the Po furnish a cubical mile of water to the sea in a +day, of course 1874 rivers like the Po would supply the sea with 26,308 +cubical miles of water in a year, and that in the space of 812 years all +the rivers would supply the sea with 21,372,626 cubical miles of water; +that is to say, as much as there is in the ocean, and therefore 812 +years is only required to fill it.[312:A] + +The result of this calculation is, that the quantity of water evaporated +from the sea, and which the winds convey on the earth, is about 245 +lines, or from 20 to 21 inches a year, or about two thirds of a line +each day: this is a very trifling evaporation even when trebled, in +order to estimate the water which refalls in the sea, and which is not +conveyed over the earth. Mr. Halley, in the Phil. Transactions, page +192, evidently shews, that the vapours which rise above the sea, and +which the winds convey over all the earth, are sufficient to supply all +the rivers in the world. + +Next to the Nile the river Jordan is the most considerable in the +Levant, or even in Barbary; it supplies the Dead Sea with about six +million tons of water every day; all this water, and more, is raised by +evaporation; for, according to Halley's calculation of 6914 tons +evaporated from each mile, the Dead Sea, which is 72 miles in length by +18 broad, must every day lose near nine million tons of water, that is, +not only all the water it receives from the river Jordan, but also that +of the small rivers which come into it from the mountains of Moab and +elsewhere; consequently there is no necessity for its communicating with +any other sea by subterraneous canals.[313:A] + +The most rapid rivers are the Tigris, the Indus, the Danube, the Yrtis, +in Siberia, the Malmistra, in Silesia, &c. but, as we have already +observed, the proportion of the rapidity of rivers depends upon the +declivity and upon the weight and quantity of water; by examining the +globe, we shall find that the Danube is much less inclined than the Po, +the Rhine, or the Rhone, for the Danube has a much longer course than +any of these other rivers, and falls into the Black Sea, which is higher +than the Mediterranean, and perhaps more so than the ocean. + +All large rivers receive many others in the extent of their course; for +example, the Danube receives more than 200 rivulets and rivers; but by +reckoning only such as are considerable rivers, we shall find that the +Danube receives 31, the Wolga 32, the Don 5 or 6, the Nieper 19 or 20, +the Duine 11 or 12; so likewise in Asia the Hoanho receives 34 or 35, +the Jenisca 60, the Oby as many, the Amour about 40, the Kian, or river +Nankin about 30, the Ganges upwards of 20, the Euphrates 10 or 11, &c. +In Africa, the river Senegal receives upwards of 20 rivers: the Nile +does not receive any rivers for upwards of 500 miles from its mouth; the +last which falls therein is the Moraba, and from this place to its +source it receives about 12 or 13 rivers. In America, the river Amazons +receives more than 60, all of which are very considerable; the river St. +Lawrence about 40, by reckoning those which fall into the lakes; the +Mississippi more than 40, the Plata more than 50, &c. + +There are high countries on the earth, which seem to be points of +division marked by nature for the distribution of the waters. In +Europe, the environs of Mount St. Goddard are one of these points; +another is situate between the provinces of Belozera and Wologda, in +Muscovy, from whence many rivers descend, some of which go to the White +Sea, others to the Black, and some to the Caspian. In Asia there are +several, in the country of Mogul Tartary, from whence rivers flow into +Nova Zembla, others to the Gulph Linchidolin, others to the sea of +Corea, others to that of China: and so likewise the Little Thibet, whose +waters flow towards the sea of China; the Gulph of Bengal, the Gulph of +Cambay, and the Lake Aral; in America, the province of Quito; whose +rivers run into the North and South Seas, and the Gulph of Mexico. + +In the old continent there are about 430 rivers, which fall directly +into the ocean, or into the Mediterranean and Black Seas; but in the new +continent not more than 145 rivers are known, which fall directly into +the sea: in this number I have comprehended only the great rivers, like +the Somme in Picardy. + +All these rivers carry to the sea a great quantity of mineral and saline +particles, which they have washed from the different soils through +which they have passed. The particles of salt, which are easily +dissolved, are conveyed to the sea by the water. Some philosophers, and +among the rest Halley, have pretended that the saltness of the sea +proceeded only from the salts of the earth, which the rivers transport +therein. Others assert, that the saltness of the sea is as ancient as +the sea itself, and that this salt was created that the waters might not +corrupt; but we may justly suppose that the sea is preserved from +corruption by the agitations produced by the winds and tides, as much as +by the salt it contains; for when put in a barrel it corrupts in a few +days; and Boyle relates, that a mariner, who was becalmed for 13 days, +found, at the end of that time, the water so infected, that if the calm +had not ceased, the greatest part of his people would have perished. The +water of the sea is also mixed with a bituminous oil, which gives it a +disagreeable taste, and renders it very unhealthful. The quantity of +salt contained in sea water is about a fortieth part, and is nearly +equally saline throughout, at top as well as bottom, under the line, and +at the Cape of Good Hope; although there are several places, as off the +Mosambique Coast, where it is salter than elsewhere.[317:A] It is also +asserted not to be so saline under the Arctic Circle, which may proceed +from the amazing quantities of snow, and the great rivers which fall +into those seas, and because the heat of the sun produces but little +evaporation in hot climates. + +Be this as it may, I conceive that the saltness of the sea is not only +caused by the banks of salt at the bottom of the sea, and along the +coasts, but also by the salts of the earth, which the rivers continually +convey therein; and that Halley had some reason to presume that in the +beginning of the world the sea had but little or no saltness; that it is +become so by degrees, and in proportion as the rivers have brought salts +therein; that this saltness is every day increasing, and that +consequently, by computing the whole quantity of salt brought by all the +rivers, we might attain the knowledge of the age of the world by the +degrees of the saltness of the sea. + +Divers and pearl fishers assert, according to Boyle, that the deeper +they descend into the sea, the colder is the water; and that the cold is +so intense at considerable depths, that they cannot remain there so long +under water, but are obliged to come up again much sooner than when +they descended to only a moderate one. It appeared to me that the weight +of the water might be as much the cause of compelling them to shorten +their usual time as the intenseness of the cold, when they descend to a +depth of 3 or 400 fathoms; but, in fact, divers scarcely ever descend +above an hundred feet. The same author relates, that in a voyage to the +East-Indies, beyond the line, at about 35 degrees south latitude, a +sounding lead of 30 or 35lb weight was sunk to the depth of 400 fathoms, +and that being pulled up again, it had become as cold as ice. It is also +a frequent practice with mariners to cool their wine at sea by sinking +their bottles to the depth of several fathoms, and they affirm the +deeper the bottles are sunk, the cooler is the wine. + +These circumstances might induce us to presume that the sea is salter at +the bottom than at the surface; but we have testimonies which prove the +contrary, founded on experiments made to fill vessels with sea water, +which were not opened till they were sunk to a certain depth, and the +water was found to be no salter than at the surface. There are even some +places where the water at the surface is salt, and that at the bottom +fresh; and this must always be the case where there are springs at the +bottom of the sea, as near Goo, Ormus, and even in the sea of Naples, +where there are hot springs at the bottom. + +There are other places where sulphurous springs and beds of bitumen have +been discovered at the bottom of the sea, and on land there are many of +these springs of bitumen which run into it. + +At Barbadoes there is a pure bitumen spring, which flows from the rocks +into the sea: salt and bitumen, therefore, are predominant matters in +the sea water: but it is also mixed with many other matters; for the +taste of water is not the same in every part of the sea; besides, the +agitation and the heat of the sun alters the natural taste which the sea +should have; and the different colour of different seas, at different +times, prove that the waters of the sea contain several kinds of +matters, either which it loosens from its own bottom, or are brought +thither by rivers. + +Almost all countries watered by great rivers are subject to periodical +inundations, those which are low, and derive their sources from a great +distance, overflow the most regularly. Every person almost has heard of +the inundations of the Nile, which preserves the sweetness and whiteness +of its waters, though extended over a vast tract of country, and into +the sea. Strabo and other ancient authors have written that it had seven +mouths, but there now remain only two which are navigable; there is a +third canal which descends to Alexandria, and fills the cisterns there, +and a fourth which is still smaller; but as they have for a long time +neglected to clean their canals, they are nearly choaked up. The +ancients employed a great number of workmen and soldiers, and every +year, after the inundation, they carried away the mud and sand which was +in these canals. The cause of the overflowing of the Nile proceeds from +the rains which fall in Ethiopia. They begin in April and do not cease +till September; during the first three months, the days are serene and +fair, but as soon as the sun goes down the rains begin, nor stop till it +rises again, and are generally accompanied with thunder and lightning. +The inundation begins in Egypt about the 17th of June; it generally +increases during 40 days, and diminishes in about the same time; all the +flat country of Egypt is overflowed; but this inundation is much less +now than it was formerly, for Herodotus tells us, that the Nile was 100 +days in swelling, and as many in abating: if this is true, we can only +attribute the cause thereof to the elevation of the land, which the mud +of the waters has heightened by degrees, and to the diminution of the +mountains in Africa, from whence it derives its source. It is very +natural to believe that these mountains have diminished, because the +abundant rains which fall in these climates during half the year sweep +away great quantities of sand and earth from the mountains into the +valleys, from whence the torrents wash them into the Nile, which carries +great part into Egypt, where it deposits them in its overflowings. + +The Nile is not the only river whose inundations are regular; the river +Pegu is called the _Indian Nile_, because it overflows regularly every +year; it inundates the country for more than 30 leagues from its banks; +and, like the Nile, leaves an abundance of mud, which so greatly +fertilizes the earth, that the pasturage is excellent for cattle, and +rice grows in such great abundance, that every year a number of vessels +are laden with it, without leaving a scarcity in the country.[321:A] The +Niger, or what amounts to the same, the upper part of the Senegal, +likewise overflows and covers all the flat country of Nigritia; it +begins nearly at the same time as the Nile, and increases also for 40 +days: the river de la Plata, in Brasil, also overflows every year, and +at the same time as the Nile. The Ganges, the Indus, the Euphrates, and +some others, overflow annually; but all rivers have not periodical +overflowings, and when inundations happen it is the effect of many +causes, which combine to supply a greater quantity of water than common, +and, at the same time, to retard its velocity. We have before observed, +that in almost all rivers the inclination of their beds diminishes +towards their mouths in an almost insensible manner; but there are some +whose declivity is very sudden in some places, and forms what is termed +a _cataract_, which is nothing more than a fall of water, quicker than +the common current of the river. The Rhine, for example, has two +cataracts, the one at Bilefield, and the other near Schafhouse: the Nile +has many, and among the rest two which are very violent, and fall from a +great height between two mountains; the river Wologda, in Muscovy, has +also two near Ladoga; the Zaire, a river of Congo, begins by a very +large cataract, which falls from the top of a mountain; but the most +famous is that of Niagara, in Canada, that falls from a perpendicular +height of 156 feet, like a prodigious torrent, and is more than a +quarter of a mile broad: the fog, or mist, which the water makes in +falling, is perceived at five miles distance, and rises as high as the +clouds, forming a very beautiful rainbow when the sun shines thereon. +Below this cataract there are such terrible whirlpools, that nothing can +be navigated thereon for six miles distance, and above the cataract the +river is much narrower than it is in the upper lands[323:A]. The +description given of it by _Father Charlevoix_ is as follows: + +"My first care, when I arrived, was to visit the most beautiful cascade +that is, perhaps, in nature; but I immediately discovered that Baron la +Hontain was deceived so greatly, both in its height and figure, that one +might reasonably imagine he had never seen it. + +"It is true, that if we measure its height by the three mountains you +are obliged to ascend in going to it, there is not much abatement to be +made of the 600 feet, which the map of M. Delisse gives it, who +doubtless advanced this paradox only on the credit of the Baron la +Hontain, and Father Honnepin; but after I arrived at the top of the +third mountain, I observed that in the space of three leagues, which I +afterwards had to go to this fall of water, although you are forced +sometimes to ascend, you must nevertheless descend still more, and this +is what travellers do not appear to have paid proper attention to. As we +can only approach the cascade on one side, nor see it but in the +profile, it is not easy to measure its height by instruments: +experiments have been made to do it by a long cord, tied to a pole, and +after having often attempted this manner, it was found to be only 115 or +120 feet high; but it is impossible to ascertain whether the pole was +not stopped by some projection of the rock; for although when drawn up +again the end of the cord was always wet, yet that is no proof, since +the water which precipitates from the mountain, flies up again in foam +to a very great height: for my own part, after having considered it on +every side that I could examine it to advantage, I think that we cannot +allow it to be less than 140 or 150 feet. + +"Its figure is that of a horse-shoe, and its circumference is about 400 +paces; but exactly in its middle, it is divided by a very narrow +island, about half a quarter of a league long. It is true these two +parts join again; that which was on my side, and of which I could only +have a side view, has several projecting points, but that which I beheld +in front, appeared to be perfectly even." The Baron has also mentioned a +torrent, which, if not the offspring of his own invention, must fall +into some channel upon the melting of the snow. + +There is another cataract three miles from Albany, in the province of +New-York, whose height is 50 feet perpendicular, and from which there +arises a mist that occasions a faint rainbow.[325:A] + +In all countries where mankind are not sufficiently numerous to form +polished societies, the ground is more irregular, and the beds of rivers +more extended, less equal, and often abound with cataracts. Many ages +were required to render the Rhone and the Loire navigable. It is by +confining waters, by directing their course, and by cleansing the bottom +of rivers, that they obtain a fixed and regular course; in all countries +thinly inhabited Nature is rude, and often deformed. + +There are rivers which lose themselves in the sands, and others which +seem to precipitate into the bowels of the earth: the Guadalquiver in +Spain, the river Gottenburg in Sweden, and the Rhine itself, lose +themselves in the earth. It is asserted, that in the west part of the +island of St. Domingo there is a mountain of a considerable height, at +the foot of which are many caverns, into which the rivers and rivulets +fall with so much noise, as to be heard at the distance of seven or +eight leagues.[326:A] + +The number of rivers which lose themselves in the earth is very few, and +there is no appearance that they descend very low; it is more probable +that they lose themselves, like the Rhine, by dividing among the +quantity of sand; this is very common to small rivers that run through +dry and sandy soils, of which we have several examples in Africa, +Persia, Arabia, &c. + +The rivers of the north transport into the sea prodigious quantities of +ice, which accumulating, form those enormous masses so destructive to +mariners. These masses are the most abundant in the Strait of Waigat, +which is entirely frozen over the greatest part of the year, and are +formed by the great flakes which the river Oby almost continually brings +there; they attach themselves along the coasts, and heap up to a +considerable height on both sides, but the middle of the strait is the +last part which freezes, and where the ice is the lowest. When the wind +ceases to blow from the North, and comes in the direction of the Strait, +the ice begins to thaw and break in the middle; afterwards it loosens +from the sides in great masses, which are carried into the high sea. The +wind, which all winter blows from the north over the frozen countries of +Nova Zembla, renders the country watered by the Oby, and all Siberia, so +cold, that even at Tobolski, which is in the 57th degree, there are no +fruit trees, while at Sweden, Stockholm, and even in higher latitudes, +there are both fruit trees and pulse. This difference does not proceed, +as it has been thought, from the sea of Lapland being warmer than the +Straits; nor from the land of Nova Zembla being colder than Lapland; but +solely from the Baltic, and the Gulph of Bothnia, tempering the rigour +of the north winds, whereas in Siberia there is nothing that can +temperate the cold. It is a fact founded on experience, that it is never +so cold on the sea coasts as in the inland parts of a country. There +are plants which stand the winter in London exposed to the open air, +that cannot be preserved at Paris; and Siberia, which is a vast +continent, is for this reason colder than Sweden, which is surrounded on +all sides by the sea. + +The coldest country in the world is Spitzbergen: it lies in the 78th +degree of north latitude, and is entirely formed of small peaked +mountains; these mountains are composed of gravel, and flat stones +somewhat like slate, heaped one on the other; which, it is affirmed by +navigators, are raised by the wind, and increase so quick, that new ones +are discovered every year. The rein-deer is the only animal seen here, +which feeds on a short grass and moss. On the top of these little +mountains, and at more than a mile from the sea, the mast of a ship was +found with a pully fastened to one of its ends, which gives room to +suppose that the sea once covered the tops of these mountains, and that +this country is but of modern date; it is uninhabited, and +uninhabitable; the soil of these small mountains has no consistence, but +is loose, and so cold and penetrating a vapour strikes from it, that it +is impossible to remain any length of time thereon. + +The vessels which go to Spitzbergen for the whale fishery, arrive there +early in the month of July, and take their departure from it about the +15th of August, the ice preventing them from entering the sea earlier, +or quiting it after. Prodigious pieces of ice, 60, 70, and 80 fathoms +thick are seen there, and there are some parts of it where the sea +appears frozen to the very bottom[329:A]: this ice, which is so high +above the level of the sea, is as clear and transparent as glass. + +There is also much ice in the seas of North America, as in Ascension +Bay, in the Straits of Hudson, Cumberland, Davis, Forbishers, &c. Robert +Lade asserts that the mountains of Friezeland are entirely covered with +snow, and its coasts with ice, like a bulwark, which prevents any +approaching them. "It is, says he, very remarkable, that in this sea we +meet with islands of ice more than half a mile round, extremely high, +and 70 or 80 fathoms deep; this ice, which is sweet, is perhaps formed +in the rivers or straits of the neighbouring lands, &c. These islands +or mountains of ice are so moveable, that in stormy weather they follow +the track of a ship, as if they were drawn along in the same furrow by a +rope. There are some of them tower so high above the water, as to +surpass the tops of the masts of the largest vessels."[330:A] + +In the collection of voyages made for the service of the Dutch East +India Company, we meet with the following account of the ice at Nova +Zembla:--"At Cape Troost the weather was so foggy as to oblige us to +moor the vessel to a mountain of ice, which was 36 fathoms deep in the +water, and about 16 fathoms out of it. + +"On the 10th of August the ice dividing, it began to float, and then we +observed that the large piece of ice, to which the ship had been moored, +touched the bottom, as all the others passing by struck against without +moving it. We then began to fear being inclosed between the ice, that we +should either be frozen in or crushed to pieces, and therefore +endeavoured to avoid the danger by attempting to get into another +latitude, in doing of which the vessel was forced through the floating +ice, which made a tremendous noise, and seemingly to a great distance; +at length we moored to another mountain, for the purpose of remaining +there that night. + +"During the first watch the ice began to split with an inexpressible +noise, and the ship keeping to the current, in which the ice was now +floating, we were obliged to cut the cable to avoid it; we reckoned more +than 400 large mountains of ice, which were 10 fathoms under and +appeared more than 2 fathoms above water. + +"We afterwards moored the vessel to another mountain of ice, which +reached above 6 fathoms under water. As soon as we were fixed we +perceived another piece beyond us, which terminated in a point, and went +to the bottom of the sea; we advanced towards it, and found it 20 +fathoms under water, and 12 above the surface. + +"The 11th we reached another large shelve of ice, 18 fathoms under +water, and 10 above it. + +"The 21st the Dutch got pretty far in among the ice, and remained there +the whole night; the next morning they moored their vessel to a large +bank of ice, which they ascended, and considered as a very singular +phenomenon, that its top was covered with earth, and they found near 40 +eggs thereon. The colour was not the common colour of ice, but a fine +sky blue. Those who were on it had various conjectures from this +circumstance, some contending it was an effect of the ice, while others +maintained it to be a mass of frozen earth. It was about eighteen +fathoms under water, and ten above."[332:A] + +Wafer relates, that near Terra del Fuega he met with many high floating +pieces of ice, which he at first mistook for islands. Some appeared a +mile or two in length, and the largest not less than 4 or 500 feet above +the water. + +All this ice, as I have observed in the sixth article, was brought +thither by the rivers; the ice in the sea of Nova Zembla, and the +Straits of Waigat come from the Oby, and perhaps from Jenisca, and other +great rivers of Siberia and Tartary; that in Hudson's Straits, from +Ascension Bay, into which many of the North American rivers fall; that +of Terra del Fuega, from the southern continent. If there are less on +the North coasts of Lapland, than on those of Siberia, and the Straits +of Waigat, it is because all the rivers of Lapland fall into the Gulph +of Bothnia, and none go into the northern sea. The ice may also be +formed in the straits, where the tides swell much higher than in the +open sea, and where, consequently, the ice that is at the surface may +heap up and form those mountains, which are several fathoms high; but +with respect to those which are 4 or 500 feet high, they appear to be +formed on high coasts; and I imagine that when the snow which covers the +tops of these coasts melts, the water flows on the flakes of ice, and +being frozen thereon, thus increases the size of the first until it +comes to that amazing height. That afterwards, in a warm summer, these +hills of ice loosen from the coasts by the action of the wind and motion +of the sea, or perhaps even by their own weight, and are driven as the +wind directs, so that they at length may arrive into temperate climates +before they are entirely melted. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[306:A] See Racolta d'autori che trattano del motto dell' acque, vol. 1, +page 123. + +[312:A] See Keil's Examination of Burnet's Theory, page 126. + +[313:A] See Shaw's Travels, vol. ii, page 71. + +[317:A] See Boyle, vol. iii. page 217. + +[321:A] See Ovington's Travels, vol. ii. page 290. + +[323:A] See Phil. Trans. Abr. vol. vi. part ii. page 119. + +[325:A] Phil. Trans. vol. vi. part ii. page 19. + +[326:A] See Varenii Geograph. gen. page 48. + +[329:A] In contradiction to this idea it is now a generally received +opinion, that the mountains of ice in the North and South Seas are +exactly the same depth under as they are height above the surface of the +water. + +[330:A] See the Voyages of Lade, vol. ii, page 305, &. + +[332:A] Voyage of the Dutch to the North, vol. 1, 3. Page 49. + + +_END OF THE FIRST VOLUME._ + + + + +TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES + + +Variations in spelling and hyphenation have been left as in the +original. + +The following changes have been made to the original text: + + Page vi: It would have been singular[original has "singuar"] + + Page 9: moon, which are the causes of["of" missing in + original] it + + Page 23: these particles[original has "particels"] of earth + and stone + + Page 31: In a word, the materials[original has "mateterials"] + of the globe + + Page 37: has occurred, and in my opinion[original has + "oppinion"] very naturally + + Page 51: These[original has "these"] could not have been + occasioned + + Page 74: in the regions of the sky [original has "fky"] + + Page 94: that fire cannot[original has "connot"] subsist + + Page 94: planets at[original has "as"] the time of their + quitting the sun + + Page 97: there will be detached[original has "detatched"] from + its equator + + Page 104: which are as 229 to 230.[period missing in original] + + Page 155: ARTICLE VI.[original has "VII."] + + Page 182: conjecture is so much the better[original has + "bettter"] founded + + Page 189: where the pits are very deep[original has "deeep"] + + Page 192: 23. Sand streaked red[original has "read"] and white + + Page 194: In plains surrounded[original has "surounded"] with + hills + + Page 198: in France, Flanders, Holland, Spain,[comma missing + in original] Italy + + Page 199: 10 of sand, then 2 feet of["of" missing in original] + clay + + Page 203: either birds or terrestrial animals."[quotation mark + missing in original] + + Page 210: the Alps, and the Apennine[original has "Appenine"] + mountains + + Page 225: time much longer than a year."[quotation mark + missing in original] + + Page 228: formation is novel, in[original has "n"] comparison + + Page 256: resemblance is perfectly exact."[quotation mark + missing in original] + + [78:A] Vide Newton, 2d edit. page 525.[period missing in + original] + + [177:A] Footnote letter missing in original. + + [178:A] See the Hist. of New France, by the Pere Charlevoix. + [letter and period missing in original. + + [234:A] See Shaw's Voyages, Vol. ii[original has "11"], pages + 40 and 41. + + [240:B] Voyage of Paul Lucus, Vol. II[original has "11"], page + 380. + + [329:A] above the surface of the water.[original has a comma] + + [330:A] See the Voyages of Lade, vol. ii.[original has "11"] + page 305, &. + + [332:A] Voyage of the Dutch to the North, vol. 1, 3.[original + has a comma] Page 49. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Buffon's Natural History, Volume I (of +II), by Georges Louis Leclerc de Buffon + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44792 *** diff --git a/44792-h/44792-h.htm b/44792-h/44792-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7ea826 --- /dev/null +++ b/44792-h/44792-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,7377 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=UTF-8" /> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of Buffon's Natural History, Volume I., by Georges Louis Leclerc de Buffon. + </title> + <link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover.jpg" /> + <style type="text/css"> + +body + { margin-left: 10%; 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+ vertical-align: bottom; + padding: .25em .25em; + } /* page number in TOC right-aligned at bottom of cell */ + +.pagenum + { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + right: 3%; + font-size: smaller; + font-weight: normal; + font-variant: normal; + font-style: normal; + text-align: right; + font-size: 13px; + } /* page numbers */ + +.subtitle + { text-align: center; + font-weight: bold; + font-size: large; + } + +.subtitle small + { text-align: center; + font-weight: bold; + font-size: medium; + } + +.subtitle big + { text-align: center; + font-weight: bold; + font-size: x-large; + line-height: 2em; + } + +.titletwo + { text-align: center; + font-weight: bold; + font-size: 150%; + line-height: 1.5em; + } + +/* header for TN big and bold */ +.tnhead + { text-align: center; + font-weight: bold; + font-size: x-large; + line-height: 1.5; + } + +/* block for corrections in transcriber note */ +.tnblock + { margin-left: 5%; 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+ padding: 1em; + border: solid black 1px; + } + +@media print, handheld +{ + h1 { + text-align: center; + font-weight: bold; + font-size: xx-large; + clear: both; + padding-top: 2em; + page-break-before: avoid; + } + + h2 { + page-break-before: always; + } + + p { + margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; + } + + .sectctrfn { + margin-top: 1.5em; + text-align: center; + font-weight: bold; + page-break-before: always; + } + +} + +@media handheld +{ + body { + margin-left: 2%; + margin-right: 2%; + margin-top: 1%; + margin-bottom: 1%; + } + + hr.newchapter { + width: 65%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: 17.5%; + margin-right: 17.5%; + clear: both; + visibility: hidden; + color: white; + display: none; + } + + table.layers { + margin-left: 2%; + margin-right: 2%; + } + +} + + + </style> + </head> +<body> +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44792 ***</div> + +<p><!-- Page i --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i"></a>[i]</span></p> +<div> +<p class="firsttitle">Barr's Buffon.</p> + + + + +<h1>Buffon's Natural History.</h1> + +<p class="subtitle"><small>CONTAINING</small><br /> + +<big>A THEORY OF THE EARTH,</big><br /> + +A GENERAL<br /> + +<big><i>HISTORY OF MAN</i>,</big><br /> + +OF THE BRUTE CREATION, AND OF<br /> +VEGETABLES, MINERALS,<br /> +<i>&c. &c.</i></p> + +<p class="tpother">FROM THE FRENCH.</p> + +<p class="tpother"><small>WITH NOTES BY THE TRANSLATOR.</small></p> + +<p class="tpother"><small>IN TEN VOLUMES.</small></p> + +<p class="tpother">VOL. I.</p> + + +<p class="tppublisher">London:<br /> + PRINTED FOR THE PROPRIETOR,<br /> + AND SOLD BY H. D. SYMONDS, PATERNOSTER-ROW.<br /> + 1797.</p> + +<p><!-- Page ii --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ii" id="Page_ii"></a>[ii]</span></p> +</div> + + + + +<div> +<hr class="newchapter" /> +<p><!-- Page iii --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii"></a>[iii]</span></p> + +<h2>CONTENTS<br /> + + <small>OF</small><br /> + + THE FIRST VOLUME.</h2> + + +<table summary="Table of Contents" border="0"> + <tr> + <td class="tdright" colspan="3"><i>Page</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefttop" colspan="2"><i><a href="#THE_THEORY_OF_THE_EARTH">THE Theory of the Earth</a></i></td> + <td class="tdpage"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdcenter" colspan="3">Proof of the Theory of the Earth.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefttop"><a href="#ARTICLE_I">Article I.</a></td> + <td class="tdlefthangit">On the Formation of the Planets</td> + <td class="tdpage"><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefttop"><a href="#ARTICLE_II">Article II.</a></td> + <td class="tdlefthangit">From the System of Whiston</td> + <td class="tdpage"><a href="#Page_115">115</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefttop"><a href="#ARTICLE_III">Article III.</a></td> + <td class="tdlefthangit">From the System of Burnet</td> + <td class="tdpage"><a href="#Page_128">128</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefttop"><a href="#ARTICLE_IV">Article IV.</a></td> + <td class="tdlefthangit">From the System of Woodward</td> + <td class="tdpage"><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefttop"><a href="#ARTICLE_V">Article V.</a></td> + <td class="tdlefthangit">Exposition of some other Systems</td> + <td class="tdpage"><a href="#Page_137">137</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefttop"><a href="#ARTICLE_VI">Article VI.</a></td> + <td class="tdlefthangit">Geography</td> + <td class="tdpage"><a href="#Page_155">155</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefttop"><a href="#ARTICLE_VII">Article VII.</a></td> + <td class="tdlefthangit">On the Production of the Strata, or Beds of + <!-- Page iv --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv"></a>[iv]</span>the Earth</td> + <td class="tdpage"><a href="#Page_183">183</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefttop"><a href="#ARTICLE_VIII">Article VIII.</a></td> + <td class="tdlefthangit" style="padding-right: 1.5em;">On Shells and other Marine Productions found + in the interior Parts of the Earth</td> + <td class="tdpage"><a href="#Page_219">219</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefttop"><a href="#ARTICLE_IX">Article IX.</a></td> + <td class="tdlefthangit">On the Inequalities of the Surface + of the Earth</td> + <td class="tdpage"><a href="#Page_262">262</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefttop"><a href="#ARTICLE_X">Article X.</a></td> + <td class="tdlefthangit">Of Rivers</td> + <td class="tdpage"><a href="#Page_298">298</a></td> + </tr> +</table> +</div> + + + +<div> +<hr class="newchapter" /> +<p><!-- Page v --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v"></a>[v]</span></p> +<h2>PREFACE.</h2> + + +<p>We should certainly be guilty of a gross absurdity if, in an age like +the present, we were to enter into an elaborate discussion on the +advantages to be derived from the study of <strong>Natural History</strong>; the ancients +recommended it as useful, instructive, and entertaining; and the moderns +have so far pursued and cultivated this first of sciences, that it is +now admitted to be the source of universal instruction and knowledge; +where every active mind may find subjects to amuse and delight, and the +artist a never failing field to enrich his glowing imagination.</p> + +<p><!-- Page vi --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi"></a>[vi]</span>It would have been singular if, on such a subject, a number of authors +had not submitted the produce of their observations and labour; many +have written upon Natural Philosophy, but the Comte de <strong>Buffon</strong> stands +eminently distinguished among them; he has entered into a minute +investigation, and drawn numberless facts from unwearied observations +far beyond any other, and this he has accomplished in a style fully +accordant with the importance of his subject. Ray, Linnæus, Rheaumur, +and other of his cotemporaries, deserve much credit for their classing +of animals, vegetables, &c. but it was <strong>Buffon</strong> alone who entered into a +description of their nature, habits, uses, and properties. In his Theory +of the Earth he has displayed a wonderful ingenuity, and shewn the +general order of Nature with a masterly hand, although he may be subject +to some objections for preferring physical reasonings on general +<!-- Page vii --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii"></a>[vii]</span>causes, rather than allowing aught to have arisen from supernatural +agency, or the will of the Almighty. In this he has followed the example +of all great philosophers, who seem unwilling to admit that the +formation of any part of the Universe is beyond their comprehension.</p> + +<p>As the works of this Author will best speak for themselves, we shall +avoid unnecessary panegyric, hoping they will have received no material +injury in the following translation; we shall therefore content +ourselves with observing, that in our plan we have followed that adopted +by the Comte himself in a latter edition, from which he exploded his +long and minute treatises on anatomy and mensuration; though elegant and +highly finished in themselves, they appeared to us of too abstruse and +confined a nature for general estimation, and which we could not have +gone into without almost doubling <!-- Page viii --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii"></a>[viii]</span>the expence; a circumstance we had to +guard against, for the advantage of those of our readers to whom that +part would have been totally uninteresting.</p> + +<p>As to this edition, we presume it is no vain boast, that every exertion +has been made to do justice to a work of such acknowledged merit. In the +literary part, it has been the Proprietor's chief endeavour to preserve +the spirit and accuracy of the Author, as far as could be done in +translating from one language into another; and it is with gratitude he +acknowledges, that those endeavours have been amply supported by the +engraver; for the decorative executions of <strong>Milton</strong> will remain a lasting +monument of his abilities, as long as delicacy in the arts is held in +estimation.</p> +</div> + + + + +<div> +<hr class="newchapter" /> +<p class="titletwo"><!-- Page 1 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1"></a>[1]</span>BUFFON's<br /> + +NATURAL HISTORY.</p> + + + +<hr class="newchapter" /> +<h2><a name="THE_THEORY_OF_THE_EARTH" id="THE_THEORY_OF_THE_EARTH"></a><i>THE THEORY OF THE EARTH.</i></h2> + + +<p>Neither the figure of the earth, its motion, nor its external +connections with the rest of the universe, pertain to our present +investigation. It is the internal structure of the globe, its +composition, form, and manner of existence which we purpose to examine. +The general history of the earth should doubtless precede that of its +productions, as a necessary study for those who wish to be acquainted +with Nature in her variety of shapes, <!-- Page 2 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2"></a>[2]</span>and the detail of facts relative +to the life and manners of animals, or to the culture and vegetation of +plants, belong not, perhaps, so much to Natural History, as to the +general deductions drawn from the observations that have been made upon +the different materials which compose the terrestrial globe: as the +heights, depths, and inequalities of its form; the motion of the sea, +the direction of mountains, the situation of rocks and quarries, the +rapidity and effects of currents in the ocean, &c. This is the history +of nature in its most ample extent, and these are the operations by +which every other effect is influenced and produced. The theory of these +effects constitutes what may be termed a primary science, upon which the +exact knowledge of particular appearances as well as terrestrial +substances entirely depends. This description of science may fairly be +considered as appertaining to physics; but does not all physical +knowledge, in which no system is admitted, form part of the History of +Nature?</p> + +<p>In a subject of great magnitude, whose relative connections are +difficult to trace, and where some facts are but partially known, and +others uncertain and obscure, it is more easy <!-- Page 3 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3"></a>[3]</span>to form a visionary +system, than to establish a rational theory; thus it is that the Theory +of the Earth has only hitherto been treated in a vague and hypothetical +manner; I shall therefore but slightly mention the singular notions of +some authors who have written upon the subject.</p> + +<p>The first hypothesis I shall allude to, deserves to be mentioned more +for its ingenuity than its reasonable solidity; it is that of an English +astronomer, (<strong>Whiston</strong>) versed in the system of <strong>Newton</strong>, and an +enthusiastic admirer of his philosophy; convinced that every event which +happens on the terrestrial globe, depends upon the motions of the stars, +he endeavours to prove, by the assistance of mathematical calculations, +that the tail of a comet has produced every alteration the earth has +ever undergone.</p> + +<p>The next is the formation of an heterodox theologician, (<strong>Burnet</strong>) whose +brain was so heated with poetical visions, that he imagined he had seen +the creation of the universe. After explaining what the earth was in its +primary state, when it sprung from nothing; what changes were occasioned +by the deluge; what it has been and what it is, he then assumes a +<!-- Page 4 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4"></a>[4]</span>prophetic style, and predicts what will be its state after the +destruction of the human race.</p> + +<p>The third comes from a writer (<strong>Woodward</strong>) certainly a better and more +extensive observer of nature than the two former, though little less +irregular and confused in his ideas; he explains the principal +appearances of the globe, by an immense abyss in the bowels of the +earth, which in his opinion is nothing more than a thin crust that +serves as a covering to the fluid it incloses.</p> + +<p>The whole of these hypotheses are raised on unstable foundations; have +given no light upon the subject, the ideas being unconnected, the facts +confused, and the whole confounded with a mixture of physic and fable; +and consequently have been adopted only by those who implicitly believe +opinions without investigation, and who, incapable of distinguishing +probability, are more impressed with the wonders of the marvellous than +the relation of truth.</p> + +<p>What we shall say on this subject will doubtless be less extraordinary, +and appear unimportant, if put in comparison with the grand systems just +mentioned, but it should be remembered that it is an historian's +business to describe, not <!-- Page 5 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5"></a>[5]</span>invent; that no suppositions should be +admitted upon subjects that depend upon facts and observation; that his +imagination ought only to be exercised for the purpose of combining +observations, rendering facts more general, and forming one connected +whole, so as to present to the mind a distinct arrangement of clear +ideas and probable conjectures; I say probable, because we must not +expect to give exact demonstration on this subject, that being confined +to mathematical sciences, while our knowledge in physics and natural +history depends solely upon experience, and is confined to reasoning +upon inductions.</p> + +<p>In the history of the Earth, we shall therefore begin with those facts +that have been obtained from the experience of time, together with what +we have collected by our own observations.</p> + +<p>This immense globe exhibits upon its surface heights, depths, plains, +seas, lakes, marshes, rivers, caverns, gulphs, and volcanos; and upon +the first view of these objects we cannot discover in their dispositions +either order or regularity. If we penetrate into its internal part, we +shall there find metals, minerals, stones, bitumens, sands, earths, +waters, and <!-- Page 6 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6"></a>[6]</span>matters of every kind, placed as it were by chance, and +without the smallest apparent design. Examining with a more strict +attention, we discover sunk mountains, caverns filled, rocks split and +broken, countries swallowed up, and new islands rising from the ocean; +we shall also perceive heavy substances placed above light ones, hard +bodies surrounded with soft; in short, we shall there find matter in +every form, wet and dry, hot and cold, solid and brittle, mixed in such +a sort of confusion as to leave room to compare them only to a mass of +rubbish and the ruins of a wrecked world.</p> + +<p>We inhabit these ruins however with a perfect security. The various +generations of men, animals, and plants, succeed each other without +interruption; the earth produces fully sufficient for their subsistence; +the sea has its limits; its motions and the currents of air are +regulated by fixed laws: the returns of the seasons are certain and +regular; the severity of the winter being constantly succeeded by the +beauties of the spring: every thing appears in order, and the earth, +formerly a <strong class="allcapsc">CHAOS</strong>, is now a tranquil and delightful abode, where all is +animated, and regulated by such an amazing display of power and +intelligence as fills us <!-- Page 7 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7"></a>[7]</span>with admiration, and elevates our minds with +the most sublime ideas of an all-potent and wonderful Creator.</p> + +<p>Let us not then draw any hasty conclusions upon the irregularities of +the surface of the earth, nor the apparent disorders in the interior +parts, for we shall soon discover the utility, and even the necessity of +them; and, by considering them with a little attention, we shall, +perhaps, find an order of which we had no conception, and a general +connection that we could neither perceive nor comprehend, by a slight +examination: but in fact, our knowledge on this subject must always be +confined. There are many parts of the surface of the globe with which we +are entirely unacquainted, and have but partial ideas of the bottom of +the sea, which in many places we have not been able to fathom. We can +only penetrate into the coat of the earth; the greatest caverns and the +deepest mines do not descend above the eight thousandth part of its +diameter, we can therefore judge only of the external and mere +superficial part; we know, indeed, that bulk for bulk the earth weighs +four times heavier than the sun, and we also know the proportion its +weight bears with other planets; but this <!-- Page 8 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8"></a>[8]</span>is merely a relative +estimation; we have no certain standard nor proportion; we are so +entirely ignorant of the real weight of the materials, that the internal +part of the globe may be a void space, or composed of matter a thousand +times heavier than gold; nor is there any method to make further +discoveries on this subject; and it is with the greatest difficulty any +rational conjectures can be formed thereon.</p> + +<p>We must therefore confine ourselves to a correct examination and +description of the surface of the earth, and to those trifling depths to +which we have been enabled to penetrate. The first object which presents +itself is that immense quantity of water which covers the greatest part +of the globe; this water always occupies the lowest ground, its surface +always level, and constantly tending to equilibrium and rest; +nevertheless it is kept in perpetual agitation by a powerful agent, +which opposing its natural tranquillity, impresses it with a regular +periodical motion, alternately raising and depressing its waves, +producing a vibration in the total mass, by disturbing the whole body to +the greatest depths. This motion we know has existed from the +commencement of time, <!-- Page 9 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9"></a>[9]</span>and will continue as long as the sun and moon, +which are the causes of it.</p> + +<p>By an examination of the bottom of the sea, we discover that to be fully +as irregular as the surface of the earth; we there find hills and +vallies, plains and cavities, rocks and soils of every kind: we there +perceive that islands are only the summits of vast mountains, whose +foundations are at the bottom of the Ocean; we also find other mountains +whose tops are nearly on a level with the surface of the water, and +rapid currents which run contrary to the general movement: they +sometimes run in the same direction, at others, their motions are +retrograde, but never exceeding their bounds, which appear to be as +fixed and invariable as those which confine the rivers of the earth. In +one part we meet with tempestuous regions, where the winds blow with +irresistible fury, where the sea and the heavens equally agitated, join +in contact with each other, are mixed and confounded in the general +shock: in others, violent intestine motions, tumultuous swellings, +water-spouts, and extraordinary agitations, caused by volcanos, whose +mouths though a considerable depth under water, yet vomit fire from the +<!-- Page 10 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10"></a>[10]</span>midst of the waves, and send up to the clouds a thick vapour, composed +of water, sulphur, and bitumen. Further we perceive dreadful gulphs or +whirlpools, which seem to attract vessels, merely to swallow them up. On +the other hand, we discover immense regions, totally opposite in their +natures, always calm and tranquil, yet equally dangerous; where the +winds never exert their power, where the art of the mariner becomes +useless, and where the becalmed voyager must remain until death relieves +him from the horrors of despair. In conclusion, if we turn our eyes +towards the northern or southern extremities of the globe, we there +perceive enormous flakes of ice separating themselves from the polar +regions, advancing like huge mountains into the more temperate climes, +where they dissolve and are lost to the sight.</p> + +<p>Exclusive of these principal objects the vast empire of the sea abounds +with animated beings, almost innumerable in numbers and variety. Some of +them, covered with light scales, move with astonishing celerity; others, +loaded with thick shells, drag heavily along, leaving their track in the +sand; on others Nature has bestowed fins, resembling wings, with which +<!-- Page 11 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11"></a>[11]</span>they raise and support themselves in the air, and fly to considerable +distances; while there are those to whom all motion has been denied, who +live and die immoveably fixed to the same rock: every species, however, +find abundance of food in this their native element. The bottom of the +sea, and the shelving sides of the various rocks, produce great +abundance of plants and mosses of different kinds; its soil is composed +of sand, gravel, rocks, and shells; in some parts a fine clay, in others +a solid earth, and in general it has a complete resemblance to the land +which we inhabit.</p> + +<p>Let us now take a view of the earth. What prodigious differences do we +find in different climates? What a variety of soils? What inequalities +in the surface? but upon a minute and attentive observation we shall +find the greatest chain of mountains are nearer the equator than the +poles; that in the Old Continent their direction is more from the east +to west than from the north to south; and that, on the contrary, in the +New World they extend more from north to south than from east to west; +but what is still more remarkable, the form and direction of those +mountains, whose appearance is so very irregular, correspond so +precisely, that <!-- Page 12 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12"></a>[12]</span>the prominent angles of one mountain are always +opposite to the concave angles of the neighbouring mountain, and are of +equal dimensions, whether they are separated by a small valley or an +extensive plain. I have also observed that opposite hills are nearly of +the same height, and that, in general, mountains occupy the middle of +continents, islands, and promontories, which they divide by the greatest +lengths.</p> + +<p>In following the courses of the principal rivers, I have likewise found +that they are almost always perpendicular with those of the sea into +which they empty themselves; and that in the greatest part of their +courses they proceed nearly in the direction of the mountains from which +they derive their source.</p> + +<p>The sea shores are generally bounded with rocks, marble, and other hard +stones, or by earth and sand which has accumulated by the waters from +the sea, or been brought down by the rivers; and I observe that opposite +coasts, separated only by an arm of the sea, are composed of similar +materials, and the beds of the earth are exactly the same. Volcanos I +find exist only in the highest mountains; that many of them are entirely +extinct; that some <!-- Page 13 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13"></a>[13]</span>are connected with others by subterraneous passages, +and that their explosions frequently happen at one and the same time. +There are similar correspondences between certain lakes and neighbouring +seas; some rivers suddenly disappear, and seem to precipitate themselves +into the earth. We also find internal, or mediterranean seas, constantly +receiving an enormous quantity of water from a number of rivers without +ever extending their bounds, most probably discharging by subterraneous +passages all their superfluous supplies. Lands which have been long +inhabited are easily distinguished from those new countries where the +soil appears in a rude state, where the rivers are full of cataracts, +where the earth is either overflowed with water, or parched up with +drought, and where every spot upon which a tree will grow is covered +with uncultivated woods.</p> + +<p>Pursuing our examination in a more extensive view, we find that the +upper strata that surrounds the globe, is universally the same. That +this substance which serves for the growth and nourishment of animals +and vegetables, is nothing but a composition of decayed animal and +vegetable bodies reduced into such small particles, that their former +organization <!-- Page 14 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14"></a>[14]</span>is not distinguishable; or penetrating a little further, +we find the real earth, beds of sand, lime-stone, argol, shells, marble, +gravel, chalk, &c. These beds are always parallel to each other and of +the same thickness throughout their whole extent. In neighbouring hills +beds of the same materials are invariably found upon the same levels, +though the hills are separated by deep and extensive intervals. All beds +of earth, even the most solid strata, as rocks, quarries of marble, &c. +are uniformly divided by perpendicular fissures; it is the same in the +largest as well as smallest depths, and appears a rule which nature +invariably pursues.</p> + +<p>In the very bowels of the earth, on the tops of mountains, and even the +most remote parts from the sea, shells, skeletons of fish, marine +plants, &c. are frequently found, and these shells, fish, and plants, +are exactly similar to those which exist in the Ocean. There are a +prodigious quantity of petrified shells to be met with in an infinity of +places, not only inclosed in rocks, masses of marble, lime-stone, as +well as in earth and clays, but are actually incorporated and filled +with the very substance which surrounds them. In short, I find myself +convinced, by repeated observations, <!-- Page 15 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15"></a>[15]</span>that marbles, stones, chalks, +marls, clay, sand, and almost all terrestrial substances, wherever they +may be placed, are filled with shells and other substances, the +productions of the sea.</p> + +<p>These facts being enumerated, let us now see what reasonable conclusions +are to be drawn from them.</p> + +<p>The changes and alterations which have happened to the earth, in the +space of the last two or three thousand years, are very inconsiderable +indeed, when compared with those important revolutions which must have +taken place in those ages which immediately followed the creation; for +as all terrestrial substances could only acquire solidity by the +continued action of gravity, it would be easy to demonstrate that the +surface of the earth was much softer at first than it is at present, and +consequently the same causes which now produce but slight and almost +imperceptible changes during many ages, would then effect great +revolutions in a very short space. It appears to be a certain fact, that +the earth which we now inhabit, and even the tops of the highest +mountains, were formerly covered with the sea, for shells and other +marine productions are frequently found in almost every part; it appears +also that the <!-- Page 16 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16"></a>[16]</span>water remained a considerable time on the surface of the +earth, since in many places there have been discovered such prodigious +banks of shells, that it is impossible so great a multitude of animals +could exist at the same time: this fact seems likewise to prove, that +although the materials which composed the surface of the earth were then +in a state of softness, that rendered them easy to be disunited, moved +and transported by the waters, yet that these removals were not made at +once; they must indeed have been successive, gradual, and by degrees, +because these kind of sea productions are frequently met with more than +a thousand feet below the surface, and such a considerable thickness of +earth and stone could not have accumulated but by the length of time. If +we were to suppose that at the Deluge all the shell-fish were raised +from the bottom of the sea, and transported over all the earth; besides +the difficulty of establishing this supposition, it is evident, that as +we find shells incorporated in marble and in the rocks of the highest +mountains, we must likewise suppose that all these marbles and rocks +were formed at the same time, and that too at the very instant of the +Deluge; and besides, that previous to this <!-- Page 17 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17"></a>[17]</span>great revolution there were +neither mountains, marble, nor rocks, nor clays, nor matters of any kind +similar to those we are at present acquainted with, as they almost all +contain shells and other productions of the sea. Besides, at the time of +the Deluge, the earth must have acquired a considerable degree of +solidity, from the action of gravity for more than sixteen centuries, +and consequently it does not appear possible that the waters, during the +short time the Deluge lasted, should have overturned and dissolved its +surface to the greatest depths we have since been enabled to penetrate.</p> + +<p>But without dwelling longer on this point, which shall hereafter be more +amply discussed, I shall confine myself to well-known observations and +established facts. There is no doubt but that the waters of the sea at +some period covered and remained for ages upon that part of the globe +which is now known to be dry land; and consequently the whole continents +of Asia, Europe, Africa, and America, were then the bottom of an ocean +abounding with similar productions to those which the sea at present +contains: it is equally certain that the different strata which compose +the earth are parallel and horizontal, and it is evident their <!-- Page 18 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18"></a>[18]</span>being in +this situation is the operation of the waters which have collected and +accumulated by degrees the different materials, and given them the same +position as the water itself always assumes. We observe that the +position of strata is almost universally horizontal: in plains it is +exactly so, and it is only in the mountains that they are inclined to +the horizon, from their having been originally formed by a sediment +deposited upon an inclined base. Now I insist that these strata must +have been formed by degrees, and not all at once, by any revolution +whatever, because strata, composed of heavy materials, are very +frequently found placed above light ones, which could not be, if, as +some authors assert, the whole had been mixed with the waters at the +time of the Deluge, and afterwards precipitated; in that case every +thing must have had a very different appearance to that which now +exists. The heaviest bodies would have descended first, and each +particular stratum would have been arranged according to its weight and +specific gravity, and we should not see solid rocks or metals placed +above light sand any more than clay under coal.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 19 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19"></a>[19]</span>We should also pay attention to another circumstance; it confirms what +we have said on the formation of the strata; no other cause than the +motions and sediments of water could possibly produce so regular a +position of it, for the highest mountains are composed of parallel +strata as well as the lowest plains, and therefore we cannot attribute +the origin and formation of mountains to the shocks of earthquakes, or +eruptions of volcanos. The small eminences which are sometimes raised by +volcanos, or convulsive motions of the earth, are not by any means +composed of parallel strata, they are a mere disordered heap of matters +thrown confusedly together; but the horizontal and parallel position of +the strata must necessarily proceed from the operations of a constant +cause and motion, always regulated and directed in the same uniform +manner.</p> + +<p>From repeated observations, and these incontrovertible facts, we are +convinced that the dry part of the globe, which is now habitable, has +remained for a long time under the waters of the sea, and consequently +this earth underwent the same fluctuations and changes which the bottom +of the ocean is at present actually undergoing. To discover therefore +what <!-- Page 20 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20"></a>[20]</span>formerly passed on the earth, let us examine what now passes at +the bottom of the sea, and from thence we shall soon be enabled to draw +rational conclusions with regard to the external form and internal +composition of that which we inhabit.</p> + +<p>From the Creation the sea has constantly been subject to a regular flux +and reflux: this motion, which raises and falls the waters twice in +every twenty-four hours, is principally occasioned by the action of the +moon, and is much greater under the equator than in any other climates. +The earth performs a rapid motion on its axis, and consequently has a +centrifugal force, which is also the greatest at the equator; this +latter, independent of actual observation, proves that the earth is not +perfectly spherical, but that it must be more elevated under the equator +then at the poles.</p> + +<p>From these combined causes, the ebbing and flowing of the tides, and the +motion of the earth, we may fairly conclude, that although the earth was +a perfect sphere in its original form, yet its diurnal motion, together +with the constant flux and reflux of the sea, must, by degrees, in the +course of time, have raised the equatorial parts, by carrying mud, +earth, sand, <!-- Page 21 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21"></a>[21]</span>shells, &c. from other climes, and there depositing of +them. Agreeable to this idea the greatest irregularities must be found, +and, in fact, are found near the equator. Besides, as this motion of the +tides is made by diurnal alternatives, and been repeated, without +interruption, from the commencement of time, is it not natural to +imagine, that each time the tide flows the water carries a small +quantity of matter from one place to another, which may fall to the +bottom like a sediment, and form those parallel and horizontal strata +which are every where to be met with? for the whole motion of the water, +in the flux and reflux, being horizontal, the matters carried away with +them will naturally be deposited in the same parallel direction.</p> + +<p>But to this it may be said, that as the flux and reflux of the waters +are equal and regularly succeed, two motions would counterpoise each +other, and the matters brought by the flux would be returned by the +reflux, and of course this cause for the formation of the strata must be +chimerical; that the bottom of the sea could not experience any material +alteration by two uniform motions, wherein the effects of the one would +be regularly destroyed <!-- Page 22 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22"></a>[22]</span>by the other; much less could they change the +original form by the production of heights and inequalities.</p> + +<p>To which it may be answered, that the alternate motions of the waters +are not equal, the sea having a constant motion from the east to the +west, besides, the agitation, caused by the winds, opposes and prevents +the equality of the tides. It will also be admitted, that by every +motion of which the sea is susceptible, particles of earth and other +matters will be carried from one place and deposited in another; and +these collections will necessarily assume the form of horizontal and +parallel strata, from the various combinations of the motions of the sea +always tending to move the earth, and to level these materials wherever +they fall, in the form of a sediment. But this objection is easily +obviated by the well-known fact, that upon all coasts, bordering the +sea, where the ebbing and flowing of the tide is observed, the flux +constantly brings in a number of things which the reflux does not carry +back. There are many places upon which the sea insensibly gains and +gradually covers over, while there are others from which it recedes, +narrowing as it were its limits, by depositing earth, sands, <!-- Page 23 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23"></a>[23]</span>shells, +&c. which naturally take an horizontal position; these matters +accumulate by degrees in the course of time, and being raised to a +certain point gradually exclude the water, and so become part of the dry +land for ever after.</p> + +<p>But not to leave any doubt upon this important point, let us strictly +examine into the possibility of a mountain's being formed at the bottom +of the sea by the motions and sediments of the waters. It is certain +that on a coast which the sea beats with violence during the agitation +of its flow, that every wave must carry off some part of the earth; for +wherever the sea is bounded by rocks, it is a plain fact that the water +by degrees wears away those rocks, and consequently carries away small +particles every time the waves retire; these particles of earth and +stone will necessarily be transported to some distance, and being +arrived where the agitation of the water is abated, and left to their +own weight, they precipitate to the bottom in form of a sediment, and +there form a first stratum, either horizontal or inclined, according to +the position of the surface upon which they fall; this will shortly be +covered by a similar stratum produced by the same cause, and thus will a +considerable quantity of matter <!-- Page 24 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24"></a>[24]</span>be almost insensibly collected +together, and the strata of which will be placed, parallel to each +other.</p> + +<p>This mass will continue to increase by new sediments, and by gradually +accumulating, in the course of time become a mountain at the bottom of +the sea, exactly similar to those we see on dry land, both as to outward +form and internal composition. If there happen to be shells in this part +of the sea, where we have supposed this deposit to be made, they will be +filled and covered with the sediment, and incorporated in the deposited +matter, making a part of the whole mass, and they will be found situated +in the parts of the mountain according to the time they had been there +deposited; those that lay at the bottom, previous to the formation of +the first stratum, will be found in the lowest, and so according to the +time of their being deposited, the latest in the most elevated parts.</p> + +<p>So likewise, when the bottom of the sea, at particular places, is +troubled by the agitation of the water, there will necessarily ensue, in +the same manner, a removal of earth, shells, and other matters, from the +troubled to other parts; for we are assumed by all divers, that at <!-- Page 25 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25"></a>[25]</span>the +greatest depths they descend, i. e. twenty fathoms, the bottom of the +sea is so troubled by the agitation of the waters, that the mud and +shells are carried to considerable distances, consequently +transportations of this kind are made in every part of the sea, and this +matter falling must form eminences, composed like our mountains, and in +every respect similar; therefore the flux and reflux, by the winds, the +currents, and all the motions of the water, must inevitably create +inequalities at the bottom of the sea.</p> + +<p>Nor must we imagine that these matters cannot be transported to great +distances, because we daily see grain, and other productions of the East +and West Indies, arriving on our own coasts.<a name="FNanchor_25:A_1" id="FNanchor_25:A_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_25:A_1" class="fnanchor">[25:A]</a> It is true these +bodies are specifically lighter than water, whereas the substances of +which we have been speaking are specifically heavier; but, however, +being reduced to an impalpable powder, they may be sustained a long time +in the water so as to be conveyed to considerable distances.</p> + +<p>It has been supposed that the sea is not troubled at the bottom, +especially if it is very <!-- Page 26 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26"></a>[26]</span>deep, by the agitations produced by the winds +and tides; but it should be recollected that the whole mass, however +deep, is put in motion by the tides, and that in a liquid globe this +motion would be communicated to the very centre; that the power which +produces the flux and reflux is a penetrating force, which acts +proportionably upon every particle of its mass, so that we can determine +by calculation the quantity of its force at different depths; but, in +short, this point is so certain, that it cannot be contested but by +refusing the evidence of reason.</p> + +<p>Therefore, we cannot possibly have the least doubt that the tides, the +winds, and every other cause which agitates the sea, must produce +eminences and inequalities at the bottom, and those heights must ever be +composed of horizontal or equally inclined strata. These eminences will +gradually encrease until they become hills, which will rise in +situations similar to the waves that produce them; and if there is a +long extent of soil, they will continue to augment by degrees; so that +in course of time they will form a vast chain of mountains. Being formed +into mountains, they become an obstacle to and interrupt the common +<!-- Page 27 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27"></a>[27]</span>motion of the sea, producing at the same time other motions, which are +generally called currents. Between two neighbouring heights at the +bottom of the sea a current will necessarily be formed, which will +follow their common direction, and, like a river, form a channel, whose +angles will be alternately opposite during the whole extent of its +course. These heights will be continually increasing, being subject only +to the motion of the flux, for the waters during the flow will leave the +common sediment upon their ridges; and those waters which are impelled +by the current will force along with them, to great distances, those +matters which would be deposited between both, at the same time +hollowing out a valley with corresponding angles at their foundation. By +the effects of these motions and sediments the bottom of the sea, +although originally smooth, must become unequal, and abounding with +hills and chains of mountains, as we find it at present. The soft +materials of which the eminences are originally composed will harden by +degrees with their own weight; some forming parts, purely angular, +produce hills of clay; others, consisting of sandy and crystalline +particles, compose those enormous masses of <!-- Page 28 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28"></a>[28]</span>rock and flint from whence +crystal and other precious stones are extracted; those formed with stony +particles, mixed with shells, form those of lime-stone and marble, +wherein we daily meet with shells incorporated; and others, compounded +of matter more shelly, united with pure earth, compose all our beds of +marle and chalk. All these substances are placed in regular beds, and +all contain heterogeneous matter; marine productions are found among +them in abundance, and nearly according to the relation of their +specific weights; the lightest shells in chalk, and the heaviest in clay +and lime-stone; these shells are invariably filled with the matter in +which they have been inclosed, whether stones or earth; an incontestible +proof that they have been transported with the matter that fills and +surrounds them, and that this matter was at that time in an impalpable +powder. In short, all those substances whose horizontal situations have +been established by the level of the waters of the sea, will constantly +preserve their original position.</p> + +<p>But here it may be observed, that most hills, whose summits consist of +solid rocks, stone, or marble, are formed upon small eminences of much +lighter materials, such for instance as <!-- Page 29 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29"></a>[29]</span>clay, or strata of sand, which +we commonly find extended over the neighbouring plains, upon which it +may be asked, how, if the foregoing theory be just, this seemingly +contradictory arrangement happens? To me this phenomenon appears to be +very easy and naturally explained. The water at first acts upon the +upper stratum of coasts, or bottom of the sea, which commonly consists +of clay or sand, and having transported this, and deposited the +sediment, it of course composes small eminences, which form a base for +the more heavy particles to rest upon. Having removed the lighter +substances, it operates upon the more heavy, and by constant attrition +reduces them to an impalpable powder; which it conveys to the same spot, +and where, being deposited, these stony particles, in the course of +time, form those solid rocks and quarries which we now find upon the +tops of hills and mountains. It is not unlikely that as these particles +are much heavier than sand or clay, that they were formerly a +considerable depth under a strata of that kind, and now owe their high +situations to having been last raised up and transported by the motion +of the water.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 30 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30"></a>[30]</span>To confirm what we here assert, let us more closely investigate the +situation of those materials which compose the superficial outer part of +the globe, indeed the only part with which we have any knowledge. The +different beds of strata in stone quarries are almost all horizontal, or +regularly inclined; those whose foundations are on clays or other solid +matters are clearly horizontal, especially in plains. The quarries +wherein we find flint, or brownish grey free-stone, in detached +portions, have a less regular position, but even in those the uniformity +of nature plainly appears, for the horizontal or regularly inclined +strata are apparent in quarries where these stones are found in great +masses. This position is universal, except in quarries where flint and +brown free-stone are found in small detached portions, the formation of +which we shall prove to have been posterior to those we have just been +treating of; for granite, vitrifiable sand, argol, marble, calcareous +stone, chalk, and marles, are always deposited in parallel strata, +horizontally or equally inclined; the original formation of these are +easily discovered, for the strata are exactly horizontal and very thin, +and are arranged above each other like the leaves <!-- Page 31 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31"></a>[31]</span>of a book. Beds of +sand, soft and hard clay, chalk, and shells, are also either horizontal +or regularly inclined. Strata of every kind preserves the same thickness +throughout its whole extent, which often occupies the space of many +miles, and may be traced still farther by close and exact observations. +In a word, the materials of the globe, as far as mankind have been +enabled to penetrate, are arranged in an uniform position, and are +exactly similar.</p> + +<p>The strata of sand and gravel which have been washed down from mountains +must in some measure be excepted; in vallies they are sometimes of a +considerable extent, and are generally placed under the first strata of +the earth; in plains, they are as even as the most ancient and interior +strata, but near the bottom and upon the ridges of hills they are +inclined, and follow the inclination of the ground upon which they have +flowed. These being formed by rivers and rivulets, which are constantly +in vallies changing their beds, and dragging these sands and gravel with +them, they are of course very numerous. A small rivulet flowing from the +neighbouring heights, in the course of time will be sufficient to cover +a very spacious valley with a strata of sand and gravel, and I <!-- Page 32 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32"></a>[32]</span>have +often observed in hilly countries, whose base, as well as the upper +stratum, was hard clay, that above the source of the rivulet the clay is +found immediately under the vegetable soil, and below it there is the +thickness of a foot of sand upon the clay, and which extends itself to a +considerable distance. These strata formed by rivers are not very +ancient, and are easily discovered by the inequality of their thickness, +which is constantly varying, while the ancient strata preserves the same +dimensions throughout; they are also to be known by the matter itself, +which bears evident marks of having been smoothed and rounded by the +motions of the water. The same may be said of the turf and perished +vegetables which are found below the first stratum of earth in marshy +grounds; they cannot be considered as ancient, but entirely produced by +successive heaps of decayed trees and other plants. Nor are the strata +of slime and mud, which are found in many countries, to be considered as +ancient productions, having been formed by stagnated waters or +inundations of rivers, and are neither so horizontal, nor equally +inclined, as the strata anciently produced by the regular motions of the +sea. In the strata formed by rivers we <!-- Page 33 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33"></a>[33]</span>constantly meet with river, but +scarcely ever sea shells, and the few that are found are broken and +irregularly placed; whereas in the ancient strata there are no river +shells; the sea shells are in great quantities, well preserved, and all +placed in the same manner, having been transported at the same time and +by the same cause. How are we to account for this astonishing +regularity? Instead of regular strata, why do we not meet with the +matters that compose the earth jumbled together, without any kind of +order? Why are not rocks, marbles, clays, marles, &c. variously +dispersed, or joined by irregular or vertical strata? Why are not the +heaviest bodies uniformly found placed beneath the lightest? It is easy +to perceive that this uniformity of nature, this organization of earth, +this connection of different materials, by parallel strata, without +respect to their weights, could only be produced by a cause as powerful +and constant as the motion of the sea, whether occasioned by the regular +winds or by that of the flux and reflux, &c.</p> + +<p>These causes act with greater force under the equator than in other +climates, for there the winds are more regular and the tides run +<!-- Page 34 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34"></a>[34]</span>higher; the most extensive chains of mountains are also near the +equator. The mountains of Africa and Peru are the highest known, they +frequently extend themselves through whole provinces, and stretch, to +considerable distances under the ocean. The mountains of Europe and +Asia, which extend from Spain to China, are not so high as those of +South America and Africa. The mountains of the North, according to the +relation of travellers, are only hills in comparison with those of the +Southern countries. Besides, there are very few islands in the Northern +Seas, whereas in the torrid zone they are almost innumerable, and as +islands are only the summits of mountains, it is evident that the +surface of the earth has many more inequalities towards the equator than +in the northerly climes.</p> + +<p>It is therefore evident that the prodigious chain of mountains which run +from the West to the East in the old continent, and from the North to +the South in the new, must have been produced by the general motion of +the tides; but the origin of all the inferior mountains must be +attributed to the particular motions of currents, occasioned by the +winds and other irregular agitations of the sea: they <!-- Page 35 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35"></a>[35]</span>may probably have +been produced by a combination of all those motions, which must be +capable of infinite variations, since the winds and different positions +of islands and coasts change the regular course of the tides, and compel +them to flow in every possible direction: it is, therefore, not in the +least astonishing that we should see considerable eminences, whose +courses have no determined direction. But it is sufficient for our +present purpose to have demonstrated that mountains are not the produce +of earthquakes, or other accidental causes, but that they are the +effects resulting from the general order of nature, both as to their +organization and the position of the materials of which they are +composed.</p> + +<p>But how has it happened that this earth which we and our ancestors have +inhabited for ages, which, from time immemorial, has been an immense +continent, dry and removed from the reach of the waters, should, if +formerly the bottom of the ocean, be actually larger than all the +waters, and raised to such a height as to be distinctly separated from +them? Having remained so long on the earth, why have the waters now +abandoned it? What accident, what cause could produce <!-- Page 36 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36"></a>[36]</span>so great a +change? Is it possible to conceive one possessed of sufficient power to +produce such an amazing effect?</p> + +<p>These questions are difficult to be resolved, but as the facts are +certain and incontrovertible, the exact manner in which they happened +may remain unknown, without prejudicing the conclusions that may be +drawn from them; nevertheless, by a little reflection, we shall find at +least plausible reasons for these changes. We daily observe the sea +gaining ground on some coasts and losing it on others; we know that the +ocean has a continued regular motion from East to West; that it makes +loud and violent efforts against the low lands and rocks which confine +it; that there are whole provinces which human industry can hardly +secure from the rage of the sea; that there are instances of islands +rising above, and others being sunk under the waters. History speaks of +much greater deluges and inundations. Ought not this to incline us to +believe that the surface of the earth has undergone great revolutions, +and that the sea may have quitted the greatest part of the earth which +it formerly covered? Let us but suppose that the old and new worlds were +formerly but one continent, and that the <!-- Page 37 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37"></a>[37]</span>Atlantis of Plato was sunk by +a violent earthquake; the natural consequence would be, that the sea +would necessarily have flowed in from all sides, and formed what is now +called the Atlantic Ocean, leaving vast continents dry, and possibly +those which we now inhabit. This revolution, therefore, might be made of +a sudden by the opening of some vast cavern in the interior part of the +globe, which an universal deluge must inevitably succeed; or possibly +this change was not effected at once, but required a length of time, +which I am rather inclined to think; however these conjectures may be, +it is certain the revolution has occurred, and in my opinion very +naturally; for to judge of the future, as well as the past, we must +carefully attend to what daily happens before our eyes. It is a fact +clearly established by repeated observations of travellers, that the +ocean has a constant motion from the East to West; this motion, like the +trade winds, is not only felt between the tropics, but also throughout +the temperate climates, and as near the poles as navigators have gone; +of course the Pacific Ocean makes a continual effort against the coasts +of Tartary, China, and India; the Indian Ocean acts <!-- Page 38 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38"></a>[38]</span>against the east +coast of Africa; and the Atlantic in like manner against all the eastern +coasts of America; therefore the sea must have always and still +continues to gain land on the east and lose it on the west; and this +alone is sufficient to prove the possibility of the change Of earth into +sea, and sea into land. If, in fact, such are the effects of the sea's +motion from east to west, may we not very reasonably suppose that Asia +and the eastern continent is the oldest country in the world, and that +Europe and part of Africa, especially the western coasts of these +continents, as Great Britain, France, Spain, Muratania, &c. are of a +more modern date? Both history and physics agree in confirming this +conjecture.</p> + +<p>There are, however, many other causes which concur with the continual +motion of the sea from east to west, in producing these effects.</p> + +<p>In many places there are lands lower than the level of the sea, and +which are only defended from it by an isthmus of rocks, or by banks and +dykes of still weaker materials; these barriers must gradually be +destroyed by the constant action of the sea, when the lands <!-- Page 39 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39"></a>[39]</span>will be +overflowed, and constantly make part of the ocean. Besides, are not +mountains daily decreasing by the rains, which loosen the earth, and +carry it down into the vallies? It is also well known that floods wash +the earth from the plains and high grounds into the small brooks and +rivers, which in their turn convey it into the sea. By these means the +bottom of the sea is filling up by degrees, the surface of the earth +lowering to a level, and nothing but time is necessary for the sea's +successively changing places with the earth.</p> + +<p>I speak not here of those remote causes which stand above our +comprehension; of those convulsions of nature, whose least effects would +be fatal to the world; the near approach of a comet, the absence of the +moon, the introduction of a new planet, &c. are suppositions on which it +is easy to give scope to the imagination. Such causes would produce any +effects we chose, and from a single hypothesis of this nature, a +thousand physical romances might be drawn, and which the authors might +term, <strong class="allcapsc">THE THEORY OF THE EARTH</strong>. As historians we reject these vain +speculations; they are mere possibilities which suppose the destruction +<!-- Page 40 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40"></a>[40]</span>of the universe, in which our globe, like a particle of forsaken matter, +escapes our observation, and is no longer an object worthy regard; but +to preserve consistency, we must take the earth as it is, closely +observing every part, and by inductions judge of the future from what +exists at present; in other respects we ought not to be affected by +causes which seldom happen, and whose effects are always sudden and +violent; they do not occur in the common course of nature; but effects +which are daily repeated, motions which succeed each other without +interruption, and operations that are constant, ought alone to be the +ground of our reasoning.</p> + +<p>We will add some examples thereto; we will combine particular effects +with general causes, and give a detail of facts which will render +apparent, and explain the different changes that the earth has +undergone, whether by the eruption of the sea upon the land, or by +retiring from that which it had formerly covered.</p> + +<p>The greatest eruption was certainly that which gave rise to the +Mediterranean sea. The ocean flows through a narrow channel <!-- Page 41 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41"></a>[41]</span>between two +promontories with great rapidity, and then forms a vast sea, which, +without including the Black sea, is about seven times larger than the +kingdom of France. Its motion through the straits of Gibraltar is +contrary to all other straits, for the general motion of the sea is from +east to west, but in that alone it is from the west to the east, which +proves that the Mediterranean sea is not an ancient gulph, but that it +has been formed by an eruption, produced by some accidental cause; as an +earthquake which might swallow up the earth in the strait, or by a +violent effort of the ocean, caused by the wind, which might have forced +its way through the banks between the promontories of Gibraltar and +Ceuta. This opinion is authorised by the testimony of the ancients, who +declare in their writings, that the Mediterranean sea did not formerly +exist; and confirmed by natural history and observations made on the +opposite coasts of Spain, where similar beds of stones and earth are +found upon the same levels, in like manner as they are in two mountains, +separated by a small valley.</p> + +<p>The ocean having forced this passage, it ran at first through the +straits with much greater <!-- Page 42 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42"></a>[42]</span>rapidity than at present, and overflowed the +continent that joined Europe to Africa. The waters covered all the low +countries, of which we can only now perceive the tops of some of the +considerable mountains, such as parts of Italy, the islands of Sicily, +Malta, Corsica, Sardinia, Cyprus, Rhodes, and those of the Archipelago.</p> + +<p>In this eruption I have not included the Black sea, because the quantity +of water it receives from the Danube, Nieper, Don, and various other +rivers, is fully sufficient to form and support it; and besides, it +flows with great rapidity through the Bosphorus into the Mediterranean. +It might also be presumed that the Black and Caspian seas were formerly +only two large lakes, joined by a narrow communication, or by a morass, +or small lake, which united the Don and the Wolga near Tria, where these +two rivers flow near each other; nor is it improbable that these two +seas or lakes were then of much greater extent, for the immense rivers +which fall into the Black and Caspian seas may have brought down a +sufficient quantity of earth to shut up the communication, and form that +neck of land by which they are now separated; for we know great <!-- Page 43 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43"></a>[43]</span>rivers, +in the course of time, fill up seas and form new land, as the province +at the mouth of the Yellow river in China; Louisania at the mouth of the +Mississippi, and the northern part of Egypt, which owes its existence to +the inundations of the Nile; the rapidity of which brings down such +quantities of earth from the internal parts of Africa, as to deposit on +the shores, during the inundations, a body of slime and mud of more than +fifty feet in depth. The province of the Yellow river and Louisania +have, in like manner, been formed by the soil from the rivers.</p> + +<p>The Caspian sea is actually a real lake; having no communication with +other seas, not even with the lake Aral, which seems to have been a part +of it, being only separated from it by a large track of sand, in which +neither rivers nor canals for communication the waters have as yet been +found. This sea, therefore, has no external communication with any +other; and I do not know that we are authorised to suspect that it has +an internal one with the Black sea, or with the Gulph of Persia. It is +true the Caspian sea receives the Wolga and many other rivers, which +seem to furnish it <!-- Page 44 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44"></a>[44]</span>with more water than is lost by evaporation; but +independent of the difficulty of such calculation, if it had a +communication with any other sea, a constant and rapid current towards +the opening would have marked its course, and I never heard of any such +discovery being made; travellers of the best credit affirm to the +contrary, and consequently the Caspian sea must lose by evaporation just +as much water as it receives from the Wolga and other rivers.</p> + +<p>Nor is it any improbable conjecture that the Black sea will at some +period be separated from the Mediterranean; and that the Bosphorus will +be shut up, whenever the great rivers shall have accumulated a +sufficient quantity of earth to answer that effect; this may be the case +in the course of time by the successive diminution of waters in rivers, +in proportion as the mountains from whence they draw their sources are +lowered by the rains, and those other causes we have just alluded to.</p> + +<p>The Caspian and Black seas must therefore be looked upon rather as lakes +than gulphs of the ocean, for they resemble other lakes which receive a +number of rivers without any <!-- Page 45 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45"></a>[45]</span>apparent outlet, such as the Dead sea, +many lakes in Africa and other places. These two seas are not near so +salt as the Mediterranean or the ocean; and all voyagers affirm that the +navigation in the Black and Caspian seas, upon account of its +shallowness and quantity of rocks and quicksands, is so extremely +dangerous, that only small vessels can be used with safety which farther +proves they must not be looked upon as gulphs of the ocean, but as +immense bodies of water collected from great rivers.</p> + +<p>A considerable eruption of the sea would doubtless take place upon the +earth, if the isthmus which separates Africa from Asia was divided, as +the Kings of Egypt, and afterwards the Caliphs projected; and I do not +know that the communication between the Red sea and Mediterranean is +sufficiently established, as the former must be higher than the latter. +The Red sea is a narrow branch of the ocean, and does not receive into +it a single river on the side of Egypt, and very few on the opposite +coast; it will not therefore be subject to diminution, like those seas +and lakes which are constantly receiving slime and sand from those +rivers that flow into them. The <!-- Page 46 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46"></a>[46]</span>ocean supplies the Red sea with all its +water, and the motion of the tides is very evident in it, of course it +must be affected by every movement of the ocean. But the Mediterranean +must be lower than the ocean, because the current passes with great +rapidity through the straits; besides, it receives the Nile, which flows +parallel to the west coast of the Red sea, and which divides Egypt, a +very low country; from all which it appears probable, that the Red sea +is higher than the Mediterranean, and that if the isthmus of Suez was +cut through, there Would be a great inundation, and a considerable +augmentation of the Mediterranean would ensue; at least if the waters +were not restrained by dykes and sluices placed at proper distances, and +which was most likely the case if the ancient canal of communication +ever had existence.</p> + +<p>Without dwelling longer upon conjectures, which, although well founded, +may appear hazardous and rash, we shall give some recent and certain +examples of the change of the sea into land, and the land into sea. At +Venice the bottom of the Adriatic is daily rising, and if great care had +not been taken to clean and empty the canals, the whole would long +since <!-- Page 47 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47"></a>[47]</span>have formed part of the continent; the same may be said of most +ports, bays, and mouths of rivers. In Holland the bottom of the sea has +risen in many places; the gulph of Zuyderzee and the strait of the Texel +cannot receive such large vessels as formerly. At the mouth of all +rivers we find small islands, and banks of sand and earth brought down +by the waters, and it is certain the sea will be filled up in every part +where great rivers empty themselves. The Rhine is lost in the sands +which itself accumulated. The Danube and the Nile, and all great rivers, +after bringing down much sand and earth, no longer come to the sea by a +single channel; they divide into different branches, and the intervals +are filled up by the materials they have themselves brought thither. +Morasses daily dry up; lands forsaken by the sea are cultivated; we +navigate countries now covered by waters; in short, we see so many +instances of land changing into water, and water into land, that we must +be convinced of these alterations having, and will continue to take +place; so that in time gulphs will become continents; isthmusses, +straits; morasses, dry lands; and <!-- Page 48 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48"></a>[48]</span>the tops of our mountains, the shoals +of the sea.</p> + +<p>Since then the waters have covered, and may successively cover, every +part of the present dry land, our surprise must cease at finding every +where marine productions and compositions, which could only be the works +of the waters. We have already explained how the horizontal strata of +the earth were formed, but the perpendicular divisions that are commonly +found in rocks, clays, and all matters of which the globe is composed, +still remain to be considered. These perpendicular stratas are, in fact, +placed much farther from each other than the horizontal, and the softer +the matter the greater the distance; in marble and hard earths they are +frequently found only a few feet; but if the mass of rock be very +extensive, then these fissures are at some fathoms distant; sometimes +they descend from the top of the rock to the bottom, and sometimes +terminate at an horizontal fissure. They are always perpendicular in the +strata of calcinable matters, as chalk, marle, marble, &c. but are more +oblique and irregularly placed in vitrifiable substances, brown +freestone, and rocks of flint, where they are frequently adorned with +<!-- Page 49 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49"></a>[49]</span>chrystals, and other minerals. In quarries of marble or calcinable +stone, the divisions are filled with spar, gypsum, gravel, and an earthy +sand, which contains a great quantity of chalk. In clay, marls, and +every other kind of earth, excepting turf, these perpendicular divisions +are either empty or filled with such matters as the water has +transported thither.</p> + +<p>We need seek very little farther for the cause and origin of those +perpendicular cracks. The materials by which the different strata are +composed being carried by the water, and deposited as a kind of +sediment, must necessarily, at first, contain a considerable share of +water, the which, as they began to harden, they would part with by +degrees, and, as they must necessarily lessen in the course of drying, +that decrease would occasion them to split at irregular distances. They +naturally split in a perpendicular direction, because in that direction +the action of gravity of one particle upon another has no actual effect, +while, on the contrary, it is directly opposite in a horizontal +situation; the diminution of bulk therefore could have no sensible +effect but in a vertical line. I say it is the diminution of drying, and +not the <!-- Page 50 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50"></a>[50]</span>contained water forcing a place to issue, is the cause of these +perpendicular fissures, for I have often observed that the two sides of +those fissures answer throughout their whole height, as exactly as two +sides of a split piece of wood; their insides are rough and irregular, +whereas if they had been made by the motion of the water, they would +have been smooth and polished; therefore these cracks must be produced +suddenly and at once or by degrees in drying, like the flaws in wood, +and the greatest part of the water they contained evaporated through the +pores. The divisions of these perpendicular cracks vary greatly as to +the extent of their openings; some of them being not more than half an +inch, others increasing to one or two feet; there are some many fathoms, +and which form those precipices so often met with in the Alps and other +high mountains. The small ones are produced by drying alone, but those +which extend to several feet are the effects of other causes; for +instance, the sinking of the foundation on one side while the other +remains unmoved; if the base sinks but a line or two, it is sufficient +to produce openings of many feet in a rock of considerable height. +Sometimes rocks, which are founded on clay or <!-- Page 51 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51"></a>[51]</span>sand, incline to one +side, by which motion the perpendicular cracks become extended.</p> + +<p>I have not yet mentioned those large openings which are found in rocks +and mountains; they must have been produced by great sinkings, as of +immense caverns, unable longer to support the weight with which they +were encumbered, but these intervals are very different from +perpendicular fissures; they appear to be vacancies opened by the hand +of Nature for the communication of nations. In this manner all vacancies +in large mountains and divisions, by straits in the sea, seem to present +themselves; such as the straits of Thermopylæ, the ports of Caucasus, +the Cordeliers, the extremity of the straits of Gibraltar, the entrance +of the Hellespont, &c. These could not have been occasioned by the +simple separation by drying of matter, but by considerable parts of the +lands themselves being sunk, swallowed up, or overturned.</p> + +<p>These great sinkings, though produced by accidental causes, hold a first +place in the principal circumstances in the History of the Earth, and +not a little contributed to change the face of the Globe; the greatest +part of them have been produced by subterraneous fires, whose +<!-- Page 52 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52"></a>[52]</span>explosions cause earthquakes and volcanos; the force of these inflamed +and confined matters in the bowels of the earth is beyond compare; by it +cities have been swallowed up, provinces overturned, and mountains +overthrown. But however great this force may be, and prodigious as the +effects appear, we cannot assent to the opinion of those authors who +suppose these subterraneous fires proceed from an immense abyss of flame +in the centre of the earth, neither give we credit to the common notion +that they proceed from a great depth below the surface of the earth, air +being absolutely necessary for the support of inflammation. In examining +the materials which issue from volcanos, even in the most violent +eruptions, it appears very plain, that the furnace of the inflamed +matters is not at any great depth, as they are similar to those found in +mountains, disfigured only by the calcination, and the melting of the +metallic parts which they contain; and to be convinced that the matters +cast out by volcanos do not come from any great depth, we have only to +consider of the height of the mountain, and judge of the immense force +that would be necessary to cast up stones and minerals to the height of +half a league; for Ætna, Hecla, <!-- Page 53 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53"></a>[53]</span>and many other volcanos have at least +that elevation from the plains. Now it is perfectly well known that the +action of fire is equal in every direction; it cannot therefore act +upwards, with a force capable of throwing large stones half a league +high, without an equal re-action downwards, and on the sides, and which +re-action must very soon pierce and destroy the mountain on every side, +because the materials which compose it are not more dense and firm than +those thrown out; how then can it be imagined that the cavity, which +must be considered as the type or cannon, could resist so great a force +as would be necessary to raise those bodies to the mouth of the volcano? +Besides, if this cavity was deeper, as the external orifice is not +great, it would be impossible for so large a quantity of inflamed and +liquid matter to issue out at once, without clashing against each other, +and against the sides of the tube, and by passing through so long a +space they would run the chance of being extinguished and hardened. We +often see rivers of bitumen and melted sulphur, thrown out of the +volcanos with stones and minerals, flow from the tops of the mountains +into the plains; is it natural to imagine that matters so fluid, and so +little able to resist <!-- Page 54 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54"></a>[54]</span>violent action, should be elevated from any great +depth? All the observations that can be made on this subject will prove +that the fire of the volcano is not far from the summit of the mountain, +and that it never descends to the level of the plain.</p> + +<p>This idea of volcanos does not, however, render it inconsistent that +they are the cause of earthquakes, and that their shocks may be felt on +the plains to very considerable distances; nor that one volcano may not +communicate with another by means of subterraneous passages; but it is +of the depth of the fire's confinement that we now speak, and which can +only be at a small distance from the mouth of the volcano. It is not +necessary to produce an earthquake on a plain, that the bottom of the +volcano should be below the level of that plain; nor that there should +be internal cavities filled with the same combustible matter, for a +violent explosion, such as generally attends an eruption, may, like that +of a powder magazine give so great a shock by its re-action, as to +produce an earthquake that might be felt at a considerable distance.</p> + +<p>I do not mean to say that there are no earthquakes produced by +subterraneous fires, but <!-- Page 55 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55"></a>[55]</span>merely that there are some which proceed only +from the explosion of volcanos. In confirmation of what has been +advanced on this subject, it is certain that volcanos are seldom met +with on plains; on the contrary, they are constantly found in the +highest mountains, and their mouths at the very summit of them. If the +internal fires of the volcanos extended below the plains, would not +passages be opened in them during violent eruptions? In the first +eruption would not these fires rather have pierced the plains, where, by +comparison, the resistance must be infinitely weaker, than force their +way through a mountain more than half a league in height.</p> + +<p>The reason why volcanos appear alone in mountains, is, because much +greater quantities of minerals, sulphur, and pyrites, are contained in +mountains, and more exposed than in the plains; besides which, those +high places are more subject to the impressions of air, and receive +greater quantities of rain and damps, by which mineral substances are +capable of being heated and fermented into an absolute state of +inflammation.</p> + +<p>In short, it has often been observed, that, after violent eruptions, the +mountains have <!-- Page 56 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56"></a>[56]</span>shrunk and diminished in proportion to the quantity of +matter which has been thrown out; another proof that the volcanos are +not situated at the bottom of the mountain, but rather at no great +distance from the summit itself.</p> + +<p>In many places earthquakes have formed considerable hollows, and even +separations in mountains; all other inequalities have been produced at +the same time with the mountains themselves by the currents of the sea, +for in every place where there has not been a violent convulsion, the +strata of the mountains are parallel, and their angles exactly +correspond. Those subterraneous caverns which have been produced by +volcanos are easily to be distinguished from those formed by water; for +the water, having washed away the sand and clay with which they are +filled, leaves only the stones and rocks, and this is the origin of +caverns upon hills; while those found upon the plains are commonly +nothing but ancient pits and quarries, such as the salt quarries of +Maestricht, the mines of Poland, &c. But natural caverns belong to +mountains: they receive the water from the summit and its environs, from +whence it issues over the surface wherever it can obtain a passage; and +these are the sources of springs <!-- Page 57 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57"></a>[57]</span>and rivers, and whenever a cavern is +filled by any part falling in, an inundation generally ensues.</p> + +<p>From what we have related, it is easy to be seen how much subterraneous +fires contribute to change the surface and internal part of the globe. +This cause is sufficiently powerful to produce very great effects: but +it is difficult to conceive how the winds should occasion any sensible +alterations upon the earth. The sea appears to be their empire, and +indeed, excepting the tides, nothing has so powerful an influence upon +the ocean; even the flux and reflux move in an uniform manner, and their +effects are regularly the same; but the action of the winds is +capricious and violent; they sometimes rush on with such impetuosity, +and agitate the sea with such violence, that from a calm, smooth, and +tranquil plain, it becomes furrowed with waves rolling mountains high, +and dashing themselves to pieces against the rocks and shores. The winds +cause constant alterations on the surface of the sea, but the surface of +the land, which has so solid an appearance, we should suppose would not +be subject to similar effects; by experience, however, it is known that +the winds raise mountains of <!-- Page 58 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58"></a>[58]</span>sand in Arabia and Africa; and that they +cover plains with it; they frequently transport sand to great distances, +and many miles into the sea, where they accumulate in such quantities as +to form banks, downs, and even islands. It is also known that hurricanes +are the scourge of the Antilles, Madagascar, and other countries, where +they act with such fury, as to sweep away trees, plants, and animals, +together with the soil which gave them subsistence: they cause rivers to +ascend and descend, and produce new ones; they overthrow rocks and +mountains; they make holes and gulphs on the earth, and entirely change +the face of those unfortunate countries where they exist. Happily there +are but few climates exposed to the impetuosity of those dreadful +agitations of the air.</p> + +<p>But the greatest and most general changes in the surface of the earth +are produced by rains, floods, and torrents from the high lands. Their +origins proceed from the vapours which the sun raises above the surface +of the ocean, and which the wind transports through every climate. These +vapours, which are sustained in the air, and conveyed at the will of the +winds, are stopped in their progress by the tops of the hills which they +encounter, where they <!-- Page 59 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59"></a>[59]</span>accumulate until they become clouds and fall in +the form of rain, dew, or snow. These waters at first descend upon the +plains without any fixed course, but by degrees hollow out a bed for +themselves; by their natural bent they run to the bottom of mountains, +and penetrating or dissolving the land easiest to divide, they carry +earth and sand away with them, cut deep channels in the plains, form +themselves into rivers, and open a passage into the sea, which +constantly receives as much water from the land rivers as it loses by +evaporation. The windings in the channels of rivers have sinuosities, +whose angles are correspondent to each other, so that where the waves +form a saliant angle on one side, the other has an exactly opposite one; +and as hills and mountains, which may be considered as the banks of the +vallies which separate them, have also sinuosities in corresponding +angles, it seems to demonstrate that the vallies have been formed, by +degrees, by the currents of the sea, in the same manner as the rivers +have hollowed out their beds on the earth.</p> + +<p>The waters which run on the surface of the earth, and support its +verdure and fertility, are not perhaps one half of those which the +vapours <!-- Page 60 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60"></a>[60]</span>produce; for there are many veins of water which sink to great +depths in the internal part of the earth. In some places we are certain +to meet with water by digging; in others, not any can be found. In +almost all vallies and low grounds water is certain to be met with at +moderate depths; but, on the contrary, in all high places it cannot be +extracted from the bowels of the earth, but must be collected from the +heavens. There are countries of great extent where a spring cannot be +found, and where all the water which supplies the inhabitants and +animals with drink is contained in pools and cisterns. In the east, +especially in Arabia, Egypt, and Persia, wells are extremely scarce, and +the people have been obliged to make reservoirs of a considerable extent +to collect the waters as it falls from the heavens. These works, +projected and executed from public necessity, are the most beautiful and +magnificent monuments of the eastern nations; some of the reservoirs +occupy a space of two square miles, and serve to fertilize whole +provinces, by means of baths and small rivulets that let it out on every +side. But in low countries, where the greatest rivers flow, we cannot +dig far from the surface, without <!-- Page 61 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61"></a>[61]</span>meeting with water, and in fields +situate in the environs of rivers it is often obtained by a few strokes +with a pick-axe.</p> + +<p>The water, found in such quantities in low grounds, comes principally +from the neighbouring hills and eminences; at the time of great rains or +sudden melting of snow, a part of the water flows on the surface, but +most of it penetrates through the small cracks and crevices it finds in +the earth and rocks. This water springs up again to the surface wherever +it can find vent; but it often filters through the sand until it comes +to a bottom of clay or solid earth, where it forms subterraneous lakes, +rivulets, and perhaps rivers, whose courses are entirely unknown; they +must, however, follow the general laws of nature, and constantly flow +from the higher grounds to the lower, and consequently these +subterraneous waters must, in the end, fall into the sea, or collect in +some low place, either on the surface or in the interior part of the +earth; for there are several lakes into which no rivers enter, nor from +which there are not any issue; and a much greater number, which do not +receive any considerable river, that are the sources of the greatest +rivers <!-- Page 62 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62"></a>[62]</span>on earth; such as the lake of St. Laurence; the lake Chiamè, +from whence spring two great rivers that water the kingdoms of Asam and +Pegu; the lake of Assiniboil in America; those of Ozera in Muscovy, that +give rise to the river Irtis, and a great number of others. These lakes, +it is evident, must be produced by the waters from the high lands +passing through subterraneous passages, and collecting in the lowest +places. Some indeed have asserted that lakes are to be found on the +summit of the highest mountains; but to this no credit can be given, for +those found on the Alps, and other elevated places, are all surrounded +by much more lofty mountains, and derive their origin from the waters +which run down the sides, or are filtered through those eminences in the +same manner as the lakes in the plains obtain their sources from the +neighbouring hills which overtop them.</p> + +<p>It is apparent, therefore, that lakes have existence in the bowels of +the earth, especially under large plains and extensive vallies. +Mountains, hills, and all eminences have either a perpendicular or +inclined situation, and are exposed on all sides; the waters which fall +on <!-- Page 63 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63"></a>[63]</span>their summits, after having penetrated into the earth, cannot fail, +from the declivity of the ground, of finding issue in many places, and +breaking in forms out of springs and fountains, and consequently there +will be little, if any water, remain in the mountains. On the contrary, +in plains, as the water which filters through the earth can find no +vent, it must collect in subterraneous caverns, or be dispersed and +divided among sand and gravel. It is these waters which are so +universally diffused through low grounds. The bottom of a pit or well is +nothing else but a kind of bason into which the waters that issue from +the adjoining lands insinuate themselves, at first falling drop by drop, +but afterwards, as the passages are opened, it receives supplies from +greater distances, and then continually runs in little streams or rills; +from which circumstance, although we can find water in any part of a +plain, yet we can obtain a supply but for a certain number of wells, +proportionate to the quantity of water dispersed, or rather to the +extent of the higher lands from whence they come.</p> + +<p>It is unnecessary to dig below the level of the river to find water; it +is generally met with <!-- Page 64 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64"></a>[64]</span>at much less depths, and there is no appearance +that waters of rivers filter far through the earth. The origin of waters +found in the earth below the level of rivers is not to be attributed to +them; for in rivers or torrents which are dried up, or whose courses +have been turned, we find no greater quantity of water by digging in +their beds than in the neighbouring lands at an equal depth.</p> + +<p>A piece of land of five or six feet in thickness is sufficient to +contain water, and prevent it from escaping; and I have often observed +that the banks of brooks and pools are not sensibly wet at six inches +distance from the water.</p> + +<p>It is true that the extent of the filtration is in proportion as the +soil is more or less penetrable; but if we examine the standing pools +with sandy bottoms, we shall perceive the water confined in the small +compass it had hollowed itself, and the moisture spread but a very few +inches; even in vegetable earth it has no great extent, which must be +more porous than sand or hard soil. It is a certain fact, that in a +garden we may almost inundate one bed without those nearly adjoining +feeling <!-- Page 65 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65"></a>[65]</span>any moisture from it<a name="FNanchor_65:A_2" id="FNanchor_65:A_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_65:A_2" class="fnanchor">[65:A]</a>. I have examined pieces of garden +ground, eight or ten feet thick, which had not been stirred for many +years, and whose surface was nearly level, and found that the rain water +never penetrated deeper than three or four feet; and on turning it up in +the spring, after a wet winter, I found it as dry as when first heaped +together.</p> + +<p>I made the same observation on earth which had laid in ridges two +hundred years; below three or four feet it was as dry as dust; from +which it is plain that water does not extend so far by filtration as has +been generally imagined.</p> + +<p>By this means, therefore, the internal part of the earth can be supplied +with a very small part; but water by its own weight descends from the +surface to the greatest depths; it sinks through natural conduits, or +penetrates small passages for itself; it follows the roots of trees, the +cracks in rocks, the interstices in the earth, and divides and extends +on all sides into an infinity of small branches and rills, always +<!-- Page 66 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66"></a>[66]</span>descending until its passage is opposed by clay or some solid body, +where it continues collecting, and at length breaks out in form of +springs upon the surface.</p> + +<p>It would be very difficult to make an exact calculation of the quantity +of subterraneous waters which have no apparent vent. Many have pretended +that it greatly surpasses all the waters that are on the surface of the +earth.</p> + +<p>Without mentioning those who have advanced that the interior part of the +globe is entirely filled with water, there are some who believe there +are an infinity of floods, rivulets, and lakes in the bowels of the +earth. But this opinion does not seem to be properly founded, and it is +more probable that the quantity of subterraneous water, which never +appears on the surface, is not very considerable; for if these +subterraneous rivers are so very numerous, why do we never see any of +their mouths forcing their way through the surface? Besides, rivers, and +all running waters, produce great alterations on the surface of the +earth; they transport the soil, wear away the most solid rocks, and +displace all matters which oppose <!-- Page 67 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67"></a>[67]</span>their passage. It would certainly be +the same in subterraneous rivers; the same effects would be produced; +but no such alterations have ever as yet been observed; the different +strata remains parallel, and every where preserves its original +position; and it is but in a very few places that any considerable +subterraneous veins of water have been discovered. Thus water in the +internal part of the earth, though great, acts but in a small degree, as +it is divided in an infinity of little streams, and retained by a number +of obstacles; and being so generally dispersed, it gives rise to many +substances totally different from primitive matters, both in form and +organization.</p> + +<p>From all these observations we may fairly conclude, that it is the +continual motion of the flux and reflux of the sea which has produced +mountains, vallies, and other inequalities on the surface of the earth; +that it is the currents of the ocean which have hollowed vallies, raised +hills, and given them corresponding directions; that it is those waters +of the sea which, by transporting earth, &c. and depositing them in +horizontal layers, have formed the parallel strata; that it is the +waters from heaven, <!-- Page 68 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68"></a>[68]</span>which by degrees destroy the effects of the sea, by +continually lowering the summit of mountains, filling up vallies, and +stopping the mouths of gulphs and rivers, and which, by bringing all to +a level, will, in the course of time, return this earth to the sea, +which, by its natural operations, will again form new continents, +containing vallies and mountains exactly similar to those which we at +present inhabit.</p> + + +<div> +<hr class="footnotes" /> +<p class="sectctrfn">FOOTNOTES:</p> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_25:A_1" id="Footnote_25:A_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25:A_1"><span class="label">[25:A]</span></a> Particularly Scotland and Ireland.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_65:A_2" id="Footnote_65:A_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65:A_2"><span class="label">[65:A]</span></a> These facts are so easily demonstrated, that the +smallest observation will prove their veracity.</p> +</div> +</div> +</div> + + + +<div> +<hr class="newchapter" /> +<p><!-- Page 69 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69"></a>[69]</span></p> +<p class="titletwo">PROOF<br /> + +OF<br /> + +<i>THE THEORY OF THE EARTH</i>.</p> + + + + +<hr class="newchapter" /> +<h2><a name="ARTICLE_I" id="ARTICLE_I"></a>ARTICLE I.<br /> + +<small>ON THE FORMATION OF THE PLANETS</small>.</h2> + + +<p>Our subject being Natural History, we would willingly dispense with +astronomical observations; but as the nature of the earth is so closely +connected with the heavenly bodies, and such observations being +calculated to illustrate more fully what has been said, it is necessary +to give some general ideas of the formation, motion, figure of the earth +and other planets.</p> + +<p>The earth is a globe of about three thousand leagues diameter; it is +situate one thousand millions of leagues from the sun, around which it +makes its revolution in three hundred and sixty-five days. This +revolution is the <!-- Page 70 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70"></a>[70]</span>result of two forces; the one may be considered as an +impulse from right to left, or from left to right, and the other an +attraction from above downwards, or beneath upwards, to a common centre. +The direction of these two forces, and their quantities, are so nicely +combined and proportioned, that they produce an almost uniform motion in +an ellipse, very near to a circle. Like the other planets the earth is +opaque, it throws out a shadow; it receives and reflects the light of +the sun, round which it revolves in a space of time proportioned to its +relative distance and density. It also turns round its own axis once in +twenty-four hours, and its axis is inclined 66-1/4 degrees on the plane +of the orbit. Its figure is spheroidical, the two axes of which differ +about 160th part from each other, and the smallest axis is that round +which the revolution is made.</p> + +<p>These are the principal phenomena of the earth, the result of +discoveries made by means of geometry, astronomy, and navigation. We +shall not here enter into the detail of the proofs and observations by +which those facts have been ascertained, but only make a few remarks to +clear up what is still doubtful, and at the <!-- Page 71 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71"></a>[71]</span>same time give our ideas +respecting the formation of the planets, and the different changes thro' +which it is possible they have passed before they arrived at the state +we at present see them.</p> + +<p>There have been so many systems and hypotheses framed upon the formation +of the terrestrial globe, and the changes which it has undergone, that +we may presume to add our conjectures to those who have written upon the +subject, especially as we mean to support them with a greater degree of +probability than has hitherto been done: and we are the more inclined to +deliver our opinion upon this subject, from the hope that we shall +enable the reader to pronounce on the difference between an hypothesis +drawn from possibilities, and a theory founded in facts; between a +system, such as we are here about to present, on the formation and +original state of the earth, and a physical history of its real +condition, which has been given in the preceding discourse.</p> + +<p>Galileo having found the laws of falling bodies, and Kepler having +observed that the area described by the principal planets in moving +round the sun, and those of the satellites round the planets to which +they belong, are proportionable to the time of their revolutions, <!-- Page 72 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72"></a>[72]</span>and +that such periods were also in proportion to the square roots of the +cubes of their distances from the sun, or principal planets. Newton +found that the force which caused heavy bodies to fall on the surface of +the earth, extended to the moon, and retained it in its orbit; that this +force diminished in the same proportion as the square of the distance +increased, and consequently that the moon is attracted by the earth; +that the earth and planets are attracted by the sun; and that in general +all bodies which revolve round a centre, and describe areas proportioned +to the times of their revolution, are attracted towards that point. This +power, known by the name of <strong class="allcapsc">GRAVITY</strong>, is therefore diffused throughout +all matter; planets, comets, the sun, the earth, and all nature, is +subject to its laws, and it serves as a basis to the general harmony +which reigns in the universe. Nothing is better proved in physics than +the actual existence of this power in every material substance. +Observation has confirmed the effects of this power, and geometrical +calculations have determined the quantity and relations of it.</p> + +<p>This general cause being known, the effects would easily be deduced from +it, if the action <!-- Page 73 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73"></a>[73]</span>of the powers which produce it were not too +complicated. A single moment's reflection upon the solar system will +fully demonstrate the difficulties that have attended this subject; the +principal planets are attracted by the sun, and the sun by the planets; +the satellites are also attracted by their principal planets, and each +planet attracts all the rest, and is attracted by them. All these +actions and reactions vary according to the quantities of matter and the +distances, and produce great inequalities and irregularities. How is so +great a number of connections to be combined and estimated? It appears +almost impossible in such a crowd of objects to follow any particular +one; nevertheless those difficulties have been surmounted, and +calculation has confirmed the suppositions of them, each observation is +become a new demonstration, and the systematic order of the universe is +laid open to the eyes of all those who can distinguish truth from error.</p> + +<p>We feel some little stop, by the force of impulsion remaining unknown; +but this, however, does not by any means affect the general theory. We +evidently see the force of attraction always draws the planets towards +<!-- Page 74 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74"></a>[74]</span>the sun, they would fall in a perpendicular line, on that planet, if +they were not repelled by some other power that obliges them to move in +a straight line, and which impulsive force would compel them to fly off +the tangents of their respective orbits, if the force of attraction +ceased one moment. The force of impulsion was certainly communicated to +the planets by the hand of the Almighty, when he gave motion to the +universe; but we ought as much as possible to abstain in physics from +having recourse to supernatural causes; and it appears that a probable +reason may be given for this impulsive force, perfectly accordant with +the law of mechanics, and not by any means more astonishing than the +changes and revolutions which may and must happen in the universe.</p> + +<p>The sphere of the sun's attraction does not confine itself to the orbs +of the planets, but extends to a remote distance, always decreasing in +the same ratio as the square of the distance increases; it is +demonstrated that the comets which are lost to our sight, in the regions +of the sky, obey this power, and by it their motions, like that of the +planets, are regulated. All these stars, whose tracts are so different, +<!-- Page 75 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75"></a>[75]</span>move round the sun, and describe areas proportioned to the time; the +planets in ellipses more or less approaching a circle, and the comets in +narrow ellipses of a great extent. Comets and planets move, therefore, +by virtue of the force of attraction and impulsion, which continually +acting at one time obliges them to describe these courses; but it must +be remarked that comets pass over the solar system in all directions, +and that the inclinations of their orbits are very different, insomuch +that, although subject like the planets to the force of attraction, they +have nothing in common with respect to their progressive or impulsive +motions, but appear in this respect independent of each other: the +planets, on the contrary, move round the sun in the same direction, and +almost in the same plane, never exceeding 7-1/2 degrees of inclination +in their planes, the most distant from their orbits. This conformity of +position and direction in the motion of the planets, necessarily implies +that their impulsive force has been communicated to them by one and the +same cause.</p> + +<p>May it not be imagined, with some degree of probability, that a comet +falling into the body of the sun, will displace and separate some <!-- Page 76 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76"></a>[76]</span>parts +from the surface, and communicate to them a motion of impulsion, +insomuch that the planets may formerly have belonged to the body of the +sun, and been detached therefrom by an impulsive force, and which they +still preserve.</p> + +<p>This supposition appears to be at least as well founded as the opinion +of Leibnitz, who supposes that the earth and planets had formerly been +suns; and his system, of which an account will be given in the fifth +article, would have been more comprehensive and more agreeable to +probability, if he had raised himself to this idea. We agree with him in +thinking that this effect was produced at the time when Moses said that +God divided light from darkness; for, according to Leibnitz, light was +divided from darkness when the planets were extinguished; but in our +supposition there was a real physical separation, since the opaque +bodies of the planets were divided from the luminous matter which +composes the sun.</p> + +<p>This idea of the cause of the impulsive force of the planets will be +found much less objectionable, when an estimation is made of the +analogies and degrees of probability, by <!-- Page 77 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77"></a>[77]</span>which it may be supported. In +the first place, the motion of the planets are in the same direction, +from West to East, and therefore, according to calculation, it is +sixty-four to one that such would not have been the case, if they had +not been indebted to the same cause for their impulsive forces.</p> + +<p>This, probably, will be considerably augmented by the second analogy, +viz. that the inclination of the planes of the orbits do not exceed +7-1/2 degrees; for, by comparing the spaces, we shall find there is +twenty-four to one, that two planets are found in their most distant +places at the same time, and consequently âµ, or 7,692,624 to one, +that all six would by chance be thus placed; or, what amounts to the +same, there is a great degree of probability that the planets have been +impressed with one common moving force, and which has given them this +position. But what can have bestowed this common impulsive motion, but +the force and direction of the bodies by which it was originally +communicated? It may therefore be concluded, with great probability, +that the planets received their impulsive motion by one single stroke. +This likelihood, which is almost equivalent to a <!-- Page 78 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78"></a>[78]</span>certainty, being +established, I seek to know what moving bodies could produce this +effect, and I find nothing but comets capable of communicating a motion +to such vast bodies.</p> + +<p>By examining the course of comets, we shall be easily persuaded, that it +is almost necessary for some of them occasionally to fall into the sun. +That of 1680 approached so near, that at its perihelium it was not more +distant from the sun than a sixteenth part of its diameter, and if it +returns, as there is every appearance it will, in 2255, it may then +possibly fall into the sun; that must depend on the rencounters it will +meet with in its road, and of the retardment it suffers in passing +through the atmosphere of the sun<a name="FNanchor_78:A_3" id="FNanchor_78:A_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_78:A_3" class="fnanchor">[78:A]</a>.</p> + +<p>We may, therefore, presume with the great Newton, that comets sometimes +fall into the sun; but this fall may be made in different directions. If +they fall perpendicular, or in a direction not very oblique, they will +remain in the sun, and serve for food to the fire which that luminary +consumes, and the motion of impulsion which they will have communicated +to the sun, will produce no other effect than that of removing it more +or less, according as the mass of the comet will be more or less +<!-- Page 79 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79"></a>[79]</span>considerable; but if the fall of the comet is in a very oblique +direction, which will most frequently happen, then the comet will only +graze the surface of the sun, or slightly furrow it; and in this case it +may drive out some parts of matter to which it will communicate a common +motion of impulsion, and these parts so forced out of the body of the +sun, and even the comet itself, may then become planets, and turn round +this luminary in the same direction, and in almost the same plane. We +might perhaps calculate what quantity of matter, velocity, and direction +a comet should have, to impel from the sun an equal quantity of matter +to that which the six planets and their satellites contain; but it will +be sufficient to observe here, that all the planets, with their +satellites, do not make the 650th part of the mass of the sun,<a name="FNanchor_79:A_4" id="FNanchor_79:A_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_79:A_4" class="fnanchor">[79:A]</a> +because the density of the large planets, Saturn and Jupiter, is less +than that of the sun; and although the earth be four times, and the moon +near five times more dense than the sun, they are nevertheless but as +atoms in comparison with his extensive body.</p> + +<p>However inconsiderable the 650th part may be, yet it certainly at first +appears to require a very powerful comet to separate even that much +<!-- Page 80 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80"></a>[80]</span>from the body of the sun; but if we reflect on the prodigious velocity +of comets in their perihelion, a velocity so much the greater as they +approach nearer the sun; if, besides, we pay attention to the density +and solidity of the matter of which they must be composed, to suffer, +without being destroyed, the inconceivable heat they endure; and +consider the bright and solid light which shines through their dark and +immense atmospheres, which surround, and must obscure them, it cannot be +doubted that the comets are composed of extremely solid and dense +matters, and that they contain a greater quantity of matter in a small +compass; that consequently a comet of no extraordinary bulk may have +sufficient weight and velocity to displace the sun, and give a +projectile motion to a quantity of matter, equal to the 650th part of +the mass of this luminary. This perfectly agrees with what is known +concerning the density of planets, which always decreases as their +distance from the sun is increased, they having less heat to support; so +that Saturn is less dense than Jupiter, and Jupiter much less than the +earth; therefore if the density of the planets be, as Newton asserts, +proportionable to the quantity <!-- Page 81 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81"></a>[81]</span>of heat which they have to support, +Mercury will be seven times more dense than the earth, and twenty-eight +times denser than the sun; and the comet of 1680 would be 28,000 times +denser than the earth, or 112,000 times denser than the sun, and by +supposing it as large as the earth, it would contain nearly an equal +quantity of matter to the ninth part of the sun, or by giving it only +the 100th part of the size of the earth, its mass would still be equal +to the 900th part of the sun. From whence it is easy to conclude, that +such a body, though it would be but a small comet, might separate and +drive off from the sun a 900th or a 650th part, particularly if we +attend to the immense velocity with which comets move when they pass in +the vicinity of the sun.</p> + +<p>Besides this, the conformity between the density of the matter of the +planets, that of the sun deserves some attention. It is well known, +that, both on and near the surface of the earth, there are some matters +14 or 1500 times denser than others. The densities of gold and air are +nearly in this relation. But the internal parts of the earth and planets +are composed of a more uniform matter, whose <!-- Page 82 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82"></a>[82]</span>comparative density varies +much less; and the conformity in the density of the planets and that of +the sun is such, that of 650 parts which compose the whole of the matter +of the planets, there are more than 640 of the same density as the +matter of the sun, and only ten parts out of these 650 which are of a +greater density, for Saturn and Jupiter are nearly of the same density +as the sun, and the quantity of matter which these planets contain, is +at least 64 times greater than that of the four inferior planets, Mars, +the Earth, Venus, and Mercury. We must therefore admit, that the matter +of which the planets are generally composed is nearly the same as that +of the sun, and that consequently the one may have been separated from +the other.</p> + +<p>But it may be said, if the comet, by falling obliquely on the sun, drove +off the matter which compose the planets, they, instead of describing +circles of which the sun is the centre, would, on the contrary, at each +revolution, have returned to the same point from whence they departed, +as every projectile would which might be thrown off with sufficient +force from the surface of the earth, to oblige it to turn perpetually: +for it is easy to demonstrate that such, <!-- Page 83 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83"></a>[83]</span>in that instance, would be the +case, and therefore that the projection of the planets from the sun +cannot be attributed to the impulsion of a comet.</p> + +<p>To this I reply, that the matter which composes the planets did not come +from the sun, in ready formed globes, but in the form of torrents, the +motion of the anterior parts of which were accelerated by that of the +posterior; and that the attraction of the anterior parts also +accelerated the motion of the posterior, and that this acceleration +produced by one or other of these causes, or perhaps by both, might be +so great as to change the original direction of the motion occasioned by +the impulse of the comet, from which cause a motion has resulted, such +as we at present observe in the planets; especially when it is +considered the sun is displaced from its station by the shock of the +comet. An example will render this more reasonable; let us suppose, that +from the top of a mountain a musket ball is discharged, and that the +strength of the powder was sufficient to send it beyond the +semi-diameter of the earth, it is certain that this ball would pass +round the earth, and at each revolution return to the spot from whence +it had been discharged: <!-- Page 84 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84"></a>[84]</span>but, if instead of a musket-ball, we suppose a +rocket had been discharged, wherein the action of the fire being +durable, would greatly accelerate the motion of impulsion; this rocket, +or rather the cartouch which contained it, would not return to the same +place like the musket-ball, but would describe an orbit, whose perigee +would be much farther distant from the earth, as the force of +acceleration would be greater, and have changed the first direction.</p> + +<p>Thus, provided there had been any acceleration in the motion of +impulsion communicated to the torrent of matter by the fall of the +comet, it is probable that the planets formed in this torrent, acquired +the motion which we know they have in the circles and ellipsis of which +the sun is the centre and focus.</p> + +<p>The manner in which the great eruptions of volcanos are made, may afford +us an idea of this acceleration of motion. It has been remarked that +when Vesuvius begins to roar and eject the inflamed matter it contains, +the first cloud has but a small degree of velocity, but which is soon +accelerated by the impulse of the second; the second by the action of a +third, and so on, until the heavy mass of bitumen, <!-- Page 85 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85"></a>[85]</span>sulphur, cinders, +melted metal, and huge stones, appear like massive clouds, and although +they succeed each other nearly in the same directions, yet they greatly +change that of the first, and drive it far beyond what it would have +reached of itself.</p> + +<p>In answer to this objection, it may be further observed, that the sun +having been struck by the comet, received a degree of motion by the +impulse, which displaced it from its former situation; and that although +this motion of the sun is at present too little sensible for the notice +of astronomers, nevertheless it may still exist, and the sun describe a +curve round the centre of gravity of the whole system and if this is so, +as I presume it is, we see perfectly that the planets, instead of +returning near the sun at each revolution, will, on the contrary, have +described orbits, the points of the perihelion of which will be as far +distant from the sun, as it is itself from the place it originally +occupied.</p> + +<p>It may also be said, that if this acceleration of motion is made in the +same direction, no change in the perihelion will be produced: but can it +be thought that in a torrent, the particles of which succeed each other, +there has <!-- Page 86 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86"></a>[86]</span>been no change of direction; it is, on the contrary, very +probable that a considerable change did take place, sufficient to cause +the planets to move in the course they at present occupy.</p> + +<p>It may be further urged, that if the sun had been displaced by the shock +of a comet, it would move uniformly, and that hence this motion being +common to the whole system, no alteration was necessary; but might not +the sun before the shock have had a motion round the centre of the +cometry system, to which primitive motion the stroke of the comet may +have added or diminished? and would not that fully account for the +actual motion of the planets?</p> + +<p>If these suppositions are not admitted, may it not be presumed, that in +the stroke of the comet against the sun, there was an elastic force +which raised the torrent above the surface of the sun, instead of +directly impelling it? which alone would be sufficient to remove the +perihelion, and give the planets the motion they have retained. This +supposition is not without probability, for the matter of the sun may +possibly be very elastic, since light, the only part of it we are +acquainted with, seems, <!-- Page 87 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87"></a>[87]</span>by its effects, to be perfectly so. I own that +I cannot say whether it is by the one or the other of these reasons, +that the direction of the first motion of the impulse of the planets has +changed, but they suffice to shew that such an alteration is not only +possible but even probable, and that is sufficient for my purpose.</p> + +<p>But, without dwelling any longer on the objections which might be made, +I shall pursue the subject, and draw the fair conclusions on the proofs +which analogies might furnish in favour of my hypothesis: let us, +therefore, first see what might happen when these planets, and +particularly the earth, received their impulsive motion, and in what +state they were after having been separated from the sun. The comet +having, by a single stroke, communicated a projectile motion to a +quantity of matter equal to the 650th part of the sun's mass, the light +particles would of course separate from the dense, and form, by their +mutual attraction, globes of different densities: Saturn being composed +of the most gross and light parts, would be the most remote from the +sun: Jupiter being more dense than Saturn, would be less distant, and so +on. The larger and least solid planets are the most remote, because +they <!-- Page 88 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88"></a>[88]</span>received an impulsive motion stronger than the smallest, and more +dense: for, the force of impulsion communicating itself according to the +surface, the same stroke would have moved the grosser and lighter parts +of the matter of the sun with more velocity than the smallest and more +weighty; a separation therefore will be made of the dense parts of +different degrees, so that the density of the sun being equal to 100, +that of Saturn will be equal to 67, that of Jupiter to 94-1/2, that of +Mars to 200, that of the Earth to 400, that of Venus to 800, and that of +Mercury to 2800. But the force of attraction not communicating like that +of impulsion, according to the surface, but acting on the contrary on +all parts of the mass, it will have checked the densest portions of +matter; and it is for this reason that the densest planets are the +nighest the sun, and turn round that planet with greater rapidity than +the less dense planets, which are also the most remote.</p> + +<p>Jupiter and Saturn, which are the largest and principal planets of the +solar system, have retained the relation between their density and +impulsive motions, in the most exact proportions; the density of Saturn +is to that of Jupiter as 67 to 94-1/2 and their velocities are <!-- Page 89 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89"></a>[89]</span>nearly +as 88-2/3 to 120-1/72, or as 67 to 90-11/16; it is seldom that pure +conjectures can draw such exact relations. It is true, that by following +this relation between the velocity and density of planets, the density +of the earth ought to be only as 206-7/18, and not 400, which is its +real density; from hence it may be conceived, that our globe was +formerly less dense than it is at present. With respect to the other +planets, Mars, Venus, and Mercury, as their densities are known only by +conjecture, we cannot be certain whether this circumstance will destroy +or confirm our hypothesis. The opinion of Newton is, that density is so +much the greater, as the heat to which the planet is exposed is the +stronger; and it is on this idea that we have just said that Mars is one +time less dense than the Earth, Venus one time, Mercury seven times, and +the comet in 1680, 28,000 times denser than the earth: but this +proportion between the density of the planets and the heat which they +sustain, seems not well founded, when we consider Saturn and Jupiter, +which are the principal objects; for, according to this relation between +the density and heat, the density of Saturn would be about 4-7/18, and +that of Jupiter as 14-17/22, instead of 67 and <!-- Page 90 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90"></a>[90]</span>94-1/2, a difference too +great to be admitted, and must destroy the principles upon which it was +founded. Thus, notwithstanding the confidence which the conjectures of +Newton merit, I can but think that the density of the planets has more +relation with their velocity than with the degree of heat to which they +are exposed. This is only a final cause, and the other a physical +relation, the preciseness of which is remarkable in Jupiter and Saturn: +it is nevertheless true, that the density of the earth, instead of being +206-7/8, is found to be 400, and that consequently the terrestrial globe +must be condensed in this ratio of 206-7/8 to 400.</p> + +<p>But have not the condensations of the planets some relation with the +quantity of the heat of the sun which they sustain? If so, Saturn, which +is the most distant from that luminary, will have suffered little or no +condensation; and Jupiter will be condensed from 90-11/16 to 94-1/2. Now +the heat of the sun in Jupiter being to that of the sun upon the earth +as 14-17/22 are to 400, the condensations ought to be in the same +proportion. For instance, if Jupiter be condensed, as 90-11/16 to +94-1/2, and the earth had been placed in his orbit, it would have been +condensed from 206-7/8 to 215-990/1451, but the earth <!-- Page 91 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91"></a>[91]</span>being nearer the +sun, and receiving a heat, whose relation to that which Jupiter receives +is from 400 to 14-17/22, the quantity of condensation it would have +experienced on the orbit of Jupiter by the proportion of 400 to +14-17/22, which gives nearly 234-1/3 for the quantity which the earth +would be condensed. Its density was 206-7/8, by adding the quantity of +its acquired condensation, we find 400-7/8 for its actual density, which +nearly approaches the real density 400, determined to be so by the +parallax of the moon. As to other planets, I do not here pretend to give +exact proportions, but only approximations, to point out that their +densities have a strong relation to their velocity in their respective +orbits.</p> + +<p>The comet, therefore, by its oblique fall upon the surface of the sun, +having driven therefrom a quantity of matter equal to the 650th part of +its whole mass; this matter, which must be considered in a liquid state, +will at first have formed a torrent, the grosser and less dense parts of +which will have been driven the farthest, and the smaller and more +dense, having received only the like impulsion, will remain nearest its +source; the force of the sun's attraction would inevitably act upon all +the <!-- Page 92 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92"></a>[92]</span>parts detached from him, and constrain them to circulate around his +body, and at the same time the mutual attraction of the particles of +matter would form themselves into globes at different distances from the +sun, the nearest of which necessarily moving with greater rapidity in +their orbits than those at a distance.</p> + +<p>But another objection may be started, and it may be said, if the matter +which composes the planets had been separated from the sun, they, like +him, would have been burning and luminous bodies, not cold and opaque, +for nothing resembles a globe of fire less than a globe of earth and +water; and by comparison, the matter of the earth and planets is +perfectly different from that of the sun?</p> + +<p>To this it may be answered, that in the separation the matter changed +its form, and the light or fire was extinguished by the stroke which +caused this motion of impulsion. Besides, may it not be supposed that if +the sun, or a burning star, moved with such velocity as the planet, that +the fire would soon be extinguished; and that is the reason why all +luminous stars are fixed, and that those stars which are called new, and +which have probably <!-- Page 93 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93"></a>[93]</span>changed places, are frequently extinguished and +lost? This remark is somewhat confirmed by what has been observed in +comets; they must burn to the centre when they pass to their perihelium: +nevertheless they do not become luminous themselves, they only exhale +burning vapours, of which they leave a considerable part behind them in +their course.</p> + +<p>I own, that in a medium where there is very little or no resistance, +fire may subsist and suffer a very great motion without being +extinguished: I also own, that what I have just said extends only to the +stars which totally disappear, and not to those which have periodical +returns, and appear and disappear alternately without changing place in +the heavens. The phenomena of these stars has been explained in a very +satisfactory manner by M. de Maupertuis, in his discourse on the figures +of the planets. But the stars which appear and afterwards disappear +entirely, must certainly have been extinguished, either by the velocity +of their motion, or some other cause. We have not a single example of +one luminous star revolving round another; and among the number of +planets which compose our system, and <!-- Page 94 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94"></a>[94]</span>which move round the sun with +more or less rapidity, there is not one luminous of itself.</p> + +<p>It may also be added, that fire cannot subsist so long in the small as +in large masses, and that the planets must have burnt for some time +after they were separated from the sun, but were at length extinguished +for want of combustible matter, as probably would be the sun itself, and +for the same reason; but in a length of time as far beyond that which +extinguished the planets, as it exceeds in quantity of matter. Be this +as it may, the matter of which the planets are formed being separated +from the sun, by the stroke of a comet, that appears a sufficient reason +for the extinction of their fires.</p> + +<p>The earth and planets at the time of their quitting the sun, were in a +state of total liquid fire; in this state they remained only as long as +the violence of the heat which had produced it; and which heat +necessarily underwent a gradual decay: it was in this state of fluidity +that they took their circular forms, and that their regular motions +raised the parts of their equators, and lowered their poles. This +figure, which agrees so perfectly with the laws of hydrostatics, I am of +opinion with Leibnitz, <!-- Page 95 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95"></a>[95]</span>necessarily supposes that the earth and planets +have been in a state of fluidity, caused by fire, and that the internal +part of the earth must be a vitrifiable matter, of which sand, granite, +&c. are the fragments and scoria.</p> + +<p>It may, therefore, with some probability, be thought that the planets +appertained to the sun, that they were separated by a single stroke, +which gave to them a motion of impulsion, and that their position at +different distances from the sun proceeds only from their different +densities. It now only remains, to complete this theory, to explain the +diurnal motion of the planets, and the formation or the satellites; but +this, far from adding difficulties to my hypothesis, seems, on the +contrary, to confirm it.</p> + +<p>For the diurnal motion, or rotation, depends solely on the obliquity of +the stroke, an oblique impulse therefore on the surface of a body will +necessarily give it a rotative motion; this motion will be equal and +always the same, if the body which receives it is homogeneous, and it +will be unequal if the body is composed of heterogeneous parts, or of +different densities; hence we may conclude that in all the planets the +matter is homogeneous, since their diurnal <!-- Page 96 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96"></a>[96]</span>motions are equal, and +regularly performed in the same period of time. Another proof that the +separation of the dense or less dense parts were originally from the +sun.</p> + +<p>But the obliquity of the stroke might be such, as to separate from the +body of the principal planet a small part of matter, which would of +course continue to move in the same direction; these parts would be +united, according to their densities, at different distances from the +planet, by the force of their mutual attraction, and at the same time +follow its course round the sun, by revolving about the body of the +planet, nearly in the plane of its orbit. It is plain, that those small +parts so separated are the satellites: thus the formation, position, and +direction of the motions of the satellites perfectly agree with our +theory; for they have all the same motion in concentrical circles round +their principal planet; their motion is in the same direction, and that +nearly in the plane of their orbits. All these effects, which are common +to them, and which depend on an impulsive force, can proceed only from +one common cause, which is, impulsive motion, communicated to them by +one and the same oblique stroke.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 97 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97"></a>[97]</span>What we have just said on the cause of the motion and formation of the +satellites, will acquire more probability, if we consider all the +circumstances of the phenomena. The planets which turn the swiftest on +their axis, are those which have satellites. The earth turns quicker +than Mars in the relation of about 24 to 15; the earth has a satellite, +but Mars has none. Jupiter, whose rapidity round its axis is five to six +hundred times greater than that of the earth, has four satellites, and +there is a great appearance that Saturn, which has five, and a ring, +turns still more quickly than Jupiter.</p> + +<p>It may even be conjectured with some foundation, that the ring of Saturn +is parallel to the equator of the planet, so that the plane of the +equator of the ring, and that of Saturn, are nearly the same; for by +supposing, according to the preceding theory, that the obliquity of the +stroke by which Saturn has been set in motion was very great, the +velocity around the axis will, at first, have been in proportion as the +centrifugal force exceeds that of gravity, and there will be detached +from its equator and neighbouring parts, a considerable quantity of +<!-- Page 98 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98"></a>[98]</span>matter, which will necessarily have taken the figure of a ring, whose +plane must be nearly the same as that of the equator of the planet; and +this quantity of matter having been detached from the vicinity of the +equator of Saturn, must have lowered the equator of that planet, which +causes that, notwithstanding its rapidity, the diameters of Saturn +cannot be so unequal as those of Jupiter, which differ from each other +more than an eleventh part.</p> + +<p>However great the probability of what I have advanced on the formation +of the planets and their satellites may appear to me, yet, every man has +his particular measurement, to estimate probabilities of this nature; +and as this measurement depends on the strength of the understanding to +combine more or less distant relations, I do not pretend to convince the +incredulous. I have not only thought it my duty to offer these ideas, +because they appear to me reasonable, and calculated to clear up a +subject, on which, however important, nothing has hitherto been written, +but because the impulsive motion in the planets enter at least as one +half of the composition of the universe, which gravity alone cannot +unfold. I <!-- Page 99 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99"></a>[99]</span>shall only add the following questions to those who are +inclined to deny the possibility of my system.</p> + +<p>1. Is it not natural to imagine, that a body in motion has received that +motion by the stroke of another body?</p> + +<p>2. Is it not very probable, that when many bodies move in the same +direction, that they have received this direction by one single stroke, +or by many strokes directed in the same manner?</p> + +<p>3. Is it not more probable that when many bodies have the same direction +in their motion, and are placed in the same plane, that they received +this direction and this position by one and the same stroke, rather than +by a number?</p> + +<p>4. At the time a body is put in motion by the force of impulsion, is it +not probable that it receives it obliquely, and, consequently, is +obliged to turn on its axis so much the quicker, as the obliquity of the +stroke will have been greater? If these questions should not appear +unreasonable, the theory, of which we have presented the outlines, will +cease to appear an absurdity.</p> + +<p>Let us now pass on to something which more nearly concerns us, and +examine the <!-- Page 100 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100"></a>[100]</span>figure of the earth, on which so many researches and such +great observations have been made. The earth being, as it appears by the +equality of its diurnal motion and the constancy of the inclination of +its axis, composed of homogeneous parts, which attract each other in +proportion to their quantity of matter, it would necessarily have taken +the figure of a globe perfectly spherical, if the motion of impulsation +had been given it in a perpendicular direction to the surface; but this +stroke having been obliquely given, the earth turned on its axis at the +moment it took its form; and from the combination of this impulsive +force, the attraction of the parts, there has resulted a spheroid +figure, more elevated under the great circle of rotation, and lower at +the two extremities of the axis, and this because the action of the +centrifugal force proceeding from the diurnal rotation must diminish the +action of gravity. Thus, the earth being homogeneous, and having +received a rotative motion, necessarily took a spheroidical figure, the +two axes of which differ a 230th part from each other. This may be +clearly demonstrated, and does not depend on any hypothesis whatever. +The laws of gravity are perfectly <!-- Page 101 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101"></a>[101]</span>known, and we cannot doubt that +bodies attract each other in a direct ratio of their masses, and in an +inverted ratio, at the squares of their distances; so likewise we cannot +doubt, that the general action of any body is not composed of all the +particular actions of its parts. Thus each part of matter mutually +attracts in a direct ratio of its mass and an inverted ratio of its +distance, and from all these attractions there results a sphere when +there is no rotatory motion, and a spheroid when there is one. This +spheroid is longer or shorter at the two extremities of the axis of +rotation, in proportion to the velocity of its diurnal motion, and the +earth has then, by virtue of its rotative velocity, and of the mutual +attraction of all its parts, the figure of a spheroid, the two axes of +which are as 229 to 230 to one another.</p> + +<p>Thus, by its original constituent, by its homogeneousness, and +independent of every hypothesis from the direction of gravity, the earth +has taken this figure of a spheroid at its formation, and agreeable to +mechanical laws: its equatorial diameter was raised about 6-1/2 leagues +higher than under the poles.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 102 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102"></a>[102]</span>I shall dwell on this article, because there are still geometricians who +think that the figure of the earth depends upon theory, and this from a +system of philosophy they have embraced, and from a supposed direction +of gravity. The first thing we have to demonstrate is, the mutual +attraction of every part of matter, and the second the homogeneousness +of the terrestrial globe; if we clearly prove, that these two +circumstances are really so, there will no longer be any hypothesis to +be made on the direction of gravity: the earth will necessarily have the +figure Newton decided in favour of, and every other figure given to it +by virtue of vortexes or other hypotheses, will not be able to subsist.</p> + +<p>It cannot be doubted, that it is the force of gravity which retains the +planets in their orbits; the satellites of Saturn gravitate towards +Saturn, those of Jupiter towards Jupiter, the Moon gravitates towards +the Earth: and Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, the Earth, Venus, and Mercury, +gravitate towards the Sun: so likewise Saturn and Jupiter gravitate +towards their satellites, the Earth gravitates towards the Moon, and the +Sun towards the whole of the <!-- Page 103 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103"></a>[103]</span>planets. Gravitation is therefore general +and mutual in all the planetary system, for action cannot be exercised +without a re-action; all the planets, therefore, act mutually one on the +other. This mutual attraction serves as a foundation to the laws of +their motion, and is demonstrated to exist by its effects. When Saturn +and Jupiter are in conjunction, they act one on the other, and this +attraction produces an irregularity in their motion round the Sun. It is +the same with the Earth and the Moon, they also mutually attract each +other; but the irregularities of the motion of the Moon, proceeds from +the attraction of the Sun, so that the Earth, the Sun, and the Moon, +mutually act one on the other. Now this mutual attraction of the +planets, when the distances are equal, is proportional to their quantity +of matter, and the same force of gravity which causes heavy matter to +fall on the surface of the Earth, and which extends to the Moon, is also +proportional to the quantity of matter; therefore the total gravity of a +planet is composed of the gravity of each of its parts; from whence all +the parts of the matter, either in the Earth or in the planets, mutually +attract each other and the Earth, by its rotation round its own <!-- Page 104 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104"></a>[104]</span>axis, +has necessarily taken the figure of a spheroid, the axes of which are as +229 to 230. The direction of the weight must be perpendicular to the +Earth's surface; consequently no hypothesis, drawn from the direction of +gravity, can be sustained, unless the general attraction of the parts of +matter be denied; but the existence of this mutual attraction is +demonstrated by observations, and the experiment of pendulums prove, +that its extension is general; therefore we cannot support an hypothesis +on the direction of gravity without going against experience and reason.</p> + +<p>Let us now proceed to examine whether the matter of which the +terrestrial globe is composed be homogeneous. I admit, that if it is +supposed the globe is more dense in some parts than in others, the +direction of gravity must be different from what we have just assigned, +and that the figure of the Earth would also differ agreeable to those +suppositions. But what reason have we to make these suppositions? Why, +for example, should we suppose that the parts near the centre are denser +than those which are more remote? Are not all the particles which +compose the globe collected together by their mutual attraction? <!-- Page 105 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105"></a>[105]</span>hence, +each particle is a centre, and there is no reason to believe, that the +parts which surround the centre are denser than those which are about +any other point. Besides, if one considerable part of the globe was +denser than another, the axis of rotation would be found near the dense +parts, and an inequality would ensue in the diurnal revolution; we +should remark an inequality in the apparent motion of the fixed stars; +they would appear to move more quick or slow in the zenith, or horizon, +according as we should be placed on the denser or lighter parts of the +earth; and the axis of the globe no longer passing through the centre of +gravity, would also very sensibly change its position: but nothing like +this ever happens; on the contrary, the diurnal motion of the earth is +equal and uniform. At all parts of the Earth's surface, the stars appear +to move with the same velocity at all heights, and if there be any +rotation in its axis, it is so trifling as to have escaped observation: +it must therefore be concluded, that the globe is homogeneous, or nearly +so in all its parts.</p> + +<p>If the earth was a hollow and void globe, and the crust of which, for +example, not more than two or three miles thick; it would <!-- Page 106 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106"></a>[106]</span>produce these +effects. 1. The mountains would be such considerable parts of the whole +thickness of the crust, that great irregularities in the motions of the +Earth would be occasioned by the attraction of the Moon and Sun: for +when the highest parts of the globe, as the Cordeliers, should have the +Moon at noon, the attraction would be much stronger on the whole globe +than when she was in the meridian of the lowest parts. 2. The attraction +of mountains would be much more considerable than it is in comparison +with the attraction of the whole globe, and experiments made at the +mountain of Chimboraco, in Peru, would in this case give more degrees +than they have given seconds for the deviation of the plumb line. 3. The +weight of bodies would be greater on the tops of high mountains than on +the planes; so that we should feel ourselves considerably heavier, and +should walk with more difficulty in high than in low places. These +observations, with many others that might be added, must convince us, +that the inner parts of the globe is not void, but filled with a dense +matter.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, if below the depth of two or three miles, the earth +was filled with <!-- Page 107 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107"></a>[107]</span>a matter much more dense than any known, it would +necessarily occur, that every time we descended to moderate depths, we +should weigh much more, and the motion of pendulums would be more +accelerated than in fact they are when carried from an eminence into a +plain: thus, we may presume that the internal part of the Earth is +filled with a matter nearly similar to that which composes its surface. +What may complete our determination in favour of this opinion is, that +in the first formation of the globe, when it took its present +spheroidical figure, the matter which composed it was in fusion, and, +consequently, all its parts were homogeneous, and nearly equally dense. +From that time the matter on the surface, although originally the same +with the interior, has undergone a variety of changes by external +causes, which has produced materials of such different densities; but it +must be remarked, that the densest matters, as gold and metals, are also +those the most seldom to be met with, and consequently the greatest part +of the matter at the surface of the globe has not undergone any very +great changes with relation to its density; the most common materials, +as sand and clay, differ very little, insomuch, that we may conjecture, +<!-- Page 108 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108"></a>[108]</span>with great probability, that the internal part of the earth is composed +of a vitrified matter, the density of which is nearly the same as that +of sand, and that consequently the terrestrial globe in general may be +regarded as homogeneous.</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding this, it may be urged, that although the globe was +composed of concentrical strata of different densities, the diurnal +motion might be equally certain, and the uniform inclination of the axis +as constant and undisturbed as it could be, on the supposition of its +being composed of homogeneous matter. I acknowledge it, but I ask at the +same time, if there is any reason to believe that strata of different +densities do exist? If these conclusions be not rather a desire to +adjust the works of Nature to our own ideas? And whether in physics we +ought to admit suppositions which are not founded on observations or +analogy?</p> + +<p>It appears, therefore, that the earth, by virtue of the mutual +attraction of its parts and its diurnal motion, assumed the figure of a +spheroid; that it necessarily took that form from being in a state of +fluidity; that, agreeable to the laws of gravity and of a centrifugal +force, it could have no other figure: that in the moment of its +<!-- Page 109 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109"></a>[109]</span>formation as at present, there was a difference between the two +diameters equal to a 230th part, and that, consequently, every +hypothesis in which we find greater or less difference are fictions +which merit no attention.</p> + +<p>But it may be said, if this theory is true, and if 229 to 230 is the +just relation of the axis, why did the mathematicians, sent to Lapland +and Peru, agree to the relation of 174 to 175? From whence does this +difference arise between theory and practice? And is it not more +reasonable to give the preference to practice and measures, especially +when we have been taken by the most able mathematicians of +Europe<a name="FNanchor_109:A_5" id="FNanchor_109:A_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_109:A_5" class="fnanchor">[109:A]</a>, and with all necessary apparatus to establish the result.</p> + +<p>To this I answer, that I have paid attention to the observations made at +the equator and near the polar circle; that I have no doubt of their +being exact, and that the earth may possibly be elevated an 175th part +more at the equator than at the poles. But, at the same time, I maintain +my theory, and I see clearly how the two conclusions may be reconciled. +This difference is about four leagues in the two axes, so that the parts +at the equator are raised two leagues more <!-- Page 110 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110"></a>[110]</span>than they ought to be, +according to my theory; this height answers exactly to the greatest +inequalities on the surface of the globe, produced by the motion of the +sea, and the action of the fluids. I will explain; it appears that when +the earth was formed, it must necessarily have taken, by virtue of the +mutual attraction of its parts, and the action of the centrifugal force, +a spheroidical figure, the axes of which differ a 230th part: the +original earth must have had this figure, which it took when it was +fluid, or rather liquified by the fire; but after its formation the +vapours which were extended and rarefied, as in the atmosphere and tail +of a comet, became condensed, and fell on the surface in form of air and +water: and when these waters became agitated by the flux and reflux, the +matters were, by degrees, carried from the poles towards the equatorial +parts; so that the poles were lowered about a league, and those of the +equator raised in the same proportion; this was not suddenly done, but +by degrees in succession of time; the earth being also exposed to the +action of the winds, air, and sun; all these irregular causes concurred +with the flux and reflux to furrow its surface, hollow it into valleys, +and raise it into mountains; and <!-- Page 111 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111"></a>[111]</span>producing other inequalities and +irregularities, of which, nevertheless, the greatest thickness does not +exceed one league at the equator; this inequality of two leagues, is, +perhaps, the greatest which can be on the surface of the earth, for the +highest mountains are scarce above one league in height, and there is +much probability of the sea's not being more at its greatest depth. The +theory is therefore true, and practice may be so likewise; the earth at +first could not be raised above 6-1/2 leagues more at the equator than +the poles, but the changes which have happened to its surface might +afterwards raise it still more. Natural History wonderfully confirms +this opinion, for we have proved in the preceding discourse that the +flux and reflux, and other motions of the water, have produced mountains +and all the inequalities on the surface of the globe, that this surface +has undergone considerable changes, and that at the greatest depths, as +well as on the greatest heights, bones, shells and other wrecks of +animals, which inhabit the sea and earth, are met with.</p> + +<p>It may be conjectured, from what has been said, that to find ancient +earth, and matters which have never been removed from the spot <!-- Page 112 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112"></a>[112]</span>in which +they were first placed, we must dig near the poles, where the bed of the +earth must be thinner than in the Southern climates.</p> + +<p>On the whole, if we strictly examine the measures by which the figure of +the earth is determined, we shall perceive this hypothesis enters into +such determination; for it supposes the earth to have the figure of a +regular curve, whereas from the constant changes the earth is +continually undergoing from a variety and combination of causes, it is +almost impossible that it should have retained any regular figure, and +hence the poles might, originally, only be flattened a 230th part, as +Newton says, and as my theory requires. Besides, although we had exactly +the length of the degree at the polar circle and equator, have we not +also the length of the degree as exactly in France? And the measure of +M. Picard, has it not been verified? Add to this that the augmentation +and diminution in the motion of the pendulum, do not agree with the +result drawn from measurement, and that, on the contrary, they differ +very little from the theory of Newton. This is surely more than is +requisite to convince us that the poles are not flattened more than a +230th part, and that if <!-- Page 113 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113"></a>[113]</span>there is any difference, it can proceed only +from the inequalities, which the water and other external causes have +produced on its surface; but these inequalities being more irregular +than regular, we must not form any hypothesis thereon, nor suppose, that +the meridians are ellipses, or any other regular curves. From whence we +perceive, that if we should successively measure many degrees of the +earth in all directions, we still should not be certain by that alone, +of the exact situation of the poles, nor whether they were depressed +more or less than the 230th part.</p> + +<p>May it not also be conjectured, that if the inclination of the axis of +the earth has changed, it can only be produced by the changes which have +happened to the surface, since all the rest of the globe is homogeneous; +that consequently this variation is too little sensible to be perceived +by astronomers, and that if the earth is not encountered with a comet, +or deranged, by any other external cause, its axis will remain +perpetually inclined as it is at present, and as it has always been?</p> + +<p>In order not to omit any conjecture which appears reasonable, may it not +be said, that as the mountains and inequalities which are on the +<!-- Page 114 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114"></a>[114]</span>surface of the earth have been formed by the flux and reflux of the sea, +the mountains and inequalities which we remark on the surface of the +moon, have been produced by a similar cause? they certainly are much +higher than those of the earth, but then her tides are also much +stronger, occasioned by the earth's being considerably larger than the +moon, and consequently producing her tides with a superior force; and +this effect would be much greater if the moon had, like the earth, a +rapid rotation; but as the moon presents always the same surface to the +earth, the tides cannot operate but in proportion to the motion arising +from her libration, by which it alternatively discovers to us a segment +of its other hemisphere; this, however, must produce a kind of flux and +reflux, quite different from that of our sea, and the effects of which +will be much less considerable than if the moon had from its course a +revolution round its axis, as quick as the rotation of the terrestrial +globe.</p> + +<p>I should furnish a volume as large as that of Burnet or Whiston's, if I +were to enlarge on the ideas which arise in support of the above; by +giving them a geometrical air, in imitation of the last author, I might +add considerably to <!-- Page 115 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115"></a>[115]</span>their weight; but, in my opinion, hypothesis, +however probable, ought not to be treated with such pomposity; it being +a dress which borders so much on quackery.</p> + + +<div> +<hr class="footnotes" /> +<p class="sectctrfn">FOOTNOTES:</p> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_78:A_3" id="Footnote_78:A_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78:A_3"><span class="label">[78:A]</span></a> Vide Newton, 2d edit. page 525.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_79:A_4" id="Footnote_79:A_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79:A_4"><span class="label">[79:A]</span></a> Vid. Newton, page 405.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_109:A_5" id="Footnote_109:A_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_109:A_5"><span class="label">[109:A]</span></a> M. de Maupertuis' Figure of the Earth.</p> +</div> +</div> +</div> + + + + +<div> +<hr class="newchapter" /> +<h2><a name="ARTICLE_II" id="ARTICLE_II"></a>ARTICLE II.<br /> + +<small>FROM THE SYSTEM OF WHISTON<a name="FNanchor_115:A_6" id="FNanchor_115:A_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_115:A_6" class="fnanchor">[115:A]</a>.</small></h2> + + +<p>This Author commences his treatise by a dissertation on the creation of +the world; he says that the account of it given by Moses in the text of +Genesis has not been rightly understood; that the translators have +confined themselves too much to the letter and superficial views, +without attending to nature, reason, and philosophy. The common notion +of the world being made in six days, he says is absolutely false, and +that the description given by Moses, is not an exact and philosophical +narration of the creation and origin of the universe, but only an +historical representation <!-- Page 116 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116"></a>[116]</span>of the terrestrial globe. The earth, +according to him, existed in the chaos; and, at the time mentioned by +Moses, received the form, situation and consistency necessary to be +inhabited by the human race. I shall not enter into a detail of his +proofs, nor undertake their refutation. The exposition we have just +made, is sufficient to demonstrate the difference of his opinion with +public facts, its contrariety with scripture, and consequently the +insufficiency of his proofs. On the whole, he treats this matter as a +theological controvertist, rather than as an enlightened philosopher.</p> + +<p>Leaving these erroneous principles, he flies to ingenious suppositions, +which, although extraordinary, yet have a degree of probability to those +who, like him, incline to the enthusiasm of system. He says, that the +ancient chaos, the origin of our earth, was the atmosphere of a comet: +that the annual motion of the earth began at the time it took its new +form, but that its diurnal motion began only when the first man fell. +That the ecliptic cut the tropic of cancer, opposite to the terrestrial +paradise, which was situated on the north-west side of the frontiers of +Assyria: that before the deluge, the year began at the autumnal +equinox: <!-- Page 117 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117"></a>[117]</span>that the orbits of the planets, and the earth were then +perfect circles. That the deluge began the 18th of November, 2365 of the +Julian period, or 2349 years before Christ. That the solar and lunar +year were then the same, and that they exactly contained 360 days. That +a comet descending in the plane of the ecliptic towards its perihelion, +passed near the globe of the earth the same day as the deluge began: +that there is a great heat in the internal part of the terrestrial +globe, which constantly diffuses itself from the centre to the +circumference; that the form of the earth is like that of an egg, the +ancient emblem of the globe; that mountains are the lightest part of the +earth, &c. He afterwards attributes all the alterations and changes +which have happened to the earth, to the universal deluge; then blindly +adopts the theory of Woodward, and indiscriminately makes use of all the +observations of that author on the present state of the globe; but +assumes originality when he speaks of its future state: according to him +it will be consumed by fire, and its destruction will be preceded by +terrible earthquakes, thunder, and frightful meteors; the Sun and Moon +will have an hideous aspect, the heavens will appear to <!-- Page 118 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118"></a>[118]</span>fall, and the +flames will be general over all the earth; but when the fire shall have +devoured all the impurities it contains; when it shall be vitrified and +rendered transparent as crystal, the saints and the blessed spirits will +return and take possession of it, and there remain till the day of +judgment.</p> + +<p>These hypotheses, at the first glance, appear to be rash and extravagant +assertions; nevertheless the author has managed them with such address, +and treated them with such strength, that they cease to appear +absolutely chimerical. He supports his subjects with much science, and +it is surprising that, from a mixture of ideas so very absurd, a system +could be formed with an air of probability. It has not affected vulgar +minds so much as it has dazzled the eyes of the learned, because they +are more easily deceived by the glare of erudition, and the power of +novel ideas. Mr. Whiston was a celebrated astronomer, in the constant +habit of considering the heavens, observing the stars, and contemplating +the wonderful course of nature; he could never persuade himself that +this small grain of sand, this Earth which we inhabit, occupied more the +attention of the Creator than the universe, the vast extent of which +<!-- Page 119 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119"></a>[119]</span>contains millions of other Suns and Earths. He pretends, that Moses has +not given us the history of the first creation of this globe, but only a +detail of the new form that it took when the Almighty turned it from the +mass of a comet into a planet, and formed it into a proper habitation +for men. Comets are, in fact, subjected to terrible vicissitudes by +reason of the eccentricity of their orbits. Sometimes, like that in +1680, it is a thousand times hotter there than red-hot iron; and +sometimes a thousand times colder than ice; if they are, therefore, +inhabited it must be by strange creatures, of which we can have no +conception.</p> + +<p>The planets, on the contrary, are places of rest, where the distance of +the sun not varying much, the temperature remains nearly the same, and +permits different kinds of plants and animals to grow and multiply.</p> + +<p>In the beginning God created the world; but, observes our author, the +earth was then an uninhabitable comet, suffering alternatively the +excess of heat and cold, its liquifying and freezing by turns formed a +chaos, or an abyss, surrounded with thick darkness: "and darkness +covered the face of the deep," <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">& tenebræ erant superfaciam abissi</i>. +This chaos was the <!-- Page 120 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120"></a>[120]</span>atmosphere of the comet, a body composed of +heterogeneous matters, the centre occupied by spherical, solid, and hot +substances, of about two thousand leagues in diameter, round which a +very great surface of a thick fluid extended, mixed with an unshapen and +confused matter, like the chaos of the ancient <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rudis & indigestaque +moles</i>.</p> + +<p>This vast atmosphere contained but very few dry, solid, or terrestrial +particles, still less aqueous or aerial, but a great quantity of fluid, +dense and heavy matters, mixed, agitated and jumbled together in the +greatest disorder and confusion. Such was the earth before the six days, +but on the first day of the creation, when the eccentrical orbit of the +comet had been changed, every thing took its place, and bodies arranged +themselves according to the law of gravity, the heavy fluid descended to +the lowest places, and left the upper regions to the terrestrial, +aqueous and aerial parts; those likewise descended according to their +order of gravity; first the earth, then the water, and last of all the +air. The immense volume of chaos was thus reduced to a globe of a +moderate size, in the centre of which is the solid body that still +retains the heat which the sun formerly communicated to it, when it +belonged to a <!-- Page 121 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121"></a>[121]</span>comet. This heat may possibly endure six thousand years, +since the comet of 1680 required fifty thousand years to cool. Around +this solid and burning matter, which occupies the centre of the earth, +the dense and heavy fluid which descended the first is to be found, and +this is the fluid which forms the great abyss on which the earth is +borne, like cork on quicksilver; but as the terrestrial parts were +originally mixed with a large quantity of water, in descending they have +dragged with them a part of this water, which, not being able to +re-ascend after the earth was consolidated, formed a concentrical bed +with the heavy fluid which surrounds this hot substance, insomuch that +the great abyss is composed of two concentrical orbs, the most internal +of which is a heavy fluid, and the other water; the last of which serves +for a foundation to the earth. It is from this admirable arrangement, +produced by the atmosphere of a comet, that the Theory of the Earth, and +the explanation of all its phenomena are to depend.</p> + +<p>When the atmosphere of the comet was once disembarrassed from all the +solid and terrestrial matters, there remained only the lighter air, +through which the rays of the <!-- Page 122 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122"></a>[122]</span>sun freely passed and instantly produced +light: "Let there be light, and there was light." The columns which +composed the orb of the Earth being formed with such great precipitation +is the cause of their different densities: consequently the heaviest +sunk deeper into this subterraneous fluid than the lightest; and it is +this which has produced the vallies and mountains on the surface of the +earth. These inequalities were, before the deluge, dispersed and +situated otherwise than they are at present. Instead of the vast valley, +which contains the ocean, there were many small divided cavities on the +surface of the globe, each of which contained a part of this water; the +mountains were also more divided, and did not form chains as at present: +nevertheless, the earth contained a thousand times more people, and was +a thousand times more fertile; and the life of man and other animals +were ten times longer, all which was affected by the internal heat of +the earth that proceeded from the centre, and gave birth to a great +number of plants and animals, bestowing on them a degree of vigour +necessary for them to subsist a long time, and multiply in great +abundance. But this heat, by increasing the strength of <!-- Page 123 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123"></a>[123]</span>bodies, +unfortunately extended to the heads of men and animals; it augmented +their passions; it deprived man of his innocence, and the brute creation +of part of their intelligence; all creatures, excepting fish, who +inhabited a colder element, felt the effects of this heat, became +criminal and merited death. It therefore came, and this universal death +happened on Wednesday the 28th of November, by a terrible deluge of +forty days and forty nights, and was caused by the tail of another comet +which encountered the earth in returning from its perihelion.</p> + +<p>The tail of a comet is the lightest part of its atmosphere; it is a +transparent mist, a subtile vapour, which the heat of the sun exhales +from the body of the comet: this vapour composed of extremely rarefied +aqueous and aerial particles, follows the comet when it descends to its +perihelion, and precedes when it re-ascends, so that it is always +situate opposite to the sun, as if it sought to be in the shade, and +avoid the too great heat of that luminary. The column which this vapour +forms is often of an immense length, and the more a comet approaches the +sun, the longer and more extended is its tail, and as many comets +descend below the annual orb of the earth, it is not <!-- Page 124 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124"></a>[124]</span>surprising that +the earth is sometimes found surrounded with the vapour of this tail; +this is precisely what happened at the time of the deluge. In two hours +the tail of a comet will evacuate a quantity of water equal to what is +contained in the whole ocean. In short, this tail was what Moses calls +the cataracts of Heaven, "and the cataracts of Heaven were opened." The +terrestrial globe meeting with the tail of a comet, must, in going its +course through this vapour, appropriate to itself a part of the matter +which it contains; all which, coming within the sphere of the earth's +attraction, must fall on it, and fall in the form of rain, since this +tail is partly composed of aqueous vapours. Thus rain may come down in +such abundance as to produce an universal deluge the waters of which +might easily surmount the tops of the highest mountains. Nevertheless, +our author, cautious of not going directly against the letter of holy +writ, does not say that this rain was the sole cause of the universal +deluge, but takes the water from every place he can find it. The great +abyss as we see contains a considerable quantity. The earth, at the +approach of the comet, would prove the force of its attraction; and the +waters <!-- Page 125 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125"></a>[125]</span>contained in the great abyss would be agitated by so violent a +kind of flux and reflux, that the superficial crust would not resist, +but split in several places, and the internal waters be dispersed over +the surface, "And the fountains of the abyss were opened."</p> + +<p>But what became of these waters, which the tail of the comet and great +abyss furnished so liberally? our author is not the least embarrassed +thereon. As soon as the earth, continuing its course, removed from the +comet, the effects of its attraction, the flux and reflux in the great +abyss ceased of course, and immediately the upper waters precipitated +back with violence by the same roads as they had been forced upon the +surface. The great abyss absorbed all the superfluous waters, and was of +a sufficient capacity not only to receive its own waters, but also all +those which the tail of the comet had left, because during its +agitation, and the rupture of its crust, it had enlarged the space by +driving out on all sides the earth that surrounded it. It was at this +time also the figure of the earth, which till then was spherical, became +elliptic. This effect was occasioned by the centrifugal force caused by +its diurnal motion, and by the attraction of the <!-- Page 126 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126"></a>[126]</span>comet, for the earth, +in passing through the tail of the comet, found itself so placed that it +presented the parts of the equator to that planet; and the power of the +attraction of the comet, concurring with the centrifugal force of the +earth, caused the parts of the equator to be elevated, and that with the +more facility as the crust was broken and divided in an infinity of +places, and because the flux and reflux of the abyss drove against the +equator more violently than elsewhere.</p> + +<p>Here then is Mr. Whiston's history of the creation; the causes of the +universal deluge; the length of the life of the first men; and the +figure of the Earth; all which seem to have cost our author little or no +labour; but Noah's ark appears to have greatly disquieted him. In the +midst of so terrible a disorder occasioned by the conjunction of the +tail of a comet with the waters of the great abyss, in the terrible +moments wherein not only the elements of the earth were confused, but +when new elements still concurred to augment the chaos, how can it be +imagined that the ark floated quietly with its numerous cargo on the top +of the waves? Here our author makes great efforts to arrive at and give +a physical reason for the preservation <!-- Page 127 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127"></a>[127]</span>of the ark, but which has always +appeared to me insufficient, poorly imagined, and but little +orthodoxical: I will not here relate it, but only observe how hard it is +for a man who has explained objects so great and wonderful, without +having recourse to a supernatural power, to be stopt by one particular +circumstance; our author, however, chose rather to risk drowning with +the ark, than to attribute to the immediate bounty of the Almighty the +preservation of this precious vessel.</p> + +<p>I shall only make one remark on this system, of which I have made a +faithful abridgement: which is, whenever we are rash enough to attempt +to explain theological truths by physical reasons, or interpret purely +by human views, the divine text of holy writ, or that we endeavour to +reason on the will of the Most High, and on the execution of his +decrees, we consequently shall involve ourselves in the darkness and +chaos of obscurity and confusion, like the author of this system, which, +in defiance of its absurdities, has been received with great applause. +He neither doubts the truth of the deluge, nor the authenticity of the +sacred writ; but as he was less employed with it than with physic and +astronomy, he has taken passages of <!-- Page 128 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128"></a>[128]</span>the scripture for physical facts, +and the results of astronomical observations; and has so strangely +blended the divine knowledge with human science as to give birth to the +most extraordinary system that possibly ever was or will be conceived.</p> + + +<div> +<hr class="footnotes" /> +<p class="sectctrfn">FOOTNOTES:</p> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_115:A_6" id="Footnote_115:A_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_115:A_6"><span class="label">[115:A]</span></a> A New Theory of the Earth by William Whiston, 1708.</p> +</div> +</div> +</div> + + + + +<div> +<hr class="newchapter" /> +<h2><a name="ARTICLE_III" id="ARTICLE_III"></a>ARTICLE III.<br /> + +<small>FROM THE SYSTEM OF BURNET.<a name="FNanchor_128:A_7" id="FNanchor_128:A_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_128:A_7" class="fnanchor">[128:A]</a></small></h2> + + +<p>This author is the first who has treated this subject generally and in a +systematical matter. He was possessed of much understanding, and was a +person well acquainted with the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">belles lettres</i>. His work acquired +great reputation, and was criticised by many of the <!-- Page 129 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129"></a>[129]</span>learned, among the +rest by Mr. Keil, who has geometrically demonstrated the errors of Mr. +Burnet, in a treatise called "Examination of the Theory of the Earth." +Mr. Keil also refuted Whiston's system; but he treats the last author +very different from the first, and seems even to be of his opinion in +several cases, and looks upon the tail of a comet to be a very probable +cause for the deluge. But, to return to Burnet, his book is elegantly +written; he knew how to paint noble images and magnificent scenes. His +plan is great, but the execution is deficient for want of proper +materials: his reasoning is good, but his proofs are weak; yet his +confidence in his writings is so great, that he frequently causes his +readers to pass over his errors.</p> + +<p>He begins by telling us, that before the deluge the earth had a very +different form from that which it has at present; it was at first, he +says, a fluid mass, compounded of matters of all kinds, and all sorts of +figures, the heaviest descended towards the centre, and formed a hard +and solid body; round which the waters collected, and the air, and all +the liquors lighter than water, surmounted them. Between the orb of air +and that of water, was an orb of <!-- Page 130 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130"></a>[130]</span>oily matter, but as the air was still +very impure, and contained a great quantity of small particles of +terrestrial matter, they by degrees descended on the coat of oil, and +formed a terrestrial orb blended with earth and oil; and this was the +first habitable earth, and the first abode of man. This was an excellent +soil, light, and calculated to yield to the tenderness of the first +germs. The surface of the terrestrial globe was at first equal, uniform, +without mountains, without seas, and without inequalities; but it +remained only about sixteen centuries in this state, for the heat of the +sun by degrees drying the crust, split it at first on the surface, soon +after these cracks penetrated farther and increased so considerably by +time, that at length they entirely opened the crust; in an instant the +whole earth fell into pieces in the abyss of water it surrounded; and +this was the cause of the deluge.</p> + +<p>But all these masses of earth, by falling into the abyss, dragged along +with them a great quantity of air; these struck against each other, +divided, and accumulated so irregularly, that great cavities filled with +air were left between them. The waters by degrees opened these cavities, +and in proportion as they filled them, <!-- Page 131 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131"></a>[131]</span>the surface of the earth +discovered itself in the highest parts; at length water alone remained +in the lowest parts; that is to say, the vast vallies which contain the +sea. Thus our ocean is a part of the ancient abyss, the rest is entered +into the internal cavities with which the ocean communicates. The +islands and sea rocks are the small fragments, and continents are the +great masses of the old crust. As the rupture and the fall of this crust +are made of a sudden, and with confusion, it was not surprising to find +eminences, depths, plains, and inequalities of all kinds on the surface +of the earth.</p> + + +<div> +<hr class="footnotes" /> +<p class="sectctrfn">FOOTNOTES:</p> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_128:A_7" id="Footnote_128:A_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_128:A_7"><span class="label">[128:A]</span></a> Thomas Burnet. <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Telluris theoria sacra, orbis nostri +originem & mutationes generales, quas aut jam subut, aut olim Subiturus +est complectens.</span> Londina, 1681.</p> +</div> +</div> +</div> + + + + +<div> +<hr class="newchapter" /> +<h2><a name="ARTICLE_IV" id="ARTICLE_IV"></a>ARTICLE IV.<br /> + +<small>FROM THE SYSTEM OF WOODWARD.</small></h2> + + +<p>It may be said of this author, that he attempted to raise an immense +monument on a less solid base than the moving sand, and to construct a +world with dust; for he pretends, that at the time of the deluge a total +dissolution of the earth was made. The first idea <!-- Page 132 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132"></a>[132]</span>which presents, after +having gone through his book,<a name="FNanchor_132:A_8" id="FNanchor_132:A_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_132:A_8" class="fnanchor">[132:A]</a> is, that this dissolution was made +by the waters of the great abyss. He asserts, that the abyss where the +water was included opened all at once at the command of God, and +dispersed over the surface an enormous quantity of water necessary to +cover the tops of the highest mountains, and that God suspended the +cause of cohesion which reduced all solid bodies into dust, &c. He did +not consider that by these suppositions he added other miracles to that +of the universal deluge, or at least physical impossibilities, which +agree neither with the letter of the holy writ, nor with the +mathematical principles of natural philosophy. But as this author has +the merit of having collected many important observations, and as he was +better acquainted with the materials of which the globe is composed than +those who preceded him, his system, although badly conceived, and worse +digested, has nevertheless dazzled many people, who, seduced by the +truth of some particular circumstances, put confidence in his general +conclusions; we shall, therefore, give a short view <!-- Page 133 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133"></a>[133]</span>of his theory, in +which, by doing justice to the author's merit, and the exactness of his +observations, we shall put the reader in a state of judging of the +insufficiency of his system, and of the falsity of some of his remarks. +Mr. Woodward speaks of having discovered by his sight that all matters +which compose the English earth, from the surface to the deepest places +which had been dug, were disposed by beds of strata, and that in a great +number of these there were shells and other marine productions; he +afterwards adds, that by his correspondents and friends he was assured, +that in other countries the earth is composed of the same materials, and +that shells are found there, not only in the plains but on the highest +mountains, in the deepest quarries, and in an infinity of different +places. He perceived their strata to be horizontal and disposed one over +the other, as matters are which are transported by the waters, and +deposited in form of sediment. These general remarks, which are true, +are followed by particular observations, by which he evidently shews, +that fossils found incorporated in the strata are real shells and marine +productions, not minerals and singular bodies, the sport of nature, &c.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 134 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134"></a>[134]</span>To these observations, though partly made before him, which he has +collected and proved, he adds others less exact. He asserts, that all +matters of different strata are placed one on the other in the order of +their specific gravity.</p> + +<p>This general assertion is not true, for we daily see rocks placed above +clay, sand, coal, and bitumen, and which certainly are specifically +heavier than either of these latter materials. If, in fact, we found +throughout the earth that the first strata was bitumen, then chalk, then +marl, clay, sand, stone, marble, and at last metals, so that the +composition of the earth exactly followed the law of gravity, there +would be an appearance that they might have been precipitated at the +same time, which our author asserts with confidence, in spite of the +evidence to the contrary; for, without being a naturalist, we need only +have our eye-sight to be convinced that heavy strata are often found +above lighter, and that consequently these sediments were not +precipitated all at one time, but have been brought and deposited +successively by the water. As this is the foundation of his system, and +is manifestly false, we shall follow it no farther than to show how far +an erroneous <!-- Page 135 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135"></a>[135]</span>principle may produce false combinations and erroneous +conclusions.</p> + +<p>All the matters, says our author, which compose the earth, from the +summits of the highest mountains, to the greatest depths of mines, are +disposed by strata, according to their specific weights; therefore he +concludes the whole has been dissolved and precipitated at one time. But +in what manner, and at what time was it dissolved? In water, replies he, +and at the time of the deluge. But there is not a sufficient quantity of +water on the globe for this to be effected, since there is more land +than water, and the bottom of the sea itself is earth. This he admits, +but says, there is more water than is requisite at the centre of the +earth, that it was only necessary for it to ascend, and possess a power +of dissolving every substance but shells, afterwards to find the means +for this water to re-enter the abyss, and to make all this agree with +the history of the deluge. This then is the system, of which the author +does not entertain the least doubt; for when it is opposed to him that +water cannot dissolve marble, stone, and metals, especially in forty +days, the duration of the deluge, he answers simply, that nevertheless +it did happen <!-- Page 136 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136"></a>[136]</span>so. When he is asked, what the virtue of this water of +the abyss was, to dissolve all the earth, and at the same time preserve +the shells? he says, that he never pretended that this water was a +dissolvent; but that it is clear, by facts, that the earth has been +dissolved and the shells preserved. When he was evidently shown that if +he had no reason to give, or facts to support, for these phenomena, his +system was useless, he said, we have only to imagine that, during the +deluge, the force of gravity and the coherency of matter ceased on a +sudden, and by this supposition the dissolution of the old world would +be explained in a very easy and satisfactory manner. But, it was said to +him, if the power which holds the parts of matter united was suspended, +why were not the shells dissolved as well as all the rest? Here he makes +a discourse on the organization of shells and bones of animals, by which +he pretends to prove that their texture being fibrous, and different +from that of minerals, their power of cohesion was different also; after +all, we have, says he, only to suppose that the power of gravity and +cohesion did not entirely cease, but that it was only diminished +sufficient to disunite all the parts of minerals, and not those of +<!-- Page 137 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137"></a>[137]</span>animals. To all this we cannot be prevented from discovering, that our +author's philosophy was not equal to his talents for observation; and I +do not think it necessary seriously to refute opinions which have no +foundation, especially when they have been imagined against the rules of +probability, and drawn from consequences contrary to mechanical laws.</p> + + +<div> +<hr class="footnotes" /> +<p class="sectctrfn">FOOTNOTES:</p> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_132:A_8" id="Footnote_132:A_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_132:A_8"><span class="label">[132:A]</span></a> An Essay towards the Natural History of the Earth, &c. +by John Woodward.</p> +</div> +</div> +</div> + + + + +<div> +<hr class="newchapter" /> +<h2><a name="ARTICLE_V" id="ARTICLE_V"></a>ARTICLE V.<br /> + +<small>EXPOSITION OF SOME OTHER SYSTEMS.</small></h2> + + +<p>It is plain that the three forementioned hypotheses have much in common +with each other. They all agree in this point, that during the deluge +the earth changed its form, as well externally as internally; but these +speculators have not considered that the earth before <!-- Page 138 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138"></a>[138]</span>the deluge was +inhabited by the same species of men and animals, and must necessarily +have been nearly such as it is at present. The sacred writings teach us, +that before the deluge there were rivers, seas, mountains, and forests. +That these rivers and mountains were, for the most part, retained in the +same situations; the Tigris and Euphrates were the rivers of the ancient +paradise; that the mountain of Armenia, on which the ark rested, was one +of the highest mountains in the world at the deluge, as it is at +present: that the same plants and animals which exist now, existed then; +for we read of the serpent, of the raven, of the crow, and of the dove, +which brought the olive branch into the ark. Although Tournefort asserts +there are no olive trees for more than 400 miles from Mount Ararat, and +passes some absurd jokes thereon<a name="FNanchor_138:A_9" id="FNanchor_138:A_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_138:A_9" class="fnanchor">[138:A]</a>, it is nevertheless certain +there were olives in this neighbourhood at the time of the deluge, since +holy writ assures us of it in the most express terms; but it is by no +means astonishing that in the space of 4000 years the olive trees should +have been destroyed in those quarters, and multiplied in others; <!-- Page 139 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139"></a>[139]</span>it is +therefore contrary to scripture and reason, that those authors have +supposed the earth was quite different from its present state before the +deluge; and this contradiction between their hypothesis and the sacred +text, as well as physical truths, must cause their systems to be +rejected, if even they should agree with some phenomena. Burnet gives +neither observations, nor any real facts, for the support of his system. +Woodward has only given us an essay, in which he promised much more than +he could perform: his book is a project, the execution of which has not +been seen. He has made use of two general observations; the first, that +the earth is every where composed of matters which formerly were in a +state of fluidity, transported by the waters, and deposited in +horizontal strata. The second, that there are abundance of marine +productions in most parts of the bowels of the earth. To give a reason +for these facts, he has recourse to the universal deluge, or rather it +appears that he gives them as proofs of the deluge; but, like Burnet, he +falls into evident contradictions, for it is not to be supposed with +them that there were no mountains prior to the deluge, since it is +expressly <!-- Page 140 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140"></a>[140]</span>stated, that the waters rose fifteen cubits above the tops of +the highest mountains. On the other hand, it is not said that these +waters destroyed or dissolved these mountains; but, on the contrary, +these mountains remained in their places, and the ark rested on that +which the water first deserted. Besides how can it be imagined that, +during the short duration of the deluge, the waters were able to +dissolve the mountains and the whole body of the earth? Is it not an +absurdity to suppose that in forty days all marble, rocks, stones, and +minerals, were dissolved by water? Is it not a manifest contradiction to +admit this total dissolution, and at the same time maintain that shells, +bones, and marine productions were preserved entire, and resisted that +which had dissolved the most solid substances? I shall not therefore +hesitate to say, that Woodward, with excellent facts and observations, +has formed but a poor and inconsistent system.</p> + +<p>Whiston, who came last, greatly enriched the other two, and +notwithstanding he gave a vast scope to his imagination has not fallen +into contradiction; he speaks of matters not very credible, but they are +neither absolutely nor evidently impossible. As we are ignorant of <!-- Page 141 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141"></a>[141]</span>the +centre of the earth, he thought he might suppose it was a solid matter, +surrounded with a ring of heavy fluid, and afterwards with a ring of +water, on which the external crust was sustained; in the latter the +different parts of this crust were more or less sunk, in proportion to +their relative weights, which produced mountains and inequalities on the +surface of the earth. Here, however, this astronomer has committed a +mechanical blunder; he did not recollect that the earth, according to +this hypothesis, must be an uniform arch, and that consequently it could +not be borne on the water it contains, and much less sunk therein. I do +not know that there are any other physical errors; but he has made a +great number of errors, both in metaphysics and theology. On the whole +it cannot be denied absolutely that the earth meeting with the tail of a +comet might not be inundated, especially allowing the author that the +tail of a comet may contain aqueous vapours; nor can it be denied as an +absolute impossibility that the tail of a comet, in returning from its +perihelium, might not burn the earth, if we suppose, with Mr. Whiston, +that the comet passed very near the sun; it is the same with the rest of +the system. But <!-- Page 142 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142"></a>[142]</span>though his ideas are not absolutely impossibilities, +there is so little probability to each thing, when taken separately, +that the result upon the whole taken together puts it beyond +credibility.</p> + +<p>The three systems we have spoken of are not the only works which have +been composed on the theory of the earth; a Memoir of M. Bourguet +appeared in 1729, printed at Amsterdam, with his "Philosophical Letters +on the Formation of Salts, &c." in which he gives a specimen of the +system he meditated, but which was prevented completion by the death of +the author. It is but justice to admit, that no person was more +industrious in making observations or collecting facts. To him we owe +that great and beautiful observation, the correspondence between the +angles of mountains. He presents every thing which he had collected in +great order; but with all those advantages, it appears that he has +succeeded no better than the rest in making a physical and reasonable +history of the changes which had happened to the globe, and that he was +very wide from having found the real cause of those effects which he +relates. To be convinced of this we need only cast our eyes on the +<!-- Page 143 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143"></a>[143]</span>propositions which he deduces from the phenomena, and which ought to +serve for the basis of his theory. He says, that the whole globe took +its form at one time, and not successively; that its form and +disposition prove that it has been in a state of fluidity; that the +present state of the earth is very different from that in which it was +for many ages after its first formation; that the matter of the globe +was at the beginning less dense than since it altered its appearance; +that the condensation of its solid parts diminished by degrees with its +velocity, so that after having made a number of revolutions on its axis, +and round the sun, it found itself on a sudden in a state of +dissolution, which destroyed its first structure. This happened about +the vernal equinox. That the sea-shells introduced themselves into the +dissolved matters; that after this dissolution the earth took the form +it now has, and that the fire which directly infused itself therein +consumed it by degrees, and it will be one day destroyed by a terrible +explosion, accompanied with a general conflagration, which will augment +the atmosphere of the globe, and diminish its diameter, and that then +the earth, instead of beds of sand or earth, will have only strata <!-- Page 144 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144"></a>[144]</span>of +calcined metal and mountains composed of amalgamas of different metals.</p> + +<p>This is sufficient to shew the system M. Bourguet meditated; to divine +in this manner the past, and predict the future, nearly as others have +predicted, does not appear to me to be an effort of judgment: this +author had more erudition than sound and general views: he appears to be +deficient in that capaciousness of ideas necessary to follow the extent +of the subject, and enable him to comprehend the chain of causes and +effects.</p> + +<p>In the acts of Leipsic, the famous Leibnitz published a scheme of quite +a different system, under the title of <i>Protogaea</i>. The earth, according +to Bourguet and others, must end by fire; according to Leibnitz it began +by it, and has suffered many more changes and revolutions than is +imagined. The greatest part of the terrestrial matter was surrounded by +violent flames at the time when Moses says light was divided from +darkness. The planets, as well as the earth, were fixed stars, luminous +of themselves. After having burnt a long time, he pretends that they +were extinguished for want of combustible matter, and are become opaque +bodies. The fire, by melting the <!-- Page 145 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145"></a>[145]</span>matter, produced a vitrified crust, +and the basis of all the matter which composes the globe is glass, of +which sand and gravel are only fragments. The other kinds of earth are +formed from a mixture of this sand, with fixed salts and water, and when +the crust cooled, the humid particles, which were raised in form of +vapours, refel, and formed the sea. They at first covered the whole +surface, and even surmounted the highest mountains. According to this +author, the shells, and other wrecks of the sea, which are every where +to be found, positively prove that the sea has covered the whole earth; +and the great quantity of fixed salts, sand, and other melted and +calcined matters, which are included in the bowels of the earth, prove +that the conflagration had been general, and that it preceded the +existence of the sea. Although these thoughts are void of proofs, they +are capital. The ideas have connection, the hypotheses are not +impossible, and the consequences that may be drawn therefrom are not +contradictory: but the grand defect of this theory is, that it is not +applicable to the present state of the earth; it is the past which it +explains, and this past is so far back, and has left us so few remains, +that we may say what <!-- Page 146 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146"></a>[146]</span>we please of it, and the probability will be in +proportion as a man has talents to elucidate what he asserts. To affirm +as Whiston has done, that the earth was originally a comet, or, with +Leibnitz, that it has been a sun, is saying things equally possible or +impossible, and to which it would be ridiculous to apply the rules of +probability. To say that the sea formerly covered all the earth, that it +surrounded the whole globe, and that it is for this reason shells are +every where found, is not paying attention to a very essential point, +the unity of the time of the creation; for if that was so, it must +necessarily be admitted, that shell-fish, and other inhabitants of the +sea, of which we find the remains in the internal part of the earth, +existed long before man, and all terrestrial animals. Now, independent +of the testimony of holy writ, is it not reasonable to think, that all +animals and vegetables are nearly as ancient as each other?</p> + +<p>M. Scheutzer, in a Dissertation, addressed to the Academy of Sciences in +1728, attributes, like Woodward, the change, or rather the second +formation of the globe, to the universal deluge; to explain that of +mountains, he says, that after the deluge, God chusing to return <!-- Page 147 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147"></a>[147]</span>the +waters into subterraneous reservoirs, broke and displaced with his +all-powerful hand a number of beds, before horizontal, and raised them +above the surface of the globe, which was originally level. The whole +Dissertation is composed to imply this opinion. As it was requisite +these eminences should be of a solid consistence, M. Scheutzer remarks, +that God only drew them from places where there were many stones; from +hence, says he, it proceeds that those countries, like Switzerland, +which are very stony, are also mountainous; and on the contrary, those, +as Holland, Flanders, Hungary and Poland, have only sand or clay, even +to a very great depth, and are almost entirely without mountains.<a name="FNanchor_147:A_10" id="FNanchor_147:A_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_147:A_10" class="fnanchor">[147:A]</a></p> + +<p>This author, more than any other, is desirous of blending Physic with +Theology, and though he has given some good observations, the +systematical part of his works is still weaker than those who preceded +him. On this subject he has even made declamations and ridiculous +witticisms, as may be seen in his <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Visciam quærelæ</cite>, &c. without +speaking of his large work in many folio volumes, <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Physica Sacra</cite>, a +puerile work, which appears to be composed <!-- Page 148 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148"></a>[148]</span>less for the instruction of +men than for the amusement of children.</p> + +<p>Steno, and some others, have attributed the cause of the inequalities of +the earth to particular inundations, earthquakes, &c. but the effects of +these secondary causes have been only able to produce some slight +changes. We admit of these causes after the first cause, the motion of +the flux and reflux, and of the sea from east to west. Neither Steno, +nor the rest, have given theory, nor even any general facts on this +matter.<a name="FNanchor_148:A_11" id="FNanchor_148:A_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_148:A_11" class="fnanchor">[148:A]</a></p> + +<p>Ray pretends that all mountains have been produced by earthquakes, and +he has composed a treatise to prove it; we shall shew under the article +of Volcanos what little foundation his opinion is built upon.</p> + +<p>We cannot dispense with observing that Burnet, Woodward, Whiston, and +most of these other authors, have committed an error which deserves to +be cleared up; which is, to have looked upon the deluge as possible by +the action of natural causes, whereas scripture presents it to us as +produced by the immediate will of God; there is no natural cause which +can produce on the whole surface of the earth, <!-- Page 149 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149"></a>[149]</span>the quantity of water +required to cover the highest mountains; and if even we could imagine a +cause proportionate to this effect, it would still be impossible to find +another cause capable of causing the water to disappear: allowing +Whiston, that these waters proceeded from the tail of a comet, we deny +that any could proceed from the great abyss, or that they all returned +into it, since the great abyss, according to him, being surrounded on +every side by the crust, or terrestrial orb, it is impossible that the +attraction of the comet could cause any motion to the fluids it +contained; much less, as he says, a violent flux and reflux; hence there +could not be issued from, nor entered into, the great abyss, a single +drop of water; and unless it is supposed that the waters which fell from +the comet have been destroyed by a miracle, they would still be on the +surface of the earth, covering the summits of the highest mountains. +Nothing better characterises a miracle, than the impossibility of +explaining the effect of it by natural causes. Our authors have made +vain efforts to give a reason for the deluge; their physical efforts, +and the secondary causes, which they made use of, prove the truth of the +fact as reported in the scriptures, <!-- Page 150 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150"></a>[150]</span>and demonstrate that it could only +have been performed by the first cause, the will of the Almighty.</p> + +<p>Besides, it is certain that it was neither at one time, nor by the +effect of the deluge, that the sea left dry these continents we inhabit: +for it is certain by the testimony of holy writ, that the terrestrial +paradise was in Asia, and that Asia was inhabited before the deluge; +consequently the sea, at that time, did not cover this considerable part +of the globe. The earth, before the deluge, was nearly as it is at +present, and this enormous quantity of water, which divine justice +caused to fall on the earth to punish guilty men, in fact, brought death +on every creature; but it produced no change on the surface of the +earth, it did not even destroy plants which grew upon it, since the dove +brought an olive branch to the ark in her beak.</p> + +<p>Why, therefore, imagine, as many of our naturalists have done, that this +water totally changed the surface of the globe even to a depth of two +thousand feet? Why do they desire it to be the deluge which has brought +the shells on the earth which we meet with at 7 or 800 feet depth in +rocks and marble? Why say, that <!-- Page 151 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151"></a>[151]</span>the hills and mountains were formed at +that time? And how can we figure to ourselves, that it is possible for +these waters to have brought masses and banks of shells 100 miles long? +I see not how they can persist in this opinion, at least, without +admitting a double miracle in the deluge; the first, for the +augmentation of the waters; and the second, for the transportation of +the shells; but as there is only the first which is related in the +Bible, I do not see it necessary to make the second an article of our +creed.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, if the waters of the deluge had retired all at once, +they would have carried so great a quantity of mud and other impurities, +that the Earth would not have been capable of culture till many ages +after this inundation; as is known, by the deluge which happened in +Greece, where the overflowed country was totally forsaken, and could not +receive any cultivation for more than three centuries.<a name="FNanchor_151:A_12" id="FNanchor_151:A_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_151:A_12" class="fnanchor">[151:A]</a> We ought +also to look on the universal deluge as a supernatural means of which +the Almighty made use for the chastisement of mankind, and not as an +effect of a natural cause. The universal deluge is a miracle both in its +<!-- Page 152 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152"></a>[152]</span>cause and effects; we see clearly by the scripture that it was designed +for the destruction of men and animals, and that it did not in any mode +change the earth, since after the retreat of the waters, the mountains, +and even the trees, were in their places, and the surface of the earth +was proper to receive culture and produce vines and fruits. How could +all the race of fish, which did not enter the ark, be preserved, if the +earth had been dissolved in the water, or only if the waters had been +sufficiently agitated to transport shells from India to Europe, &c.?</p> + +<p>Nevertheless, this supposition, that it was the deluge which transported +the shells of the sea into every climate, is the opinion, or rather the +superstition, of naturalists. Woodward, Scheutzer, and some more, call +these petrified shells the remains of the deluge; they look on them as +the medals and monuments which God has left us of this terrible event, +in order that it never should be effaced from the human race. In short, +they have adopted this hypothesis with so much enthusiasm, that they +appear only desirous to reconcile holy scripture with their opinion; and +instead of making use of their observations, and deriving light +therefrom, <!-- Page 153 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153"></a>[153]</span>they envelope themselves in the clouds of a physical +theology, the obscurity of which is derogatory to the simplicity and +dignity of religion, and only leaves the absurd to perceive a ridiculous +mixture of human ideas and divine truths. To pretend to explain the +universal Deluge, and its physical causes; to attempt to teach what +passed in the time of that great revolution; to divine what were the +effects of it; to add facts to those of Holy Writ, to draw consequences +from such facts, is only a presumptuous attempt to measure the power of +the Most High. The natural wonders which his benevolent hand performs in +an uniform and regular manner, are incomprehensible; and by the +strongest reason, these wonderful operations and miracles ought to hold +us in awful wonder, and in silent adoration.</p> + +<p>But they will say, the universal Deluge being a certain fact, is it not +permitted to reason on its consequences? It may be so; but it is +requisite that you should begin by allowing that the Deluge could not be +performed by physical causes; you ought to consider it is an immediate +effect of the will of the Almighty; you ought to confine yourselves to +know only what the Holy Writ teaches, and particularly not to <!-- Page 154 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154"></a>[154]</span>blend bad +philosophy with the purity of divine truth. These precautions, which the +respect we owe to the Almighty exacts, being taken, what remains for +examination on the subject of the Deluge? Does the Scripture say +mountains were formed by the Deluge? No, it says the contrary. Is it +said that the agitation of the waters was so great as to raise up shells +from the bottom of the sea, and transport them all over the earth? No; +the ark floated quietly on the surface of the waters. Is it said, that +the earth suffered a total dissolution? None at all: the recital of the +sacred historian is simple and true, that of these naturalists complex +and fabulous.</p> + + +<div> +<hr class="footnotes" /> +<p class="sectctrfn">FOOTNOTES:</p> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_138:A_9" id="Footnote_138:A_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_138:A_9"><span class="label">[138:A]</span></a> Voyage du Levant, vol. 2, page 336.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_147:A_10" id="Footnote_147:A_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_147:A_10"><span class="label">[147:A]</span></a> See the Hist. of the Acad. 1708, page 32.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_148:A_11" id="Footnote_148:A_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_148:A_11"><span class="label">[148:A]</span></a> See the <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Diss. de Solido intra Solidum, &c.</span></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_151:A_12" id="Footnote_151:A_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_151:A_12"><span class="label">[151:A]</span></a> See <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Acta erudit</span>, Lepiss, Ann. 1691, page 100.</p> +</div> +</div> +</div> + + + + +<div> +<hr class="newchapter" /> +<p><!-- Page 155 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155"></a>[155]</span></p> +<h2><a name="ARTICLE_VI" id="ARTICLE_VI"></a>ARTICLE VI.<br /> + +<small>GEOGRAPHY.</small></h2> + + +<p>The surface of the Earth, like that of Jupiter, is not divided by bands +alternative and parallel to the equator; on the contrary, it is divided +from one pole to the other, by two bands of earth, and two of sea; the +first and principal is the ancient continent, the greatest length of +which is found to be in a line, beginning on the east point of the +northern part of Tartary, and extending from thence to the land which +borders on the gulph of Linchidolkin, where the Muscovites fish for +whales; from thence to Tobolski, from Tobolski to the Caspian sea, from +the Caspian sea to Mecca, and from Mecca to the western part of the +country inhabited by the Galli, in Africa; afterwards to Monoemuci or +Monomotapa, and at last to the Cape of Good Hope; this line, which is +the greatest length of the <!-- Page 156 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156"></a>[156]</span>old continent, is about 3600 leagues, Paris +measure; it is only interrupted by the Caspian and Red seas, the +breadths of which are not very considerable, and we must not pay any +regard to these interruptions, when it is considered, the surface of the +globe is divided only in four parts.</p> + +<p>This greatest length is found by measuring the old continent diagonally; +for if measured according to the meridians, we shall find that there are +only 2500 leagues from the northernmost Cape of Lapland to the Cape of +Good Hope; and that the Baltic and Mediterranean cause a much greater +interruption than is met with in the other way. With respect to all the +other distances that might be measured in the old continent under the +same meridian, we shall find them to be much smaller than this; having, +for example, only 1800 leagues from the most southern point of the +island of Ceylon to the northernmost coast of Nova Zembla. Likewise, if +we measure the continent parallel to the equator, we find that the +greatest uninterrupted length is found from Trefna, on the western coast +of Africa, to Ninpo, on the eastern coast of China, and that it is about +2800 leagues. Another course may be measured <!-- Page 157 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157"></a>[157]</span>from the point of Brittany +near Brest, extending to the Chinese Tartary; about 2300 leagues. From +Bergen, in Norway, to the coast of Kamschatka, is no more than 1800 +leagues. All these lines have much less length than the first, therefore +the greatest extent of the old continent, is, in fact, from the eastern +point of Tartary to the Cape of Good Hope, that is about 3600 leagues.</p> + +<p>There is so great an equality of surface on each side of this line, +which is also the longest, that there is every probability to suppose it +really divides the contents of the ancient continent; for in measuring +on one side is found 2,471,092-3/4 square leagues, and on the other +2,469,687.</p> + +<p>Agreeable to this, the old continent consists of about 4,940,780 square +leagues, which is nearly one-fifth of the whole surface of the globe, +and has an inclination towards the equator of about 30 degrees.</p> + +<p>The greatest length of the new continent may be taken in a line from the +mouth of the river Plata to the lake of Assiniboils. From the former it +passes to the lake Caracara; from thence to Mataguais, Pocona, Zongo, +Mariana, Morua, St. Fe, and Carthagena; it then <!-- Page 158 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158"></a>[158]</span>proceeds through the +gulph of Mexico, Jamaica, and Cuba, passes along the peninsula of +Florida, through Apolache, Chicachas, and from thence to St. Louis, Fort +le Suer, and ends on the borders of lake Assiniboils; the whole extent +of which is still unknown.</p> + +<p>This line, which is interrupted only by the Mexican gulph (which must be +looked upon as a mediterranean sea) may be about 2500 leagues long, and +divides the new continent into nearly two equal parts, the left of which +contains about 1,069,286-5/6 leagues square, and that on the right about +1,070,926-1/12; this line, which forms the middle of the band of the new +continent, is inclined to the equator about 30 degrees, but in an +opposite direction, for that of the old continent extends from the +north-east to the south-west, and that of the new continent from the +north-west to the south-east. All those lands together of the old and +new continent, make about 7,080,993 leagues square, which is not near +the third of the whole surface, which contains 25 millions of square +leagues.</p> + +<p>It must be remarked, that these two lines, which divide the continents +into two equal parts, both terminate at the same degree of <!-- Page 159 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159"></a>[159]</span>southern and +northern latitude, and that the two continents make opposite +projections, which exactly face each other; to wit, the coasts of +Africa, from the Canary islands to the coasts of Guinea, and those of +America from Guiana to the mouth of Rio Janeiro.</p> + +<p>It appears, therefore, that the most ancient land of the globe, is on +the two sides of these lines, at the distance of from 2 to 250 leagues +on each side. By following this idea, which is founded on the +observations before related, we shall find in the old continent that the +most ancient lands of Africa are those which extend from the Cape of +Good Hope to the Red Sea, as far as Egypt, about 500 leagues broad, and +that, consequently, all the western coasts of Africa, from Guinea to the +straits of Gibraltar, are the newest lands. So likewise we shall +discover that in Asia, if we follow the line on the same breadth, the +most ancient lands are Arabia Felix and Deserta, Persia, Georgia, +Turcomania, part of Tartary, Circassia, part of Muscovy, &c. that +consequently Europe, and perhaps also China, and the eastern part of +Tartary, are more modern. In the new continent we shall find the Terra +Magellanica, the eastern part of Brasil, the country of the <!-- Page 160 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160"></a>[160]</span>Amazons, +Guiana, and Canada, to be the new lands, in comparison with Peru, Terra +Firma, the islands in the gulph of Mexico, Florida, the Mississippi, and +Mexico.</p> + +<p>To these observations we may add two very remarkable facts, the old and +new continent are almost opposite each other; the old is more extensive +to the north of the equator than the south; the new is more to the south +than the north. The centre of the old continent is in the 16th or 18th +degree of north latitude, and the centre of the new is in the 16th or +18th degree south latitude, so that they seem to be made to +counterbalance each other. There is also a singular connexion between +the two continents, although it appears to be more accidental than those +which I have spoken of, which is, that if the two continents were +divided into two parts, all four would be surrounded by the sea, if it +were not for the two small isthmuses, Suez and Panama.</p> + +<p>This is the most general idea which an attentive inspection of the globe +furnishes us with, on the division of the earth. We shall abstain from +forming hypotheses thereon, and hazarding reasonings which might lead +into false conclusions; but no one as yet having <!-- Page 161 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161"></a>[161]</span>considered the +division of the globe under this point of view, I shall submit a few +remarks. It is very singular that the line which forms the greatest +length of the terrestrial continents divides them also into two equal +parts; it is no less so that these two lines commence and end at the +same degrees of latitude, and are both alike inclined to the equator. +These relations may belong to some general conclusions, but of which we +are ignorant. The inequalities in the figure of the two continents we +shall hereafter examine more fully: it is sufficient here to observe, +that the most ancient countries are the nearest to these lines, and are +the highest; that the more modern lands are the farthest, and also the +lowest. Thus in America, the country of the Amazons, Guiana and Canada +will be the most modern parts; by casting our eyes on the map of this +country we see the waters on every side, and that they are divided by +numberless lakes and rivers, which also indicates that these lands are +of a late formation; while on the other hand Peru and Mexico are high +mountains, and situate at no great distance from the line that divides +the continent, which are circumstances that seem to prove their +antiquity. Africa is very <!-- Page 162 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162"></a>[162]</span>mountainous, and that part of the world is +also very ancient. There are only Egypt, Barbary, and the western coasts +of Africa, as far as Senegal, in this part of the globe, which can be +looked upon as modern countries. Asia is an old land, and perhaps the +most ancient of all, particularly Arabia, Persia, and Tartary; but the +inequalities of this vast part of the globe, as well as those of Europe, +we will consider in a separate article. It might be said in general, +that Europe is a new country, and such position would be supported both +by the universal traditions relative to the emigrations of different +people, and the origin of arts and sciences. It is not long since it was +filled with morasses, and covered with forests, whereas in the land +anciently inhabited, there are but few woods, little water, no morasses, +much land, and a number of mountains, whose summits are dry and barren; +for men destroy the woods, drain the waters, confine rivers, dry up +morasses, and in time give a different appearance to the face of the +earth, from that, of uninhabited or newly-peopled countries.</p> + +<p>The ancients were acquainted with but a small part of the globe. All +America, the Magellanic, and a great part of the interior <!-- Page 163 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163"></a>[163]</span>of Africa, +was entirely unknown to them. They knew not that the torrid zone was +inhabited, although they had navigated around Africa, for it is 2200 +years since Neco, king of Egypt, gave vessels to the Phenicians, who +sailed along the Red Sea, coasted round Africa, doubled the Cape of Good +Hope, and having employed two years in this voyage, the third year they +entered the straits of Gibraltar.<a name="FNanchor_163:A_13" id="FNanchor_163:A_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_163:A_13" class="fnanchor">[163:A]</a> The ancients were unacquainted +with the property of the loadstone, if turned towards the poles, +although they knew that it attracted iron. They were ignorant of the +general cause of the flux and reflux of the sea, nor were they certain +the ocean surrounded the globe; some indeed suspected it might be so, +but with so little foundation, that no one dared to say, or even +conjecture, it was possible to make a voyage round the world. Magellan +was the first who attempted it in the year 1519, and accomplished the +great voyage in 1124 days. Sir Francis Drake was the second in 1577, and +he performed it in 1056 days; afterwards Thomas Cavendish made this +great voyage in 777 days, in the year 1586. These celebrated navigators +were the first who <!-- Page 164 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164"></a>[164]</span>demonstrated physically the sphericity and the +extent of the earth's circumference; for the ancients had no conception +of the extent of this circumference, although they had travelled a great +deal. The trade winds, so useful in long voyages, were also unknown to +them; therefore we must not be surprised at the little progress they +made in geography. Notwithstanding the knowledge we have acquired by the +aid of mathematical sciences, and the discovery of navigators, many +things remain still unsettled, and vast countries undiscovered. Almost +all the land on the side of the Atlantic pole is unknown to us; we only +know that there is some, and that it is separated from all the other +continents by the ocean. Much land also remains to be discovered on the +side of the Arctic pole, and it is to be regretted that for more than a +century the ardour of discovering new countries is extremely abated. +European governments seem to prefer, and possibly with reason, +increasing the value of those countries we are acquainted with to the +glory of conquering new ones.</p> + +<p>Nevertheless, the discovery of the southern continent would be a great +object of curiosity, and might be useful. We have discovered only <!-- Page 165 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165"></a>[165]</span>some +few of its coasts; those navigators who have attempted this discovery, +have always been stopt by the ice. The thick fogs, which are in those +latitudes, is another obstacle; yet, in defiance of these +inconveniencies, it is probable that by sailing from the Cape of Good +Hope at different seasons, we might at last discover a part of these +lands, which hitherto make a separate world.</p> + +<p>There is another method, which possibly might succeed better. The ice +and fogs having hitherto prevented the discovery, might it not be +attempted by the Pacific Sea; sailing from Baldivia, or any other port +on the coast of Chili, and traversing this sea under the 50th degree +south latitude? There is not the least appearance that this navigation +is perilous, and it is probable would be attended with the discovery of +new countries; for what remains for us to know on the coast of the +southern pole, is so considerable, that we may estimate it at a fourth +part of the globe, and of course may contain a continent, as large as +Europe, Asia, and Africa, all together.</p> + +<p>As we are not at all acquainted with this part of the globe, we cannot +justly know the proportion between the surface of the earth <!-- Page 166 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166"></a>[166]</span>and that of +the sea; only as much as may be judged by inspection of what is known, +there is more sea than land.</p> + +<p>If we would have an idea of the enormous quantity of water which the sea +contains, we must suppose a medium depth, and by computing it only at +200 fathom, or the sixth part of a league, we shall find that there is +sufficient to cover the whole globe to the height of 600 feet of water, +and if we would reduce this water into one mass, it would form a globe +of more than 60 miles diameter.</p> + +<p>Navigators pretend, that the latitudes near the south pole are much +colder than those of the north, but there is no appearance that this +opinion is founded on truth, and probably has been adopted, because ice +is found in latitudes where it is scarcely ever seen in the southern +seas; but that may proceed from some particular cause. We find no ice in +April on this side 67 and 68 degrees northern latitude: and the savages +of Arcadia and Canada say, when it is not all melted in that month, it +is a sign the rest of the year will be cold and rainy. In 1725 there may +be said to have been no summer, it rained almost continually; and the +<!-- Page 167 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167"></a>[167]</span>ice of the northern sea was not only not melted in April in the 67th +degree, but even it was found the 15th of June towards the 41st and 42d +degree<a name="FNanchor_167:A_14" id="FNanchor_167:A_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_167:A_14" class="fnanchor">[167:A]</a>.</p> + +<p>A great quantity of floating ice appears in the northern sea, especially +at some distance from land. It comes from the Tartarian sea into that of +Nova Zembla, and other parts of the Frozen Ocean. I have been assured by +people of credit, that an English Captain, named Monson, instead of +seeking a passage between the northern land to go to China, directed his +course strait to the pole, and had approached it within two degrees; +that in this course he had found an open sea, without any ice, which +proves that the ice is formed near land, and never in open sea; for if +we should suppose, against all probability, that it might be cold enough +at the pole to freeze over the surface of the sea, it is still not +conceivable how these enormous floating mountains of ice could be +formed, if they did not find a fixed point against land, from whence +afterwards they were loosened by the heat of the sun. The two vessels +which the East India Company sent, in 1739, to discover land in the +<!-- Page 168 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168"></a>[168]</span>South Seas, found ice in the latitude of 47 and 48 degrees, but this +ice was not far from shore, that being in sight although they were +unable to land. This must have been separated from the adjoining lands +of the south pole, and it may be conjectured that they follow the course +of some great rivers, which water the unknown land, the same as the Oby, +Jenisca, and other great floods, which fall into the North Seas, carry +with them the ice, which, during the greatest part of the year, stops up +the straits of Waigat, and renders the Tartarian sea unnavigable by this +course; whereas beyond Nova Zembla, and nearer the poles, where there +are few rivers, and but little land, ice is not so frequently met with, +and the sea is more navigable; so that if they would still attempt the +voyage to China and Japan by the North Seas, we should possibly, to keep +clear from the land and ice, shape our course to the pole, and seek the +open seas, where certainly there is but little or no ice; for it is +known that salt water can, without freezing, become colder than fresh +water when frozen, and consequently the excessive cold of the pole may +possibly render the sea colder than the ice, without the surface being +frozen: so much the <!-- Page 169 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169"></a>[169]</span>more as at 80 or 82 degrees, the surface of the +sea, although mixed with much snow and fresh water, is only frozen near +the shore. By collecting the testimonies of travellers, on the passage +from Europe to China, it appears that one does exist by the north sea; +and the reason it has been so often attempted in vain is, because they +have always feared to go sufficiently far from land, and approach the +pole.</p> + +<p>Captain William Barents, who, as well as others, run aground in his +voyage, yet did not doubt but there was a passage, and that if he had +gone farther from shore, he should have found an open sea free from ice. +The Russian navigators, sent by the Czar to survey the north seas, +relate that Nova Zembla is not an island, but belonging to the continent +of Tartary, and that to the north of it is a free and open sea. A Dutch +navigator asserts, that the sea throws up whales on the coasts of Corea +and Japan, which have English and Dutch harpoons on their backs. Another +Dutchman has pretended to have been at the pole, and asserts it is as +warm there as it is at Amsterdam in the middle of the summer. An +Englishman, named Golding, who made more than thirty <!-- Page 170 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170"></a>[170]</span>voyages to +Greenland, related to King Charles II. that two Dutch vessels with which +he had sailed, having found no whales on the coast of the island of +Edges, resolved to proceed farther north, and that upon their return at +the expiration of fifteen days, they told him that they had been as far +as 89 degrees latitude (within one degree of the pole), and that they +found no ice there, but an open deep sea like that of the Bay of Biscay, +and that they shewed him the journals of the two vessels, as a proof of +what they affirmed. In short, it is related in the Philosophical +Transactions that two navigators, who had undertaken the discovery of +this passage, shaped a course 300 leagues to the east of Nova Zembla, +but that the East India Company, who thought it their interest this +passage should not be discovered, hindered them from returning<a name="FNanchor_170:A_15" id="FNanchor_170:A_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_170:A_15" class="fnanchor">[170:A]</a>. +But the Dutch East India Company thought, on the contrary, that it was +their interest to find this passage; having attempted it in vain on the +side of Europe, they sought it by that of Japan, and they would probably +have succeeded, if the Emperor of Japan had not forbidden all strangers +from navigating on the side of the land of Jesso. This passage, +therefore, <!-- Page 171 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171"></a>[171]</span>cannot be found but by sailing to the pole, beyond +Spitzbergen, or by keeping the open sea between Nova Zembla and +Spitzbergen under the 79th degree of latitude. We need not fear to find +it frozen even under the pole itself, for reasons we have alledged; in +fact, there is no example of the sea being frozen at a considerable +distance from the shore; the only example of a sea being frozen entirely +over, is that of the Black Sea, which is narrow, contains but little +salt, and receives a number of rivers from the northern countries, and +which bring ice with them: and if we may credit historians, it was +frozen in the time of the Emperor Copronymus, thirty cubits deep, +without reckoning twenty cubits of snow above the ice. This appears to +be exaggerated, but it is certain that it freezes almost every winter; +whereas the open seas, a thousand leagues nearer the pole, do not freeze +at all: this can only proceed from the saltness, and the little ice +which they receive, in comparison with that transported into the Black +Sea.</p> + +<p>This ice, which is looked upon as a barrier that opposes the navigation +near the poles, and the discovery of the southern continent, proves only +that there are large rivers adjacent to the <!-- Page 172 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172"></a>[172]</span>places where it is met +with; and indicates also there are vast continents from whence these +rivers flow; nor ought we to be discouraged at the sight of these +obstacles; for if we consider, we shall easily perceive, this ice must +be confined to some particular places; that it is almost impossible that +it should occupy the whole circle which encompasses, as we suppose, the +southern continent, and therefore we should probably succeed if we were +to direct our course towards some other point of this circle. The +description which Dampier and some others have given of New Holland, +leads us to suspect that this part of the globe is perhaps a part of the +southern lands, and is a country less ancient than the rest of this +unknown continent. New Holland is a low country, without water or +mountains, but thinly inhabited, and the natives without industry; all +this concurs to make us think that they are in this continent nearly +what the savages of Amaconia or Paraguais are in America. We have found +polished men, empires, and kings, at Peru and Mexico, which are the +highest, and consequently the most ancient countries of America. +Savages, on the contrary, are found in the lowest and most modern +countries; <!-- Page 173 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173"></a>[173]</span>therefore we may presume that we should also find men united +by the bands of society in the upper countries, from whence these great +rivers, which bring this prodigious ice to the sea, derive their +sources.</p> + +<p>The interior parts of Africa are unknown to us, almost as much as they +were to the ancients: they had, like us, made the tour of that vast +peninsula, but they have left us neither charts, nor descriptions of the +coasts. Pliny informs us, that the tour of Africa was made in the time +of Alexander the Great, that the wrecks of some Spanish vessels had been +discovered in the Arabian sea, and that Hanno, a Carthaginian general, +had made a voyage from Gades to the Arabian sea, and that he had written +a relation of it. Besides that, he says Cornelius Nepos tells us that in +his time one Eudoxus, persecuted by the king Lathurus, was obliged to +fly from his country; that departing from the Arabian gulph, he arrived +at Gades, and that before this time they traded from Spain to Ethiopia +by sea<a name="FNanchor_173:A_16" id="FNanchor_173:A_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_173:A_16" class="fnanchor">[173:A]</a>. Notwithstanding these testimonies of the ancients, we are +persuaded that they never doubled the Cape of Good Hope, and the course +which the Portuguese took the <!-- Page 174 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174"></a>[174]</span>first to go to the East-Indies, was +looked upon as a new discovery; it will not perhaps, therefore, be +deemed amiss to give the belief of the 9th century on this subject.</p> + +<p>"In our time an entire new discovery has been made, which was wholly +unknown to those who lived before us. No one thought, or even suspected, +that the sea, which extends from India to China, had a communication +with the Syrian sea. We have found, according to what I have learnt, in +the sea Roum, or Mediterranean, the wreck of an Arabian vessel, +shattered to pieces by the tempest, some of which were carried by the +wind and waves to the Cozar sea, and from thence to the Mediterranean, +and was at length thrown on the coast of Syria. This proves that the sea +surrounds China and Cila, the extremity of Turqueston and the country of +the Cozars; that it afterwards flows by the strait till it has washed +the coast of Syria. The proof is drawn from the construction of the +vessel; for no other vessels but those of Siraf are built without nails, +which, as was the wreck we speak of, are joined together in a particular +manner, as if they were sewed. Those, of all the vessels of the +Mediterranean and of the <!-- Page 175 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175"></a>[175]</span>coast of Syria, are nailed and not joined in +this manner<a name="FNanchor_175:A_17" id="FNanchor_175:A_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_175:A_17" class="fnanchor">[175:A]</a>."</p> + +<p>To this the translator of this ancient relation adds.—</p> + +<p>"Abuziel remarks, as a new and very extraordinary thing, that a vessel +was carried from the Indian sea, and cast on the coasts of Syria. To +find a passage into the Mediterranean, he supposes there is a great +extent above China, which has a communication with the Cozar sea, that +is, with Muscovia. The sea which is below Cape Current, was entirely +unknown to the Arabs, by reason of the extreme danger of the navigation, +and from the continent being inhabited by such a barbarous people, that +it was not easy to subject them, nor even to civilize them by commerce. +From the Cape of Good Hope to Soffala, the Portuguese found no +established settlement of Moors, like those in all the maritime towns as +far as China, which was the farthest place known to geographers; but +they could not tell whether the Chinese sea, by the extremity of Africa, +had a communication with the sea of Barbary, and they contented +themselves <!-- Page 176 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176"></a>[176]</span>with describing it as far as the coast of Zing, or +Caffraria. This is the reason why we cannot doubt but that the first +discovery of the passage of this sea, by the Cape of Good Hope, was made +by the Europeans, under the conduct of Vasco de Gama, or at least some +years before he doubled the Cape, if it is true there are marine charts +of an older date, where the Cape is called by the name of Frontiera du +Africa. Antonio Galvin testifies, from the relation of Francisco de +Sousa Tavares, that, in 1528, the Infant Don Ferdinand shewed him such a +chart, which he found in the monastery of Acoboca, dated 120 years +before, copied perhaps from that said to be in the treasury of St. Mark, +at Venice, which also marks the point of Africa, according to the +testimony of Ramusio, &c."</p> + +<p>The ignorance of those ages, on the subject of the navigation around +Africa, will appear perhaps less singular than the silence of the editor +of this ancient relation on the subject of the passages of Herodotus, +Pliny, &c. which we have quoted, and which proves the ancients had made +the tour of Africa.</p> + +<p>Be it as it may, the African coasts are now well known; but whatever +attempts have been <!-- Page 177 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177"></a>[177]</span>made to penetrate into the inner parts of the +country, we have not been able to attain sufficient knowledge of it to +give exact relations<a name="FNanchor_177:A_18" id="FNanchor_177:A_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_177:A_18" class="fnanchor">[177:A]</a>. It might, nevertheless, be of great +advantage, if we were, by Senegal, or some other river, to get farther +up the country and establish settlements, as we should find, according +to all appearances, a country as rich in precious mines as Peru or the +Brazils. It is perfectly known that the African rivers abound with gold, +and as this country is very mountainous, and situated under the equator, +it is not to be doubted but it contains, as well as America, mines of +heavy metals, and of the most compact and hard stones.</p> + +<p>The vast extent of north and east Tartary has only been discovered in +these latter times. If the Muscovite maps are just, we are at present +acquainted with the coasts of all this part of Asia; and it appears that +from the point of eastern Tartary to North America, it is not <!-- Page 178 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178"></a>[178]</span>more than +four or five hundred leagues: it has even been pretended that this tract +was much shorter, for in the Amsterdam Gazette, of the 24th of January, +1747, it is said, under the article of Petersburgh, that Mr. +Stalleravoit had discovered one of these American islands beyond +Kamschatca, and demonstrated that we might go thither from Russia by a +shorter tract. The Jesuits, and other missionaries, have also pretended +to have discovered savages in Tartary, whom they had catechised in +America, which should in fact suppose that passage to be still +shorter<a name="FNanchor_178:A_19" id="FNanchor_178:A_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_178:A_19" class="fnanchor">[178:A]</a>. This author even pretends, that the two continents of +the old and new world join by the north, and says, that the last +navigations of the Japanese afford room to judge, that the tract of +which we have spoken is only a bay, above which we may pass by land from +Asia to America. But this requires confirmation, for hitherto it has +been thought that the continent of the north pole is separated from the +other continents, as well as that of the south pole.</p> + +<p>Astronomy and Navigation are carried to so high a pitch of perfection, +that it may reasonably <!-- Page 179 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179"></a>[179]</span>be expected we shall soon have an exact +knowledge of the whole surface of the globe. The ancients knew only a +small part of it, because they had not the mariner's compass. Some +people have pretended that the Arabs invented the compass, and used it a +long time before we did, to trade on the Indian sea, as far as China; +but this opinion has always appeared destitute of all probability; for +there is no word in the Arab, Turkish, or Persian languages, which +signifies the compass; they make use of the Italian word Bossola; they +do not even at present know how to make a compass, nor give the +magnetical quality to the needle, but purchase them from the Europeans. +Father Maritini says, that the Chinese have been acquainted with the +compass for upwards of 3000 years; but if that was the case, how comes +it that they have made so little use of it? Why did they, in their +voyages to Cochinchina, take a course much longer than was necessary? +And why did they always confine themselves to the same voyages, the +greatest of which were to Java and Sumatra? And why did not they +discover, before the Europeans, an infinity of fertile islands, +bordering on their own country, if they had possessed the art of +navigating <!-- Page 180 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180"></a>[180]</span>in the open seas? For a few years after the discovery of +this wonderful property of the loadstone, the Portuguese doubled the +Cape of Good Hope, traversed the African and Indian seas, and +Christopher Columbus made his voyage to America.</p> + +<p>By a little consideration, it was easy to divine there were immense +spaces towards the west; for, by comparing the known part of the globe, +as for example, the distance of Spain to China, and attending to the +revolution of the Earth and Heavens, it was easy to see that there +remained a much greater extent towards the west to be discovered, than +what they were acquainted with towards the east. It, therefore, was not +from the defect of astronomical knowledge that the ancients did not find +the new world, but only for want of the compass. The passages of Plato +and Aristotle, where they speak of countries far distant from the +Pillars of Hercules, seem to indicate that some navigators had been +driven by tempest as far as America, from whence they returned with much +difficulty; and it may be conjectured, that if even the ancients had +been persuaded of the existence of this continent, they would not have +even thought it possible to strike out <!-- Page 181 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181"></a>[181]</span>the road, having no guide nor +any knowledge of the compass.</p> + +<p>I own, that it is not impossible to traverse the high seas without a +compass, and that very resolute people might have undertaken to seek +after the new world by conducting themselves simply by the stars. The +Astrolabe being known to the ancients, it might strike them they could +leave France or Spain, and sail to the west, by keeping the polar star +always to the right, and by frequent soundings might have kept nearly in +the same latitude; without doubt the Carthaginians, of whom Aristotle +makes mention, found the means of returning from these remote countries +by keeping the polar star to the left; but it must be allowed that a +like voyage would be looked upon as a rash enterprize, and that +consequently we must not be astonished that the ancients had not even +conceived the project.</p> + +<p>Previous to Christopher Columbus's expedition, the Azores, the Canaries, +and Madeira were discovered. It was remarked, that when the west winds +lasted a long time, the sea brought pieces of foreign wood on the coast +of these islands, canes of unknown species, <!-- Page 182 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182"></a>[182]</span>and even dead bodies, which +by many marks were discovered to be neither European nor African. +Columbus himself remarked, that on the side of the west certain winds +blew only a few days, and which he was persuaded were land winds; but +although he had all these advantages over the ancients, and the +knowledge of the compass, the difficulties still to conquer were so +great, that there was only the success he met with which could justify +the enterprise. Suppose, for a moment, that the continent of the new +world had been 1000 or 1500 miles farther than it in fact is, a thing +with Columbus could neither know nor foresee, he would not have arrived +there, and perhaps this great country might still have remained unknown. +This conjecture is so much the better founded, as Columbus, although the +most able navigator of his time, was seized with fear and astonishment +in his second voyage to the new world; for as in his first, he only +found some islands, he directed his course more to the south to discover +a continent, and was stopt by currents, the considerable extent and +direction of which always opposed his course, and obliged him to direct +his search to the west; he imagined that what had hindered him from +<!-- Page 183 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183"></a>[183]</span>advancing on the southern side was not currents, but that the sea flowed +by raising itself towards the heavens, and that perhaps both one and the +other touched on the southern side. True it is, that in great +enterprises the least unfortunate circumstance may turn a man's brain, +and abate his courage.</p> + + +<div> +<hr class="footnotes" /> +<p class="sectctrfn">FOOTNOTES:</p> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_163:A_13" id="Footnote_163:A_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_163:A_13"><span class="label">[163:A]</span></a> Vide Herodotus, lib. iv.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_167:A_14" id="Footnote_167:A_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_167:A_14"><span class="label">[167:A]</span></a> See the Hist. of the Acad. Ann. 1725.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_170:A_15" id="Footnote_170:A_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_170:A_15"><span class="label">[170:A]</span></a> See the collection of Northern Voyages, page 200.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_173:A_16" id="Footnote_173:A_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_173:A_16"><span class="label">[173:A]</span></a> Vide Pliny, Hist. Nat. Vol. I. lib. 2.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_175:A_17" id="Footnote_175:A_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_175:A_17"><span class="label">[175:A]</span></a> See the ancient relations of travels by land to China, +page 53 and 54.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_177:A_18" id="Footnote_177:A_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_177:A_18"><span class="label">[177:A]</span></a> Since this time, however, great discoveries, have been +made; Mons. Vaillant has given a particular description of the country +from the Cape to the borders of Caffraria; and much information has also +been acquired by the Society for Asiatic Researches.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_178:A_19" id="Footnote_178:A_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_178:A_19"><span class="label">[178:A]</span></a> See the Hist. of New France, by the Pere Charlevoix. +Vol. III. page 30 and 31.</p> +</div> +</div> +</div> + + + + +<div> +<hr class="newchapter" /> +<h2><a name="ARTICLE_VII" id="ARTICLE_VII"></a>ARTICLE VII.<br /> + +<small>ON THE PRODUCTION OF THE STRATA, OR BEDS OF EARTH.</small></h2> + + +<p>We have shewn, in the first article, that by virtue of the mutual +attraction between the parts of matter, and of the centrifugal force, +which results from its diurnal rotation, the earth has necessarily taken +the form of a spheroid, the diameters of which differ about a <!-- Page 184 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184"></a>[184]</span>230th +part, and that it could only proceed from the changes on the surface, +caused by the motion of the air and water, that this difference could +become greater, as is pretended to be the case from the measures taken +under the equator, and within the polar circle. This figure of the +earth, which so well agrees with hydrostatical laws, and with our +theory, supposes the globe to have been in a state of liquefaction when +it assumed its form, and we have proved that the motions of projection +and rotation were imprinted at the same time by a like impulsion. We +shall the more easily believe that the earth has been in a state of +liquefaction produced by fire, when we consider the nature of the +matters which the globe incloses, the greatest part of which are +vitrified or vitrifiable; especially when we reflect on the +impossibility there is that the earth should ever have been in a state +of fluidity, produced by the waters; since there is infinitely more +earth than water, and that water has not the power of dissolving stone, +sand, and other matters of which the earth is composed.</p> + +<p>It is plain then that the earth took its figure at the time when it was +liquefied by fire: by pursuing our hypothesis it appears, that when <!-- Page 185 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185"></a>[185]</span>the +sun quitted it, the earth had no other form than that of a torrent of +melted and inflamed vapour matter; that this torrent collected itself by +the mutual attraction of its parts, and became a globe, to which the +rotative motion gave the figure of a spheroid; and when the earth was +cooled, the vapours, which were first extended like the tails of comets, +by degrees condensed and fell upon the surface, depositing, at the same +time, a slimy substance mixed with sulphurous and saline matters, a part +of which, by the motion of the waters, was swept into the perpendicular +cracks, where it produced metals, while the rest remained on the +surface, and produced that reddish earth which forms the first strata; +and which, according to different places, is more or less blended with +animal and vegetable particles, so reduced that the organization is no +longer perceptible.</p> + +<p>Therefore, in the first state of the earth, the globe was internally +composed of vitrified matter, as I believe it is at present, above which +were placed those bodies the fire had most divided, as sand, which are +only fragments of glass; and above these, pumice stones and the scoria +of the vitrified matter, which formed the various clays; the whole was +covered with <!-- Page 186 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186"></a>[186]</span>water 5 or 600 feet deep, produced by the condensation of +the vapours, when the globe began to cool. This water every where +deposited a muddy bed, mixed with waters which sublime and exhale by the +fire; and the air was formed of the most subtile vapours, which, by +their lightness, disengaged themselves from the waters, and surmounted +them.</p> + +<p>Such was the state of the globe when the action of the tides, the winds, +and the heat of the sun, began to change the surface of the earth. The +diurnal motion, and the flux and reflux, at first raised the waters +under the southern climate, which carried with them mud, clay, and sand, +and by raising the parts of the equator, they by degrees perhaps lowered +those of the poles about two leagues, as we before mentioned; for the +waters soon reduced into powder the pumice stones and other spongeous +parts of the vitrified matter that were at the surface, they hollowed +some places, and raised others, which in course of time became +continents, and produced all the inequalities, and which are more +considerable towards the equator than the poles; for the highest +mountains are between the tropics and the middle of the temperate zones, +and the lowest <!-- Page 187 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187"></a>[187]</span>are from the polar circle to the poles; between the +tropics are the Cordeliers, and almost all the mountains of Mexico and +Brazil, the great and little Atlas, the Moon, &c. Beside the land which +is between the tropics, from the superior number of islands found in +those parts, is the most unequal of all the globe, as evidently is the +sea.</p> + +<p>However independent my theory may be of that hypothesis of what passed +at the time of the first state of the globe, I refer to it in this +article, in order to shew the connection and possibility of the system +which I endeavoured to maintain in the first article. It must only be +remarked, that my theory does not stray far from it, as I take the earth +in a state nearly similar to what it appears at present, and as I do not +make use of any of the suppositions which are used on reasoning on the +past state of the terrestrial globe. But as I here present a new idea on +the subject of the sediment deposited by the water, which, in my +opinion, has perforated the upper bed of earth, it appears to me also +necessary to give the reason on which I found this opinion.</p> + +<p>The vapours which rise in the air produce rain, dew, aerial fires, +thunder, and other <!-- Page 188 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188"></a>[188]</span>meteors. These vapours are therefore blended with +aqueous, aerial, sulphurous and terrestrial particles, &c. and it is the +solid and earthy particles which form the mud or slime we are now +speaking of. When rain water is suffered to rest, a sediment is formed +at bottom; and having collected a quantity, if it is suffered to stand +and corrupt, it produces a kind of mud which falls to the bottom of the +vessel. Dew produces much more of this mud than rain water, which is +greasy, unctuous, and of a reddish colour.</p> + +<p>The first strata of the earth is composed of this mud, mixed with +perished vegetable or animal parts, or rather stony and sandy particles. +We may remark that almost all land proper for cultivation is reddish, +and more or less mixed with these different matters; the particles of +sand or stone found there are of two kinds, the one coarse and heavy, +the other fine and sometimes impalpable. The largest comes from the +lower strata loosened in cultivating the earth, or rather the upper +mould, by penetrating into the lower, which is of sand and other divided +matters, and forms those earths we call fat and fertile. The finer sort +proceeds from the air, and falls with dew and rain, and mixes intimately +with the soil. This is properly <!-- Page 189 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189"></a>[189]</span>the residue of the powder, which the +wind continually raises from the surface of the earth, and which falls +again after having imbibed the humidity of the air. When the earth +predominates, and the stony and sandy parts are but few, the earth is +then reddish and fertile: if it is mixed with a considerable quantity of +perished animal or vegetable substances, it is blackish, and often more +fertile than the first; but if the mould is only in a small quantity, as +well as the animal or vegetable parts, the earth is white and sterile, +and when the sandy, stony, or cretaceous parts which compose these +sterile lands, are mixed with a sufficient quantity of perished animal +or vegetable substances, they form the black and lighter earths, but +have little fertility; so that according to the different combinations +of these three different matters, the land is more or less fecund and +differently coloured.</p> + +<p>To fix some ideas relative to these stratas; let us take, for example, +the earth of Marly-la-ville, where the pits are very deep: it is a high +country, but flat and fertile, and its strata lie arranged horizontally. +I had samples brought me of all these strata which M. Dalibard, an able +botanist, versed in different sciences, had <!-- Page 190 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190"></a>[190]</span>dug under his inspection; +and after having proved the matters of which they consisted in +aquafortis, I formed the following table of them.</p> + + +<p class="sectctrb">The state of the different beds of earth, found at Marly-la-ville, to +the depth of 100 feet.</p> + +<table class="layers" summary="earth layers found at Marly-la-ville" border="0"> + <tr> + <th colspan="2">Feet.</th> + <th>In.</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefthang">1. A free reddish earth, mixed with + much mud, a very small quantity of + vitrifiable sand, and somewhat more of + calcinable sand</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">13</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">0</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefthang">2. A free earth mixed with gravel, + and a little more vitrifiable sand</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">2</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">6</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefthang">3. Mud mixed with vitrifiable sand + in a great quantity, and which made + but very little effervescence with + aquafortis</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">3</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">0</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefthang">4. Hard marl, which made a very + great effervescence with aquafortis</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">2</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">0</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefthang">5. Pretty hard marl stone</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">4</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">0</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefthang">6. Marl in powder, mixed with vitrifiable + sand</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">5</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">0</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefthang">7. Very fine vitrified sand</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">1</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">6</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefthang">8. Marl very like earth mixed with + a very little vitrifiable sand</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">3</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">6</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefthang"><!-- Page 191 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191"></a>[191]</span>9. Hard marl, in which was real flint</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">3</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">6</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefthang">10. Gravel, or powdered marl</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">1</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">0</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefthang">11. Eglantine, a stone of the grain + and hardness of marble, and sonorous</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">1</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">6</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefthang">12. Marly gravel</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">1</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">6</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefthang">13. Marl in hard stone, whose grain + was very fine</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">1</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">6</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefthang">14. Marl in stone, whose grain was + not so fine</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">1</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">6</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefthang">15. More grained and thicker marl</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">2</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">6</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefthang">16. Very fine vitrifiable sand, mixed + with fossil sea-shells, which had no + adherence with the sand, and whose + colours were perfect</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">1</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">6</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefthang">17. Very small gravel, or fine marl + powder</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">2</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">0</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefthang">18. Marl in hard stone</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">3</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">6</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefthang">19. Very coarse powdered marl</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">1</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">6</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefthang">20. Hard and calcinable stone, like + marble</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">1</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">0</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefthang">21. Grey vitrifiable sand mixed with + fossil shells, particularly oysters and + muscles which have no adherence + <!-- Page 192 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192"></a>[192]</span>with the sand, and which were not + petrified</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">3</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">0</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefthang">22. White vitrifiable sand mixed with + similar shells</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">2</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">0</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefthang">23. Sand streaked red and white, + vitrifiable and mixed with the like + shells</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">1</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">0</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefthang">24. Larger sand, but still vitrifiable + and mixed with the like shells</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">1</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">0</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefthang">25. Fine and vitrifiable grey sand + mixed with the like shells</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">8</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">6</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefthang">26. Very fine fat sand, with only a + few shells</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">3</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">0</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefthang">27. Brown free stone</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">3</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">0</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefthang">28. Vitrifiable sand, streaked red and + white</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">4</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">0</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefthang">29. White vitrifiable sand</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">3</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">6</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefthang">30. Reddish vitrifiable sand</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">15</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">0</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdright" colspan="3">————</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdleftind">Total depth</td> + <td class="tdright">101</td> + <td class="tdright">0</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdright" colspan="3">————</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>I have before said that I tried all these matters in aquafortis, because +where the inspection and comparison of matters with others that we are +acquainted with is not sufficient to permit <!-- Page 193 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193"></a>[193]</span>us to denominate and range +them in the class which they belong, there is no means more ready, nor +perhaps more sure, than to try by aquafortis the terrestrial or +lapidific matter: those which acid spirits dissolve immediately with +heat and ebullition, are generally calcinable, and those on which they +make no impression are vitrifiable.</p> + +<p>By this enumeration we perceive, that the soil of Marly-la-ville was +formerly the bottom of the sea, which has been raised above 75 feet, +since we find shells at that depth below the surface. Those shells have +been transported by the motion of the water, at the same time as the +sand in which they are met with, and the whole of the upper strata, even +to the first, have been transported after the same manner by the motion +of the water, and deposited in form of a sediment; which we cannot +doubt, as well by reason of their horizontal position, as of the +different beds of sand mixed with shells and marl, the last of which are +only the fragments of the shells. The last stratum itself has been +formed almost entirely by the mould we have spoken of, mixed with a +small part of the marl which was at the surface.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 194 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194"></a>[194]</span>I have chosen this example, as the most disadvantageous to my theory, +because it at first appears very difficult to conceive that the dust of +the air, rain and dew, could produce strata of free earth thirteen feet +thick; but it ought to be observed, that it is very rare to find, +especially in high lands, so considerable a thickness of cultivateable +earth; it is generally about three or four feet, and often not more than +one. In plains surrounded with hills, this thickness of good earth is +the greatest, because the rain loosens the earth of the hills, and +carries it into the vallies; but without supposing any thing of that +kind, I find that the last strata formed by the waters are thick beds of +marl. It is natural to imagine that the upper stratum had, at the +beginning, a still greater thickness, besides the thirteen feet of marl, +when the sea quitted the land and left it naked. This marl, exposed to +the air, melted with the rain; the action of the air and heat of the sun +produced flaws, and reduced it into powder on the surface; the sea would +not quit this land precipitately, but sometimes cover it, either by the +alternative motion of the tides, or by the extraordinary elevation of +the waters in foul weather, when it mixed with this bed of marl, <!-- Page 195 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195"></a>[195]</span>mud, +clay, and other matters. When the land was raised above the waters, +plants would begin to grow, and it was then that the dust in the rain or +dew by degrees added to its substance and gave it a reddish colour; this +thickness and fertility was soon augmented by culture; by digging and +dividing its surface, and thus giving to the dust, in the dew or rain, +the facility of more deeply penetrating it, which at last produced that +bed of free earth thirteen feet thick.</p> + +<p>I shall not here examine whether the reddish colour of vegetable earth +proceeds from the iron which is contained in the earths that are +deposited by the rains and dews, but being of importance, shall take +notice of it when we come to treat of minerals; it is sufficient to have +explained our conception of the formation of the superficial strata of +the earth, and by other examples we shall prove, that the formation of +the interior strata, can only be the work of the waters.</p> + +<p>The surface of the globe, says Woodward, this external stratum on which +men and animals walk, which serves as a magazine for the formation of +vegetables and animals, is, for the greatest part, composed of vegetable +or animal <!-- Page 196 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196"></a>[196]</span>matter, and is in continual motion and variation. All animals +and vegetables which have existed from the creation of the world, have +successively extracted from this stratum the matter which composes it, +and have, after their deaths, restored to it this borrowed matter: it +remains there always ready to be retaken, and to serve for the formation +of other bodies of the same species successively, for the matter which +composes one body is proper and natural to form another body of the same +kind. In uninhabited countries, where the woods are never cut, where +animals do not brouze on the plants, this stratum of vegetable earth +increases considerably. In all woods, even in those which are sometimes +cut, there is a bed of mould, of six or eight inches thick, formed +entirely by the leaves, small branches, and barks which have perished. I +have often observed on the ancient Roman way, which crosses Burgundy in +a long extent of soil, that there is formed a bed of black earth more +than a foot thick upon the stones, which nourishes very high trees; and +this stratum could be composed only of a black mould formed by the +leaves, bark, and perished wood. As vegetables inhale for their +nutriment much more <!-- Page 197 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197"></a>[197]</span>from the air and water than the earth, it happens +that when they perish, they return to the earth more than they have +taken from it. Besides, forests collect the rain water, and by stopping +the vapours increase their moisture; so in a wood which is preserved a +long time, the stratum of earth which serves for vegetation increases +considerably. But animals restoring less to the earth than they take +from it, and men making enormous consumption of wood and plants for +fire, and other uses, it follows that the vegetable soil of inhabited +countries must diminish, and become, in time, like the soil of Arabia +Petrea, and other eastern provinces, which, in fact, are the most +ancient inhabited countries, where only sand and salt are now to be met +with; for the fixed salts of plants and animals remain, whereas all the +other parts volatilise, and are transported by the air.</p> + +<p>Let us now examine the position and formation of the interior strata: +the earth, says Woodward, appears in places that have been dug, composed +of strata placed one on the other, as so many sediments which +necessarily fell to the bottom of the water; the deepest strata are +generally the thickest, and those above the thinnest, and so gradually +lessening to <!-- Page 198 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198"></a>[198]</span>the surface. We find sea shells, teeth, and bones of fish +in these different beds, and not only in those that are soft, as chalk +and clay, but even in those of hard stone, marble, &c. These marine +productions are incorporated with the stone, and when separated from +them, leave the impressions of the shells with the greatest exactness. +"I have been most clearly and positively assured," says this author, +"that in France, Flanders, Holland, Spain, Italy, Germany, Denmark, +Norway, and Sweden, stone, and other terrestrial substances are disposed +in strata, precisely the same as they are in England; that these strata +are divided by parallel fissures; that there are inclosed within stones +and other terrestrial and compact substances, a great quantity of shells +and other productions of the sea, disposed in the same manner as in this +island. I am also informed that these strata are found the same in +Barbary, Egypt, Guinea, and in other parts of Africa; in Arabia, Syria, +Persia, Malabar, China, and the rest of the provinces of Asia; in +Jamaica, Barbadoes, Virginia, New-England, Brazil, and other parts of +America<a name="FNanchor_198:A_20" id="FNanchor_198:A_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_198:A_20" class="fnanchor">[198:A]</a>."</p> + +<p><!-- Page 199 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199"></a>[199]</span>This author does not say how he learnt, or by whom he was told, that the +strata of Peru contained shells; yet as in general his observations are +exact, I do not doubt but he was well informed; and am persuaded that +shells may be found in the earth of Peru, as well as elsewhere. This +remark is made from a doubt having been formed some time since on the +subject, and which I shall hereafter consider.</p> + +<p>In a trench made at Amsterdam, to the depth of 230 feet, the strata were +found as follows: 7 feet of vegetable earth, 9 of turf, 9 of soft clay, +8 of sand, 4 of earth, 10 of clay, 4 of earth, 10 of sand, then 2 feet +of clay, 4 of white sand, 5 of dry earth, 1 of soft earth, 14 of sand, 8 +of argil, mixed with earth; 4 of sand, mixed with shells; then clay 102 +feet thick, and at last 31 feet of sand, at which depth they ceased +digging<a name="FNanchor_199:A_21" id="FNanchor_199:A_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_199:A_21" class="fnanchor">[199:A]</a>.</p> + +<p>It is very singular to dig so deep without meeting with water: and this +circumstance is remarkable in many particulars. 1. It shews, that the +water of the sea does not communicate with the interior part of the +earth, by means of filtration. 2. That shells are found at the depth of +100 feet below the surface, and that <!-- Page 200 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200"></a>[200]</span>consequently the soil of Holland +has been raised 100 feet by the sediment of the sea. 3. We may draw an +induction, that this strata of thick clay of 102 feet, and the bed of +sand below it, in which they dug to 31 feet, and whose entire thickness +is unknown, are perhaps not very far distant from the first strata of +the original earth, such as it was before the motion of the water had +changed its surface. We have said in the first article, that if we +desired to find the ancient earth, we should dig in the northern +countries, rather than towards the south; in plains rather than in +mountainous regions. The circumstances in this instance, appear to be +nearly so, only it is to be wished they had continued the digging to a +greater depth, and that the author had informed us, whether there were +not shells and other marine productions, in the last bed of clay, and in +that of sand below it. The experiment confirms what we have already +said; and the more we dig, the greater thickness we shall find the +strata.</p> + +<p>The earth is composed of parallel and horizontal beds, not only in +plains, but hills and mountains are in general composed after the same +manner: it may be said, that the strata in hills and mountains are more +apparent there <!-- Page 201 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201"></a>[201]</span>than in the plains, because the plains are generally +covered with a very considerable quantity of sand and earth, which the +water has brought from the higher grounds, and therefore, to find the +ancient strata, must dig deeper in the plains than in the mountains.</p> + +<p>I have often observed, that when a mountain is level at its summit, the +strata which compose it are also level; but if the summit is not placed +horizontally, the strata inclines also in the same direction. I have +heard that, in general, the beds of quarries inclined a little to the +east; but having myself observed all the chains of rocks which offered, +I discovered this opinion to be erroneous, and that the strata inclines +to the same side as the hill, whether it be east, west, north, or south. +When we dig stone and marble from the quarry, we take great care to +separate them according to their natural position, and we cannot even +get them of a large size, if we cut them in any other direction. Where +they are made use of for good masonry, the workmen are particular in +placing them as they stood in the quarry, for if they were placed in any +other direction, they would split, and would not resist the weight with +which they are loaded. This perfectly <!-- Page 202 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202"></a>[202]</span>confirms that stones, are found +in parallel and horizontal strata, which have been successively heaped +one on the other, and that these strata composed masses where resistance +is greater in that direction than in any other.</p> + +<p>Every strata, whether horizontal or inclined, has an equal thickness +throughout its whole extent. In the quarries about Paris the bed of good +stone is not thick, scarcely more than 18 or 20 feet: in those of +Burgundy the stone is much thicker. It is the same with marble; the +black and white marble have a thicker bed than the coloured; and I know +beds of very hard stone, which the farmers in Burgundy make use of to +cover their houses, that are not above an inch thick. The different +strata vary much in thickness, but each bed preserves the same thickness +throughout its extent. The thickness of strata is so greatly varied, +that it is found from less than a line to 1, 10, 20, 30, or 100 feet +thick. The ancient and modern quarries, which are horizontally dug, the +perpendicular and other divisions of mines, prove that there are +extensive strata in all directions. "It is thoroughly proved," says the +historian of the academy, "that all stones have formerly been a soft +paste, and as there are <!-- Page 203 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203"></a>[203]</span>quarries almost in every part, the surface of +the earth has therefore consisted, in all these places, of mud and +slime, at least to certain depths. The shells found in most quarries +prove that this mud was an earth diluted by the water of the sea, and +consequently that the sea covered all these places; and it could not +cover them without also covering all that was level with or lower than +it: and it is plain that it could not cover every place where there were +quarries, without covering the whole face of the terrestrial globe. We +do not here consider the mountains which the sea must also at one time +have covered, since quarries and shells are often found in them.</p> + +<p>"The sea," continues he, "therefore, covered the whole earth, and from +thence it proceeds that all the beds of stone in the plains are +horizontal and parallel; fish must have also been the most ancient +inhabitants of the globe, as there was no sustenance for either birds or +terrestrial animals." But how did the sea retire into these vast basins +which it at present occupies? What presents itself the most natural to +the mind is, that the earth, at least at a certain depth, was not +entirely solid, but intermixed with some great vacuums, whose <!-- Page 204 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204"></a>[204]</span>vaults +were supported for a time, but at length, sunk in suddenly: then the +waters must have fallen into these vacancies, filled them, and left +naked a part of the earth's surface, which became an agreeable abode to +terrestrial animals and birds. The shells found in quarries perfectly +agree with this idea, for only the bony parts of fish could be preserved +till now. In general, shells are heaped up in great abundance in certain +parts of the sea, where they are immovable, and form a kind of rock, and +could not follow the water, which suddenly forsook them: this is the +reason that we find more shells than bones of the fish, and this even +proves a sudden fall of the sea into its present basins. At the same +time as our supposed vaults gave way, it is very possible that other +parts of the globe were raised by the same cause, and that mountains +were placed on this surface with quarries already formed, but the beds +of these quarries could not preserve the horizontal direction they +before had, unless the mountains were raised precisely perpendicular to +the surface of the earth, which could happen but very seldom: so also, +as we have already observed, in 1705, the beds of stone in mountains are +always inclined to the horizon, though <!-- Page 205 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205"></a>[205]</span>parallel with each other; for +they have not changed their position with respect to each other, but +only with respect to the surface of the earth<a name="FNanchor_205:A_22" id="FNanchor_205:A_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_205:A_22" class="fnanchor">[205:A]</a>.</p> + +<p>These parallel strata, these beds of earth and stone, which have been +formed by the sediment of the sea, often extend to considerable +distances, and we often find in hills, separated by a valley, the same +beds and the same matters at the same level. This observation agrees +perfectly with that of the height of the opposite hills. We may easily +be assured of the truth of these facts, for in all narrow vallies, where +rocks are discovered, we shall find the same beds of stone and marble on +both sides at the same height. In a country where I frequently reside, I +found a quarry of marble which extended more than 12 leagues in length, +and whose breadth was very considerable, although I have never been able +precisely to determine it. I have often observed that this bed of marble +is throughout of the same thickness, and in hills divided from this +quarry by a valley of 100 feet depth, and a quarter of a mile in +breadth, I found the same bed of marble at the same height. I am +persuaded <!-- Page 206 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206"></a>[206]</span>it is the same in every stone and marble quarry where shells +are found; but this observation does not hold good in quarries of +freestone. In the course of this work, we shall give reasons for this +difference, and describe why freestone is not dispersed, like other +matters, in horizontal beds, and why it is in irregular blocks, both in +form and position.</p> + +<p>We have likewise observed that the strata are the same on both sides the +straits of the sea. This observation, which is important, may lead us to +discover the lands and islands which have been separated from the +continent; it proves, for example, that England has been divided from +France; Spain from Africa; Sicily from Italy; and it is to be wished +that the same observation had been made in all the straits. I am +persuaded that we should find it almost every where true. We do not know +whether the same beds of stone are found at the same height on both +sides the straits of Magellan, which is the longest; but we see, by the +particular maps and exact charts, that the two high coasts which confine +it, form nearly, like the mountains of the earth, correspondent angles, +which also proves that the Terra del Fuega, must be regarded as part of +the continent of <!-- Page 207 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207"></a>[207]</span>America; it is the same with Forbisher's Strait and +the island of Friesland, which appear to have been divided from the +continent of Greenland.</p> + +<p>The Maldivian islands are only separated by small tracts of the sea, on +each side of which banks and rocks are found composed of the same +materials; and these islands, which, taken together, are near 200 miles +long, formed anciently only one land; they are now divided into 13 +provinces, called Clusters. Each cluster contains a great number of +small islands, most of which are sometimes overflowed and sometimes dry; +but what is remarkable, these thirteen clusters are each surrounded with +a chain of rocks of the same stone, and there are only three or four +dangerous inlets by which they can be entered. They are all placed one +after the other, and it evidently appears that these islands were +formerly a long mountain capped with rocks<a name="FNanchor_216:A_23" id="FNanchor_216:A_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_216:A_23" class="fnanchor">[216:A]</a>.</p> + +<p>Many authors, as Verstegan, Twine, Somner, and especially Campbell, in +his Description of England, in the chapter of Kent, gives very strong +reasons, to prove that England was formerly joined to France, and has +been separated from it by an effort of the sea, which <!-- Page 208 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208"></a>[208]</span>carried away the +neck of land that joined them, opened the channel, and left naked a +great quantity of low and marshy ground along the southern coasts of +England. Dr. Wallis, as a corroboration of this supposition, shews the +conformity of the ancient Gallic and British tongues, and adds many +observations, which we shall relate in the following articles.</p> + +<p>If we consider the form of lands, the position of mountains, and the +windings of rivers, we shall perceive that generally opposite hills are +not only composed of the same matters on the same level, but are nearly +of an equal height. This equality I have observed in my travels, and +have mostly found them the same on the two sides, especially in vallies +that were not more than a quarter or a third of a league broad, for in +vallies which are very broad, it is difficult to judge of the height and +equality of hills, because, by looking over a level plain of any great +extent, it appears to rise, and hills at a distance appear to lower; but +this is not the place to give a mathematical reason for this difference. +It is also very difficult to judge by the naked sight of the middle of a +great valley, at least if there is no river in it; whereas in confined +vallies our sight is less equivocal and our judgment <!-- Page 209 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209"></a>[209]</span>more certain. That +part of Burgundy comprehended between Auxerre, Dijon, Autun, and +Bar-sur-seine, a considerable extent of which is called <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">la Bailliage de +la Montagne</i>, is one of the highest parts of France; from one side of +most of these mountains, which are only of the second class, the water +flows towards the Ocean, and on the other side towards the +Mediterranean. This high country is divided with many small vallies, +very confined, and almost all watered with rivulets. I have a thousand +times observed the correspondence of the angles of these hills and their +equality of height, and I am certain that I have every where found the +saliant angles opposite to the returning angles, and the heights nearly +equal on both sides. The farther we advance into the higher country, +where the points of division are, the higher are the mountains; but this +height is always the same on both sides of the vallies, and the hills +are raised or lowered alike. I have frequently made the like +observations in many other parts of France. It is this equality in the +height of the hills which forms the plains in the mountains, and these +plains form lands higher than others. But high mountains do not appear +so equal in height, most of them terminate in <!-- Page 210 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210"></a>[210]</span>points and irregular +peaks; and I have seen, in crossing the Alps, and the Apennine +mountains, that the angles are, in fact, correspondent; but it is almost +impossible to judge by the eye of the equality or inequality in the +height of opposite mountains, because their summits are lost in mists +and clouds.</p> + +<p>The different strata of which the earth is composed are not disposed +according to their specific weight, for we often find strata of heavy +matters placed on those of lighter. To be assured of this, we have only +to examine the earth on which rocks are placed, and we shall find that +it is generally clay or sand, which is specifically lighter. In hills, +and other small elevations, we easily discover this to be the case; but +it is not so with large mountains, for not only their summits are rocks, +but those rocks are placed on others; there mountains are placed upon +mountains, and rocks upon rocks, to such a considerable height, and +through so great an extent of country, that we can scarcely be certain +whether there is earth at bottom, or of what nature it is. I have seen +cavities made in rocks to some hundred feet deep, without being able to +form an idea where they ended, for these rocks were supported by +others; <!-- Page 211 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211"></a>[211]</span>nevertheless, may we not compare great with small? and since +the rocks of little mountains, whose bases are to be seen, rest on the +earth less heavy and solid than stone, may we not suppose that earth is +also the base of high mountains? All that I have here to prove by these +arguments is, that, by the motion of the waters, it may naturally happen +that the more ponderous matters accumulated on the lighter; and that, if +this in fact is found to be so in most hills, it is probable that it +happened as explained by my theory; but should it be objected that I am +not grounded in supposing, that before the formation of mountains the +heaviest matters were below the lighter; I answer, that I assert nothing +general in this respect, because this effect may have been produced in +many manners, whether the heaviest matters were uppermost or undermost, +or placed indiscriminately. To conceive how the sea at first formed a +mountain of clay, and afterwards capt it with rocks, it is sufficient to +consider the sediments may successively come from different parts, and +that they might be of different materials. In some parts, the sea may at +first have deposited sediments of clay, and the waters afterwards +brought sediment of strong matter, either <!-- Page 212 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212"></a>[212]</span>because they had transported +all the clay from the bottom and sides, and then the waves attacked the +rocks, possibly because the first sediment came from one part, and the +second from another. This perfectly agrees with observation, by which we +perceive that beds of earth, stone, gravel, sand, &c. followed no rule +in their arrangement, but are placed indifferently one on the other as +it were by chance.</p> + +<p>But this chance must have some rules, which can be known only by +estimating the value of probabilities, and the truth of conjectures. +According to our hypothesis, on the formation of the globe, we have seen +that the interior part of the globe must have been a vitrified matter, +similar to vitrified sand, which is only the fragments of glass, and of +which the clays are perhaps the scoria; by this supposition, the centre +of the earth, and almost as far as the external circumference, must be +glass, or a vitrified matter; and above this we shall find sand, clay, +and other scoria. Thus the earth, in its first state, was a nucleus of +glass, or vitrified matter; either massive like glass, or divided like +sand, because that depends on the degree of heat it has undergone. Above +this matter was sand, and lastly clay. The soil of the <!-- Page 213 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213"></a>[213]</span>waters and air +produced the external crust, which is thicker or thinner, according to +the situation of the ground; more or less coloured, according to the +different mixtures of mud, sand, clay, and the decayed parts of animals +and vegetables; and more or less fertile, according to the abundance or +want of these parts. To shew that this supposition on the formation of +sand and clay is not chimerical, I shall add some particular remarks.</p> + +<p>I conceive, that the earth, in its first state, was a globe, or rather a +spheroid of compact glass, covered with a light crust of pumice stone +and other scoria of the matter in fusion. The motion and agitation of +the waters and air soon reduced this crust into powder or sand, which, +by uniting afterwards, produced flints, and owe their hardness, colour, +or transparency and variety, to the different degrees of purity of the +sand which entered into their composition.</p> + +<p>These sands, whose constituting parts unite by fire, assimilate, and +become very dense, compact, and the more transparent as the sand is more +pure; on the contrary, being exposed a long time to the air, they +disunite and exfoliate, descend in the form of earth, and it is +probable <!-- Page 214 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214"></a>[214]</span>the different clays are thus produced. This dust, sometimes of +a brightish yellow, and sometimes like silver, is nothing else but a +very pure sand somewhat perished, and almost reduced to an elementary +state. By time, particles will be so far attenuated and divided, that +they will no longer have power to reflect the light, and acquire all the +properties of clay.</p> + +<p>This theory is conformable to what every day is seen; let us immediately +wash sand upon its being dug, and the water will be loaded with a black +ductile and fat earth, which is genuine clay. In streets paved with +freestone, the dirt is always black and greasy, and when dried appears +to be an earth of the same nature as clay. Let us wash the earth taken +from a spot where there are neither freestone nor flints, and there will +always precipitate a great quantity of vitrifiable sand.</p> + +<p>But what perfectly proves that sand, and even flint and glass, exist in +clay, is, that the action of fire, by uniting the parts, restores it to +its original form. Clay, if heated to the degree of calcination, will +cover itself with a very hard enamel; if it is not vitrified internally, +it nevertheless will have acquired a very great hardness, so as to +resist the file; it will emit fire <!-- Page 215 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215"></a>[215]</span>under the hammer, and it has all the +properties of flint; a greater degree of heat causes it to flow, and +converts it into real glass.</p> + +<p>Clay and sand are therefore matters perfectly analogous, and of the same +class; if clay, by condensing, may become flint and glass, why may not +sand, by dissolution, become clay? Glass appears to be true elementary +earth, and all mixed substances disguised glass. Metals, minerals, +salts, &c. are only vitrifiable earth; common stone and other matters +analogous to it, and testaceous and crustaceous shells, &c. are the only +substances which cannot be vitrified, and which seem to form a separate +class. Fire, by uniting the divided parts of the first, forms an +homogeneous matter, hard and transparent, without any diminution of +weight, and to which it is not possible to cause any alteration; those, +on the contrary, in which a greater quantity of active and volatile +principles enter, and which calcine, lose more than one-third of their +weight in the fire, and retake the form of simple earth, without any +other alteration than a disunion of their different parts: these bodies +excepted, which are no great number, and whose combinations produce no +great varieties in nature, every other substance, and particularly +<!-- Page 216 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216"></a>[216]</span>clay, may be converted into glass, and are consequently only decomposed +glass. If the fire suddenly causes the form of these substances to +change, by vitrifying them, glass itself, whether pure, or in the form +of sand or flint, naturally, but by a slow and insensible progress, +changes into clay.</p> + +<p>Where flint is the predominant stone, the country is generally strewed +with parts of it, and if the place is uncultivated, and these stones +have been long exposed to the air, without having been stirred, their +upper superficies is always white, whereas the opposite side, which +touches the earth, is very brown, and preserves its natural colour. If +these flints are broken, we shall perceive that the whiteness is not +only external, but penetrates internally, and there forms a kind of +band, not very deep in some, but which in others occupies almost the +whole flint. This white part is somewhat grainy, entirely opaque, as +soft as freestone, and adheres to the tongue like the boles; whereas the +other part is smooth, has neither thread nor grain, and preserves its +natural colour, transparency, and hardness. If this flint is put into a +furnace, its white part becomes of a brick colour, and its brown part +<!-- Page 217 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217"></a>[217]</span>of a very fine white. Let us not say with one of our most celebrated +naturalists, that these stones are imperfect flints of different ages, +which have not acquired their perfection; for why should they be all +imperfect? Why should they be imperfect only on the side exposed to the +weather? It, on the contrary, appears to me more reasonable that they +are flints changed from their original state, gradually decomposed, and +assuming the form and property of clay or bole. If this is thought to be +only conjecture, let the hardest and blackest flint be exposed to the +weather, in less than a year its surface will change colour; and if we +have patience to pursue this experiment, we shall see it by degrees lose +its hardness, transparency, and other specific characters, and approach +every day nearer and nearer the nature of clay.</p> + +<p>What happens to flint happens to sand; each grain of sand may possibly +be considered as a small flint, and each flint as a mass of extremely +fine grains of sand. The first example of the decomposition of sand is +found in the brilliant opaque powder called Mica, in which clay and +slate are always diffused. The entirely transparent flints, the Quartz, +produce, by decomposition, fat and soft talks, such as those of <!-- Page 218 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218"></a>[218]</span>Venice +and Russia, which are as ductile and vitrifiable as clay: and it appears +to me, that talk is a mediate between glass, or transparent flint, and +clay; whereas coarse and impure flint, by decomposing, passes to clay +without any intermedium.</p> + +<p>Our factitious glass undergoes the same alterations: it decomposes and +perishes, as it were, in the air. At first, it assumes a variety of +colours, then exfoliates, and by working it, we perceive brilliant +scales fall off; but when its decomposition is more advanced, it +crumbles between the fingers, and is reduced into a very white fine +talky powder. Art has even imitated nature in the decomposition of glass +and flint. "<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Est etiam certa methodus solius aquæ communis ope, silices & +arenam in liquorem viscosum, eumdemque in sal viride convertendi, & hoc +in aleum rubicundum, &c. Solius ignis & aqua ope, speciali experimento, +durissimos quosque lapides in mucorem resolvo, qui distillan subtilem +spiritum exhibet & oleum nullus laudibus prÅ“dicabile</span><a name="FNanchor_218:A_24" id="FNanchor_218:A_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_218:A_24" class="fnanchor">[218:A]</a>."</p> + +<p>These matters more particularly belong to metals, and when we come to +them, shall be fully treated on, therefore we shall content <!-- Page 219 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219"></a>[219]</span>ourselves +here with adding, that the different strata which cover the terrestrial +globe, being materials to be considered as actual vitrifications or +analogous to glass, and possessing its most essential qualities; and as +it is evident, that from the decomposition of glass and flint, which is +every day made before our eyes, a genuine clay remains, it is not a +precarious supposition to advance, that clays and sands have been formed +by scoria, and vitrified drops of the terrestrial globe, especially when +we join the proofs <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">a priori</i>, which we have given to evince the earth +has been in a state of liquefaction caused by fire.</p> + + +<div> +<hr class="footnotes" /> +<p class="sectctrfn">FOOTNOTES:</p> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_198:A_20" id="Footnote_198:A_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_198:A_20"><span class="label">[198:A]</span></a> Essay on the Natural History of the Earth, pages 40, +41, 42, &c.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_199:A_21" id="Footnote_199:A_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_199:A_21"><span class="label">[199:A]</span></a> See Varennii, Geograph. General, page 46.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_205:A_22" id="Footnote_205:A_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_205:A_22"><span class="label">[205:A]</span></a> See the Mem. of the Acad. 1716, page 14.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_216:A_23" id="Footnote_216:A_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_216:A_23"><span class="label">[216:A]</span></a> See the Voyages of Francis Piriard, vol. 1, page 108.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_218:A_24" id="Footnote_218:A_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_218:A_24"><span class="label">[218:A]</span></a> See Becher. Phys. subter.</p> +</div> +</div> +</div> + + + + +<div> +<hr class="newchapter" /> +<h2><a name="ARTICLE_VIII" id="ARTICLE_VIII"></a>ARTICLE VIII.<br /> + +<small>ON SHELLS, AND OTHER MARINE PRODUCTIONS FOUND IN THE INTERIOR PARTS OF +THE EARTH.</small></h2> + + +<p>I have often examined quarries, the banks of which were filled with +shells; I have seen entire hills composed of them, and chains of rocks +which contained them throughout their <!-- Page 220 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220"></a>[220]</span>whole extent. The quantity of +these marine productions is astonishing, and the number in many places +so prodigious, that it appears scarcely possible that any should now +remain in the sea; it is by considering this innumerable multitude of +shells, that no doubt is left of our earth having been a long time under +the water of the ocean. The quantity found in a fossil, or petrified +state, is beyond conception, and it is only from the number of those +that have been discovered that we could possibly have formed an idea of +their multiplicity. We must imagine, like those who reason on matters +they never saw, that shells are only found at random, dispersed here and +there, or in small heaps, as oyster shells thrown before our doors; on +the contrary, they form mountains, are met with in shoals of 100 or 200 +miles length, nay, they may sometimes be traced through whole provinces +in masses of 50 or 60 feet thick. It is from these circumstances alone +that we can reason on the subject.</p> + +<p>We cannot give a more striking example on this subject than the shells +of Touraine. The following is the description given of them by the +historian of the Academy<a name="FNanchor_220:A_25" id="FNanchor_220:A_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_220:A_25" class="fnanchor">[220:A]</a>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 221 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221"></a>[221]</span>"The number of figured stones and fossil shells found in the bowels of +the earth were remarked in all ages and nations, but they were +considered merely as the sports of nature, and even by philosophers +themselves, as the productions of chance or accident; they regarded them +with a degree of surprise, but passed them over with a slight attention, +and all this phenomena perished without any fruit for the progress of +knowledge. A potter in Paris, who knew neither Latin nor Greek, towards +the end of the 16th century, was the first man who dared affirm, in +opposition to the learned, that the fossil shells were real shells +formerly deposited by the sea in those places where they were found; +that animals, and particularly fish, had given to stones all these +different figures, &c. and he desired the whole school of Aristotle to +contradict his proofs. This was Bernard Palissy, as great a natural +genius as nature could form: his system slept near 100 years, and even +his name was almost forgot. At length the ideas of Palissy were revived +in the mind of several philosophers; and science has profited by all the +shells and figured stones the earth furnishes us with; perhaps they are +at <!-- Page 222 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222"></a>[222]</span>present become only too common, and the consequences drawn from them +too incontestable.</p> + +<p>"Notwithstanding this, the observations presented by M. Reaumer must +appear wonderful. He discovered a mass of 130 million, 680 thousand +cubical fathoms of shells, either whole or in fragments, without any +mixture of stone, earth, sand, or other extraneous matter: hitherto +fossil shells have never appeared in such an enormous quantity, nor +without mixture. It is in Touraine this prodigious mass is found, more +than 36 leagues from the sea; this is perfectly known there, as the +farmers of that province make use of these shells, which they dig up, as +manure for their lands, to fertilize their plains, which otherwise would +be absolutely sterile.</p> + +<p>"What is dug from the earth, and which generally is no more than eight +or nine feet deep, are only small fragments of shells, very +distinguishable as fragments, for they retain their original channels +and hollows, having only lost their gloss and colour, as almost all +shells do which we find in the earth. The smallest pieces, which are +only dust, are still distinguishable because they are perfectly of the +same matter <!-- Page 223 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223"></a>[223]</span>as the rest, as well as of the whole shells which are +sometimes found. We discover the species as well in the whole shells as +in the larger fragments. Some of these species are known at Poictou, +others belong to more remote coasts. There are even fragments of +madrepores, coral, and other productions of the sea; all this matter in +the country is termed <em>Fallun</em>, and is found wherever the ground is dug +in that province for the space of nine leagues square. The peasants do +not dig above twenty feet deep, because they think it would not repay +them for their trouble, but they are certainly deeper. The calculation +of the quantity is however taken upon the supposition of only 18 feet +and 2200 fathoms to the league. This mass of shells of course exceeds +the calculation, and possibly contains double the quantity.</p> + +<p>"In physical points the smallest circumstances, which most people do not +think worthy of remarking, sometimes lead to consequences and afford +great lights. M. de Reaumer observed, that all these fragments of shells +lie horizontally, and hence he has concluded that this infinity of +fragments does not proceed from the heap being formed at one time, or of +whole shells, for the uppermost, by their weight, <!-- Page 224 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224"></a>[224]</span>would have crushed +the others, and of course their fallings would have given an infinity of +different positions. They must, therefore, have been brought there by +the sea, either whole or broken, and necessarily placed horizontal; and +although the extreme length of time was of itself sufficient to break, +and almost calcine the greatest part, it could not change their +position.</p> + +<p>"By this it appears, that they must have been brought gradually, and, in +fact, how was it possible that the sea could convey at once such an +immense quantity of shells, and at the same time preserve a position +perfectly horizontal? they must have collected in one spot, and +consequently this spot must have been the bottom of a gulph or basin.</p> + +<p>"All this proves, that although there must remain upon the earth many +vestiges of the universal deluge, as recorded in scripture, the mass of +shells at Touraine was not produced by that deluge; there is perhaps not +so great a mass in any part of the sea; but even had the deluge forced +them away, it would have been with an impetuosity and violence that +would not have permitted them to retain one uniform position. They must +have been brought and deposited <!-- Page 225 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225"></a>[225]</span>gently and slowly, and consequently +their accumulation required a space of time much longer than a year."</p> + +<p>The surface of the earth, it is evident, must have been before or after +the deluge very differently disposed to what it is at present, that the +sea and continent had another arrangement, and formerly there was a +great gulph in the middle of Touraine. The changes which are known from +history, or even ancient fable, are inconsiderable, but they give us +room to imagine those which a longer time might bring about. M. de +Reaumur supposes that Touraine was a gulph of the sea which communicated +with the ocean, and that the shells were carried there by a current; but +this is a simple conjecture laid down in room of the real unknown fact. +To speak with certainty on this matter, we should have geographical maps +of all the places where shells have been dug from the earth, to obtain +which would require almost an infinity of time and observation, yet it +is possible that hereafter science may accomplish it.</p> + +<p>This quantity of shells, considerable as it is, will astonish us less if +we consider the following circumstances: first, shell fish multiply +prodigiously, and are full grown in a very <!-- Page 226 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226"></a>[226]</span>short time; the abundance of +individuals in each kind proves to us their fertility. We have a strong +example of this increase in oysters, a mass of many fathoms of which are +frequently raised in a single day. In a very short time the rocks to +which they are attached are considerably diminished, and some banks +quite exhausted, nevertheless the ensuing year we find them as plentiful +as before, nor do they appear to be in the least diminished; indeed I +know not whether a natural bed of oysters was ever entirely exhausted. +Secondly, the substance of shells is analogous to stone; they are a long +time preserved in soft matters, and petrify readily in hard; these +shells and marine productions therefore found on the earth, being the +wrecks of many ages, must of course have formed very considerable +masses.</p> + +<p>There are a prodigious quantity of shells in marble, lime, stone, chalk, +marl, &c. we find them, as before observed, in hills and mountains, and +they often make more than one half of the bodies which contain them; for +the most part they appear well preserved, others are in fragments, but +large enough to distinguish to what kind of shells they belong. Here our +knowledge on this subject, from observation, <!-- Page 227 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227"></a>[227]</span>finds its limits; but I +shall go further and assert that shells are the intermedium which Nature +adopts for the formation of most kind of stones; that chalks, marls, and +lime-stone are composed only of the powder and pieces of shells; that +consequently the quantities of shells destroyed are infinitely more +considerable than those preserved. I shall here content myself with +indicating the point of view in which we ought to consider the strata of +which the globe is composed. The first stratum is composed of the dust +of the air, the sediment of the rain, dew, and vegetable or animal +parts, reduced to particles; the strata of chalk, marl, lime, stone, and +marble, are composed of the ruins of shells, and other marine +productions, mixed with fragments or whole shells; but the vitrifiable +sand or clay are the matters of which the internal parts of the globe +are composed. They were vitrified when the globe received its form, +which necessarily supposes that the matter was in fusion. The granate, +rock, flint, &c. owe their origin to sand and clay, and are likewise +disposed by strata; but tuffa<a name="FNanchor_227:A_26" id="FNanchor_227:A_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_227:A_26" class="fnanchor">[227:A]</a>, free-stone, and flints (not in +great masses), crystals, metals, pyrites, most minerals, sulphurs, &c. +<!-- Page 228 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228"></a>[228]</span>are matters whose formation is novel, in comparison with marbles, +calcinable stones, chalk, marl, and all other materials disposed in +horizontal strata, and which contain shells and other productions of the +sea.</p> + +<p>As the denominations I make use of may appear obscure or equivocal, it +is necessary to explain them. By the term <em>clay</em>, I mean not only the +white and yellow, but also blue, soft, hard, foliated, and other clays, +which I look on as the scoria of glass, or as decomposed glass. By the +word <em>sand</em> I always understand vitrifiable sand; and not only +comprehend under this denomination the fine sand which produces +freestone, and which I look upon as powdered glass, or rather pumice +stone, but also the sand which proceeds from the freestone destroyed by +friction, and also the larger sand, as small gravel, which proceeds from +the granate and rock-stone, and is sharp, angular, red, and commonly +found in the bed of rivers or rivulets that derive their waters +immediately from the higher mountains, or hills composed of stone or +granate. The river Armanson conveys a great quantity of this sand; it is +large and brittle, and in fact is only fragments of rock-stone, as +calcinable gravel is of freestone. <!-- Page 229 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229"></a>[229]</span><em>Rock-stone</em> and <em>granate</em> are one +and the same substance, but I have used both denominations, because +there are many persons who make two different species of them. It is the +same with respect to flints and free-stone in large pieces; I look on +them as kinds of granate, and I call them <em>large flints</em>, because they +are disposed like calcinable stone in strata, and to distinguish them +from the flints and free-stone in small masses, and the round flints +which have no regular quarries, and whose beds have a certain extent; +these are of a modern formation, and have not the same origin as the +flints and free-stone in large lumps, which are disposed in regular +strata.</p> + +<p>I understand by the term <em>slate</em>, not only the blue, which all the world +knows, but white, grey, and red slate: these bodies are generally met +with below laminated clay, and have every appearance of being nothing +more than clay hardened in this strata. Pit coal and jet are matters +which also belong to clay, and are commonly under slate. By the word +<em>tuffa</em>, I understood not only the common pumice which appears full of +holes, and, as I may say, organized, but all the beds of stone made by +the sediment of running waters, all the stalactites, <!-- Page 230 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230"></a>[230]</span>incrustations, and +all kinds of stone that dissolve by fire. It is no ways doubtful that +these matters are not modern, and that they every day grow. Tuffa is +only a mass of lapidific matter in which we perceive no distinct strata: +this matter is disposed generally in small hollow cylinders, irregularly +grouped and formed by waters dropt at the foot of mountains, or on the +slope of hills, which contain beds of marl or soft and calcareous earth; +these cylinders, which make one of the specific characters of this kind +of tuffa, is either oblique or vertical according to the direction of +the streams or water which form them. These sort of spurious quarries +have no continuation; their extent is very confined, and proportionate +to the height of the mountains which furnish them with the matter of +their growth. The tuffa every day receiving lapidific juices, those +small cylindrical columns, between which intervals are left, close at +last, and the whole becomes one compact body, but never acquires the +hardness of stone, and is what Agricola terms <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Marga tofocea fistulosa</i>. +In this tuffa are generally found impressions of leaves, trees, and +plants, like those which grow in the environs: terrestrial shells also +are often met with, but never any of the <!-- Page 231 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231"></a>[231]</span>marine kind. The tuffa is +certainly therefore a new matter, which must be ranked with stalactites, +incrustations, &c. all these new matters are kinds of spurious stones, +formed at the expence of the rest, but which never arrive at true +petrification.</p> + +<p>Crystal, precious stones, and all those which have a regular figure, +even small flints formed by concentrical beds, whether found in +perpendicular cavities of rocks, or elsewhere, are only exudations of +large flints, or concrete juices of the like matters, and are therefore +spurious stones, and real stalactites of flint or rock.</p> + +<p>Shells are never found either in rock, granate, or free-stone, although +they are often met with in vitrifiable sand, from which these matters +derive their origin; this seems to prove that sand cannot unite to form +free-stone or rock but when it is pure, and that if it is mixed with +shells or substances of other kinds, which are heterogeneous to it, its +union is prevented. I have observed the little pebbles which are often +found in beds of sand mixed with shells, but never found any shell +therein: these pebbles are real concretions of free-stone formed in the +sand in the places where it is not <!-- Page 232 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232"></a>[232]</span>mixed with heterogeneous matters +which oppose the formation of larger masses.</p> + +<p>We have before observed, that at Amsterdam, which is a very low country, +sea shells were found at 100 feet below the earth, and at +Marly-la-Ville, six miles from Paris, at 75 feet; we likewise meet with +the same at the bottom of mines, and in banks of rocks, beneath a height +of stone 50, 100, 200, and 1000 feet thick, as is apparent in the Alps +and Pyrennees, where, in the lower beds, shells and other marine +productions are constantly found. But to proceed in order, we find +shells on the mountains of Spain, France, and England; in all the marble +quarries of Flanders, in the mountains of Gueldres, in all hills around +Paris, Burgundy, and Champagne; in one word, in every place where the +basis of the soil is not free-stone or tuffa; and in most of these +places there are more shells than other matters in the substance of the +stones. By <em>shells</em>, I mean not only the wrecks of shell-fish, but those +of crustaceous animals, the bristles of sea hedge-hogs, and all +productions of the sea insects, as coral, madrepores, astroites, &c. We +may easily be convinced by inspection, that in most calculable stones +and marble, there is so <!-- Page 233 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233"></a>[233]</span>great a quantity of these marine productions +that they appear to surpass the matter which unites them.</p> + +<p>But let us proceed; we meet with these marine productions even on the +tops of the highest mountains; for example, on Mount Cenis, in the +mountains of Genes, in the Apennines, and in most of the stone and +marble quarries in Italy; also in the stones of the most ancient +edifices of the Romans; in the mountains of Tirol; in the centre of +Italy, on the summits of Mount Paterne, near Bologna; in the hills of +Calabria; in many parts of Germany and Hungary, and generally in all the +high parts of Europe<a name="FNanchor_233:A_27" id="FNanchor_233:A_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_233:A_27" class="fnanchor">[233:A]</a>.</p> + +<p>In Asia and Africa, travellers have remarked them in several parts; for +example, on the mountains of Castravan, above Barut, there is a bed of +white stone as thin as slate, each leaf of which contains a great number +and diversity of fishes; they lie for the most part very flat and +compressed, as does the fossil fearn-plants, but they are +notwithstanding so well preserved, that the smallest traces of the fins, +scales, and all the parts which distinguish each kind of fish, are +perfectly visible. So likewise we find many <!-- Page 234 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234"></a>[234]</span>sea muscles, and petrified +shells between Suez and Cairo, and on all the hills and eminences of +Barbary; the greatest part are conformable to the kinds at present +caught in the Red Sea<a name="FNanchor_234:A_28" id="FNanchor_234:A_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_234:A_28" class="fnanchor">[234:A]</a>. In Europe, we meet with petrified fish in +Sweden and Germany, and in the quarry of Oningen, &c.</p> + +<p>The long chain of mountains, says Bourguet, which extends from Portugal +to the most eastern parts of China, the mountains of Africa and America, +and the vallies of Europe, all inclose stones filled with shell-fish, +and from hence, he says, we may conclude the same of all the other parts +of the world unknown to us.</p> + +<p>The islands in Europe, Asia, and America, where men have had occasion to +dig, whether in mountains or plains, furnish examples of fossil shells, +which evince that they have that in common with the bordering +continents.</p> + +<p>Here then is sufficient facts to prove that sea shells, petrified fish, +and other marine productions are to be found in almost every place we +are disposed to seek them.</p> + +<p>"It is certain, says an English author (Tancred Robinson), that there +have been sea-shells dispersed on the earth by armies, and the +<!-- Page 235 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235"></a>[235]</span>inhabitants of towns and villages, and that Loubere relates in his +Voyage to Siam, that the monkies of the Cape of Good Hope, continually +amuse themselves with carrying shells from the sea shores to the tops of +the mountains; but that cannot resolve the question, why these shells +are dispersed over all the earth, and even in the interior parts of +mountains, where they are deposited in beds like those in the bottom of +the sea."</p> + +<p>On reading an Italian letter on the changes happened to the terrestrial +globe, printed at Paris in the year 1746, I was surprised to find these +sentiments of Loubere exactly corresponded. Petrified fish, according to +this writer, are only fish rejected from the Roman tables, because they +were not esteemed wholesome; and with respect to fossil-shells, he says +the pilgrims of Syria brought, during the times of the Crusades, those +of the Levant Sea, into France, Italy, and other Christian states; why +has he not added that it was the monkies who transported the shells to +the tops of these mountains, which were never inhabited by men? This +would not have spoiled but rendered his explanation still more +probable.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 236 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236"></a>[236]</span>How comes it that enlightened persons, who pique themselves on +philosophy, have such various ideas on this subject? But doing so, we +shall not content ourselves with having said that petrified shells are +found in almost every part of the earth which has been dug, nor with +having related the testimonies of authors of natural history; as it +might be suspected, that with a view of some system, they perceived +shells where there were none; but quote the authority of some authors, +who merely remarked them accidentally, and whose observations went no +farther than recognising those that were whole and in the best +preservation. Their testimony will perhaps be of a still greater +authority with people who have it not in their power to be assured of +the truth of these facts, and who know not the difference between shells +and petrifications.</p> + +<p>All the world may see the banks of shells in the hills in the environs +of Pans, especially in the quarries of stone, as at ChaussĂ©e, near SĂ©ve, +at Issy, Passy, and elsewhere. We find a great quantity of lenticular +stones at Villers-Cotterets; these rocks are entirely formed thereof, +and they are blended without any order with a kind of stony mortar, +which binds them <!-- Page 237 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237"></a>[237]</span>together. At Chaumont so great a quantity of petrified +shells are found that the hills appear to be composed of nothing else. +It is the same at Courtagnon, near Rheims, where there is a bank of +shells near four leagues broad, and whose length is considerably more. I +mention these places as being famous and striking the eye of every +beholder.</p> + +<p>With respect to foreign countries, here follows the observations of some +travellers:</p> + +<p>"In Syria and PhÅ“nicia, the rocks, particularly in the neighbourhood +of Latikea, are a kind of chalky substance, and it is perhaps from +thence that the city has taken the name of the white promontory. +Nakoura, anciently termed Scala Tyriorum, or the Tyrians Ladder, is +nearly of the same nature, and we still find there, by digging, +quantities of all sorts of shells, corals, and other remains of the +deluge<a name="FNanchor_237:A_29" id="FNanchor_237:A_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_237:A_29" class="fnanchor">[237:A]</a>."</p> + +<p>On mount Sinai, we find only a few fossil shells, and other marks of the +deluge, at least if we do not rank the fossil Tarmarin of the +neighbouring mountains of Siam among this number, perhaps the first +matter of which their <!-- Page 238 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238"></a>[238]</span>marble is formed, had a corrosive virtue not +proper to preserve them. But at Corondel, where the rocks approach +nearer our free-stone, I found many shells, as also a very singular sea +muscle, of the descoid kind, but closer and rounder. The ruins of the +little village Ain le Mousa, and many canals which conduct the water +thereto, furnish numbers of fossil shells. The ancient walls of Suez, +and what yet remains of its harbour, have been constructed of the same +materials, which seem to have been taken from the same quarry. Between, +as well as on all the mountains, eminences and hills of Lybia, near +Egypt, we meet with a great quantity of sea weed, as well as vivalvous +shells, and of these which terminate in a point, most of which are +exactly conformable to the kinds at present caught in the Red Sea.</p> + +<p>The moving sand in the neighbourhood of Ras Sem, in the kingdom of +Barca, covers many palm trees with petrifications. Ras Sem signifies the +head of a fish, and is what we term the petrified village, where it is +said men, women, and children are found, who with their cattle, +furniture, &c. have been converted into stone; but these, says Shaw, are +vain tales and fables, as I have not only learnt from M. le <!-- Page 239 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239"></a>[239]</span>Maire, who +at the time he was Consul at Tripoly, sent several persons thither to +take cognizance of it, but also from very respectable persons who had +been at those places.</p> + +<p>Near the pyramids certain pieces of stone worked by the sculptor, were +found by Mr. Shaw, and among these stones many rude ones of the figure +and size of lentils; some even resemble barley half-peeled; these, he +says, were reported to be the remains of what the workmen ate, but which +does not appear probable, &c. These lentils and barley are nothing but +petrified shells called by naturalists lentil stones.</p> + +<p>According to Misson, several sorts of these shell-fish are found in the +environs of Maestricht, especially towards the village of Zicken, or +Tichen, and at the little mountain called Huns. In the environs of +Sienna, near Ceraldo, are many mountains of sand crammed with divers +sorts of shells. Montemario, a mile from Rome, is entirely filled with +them; I have seen them in the Alps, France, and elsewhere. Olearius, +Steno, Cambden, Speed, and a number of other authors, as well ancient as +modern, relate the same phenomena.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 240 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240"></a>[240]</span>"The island of Cerigo, says Thevenot, was anciently called Porphyris, +from the quantity of Porphyry which was taken out of it<a name="FNanchor_240:A_30" id="FNanchor_240:A_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_240:A_30" class="fnanchor">[240:A]</a>.</p> + +<p>"Opposite the village of Inchene, and on the eastern shore of the Nile, +I found petrified plants, which grow naturally in a space about two +leagues long, by a very moderate breadth; this is one of the most +singular productions of nature. These plants resemble the white coral +found in the Red Sea<a name="FNanchor_240:B_31" id="FNanchor_240:B_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_240:B_31" class="fnanchor">[240:B]</a>."</p> + +<p>"There are petrifications of divers kinds on Mount Libanus, and among +others flat stones, where the skeletons of fish are found well preserved +and entire; red chesnuts and small branches of coral, the same as grow +in the Red Sea, are also found on this mountain."</p> + +<p>"On Mount Carmel we find a great quantity of hollow stones, which have +something of the figure of melons, peaches, and other fruits, which are +said to be so petrified: they are commonly sold to pilgrims, not only as +mere curiosities, but also as remedies against many disorders. The +olives which are the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lapides jadaici</i>, are to be met with at the +druggists, and <!-- Page 241 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241"></a>[241]</span>have always been looked upon, when dissolved in the +juice of lemon, as a specific for the stone and gravel."</p> + +<p>"M. la Roche, a physician, gave me some of these petrified olives, which +grew in great plenty in these mountains, where I am told are found other +stones, the inside of which perfectly resemble the natural parts of men +and women. These are Hysterolithes."</p> + +<p>"In going from Smyrna to Tauris, when we were at Tocat, says Tavernier, +the heat was so great, as obliged us to quit the common road, and go by +the mountains, where there is constantly shade and refreshing air. In +many places we found snow and a quantity of very fine sorrel, and on the +top of some of those mountains we found shells like those upon the sea +shores, which was very extraordinary."</p> + +<p>Here follows what Olearius says on the subject of petrified shells, +which he remarked in Persia, and in the rocks where the sepulchres are +cut out, near to the village of Pyrmaraus:</p> + +<p>"We were three in company that ascended to the top of the rock by the +most frightful precipices, mutually assisting each other; having gained +the summit, we found four large <!-- Page 242 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242"></a>[242]</span>chambers, and within many niches cut in +the rocks to serve for beds: but what the most surprised us was to find +in this vault, on the top of the mountain, muscle shells; and in some +places they were in such great quantities, that the whole rock appeared +to be composed only of sand and shells. Returning to Persia, we +perceived many of these shelly mountains along the coast of the Caspian +sea."</p> + +<p>To these I could subjoin many other authorities which I suppress, not +willing to tire those who have no need of superabundant proofs, and who +are convinced by their sight, as I have been, of the existence of shells +wherever we chuse to seek for them.</p> + +<p>In France, we not only find the shells of the French coast, but also +such as have never been seen in those seas. Some philosophers assert, +that the quantity of these foreign petrified shells is much greater than +those of our climate; but I think this opinion unfounded; for, +independent of the shell-fish which inhabit the bottom of the sea, and +are seldom brought up by the fishermen, and which consequently may be +looked on as foreigners, although they exist in our seas, I see, by +comparing the petrifactions with the living analagous animals, <!-- Page 243 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243"></a>[243]</span>there +are more of those of our coasts than of others: for example, most of the +cockles, muscles, oysters, ear-shells, limpets, nautili, stars, +tubulites, corals, madrepores, &c. found in so many places, are +certainly the productions of our seas; and though a great number appear +which are foreign or unknown, the cornu ammonis, the lapides juduica, +&c. yet I am convinced, from repeated observations, that the number of +these kinds is small in comparison with the shells of our own coasts: +besides, what composes the bottom of almost all our marble and +lime-stone but madrepores, astroites, and all those other productions +which are formed by sea insects, and formerly called marine plants? +Shells, however abundant, form only a small part of these productions, +many of which originate in our seas, and particularly in the +Mediterranean.</p> + +<p>The Red sea produces corals, madrepores, and marine plants in the +greatest abundance: no part furnishes a greater variety than the port of +Tor; in calm weather so great a quantity present themselves, that the +bottom of the sea resembles a forest; some of the branched madrepores +are eight or ten feet high. In the Mediterranean sea, at Marseilles, +near the <!-- Page 244 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244"></a>[244]</span>coasts of Italy and Sicily; in most of the gulphs of the +ocean, around islands, on banks, and in all temperate climates, where +the sea is but of a moderate depth, they are very common.</p> + +<p>M. Peyssonel was the first who discovered that corals, madrepores, &c. +owed their origin to animals, and were not plants as had been supposed. +The observation of M. Peyssonel was a long time doubted; some +naturalists, at first, rejected it with a kind of disdain, nevertheless +they have been obliged since to acknowledge its truth, and the whole +world is at length satisfied that these formerly supposed marine plants, +are nothing but hives or cells formed by insects, in which they live as +fish do in their shells. These bodies were, at first, placed in the +class of minerals, then passed into that of vegetables, and now remain +fixed in that of animals, the genuine operations of which they must ever +be considered.</p> + +<p>There are shell-fish which live at the bottom of the sea, and which are +never cast on the shore; authors call them Pelogiæ, to distinguish them +from the others which they call Litterales. It is to be supposed the +cornu ammonis, and some other kinds that are only found <!-- Page 245 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245"></a>[245]</span>in a petrified +state, belong to the former, and that they were filled with the stony +sediment in the very places they are found. There might also have been +certain animals, whose species are perished, and of which number this +shell-fish might be ranked. The extraordinary fossil bones found in +Siberia, Canada, Ireland, and many other places, seem to confirm this +conjecture, for no animal has hitherto been discovered to whom such +bones could belong, as they are, for the most part, of an enormous size.</p> + +<p>These shells, according to Woodward, are met with from the top to the +bottom of quarries, pits, and at the bottom of the deepest mines of +Hungary. And Mr. Ray assures us, they are found a thousand feet deep in +the rocks which border the isle of Calda, and in Pembrokeshire in +England.</p> + +<p>Shells are not only found in a petrified state, at great depths, and at +the tops of the highest mountains, but there are some met with in their +natural condition, and which have the gloss, colours, and lightness of +sea-shells; and to convince ourselves entirely of this matter, we have +only to compare them with those found on the sea shores. A slight +examination will prove <!-- Page 246 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246"></a>[246]</span>that these fossil and petrified shells are the +same as those of the sea; they are marked with the same articulations +and in the glossopetri, and other teeth of fishes, which are sometimes +found adhering to the jaw-bone, the teeth of the fish are remarked to be +smooth and worn at the extremities, and that they have been made use of +when the animals were alive.</p> + +<p>Almost every where on land we meet with fossil-shells, and of those of +the same kind, some are small, others large, some young, others old; +some imperfect, others extremely perfect and we likewise sometimes see +the young ones adhering to the old.</p> + +<p>The shell-fish called <i>purpura</i> has a long tongue, the extremity of +which is bony, and so sharp, that it pierces the shells of other fish; +by which means it draws nutriment from them. Shells pierced in this +manner are frequently found in the earth, which is an incontestible +proof that they formerly inclosed living fish, and existed in those +parts where there were the Purpura.</p> + +<p>The obelisks of St. Peter's at Rome, according to John of Latran, were +said to come from the pyramids of Egypt; they are of red granite, which +is a kind of rock-stone, and, as <!-- Page 247 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247"></a>[247]</span>we have observed, contains no shells; +but the African and Egyptian marble, and the porphyry said to have been +cut from the temple of Solomon, and the palaces of the kings of Egypt, +and used at Rome in different buildings, are filled with shells. Red +porphyry is composed of an infinite number of prickles of the species of +echinus, or sea chesnut; they are placed pretty near each other, and +form all the small white spots which are in the porphyry. Each of these +white spots has a black one in its centre, which is the section of the +longitudinal tube of the prickles of the echinus. At Fichen, three +leagues from Dijon, in Burgundy, is a red stone perfectly similar in its +composition to porphyry, and which differs from it only in hardness, not +being more so than marble; it appears almost formed of prickles of the +echini, and its beds are of a very great extent. Many beautiful pieces +of workmanship have been made of it in this province, and particularly +the steps of the pedestal of the equestrian statue of Louis le Grand, at +Dijon.</p> + +<p>This species of stone is also found at Montbard, in Burgundy, where +there is an extensive quarry; it is not so hard as marble, contains more +of the echini, and less of the red matter. <!-- Page 248 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248"></a>[248]</span>From this it appears that +the ancient porphyry of Egypt differs only from that of Burgundy in the +degree of hardness, and the number of the points of the echini.</p> + +<p>With respect to what the curious call green porphyry, I rather suppose +it to be a granite than a porphyry; it is not composed of spots like the +red porphyry, and its substance appears to be similar to that of a +common granite. In Tuscany, in the stone with which the ancient walls of +Volatera were built, there are a great quantity of shells, and this wall +was built 2500 years ago. Most marbles, porphyries, and other stones of +the most ancient buildings, contain shells and other wrecks of marine +productions, as well as the marble we at present take from the quarry; +therefore it cannot be doubted, independent even of the sacred testimony +of holy writ, that before the deluge the earth was composed of the same +materials at it is at present.</p> + +<p>From all these facts it is plain that petrified shells are found in +Europe, Asia, Africa, and in every place where the observations have +been made; they are also found in America, in the Brasils; for example, +in Tucumama, in Terra Magellinica, and in such a great quantity in the +<!-- Page 249 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249"></a>[249]</span>Antilles, that directly below the cultivable land, the bottom of which +the inhabitants call lime, is nothing but a composition of shells, +madrepores, astroites, and other productions of the sea. These facts +would have made me think that shells and other petrified marine +productions were to be found in the greatest part of the continent of +America, and especially in the mountains, as Woodward asserts; but M. +Condamine, who lived several years at Peru, has assured me he could not +discover any in the Cordeliers, although he had carefully sought for +them. This exception would be singular, and the consequences that might +be drawn from it would be still more so; but I own that, in spite of the +testimony of this celebrated naturalist, I am much inclined to suppose, +that in the mountains of Peru, as well as elsewhere, there are shells +and other marine petrifications, although they have not been discovered. +It is well known, that in matter of testimonies, two positive witnesses, +who assert to have seen a thing, is sufficient to make a complete proof; +whereas ten thousand negative witnesses, and who can only assert not to +have seen a thing, can only raise a slight doubt. This reason, united +with the strength of analogy, induces me to persist in <!-- Page 250 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250"></a>[250]</span>thinking the +shells will be found on the mountains of Peru, especially if we search +for them on the rise of the mountain, and not at the summit.</p> + +<p>The tops of the highest mountains are generally composed of rock, stone +granite, and other vitrifiable matters, which contain no shells.</p> + +<p>All these matters were formed out of the beds of the sand of the sea, +which covered the tops of these mountains. When the sea left them, the +sand and other light bodies were carried by the waters into the plains, +so that there remained only rocks on the tops of the mountains, which +had been formed under those beds of sand. At two, three, or four hundred +fathoms below the tops of these mountains, are often found marble and +other calcinable matter, which are disposed in parallel strata, and +contain shells and other marine productions; therefore it is not +surprising that M. de la Condamine did not find any shells on these +mountains, especially if he sought for them in the elevated parts of +those mountains which are composed of rock, free-stone, or vitrifiable +sand; but had he examined the lower parts of the Cordeliers, he would +undoubtedly have found strata of stone, marble, earth, &c. mixed with +shells; for in every country where observations have <!-- Page 251 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251"></a>[251]</span>been made, such +beds have always been met with.</p> + +<p>But suppose that in fact there are no marine productions in the +mountains of Peru, all that may be concluded from it will no ways affect +our theory; and it might be possible, that there are some parts of the +globe which never were covered with water, especially of such elevation +as the Cordeliers. But in this case there might be some curious +observations made on those mountains, for they would not be composed of +parallel strata, the materials also would be very different from those +we are acquainted with; they would not have perpendicular cracks; the +composition of the rocks and stones would not at all resemble those of +other countries; and lastly, in these mountains we should find the +ancient structure of the earth such as it originally was before it was +changed by the motion of the waters; we should see the first state of +the globe, the old matters of which it was composed, its form, and the +natural arrangement of its parts; but this is too much to expect, and on +too slight foundations; and it is more conformable to reason to conclude +that fossil-shells are to be found in those mountains, as well as in +every other place.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 252 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252"></a>[252]</span>With respect to the manner in which shells are placed in the strata of +earth or sand, Woodward says, "All shells that are met with in an +infinity of strata of earth, and banks of rocks, in the highest +mountains, and in the deepest quarries and mines, in flints, &c. &c. in +masses of sulphur, marcasites, and other metallic and mineral bodies, +are filled with similar substances to that which includes them, and +never any heterogeneous matter, &c.</p> + +<p>"In the sand stones of all countries (the specific weight of the +different kinds of which vary but little, being generally with respect +to water as 2-1/2 or 9/16 to 1), we find only the conchae, and other +shells which are nearly of the same weight, but they are usually found +in very great numbers, whereas it is very rare to meet with +oyster-shells (whose specific weight is but as 2-1/3 to 1), or sea +cockles (whose weight is but as 2 or 2-1/8 to 1), or other sorts of +lighter shells; but on the contrary in chalk, (which is lighter than +stone, being to water but as 2-1/10 to 1), we find only cockles and +other kinds of lighter shells, page 32, 33."</p> + +<p>It must be remarked, that what Woodward says in this place with respect +to specific gravity, must not be looked upon as a general <!-- Page 253 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253"></a>[253]</span>rule, for we +find lighter and heavier shells in the same matters; for example, shells +of cockles, of oysters, of echini, &c. are found in the same stones and +earth; and even in the royal cabinet may be seen a petrified cockle in a +cornelian, and echini petrified in an agate, &c. therefore the specific +weight of the shells has not influenced so much as Woodward supposes +their position in the earth. The reason why such light shells are found +more abundantly in chalk is, that chalk is only the ruinated part of +shells, and that those of the echini being lighter and thinner than +others, would have been most easily reduced into powder or chalk, so +that the strata of chalk are only met with in the places where formerly +a great abundance of these light shells were collected, the destruction +of which formed that chalk, in which we find those shells, which having +resisted the frictions, are preserved entire, or at least in parts large +enough to discover their species.</p> + +<p>But this subject is treated more fully in our discourse on minerals; we +shall here content ourselves with saying, that a modification must be +given to Woodward's expressions: he seems to say, that shells are found +in flints, cornelians, in ores, and sulphur, as often, and in as great +a <!-- Page 254 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254"></a>[254]</span>number as in other matters; whereas the truth is, that they are very +rare in all vitrifiable or purely inflammable substances; and, on the +contrary, are in prodigious abundance in chalk, marl, and marbles, +insomuch that we cannot absolutely pretend to say, that the lightest and +heaviest shells are found in corresponding strata, but only that in +general they are oftener found so than otherwise. They are all filled +with the substance which surrounds them, whether found in horizontal +strata or in perpendicular fissures, because both have been formed by +the waters, although at different times and in different manners. Those +found in horizontal strata of stone, marble, &c. have been deposited by +the motion of the waves of the sea, and those in flints, cornelians, and +all matters which are in the perpendicular fissures, have been produced +by the particular motion of a small quantity of water, loaded with +lapidific or metallic substances. In both cases these matters were +reduced into a fine and impalpable powder, which has filled the shells +so fully and absolutely, as not to have left the least vacuum.</p> + +<p>There is therefore in stone, marble, &c. a great multitude of shells +which are whole, beautiful, and so little changed, that they may <!-- Page 255 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255"></a>[255]</span>be +easily compared with the shells preserved in cabinets, or found on the +sea shores.</p> + +<p>Woodward, in pages 23 and 24, proceeds, "There are, besides these, great +multitudes of shells contained in stones, &c. which are entire and +absolutely free from any such mineral mixture; which may be compared +with those at this time seen on our shores, and which will be found not +to have any difference, being precisely of the same figure and size; of +the same substance and texture as the peculiar matter which composes +them is the same, and is disposed and arranged in the same manner; the +direction of their fibres and spiral lines are the same, the composition +of the small lama formed by their fibres is the same in the one as the +other; we see in the same part vestigia of tendons, by means of which +the animal was fastened and joined to its shell; we see the same +tubercles, stria and pipes; in short, the whole is alike, whether within +or without the shell, in its cavity or on its convexity, in its +substance or on its superficies. In other respects these fossil +shell-fish are subject to the same common accidents as those of the sea; +for example, they sometimes grow to one another, the least are adherent +to the large; they have vermicular <!-- Page 256 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256"></a>[256]</span>conduits; pearls are found therein, +and other similar matters which have been produced by the animal when it +inhabited its shell; and what is very considerable, their specific +gravity is exactly the same as that of their kind found actually in the +sea; in all chymical experiments they answer exactly with sea-shells; +when dissolved they have the same appearance, smell and taste; in a +word, their resemblance is perfectly exact."</p> + +<p>I have often observed with astonishment, as I have already said, whole +mountains, chains of rocks, enormous banks of quarries, so full of +shells and other wrecks of marine productions, that their bulk surpassed +that of the matter in which they were deposited.</p> + +<p>I have seen cultivated fields so full of petrified cockles that a man +might pick them up with his eyes shut, others covered with cornu +ammonis, and some with cardites; and the more we examine the earth, the +more we shall be convinced that the number of these petrifications is +infinite, and conclude, that it is impossible that all the animals which +inhabited these shells existed at one time.</p> + +<p>I have made an observation, that in all countries where we find a very +great number of <!-- Page 257 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257"></a>[257]</span>petrified shells in the cultivated lands which are +whole, well preserved, and totally apart, have been divided by the +action of the frost, which destroys the stone and suffers the petrified +shells to subsist a longer time.</p> + +<p>This immense quantity of marine fossils found in so many places, proves +that they could not have been transported thither by the deluge; for if +these shells had been brought on the earth by a deluge, the greatest +part would have remained on the surface of the earth, or at least would +not have entered to the depth of seven or eight hundred feet in the most +solid marble.</p> + +<p>In all quarries these shells form a share of the internal part of the +stone, sometimes externally covered with stalactites, which is much less +ancient matter than stone, which contains shells. Another proof this +happened not by a deluge is, that bones, horns, claws, &c. of land +animals, are found but very rarely, and not at all in marble and other +hard stone whereas if it was the effect of a deluge, where all must have +perished, we should meet with the remains of land animals as well as +those of the sea.</p> + +<p>It is a vain supposition to pretend that all the earth was dissolved at +the deluge, nor can <!-- Page 258 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258"></a>[258]</span>we give any foundation to such idea, but by +supposing a second miracle, to give the water the property of a +universal dissolvent. Besides, what annihilates the supposition, and +renders it even contradictory, is, that if all matters were dissolved by +that water, yet shells have not been so, since we find them entire and +well preserved in all the masses which are said to have been dissolved; +this evidently proves that there never was such dissolution, and that +the arrangement of the parallel strata was not made in an instant, but +by successive sediments: for it is evident to all who will take the +trouble of observing, that the arrangement of all the materials which +compose the globe, is the work of the waters. The question therefore is +only whether this arrangement was made at once, or in a length of time: +now we have shewn it could not be done all at once, because the +materials have not kept the order of specific weight, and there has not +been a general dissolution; therefore this arrangement must have been +produced by sediments deposited in succession of time; any other +revolution, motion, or cause, would have produced a very different +arrangement. Besides, particular revolutions, or accidental causes, +could not have produced a similar effect on the whole globe.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 259 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259"></a>[259]</span>Let us see what the historian of the Academy says on this subject anno +1718, p. 3. "The numerous remains of extensive inundations, and the +manner in which we must conceive mountains to have been formed, +sufficiently proves that great revolutions have happened to the surface +of the earth. As far as we have been able to penetrate we find little +else but ruins, wrecks, and vast bodies heaped up together and +incorporated into one mass, without the smallest appearance of order or +design. If there is some kind of regular organization in the terrestrial +globe it is deeper than we have been able to examine, and all our +researches must terminate in digging among the ruins of the external +coat, but which will still find sufficient employment for our +philosophers.</p> + +<p>"M. de Jussieu found in the environs of St. Chaumont a great quantity of +slaty or foliated stones, every foliage of which was marked with the +impression of a branch, a leaf, or the fragment of a leaf of some plant: +the representations of leaves were exactly extended, as if they had been +carefully spread on the stone by the hand; this proves they had been +brought thither by the water, which always keeps leaves in that state: +they were in different situations, <!-- Page 260 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260"></a>[260]</span>sometimes two or three together. It +may easily be supposed that a leaf deposited by water upon soft mud, and +afterwards covered with another layer of mud, imprints on the upper the +image of one of its two surfaces, and on the under the image of the +other; and on being hardened and petrified would appear to have taken +different impressions; but, however natural this supposition may be, the +fact is not so, for the two laminæ of stone bear impressions of the same +side of the leaf, the one in alto, the other in bas releaf. It was M. +Jussieu who made these observations on the figured stones of St. +Chaumont; to him we shall leave the explication, and pass to objects +which are more general and interesting.</p> + +<p>"All the impressions on the stones of St. Chaumont are of foreign +plants; they are not to be found in any part of France, but only in the +East Indies or the hot climates of America; they are for the most part +capillary plants, generally of the species of fern, whose hard and +compact coat renders them more able to imprint and preserve themselves. +Some leaves of Indian plants imprinted on the stones of Germany appeared +astonishing to M. Leibnitz, but here we find the same wonderful affair +infinitely <!-- Page 261 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261"></a>[261]</span>multiplied. There even seems in this respect to be an +unaccountable destination of nature, for in all the stones of St. +Chaumont not a single plant of the country has been found.</p> + +<p>"It is certain, by the number of fossil-shells in the quarries and +mountains, that this country, as well as many others, must have formerly +been covered with the sea. But how has the American or Indian sea +reached thither? To explain this, and many other wonderful phenomena, it +may be supposed, with much probability, that the sea originally covered +the whole terrestrial globe: but this supposition will not hold good, +because how were terrestrial plants to exist? It evidently, therefore, +must have been great inundations which have conveyed the plants of one +country into the others.</p> + +<p>"M. de Jussieu thinks, that as the bed of the sea is continually rising, +in consequence of the mud and sand which the rivers incessantly convey +there, the sea, at first confined between natural dykes, surmounted +them, and was dispersed over the land, and that the dykes were +themselves undermined by the waters and overthrown therein. In the +earliest time of the formation of the earth, when no one thing had taken +a regular form, prodigious and sudden <!-- Page 262 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262"></a>[262]</span>revolutions might then have been +made, of which we no longer have examples, because the whole is now in +such a permanent state, that the changes must be inconsiderable and by +degrees.</p> + +<p>"By some of these great revolutions the East and West Indian seas may +have been driven to Europe, and carried with them foreign plants +floating on its waters, which they tore up in their road, and deposited +gently in places where the water was but shallow and would soon +evaporate."</p> + + +<div> +<hr class="footnotes" /> +<p class="sectctrfn">FOOTNOTES:</p> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_220:A_25" id="Footnote_220:A_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_220:A_25"><span class="label">[220:A]</span></a> Anno 1720; page 5.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_227:A_26" id="Footnote_227:A_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_227:A_26"><span class="label">[227:A]</span></a> A kind of soft gravelly stone.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_233:A_27" id="Footnote_233:A_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_233:A_27"><span class="label">[233:A]</span></a> On this subject see Stenon, Ray, Woodward, and others.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_234:A_28" id="Footnote_234:A_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_234:A_28"><span class="label">[234:A]</span></a> See Shaw's Voyages, Vol. ii, pages 40 and 41.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_237:A_29" id="Footnote_237:A_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_237:A_29"><span class="label">[237:A]</span></a> See Shaw's Travels.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_240:A_30" id="Footnote_240:A_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_240:A_30"><span class="label">[240:A]</span></a> Thevenot, Vol. I, page 25.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_240:B_31" id="Footnote_240:B_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_240:B_31"><span class="label">[240:B]</span></a> Voyage of Paul Lucus, Vol. II, page 380.</p> +</div> +</div> +</div> + + + + +<div> +<hr class="newchapter" /> +<h2><a name="ARTICLE_IX" id="ARTICLE_IX"></a>ARTICLE IX.<br /> + +<small>ON THE INEQUALITIES OF THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH.</small></h2> + + +<p>The inequalities which are on the surface of the earth, and which might +be regarded as an imperfection to its figure, are necessary to preserve +vegetation and life on the terrestrial globe. To be assured of this, it +is only requisite to conceive what the earth would be if it was even and +regular. Instead of agreeable <!-- Page 263 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263"></a>[263]</span>hills, from whence pure streams of waters +flow, to support the verdure of the earth; instead of those rich and +flourishing meadows, where plants and animals find agreeable +subsistence; a dismal sea would cover the whole globe, and the earth, +deprived of all its valuable qualities, would only remain an obscure and +forsaken planet, at best only destined for the abode of fishes.</p> + +<p>But independent of moral considerations, which seldom form a proof in +philosophy, there is a physical necessity why the earth must be +irregular on its surface; for supposing it was perfectly regular in its +origin, the motion of the waters, the subterraneous fires, the wind, and +other external causes, would, in course of time, have necessarily +produced irregularities similar to those now seen.</p> + +<p>The greatest inequalities next to the elevations of mountains, are the +depths of the ocean; this depth is very different even at great +distances from land; it is said there are parts above a league deep, but +those are few, and the most general depths are from 60 to 150 fathoms. +The gulphs bordering on the coasts are much less deep, and the straits +are generally the most shallow.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 264 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264"></a>[264]</span>To sound the depths of the sea, a piece of lead of 30 or 40lb. is made +use of, fastened to a small cord; this is a good method for common +depths, but is not to be depended upon when the depth is considerable; +because the cord being specifically lighter than the water, after it has +descended to a certain degree, the weight of the lead and that of the +cord is no more than a like volume of water; then the lead descends no +longer, but moves in an oblique line, and floats at the same depth: to +sound great depths, therefore, an iron chain is requisite, or some +substance heavier than water. It is very probable that for want of +considering this circumstance, navigators tell us that the sea in many +places has no bottom.</p> + +<p>In general, the profundities in open seas increase or diminish in a +pretty uniform manner, and commonly the farther from shore the greater +the depth; yet this is not without exception, there are places in the +midst of the sea where shoals are found, as at Abrolhos in the Atlantic; +and others where there are banks of a very considerable extent, as are +daily experienced by the navigators to the East Indies.</p> + +<p>So likewise along shore the depths are very unequal, nevertheless we may +lay it down as a <!-- Page 265 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265"></a>[265]</span>certain rule, that the depth there is always +proportionate to the height of that shore. It is the same in great +rivers, where the high shores always announce a great depth.</p> + +<p>It is more easy to measure the heights of mountains, whether by means of +practical geometry, or by the barometer. This instrument gives the +height of a mountain very exactly, especially in a country where its +variation is not considerable, as at Peru, and under the other parts of +the equator. By one or other of these methods, the height of most +eminences has been measured; for example, it has been found that the +highest mountains of Switzerland are about 1600 fathoms higher than +Canigau, which is one of the most elevated of the Pyrennees; those +mountains appear to be the highest in Europe, since a great quantity of +rivers flow from them, which carry their water into very remote and +different seas, as the Po, which flows into the Adriatic; the Rhine, +which loses itself in the sands in Holland; the Rhone, which falls into +the Mediterranean; and the Danube, which goes to the Black Sea. These +four rivers, whose mouths are so remote from each other, all derive a +part of their waters from Mount Saint Godard and the neighbouring +mountain, which <!-- Page 266 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266"></a>[266]</span>proves that this place is the highest in all Europe. +The highest mountains in Asia are Mount Taurus, Mount Imaus, Caucasus, +and the mountains of Japan, all which are loftier than those of Europe; +the mountains in Africa, as the Great Atlas, and the mountains of the +Moon, are at least as high as those in Asia, and the highest of all are +in South America, particularly those of Peru, which are more than 3000 +fathoms above the level of the sea. In general the mountains between the +tropics are loftier than those of the temperate zones, and these more +than the frigid zones, so that the nearer we approach the equator, the +greater are the inequalities of the earth. These inequalities, although +very considerable with respect to us, are scarcely any thing when +considered with respect to the whole globe. Three thousand fathom +difference to 3000 leagues diameter, is but one fathom to a league, or +one foot to 2200 feet, which on a globe of 2-1/2 feet diameter, does not +make the 16th part of a French line. Thus the earth, which appears to us +crossed and intersected by the enormous height of mountains, and by a +frightful depth of sea, is nevertheless, relative to its size, but +slightly furrowed with irregularities, so very trifling, that they can +<!-- Page 267 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267"></a>[267]</span>cause no difference to the general figure of the globe. In continents +the mountains are continued and form chains. In islands, they are more +interrupted, and generally raised above the sea, in the forms of cones +or pyramids, and are called peaks. The peak of Teneriffe, in the island +of Fer, is one of the highest mountains on the earth; it is near a +league and a half perpendicular above the level of the sea; the peak of +St. George, in one of the Azores, and the peak of Adam, in the island of +Ceylon, are also very lofty. These peaks are composed of rocks, heaped +one upon the other, and they vomit from their summits fire, cinders, +bitumen, minerals, and stones. There are islands which are only tops of +mountains, as of St. Helena, Ascension, most of the Azores, and +Canaries. We must remark, that in most of the islands, promontories, and +other projecting lands in the sea, the middle is always the highest; and +they are generally separated by chains of mountains, which divide them +in their greatest length, as (Gransbain) the Grampian mountains in +Scotland, which extend from east to west, and divide Great Britain into +two parts. It is the same with the islands of Sumatra, Lucca, Borneo, +Celebes, <!-- Page 268 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268"></a>[268]</span>Cuba, St. Domingo, and the peninsula of Malaya, &c. and also +Italy, which is traversed through its whole length by the Apennine +mountains.</p> + +<p>Mountains, as we find, differ greatly in height; the hills are lowest, +after them come the mountains of a moderate height, which are followed +by a third rank still higher, which, like the preceding, are generally +loaded with trees and plants, but which furnish no springs except at +their bottoms. In the highest mountains we find only sand, stones, +flints, and rocks, whose summits often rise above the clouds. Exactly at +the foot of these rocks there are small spaces, plains, hollows, and +kinds of vallies, where the rain, snow, and ice remain, and form ponds, +morasses, and springs, from whence rivers derive their origin.</p> + +<p>The form of mountains is also very different: some form chains whose +height is nearly equal in a long extent of soil, others are divided by +deep vallies; some are regular, and others as irregular as possible; and +sometimes in the middle of a valley or plain, we find a little mountain. +There are also two sorts of plains, the one in the low lands, the other +in mountains. The first are generally divided by some <!-- Page 269 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269"></a>[269]</span>large river: the +others, though of a very considerable extent, are dry, and at farthest +have only a small rivulet. These plains on mountains are often very +high, and difficult of access; they form countries above other +countries, as in Auvergne, Savoy, and many other high places: the soil +is firm, and produces much grass, and odoriferous plants, which render +these plains the best pasture in the world.</p> + +<p>The summits of high mountains are composed of rocks of different +heights, which resemble from a distance the waves of the sea. It is not +on this observation alone we can rely that the mountains have been +formed by the waves, I only relate it because it accords with the rest: +but that which evidently proves that the sea once covered and formed +mountains, are the shells and other marine productions found throughout +in such great quantities, that it is not possible for them to have been +transported by the sea into such remote continents, and deposited to +such considerable depths; to this may be added, the horizontal and +parallel strata every where met with, and which can only have been +formed by the waters. The composition even of the hardest matters, as +stone and marble, prove they had been <!-- Page 270 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270"></a>[270]</span>reduced into fine powder before +their formation, and precipitated to the bottom of the water in form of +a sediment: it is also proved by the exactness with which fossil-shells +are moulded in those matters in which they are found; the inside of +these shells are absolutely filled with the same matters as that in +which they are enclosed; the corresponding angles of mountains and +hills, which no other cause than the currents of the sea could have been +able to form; the equality in the height of opposite hills, and beds of +different matters, formed at the same levels, and, in short, the +direction of mountains, whose chains extend in length in the same +direction as the waves of the sea extend, incontestibly demonstrate the +fact.</p> + +<p>With respect to the depths on the surface of the earth, the greatest, +without contradiction, are the depths of the sea; but as they do not +present themselves to our sight, and as we can only judge of them by the +plumb line, we shall only speak of those which appear on dry land, such +as the deep vallies between mountains, the precipices between rocks, the +abysses perceived from the tops of mountains, as the abyss of Mount +Ararat, the precipices of the Alps, the vallies of the Pyrennees, &c. +<!-- Page 271 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271"></a>[271]</span>These depths are a natural consequence of the elevation of mountains; +they receive the waters and the earth which flow from the mountains, and +the soil is generally very fertile, and are fully inhabited.</p> + +<p>The precipices which are between rocks are frequently formed by the +sinking of one side, the base of which sometimes gives way more on one +side than the other, by the action of the air and frost, which splits +and divides them, or by the impetuous violence of torrents. But these +abysses, or vast and enormous precipices, found at the summits of +mountains, and to the bottom of which it is not possible sometimes to +descend, although they are above a mile, or a mile and a half round, +have been formed by the fire. These were formerly the funnels of +volcanos, and all the matter which is there deficient has been ejected +by the action and explosion of these fires, which are since extinguished +through a defect of combustible matter. The abyss of Mount Ararat, of +which M. Tournefort gives a description in his voyage to the Levant, is +surrounded with black and burnt rocks, as one day the abysses of Etna, +Vesuvius, and other volcanos, will be, <!-- Page 272 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272"></a>[272]</span>when they have consumed all the +combustible matters they include.</p> + +<p>In Plots' Natural History of Staffordshire, in England, a kind of gulph +is spoken of which has been sounded to the depth of 2600 perpendicular +feet without meeting with any water, or the bottom being found, as the +rope was not of sufficient length to reach it.</p> + +<p>Greatest cavities and deepest mines are generally in mountains, and they +never descend to a level with the plains, therefore by these cavities we +are only acquainted with the inside of a mountain, and not with the +internal part of the globe itself.</p> + +<p>Besides, these depths are not very considerable. Ray asserts that the +deepest mines are not above half a mile deep. The mine of Cotteberg, +which in the time of Agricola passed for the deepest of all known mines, +was only 2500 feet perpendicular. It is evident there are holes in +certain places, as that in Staffordshire, or Pool's Hole, in Derbyshire, +the depth of which is perhaps greater; but all this is nothing in +comparison with the thickness of the globe.</p> + +<p>If the kings of Egypt, instead of having erected pyramids, and raised +such sumptuous <!-- Page 273 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273"></a>[273]</span>monuments of their riches and vanity, had been at the +same expence to sound the earth, and make a deep excavation to the depth +of a league, they, perhaps, might have found substances which would have +amply recompensed the trouble, labour, and expence, or at least we +should have received information on the matters of which the internal +part of the globe is composed, which might have been very useful, and +which we at present have not.</p> + +<p>But let us return to the mountains; the highest are in the southern +countries, and the nearer we approach the equator, the more inequalities +we find on the surface of the globe. This is easy to prove, by a short +enumeration of the mountains and islands.</p> + +<p>In America, the chain of the Cordeliers, the highest mountains of the +earth, is exactly under the equator, and extends on the two sides far +beyond the tropic circles.</p> + +<p>In Africa, the highest mountains of the Moon, and Monomotapa, the great +and the little Atlas, are under the equator, or not far from it.</p> + +<p>In Asia, Mount Caucasus, the chain of which extends under different +names as far as the mountains of China, is nearer the equator than the +poles.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 274 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274"></a>[274]</span>In Europe, the Pyrennees, the Alps, and mountains of Greece, which are +only the same chain, are still less distant from the equator than the +poles.</p> + +<p>Now these mountains which we have enumerated, are all higher, more +considerable and extended in length and breadth than the mountains of +the northern countries.</p> + +<p>With respect to their direction, the Alps form a chain which crosses the +whole continent from Spain to China. These mountains begin at the sea +coast of Galicia, reach to the Pyrennees, cross France, by Vivares, and +Auvergne, pass through Italy and extend into Germany, beyond Dalmatia, +as far as Macedonia; from thence they join with the mountains of +Armenia, Caucasus, Taurus, Imaus, and extend as far as the Tartarian +sea. So likewise Mount Atlas traverses the whole continent of Africa, +from west to east, from the kingdom of Fez to the Straits of the Red +Sea; and the mountains of the Moon have the same direction.</p> + +<p>But in America, the direction is quite contrary, and the chains of the +Cordeliers and other mountains extend from south to north more than from +east to west.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 275 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275"></a>[275]</span>What we have now said on the great eminences of the earth, may also be +observed on the greatest depths of the sea. The vast and highest seas +are nearer the equator than the poles; and there results from this +observation, that the greatest inequalities of the globe are in the +southern climate. These irregularities on the surface of the earth, are +the causes of an infinity of extraordinary effects: for example, between +the Indus and the Ganges, there is a large peninsula, which is divided +through its middle, by a chain of high mountains called the Gate, and +which extends from north to south, from the extremities of Mount +Caucasus to Cape Comorin; on one is the coast of Malabar, and the other +Coromandel; on the side of Malabar, between this chain of mountains and +the sea, the summer season lasts from September to April, during which +the sky is serene and dry; on the other side the Coromandel the above +period is their winter, and it rains every day plentifully and from the +month of April to the month of September is their summer, whereas it is +winter in Malabar; insomuch, that in many places, which are scarcely 20 +miles distant, we may, by crossing the mountains, change seasons. It is +said that the same <!-- Page 276 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276"></a>[276]</span>thing takes place at Razalgat in Arabia, and at +Jamaica, which is divided through its middle by a chain of mountains, +whose direction is from east to west, and that the plantations to the +south of these mountains feel the summer heat, at the time those to the +north endure the rigor of winter.</p> + +<p>Peru, which is situated under the line, and extends about a thousand +leagues to the south, is divided into three long and narrow parts; these +the natives call Lanos, Sierras, and Andes. The Lanos, which comprehends +the plains, extends along the coast of the South Sea: the Sierras are +hills with some vallies, and the Andes are the famous Cordeliers, the +highest mountains that are known. The Lanos is about ten leagues in +breadth; in many places the Sierras are twenty leagues broad, and the +Andes in some places more and in some less. The breadth is from east to +west, and the length from north to south. This part of the world is +remarkable for the following particulars: first, in the Lanos the wind +almost constantly blows from the south-west, which is contrary to what +happens in the torrid zone: secondly, it never rains nor thunders in the +Lanos, although there is plenty of dew: thirdly, it almost continually +<!-- Page 277 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277"></a>[277]</span>rains in the Andes: fourthly, in the Sierras, between the Lanos and the +Andes, it rains from September to April.</p> + +<p>It was for a long time supposed, that the chains of the high mountains +run from west to east, till the contrary was found in America. But no +person before M. Bourguet discovered the surprising regularity of the +structure of those great masses: he found (after having crossed the Alps +thirty times in fourteen different parts of it, twice over the Apennine +mountains, and made divers tours in the environs of these mountains, and +of Mount Jura) that all mountains are formed nearly after the manner of +works of a fortification. When the body of the mountain runs from east +to west, it forms prominences, which face the north and south; this +wonderful regularity is so striking in vallies, that we seem to walk in +a very regular covered way; if, for example, we travel in a valley from +north to south, we perceive that the mountain on the right forms +projections which front the east, and those of the mountain on the left +front the west, so that the saliant angles of one side reciprocally +answer the returning angles of the other, which are always alternatively +opposed to them. The angles <!-- Page 278 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278"></a>[278]</span>which mountains form in great vallies are +less acute, because the direction is less steep, and they are farther +distant from each other. In plains they are not so perceptible, except +by the banks of rivers, which are generally in the middle of them, and +whose natural windings answer the most advanced angles or striking +projections of the mountains. It is astonishing so visible a thing was +so long unobserved, for when in a valley the inclination of one of the +mountains which border it is less steep than that of the other, the +river takes its course much nearer the steepest mountain, and does not +flow through its middle.</p> + +<p>To these observations we may join other particular ones, which confirm +them; for example, the mountains of Switzerland are much more steep, and +their direction much greater on the south side than on the north, and on +the west side than on the east. This may be perceived in the mountains +of Gemmi, Brisa, and almost every other mountain in this country. The +highest are those which separate Valesia and the Grisons from Savoy, +Piedmont, and Tirol. These countries are only a continuation of these +mountains, the chain of which extends to the Mediterranean, and +continues <!-- Page 279 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279"></a>[279]</span>even pretty far under the sea. The Pyrennees are also only a +continuation of that vast mountain which begins in Upper Valesia, and +whose branches extend very far to the west and south, preserving +throughout the same great height; whereas on the side of the north and +of the east these mountains grow lower by degrees, till they become +plains; as we see by the large tract which the Rhine and Danube water +before they reach their mouths, whereas the Rhone descends with rapidity +towards the south into the Mediterranean. The same observation is found +to hold good in the mountains of England and Norway; but the part of the +world where this is most evidently seen is at Peru and Chili; the +Cordeliers are cut very sharply on the western side, the length of the +Pacific Ocean, whereas on the eastern side they lower by degrees into +large plains, watered by the greatest rivers of the world.<a name="FNanchor_279:A_32" id="FNanchor_279:A_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_279:A_32" class="fnanchor">[279:A]</a></p> + +<p>M. Bourguet, to whom we owe this great discovery of the correspondence +of the angles of mountains, terms it "<em>The Key of the Theory of the +Earth</em>;" nevertheless, it appears to me, that if he had conceived all +the importance of it, he would more successfully have made use of <!-- Page 280 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280"></a>[280]</span>it, +by connecting it with suitable facts, and would have given a more +probable theory of the earth; whereas in his treatise he presents only +the skeleton of an hypothetical system, most of the conclusions of which +are false or precarious. The theory we have given turns on four +principal facts, which cannot be doubted, after the proofs have been +examined on which they are founded. The first is, that the earth is +every where, and to considerable depths, composed of parallel strata, +and matters which have formerly been in a state of softness: the second, +that the sea has for ages covered the earth which we now inhabit; the +third, that the tides and other motions of the waters produce +inequalities at the bottom of the sea; and the fourth, that the +mountains have taken their form and the correspondent direction from the +currents of the sea.</p> + +<p>After having read the proofs which the following articles contain, it +may be determined, whether I was wrong to assert, that these +circumstances solidly established also ascertains the truth of the +theory of the earth. What I have said on the formation of mountains has +no need of a more ample explanation; but as it might be objected that I +do not assign a reason for the formation of the peaks or points of +<!-- Page 281 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281"></a>[281]</span>mountains, no more than for some other particular circumstances, shall +add the observations and reflections which I have made on this subject.</p> + +<p>I have endeavoured to form a clear and general idea of the manner in +which the different matters that compose the earth are arranged, and it +appears to me they may be reduced into two general classes; the first +includes all the matters we find placed in strata, or beds horizontally +or regularly inclined; and the second comprehends all matters formed in +masses, or in veins, either perpendicular or irregularly inclined. In +the first class are included sands, clays, granite, flints, free-stone, +coals, slates, marls, chalks, calcinable stones, marbles, &c. In the +second I rank metals, minerals, crystals, precious stones and small +flints: these two classes generally comprehend all the known materials +of the earth. The first owe their origin to the sediments carried away +and deposited by the sea, and should be distinguished into those which +being assayed in the fire, calcine and are reduced into lime, and those +which fuse and are convertible into glass. The materials of the second +class are all vitrifiable excepting those which the fire entirely +consumes by inflammation.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 282 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282"></a>[282]</span>In the first class we distinguish two kinds of sands; the one, which is +more abundant than any other matter of the globe, is vitrifiable, or +rather is only fragments of actual glass; the other, whose quantity is +much less, is calcinable, and must be looked upon as the powder of +stone, and which differs only from gravel by the size of the grains. The +vitrifiable sand is, in general, deposited in beds, which are often +interrupted by masses of free-stone, granite, and flint; and sometimes +these matters are also in banks of great extent.</p> + +<p>By examining these vitrifiable matters, we find only a few sea shells +there, and those not placed in beds, but dispersed about as if thrown +there by chance. For example, I have never seen them in free-stone; that +stone which is very plenty in certain places, is only composed of sandy +parts, which are re-united, and are only met with in sandy soils; and +the quarries of it are generally in peaked hills and in divided +eminences. We may work these quarries in all directions, and if they are +in large beds, they are much farther from each other than in quarries of +calcinable stone or marble. Blocks of free-stone may be cut of all +dimensions and in all directions, although it is difficult to work, <!-- Page 283 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283"></a>[283]</span>it +nevertheless has but a degree of hardness sufficient to resist powerful +strokes without splitting; for friction easily reduces it into sand, +excepting certain black pieces found therein, and which are so very +hard, that the best files cannot touch them. Rock is vitrifiable as +free-stone, and of the same nature, only it is harder and the parts more +connected. This also contains many hard pieces, as may easily be +remarked on the summits of high mountains, which cut and tear the shoes +of travellers. This rocky stone, which is found at the top of high +mountains, and which I look upon as a kind of granite, contains a great +quantity of talky leaves, and is so hard as not to be worked but by an +infinite deal of labour.</p> + +<p>I have narrowly examined these sharp pieces which are found in +free-stone and rock, and have discovered it to be a metallic matter, +melted and calcined by a very violent fire, and which perfectly +resembles certain substances thrown out by the volcanos, of which I saw +a great quantity when I was in Italy, where the people called them +Schiarri. They are very heavy black masses, on which neither water nor +the file can make any impression, and the matter <!-- Page 284 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284"></a>[284]</span>of which is different +from that of the lava; for this is a kind of glass, whereas the other +appears to be more metallic than vitreous. The sharp pieces in +free-stone, and rock, resemble greatly the first matter, which seems +still to prove that all these matters have been formerly liquified by +fire.</p> + +<p>We sometimes see on the upper parts of mountains, a prodigious quantity +of blocks of this mixed rock; their position is so irregular that they +appear to have been thrown there by chance, and it might be thought they +had fallen from some neighbouring height, if the places where they are +found were not raised above the other parts. But their vitrifiable +nature, and their angular and square figures, like those of free-stone, +discover them to be of one common origin. Thus in the great beds of +vitrifiable sand, blocks of free-stone and rock are formed, whose +figures and situations do not exactly follow the horizontal position of +these strata. The rain, by degrees, carried away from the summits of the +hills and mountains the sand which at first covered them, and then began +to furrow and cut those hills into the spaces which are found between +<!-- Page 285 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285"></a>[285]</span>the nucleus in free-stone, as the hills of Fontainbleau are intersected. +Each hilly point answers to a nucleus in a quarry of free-stone, and +each interval has been excavated and loosened by the rain, which has +caused the sand, they at first contained, to flow into the vallies; so +likewise the highest mountains, whose summits are composed of rocks, and +terminated by these angular blocks of granite, have formerly been +covered with vitrifiable sand, and the rain having carried away the sand +which covered them, they remained on the tops of the mountains in the +position they were formed. These blocks generally present points; they +increase in size in proportion as they descend; one block often rests +upon another, the second upon a third, and so on, leaving irregular +intervals between them: and as in time the rain washed away all the sand +which covered these different parts on the top of the high mountains, +they would remain naked, forming larger or lesser points; and this is +the origin of the peaks or horns of mountains.</p> + +<p>For supposing, as it is easy to prove by the marine productions we find +there, that the chain of the Alps was formerly covered by the sea, and +that above this chain there was a great <!-- Page 286 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286"></a>[286]</span>thickness of vitrifiable sand, +which rendered the whole mountains a flat and level country. In this +depth of sand, there would necessarily be formed granite, free-stone, +flint, and all matters which take their origin and figure in sand, +nearly in a similar manner to that of the crystallisation of salts. +These blocks once formed would support their original positions, after +the rains and torrents had carried away the sand which surrounded them, +and being left bare formed all those peaks or pointed eminences we see +in so many places. This is also the origin of those high and detached +rocks found in China and other countries, as in Ireland, where they are +called the Devil's stones, and whose formation as well as that of the +peaks of mountains, had hitherto appeared so difficult to explain; +nevertheless the explanation which I have given is so natural, that it +directly presents itself to the mind of those who examine these objects, +and I must here quote what Father Tatre says, "From Yanchu-in-yen, we +came to Hoytcheou, and on the road met with something particular, rocks +of an extraordinary height, of the shape of a large square tower, and +situate in the midst of vast plains: I cannot account for it, unless by +supposing <!-- Page 287 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287"></a>[287]</span>they were formerly mountains, from which the rain having +washed away the earth that surrounded them, thus left the rocks entirely +bare. What strengthens this conjecture is, that we saw some which, +towards the base, are still covered with earth to a considerable +height."</p> + +<p>The summits of the highest mountains are composed of rocks, of granite, +free-stone, and other hard and vitrifiable matters, and this often as +deep as two or three hundred fathoms; below which we often meet with +quarries of marble, or hard stone, filled with fossil-shells, and whose +matter is calcinable; as may be remarked at Great Chartreuse, in +Dauphiny, and on Mount Cenis, where the stone and marble, which contains +shells, are some hundred fathoms below the summits, points and peaks of +high mountains; although these stones are more than a thousand fathom +above the level of the sea. Thus mountains, whereon we see points or +peaks, are generally vitrifiable rock, and those whose summits are flat, +mostly contain marble and hard stones filled with marine productions. It +is the same with respect to hills, for those containing granite, or +free-stone, are mostly intersected with points, eminences, cavities, +depths, and small intermediate valleys; on <!-- Page 288 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288"></a>[288]</span>the contrary, those which +are composed of calcinable stone are nearly equal in height, and are +only interrupted by greater and more regular vallies, whose angles are +correspondent; and they are crowned with rocks whose position is regular +and level.</p> + +<p>Whatever difference may appear at first between these two species of +mountains, their forms proceed from the same cause, as we have already +observed; only it may be remarked, that the calcinable stones have not +undergone any alteration nor change since the formation of the +horizontal strata; whereas those of vitrifiable sand have been changed +and interrupted by the posterior production of rocks and angular blocks +formed within this sand. These two kinds of mountains have cracks which +are almost always perpendicular in those of calcinable stones; but those +of granite and free-stone appear to be a little more irregular in their +direction. It is in these cracks metal, minerals, crystals, sulphurs, +and all matters of the second class are found, and it is below these +cracks that the water collects to penetrate the earth, and form those +veins of water which are every where found below the surface.</p> + + +<div> +<hr class="footnotes" /> +<p class="sectctrfn">FOOTNOTES:</p> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_279:A_32" id="Footnote_279:A_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_279:A_32"><span class="label">[279:A]</span></a> See Phil. Trans. Abr. Vol. VI. part ii. p. 153.</p> +</div> +</div> +</div> + + + + +<div> +<hr class="newchapter" /> +<p><!-- Page 289 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289"></a>[289]</span></p> +<h2><a name="ARTICLE_X" id="ARTICLE_X"></a>ARTICLE X.<br /> + +<small>OF RIVERS.</small></h2> + + +<p>We have before said that, generally speaking, the greatest mountains are +in islands and in the projections in the sea. That in the old continent +the greatest chains of mountains are directed from west to east, and +that those which incline towards the north or south are only branches of +these principal chains; we shall likewise find that the greatest rivers +are directed as the greatest mountains, and that there are but few which +follow the course of the branches of those mountains. To be assured of +this, we have only to look on a common globe, and trace the old +continent from Spain to China. We shall find, by beginning at Spain, +that the Vigo, Douro, Tagos, and Guadiana run from east to west, and the +Ebro from west to east, and that there is not one remarkable river whose +course is directed from south to north, or from north to south, although +Spain is entirely surrounded by the sea on the <!-- Page 290 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290"></a>[290]</span>west side, and almost so +on the north. This observation on the directions of rivers in Spain not +only proves that the mountains in this country are directed from west to +east, but also that the southern lands, which border on the straits, are +higher than the coasts of Portugal; and on the northern coast, that the +mountains of Galicia, the Asturias, &c. are only a continuation of the +Pyrennees, and that it is this elevation of the country, as well north +as south, which does not permit the rivers to run into the sea that way.</p> + +<p>It will also be seen, by looking on the map of France, that there is +only the Rhone which runs from north to south, and nearly half its +course, from the mountains to Lyons, is directed from the east towards +the west; but that on the contrary all the other great rivers, as the +Loir, the Charantee, the Garonne, and even the Seine, have a direction +from east to west.</p> + +<p>It will be likewise perceived, that in Germany there is only the Rhine, +which like the Rhone shapes the greatest part of its course from north +to south, but that the others, as the Danube, the Drave, and all the +great rivers which fall into them, flow from the west to east into the +Black Sea.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 291 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291"></a>[291]</span>It will be perceived that this Black Sea, which should rather be +considered as a great lake, has almost three times more extent from east +to west than from north to south, and consequently its direction is +similar to the rivers in general. It is the same with the Mediterranean, +whose length from east to west is about six times greater than from +north to south.</p> + +<p>The Caspian Sea, according to the chart drawn by the order of Czar Peter +I. has more extent from the south to the north than from east to west; +whereas in the ancient charts it appears almost round, or rather more +broad from east to west than from south to north; but if we consider the +lake Aral as a part of the Caspian Sea, from which it is separated only +by plains of sand, we shall find the length is from the western coast of +the Caspian Sea as far as the greatest border of Lake Aral.</p> + +<p>So likewise the Euphrates, the Persian gulph, and almost all the rivers +in China run from west to east; all the rivers in Africa beyond Barbary +flow from east to west, or from west to east, and there are only the +rivers of Barbary and the Nile which flow from south to north. There +are, in fact, great rivers in <!-- Page 292 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292"></a>[292]</span>Asia which partly run from north to +south, as the Wolga, the Don, &c. but by taking the whole length of +their course, we find, that they only turn from the south to run into +the Black and Caspian seas, which are only inland lakes.</p> + +<p>It may therefore in general be said, that in Europe, Asia, and Africa, +the rivers, and other mediterranean waters, extend more from east to +west than from north to south, which proceeds from the chains of +mountains being for the most part so directed, and that the whole +continent of Europe and Asia is broader in this direction than the +other; for there are two modes of considering the direction of +mountains. In a long and narrow continent like South America, in which +there is only one principal chain of mountains which stretches from +south to north, the river not being confined by any parallel range, +necessarily runs perpendicular to the course of the mountains, that is +from east to west, or from west to east; in fact, it is in this +direction all the rivers of America flow. In the old as well as the new +continent most of the waters have their greatest extent from west to +east, and most of the rivers flow in this direction; but yet this +similar direction is produced by different causes; for instance, those +in <!-- Page 293 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293"></a>[293]</span>the old continent flow from east to west, because they are bounded +by mountains whose direction is from west to east; whereas those in +America preserve the same course from there being only one chain of +mountains that extends from north to south.</p> + +<p>In general, rivers run through the centre of vallies, or rather the +lowest ground betwixt two opposite hills or mountains; if the two hills +have nearly an equal inclination, the river will be nearly in the middle +of the intermediate valley, let the valley be broad or narrow. On the +contrary, if one of the hills has a more steep inclination than the +other, the river will not be in the middle of the valley, but much +nearer the hill whose inclination is greatest, and that too in +proportion to the superiority of its declivity: in this case, the lowest +ground is not in the middle of the valley, but inclines towards the +highest hill, and which the river must necessarily occupy. In all places +where there is any considerable difference in the height of the +mountains, the rivers flow at the foot of the steepest hills, and follow +them throughout all their directions, never quitting their course while +they maintain the superiority of height. In the length of time, however, +the steepest <!-- Page 294 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294"></a>[294]</span>hills are diminished by the rain acting upon them with a +greater degree of force, proportionate to their height, and consequently +carry away the sand and gravel in more considerable quantities, and with +greater violence; the river is then constrained to change its bed, and +seek the lowest part of the valley: to this may be added, that as all +rivers overflow at times, they transport and deposit mud and sand in +different places, and that sands often accumulate in their own beds, and +cause a swell of the water, which changes the direction of its course. +It is very common to meet in vallies with a great number of old channels +of the river, particularly if it is subject to frequent inundations, and +carries off much sand and mud.</p> + +<p>In plains and large vallies, where there are great rivers, the beds are +generally the lowest part of the valley, but the surface of the water is +very often higher than the ground adjacent. For example, when a river +begins to overflow, the plain will presently be inundated to a +considerable breadth, and it will be observed that the borders of the +river will be covered the last; which proves that they are higher than +the rest of the ground, and that from the banks to a <!-- Page 295 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295"></a>[295]</span>certain part of +the plain, there is an insensible inclination, so that the surface of +the water must be higher than the plain when the river is full. This +elevation on the banks of rivers proceeds from the deposit of the mud +and sand at the time of inundations. The water is commonly very muddy in +the great swellings of rivers; when it begins to overflow, it runs very +gently over the banks, and by depositing the mud and sand purifies +itself as it advances into the plain; so that all the soil which the +currents of the river does not carry along, is deposited on the banks, +which raises them by degrees above the rest of the plain.</p> + +<p>Rivers are always broadest at their mouths; in proportion as we advance +in the country, and are more remote from the sea, their breadth +diminishes; but what is more remarkable, in the inland parts they flow +in a direct line, and in proportion as they approach their mouths the +windings of their course increase. I have been informed by M. Fabry, a +sensible traveller, who went several times by land into the western part +of North America, that travellers, and even the savages, are seldom +deceived in the distance they are from the sea if they follow the bank +of a large river; when the direction of <!-- Page 296 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296"></a>[296]</span>the river is straight for 15 or +20 leagues, they know themselves to be a great distance from the coast; +but, on the contrary, if the river winds, and often changes its +direction, they are certain of not being far from the sea. M. Fabry +himself verified this remark in his travels over that unknown and almost +uninhabited country. In large rivers there is a considerable eddy along +the banks, which is so much the more considerable as the river is less +remote from the sea, which may also serve as a guide to judge whether we +are at a great or short distance from the mouth; and as the windings of +rivers increase in proportion as they approach the sea, it is not +surprising that some of them should give way to the water, and be one +reason why great rivers generally divide into many arms before they gain +the sea.</p> + +<p>The motion of the waters in rivers is quite different from that supposed +by authors who attempt to give mathematical theories on this subject; +the surface of a river in motion is not level when taken from one bank +to the other, but according to circumstances the current in the middle +is considerably higher or lower than the water close to the banks; when +a river swells by a sudden melting of snow, or when <!-- Page 297 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297"></a>[297]</span>by some other cause +its rapidity is augmented, if the direction of the river is straight, +the middle of the water where the current is rises, and the river forms +a convex curve, of a very sensible elevation. This elevation is +sometimes very considerable; M. Hupeau, an able engineer of bridges, +once measured the river Avieron, and found the middle was three feet +higher than near the bank. This, in fact, must happen every time the +water has a very great rapidity; the velocity with which it is carried, +diminishing the action of its weight in the middle of the current, so +that it has not time to sink to a level with that near shore, and +therefore remains higher. On the other hand, near the mouths, it often +happens that the water which is near the banks is higher than that of +the middle, although the current be ever so rapid. This happens wherever +the action of the tides is felt in a river, which in great ones often +sensibly extends as far as one or two hundred leagues from the sea; it +is also a well known fact that the current of a river preserves its +motion in the sea to a considerable distance; there is, in this case, +therefore, two contrary motions in a river; the middle, which forms the +current, precipitates itself towards the sea, <!-- Page 298 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298"></a>[298]</span>and the action of the +tide forms a counter-current, which causes the water near the banks to +ascend, while that in the middle descends, and as then all the water +must be carried down by the current in the middle, that of the banks +continually descends thereto, and descends so much the more as it is +higher, and counteracted with more force by the tide.</p> + +<p>There are two kinds of ebbings in rivers; the first above-mentioned is a +strong power occasioned by the tide, which not only opposes the natural +motion of the river, but even forces a contrary and opposite current. +The other arises from an inactive cause, such as a projection of land, +an island, &c. This does not commonly occasion a very sensible +counter-current, yet it is sufficient to impede the progress of boats +and craft, and necessarily produces what is called a dead water, which +does not flow like the rest of the river, but whirls about in such a +manner that when boats are drawn therein they require great strength to +get them out. These dead waters are very perceptible at the arches of +bridges in rapid rivers. The velocity of the water increases in +proportion as the diameter of the channel through which it passes +diminishes, the impelling force being the same; <!-- Page 299 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299"></a>[299]</span>the velocity of a +river, therefore, increases at the passage of a bridge, in an inverse +proportion of the breadth of the arches to the whole breadth of the +river; the rapidity being very considerable in coming through the arch, +it forces the water against the banks, from whence it is reflected with +such violence as to form dangerous eddies and whirlpools. In going +through the bridge St. Esprit, the men are forced to be careful not to +lose the stream, even after they are past the bridge, for if they suffer +the boat to go either to the right or left, it might be driven against +the shore, or forced into the whirling waters, which would be attended +with great danger. When this eddy is very considerable, it forms a kind +of small gulph, the middle of which appears hollow and to form a kind of +cylindrical cavity, around which the water whirls with rapidity: this +appearance of a cylindrical cavity is produced by the centrifugal force, +which causes the water to endeavour to remove itself from the centre of +the whirlpool. When a great swell of water happens, the watermen know it +by a particular motion; they then say the water at the bottom flows +quicker than common: this augmentation of rapidity at the bottom, +according to them, <!-- Page 300 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300"></a>[300]</span>always announces a sudden rise of the water. The +motion and weight of the upper water communicates this motion to them; +for in certain respects we must consider a river as a pillar of water +contained in a tube, and the whole channel as a very long canal where +every motion must be communicated from one end to the other. Now, +independent of the motion of the upper waters, their weight alone might +cause the rapidity of the river to increase, and perhaps move it at +bottom; for it is known, that by putting many boats at one time into the +water, at that instant we increase the rapidity of the under part of the +river, as well as retard that of the upper.</p> + +<p>The rapidity of running waters does not exactly, nor even nearly, follow +the proportion of the declivity of their channels. One river whose +inclination is uniform and double that of another, ought, according to +appearance, to flow only as rapid again, but in fact it flows much +faster. Its rapidity, instead of being doubled, is sometimes triple, +quadruple, &c. This rapidity depends much more on the quantity of water +and the weight of the upper waters than on the declivity. When we are +desirous to hollow the bed of a river, we need not equally <!-- Page 301 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301"></a>[301]</span>distribute +the inclination throughout its whole length, in order to give a greater +rapidity, as it is more easily effected by making the descent much +greater at the beginning, than at the mouth, where it may almost be +insensible, as we see it in natural rivers, and yet they preserve a +rapidity so much the greater as the river is fuller of water; in great +rivers, where the ground is level, the water does not cease flowing, and +even rapidly, not only with its original velocity, but also with the +addition of that which it has acquired by the action and weight of the +upper waters. To render this fact more conceivable, let us suppose the +Seine between the Pont-neuf and Pont-royal to be perfectly level, and +ten feet deep throughout: let us then suppose that the bed of the river +below Pont-royal and above Pont-neuf were left entirely dry, the water +would instantly run up and down the channel, and continue to do so until +it had recovered an equilibrium; for the weight of the water would keep +it in motion, nor would it cease flowing until its particles became +equally pressed and have sunk to a perfect level. The weight of water +therefore greatly contributes to its velocity, and this is the reason +that the greatest rapidity of the current is neither of the surface <!-- Page 302 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302"></a>[302]</span>nor +at the bottom of the water, but nearly in the middle of its depth, being +pressed by the action of its weight at its surface, and by the re-action +from the bottom. Still more, if a river has acquired a great rapidity, +it will not only preserve it in passing a level country, but even +surmount an eminence without spreading much on either side, or at least +without causing any great inundation.</p> + +<p>We might be inclined to think that bridges, locks, and other obstacles +raised on rivers, considerably diminishes the celerity of the water's +course; nevertheless that occasions but little difference. Water rises +on meeting with any obstacle, and having surmounted it, the elevation +causes it to act with more rapidity in its fall, so that in fact it +suffers little or no diminution in its celerity, by these seeming +retardments. Sinuosities, projections, and islands, also but very little +diminish the velocity of the course of rivers. A considerable diminution +is produced by the sinking of the water, and, on the contrary, its +augmentation increases its velocity; thus if a river is shallow the +stream passes slowly along, and if deep with a proportionate rapidity.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 303 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303"></a>[303]</span>If rivers were always nearly of an equal fulness, the best means of +diminishing their rapidity, and confining them within their banks, would +be to enlarge their channel; but as almost all rivers are subject to +increase and diminish, to confine them we must retrench the channel, +because in shallow waters, if the channel is very broad, the water which +passes in the middle hollows a winding bed, and when it begins to swell +follows the direction it took in this particular bed, and striking +forcibly against the banks of the channel destroys them and does great +injuries. These effects of the water's fury might be prevented by +making, at particular distances, small gulphs in the earth; that is, by +cutting through one of these banks to a certain distance in the land. In +order that these gulphs might be advantageously placed, they should be +made in the obtuse angle of the river, for then the current of the water +in turning would run into them, and of course its velocity would be +diminished. This mode might be proper to prevent the fall of bridges in +places where it is not possible to make bars near the bridge which +sustain the action of the weight of the water.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 304 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304"></a>[304]</span>The manner in which inundations are occasioned merits peculiar +attention. When a river swells, the rapidity of the water always +increases till it begins to overflow the banks; at that instant the +velocity diminishes, which causes inundations to continue for several +days; for when even a less quantity of water comes after the overflowing +than before, the inundation will still be made, because it depends much +more on the velocity of the water than on the quantity; if it was not so +rivers would overflow for an hour or two and then return to their beds, +which never occurs; the inundations always remaining for several days; +whether the rain ceases, or a less quantity of water is brought, because +the overflowing has diminished the velocity, and consequently, although +the like quantity of water is no longer carried in the same time as +before, yet the effects are the same as if the greater quantity had come +there. It might be remarked on the occasion of this diminution, that if +a constant wind blows against the current of the river, the inundation +will be much greater than it would have been without this accidental +cause, which diminishes the celerity of the <!-- Page 305 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305"></a>[305]</span>water; on the contrary, if +the wind blows in the same directions with the current, the inundation +will be much less, and will more speedily decline.</p> + +<p>"The swelling of the Nile, says M. Granger, and its inundations, has a +long time employed the learned; most of them have looked upon it as +marvellous, although nothing can be more natural, and is every day to be +seen in every country throughout the world. It is the rains which fall +in Abyssinia and Ethiopia which cause the swelling and inundation of +that river, though the north wind must be regarded as the principal +cause. 1. Because the north wind drives the clouds which contain this +rain into Abyssinia. 2. Because, blowing against the mouths of the Nile, +it causes the waters to return against the stream, and thus prevents +them from running out in any great quantity: this circumstance may be +every season observed, for when the wind, being at the north, suddenly +veers to the south, the Nile loses in one day more than it gathers in +four."</p> + +<p>Inundations are generally greatest in the upper part of rivers, because +the velocity of a river continues always increasing until it arrives at +the sea, for the reasons we have related. <!-- Page 306 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306"></a>[306]</span>Father Costelli, who has +written very sensibly on this subject, remarks, that the height of the +banks made to confine the Po from overflowing diminishes as they advance +towards the sea; so that at Ferrara, which is 50 or 60 miles from the +sea, they are near 20 feet high above the common surface of the Po, but +that at 10 or 12 miles from it they are not above 12 feet, although the +channel of the river is as narrow there as at Ferrara<a name="FNanchor_306:A_33" id="FNanchor_306:A_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_306:A_33" class="fnanchor">[306:A]</a>.</p> + +<p>On the whole, the theory of the motion of running waters is still +subject to many difficulties, nor is it easy to lay down rules which +might be applied to every particular case. Experience is here more +useful than speculation. We must not only know the general effects of +rivers, but we must also know in particular the river we have to do +with, if we would reason justly, make useful observations, and draw +stable conclusions. The remarks I have above given are mostly new; it is +to be wished that others may be collected, and then, possibly, in time, +we may obtain a sufficient knowledge of the subject to lay down certain +rules to confine and direct rivers, and prevent the ruin <!-- Page 307 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307"></a>[307]</span>of bridges, +banks, and other damages which the violent impetuosity of the water +occasions.</p> + +<p>The greatest rivers in Europe are the Wolga, which is about 650 leagues +in its course from Reschow to Astracan, on the Caspian Sea; the Danube, +whose course is about 450 leagues from the mountains of Switzerland to +the Black Sea; the Don, which is 400 leagues in its course from the +source of the Sosnia, which it receives, to its mouth in the Black Sea; +the Dnieper, whose course is about 350 leagues, and which also runs into +the Black Sea; the Duine is about 400 leagues in its course, and empties +itself into the White Sea, &c.</p> + +<p>The greatest rivers in Asia are the Hoanho of China, whose course is 850 +leagues, taking its source at Raja-Ribron, and falls into the sea of +China, in the middle of the gulph Changi: the Jenisca of Tartary, which +is about 800 leagues in extent, from the lake Seligna to the northern +sea of Tartary; the river Oby, which is about 600 leagues from Lake +Kila, to the Northern Sea, beyond the Strait of Waigats. The river +Amour, of eastern Tartary, which is about 575 leagues in its course, +reckoning it from the source of <!-- Page 308 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308"></a>[308]</span>the river Kerlon, to the sea of +Kamschatka. The river Menan, whose mouth is at Poulo Condor, may be +measured from the surface of the Longmu which falls into it; the Kian, +whose course is about 550 leagues from the source of the river Kinxa, +which it receives, to its mouth in the China Sea; the Ganges is also +about 550 leagues, and the Euphrates 500, taking it from the source of +Irma, which it receives. The Indus about 400 leagues, and which falls +into the Arabian Sea, on the east of Guzarat. The Sirderious, which is +about 400 leagues long, and falls into Lake Aral.</p> + +<p>The greatest rivers in Africa are Senegal, which is 1125 leagues long, +comprehending the Niger, which in fact is a continuation of it, and the +source of Gombarou, which falls into the Niger. The Nile 970 leagues +long, and which derives its source in Upper Ethiopia, where it makes +many windings. There are also the Zaira, the Coanza, and the Couma, +which are known as far as 400 leagues, but extend much farther; the +Quilmanci, whose course is 400 leagues, and which derives its source in +the kingdom of Gingiro.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 309 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309"></a>[309]</span>The greatest rivers of America, and which are also the greatest in the +world, are the river Amazons, whose course is 1200 leagues, if we go up +as far as the Lake near Guanuco, 30 leagues from Lima, where the +Maragnon takes its source; and even reckoning from the source of the +river Napo, some distance from Quito, the course of the river Amazons is +more than a thousand leagues.</p> + +<p>It might be said that the course of the river St. Lawrence, in Canada, +is more than 900 leagues from its mouth to the lake Ontaro, from thence +to lake Huron, afterwards to the lake Alemipigo, and to the lake +Assiniboils; the waters of these lakes falling one into another, and at +last into St. Lawrence.</p> + +<p>The river Mississippi more than 700 leagues long from its mouth to any +of its sources, which are not remote from the lake of the Assiniboils.</p> + +<p>The river de la Plata is more than 800 leagues long, from the source of +the river Parana, which it receives.</p> + +<p>The river Oroonoko runs more than 575 leagues, reckoning from the source +of the river Caketa, near Pasto, part of which falls into <!-- Page 310 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310"></a>[310]</span>the Oroonoko, +and part flows also towards the river Amazons.</p> + +<p>The river Madera, which falls into the Amazons, is more than 660 +leagues.</p> + +<p>To know nearly the quantity of water the sea receives by all the rivers +which fall into it, let us suppose that one half of the globe is covered +by the sea, and that the other half is land, which is nearly the fact; +let us suppose also, that the mediate depth of the sea is 230 fathom. +The surface of all the earth being 170,981,012 square miles; and that of +the sea 85,490,506 square miles, which being multiplied by 1/4, the +depth of the sea gives 21,372,626, cubical miles for the quantity of +water contained in the ocean. Now, to calculate the quantity of water +which the ocean receives from the rivers, let us take some great river, +whose rapidity and quantity of waters are known; for example, the Po, +which runs through Lombardy, and waters a tract of land 380 miles long; +according to Riccioli, its breadth, before it divides into many +trenches, is 100 perches of Boulogne, or 1000 feet, its depth 10 feet, +and it runs four miles an hour; therefore the Po supplies the sea with +200,000 cubical perches of water in an hour, or 4 <!-- Page 311 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311"></a>[311]</span>millions 800 thousand +in a day; but a cubical mile contains 125 millions cubical perches; +therefore 26 days is required to convey a cubical mile of water to the +sea: it remains therefore only to determine the proportion between the +river Po and all the rivers of the earth taken together, which is +impossible to do precisely. But to know it pretty exactly, let us +suppose that the quantity of water which the sea receives by the large +rivers in all countries is proportional to the extent and surface of +these countries, and that consequently the country watered by the Po, +and other rivers which fall therein, is in the same proportion on the +surface of the whole earth, as the Po is to all the rivers of the earth. +Now by the most correct charts, the Po, from its source to its mouth, +traverses a tract 380 miles long, and the rivers which fall therein, on +each side, proceed from the springs and rivers 60 miles distant from the +Po; therefore this great river, and the others it receives, waters a +tract 380 miles long, and 120 miles broad, which makes 450,600 square +miles, but the surface of all the dry land is 85,490,506 square miles; +consequently all the water which the rivers carry to the sea, will be +1974 times <!-- Page 312 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312"></a>[312]</span>greater than the quantity which the Po furnishes; but as 26 +rivers equal to the Po furnish a cubical mile of water to the sea in a +day, of course 1874 rivers like the Po would supply the sea with 26,308 +cubical miles of water in a year, and that in the space of 812 years all +the rivers would supply the sea with 21,372,626 cubical miles of water; +that is to say, as much as there is in the ocean, and therefore 812 +years is only required to fill it.<a name="FNanchor_312:A_34" id="FNanchor_312:A_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_312:A_34" class="fnanchor">[312:A]</a></p> + +<p>The result of this calculation is, that the quantity of water evaporated +from the sea, and which the winds convey on the earth, is about 245 +lines, or from 20 to 21 inches a year, or about two thirds of a line +each day: this is a very trifling evaporation even when trebled, in +order to estimate the water which refalls in the sea, and which is not +conveyed over the earth. Mr. Halley, in the Phil. Transactions, page +192, evidently shews, that the vapours which rise above the sea, and +which the winds convey over all the earth, are sufficient to supply all +the rivers in the world.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 313 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313"></a>[313]</span>Next to the Nile the river Jordan is the most considerable in the +Levant, or even in Barbary; it supplies the Dead Sea with about six +million tons of water every day; all this water, and more, is raised by +evaporation; for, according to Halley's calculation of 6914 tons +evaporated from each mile, the Dead Sea, which is 72 miles in length by +18 broad, must every day lose near nine million tons of water, that is, +not only all the water it receives from the river Jordan, but also that +of the small rivers which come into it from the mountains of Moab and +elsewhere; consequently there is no necessity for its communicating with +any other sea by subterraneous canals.<a name="FNanchor_313:A_35" id="FNanchor_313:A_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_313:A_35" class="fnanchor">[313:A]</a></p> + +<p>The most rapid rivers are the Tigris, the Indus, the Danube, the Yrtis, +in Siberia, the Malmistra, in Silesia, &c. but, as we have already +observed, the proportion of the rapidity of rivers depends upon the +declivity and upon the weight and quantity of water; by examining the +globe, we shall find that the Danube is much less inclined than the Po, +the Rhine, or the Rhone, for the Danube has a much longer course than +any of these other rivers, and falls into the Black Sea, which is higher +than the <!-- Page 314 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314"></a>[314]</span>Mediterranean, and perhaps more so than the ocean.</p> + +<p>All large rivers receive many others in the extent of their course; for +example, the Danube receives more than 200 rivulets and rivers; but by +reckoning only such as are considerable rivers, we shall find that the +Danube receives 31, the Wolga 32, the Don 5 or 6, the Nieper 19 or 20, +the Duine 11 or 12; so likewise in Asia the Hoanho receives 34 or 35, +the Jenisca 60, the Oby as many, the Amour about 40, the Kian, or river +Nankin about 30, the Ganges upwards of 20, the Euphrates 10 or 11, &c. +In Africa, the river Senegal receives upwards of 20 rivers: the Nile +does not receive any rivers for upwards of 500 miles from its mouth; the +last which falls therein is the Moraba, and from this place to its +source it receives about 12 or 13 rivers. In America, the river Amazons +receives more than 60, all of which are very considerable; the river St. +Lawrence about 40, by reckoning those which fall into the lakes; the +Mississippi more than 40, the Plata more than 50, &c.</p> + +<p>There are high countries on the earth, which seem to be points of +division marked by nature for the distribution of the waters. In +Europe, <!-- Page 315 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315"></a>[315]</span>the environs of Mount St. Goddard are one of these points; +another is situate between the provinces of Belozera and Wologda, in +Muscovy, from whence many rivers descend, some of which go to the White +Sea, others to the Black, and some to the Caspian. In Asia there are +several, in the country of Mogul Tartary, from whence rivers flow into +Nova Zembla, others to the Gulph Linchidolin, others to the sea of +Corea, others to that of China: and so likewise the Little Thibet, whose +waters flow towards the sea of China; the Gulph of Bengal, the Gulph of +Cambay, and the Lake Aral; in America, the province of Quito; whose +rivers run into the North and South Seas, and the Gulph of Mexico.</p> + +<p>In the old continent there are about 430 rivers, which fall directly +into the ocean, or into the Mediterranean and Black Seas; but in the new +continent not more than 145 rivers are known, which fall directly into +the sea: in this number I have comprehended only the great rivers, like +the Somme in Picardy.</p> + +<p>All these rivers carry to the sea a great quantity of mineral and saline +particles, which <!-- Page 316 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316"></a>[316]</span>they have washed from the different soils through +which they have passed. The particles of salt, which are easily +dissolved, are conveyed to the sea by the water. Some philosophers, and +among the rest Halley, have pretended that the saltness of the sea +proceeded only from the salts of the earth, which the rivers transport +therein. Others assert, that the saltness of the sea is as ancient as +the sea itself, and that this salt was created that the waters might not +corrupt; but we may justly suppose that the sea is preserved from +corruption by the agitations produced by the winds and tides, as much as +by the salt it contains; for when put in a barrel it corrupts in a few +days; and Boyle relates, that a mariner, who was becalmed for 13 days, +found, at the end of that time, the water so infected, that if the calm +had not ceased, the greatest part of his people would have perished. The +water of the sea is also mixed with a bituminous oil, which gives it a +disagreeable taste, and renders it very unhealthful. The quantity of +salt contained in sea water is about a fortieth part, and is nearly +equally saline throughout, at top as well as bottom, under the line, and +at the Cape of Good Hope; although there are <!-- Page 317 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317"></a>[317]</span>several places, as off the +Mosambique Coast, where it is salter than elsewhere.<a name="FNanchor_317:A_36" id="FNanchor_317:A_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_317:A_36" class="fnanchor">[317:A]</a> It is also +asserted not to be so saline under the Arctic Circle, which may proceed +from the amazing quantities of snow, and the great rivers which fall +into those seas, and because the heat of the sun produces but little +evaporation in hot climates.</p> + +<p>Be this as it may, I conceive that the saltness of the sea is not only +caused by the banks of salt at the bottom of the sea, and along the +coasts, but also by the salts of the earth, which the rivers continually +convey therein; and that Halley had some reason to presume that in the +beginning of the world the sea had but little or no saltness; that it is +become so by degrees, and in proportion as the rivers have brought salts +therein; that this saltness is every day increasing, and that +consequently, by computing the whole quantity of salt brought by all the +rivers, we might attain the knowledge of the age of the world by the +degrees of the saltness of the sea.</p> + +<p>Divers and pearl fishers assert, according to Boyle, that the deeper +they descend into the sea, the colder is the water; and that the cold is +so intense at considerable depths, that they cannot remain there so long +under water, but <!-- Page 318 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318"></a>[318]</span>are obliged to come up again much sooner than when +they descended to only a moderate one. It appeared to me that the weight +of the water might be as much the cause of compelling them to shorten +their usual time as the intenseness of the cold, when they descend to a +depth of 3 or 400 fathoms; but, in fact, divers scarcely ever descend +above an hundred feet. The same author relates, that in a voyage to the +East-Indies, beyond the line, at about 35 degrees south latitude, a +sounding lead of 30 or 35lb weight was sunk to the depth of 400 fathoms, +and that being pulled up again, it had become as cold as ice. It is also +a frequent practice with mariners to cool their wine at sea by sinking +their bottles to the depth of several fathoms, and they affirm the +deeper the bottles are sunk, the cooler is the wine.</p> + +<p>These circumstances might induce us to presume that the sea is salter at +the bottom than at the surface; but we have testimonies which prove the +contrary, founded on experiments made to fill vessels with sea water, +which were not opened till they were sunk to a certain depth, and the +water was found to be no salter than at the surface. There are even some +places where the water at the surface is salt, and that <!-- Page 319 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319"></a>[319]</span>at the bottom +fresh; and this must always be the case where there are springs at the +bottom of the sea, as near Goo, Ormus, and even in the sea of Naples, +where there are hot springs at the bottom.</p> + +<p>There are other places where sulphurous springs and beds of bitumen have +been discovered at the bottom of the sea, and on land there are many of +these springs of bitumen which run into it.</p> + +<p>At Barbadoes there is a pure bitumen spring, which flows from the rocks +into the sea: salt and bitumen, therefore, are predominant matters in +the sea water: but it is also mixed with many other matters; for the +taste of water is not the same in every part of the sea; besides, the +agitation and the heat of the sun alters the natural taste which the sea +should have; and the different colour of different seas, at different +times, prove that the waters of the sea contain several kinds of +matters, either which it loosens from its own bottom, or are brought +thither by rivers.</p> + +<p>Almost all countries watered by great rivers are subject to periodical +inundations, those which are low, and derive their sources from a great +distance, overflow the most regularly. <!-- Page 320 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320"></a>[320]</span>Every person almost has heard of +the inundations of the Nile, which preserves the sweetness and whiteness +of its waters, though extended over a vast tract of country, and into +the sea. Strabo and other ancient authors have written that it had seven +mouths, but there now remain only two which are navigable; there is a +third canal which descends to Alexandria, and fills the cisterns there, +and a fourth which is still smaller; but as they have for a long time +neglected to clean their canals, they are nearly choaked up. The +ancients employed a great number of workmen and soldiers, and every +year, after the inundation, they carried away the mud and sand which was +in these canals. The cause of the overflowing of the Nile proceeds from +the rains which fall in Ethiopia. They begin in April and do not cease +till September; during the first three months, the days are serene and +fair, but as soon as the sun goes down the rains begin, nor stop till it +rises again, and are generally accompanied with thunder and lightning. +The inundation begins in Egypt about the 17th of June; it generally +increases during 40 days, and diminishes in about the same time; all the +flat country of Egypt is overflowed; but this inundation is much less +<!-- Page 321 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321"></a>[321]</span>now than it was formerly, for Herodotus tells us, that the Nile was 100 +days in swelling, and as many in abating: if this is true, we can only +attribute the cause thereof to the elevation of the land, which the mud +of the waters has heightened by degrees, and to the diminution of the +mountains in Africa, from whence it derives its source. It is very +natural to believe that these mountains have diminished, because the +abundant rains which fall in these climates during half the year sweep +away great quantities of sand and earth from the mountains into the +valleys, from whence the torrents wash them into the Nile, which carries +great part into Egypt, where it deposits them in its overflowings.</p> + +<p>The Nile is not the only river whose inundations are regular; the river +Pegu is called the <i>Indian Nile</i>, because it overflows regularly every +year; it inundates the country for more than 30 leagues from its banks; +and, like the Nile, leaves an abundance of mud, which so greatly +fertilizes the earth, that the pasturage is excellent for cattle, and +rice grows in such great abundance, that every year a number of vessels +are laden with it, without leaving a scarcity in the country.<a name="FNanchor_321:A_37" id="FNanchor_321:A_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_321:A_37" class="fnanchor">[321:A]</a> The +Niger, or what <!-- Page 322 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322"></a>[322]</span>amounts to the same, the upper part of the Senegal, +likewise overflows and covers all the flat country of Nigritia; it +begins nearly at the same time as the Nile, and increases also for 40 +days: the river de la Plata, in Brasil, also overflows every year, and +at the same time as the Nile. The Ganges, the Indus, the Euphrates, and +some others, overflow annually; but all rivers have not periodical +overflowings, and when inundations happen it is the effect of many +causes, which combine to supply a greater quantity of water than common, +and, at the same time, to retard its velocity. We have before observed, +that in almost all rivers the inclination of their beds diminishes +towards their mouths in an almost insensible manner; but there are some +whose declivity is very sudden in some places, and forms what is termed +a <em>cataract</em>, which is nothing more than a fall of water, quicker than +the common current of the river. The Rhine, for example, has two +cataracts, the one at Bilefield, and the other near Schafhouse: the Nile +has many, and among the rest two which are very violent, and fall from a +great height between two mountains; the river Wologda, in Muscovy, has +also two near Ladoga; the Zaire, a river of Congo, begins by a <!-- Page 323 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323"></a>[323]</span>very +large cataract, which falls from the top of a mountain; but the most +famous is that of Niagara, in Canada, that falls from a perpendicular +height of 156 feet, like a prodigious torrent, and is more than a +quarter of a mile broad: the fog, or mist, which the water makes in +falling, is perceived at five miles distance, and rises as high as the +clouds, forming a very beautiful rainbow when the sun shines thereon. +Below this cataract there are such terrible whirlpools, that nothing can +be navigated thereon for six miles distance, and above the cataract the +river is much narrower than it is in the upper lands<a name="FNanchor_323:A_38" id="FNanchor_323:A_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_323:A_38" class="fnanchor">[323:A]</a>. The +description given of it by <i>Father Charlevoix</i> is as follows:</p> + +<p>"My first care, when I arrived, was to visit the most beautiful cascade +that is, perhaps, in nature; but I immediately discovered that Baron la +Hontain was deceived so greatly, both in its height and figure, that one +might reasonably imagine he had never seen it.</p> + +<p>"It is true, that if we measure its height by the three mountains you +are obliged to ascend in going to it, there is not much abatement to be +made of the 600 feet, which the map of M. <!-- Page 324 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324"></a>[324]</span>Delisse gives it, who +doubtless advanced this paradox only on the credit of the Baron la +Hontain, and Father Honnepin; but after I arrived at the top of the +third mountain, I observed that in the space of three leagues, which I +afterwards had to go to this fall of water, although you are forced +sometimes to ascend, you must nevertheless descend still more, and this +is what travellers do not appear to have paid proper attention to. As we +can only approach the cascade on one side, nor see it but in the +profile, it is not easy to measure its height by instruments: +experiments have been made to do it by a long cord, tied to a pole, and +after having often attempted this manner, it was found to be only 115 or +120 feet high; but it is impossible to ascertain whether the pole was +not stopped by some projection of the rock; for although when drawn up +again the end of the cord was always wet, yet that is no proof, since +the water which precipitates from the mountain, flies up again in foam +to a very great height: for my own part, after having considered it on +every side that I could examine it to advantage, I think that we cannot +allow it to be less than 140 or 150 feet.</p> + +<p>"Its figure is that of a horse-shoe, and its circumference is about 400 +paces; but exactly <!-- Page 325 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325"></a>[325]</span>in its middle, it is divided by a very narrow +island, about half a quarter of a league long. It is true these two +parts join again; that which was on my side, and of which I could only +have a side view, has several projecting points, but that which I beheld +in front, appeared to be perfectly even." The Baron has also mentioned a +torrent, which, if not the offspring of his own invention, must fall +into some channel upon the melting of the snow.</p> + +<p>There is another cataract three miles from Albany, in the province of +New-York, whose height is 50 feet perpendicular, and from which there +arises a mist that occasions a faint rainbow.<a name="FNanchor_325:A_39" id="FNanchor_325:A_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_325:A_39" class="fnanchor">[325:A]</a></p> + +<p>In all countries where mankind are not sufficiently numerous to form +polished societies, the ground is more irregular, and the beds of rivers +more extended, less equal, and often abound with cataracts. Many ages +were required to render the Rhone and the Loire navigable. It is by +confining waters, by directing their course, and by cleansing the bottom +of rivers, that they obtain a fixed and regular course; in all countries +thinly inhabited Nature is rude, and often deformed.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 326 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326"></a>[326]</span>There are rivers which lose themselves in the sands, and others which +seem to precipitate into the bowels of the earth: the Guadalquiver in +Spain, the river Gottenburg in Sweden, and the Rhine itself, lose +themselves in the earth. It is asserted, that in the west part of the +island of St. Domingo there is a mountain of a considerable height, at +the foot of which are many caverns, into which the rivers and rivulets +fall with so much noise, as to be heard at the distance of seven or +eight leagues.<a name="FNanchor_326:A_40" id="FNanchor_326:A_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_326:A_40" class="fnanchor">[326:A]</a></p> + +<p>The number of rivers which lose themselves in the earth is very few, and +there is no appearance that they descend very low; it is more probable +that they lose themselves, like the Rhine, by dividing among the +quantity of sand; this is very common to small rivers that run through +dry and sandy soils, of which we have several examples in Africa, +Persia, Arabia, &c.</p> + +<p>The rivers of the north transport into the sea prodigious quantities of +ice, which accumulating, form those enormous masses so destructive to +mariners. These masses are the most abundant in the Strait of Waigat, +which is entirely frozen over the greatest part of the year, <!-- Page 327 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327"></a>[327]</span>and are +formed by the great flakes which the river Oby almost continually brings +there; they attach themselves along the coasts, and heap up to a +considerable height on both sides, but the middle of the strait is the +last part which freezes, and where the ice is the lowest. When the wind +ceases to blow from the North, and comes in the direction of the Strait, +the ice begins to thaw and break in the middle; afterwards it loosens +from the sides in great masses, which are carried into the high sea. The +wind, which all winter blows from the north over the frozen countries of +Nova Zembla, renders the country watered by the Oby, and all Siberia, so +cold, that even at Tobolski, which is in the 57th degree, there are no +fruit trees, while at Sweden, Stockholm, and even in higher latitudes, +there are both fruit trees and pulse. This difference does not proceed, +as it has been thought, from the sea of Lapland being warmer than the +Straits; nor from the land of Nova Zembla being colder than Lapland; but +solely from the Baltic, and the Gulph of Bothnia, tempering the rigour +of the north winds, whereas in Siberia there is nothing that can +temperate the cold. It is a fact founded on experience, that it is never +so cold on the sea coasts as in the <!-- Page 328 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328"></a>[328]</span>inland parts of a country. There +are plants which stand the winter in London exposed to the open air, +that cannot be preserved at Paris; and Siberia, which is a vast +continent, is for this reason colder than Sweden, which is surrounded on +all sides by the sea.</p> + +<p>The coldest country in the world is Spitzbergen: it lies in the 78th +degree of north latitude, and is entirely formed of small peaked +mountains; these mountains are composed of gravel, and flat stones +somewhat like slate, heaped one on the other; which, it is affirmed by +navigators, are raised by the wind, and increase so quick, that new ones +are discovered every year. The rein-deer is the only animal seen here, +which feeds on a short grass and moss. On the top of these little +mountains, and at more than a mile from the sea, the mast of a ship was +found with a pully fastened to one of its ends, which gives room to +suppose that the sea once covered the tops of these mountains, and that +this country is but of modern date; it is uninhabited, and +uninhabitable; the soil of these small mountains has no consistence, but +is loose, and so cold and penetrating a vapour strikes from it, that it +is impossible to remain any length of time thereon.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 329 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329"></a>[329]</span>The vessels which go to Spitzbergen for the whale fishery, arrive there +early in the month of July, and take their departure from it about the +15th of August, the ice preventing them from entering the sea earlier, +or quiting it after. Prodigious pieces of ice, 60, 70, and 80 fathoms +thick are seen there, and there are some parts of it where the sea +appears frozen to the very bottom<a name="FNanchor_329:A_41" id="FNanchor_329:A_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_329:A_41" class="fnanchor">[329:A]</a>: this ice, which is so high +above the level of the sea, is as clear and transparent as glass.</p> + +<p>There is also much ice in the seas of North America, as in Ascension +Bay, in the Straits of Hudson, Cumberland, Davis, Forbishers, &c. Robert +Lade asserts that the mountains of Friezeland are entirely covered with +snow, and its coasts with ice, like a bulwark, which prevents any +approaching them. "It is, says he, very remarkable, that in this sea we +meet with islands of ice more than half a mile round, extremely high, +and 70 or 80 fathoms deep; this ice, which is sweet, is perhaps formed +in the rivers or straits of the neighbouring lands, <!-- Page 330 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330"></a>[330]</span>&c. These islands +or mountains of ice are so moveable, that in stormy weather they follow +the track of a ship, as if they were drawn along in the same furrow by a +rope. There are some of them tower so high above the water, as to +surpass the tops of the masts of the largest vessels."<a name="FNanchor_330:A_42" id="FNanchor_330:A_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_330:A_42" class="fnanchor">[330:A]</a></p> + +<p>In the collection of voyages made for the service of the Dutch East +India Company, we meet with the following account of the ice at Nova +Zembla:—"At Cape Troost the weather was so foggy as to oblige us to +moor the vessel to a mountain of ice, which was 36 fathoms deep in the +water, and about 16 fathoms out of it.</p> + +<p>"On the 10th of August the ice dividing, it began to float, and then we +observed that the large piece of ice, to which the ship had been moored, +touched the bottom, as all the others passing by struck against without +moving it. We then began to fear being inclosed between the ice, that we +should either be frozen in or crushed to pieces, and therefore +endeavoured to avoid the danger by attempting to get into another +latitude, in doing of which the vessel was forced through the floating +ice, which made a <!-- Page 331 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331"></a>[331]</span>tremendous noise, and seemingly to a great distance; +at length we moored to another mountain, for the purpose of remaining +there that night.</p> + +<p>"During the first watch the ice began to split with an inexpressible +noise, and the ship keeping to the current, in which the ice was now +floating, we were obliged to cut the cable to avoid it; we reckoned more +than 400 large mountains of ice, which were 10 fathoms under and +appeared more than 2 fathoms above water.</p> + +<p>"We afterwards moored the vessel to another mountain of ice, which +reached above 6 fathoms under water. As soon as we were fixed we +perceived another piece beyond us, which terminated in a point, and went +to the bottom of the sea; we advanced towards it, and found it 20 +fathoms under water, and 12 above the surface.</p> + +<p>"The 11th we reached another large shelve of ice, 18 fathoms under +water, and 10 above it.</p> + +<p>"The 21st the Dutch got pretty far in among the ice, and remained there +the whole night; the next morning they moored their vessel to a large +bank of ice, which they ascended, <!-- Page 332 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332"></a>[332]</span>and considered as a very singular +phenomenon, that its top was covered with earth, and they found near 40 +eggs thereon. The colour was not the common colour of ice, but a fine +sky blue. Those who were on it had various conjectures from this +circumstance, some contending it was an effect of the ice, while others +maintained it to be a mass of frozen earth. It was about eighteen +fathoms under water, and ten above."<a name="FNanchor_332:A_43" id="FNanchor_332:A_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_332:A_43" class="fnanchor">[332:A]</a></p> + +<p>Wafer relates, that near Terra del Fuega he met with many high floating +pieces of ice, which he at first mistook for islands. Some appeared a +mile or two in length, and the largest not less than 4 or 500 feet above +the water.</p> + +<p>All this ice, as I have observed in the sixth article, was brought +thither by the rivers; the ice in the sea of Nova Zembla, and the +Straits of Waigat come from the Oby, and perhaps from Jenisca, and other +great rivers of Siberia and Tartary; that in Hudson's Straits, from +Ascension Bay, into which many of the North American rivers fall; that +of Terra del Fuega, from the southern continent. If there are less on +the North coasts of Lapland, than on those of Siberia, and the Straits +of Waigat, it is because <!-- Page 333 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333"></a>[333]</span>all the rivers of Lapland fall into the Gulph +of Bothnia, and none go into the northern sea. The ice may also be +formed in the straits, where the tides swell much higher than in the +open sea, and where, consequently, the ice that is at the surface may +heap up and form those mountains, which are several fathoms high; but +with respect to those which are 4 or 500 feet high, they appear to be +formed on high coasts; and I imagine that when the snow which covers the +tops of these coasts melts, the water flows on the flakes of ice, and +being frozen thereon, thus increases the size of the first until it +comes to that amazing height. That afterwards, in a warm summer, these +hills of ice loosen from the coasts by the action of the wind and motion +of the sea, or perhaps even by their own weight, and are driven as the +wind directs, so that they at length may arrive into temperate climates +before they are entirely melted.</p> + + +<div> +<hr class="footnotes" /> +<p class="sectctrfn">FOOTNOTES:</p> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_306:A_33" id="Footnote_306:A_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_306:A_33"><span class="label">[306:A]</span></a> See <span lang="it" xml:lang="it">Racolta d'autori che trattano del motto dell' +acque</span>, vol. 1, page 123.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_312:A_34" id="Footnote_312:A_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_312:A_34"><span class="label">[312:A]</span></a> See Keil's Examination of Burnet's Theory, page 126.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_313:A_35" id="Footnote_313:A_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_313:A_35"><span class="label">[313:A]</span></a> See Shaw's Travels, vol. ii, page 71.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_317:A_36" id="Footnote_317:A_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_317:A_36"><span class="label">[317:A]</span></a> See Boyle, vol. iii. page 217.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_321:A_37" id="Footnote_321:A_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_321:A_37"><span class="label">[321:A]</span></a> See Ovington's Travels, vol. ii. page 290.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_323:A_38" id="Footnote_323:A_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_323:A_38"><span class="label">[323:A]</span></a> See Phil. Trans. Abr. vol. vi. part ii. page 119.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_325:A_39" id="Footnote_325:A_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_325:A_39"><span class="label">[325:A]</span></a> Phil. Trans. vol. vi. part ii. page 19.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_326:A_40" id="Footnote_326:A_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_326:A_40"><span class="label">[326:A]</span></a> See Varenii Geograph. gen. page 48.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_329:A_41" id="Footnote_329:A_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_329:A_41"><span class="label">[329:A]</span></a> In contradiction to this idea it is now a generally +received opinion, that the mountains of ice in the North and South Seas +are exactly the same depth under as they are height above the surface of +the water.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_330:A_42" id="Footnote_330:A_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_330:A_42"><span class="label">[330:A]</span></a> See the Voyages of Lade, vol. ii, page 305, &.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_332:A_43" id="Footnote_332:A_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_332:A_43"><span class="label">[332:A]</span></a> Voyage of the Dutch to the North, vol. 1, 3. Page 49.</p> +</div> +</div> + + +<p class="theend"><i>END OF THE FIRST VOLUME.</i></p> +</div> + + + + +<div> +<hr class="newchapter" /> +<div class="notebox"> +<p class="tnhead">TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES</p> + + +<p>On page 78, there is one character that may not be visible. It is a +superscripted "5".</p> + +<p>Page ii is blank in the original.</p> + +<p>Variations in spelling and hyphenation have been left as in the +original.</p> + +<p>The following changes have been made to the original text:</p> + +<div class="tnblock"> +<p>Page vi: It would have been singular[original has "singuar"]</p> + +<p>Page 9: moon, which are the causes of["of" missing in +original] it</p> + +<p>Page 23: these particles[original has "particels"] of earth +and stone</p> + +<p>Page 31: In a word, the materials[original has "mateterials"] +of the globe</p> + +<p>Page 37: has occurred, and in my opinion[original has +"oppinion"] very naturally</p> + +<p>Page 51: These[original has "these"] could not have been +occasioned</p> + +<p>Page 74: in the regions of the sky [original has "fky"]</p> + +<p>Page 94: that fire cannot[original has "connot"] subsist</p> + +<p>Page 94: planets at[original has "as"] the time of their +quitting the sun</p> + +<p>Page 97: there will be detached[original has "detatched"] from +its equator</p> + +<p>Page 104: which are as 229 to 230.[period missing in original]</p> + +<p>Page 155: ARTICLE VI.[original has "VII."]</p> + +<p>Page 182: conjecture is so much the better[original has +"bettter"] founded</p> + +<p>Page 189: where the pits are very deep[original has "deeep"]</p> + +<p>Page 192: 23. Sand streaked red[original has "read"] and white</p> + +<p>Page 194: In plains surrounded[original has "surounded"] with +hills</p> + +<p>Page 198: in France, Flanders, Holland, Spain,[comma missing +in original] Italy</p> + +<p>Page 199: 10 of sand, then 2 feet of["of" missing in original] +clay</p> + +<p>Page 203: either birds or terrestrial animals."[quotation mark +missing in original]</p> + +<p>Page 210: the Alps, and the Apennine[original has "Appenine"] +mountains</p> + +<p>Page 225: time much longer than a year."[quotation mark +missing in original]</p> + +<p>Page 228: formation is novel, in[original has "n"] comparison</p> + +<p>Page 256: resemblance is perfectly exact."[quotation mark +missing in original]</p> + +<p>[78:A] Vide Newton, 2d edit. page 525.[period missing in +original]</p> + +<p>[177:A] Footnote letter missing in original.</p> + +<p>[178:A] See the Hist. of New France, by the Pere +Charlevoix.[Footnote letter and period missing in original.]</p> + +<p>[234:A] See Shaw's Voyages, Vol. ii[original has "11"], pages +40 and 41.</p> + +<p>[240:B] Voyage of Paul Lucus, Vol. II[original has "11"], page +380.</p> + +<p>[329:A] above the surface of the water.[original has a comma]</p> + +<p>[330:A] See the Voyages of Lade, vol. ii.[original has "11"] +page 305, &.</p> + +<p>[332:A] Voyage of the Dutch to the North, vol. 1, 3.[original +has a comma] Page 49.</p> +</div> +</div> +</div> + +<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44792 ***</div> +</body> +</html> diff --git a/44792-h/images/cover.jpg b/44792-h/images/cover.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..19e7b24 --- /dev/null +++ b/44792-h/images/cover.jpg diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3d095a3 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #44792 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/44792) diff --git a/old/44792-0.txt b/old/44792-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..69cfbe3 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44792-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,7086 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Buffon's Natural History, Volume I (of II), by +Georges Louis Leclerc de Buffon + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Buffon's Natural History, Volume I (of II) + Containing a Therory of ther Earth, a General History of + Man, of the Brute Creation, and of Vegetables, Mineral, + &c. &c + +Author: Georges Louis Leclerc de Buffon + +Translator: James Smith Barr + +Release Date: January 29, 2014 [EBook #44792] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BUFFON'S NATURAL HISTORY *** + + + + +Produced by Chris Curnow, Lisa Reigel, and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive) + + + + + + + +Transcriber's Notes: Words in italics in the original are surrounded by +_underscores_. Depending on the font, there is one character that may +not be visible. It is a superscripted "5". Other notes follow the text. + + + + + _Barr's Buffon._ + + + Buffon's Natural History. + + CONTAINING + + A THEORY OF THE EARTH, + + A GENERAL + + _HISTORY OF MAN_, + + OF THE BRUTE CREATION, AND OF + VEGETABLES, MINERALS, + _&c. &c._ + + FROM THE FRENCH. + + WITH NOTES BY THE TRANSLATOR. + + IN TEN VOLUMES. + + VOL. I. + + + London: + PRINTED FOR THE PROPRIETOR, + AND SOLD BY H. D. SYMONDS, PATERNOSTER-ROW. + + 1797. + + + + +CONTENTS + +OF + +THE FIRST VOLUME. + + + _Page_ + _THE Theory of the Earth_ 1 + + Proof of the Theory of the Earth. + + Article I. _On the Formation of the Planets_ 69 + + Article II. _From the System of Whiston_ 115 + + Article III. _From the System of Burnet_ 128 + + Article IV. _From the System of Woodward_ 131 + + Article V. _Exposition of some other Systems_ 137 + + Article VI. _Geography_ 155 + + Article VII. _On the Production of the Strata, or Beds of + the Earth_ 183 + + Article VIII. _On Shells and other Marine Productions found + in the interior Parts of the Earth_ 219 + + Article IX. _On the Inequalities of the Surface + of the Earth_ 262 + + Article X. _Of Rivers_ 298 + + + + +PREFACE. + + +We should certainly be guilty of a gross absurdity if, in an age like +the present, we were to enter into an elaborate discussion on the +advantages to be derived from the study of NATURAL HISTORY; the ancients +recommended it as useful, instructive, and entertaining; and the moderns +have so far pursued and cultivated this first of sciences, that it is +now admitted to be the source of universal instruction and knowledge; +where every active mind may find subjects to amuse and delight, and the +artist a never failing field to enrich his glowing imagination. + +It would have been singular if, on such a subject, a number of authors +had not submitted the produce of their observations and labour; many +have written upon Natural Philosophy, but the Comte de BUFFON stands +eminently distinguished among them; he has entered into a minute +investigation, and drawn numberless facts from unwearied observations +far beyond any other, and this he has accomplished in a style fully +accordant with the importance of his subject. Ray, Linnæus, Rheaumur, +and other of his cotemporaries, deserve much credit for their classing +of animals, vegetables, &c. but it was BUFFON alone who entered into a +description of their nature, habits, uses, and properties. In his Theory +of the Earth he has displayed a wonderful ingenuity, and shewn the +general order of Nature with a masterly hand, although he may be subject +to some objections for preferring physical reasonings on general +causes, rather than allowing aught to have arisen from supernatural +agency, or the will of the Almighty. In this he has followed the example +of all great philosophers, who seem unwilling to admit that the +formation of any part of the Universe is beyond their comprehension. + +As the works of this Author will best speak for themselves, we shall +avoid unnecessary panegyric, hoping they will have received no material +injury in the following translation; we shall therefore content +ourselves with observing, that in our plan we have followed that adopted +by the Comte himself in a latter edition, from which he exploded his +long and minute treatises on anatomy and mensuration; though elegant and +highly finished in themselves, they appeared to us of too abstruse and +confined a nature for general estimation, and which we could not have +gone into without almost doubling the expence; a circumstance we had to +guard against, for the advantage of those of our readers to whom that +part would have been totally uninteresting. + +As to this edition, we presume it is no vain boast, that every exertion +has been made to do justice to a work of such acknowledged merit. In the +literary part, it has been the Proprietor's chief endeavour to preserve +the spirit and accuracy of the Author, as far as could be done in +translating from one language into another; and it is with gratitude he +acknowledges, that those endeavours have been amply supported by the +engraver; for the decorative executions of MILTON will remain a lasting +monument of his abilities, as long as delicacy in the arts is held in +estimation. + + + + +BUFFON's + +NATURAL HISTORY. + + + + +_THE THEORY OF THE EARTH._ + + +Neither the figure of the earth, its motion, nor its external +connections with the rest of the universe, pertain to our present +investigation. It is the internal structure of the globe, its +composition, form, and manner of existence which we purpose to examine. +The general history of the earth should doubtless precede that of its +productions, as a necessary study for those who wish to be acquainted +with Nature in her variety of shapes, and the detail of facts relative +to the life and manners of animals, or to the culture and vegetation of +plants, belong not, perhaps, so much to Natural History, as to the +general deductions drawn from the observations that have been made upon +the different materials which compose the terrestrial globe: as the +heights, depths, and inequalities of its form; the motion of the sea, +the direction of mountains, the situation of rocks and quarries, the +rapidity and effects of currents in the ocean, &c. This is the history +of nature in its most ample extent, and these are the operations by +which every other effect is influenced and produced. The theory of these +effects constitutes what may be termed a primary science, upon which the +exact knowledge of particular appearances as well as terrestrial +substances entirely depends. This description of science may fairly be +considered as appertaining to physics; but does not all physical +knowledge, in which no system is admitted, form part of the History of +Nature? + +In a subject of great magnitude, whose relative connections are +difficult to trace, and where some facts are but partially known, and +others uncertain and obscure, it is more easy to form a visionary +system, than to establish a rational theory; thus it is that the Theory +of the Earth has only hitherto been treated in a vague and hypothetical +manner; I shall therefore but slightly mention the singular notions of +some authors who have written upon the subject. + +The first hypothesis I shall allude to, deserves to be mentioned more +for its ingenuity than its reasonable solidity; it is that of an English +astronomer, (WHISTON) versed in the system of NEWTON, and an +enthusiastic admirer of his philosophy; convinced that every event which +happens on the terrestrial globe, depends upon the motions of the stars, +he endeavours to prove, by the assistance of mathematical calculations, +that the tail of a comet has produced every alteration the earth has +ever undergone. + +The next is the formation of an heterodox theologician, (BURNET) whose +brain was so heated with poetical visions, that he imagined he had seen +the creation of the universe. After explaining what the earth was in its +primary state, when it sprung from nothing; what changes were occasioned +by the deluge; what it has been and what it is, he then assumes a +prophetic style, and predicts what will be its state after the +destruction of the human race. + +The third comes from a writer (WOODWARD) certainly a better and more +extensive observer of nature than the two former, though little less +irregular and confused in his ideas; he explains the principal +appearances of the globe, by an immense abyss in the bowels of the +earth, which in his opinion is nothing more than a thin crust that +serves as a covering to the fluid it incloses. + +The whole of these hypotheses are raised on unstable foundations; have +given no light upon the subject, the ideas being unconnected, the facts +confused, and the whole confounded with a mixture of physic and fable; +and consequently have been adopted only by those who implicitly believe +opinions without investigation, and who, incapable of distinguishing +probability, are more impressed with the wonders of the marvellous than +the relation of truth. + +What we shall say on this subject will doubtless be less extraordinary, +and appear unimportant, if put in comparison with the grand systems just +mentioned, but it should be remembered that it is an historian's +business to describe, not invent; that no suppositions should be +admitted upon subjects that depend upon facts and observation; that his +imagination ought only to be exercised for the purpose of combining +observations, rendering facts more general, and forming one connected +whole, so as to present to the mind a distinct arrangement of clear +ideas and probable conjectures; I say probable, because we must not +expect to give exact demonstration on this subject, that being confined +to mathematical sciences, while our knowledge in physics and natural +history depends solely upon experience, and is confined to reasoning +upon inductions. + +In the history of the Earth, we shall therefore begin with those facts +that have been obtained from the experience of time, together with what +we have collected by our own observations. + +This immense globe exhibits upon its surface heights, depths, plains, +seas, lakes, marshes, rivers, caverns, gulphs, and volcanos; and upon +the first view of these objects we cannot discover in their dispositions +either order or regularity. If we penetrate into its internal part, we +shall there find metals, minerals, stones, bitumens, sands, earths, +waters, and matters of every kind, placed as it were by chance, and +without the smallest apparent design. Examining with a more strict +attention, we discover sunk mountains, caverns filled, rocks split and +broken, countries swallowed up, and new islands rising from the ocean; +we shall also perceive heavy substances placed above light ones, hard +bodies surrounded with soft; in short, we shall there find matter in +every form, wet and dry, hot and cold, solid and brittle, mixed in such +a sort of confusion as to leave room to compare them only to a mass of +rubbish and the ruins of a wrecked world. + +We inhabit these ruins however with a perfect security. The various +generations of men, animals, and plants, succeed each other without +interruption; the earth produces fully sufficient for their subsistence; +the sea has its limits; its motions and the currents of air are +regulated by fixed laws: the returns of the seasons are certain and +regular; the severity of the winter being constantly succeeded by the +beauties of the spring: every thing appears in order, and the earth, +formerly a CHAOS, is now a tranquil and delightful abode, where all is +animated, and regulated by such an amazing display of power and +intelligence as fills us with admiration, and elevates our minds with +the most sublime ideas of an all-potent and wonderful Creator. + +Let us not then draw any hasty conclusions upon the irregularities of +the surface of the earth, nor the apparent disorders in the interior +parts, for we shall soon discover the utility, and even the necessity of +them; and, by considering them with a little attention, we shall, +perhaps, find an order of which we had no conception, and a general +connection that we could neither perceive nor comprehend, by a slight +examination: but in fact, our knowledge on this subject must always be +confined. There are many parts of the surface of the globe with which we +are entirely unacquainted, and have but partial ideas of the bottom of +the sea, which in many places we have not been able to fathom. We can +only penetrate into the coat of the earth; the greatest caverns and the +deepest mines do not descend above the eight thousandth part of its +diameter, we can therefore judge only of the external and mere +superficial part; we know, indeed, that bulk for bulk the earth weighs +four times heavier than the sun, and we also know the proportion its +weight bears with other planets; but this is merely a relative +estimation; we have no certain standard nor proportion; we are so +entirely ignorant of the real weight of the materials, that the internal +part of the globe may be a void space, or composed of matter a thousand +times heavier than gold; nor is there any method to make further +discoveries on this subject; and it is with the greatest difficulty any +rational conjectures can be formed thereon. + +We must therefore confine ourselves to a correct examination and +description of the surface of the earth, and to those trifling depths to +which we have been enabled to penetrate. The first object which presents +itself is that immense quantity of water which covers the greatest part +of the globe; this water always occupies the lowest ground, its surface +always level, and constantly tending to equilibrium and rest; +nevertheless it is kept in perpetual agitation by a powerful agent, +which opposing its natural tranquillity, impresses it with a regular +periodical motion, alternately raising and depressing its waves, +producing a vibration in the total mass, by disturbing the whole body to +the greatest depths. This motion we know has existed from the +commencement of time, and will continue as long as the sun and moon, +which are the causes of it. + +By an examination of the bottom of the sea, we discover that to be fully +as irregular as the surface of the earth; we there find hills and +vallies, plains and cavities, rocks and soils of every kind: we there +perceive that islands are only the summits of vast mountains, whose +foundations are at the bottom of the Ocean; we also find other mountains +whose tops are nearly on a level with the surface of the water, and +rapid currents which run contrary to the general movement: they +sometimes run in the same direction, at others, their motions are +retrograde, but never exceeding their bounds, which appear to be as +fixed and invariable as those which confine the rivers of the earth. In +one part we meet with tempestuous regions, where the winds blow with +irresistible fury, where the sea and the heavens equally agitated, join +in contact with each other, are mixed and confounded in the general +shock: in others, violent intestine motions, tumultuous swellings, +water-spouts, and extraordinary agitations, caused by volcanos, whose +mouths though a considerable depth under water, yet vomit fire from the +midst of the waves, and send up to the clouds a thick vapour, composed +of water, sulphur, and bitumen. Further we perceive dreadful gulphs or +whirlpools, which seem to attract vessels, merely to swallow them up. On +the other hand, we discover immense regions, totally opposite in their +natures, always calm and tranquil, yet equally dangerous; where the +winds never exert their power, where the art of the mariner becomes +useless, and where the becalmed voyager must remain until death relieves +him from the horrors of despair. In conclusion, if we turn our eyes +towards the northern or southern extremities of the globe, we there +perceive enormous flakes of ice separating themselves from the polar +regions, advancing like huge mountains into the more temperate climes, +where they dissolve and are lost to the sight. + +Exclusive of these principal objects the vast empire of the sea abounds +with animated beings, almost innumerable in numbers and variety. Some of +them, covered with light scales, move with astonishing celerity; others, +loaded with thick shells, drag heavily along, leaving their track in the +sand; on others Nature has bestowed fins, resembling wings, with which +they raise and support themselves in the air, and fly to considerable +distances; while there are those to whom all motion has been denied, who +live and die immoveably fixed to the same rock: every species, however, +find abundance of food in this their native element. The bottom of the +sea, and the shelving sides of the various rocks, produce great +abundance of plants and mosses of different kinds; its soil is composed +of sand, gravel, rocks, and shells; in some parts a fine clay, in others +a solid earth, and in general it has a complete resemblance to the land +which we inhabit. + +Let us now take a view of the earth. What prodigious differences do we +find in different climates? What a variety of soils? What inequalities +in the surface? but upon a minute and attentive observation we shall +find the greatest chain of mountains are nearer the equator than the +poles; that in the Old Continent their direction is more from the east +to west than from the north to south; and that, on the contrary, in the +New World they extend more from north to south than from east to west; +but what is still more remarkable, the form and direction of those +mountains, whose appearance is so very irregular, correspond so +precisely, that the prominent angles of one mountain are always +opposite to the concave angles of the neighbouring mountain, and are of +equal dimensions, whether they are separated by a small valley or an +extensive plain. I have also observed that opposite hills are nearly of +the same height, and that, in general, mountains occupy the middle of +continents, islands, and promontories, which they divide by the greatest +lengths. + +In following the courses of the principal rivers, I have likewise found +that they are almost always perpendicular with those of the sea into +which they empty themselves; and that in the greatest part of their +courses they proceed nearly in the direction of the mountains from which +they derive their source. + +The sea shores are generally bounded with rocks, marble, and other hard +stones, or by earth and sand which has accumulated by the waters from +the sea, or been brought down by the rivers; and I observe that opposite +coasts, separated only by an arm of the sea, are composed of similar +materials, and the beds of the earth are exactly the same. Volcanos I +find exist only in the highest mountains; that many of them are entirely +extinct; that some are connected with others by subterraneous passages, +and that their explosions frequently happen at one and the same time. +There are similar correspondences between certain lakes and neighbouring +seas; some rivers suddenly disappear, and seem to precipitate themselves +into the earth. We also find internal, or mediterranean seas, constantly +receiving an enormous quantity of water from a number of rivers without +ever extending their bounds, most probably discharging by subterraneous +passages all their superfluous supplies. Lands which have been long +inhabited are easily distinguished from those new countries where the +soil appears in a rude state, where the rivers are full of cataracts, +where the earth is either overflowed with water, or parched up with +drought, and where every spot upon which a tree will grow is covered +with uncultivated woods. + +Pursuing our examination in a more extensive view, we find that the +upper strata that surrounds the globe, is universally the same. That +this substance which serves for the growth and nourishment of animals +and vegetables, is nothing but a composition of decayed animal and +vegetable bodies reduced into such small particles, that their former +organization is not distinguishable; or penetrating a little further, +we find the real earth, beds of sand, lime-stone, argol, shells, marble, +gravel, chalk, &c. These beds are always parallel to each other and of +the same thickness throughout their whole extent. In neighbouring hills +beds of the same materials are invariably found upon the same levels, +though the hills are separated by deep and extensive intervals. All beds +of earth, even the most solid strata, as rocks, quarries of marble, &c. +are uniformly divided by perpendicular fissures; it is the same in the +largest as well as smallest depths, and appears a rule which nature +invariably pursues. + +In the very bowels of the earth, on the tops of mountains, and even the +most remote parts from the sea, shells, skeletons of fish, marine +plants, &c. are frequently found, and these shells, fish, and plants, +are exactly similar to those which exist in the Ocean. There are a +prodigious quantity of petrified shells to be met with in an infinity of +places, not only inclosed in rocks, masses of marble, lime-stone, as +well as in earth and clays, but are actually incorporated and filled +with the very substance which surrounds them. In short, I find myself +convinced, by repeated observations, that marbles, stones, chalks, +marls, clay, sand, and almost all terrestrial substances, wherever they +may be placed, are filled with shells and other substances, the +productions of the sea. + +These facts being enumerated, let us now see what reasonable conclusions +are to be drawn from them. + +The changes and alterations which have happened to the earth, in the +space of the last two or three thousand years, are very inconsiderable +indeed, when compared with those important revolutions which must have +taken place in those ages which immediately followed the creation; for +as all terrestrial substances could only acquire solidity by the +continued action of gravity, it would be easy to demonstrate that the +surface of the earth was much softer at first than it is at present, and +consequently the same causes which now produce but slight and almost +imperceptible changes during many ages, would then effect great +revolutions in a very short space. It appears to be a certain fact, that +the earth which we now inhabit, and even the tops of the highest +mountains, were formerly covered with the sea, for shells and other +marine productions are frequently found in almost every part; it appears +also that the water remained a considerable time on the surface of the +earth, since in many places there have been discovered such prodigious +banks of shells, that it is impossible so great a multitude of animals +could exist at the same time: this fact seems likewise to prove, that +although the materials which composed the surface of the earth were then +in a state of softness, that rendered them easy to be disunited, moved +and transported by the waters, yet that these removals were not made at +once; they must indeed have been successive, gradual, and by degrees, +because these kind of sea productions are frequently met with more than +a thousand feet below the surface, and such a considerable thickness of +earth and stone could not have accumulated but by the length of time. If +we were to suppose that at the Deluge all the shell-fish were raised +from the bottom of the sea, and transported over all the earth; besides +the difficulty of establishing this supposition, it is evident, that as +we find shells incorporated in marble and in the rocks of the highest +mountains, we must likewise suppose that all these marbles and rocks +were formed at the same time, and that too at the very instant of the +Deluge; and besides, that previous to this great revolution there were +neither mountains, marble, nor rocks, nor clays, nor matters of any kind +similar to those we are at present acquainted with, as they almost all +contain shells and other productions of the sea. Besides, at the time of +the Deluge, the earth must have acquired a considerable degree of +solidity, from the action of gravity for more than sixteen centuries, +and consequently it does not appear possible that the waters, during the +short time the Deluge lasted, should have overturned and dissolved its +surface to the greatest depths we have since been enabled to penetrate. + +But without dwelling longer on this point, which shall hereafter be more +amply discussed, I shall confine myself to well-known observations and +established facts. There is no doubt but that the waters of the sea at +some period covered and remained for ages upon that part of the globe +which is now known to be dry land; and consequently the whole continents +of Asia, Europe, Africa, and America, were then the bottom of an ocean +abounding with similar productions to those which the sea at present +contains: it is equally certain that the different strata which compose +the earth are parallel and horizontal, and it is evident their being in +this situation is the operation of the waters which have collected and +accumulated by degrees the different materials, and given them the same +position as the water itself always assumes. We observe that the +position of strata is almost universally horizontal: in plains it is +exactly so, and it is only in the mountains that they are inclined to +the horizon, from their having been originally formed by a sediment +deposited upon an inclined base. Now I insist that these strata must +have been formed by degrees, and not all at once, by any revolution +whatever, because strata, composed of heavy materials, are very +frequently found placed above light ones, which could not be, if, as +some authors assert, the whole had been mixed with the waters at the +time of the Deluge, and afterwards precipitated; in that case every +thing must have had a very different appearance to that which now +exists. The heaviest bodies would have descended first, and each +particular stratum would have been arranged according to its weight and +specific gravity, and we should not see solid rocks or metals placed +above light sand any more than clay under coal. + +We should also pay attention to another circumstance; it confirms what +we have said on the formation of the strata; no other cause than the +motions and sediments of water could possibly produce so regular a +position of it, for the highest mountains are composed of parallel +strata as well as the lowest plains, and therefore we cannot attribute +the origin and formation of mountains to the shocks of earthquakes, or +eruptions of volcanos. The small eminences which are sometimes raised by +volcanos, or convulsive motions of the earth, are not by any means +composed of parallel strata, they are a mere disordered heap of matters +thrown confusedly together; but the horizontal and parallel position of +the strata must necessarily proceed from the operations of a constant +cause and motion, always regulated and directed in the same uniform +manner. + +From repeated observations, and these incontrovertible facts, we are +convinced that the dry part of the globe, which is now habitable, has +remained for a long time under the waters of the sea, and consequently +this earth underwent the same fluctuations and changes which the bottom +of the ocean is at present actually undergoing. To discover therefore +what formerly passed on the earth, let us examine what now passes at +the bottom of the sea, and from thence we shall soon be enabled to draw +rational conclusions with regard to the external form and internal +composition of that which we inhabit. + +From the Creation the sea has constantly been subject to a regular flux +and reflux: this motion, which raises and falls the waters twice in +every twenty-four hours, is principally occasioned by the action of the +moon, and is much greater under the equator than in any other climates. +The earth performs a rapid motion on its axis, and consequently has a +centrifugal force, which is also the greatest at the equator; this +latter, independent of actual observation, proves that the earth is not +perfectly spherical, but that it must be more elevated under the equator +then at the poles. + +From these combined causes, the ebbing and flowing of the tides, and the +motion of the earth, we may fairly conclude, that although the earth was +a perfect sphere in its original form, yet its diurnal motion, together +with the constant flux and reflux of the sea, must, by degrees, in the +course of time, have raised the equatorial parts, by carrying mud, +earth, sand, shells, &c. from other climes, and there depositing of +them. Agreeable to this idea the greatest irregularities must be found, +and, in fact, are found near the equator. Besides, as this motion of the +tides is made by diurnal alternatives, and been repeated, without +interruption, from the commencement of time, is it not natural to +imagine, that each time the tide flows the water carries a small +quantity of matter from one place to another, which may fall to the +bottom like a sediment, and form those parallel and horizontal strata +which are every where to be met with? for the whole motion of the water, +in the flux and reflux, being horizontal, the matters carried away with +them will naturally be deposited in the same parallel direction. + +But to this it may be said, that as the flux and reflux of the waters +are equal and regularly succeed, two motions would counterpoise each +other, and the matters brought by the flux would be returned by the +reflux, and of course this cause for the formation of the strata must be +chimerical; that the bottom of the sea could not experience any material +alteration by two uniform motions, wherein the effects of the one would +be regularly destroyed by the other; much less could they change the +original form by the production of heights and inequalities. + +To which it may be answered, that the alternate motions of the waters +are not equal, the sea having a constant motion from the east to the +west, besides, the agitation, caused by the winds, opposes and prevents +the equality of the tides. It will also be admitted, that by every +motion of which the sea is susceptible, particles of earth and other +matters will be carried from one place and deposited in another; and +these collections will necessarily assume the form of horizontal and +parallel strata, from the various combinations of the motions of the sea +always tending to move the earth, and to level these materials wherever +they fall, in the form of a sediment. But this objection is easily +obviated by the well-known fact, that upon all coasts, bordering the +sea, where the ebbing and flowing of the tide is observed, the flux +constantly brings in a number of things which the reflux does not carry +back. There are many places upon which the sea insensibly gains and +gradually covers over, while there are others from which it recedes, +narrowing as it were its limits, by depositing earth, sands, shells, +&c. which naturally take an horizontal position; these matters +accumulate by degrees in the course of time, and being raised to a +certain point gradually exclude the water, and so become part of the dry +land for ever after. + +But not to leave any doubt upon this important point, let us strictly +examine into the possibility of a mountain's being formed at the bottom +of the sea by the motions and sediments of the waters. It is certain +that on a coast which the sea beats with violence during the agitation +of its flow, that every wave must carry off some part of the earth; for +wherever the sea is bounded by rocks, it is a plain fact that the water +by degrees wears away those rocks, and consequently carries away small +particles every time the waves retire; these particles of earth and +stone will necessarily be transported to some distance, and being +arrived where the agitation of the water is abated, and left to their +own weight, they precipitate to the bottom in form of a sediment, and +there form a first stratum, either horizontal or inclined, according to +the position of the surface upon which they fall; this will shortly be +covered by a similar stratum produced by the same cause, and thus will a +considerable quantity of matter be almost insensibly collected +together, and the strata of which will be placed, parallel to each +other. + +This mass will continue to increase by new sediments, and by gradually +accumulating, in the course of time become a mountain at the bottom of +the sea, exactly similar to those we see on dry land, both as to outward +form and internal composition. If there happen to be shells in this part +of the sea, where we have supposed this deposit to be made, they will be +filled and covered with the sediment, and incorporated in the deposited +matter, making a part of the whole mass, and they will be found situated +in the parts of the mountain according to the time they had been there +deposited; those that lay at the bottom, previous to the formation of +the first stratum, will be found in the lowest, and so according to the +time of their being deposited, the latest in the most elevated parts. + +So likewise, when the bottom of the sea, at particular places, is +troubled by the agitation of the water, there will necessarily ensue, in +the same manner, a removal of earth, shells, and other matters, from the +troubled to other parts; for we are assumed by all divers, that at the +greatest depths they descend, i. e. twenty fathoms, the bottom of the +sea is so troubled by the agitation of the waters, that the mud and +shells are carried to considerable distances, consequently +transportations of this kind are made in every part of the sea, and this +matter falling must form eminences, composed like our mountains, and in +every respect similar; therefore the flux and reflux, by the winds, the +currents, and all the motions of the water, must inevitably create +inequalities at the bottom of the sea. + +Nor must we imagine that these matters cannot be transported to great +distances, because we daily see grain, and other productions of the East +and West Indies, arriving on our own coasts.[25:A] It is true these +bodies are specifically lighter than water, whereas the substances of +which we have been speaking are specifically heavier; but, however, +being reduced to an impalpable powder, they may be sustained a long time +in the water so as to be conveyed to considerable distances. + +It has been supposed that the sea is not troubled at the bottom, +especially if it is very deep, by the agitations produced by the winds +and tides; but it should be recollected that the whole mass, however +deep, is put in motion by the tides, and that in a liquid globe this +motion would be communicated to the very centre; that the power which +produces the flux and reflux is a penetrating force, which acts +proportionably upon every particle of its mass, so that we can determine +by calculation the quantity of its force at different depths; but, in +short, this point is so certain, that it cannot be contested but by +refusing the evidence of reason. + +Therefore, we cannot possibly have the least doubt that the tides, the +winds, and every other cause which agitates the sea, must produce +eminences and inequalities at the bottom, and those heights must ever be +composed of horizontal or equally inclined strata. These eminences will +gradually encrease until they become hills, which will rise in +situations similar to the waves that produce them; and if there is a +long extent of soil, they will continue to augment by degrees; so that +in course of time they will form a vast chain of mountains. Being formed +into mountains, they become an obstacle to and interrupt the common +motion of the sea, producing at the same time other motions, which are +generally called currents. Between two neighbouring heights at the +bottom of the sea a current will necessarily be formed, which will +follow their common direction, and, like a river, form a channel, whose +angles will be alternately opposite during the whole extent of its +course. These heights will be continually increasing, being subject only +to the motion of the flux, for the waters during the flow will leave the +common sediment upon their ridges; and those waters which are impelled +by the current will force along with them, to great distances, those +matters which would be deposited between both, at the same time +hollowing out a valley with corresponding angles at their foundation. By +the effects of these motions and sediments the bottom of the sea, +although originally smooth, must become unequal, and abounding with +hills and chains of mountains, as we find it at present. The soft +materials of which the eminences are originally composed will harden by +degrees with their own weight; some forming parts, purely angular, +produce hills of clay; others, consisting of sandy and crystalline +particles, compose those enormous masses of rock and flint from whence +crystal and other precious stones are extracted; those formed with stony +particles, mixed with shells, form those of lime-stone and marble, +wherein we daily meet with shells incorporated; and others, compounded +of matter more shelly, united with pure earth, compose all our beds of +marle and chalk. All these substances are placed in regular beds, and +all contain heterogeneous matter; marine productions are found among +them in abundance, and nearly according to the relation of their +specific weights; the lightest shells in chalk, and the heaviest in clay +and lime-stone; these shells are invariably filled with the matter in +which they have been inclosed, whether stones or earth; an incontestible +proof that they have been transported with the matter that fills and +surrounds them, and that this matter was at that time in an impalpable +powder. In short, all those substances whose horizontal situations have +been established by the level of the waters of the sea, will constantly +preserve their original position. + +But here it may be observed, that most hills, whose summits consist of +solid rocks, stone, or marble, are formed upon small eminences of much +lighter materials, such for instance as clay, or strata of sand, which +we commonly find extended over the neighbouring plains, upon which it +may be asked, how, if the foregoing theory be just, this seemingly +contradictory arrangement happens? To me this phenomenon appears to be +very easy and naturally explained. The water at first acts upon the +upper stratum of coasts, or bottom of the sea, which commonly consists +of clay or sand, and having transported this, and deposited the +sediment, it of course composes small eminences, which form a base for +the more heavy particles to rest upon. Having removed the lighter +substances, it operates upon the more heavy, and by constant attrition +reduces them to an impalpable powder; which it conveys to the same spot, +and where, being deposited, these stony particles, in the course of +time, form those solid rocks and quarries which we now find upon the +tops of hills and mountains. It is not unlikely that as these particles +are much heavier than sand or clay, that they were formerly a +considerable depth under a strata of that kind, and now owe their high +situations to having been last raised up and transported by the motion +of the water. + +To confirm what we here assert, let us more closely investigate the +situation of those materials which compose the superficial outer part of +the globe, indeed the only part with which we have any knowledge. The +different beds of strata in stone quarries are almost all horizontal, or +regularly inclined; those whose foundations are on clays or other solid +matters are clearly horizontal, especially in plains. The quarries +wherein we find flint, or brownish grey free-stone, in detached +portions, have a less regular position, but even in those the uniformity +of nature plainly appears, for the horizontal or regularly inclined +strata are apparent in quarries where these stones are found in great +masses. This position is universal, except in quarries where flint and +brown free-stone are found in small detached portions, the formation of +which we shall prove to have been posterior to those we have just been +treating of; for granite, vitrifiable sand, argol, marble, calcareous +stone, chalk, and marles, are always deposited in parallel strata, +horizontally or equally inclined; the original formation of these are +easily discovered, for the strata are exactly horizontal and very thin, +and are arranged above each other like the leaves of a book. Beds of +sand, soft and hard clay, chalk, and shells, are also either horizontal +or regularly inclined. Strata of every kind preserves the same thickness +throughout its whole extent, which often occupies the space of many +miles, and may be traced still farther by close and exact observations. +In a word, the materials of the globe, as far as mankind have been +enabled to penetrate, are arranged in an uniform position, and are +exactly similar. + +The strata of sand and gravel which have been washed down from mountains +must in some measure be excepted; in vallies they are sometimes of a +considerable extent, and are generally placed under the first strata of +the earth; in plains, they are as even as the most ancient and interior +strata, but near the bottom and upon the ridges of hills they are +inclined, and follow the inclination of the ground upon which they have +flowed. These being formed by rivers and rivulets, which are constantly +in vallies changing their beds, and dragging these sands and gravel with +them, they are of course very numerous. A small rivulet flowing from the +neighbouring heights, in the course of time will be sufficient to cover +a very spacious valley with a strata of sand and gravel, and I have +often observed in hilly countries, whose base, as well as the upper +stratum, was hard clay, that above the source of the rivulet the clay is +found immediately under the vegetable soil, and below it there is the +thickness of a foot of sand upon the clay, and which extends itself to a +considerable distance. These strata formed by rivers are not very +ancient, and are easily discovered by the inequality of their thickness, +which is constantly varying, while the ancient strata preserves the same +dimensions throughout; they are also to be known by the matter itself, +which bears evident marks of having been smoothed and rounded by the +motions of the water. The same may be said of the turf and perished +vegetables which are found below the first stratum of earth in marshy +grounds; they cannot be considered as ancient, but entirely produced by +successive heaps of decayed trees and other plants. Nor are the strata +of slime and mud, which are found in many countries, to be considered as +ancient productions, having been formed by stagnated waters or +inundations of rivers, and are neither so horizontal, nor equally +inclined, as the strata anciently produced by the regular motions of the +sea. In the strata formed by rivers we constantly meet with river, but +scarcely ever sea shells, and the few that are found are broken and +irregularly placed; whereas in the ancient strata there are no river +shells; the sea shells are in great quantities, well preserved, and all +placed in the same manner, having been transported at the same time and +by the same cause. How are we to account for this astonishing +regularity? Instead of regular strata, why do we not meet with the +matters that compose the earth jumbled together, without any kind of +order? Why are not rocks, marbles, clays, marles, &c. variously +dispersed, or joined by irregular or vertical strata? Why are not the +heaviest bodies uniformly found placed beneath the lightest? It is easy +to perceive that this uniformity of nature, this organization of earth, +this connection of different materials, by parallel strata, without +respect to their weights, could only be produced by a cause as powerful +and constant as the motion of the sea, whether occasioned by the regular +winds or by that of the flux and reflux, &c. + +These causes act with greater force under the equator than in other +climates, for there the winds are more regular and the tides run +higher; the most extensive chains of mountains are also near the +equator. The mountains of Africa and Peru are the highest known, they +frequently extend themselves through whole provinces, and stretch, to +considerable distances under the ocean. The mountains of Europe and +Asia, which extend from Spain to China, are not so high as those of +South America and Africa. The mountains of the North, according to the +relation of travellers, are only hills in comparison with those of the +Southern countries. Besides, there are very few islands in the Northern +Seas, whereas in the torrid zone they are almost innumerable, and as +islands are only the summits of mountains, it is evident that the +surface of the earth has many more inequalities towards the equator than +in the northerly climes. + +It is therefore evident that the prodigious chain of mountains which run +from the West to the East in the old continent, and from the North to +the South in the new, must have been produced by the general motion of +the tides; but the origin of all the inferior mountains must be +attributed to the particular motions of currents, occasioned by the +winds and other irregular agitations of the sea: they may probably have +been produced by a combination of all those motions, which must be +capable of infinite variations, since the winds and different positions +of islands and coasts change the regular course of the tides, and compel +them to flow in every possible direction: it is, therefore, not in the +least astonishing that we should see considerable eminences, whose +courses have no determined direction. But it is sufficient for our +present purpose to have demonstrated that mountains are not the produce +of earthquakes, or other accidental causes, but that they are the +effects resulting from the general order of nature, both as to their +organization and the position of the materials of which they are +composed. + +But how has it happened that this earth which we and our ancestors have +inhabited for ages, which, from time immemorial, has been an immense +continent, dry and removed from the reach of the waters, should, if +formerly the bottom of the ocean, be actually larger than all the +waters, and raised to such a height as to be distinctly separated from +them? Having remained so long on the earth, why have the waters now +abandoned it? What accident, what cause could produce so great a +change? Is it possible to conceive one possessed of sufficient power to +produce such an amazing effect? + +These questions are difficult to be resolved, but as the facts are +certain and incontrovertible, the exact manner in which they happened +may remain unknown, without prejudicing the conclusions that may be +drawn from them; nevertheless, by a little reflection, we shall find at +least plausible reasons for these changes. We daily observe the sea +gaining ground on some coasts and losing it on others; we know that the +ocean has a continued regular motion from East to West; that it makes +loud and violent efforts against the low lands and rocks which confine +it; that there are whole provinces which human industry can hardly +secure from the rage of the sea; that there are instances of islands +rising above, and others being sunk under the waters. History speaks of +much greater deluges and inundations. Ought not this to incline us to +believe that the surface of the earth has undergone great revolutions, +and that the sea may have quitted the greatest part of the earth which +it formerly covered? Let us but suppose that the old and new worlds were +formerly but one continent, and that the Atlantis of Plato was sunk by +a violent earthquake; the natural consequence would be, that the sea +would necessarily have flowed in from all sides, and formed what is now +called the Atlantic Ocean, leaving vast continents dry, and possibly +those which we now inhabit. This revolution, therefore, might be made of +a sudden by the opening of some vast cavern in the interior part of the +globe, which an universal deluge must inevitably succeed; or possibly +this change was not effected at once, but required a length of time, +which I am rather inclined to think; however these conjectures may be, +it is certain the revolution has occurred, and in my opinion very +naturally; for to judge of the future, as well as the past, we must +carefully attend to what daily happens before our eyes. It is a fact +clearly established by repeated observations of travellers, that the +ocean has a constant motion from the East to West; this motion, like the +trade winds, is not only felt between the tropics, but also throughout +the temperate climates, and as near the poles as navigators have gone; +of course the Pacific Ocean makes a continual effort against the coasts +of Tartary, China, and India; the Indian Ocean acts against the east +coast of Africa; and the Atlantic in like manner against all the eastern +coasts of America; therefore the sea must have always and still +continues to gain land on the east and lose it on the west; and this +alone is sufficient to prove the possibility of the change Of earth into +sea, and sea into land. If, in fact, such are the effects of the sea's +motion from east to west, may we not very reasonably suppose that Asia +and the eastern continent is the oldest country in the world, and that +Europe and part of Africa, especially the western coasts of these +continents, as Great Britain, France, Spain, Muratania, &c. are of a +more modern date? Both history and physics agree in confirming this +conjecture. + +There are, however, many other causes which concur with the continual +motion of the sea from east to west, in producing these effects. + +In many places there are lands lower than the level of the sea, and +which are only defended from it by an isthmus of rocks, or by banks and +dykes of still weaker materials; these barriers must gradually be +destroyed by the constant action of the sea, when the lands will be +overflowed, and constantly make part of the ocean. Besides, are not +mountains daily decreasing by the rains, which loosen the earth, and +carry it down into the vallies? It is also well known that floods wash +the earth from the plains and high grounds into the small brooks and +rivers, which in their turn convey it into the sea. By these means the +bottom of the sea is filling up by degrees, the surface of the earth +lowering to a level, and nothing but time is necessary for the sea's +successively changing places with the earth. + +I speak not here of those remote causes which stand above our +comprehension; of those convulsions of nature, whose least effects would +be fatal to the world; the near approach of a comet, the absence of the +moon, the introduction of a new planet, &c. are suppositions on which it +is easy to give scope to the imagination. Such causes would produce any +effects we chose, and from a single hypothesis of this nature, a +thousand physical romances might be drawn, and which the authors might +term, THE THEORY OF THE EARTH. As historians we reject these vain +speculations; they are mere possibilities which suppose the destruction +of the universe, in which our globe, like a particle of forsaken matter, +escapes our observation, and is no longer an object worthy regard; but +to preserve consistency, we must take the earth as it is, closely +observing every part, and by inductions judge of the future from what +exists at present; in other respects we ought not to be affected by +causes which seldom happen, and whose effects are always sudden and +violent; they do not occur in the common course of nature; but effects +which are daily repeated, motions which succeed each other without +interruption, and operations that are constant, ought alone to be the +ground of our reasoning. + +We will add some examples thereto; we will combine particular effects +with general causes, and give a detail of facts which will render +apparent, and explain the different changes that the earth has +undergone, whether by the eruption of the sea upon the land, or by +retiring from that which it had formerly covered. + +The greatest eruption was certainly that which gave rise to the +Mediterranean sea. The ocean flows through a narrow channel between two +promontories with great rapidity, and then forms a vast sea, which, +without including the Black sea, is about seven times larger than the +kingdom of France. Its motion through the straits of Gibraltar is +contrary to all other straits, for the general motion of the sea is from +east to west, but in that alone it is from the west to the east, which +proves that the Mediterranean sea is not an ancient gulph, but that it +has been formed by an eruption, produced by some accidental cause; as an +earthquake which might swallow up the earth in the strait, or by a +violent effort of the ocean, caused by the wind, which might have forced +its way through the banks between the promontories of Gibraltar and +Ceuta. This opinion is authorised by the testimony of the ancients, who +declare in their writings, that the Mediterranean sea did not formerly +exist; and confirmed by natural history and observations made on the +opposite coasts of Spain, where similar beds of stones and earth are +found upon the same levels, in like manner as they are in two mountains, +separated by a small valley. + +The ocean having forced this passage, it ran at first through the +straits with much greater rapidity than at present, and overflowed the +continent that joined Europe to Africa. The waters covered all the low +countries, of which we can only now perceive the tops of some of the +considerable mountains, such as parts of Italy, the islands of Sicily, +Malta, Corsica, Sardinia, Cyprus, Rhodes, and those of the Archipelago. + +In this eruption I have not included the Black sea, because the quantity +of water it receives from the Danube, Nieper, Don, and various other +rivers, is fully sufficient to form and support it; and besides, it +flows with great rapidity through the Bosphorus into the Mediterranean. +It might also be presumed that the Black and Caspian seas were formerly +only two large lakes, joined by a narrow communication, or by a morass, +or small lake, which united the Don and the Wolga near Tria, where these +two rivers flow near each other; nor is it improbable that these two +seas or lakes were then of much greater extent, for the immense rivers +which fall into the Black and Caspian seas may have brought down a +sufficient quantity of earth to shut up the communication, and form that +neck of land by which they are now separated; for we know great rivers, +in the course of time, fill up seas and form new land, as the province +at the mouth of the Yellow river in China; Louisania at the mouth of the +Mississippi, and the northern part of Egypt, which owes its existence to +the inundations of the Nile; the rapidity of which brings down such +quantities of earth from the internal parts of Africa, as to deposit on +the shores, during the inundations, a body of slime and mud of more than +fifty feet in depth. The province of the Yellow river and Louisania +have, in like manner, been formed by the soil from the rivers. + +The Caspian sea is actually a real lake; having no communication with +other seas, not even with the lake Aral, which seems to have been a part +of it, being only separated from it by a large track of sand, in which +neither rivers nor canals for communication the waters have as yet been +found. This sea, therefore, has no external communication with any +other; and I do not know that we are authorised to suspect that it has +an internal one with the Black sea, or with the Gulph of Persia. It is +true the Caspian sea receives the Wolga and many other rivers, which +seem to furnish it with more water than is lost by evaporation; but +independent of the difficulty of such calculation, if it had a +communication with any other sea, a constant and rapid current towards +the opening would have marked its course, and I never heard of any such +discovery being made; travellers of the best credit affirm to the +contrary, and consequently the Caspian sea must lose by evaporation just +as much water as it receives from the Wolga and other rivers. + +Nor is it any improbable conjecture that the Black sea will at some +period be separated from the Mediterranean; and that the Bosphorus will +be shut up, whenever the great rivers shall have accumulated a +sufficient quantity of earth to answer that effect; this may be the case +in the course of time by the successive diminution of waters in rivers, +in proportion as the mountains from whence they draw their sources are +lowered by the rains, and those other causes we have just alluded to. + +The Caspian and Black seas must therefore be looked upon rather as lakes +than gulphs of the ocean, for they resemble other lakes which receive a +number of rivers without any apparent outlet, such as the Dead sea, +many lakes in Africa and other places. These two seas are not near so +salt as the Mediterranean or the ocean; and all voyagers affirm that the +navigation in the Black and Caspian seas, upon account of its +shallowness and quantity of rocks and quicksands, is so extremely +dangerous, that only small vessels can be used with safety which farther +proves they must not be looked upon as gulphs of the ocean, but as +immense bodies of water collected from great rivers. + +A considerable eruption of the sea would doubtless take place upon the +earth, if the isthmus which separates Africa from Asia was divided, as +the Kings of Egypt, and afterwards the Caliphs projected; and I do not +know that the communication between the Red sea and Mediterranean is +sufficiently established, as the former must be higher than the latter. +The Red sea is a narrow branch of the ocean, and does not receive into +it a single river on the side of Egypt, and very few on the opposite +coast; it will not therefore be subject to diminution, like those seas +and lakes which are constantly receiving slime and sand from those +rivers that flow into them. The ocean supplies the Red sea with all its +water, and the motion of the tides is very evident in it, of course it +must be affected by every movement of the ocean. But the Mediterranean +must be lower than the ocean, because the current passes with great +rapidity through the straits; besides, it receives the Nile, which flows +parallel to the west coast of the Red sea, and which divides Egypt, a +very low country; from all which it appears probable, that the Red sea +is higher than the Mediterranean, and that if the isthmus of Suez was +cut through, there Would be a great inundation, and a considerable +augmentation of the Mediterranean would ensue; at least if the waters +were not restrained by dykes and sluices placed at proper distances, and +which was most likely the case if the ancient canal of communication +ever had existence. + +Without dwelling longer upon conjectures, which, although well founded, +may appear hazardous and rash, we shall give some recent and certain +examples of the change of the sea into land, and the land into sea. At +Venice the bottom of the Adriatic is daily rising, and if great care had +not been taken to clean and empty the canals, the whole would long +since have formed part of the continent; the same may be said of most +ports, bays, and mouths of rivers. In Holland the bottom of the sea has +risen in many places; the gulph of Zuyderzee and the strait of the Texel +cannot receive such large vessels as formerly. At the mouth of all +rivers we find small islands, and banks of sand and earth brought down +by the waters, and it is certain the sea will be filled up in every part +where great rivers empty themselves. The Rhine is lost in the sands +which itself accumulated. The Danube and the Nile, and all great rivers, +after bringing down much sand and earth, no longer come to the sea by a +single channel; they divide into different branches, and the intervals +are filled up by the materials they have themselves brought thither. +Morasses daily dry up; lands forsaken by the sea are cultivated; we +navigate countries now covered by waters; in short, we see so many +instances of land changing into water, and water into land, that we must +be convinced of these alterations having, and will continue to take +place; so that in time gulphs will become continents; isthmusses, +straits; morasses, dry lands; and the tops of our mountains, the shoals +of the sea. + +Since then the waters have covered, and may successively cover, every +part of the present dry land, our surprise must cease at finding every +where marine productions and compositions, which could only be the works +of the waters. We have already explained how the horizontal strata of +the earth were formed, but the perpendicular divisions that are commonly +found in rocks, clays, and all matters of which the globe is composed, +still remain to be considered. These perpendicular stratas are, in fact, +placed much farther from each other than the horizontal, and the softer +the matter the greater the distance; in marble and hard earths they are +frequently found only a few feet; but if the mass of rock be very +extensive, then these fissures are at some fathoms distant; sometimes +they descend from the top of the rock to the bottom, and sometimes +terminate at an horizontal fissure. They are always perpendicular in the +strata of calcinable matters, as chalk, marle, marble, &c. but are more +oblique and irregularly placed in vitrifiable substances, brown +freestone, and rocks of flint, where they are frequently adorned with +chrystals, and other minerals. In quarries of marble or calcinable +stone, the divisions are filled with spar, gypsum, gravel, and an earthy +sand, which contains a great quantity of chalk. In clay, marls, and +every other kind of earth, excepting turf, these perpendicular divisions +are either empty or filled with such matters as the water has +transported thither. + +We need seek very little farther for the cause and origin of those +perpendicular cracks. The materials by which the different strata are +composed being carried by the water, and deposited as a kind of +sediment, must necessarily, at first, contain a considerable share of +water, the which, as they began to harden, they would part with by +degrees, and, as they must necessarily lessen in the course of drying, +that decrease would occasion them to split at irregular distances. They +naturally split in a perpendicular direction, because in that direction +the action of gravity of one particle upon another has no actual effect, +while, on the contrary, it is directly opposite in a horizontal +situation; the diminution of bulk therefore could have no sensible +effect but in a vertical line. I say it is the diminution of drying, and +not the contained water forcing a place to issue, is the cause of these +perpendicular fissures, for I have often observed that the two sides of +those fissures answer throughout their whole height, as exactly as two +sides of a split piece of wood; their insides are rough and irregular, +whereas if they had been made by the motion of the water, they would +have been smooth and polished; therefore these cracks must be produced +suddenly and at once or by degrees in drying, like the flaws in wood, +and the greatest part of the water they contained evaporated through the +pores. The divisions of these perpendicular cracks vary greatly as to +the extent of their openings; some of them being not more than half an +inch, others increasing to one or two feet; there are some many fathoms, +and which form those precipices so often met with in the Alps and other +high mountains. The small ones are produced by drying alone, but those +which extend to several feet are the effects of other causes; for +instance, the sinking of the foundation on one side while the other +remains unmoved; if the base sinks but a line or two, it is sufficient +to produce openings of many feet in a rock of considerable height. +Sometimes rocks, which are founded on clay or sand, incline to one +side, by which motion the perpendicular cracks become extended. + +I have not yet mentioned those large openings which are found in rocks +and mountains; they must have been produced by great sinkings, as of +immense caverns, unable longer to support the weight with which they +were encumbered, but these intervals are very different from +perpendicular fissures; they appear to be vacancies opened by the hand +of Nature for the communication of nations. In this manner all vacancies +in large mountains and divisions, by straits in the sea, seem to present +themselves; such as the straits of Thermopylæ, the ports of Caucasus, +the Cordeliers, the extremity of the straits of Gibraltar, the entrance +of the Hellespont, &c. These could not have been occasioned by the +simple separation by drying of matter, but by considerable parts of the +lands themselves being sunk, swallowed up, or overturned. + +These great sinkings, though produced by accidental causes, hold a first +place in the principal circumstances in the History of the Earth, and +not a little contributed to change the face of the Globe; the greatest +part of them have been produced by subterraneous fires, whose +explosions cause earthquakes and volcanos; the force of these inflamed +and confined matters in the bowels of the earth is beyond compare; by it +cities have been swallowed up, provinces overturned, and mountains +overthrown. But however great this force may be, and prodigious as the +effects appear, we cannot assent to the opinion of those authors who +suppose these subterraneous fires proceed from an immense abyss of flame +in the centre of the earth, neither give we credit to the common notion +that they proceed from a great depth below the surface of the earth, air +being absolutely necessary for the support of inflammation. In examining +the materials which issue from volcanos, even in the most violent +eruptions, it appears very plain, that the furnace of the inflamed +matters is not at any great depth, as they are similar to those found in +mountains, disfigured only by the calcination, and the melting of the +metallic parts which they contain; and to be convinced that the matters +cast out by volcanos do not come from any great depth, we have only to +consider of the height of the mountain, and judge of the immense force +that would be necessary to cast up stones and minerals to the height of +half a league; for Ætna, Hecla, and many other volcanos have at least +that elevation from the plains. Now it is perfectly well known that the +action of fire is equal in every direction; it cannot therefore act +upwards, with a force capable of throwing large stones half a league +high, without an equal re-action downwards, and on the sides, and which +re-action must very soon pierce and destroy the mountain on every side, +because the materials which compose it are not more dense and firm than +those thrown out; how then can it be imagined that the cavity, which +must be considered as the type or cannon, could resist so great a force +as would be necessary to raise those bodies to the mouth of the volcano? +Besides, if this cavity was deeper, as the external orifice is not +great, it would be impossible for so large a quantity of inflamed and +liquid matter to issue out at once, without clashing against each other, +and against the sides of the tube, and by passing through so long a +space they would run the chance of being extinguished and hardened. We +often see rivers of bitumen and melted sulphur, thrown out of the +volcanos with stones and minerals, flow from the tops of the mountains +into the plains; is it natural to imagine that matters so fluid, and so +little able to resist violent action, should be elevated from any great +depth? All the observations that can be made on this subject will prove +that the fire of the volcano is not far from the summit of the mountain, +and that it never descends to the level of the plain. + +This idea of volcanos does not, however, render it inconsistent that +they are the cause of earthquakes, and that their shocks may be felt on +the plains to very considerable distances; nor that one volcano may not +communicate with another by means of subterraneous passages; but it is +of the depth of the fire's confinement that we now speak, and which can +only be at a small distance from the mouth of the volcano. It is not +necessary to produce an earthquake on a plain, that the bottom of the +volcano should be below the level of that plain; nor that there should +be internal cavities filled with the same combustible matter, for a +violent explosion, such as generally attends an eruption, may, like that +of a powder magazine give so great a shock by its re-action, as to +produce an earthquake that might be felt at a considerable distance. + +I do not mean to say that there are no earthquakes produced by +subterraneous fires, but merely that there are some which proceed only +from the explosion of volcanos. In confirmation of what has been +advanced on this subject, it is certain that volcanos are seldom met +with on plains; on the contrary, they are constantly found in the +highest mountains, and their mouths at the very summit of them. If the +internal fires of the volcanos extended below the plains, would not +passages be opened in them during violent eruptions? In the first +eruption would not these fires rather have pierced the plains, where, by +comparison, the resistance must be infinitely weaker, than force their +way through a mountain more than half a league in height. + +The reason why volcanos appear alone in mountains, is, because much +greater quantities of minerals, sulphur, and pyrites, are contained in +mountains, and more exposed than in the plains; besides which, those +high places are more subject to the impressions of air, and receive +greater quantities of rain and damps, by which mineral substances are +capable of being heated and fermented into an absolute state of +inflammation. + +In short, it has often been observed, that, after violent eruptions, the +mountains have shrunk and diminished in proportion to the quantity of +matter which has been thrown out; another proof that the volcanos are +not situated at the bottom of the mountain, but rather at no great +distance from the summit itself. + +In many places earthquakes have formed considerable hollows, and even +separations in mountains; all other inequalities have been produced at +the same time with the mountains themselves by the currents of the sea, +for in every place where there has not been a violent convulsion, the +strata of the mountains are parallel, and their angles exactly +correspond. Those subterraneous caverns which have been produced by +volcanos are easily to be distinguished from those formed by water; for +the water, having washed away the sand and clay with which they are +filled, leaves only the stones and rocks, and this is the origin of +caverns upon hills; while those found upon the plains are commonly +nothing but ancient pits and quarries, such as the salt quarries of +Maestricht, the mines of Poland, &c. But natural caverns belong to +mountains: they receive the water from the summit and its environs, from +whence it issues over the surface wherever it can obtain a passage; and +these are the sources of springs and rivers, and whenever a cavern is +filled by any part falling in, an inundation generally ensues. + +From what we have related, it is easy to be seen how much subterraneous +fires contribute to change the surface and internal part of the globe. +This cause is sufficiently powerful to produce very great effects: but +it is difficult to conceive how the winds should occasion any sensible +alterations upon the earth. The sea appears to be their empire, and +indeed, excepting the tides, nothing has so powerful an influence upon +the ocean; even the flux and reflux move in an uniform manner, and their +effects are regularly the same; but the action of the winds is +capricious and violent; they sometimes rush on with such impetuosity, +and agitate the sea with such violence, that from a calm, smooth, and +tranquil plain, it becomes furrowed with waves rolling mountains high, +and dashing themselves to pieces against the rocks and shores. The winds +cause constant alterations on the surface of the sea, but the surface of +the land, which has so solid an appearance, we should suppose would not +be subject to similar effects; by experience, however, it is known that +the winds raise mountains of sand in Arabia and Africa; and that they +cover plains with it; they frequently transport sand to great distances, +and many miles into the sea, where they accumulate in such quantities as +to form banks, downs, and even islands. It is also known that hurricanes +are the scourge of the Antilles, Madagascar, and other countries, where +they act with such fury, as to sweep away trees, plants, and animals, +together with the soil which gave them subsistence: they cause rivers to +ascend and descend, and produce new ones; they overthrow rocks and +mountains; they make holes and gulphs on the earth, and entirely change +the face of those unfortunate countries where they exist. Happily there +are but few climates exposed to the impetuosity of those dreadful +agitations of the air. + +But the greatest and most general changes in the surface of the earth +are produced by rains, floods, and torrents from the high lands. Their +origins proceed from the vapours which the sun raises above the surface +of the ocean, and which the wind transports through every climate. These +vapours, which are sustained in the air, and conveyed at the will of the +winds, are stopped in their progress by the tops of the hills which they +encounter, where they accumulate until they become clouds and fall in +the form of rain, dew, or snow. These waters at first descend upon the +plains without any fixed course, but by degrees hollow out a bed for +themselves; by their natural bent they run to the bottom of mountains, +and penetrating or dissolving the land easiest to divide, they carry +earth and sand away with them, cut deep channels in the plains, form +themselves into rivers, and open a passage into the sea, which +constantly receives as much water from the land rivers as it loses by +evaporation. The windings in the channels of rivers have sinuosities, +whose angles are correspondent to each other, so that where the waves +form a saliant angle on one side, the other has an exactly opposite one; +and as hills and mountains, which may be considered as the banks of the +vallies which separate them, have also sinuosities in corresponding +angles, it seems to demonstrate that the vallies have been formed, by +degrees, by the currents of the sea, in the same manner as the rivers +have hollowed out their beds on the earth. + +The waters which run on the surface of the earth, and support its +verdure and fertility, are not perhaps one half of those which the +vapours produce; for there are many veins of water which sink to great +depths in the internal part of the earth. In some places we are certain +to meet with water by digging; in others, not any can be found. In +almost all vallies and low grounds water is certain to be met with at +moderate depths; but, on the contrary, in all high places it cannot be +extracted from the bowels of the earth, but must be collected from the +heavens. There are countries of great extent where a spring cannot be +found, and where all the water which supplies the inhabitants and +animals with drink is contained in pools and cisterns. In the east, +especially in Arabia, Egypt, and Persia, wells are extremely scarce, and +the people have been obliged to make reservoirs of a considerable extent +to collect the waters as it falls from the heavens. These works, +projected and executed from public necessity, are the most beautiful and +magnificent monuments of the eastern nations; some of the reservoirs +occupy a space of two square miles, and serve to fertilize whole +provinces, by means of baths and small rivulets that let it out on every +side. But in low countries, where the greatest rivers flow, we cannot +dig far from the surface, without meeting with water, and in fields +situate in the environs of rivers it is often obtained by a few strokes +with a pick-axe. + +The water, found in such quantities in low grounds, comes principally +from the neighbouring hills and eminences; at the time of great rains or +sudden melting of snow, a part of the water flows on the surface, but +most of it penetrates through the small cracks and crevices it finds in +the earth and rocks. This water springs up again to the surface wherever +it can find vent; but it often filters through the sand until it comes +to a bottom of clay or solid earth, where it forms subterraneous lakes, +rivulets, and perhaps rivers, whose courses are entirely unknown; they +must, however, follow the general laws of nature, and constantly flow +from the higher grounds to the lower, and consequently these +subterraneous waters must, in the end, fall into the sea, or collect in +some low place, either on the surface or in the interior part of the +earth; for there are several lakes into which no rivers enter, nor from +which there are not any issue; and a much greater number, which do not +receive any considerable river, that are the sources of the greatest +rivers on earth; such as the lake of St. Laurence; the lake Chiamè, +from whence spring two great rivers that water the kingdoms of Asam and +Pegu; the lake of Assiniboil in America; those of Ozera in Muscovy, that +give rise to the river Irtis, and a great number of others. These lakes, +it is evident, must be produced by the waters from the high lands +passing through subterraneous passages, and collecting in the lowest +places. Some indeed have asserted that lakes are to be found on the +summit of the highest mountains; but to this no credit can be given, for +those found on the Alps, and other elevated places, are all surrounded +by much more lofty mountains, and derive their origin from the waters +which run down the sides, or are filtered through those eminences in the +same manner as the lakes in the plains obtain their sources from the +neighbouring hills which overtop them. + +It is apparent, therefore, that lakes have existence in the bowels of +the earth, especially under large plains and extensive vallies. +Mountains, hills, and all eminences have either a perpendicular or +inclined situation, and are exposed on all sides; the waters which fall +on their summits, after having penetrated into the earth, cannot fail, +from the declivity of the ground, of finding issue in many places, and +breaking in forms out of springs and fountains, and consequently there +will be little, if any water, remain in the mountains. On the contrary, +in plains, as the water which filters through the earth can find no +vent, it must collect in subterraneous caverns, or be dispersed and +divided among sand and gravel. It is these waters which are so +universally diffused through low grounds. The bottom of a pit or well is +nothing else but a kind of bason into which the waters that issue from +the adjoining lands insinuate themselves, at first falling drop by drop, +but afterwards, as the passages are opened, it receives supplies from +greater distances, and then continually runs in little streams or rills; +from which circumstance, although we can find water in any part of a +plain, yet we can obtain a supply but for a certain number of wells, +proportionate to the quantity of water dispersed, or rather to the +extent of the higher lands from whence they come. + +It is unnecessary to dig below the level of the river to find water; it +is generally met with at much less depths, and there is no appearance +that waters of rivers filter far through the earth. The origin of waters +found in the earth below the level of rivers is not to be attributed to +them; for in rivers or torrents which are dried up, or whose courses +have been turned, we find no greater quantity of water by digging in +their beds than in the neighbouring lands at an equal depth. + +A piece of land of five or six feet in thickness is sufficient to +contain water, and prevent it from escaping; and I have often observed +that the banks of brooks and pools are not sensibly wet at six inches +distance from the water. + +It is true that the extent of the filtration is in proportion as the +soil is more or less penetrable; but if we examine the standing pools +with sandy bottoms, we shall perceive the water confined in the small +compass it had hollowed itself, and the moisture spread but a very few +inches; even in vegetable earth it has no great extent, which must be +more porous than sand or hard soil. It is a certain fact, that in a +garden we may almost inundate one bed without those nearly adjoining +feeling any moisture from it[65:A]. I have examined pieces of garden +ground, eight or ten feet thick, which had not been stirred for many +years, and whose surface was nearly level, and found that the rain water +never penetrated deeper than three or four feet; and on turning it up in +the spring, after a wet winter, I found it as dry as when first heaped +together. + +I made the same observation on earth which had laid in ridges two +hundred years; below three or four feet it was as dry as dust; from +which it is plain that water does not extend so far by filtration as has +been generally imagined. + +By this means, therefore, the internal part of the earth can be supplied +with a very small part; but water by its own weight descends from the +surface to the greatest depths; it sinks through natural conduits, or +penetrates small passages for itself; it follows the roots of trees, the +cracks in rocks, the interstices in the earth, and divides and extends +on all sides into an infinity of small branches and rills, always +descending until its passage is opposed by clay or some solid body, +where it continues collecting, and at length breaks out in form of +springs upon the surface. + +It would be very difficult to make an exact calculation of the quantity +of subterraneous waters which have no apparent vent. Many have pretended +that it greatly surpasses all the waters that are on the surface of the +earth. + +Without mentioning those who have advanced that the interior part of the +globe is entirely filled with water, there are some who believe there +are an infinity of floods, rivulets, and lakes in the bowels of the +earth. But this opinion does not seem to be properly founded, and it is +more probable that the quantity of subterraneous water, which never +appears on the surface, is not very considerable; for if these +subterraneous rivers are so very numerous, why do we never see any of +their mouths forcing their way through the surface? Besides, rivers, and +all running waters, produce great alterations on the surface of the +earth; they transport the soil, wear away the most solid rocks, and +displace all matters which oppose their passage. It would certainly be +the same in subterraneous rivers; the same effects would be produced; +but no such alterations have ever as yet been observed; the different +strata remains parallel, and every where preserves its original +position; and it is but in a very few places that any considerable +subterraneous veins of water have been discovered. Thus water in the +internal part of the earth, though great, acts but in a small degree, as +it is divided in an infinity of little streams, and retained by a number +of obstacles; and being so generally dispersed, it gives rise to many +substances totally different from primitive matters, both in form and +organization. + +From all these observations we may fairly conclude, that it is the +continual motion of the flux and reflux of the sea which has produced +mountains, vallies, and other inequalities on the surface of the earth; +that it is the currents of the ocean which have hollowed vallies, raised +hills, and given them corresponding directions; that it is those waters +of the sea which, by transporting earth, &c. and depositing them in +horizontal layers, have formed the parallel strata; that it is the +waters from heaven, which by degrees destroy the effects of the sea, by +continually lowering the summit of mountains, filling up vallies, and +stopping the mouths of gulphs and rivers, and which, by bringing all to +a level, will, in the course of time, return this earth to the sea, +which, by its natural operations, will again form new continents, +containing vallies and mountains exactly similar to those which we at +present inhabit. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[25:A] Particularly Scotland and Ireland. + +[65:A] These facts are so easily demonstrated, that the smallest +observation will prove their veracity. + + + + +PROOF + +OF + +_THE THEORY OF THE EARTH_. + + + + +ARTICLE I. + +ON THE FORMATION OF THE PLANETS. + + +Our subject being Natural History, we would willingly dispense with +astronomical observations; but as the nature of the earth is so closely +connected with the heavenly bodies, and such observations being +calculated to illustrate more fully what has been said, it is necessary +to give some general ideas of the formation, motion, figure of the earth +and other planets. + +The earth is a globe of about three thousand leagues diameter; it is +situate one thousand millions of leagues from the sun, around which it +makes its revolution in three hundred and sixty-five days. This +revolution is the result of two forces; the one may be considered as an +impulse from right to left, or from left to right, and the other an +attraction from above downwards, or beneath upwards, to a common centre. +The direction of these two forces, and their quantities, are so nicely +combined and proportioned, that they produce an almost uniform motion in +an ellipse, very near to a circle. Like the other planets the earth is +opaque, it throws out a shadow; it receives and reflects the light of +the sun, round which it revolves in a space of time proportioned to its +relative distance and density. It also turns round its own axis once in +twenty-four hours, and its axis is inclined 66-1/4 degrees on the plane +of the orbit. Its figure is spheroidical, the two axes of which differ +about 160th part from each other, and the smallest axis is that round +which the revolution is made. + +These are the principal phenomena of the earth, the result of +discoveries made by means of geometry, astronomy, and navigation. We +shall not here enter into the detail of the proofs and observations by +which those facts have been ascertained, but only make a few remarks to +clear up what is still doubtful, and at the same time give our ideas +respecting the formation of the planets, and the different changes thro' +which it is possible they have passed before they arrived at the state +we at present see them. + +There have been so many systems and hypotheses framed upon the formation +of the terrestrial globe, and the changes which it has undergone, that +we may presume to add our conjectures to those who have written upon the +subject, especially as we mean to support them with a greater degree of +probability than has hitherto been done: and we are the more inclined to +deliver our opinion upon this subject, from the hope that we shall +enable the reader to pronounce on the difference between an hypothesis +drawn from possibilities, and a theory founded in facts; between a +system, such as we are here about to present, on the formation and +original state of the earth, and a physical history of its real +condition, which has been given in the preceding discourse. + +Galileo having found the laws of falling bodies, and Kepler having +observed that the area described by the principal planets in moving +round the sun, and those of the satellites round the planets to which +they belong, are proportionable to the time of their revolutions, and +that such periods were also in proportion to the square roots of the +cubes of their distances from the sun, or principal planets. Newton +found that the force which caused heavy bodies to fall on the surface of +the earth, extended to the moon, and retained it in its orbit; that this +force diminished in the same proportion as the square of the distance +increased, and consequently that the moon is attracted by the earth; +that the earth and planets are attracted by the sun; and that in general +all bodies which revolve round a centre, and describe areas proportioned +to the times of their revolution, are attracted towards that point. This +power, known by the name of GRAVITY, is therefore diffused throughout +all matter; planets, comets, the sun, the earth, and all nature, is +subject to its laws, and it serves as a basis to the general harmony +which reigns in the universe. Nothing is better proved in physics than +the actual existence of this power in every material substance. +Observation has confirmed the effects of this power, and geometrical +calculations have determined the quantity and relations of it. + +This general cause being known, the effects would easily be deduced from +it, if the action of the powers which produce it were not too +complicated. A single moment's reflection upon the solar system will +fully demonstrate the difficulties that have attended this subject; the +principal planets are attracted by the sun, and the sun by the planets; +the satellites are also attracted by their principal planets, and each +planet attracts all the rest, and is attracted by them. All these +actions and reactions vary according to the quantities of matter and the +distances, and produce great inequalities and irregularities. How is so +great a number of connections to be combined and estimated? It appears +almost impossible in such a crowd of objects to follow any particular +one; nevertheless those difficulties have been surmounted, and +calculation has confirmed the suppositions of them, each observation is +become a new demonstration, and the systematic order of the universe is +laid open to the eyes of all those who can distinguish truth from error. + +We feel some little stop, by the force of impulsion remaining unknown; +but this, however, does not by any means affect the general theory. We +evidently see the force of attraction always draws the planets towards +the sun, they would fall in a perpendicular line, on that planet, if +they were not repelled by some other power that obliges them to move in +a straight line, and which impulsive force would compel them to fly off +the tangents of their respective orbits, if the force of attraction +ceased one moment. The force of impulsion was certainly communicated to +the planets by the hand of the Almighty, when he gave motion to the +universe; but we ought as much as possible to abstain in physics from +having recourse to supernatural causes; and it appears that a probable +reason may be given for this impulsive force, perfectly accordant with +the law of mechanics, and not by any means more astonishing than the +changes and revolutions which may and must happen in the universe. + +The sphere of the sun's attraction does not confine itself to the orbs +of the planets, but extends to a remote distance, always decreasing in +the same ratio as the square of the distance increases; it is +demonstrated that the comets which are lost to our sight, in the regions +of the sky, obey this power, and by it their motions, like that of the +planets, are regulated. All these stars, whose tracts are so different, +move round the sun, and describe areas proportioned to the time; the +planets in ellipses more or less approaching a circle, and the comets in +narrow ellipses of a great extent. Comets and planets move, therefore, +by virtue of the force of attraction and impulsion, which continually +acting at one time obliges them to describe these courses; but it must +be remarked that comets pass over the solar system in all directions, +and that the inclinations of their orbits are very different, insomuch +that, although subject like the planets to the force of attraction, they +have nothing in common with respect to their progressive or impulsive +motions, but appear in this respect independent of each other: the +planets, on the contrary, move round the sun in the same direction, and +almost in the same plane, never exceeding 7-1/2 degrees of inclination +in their planes, the most distant from their orbits. This conformity of +position and direction in the motion of the planets, necessarily implies +that their impulsive force has been communicated to them by one and the +same cause. + +May it not be imagined, with some degree of probability, that a comet +falling into the body of the sun, will displace and separate some parts +from the surface, and communicate to them a motion of impulsion, +insomuch that the planets may formerly have belonged to the body of the +sun, and been detached therefrom by an impulsive force, and which they +still preserve. + +This supposition appears to be at least as well founded as the opinion +of Leibnitz, who supposes that the earth and planets had formerly been +suns; and his system, of which an account will be given in the fifth +article, would have been more comprehensive and more agreeable to +probability, if he had raised himself to this idea. We agree with him in +thinking that this effect was produced at the time when Moses said that +God divided light from darkness; for, according to Leibnitz, light was +divided from darkness when the planets were extinguished; but in our +supposition there was a real physical separation, since the opaque +bodies of the planets were divided from the luminous matter which +composes the sun. + +This idea of the cause of the impulsive force of the planets will be +found much less objectionable, when an estimation is made of the +analogies and degrees of probability, by which it may be supported. In +the first place, the motion of the planets are in the same direction, +from West to East, and therefore, according to calculation, it is +sixty-four to one that such would not have been the case, if they had +not been indebted to the same cause for their impulsive forces. + +This, probably, will be considerably augmented by the second analogy, +viz. that the inclination of the planes of the orbits do not exceed +7-1/2 degrees; for, by comparing the spaces, we shall find there is +twenty-four to one, that two planets are found in their most distant +places at the same time, and consequently âµ, or 7,692,624 to one, +that all six would by chance be thus placed; or, what amounts to the +same, there is a great degree of probability that the planets have been +impressed with one common moving force, and which has given them this +position. But what can have bestowed this common impulsive motion, but +the force and direction of the bodies by which it was originally +communicated? It may therefore be concluded, with great probability, +that the planets received their impulsive motion by one single stroke. +This likelihood, which is almost equivalent to a certainty, being +established, I seek to know what moving bodies could produce this +effect, and I find nothing but comets capable of communicating a motion +to such vast bodies. + +By examining the course of comets, we shall be easily persuaded, that it +is almost necessary for some of them occasionally to fall into the sun. +That of 1680 approached so near, that at its perihelium it was not more +distant from the sun than a sixteenth part of its diameter, and if it +returns, as there is every appearance it will, in 2255, it may then +possibly fall into the sun; that must depend on the rencounters it will +meet with in its road, and of the retardment it suffers in passing +through the atmosphere of the sun[78:A]. + +We may, therefore, presume with the great Newton, that comets sometimes +fall into the sun; but this fall may be made in different directions. If +they fall perpendicular, or in a direction not very oblique, they will +remain in the sun, and serve for food to the fire which that luminary +consumes, and the motion of impulsion which they will have communicated +to the sun, will produce no other effect than that of removing it more +or less, according as the mass of the comet will be more or less +considerable; but if the fall of the comet is in a very oblique +direction, which will most frequently happen, then the comet will only +graze the surface of the sun, or slightly furrow it; and in this case it +may drive out some parts of matter to which it will communicate a common +motion of impulsion, and these parts so forced out of the body of the +sun, and even the comet itself, may then become planets, and turn round +this luminary in the same direction, and in almost the same plane. We +might perhaps calculate what quantity of matter, velocity, and direction +a comet should have, to impel from the sun an equal quantity of matter +to that which the six planets and their satellites contain; but it will +be sufficient to observe here, that all the planets, with their +satellites, do not make the 650th part of the mass of the sun,[79:A] +because the density of the large planets, Saturn and Jupiter, is less +than that of the sun; and although the earth be four times, and the moon +near five times more dense than the sun, they are nevertheless but as +atoms in comparison with his extensive body. + +However inconsiderable the 650th part may be, yet it certainly at first +appears to require a very powerful comet to separate even that much +from the body of the sun; but if we reflect on the prodigious velocity +of comets in their perihelion, a velocity so much the greater as they +approach nearer the sun; if, besides, we pay attention to the density +and solidity of the matter of which they must be composed, to suffer, +without being destroyed, the inconceivable heat they endure; and +consider the bright and solid light which shines through their dark and +immense atmospheres, which surround, and must obscure them, it cannot be +doubted that the comets are composed of extremely solid and dense +matters, and that they contain a greater quantity of matter in a small +compass; that consequently a comet of no extraordinary bulk may have +sufficient weight and velocity to displace the sun, and give a +projectile motion to a quantity of matter, equal to the 650th part of +the mass of this luminary. This perfectly agrees with what is known +concerning the density of planets, which always decreases as their +distance from the sun is increased, they having less heat to support; so +that Saturn is less dense than Jupiter, and Jupiter much less than the +earth; therefore if the density of the planets be, as Newton asserts, +proportionable to the quantity of heat which they have to support, +Mercury will be seven times more dense than the earth, and twenty-eight +times denser than the sun; and the comet of 1680 would be 28,000 times +denser than the earth, or 112,000 times denser than the sun, and by +supposing it as large as the earth, it would contain nearly an equal +quantity of matter to the ninth part of the sun, or by giving it only +the 100th part of the size of the earth, its mass would still be equal +to the 900th part of the sun. From whence it is easy to conclude, that +such a body, though it would be but a small comet, might separate and +drive off from the sun a 900th or a 650th part, particularly if we +attend to the immense velocity with which comets move when they pass in +the vicinity of the sun. + +Besides this, the conformity between the density of the matter of the +planets, that of the sun deserves some attention. It is well known, +that, both on and near the surface of the earth, there are some matters +14 or 1500 times denser than others. The densities of gold and air are +nearly in this relation. But the internal parts of the earth and planets +are composed of a more uniform matter, whose comparative density varies +much less; and the conformity in the density of the planets and that of +the sun is such, that of 650 parts which compose the whole of the matter +of the planets, there are more than 640 of the same density as the +matter of the sun, and only ten parts out of these 650 which are of a +greater density, for Saturn and Jupiter are nearly of the same density +as the sun, and the quantity of matter which these planets contain, is +at least 64 times greater than that of the four inferior planets, Mars, +the Earth, Venus, and Mercury. We must therefore admit, that the matter +of which the planets are generally composed is nearly the same as that +of the sun, and that consequently the one may have been separated from +the other. + +But it may be said, if the comet, by falling obliquely on the sun, drove +off the matter which compose the planets, they, instead of describing +circles of which the sun is the centre, would, on the contrary, at each +revolution, have returned to the same point from whence they departed, +as every projectile would which might be thrown off with sufficient +force from the surface of the earth, to oblige it to turn perpetually: +for it is easy to demonstrate that such, in that instance, would be the +case, and therefore that the projection of the planets from the sun +cannot be attributed to the impulsion of a comet. + +To this I reply, that the matter which composes the planets did not come +from the sun, in ready formed globes, but in the form of torrents, the +motion of the anterior parts of which were accelerated by that of the +posterior; and that the attraction of the anterior parts also +accelerated the motion of the posterior, and that this acceleration +produced by one or other of these causes, or perhaps by both, might be +so great as to change the original direction of the motion occasioned by +the impulse of the comet, from which cause a motion has resulted, such +as we at present observe in the planets; especially when it is +considered the sun is displaced from its station by the shock of the +comet. An example will render this more reasonable; let us suppose, that +from the top of a mountain a musket ball is discharged, and that the +strength of the powder was sufficient to send it beyond the +semi-diameter of the earth, it is certain that this ball would pass +round the earth, and at each revolution return to the spot from whence +it had been discharged: but, if instead of a musket-ball, we suppose a +rocket had been discharged, wherein the action of the fire being +durable, would greatly accelerate the motion of impulsion; this rocket, +or rather the cartouch which contained it, would not return to the same +place like the musket-ball, but would describe an orbit, whose perigee +would be much farther distant from the earth, as the force of +acceleration would be greater, and have changed the first direction. + +Thus, provided there had been any acceleration in the motion of +impulsion communicated to the torrent of matter by the fall of the +comet, it is probable that the planets formed in this torrent, acquired +the motion which we know they have in the circles and ellipsis of which +the sun is the centre and focus. + +The manner in which the great eruptions of volcanos are made, may afford +us an idea of this acceleration of motion. It has been remarked that +when Vesuvius begins to roar and eject the inflamed matter it contains, +the first cloud has but a small degree of velocity, but which is soon +accelerated by the impulse of the second; the second by the action of a +third, and so on, until the heavy mass of bitumen, sulphur, cinders, +melted metal, and huge stones, appear like massive clouds, and although +they succeed each other nearly in the same directions, yet they greatly +change that of the first, and drive it far beyond what it would have +reached of itself. + +In answer to this objection, it may be further observed, that the sun +having been struck by the comet, received a degree of motion by the +impulse, which displaced it from its former situation; and that although +this motion of the sun is at present too little sensible for the notice +of astronomers, nevertheless it may still exist, and the sun describe a +curve round the centre of gravity of the whole system and if this is so, +as I presume it is, we see perfectly that the planets, instead of +returning near the sun at each revolution, will, on the contrary, have +described orbits, the points of the perihelion of which will be as far +distant from the sun, as it is itself from the place it originally +occupied. + +It may also be said, that if this acceleration of motion is made in the +same direction, no change in the perihelion will be produced: but can it +be thought that in a torrent, the particles of which succeed each other, +there has been no change of direction; it is, on the contrary, very +probable that a considerable change did take place, sufficient to cause +the planets to move in the course they at present occupy. + +It may be further urged, that if the sun had been displaced by the shock +of a comet, it would move uniformly, and that hence this motion being +common to the whole system, no alteration was necessary; but might not +the sun before the shock have had a motion round the centre of the +cometry system, to which primitive motion the stroke of the comet may +have added or diminished? and would not that fully account for the +actual motion of the planets? + +If these suppositions are not admitted, may it not be presumed, that in +the stroke of the comet against the sun, there was an elastic force +which raised the torrent above the surface of the sun, instead of +directly impelling it? which alone would be sufficient to remove the +perihelion, and give the planets the motion they have retained. This +supposition is not without probability, for the matter of the sun may +possibly be very elastic, since light, the only part of it we are +acquainted with, seems, by its effects, to be perfectly so. I own that +I cannot say whether it is by the one or the other of these reasons, +that the direction of the first motion of the impulse of the planets has +changed, but they suffice to shew that such an alteration is not only +possible but even probable, and that is sufficient for my purpose. + +But, without dwelling any longer on the objections which might be made, +I shall pursue the subject, and draw the fair conclusions on the proofs +which analogies might furnish in favour of my hypothesis: let us, +therefore, first see what might happen when these planets, and +particularly the earth, received their impulsive motion, and in what +state they were after having been separated from the sun. The comet +having, by a single stroke, communicated a projectile motion to a +quantity of matter equal to the 650th part of the sun's mass, the light +particles would of course separate from the dense, and form, by their +mutual attraction, globes of different densities: Saturn being composed +of the most gross and light parts, would be the most remote from the +sun: Jupiter being more dense than Saturn, would be less distant, and so +on. The larger and least solid planets are the most remote, because +they received an impulsive motion stronger than the smallest, and more +dense: for, the force of impulsion communicating itself according to the +surface, the same stroke would have moved the grosser and lighter parts +of the matter of the sun with more velocity than the smallest and more +weighty; a separation therefore will be made of the dense parts of +different degrees, so that the density of the sun being equal to 100, +that of Saturn will be equal to 67, that of Jupiter to 94-1/2, that of +Mars to 200, that of the Earth to 400, that of Venus to 800, and that of +Mercury to 2800. But the force of attraction not communicating like that +of impulsion, according to the surface, but acting on the contrary on +all parts of the mass, it will have checked the densest portions of +matter; and it is for this reason that the densest planets are the +nighest the sun, and turn round that planet with greater rapidity than +the less dense planets, which are also the most remote. + +Jupiter and Saturn, which are the largest and principal planets of the +solar system, have retained the relation between their density and +impulsive motions, in the most exact proportions; the density of Saturn +is to that of Jupiter as 67 to 94-1/2 and their velocities are nearly +as 88-2/3 to 120-1/72, or as 67 to 90-11/16; it is seldom that pure +conjectures can draw such exact relations. It is true, that by following +this relation between the velocity and density of planets, the density +of the earth ought to be only as 206-7/18, and not 400, which is its +real density; from hence it may be conceived, that our globe was +formerly less dense than it is at present. With respect to the other +planets, Mars, Venus, and Mercury, as their densities are known only by +conjecture, we cannot be certain whether this circumstance will destroy +or confirm our hypothesis. The opinion of Newton is, that density is so +much the greater, as the heat to which the planet is exposed is the +stronger; and it is on this idea that we have just said that Mars is one +time less dense than the Earth, Venus one time, Mercury seven times, and +the comet in 1680, 28,000 times denser than the earth: but this +proportion between the density of the planets and the heat which they +sustain, seems not well founded, when we consider Saturn and Jupiter, +which are the principal objects; for, according to this relation between +the density and heat, the density of Saturn would be about 4-7/18, and +that of Jupiter as 14-17/22, instead of 67 and 94-1/2, a difference too +great to be admitted, and must destroy the principles upon which it was +founded. Thus, notwithstanding the confidence which the conjectures of +Newton merit, I can but think that the density of the planets has more +relation with their velocity than with the degree of heat to which they +are exposed. This is only a final cause, and the other a physical +relation, the preciseness of which is remarkable in Jupiter and Saturn: +it is nevertheless true, that the density of the earth, instead of being +206-7/8, is found to be 400, and that consequently the terrestrial globe +must be condensed in this ratio of 206-7/8 to 400. + +But have not the condensations of the planets some relation with the +quantity of the heat of the sun which they sustain? If so, Saturn, which +is the most distant from that luminary, will have suffered little or no +condensation; and Jupiter will be condensed from 90-11/16 to 94-1/2. Now +the heat of the sun in Jupiter being to that of the sun upon the earth +as 14-17/22 are to 400, the condensations ought to be in the same +proportion. For instance, if Jupiter be condensed, as 90-11/16 to +94-1/2, and the earth had been placed in his orbit, it would have been +condensed from 206-7/8 to 215-990/1451, but the earth being nearer the +sun, and receiving a heat, whose relation to that which Jupiter receives +is from 400 to 14-17/22, the quantity of condensation it would have +experienced on the orbit of Jupiter by the proportion of 400 to +14-17/22, which gives nearly 234-1/3 for the quantity which the earth +would be condensed. Its density was 206-7/8, by adding the quantity of +its acquired condensation, we find 400-7/8 for its actual density, which +nearly approaches the real density 400, determined to be so by the +parallax of the moon. As to other planets, I do not here pretend to give +exact proportions, but only approximations, to point out that their +densities have a strong relation to their velocity in their respective +orbits. + +The comet, therefore, by its oblique fall upon the surface of the sun, +having driven therefrom a quantity of matter equal to the 650th part of +its whole mass; this matter, which must be considered in a liquid state, +will at first have formed a torrent, the grosser and less dense parts of +which will have been driven the farthest, and the smaller and more +dense, having received only the like impulsion, will remain nearest its +source; the force of the sun's attraction would inevitably act upon all +the parts detached from him, and constrain them to circulate around his +body, and at the same time the mutual attraction of the particles of +matter would form themselves into globes at different distances from the +sun, the nearest of which necessarily moving with greater rapidity in +their orbits than those at a distance. + +But another objection may be started, and it may be said, if the matter +which composes the planets had been separated from the sun, they, like +him, would have been burning and luminous bodies, not cold and opaque, +for nothing resembles a globe of fire less than a globe of earth and +water; and by comparison, the matter of the earth and planets is +perfectly different from that of the sun? + +To this it may be answered, that in the separation the matter changed +its form, and the light or fire was extinguished by the stroke which +caused this motion of impulsion. Besides, may it not be supposed that if +the sun, or a burning star, moved with such velocity as the planet, that +the fire would soon be extinguished; and that is the reason why all +luminous stars are fixed, and that those stars which are called new, and +which have probably changed places, are frequently extinguished and +lost? This remark is somewhat confirmed by what has been observed in +comets; they must burn to the centre when they pass to their perihelium: +nevertheless they do not become luminous themselves, they only exhale +burning vapours, of which they leave a considerable part behind them in +their course. + +I own, that in a medium where there is very little or no resistance, +fire may subsist and suffer a very great motion without being +extinguished: I also own, that what I have just said extends only to the +stars which totally disappear, and not to those which have periodical +returns, and appear and disappear alternately without changing place in +the heavens. The phenomena of these stars has been explained in a very +satisfactory manner by M. de Maupertuis, in his discourse on the figures +of the planets. But the stars which appear and afterwards disappear +entirely, must certainly have been extinguished, either by the velocity +of their motion, or some other cause. We have not a single example of +one luminous star revolving round another; and among the number of +planets which compose our system, and which move round the sun with +more or less rapidity, there is not one luminous of itself. + +It may also be added, that fire cannot subsist so long in the small as +in large masses, and that the planets must have burnt for some time +after they were separated from the sun, but were at length extinguished +for want of combustible matter, as probably would be the sun itself, and +for the same reason; but in a length of time as far beyond that which +extinguished the planets, as it exceeds in quantity of matter. Be this +as it may, the matter of which the planets are formed being separated +from the sun, by the stroke of a comet, that appears a sufficient reason +for the extinction of their fires. + +The earth and planets at the time of their quitting the sun, were in a +state of total liquid fire; in this state they remained only as long as +the violence of the heat which had produced it; and which heat +necessarily underwent a gradual decay: it was in this state of fluidity +that they took their circular forms, and that their regular motions +raised the parts of their equators, and lowered their poles. This +figure, which agrees so perfectly with the laws of hydrostatics, I am of +opinion with Leibnitz, necessarily supposes that the earth and planets +have been in a state of fluidity, caused by fire, and that the internal +part of the earth must be a vitrifiable matter, of which sand, granite, +&c. are the fragments and scoria. + +It may, therefore, with some probability, be thought that the planets +appertained to the sun, that they were separated by a single stroke, +which gave to them a motion of impulsion, and that their position at +different distances from the sun proceeds only from their different +densities. It now only remains, to complete this theory, to explain the +diurnal motion of the planets, and the formation or the satellites; but +this, far from adding difficulties to my hypothesis, seems, on the +contrary, to confirm it. + +For the diurnal motion, or rotation, depends solely on the obliquity of +the stroke, an oblique impulse therefore on the surface of a body will +necessarily give it a rotative motion; this motion will be equal and +always the same, if the body which receives it is homogeneous, and it +will be unequal if the body is composed of heterogeneous parts, or of +different densities; hence we may conclude that in all the planets the +matter is homogeneous, since their diurnal motions are equal, and +regularly performed in the same period of time. Another proof that the +separation of the dense or less dense parts were originally from the +sun. + +But the obliquity of the stroke might be such, as to separate from the +body of the principal planet a small part of matter, which would of +course continue to move in the same direction; these parts would be +united, according to their densities, at different distances from the +planet, by the force of their mutual attraction, and at the same time +follow its course round the sun, by revolving about the body of the +planet, nearly in the plane of its orbit. It is plain, that those small +parts so separated are the satellites: thus the formation, position, and +direction of the motions of the satellites perfectly agree with our +theory; for they have all the same motion in concentrical circles round +their principal planet; their motion is in the same direction, and that +nearly in the plane of their orbits. All these effects, which are common +to them, and which depend on an impulsive force, can proceed only from +one common cause, which is, impulsive motion, communicated to them by +one and the same oblique stroke. + +What we have just said on the cause of the motion and formation of the +satellites, will acquire more probability, if we consider all the +circumstances of the phenomena. The planets which turn the swiftest on +their axis, are those which have satellites. The earth turns quicker +than Mars in the relation of about 24 to 15; the earth has a satellite, +but Mars has none. Jupiter, whose rapidity round its axis is five to six +hundred times greater than that of the earth, has four satellites, and +there is a great appearance that Saturn, which has five, and a ring, +turns still more quickly than Jupiter. + +It may even be conjectured with some foundation, that the ring of Saturn +is parallel to the equator of the planet, so that the plane of the +equator of the ring, and that of Saturn, are nearly the same; for by +supposing, according to the preceding theory, that the obliquity of the +stroke by which Saturn has been set in motion was very great, the +velocity around the axis will, at first, have been in proportion as the +centrifugal force exceeds that of gravity, and there will be detached +from its equator and neighbouring parts, a considerable quantity of +matter, which will necessarily have taken the figure of a ring, whose +plane must be nearly the same as that of the equator of the planet; and +this quantity of matter having been detached from the vicinity of the +equator of Saturn, must have lowered the equator of that planet, which +causes that, notwithstanding its rapidity, the diameters of Saturn +cannot be so unequal as those of Jupiter, which differ from each other +more than an eleventh part. + +However great the probability of what I have advanced on the formation +of the planets and their satellites may appear to me, yet, every man has +his particular measurement, to estimate probabilities of this nature; +and as this measurement depends on the strength of the understanding to +combine more or less distant relations, I do not pretend to convince the +incredulous. I have not only thought it my duty to offer these ideas, +because they appear to me reasonable, and calculated to clear up a +subject, on which, however important, nothing has hitherto been written, +but because the impulsive motion in the planets enter at least as one +half of the composition of the universe, which gravity alone cannot +unfold. I shall only add the following questions to those who are +inclined to deny the possibility of my system. + +1. Is it not natural to imagine, that a body in motion has received that +motion by the stroke of another body? + +2. Is it not very probable, that when many bodies move in the same +direction, that they have received this direction by one single stroke, +or by many strokes directed in the same manner? + +3. Is it not more probable that when many bodies have the same direction +in their motion, and are placed in the same plane, that they received +this direction and this position by one and the same stroke, rather than +by a number? + +4. At the time a body is put in motion by the force of impulsion, is it +not probable that it receives it obliquely, and, consequently, is +obliged to turn on its axis so much the quicker, as the obliquity of the +stroke will have been greater? If these questions should not appear +unreasonable, the theory, of which we have presented the outlines, will +cease to appear an absurdity. + +Let us now pass on to something which more nearly concerns us, and +examine the figure of the earth, on which so many researches and such +great observations have been made. The earth being, as it appears by the +equality of its diurnal motion and the constancy of the inclination of +its axis, composed of homogeneous parts, which attract each other in +proportion to their quantity of matter, it would necessarily have taken +the figure of a globe perfectly spherical, if the motion of impulsation +had been given it in a perpendicular direction to the surface; but this +stroke having been obliquely given, the earth turned on its axis at the +moment it took its form; and from the combination of this impulsive +force, the attraction of the parts, there has resulted a spheroid +figure, more elevated under the great circle of rotation, and lower at +the two extremities of the axis, and this because the action of the +centrifugal force proceeding from the diurnal rotation must diminish the +action of gravity. Thus, the earth being homogeneous, and having +received a rotative motion, necessarily took a spheroidical figure, the +two axes of which differ a 230th part from each other. This may be +clearly demonstrated, and does not depend on any hypothesis whatever. +The laws of gravity are perfectly known, and we cannot doubt that +bodies attract each other in a direct ratio of their masses, and in an +inverted ratio, at the squares of their distances; so likewise we cannot +doubt, that the general action of any body is not composed of all the +particular actions of its parts. Thus each part of matter mutually +attracts in a direct ratio of its mass and an inverted ratio of its +distance, and from all these attractions there results a sphere when +there is no rotatory motion, and a spheroid when there is one. This +spheroid is longer or shorter at the two extremities of the axis of +rotation, in proportion to the velocity of its diurnal motion, and the +earth has then, by virtue of its rotative velocity, and of the mutual +attraction of all its parts, the figure of a spheroid, the two axes of +which are as 229 to 230 to one another. + +Thus, by its original constituent, by its homogeneousness, and +independent of every hypothesis from the direction of gravity, the earth +has taken this figure of a spheroid at its formation, and agreeable to +mechanical laws: its equatorial diameter was raised about 6-1/2 leagues +higher than under the poles. + +I shall dwell on this article, because there are still geometricians who +think that the figure of the earth depends upon theory, and this from a +system of philosophy they have embraced, and from a supposed direction +of gravity. The first thing we have to demonstrate is, the mutual +attraction of every part of matter, and the second the homogeneousness +of the terrestrial globe; if we clearly prove, that these two +circumstances are really so, there will no longer be any hypothesis to +be made on the direction of gravity: the earth will necessarily have the +figure Newton decided in favour of, and every other figure given to it +by virtue of vortexes or other hypotheses, will not be able to subsist. + +It cannot be doubted, that it is the force of gravity which retains the +planets in their orbits; the satellites of Saturn gravitate towards +Saturn, those of Jupiter towards Jupiter, the Moon gravitates towards +the Earth: and Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, the Earth, Venus, and Mercury, +gravitate towards the Sun: so likewise Saturn and Jupiter gravitate +towards their satellites, the Earth gravitates towards the Moon, and the +Sun towards the whole of the planets. Gravitation is therefore general +and mutual in all the planetary system, for action cannot be exercised +without a re-action; all the planets, therefore, act mutually one on the +other. This mutual attraction serves as a foundation to the laws of +their motion, and is demonstrated to exist by its effects. When Saturn +and Jupiter are in conjunction, they act one on the other, and this +attraction produces an irregularity in their motion round the Sun. It is +the same with the Earth and the Moon, they also mutually attract each +other; but the irregularities of the motion of the Moon, proceeds from +the attraction of the Sun, so that the Earth, the Sun, and the Moon, +mutually act one on the other. Now this mutual attraction of the +planets, when the distances are equal, is proportional to their quantity +of matter, and the same force of gravity which causes heavy matter to +fall on the surface of the Earth, and which extends to the Moon, is also +proportional to the quantity of matter; therefore the total gravity of a +planet is composed of the gravity of each of its parts; from whence all +the parts of the matter, either in the Earth or in the planets, mutually +attract each other and the Earth, by its rotation round its own axis, +has necessarily taken the figure of a spheroid, the axes of which are as +229 to 230. The direction of the weight must be perpendicular to the +Earth's surface; consequently no hypothesis, drawn from the direction of +gravity, can be sustained, unless the general attraction of the parts of +matter be denied; but the existence of this mutual attraction is +demonstrated by observations, and the experiment of pendulums prove, +that its extension is general; therefore we cannot support an hypothesis +on the direction of gravity without going against experience and reason. + +Let us now proceed to examine whether the matter of which the +terrestrial globe is composed be homogeneous. I admit, that if it is +supposed the globe is more dense in some parts than in others, the +direction of gravity must be different from what we have just assigned, +and that the figure of the Earth would also differ agreeable to those +suppositions. But what reason have we to make these suppositions? Why, +for example, should we suppose that the parts near the centre are denser +than those which are more remote? Are not all the particles which +compose the globe collected together by their mutual attraction? hence, +each particle is a centre, and there is no reason to believe, that the +parts which surround the centre are denser than those which are about +any other point. Besides, if one considerable part of the globe was +denser than another, the axis of rotation would be found near the dense +parts, and an inequality would ensue in the diurnal revolution; we +should remark an inequality in the apparent motion of the fixed stars; +they would appear to move more quick or slow in the zenith, or horizon, +according as we should be placed on the denser or lighter parts of the +earth; and the axis of the globe no longer passing through the centre of +gravity, would also very sensibly change its position: but nothing like +this ever happens; on the contrary, the diurnal motion of the earth is +equal and uniform. At all parts of the Earth's surface, the stars appear +to move with the same velocity at all heights, and if there be any +rotation in its axis, it is so trifling as to have escaped observation: +it must therefore be concluded, that the globe is homogeneous, or nearly +so in all its parts. + +If the earth was a hollow and void globe, and the crust of which, for +example, not more than two or three miles thick; it would produce these +effects. 1. The mountains would be such considerable parts of the whole +thickness of the crust, that great irregularities in the motions of the +Earth would be occasioned by the attraction of the Moon and Sun: for +when the highest parts of the globe, as the Cordeliers, should have the +Moon at noon, the attraction would be much stronger on the whole globe +than when she was in the meridian of the lowest parts. 2. The attraction +of mountains would be much more considerable than it is in comparison +with the attraction of the whole globe, and experiments made at the +mountain of Chimboraco, in Peru, would in this case give more degrees +than they have given seconds for the deviation of the plumb line. 3. The +weight of bodies would be greater on the tops of high mountains than on +the planes; so that we should feel ourselves considerably heavier, and +should walk with more difficulty in high than in low places. These +observations, with many others that might be added, must convince us, +that the inner parts of the globe is not void, but filled with a dense +matter. + +On the other hand, if below the depth of two or three miles, the earth +was filled with a matter much more dense than any known, it would +necessarily occur, that every time we descended to moderate depths, we +should weigh much more, and the motion of pendulums would be more +accelerated than in fact they are when carried from an eminence into a +plain: thus, we may presume that the internal part of the Earth is +filled with a matter nearly similar to that which composes its surface. +What may complete our determination in favour of this opinion is, that +in the first formation of the globe, when it took its present +spheroidical figure, the matter which composed it was in fusion, and, +consequently, all its parts were homogeneous, and nearly equally dense. +From that time the matter on the surface, although originally the same +with the interior, has undergone a variety of changes by external +causes, which has produced materials of such different densities; but it +must be remarked, that the densest matters, as gold and metals, are also +those the most seldom to be met with, and consequently the greatest part +of the matter at the surface of the globe has not undergone any very +great changes with relation to its density; the most common materials, +as sand and clay, differ very little, insomuch, that we may conjecture, +with great probability, that the internal part of the earth is composed +of a vitrified matter, the density of which is nearly the same as that +of sand, and that consequently the terrestrial globe in general may be +regarded as homogeneous. + +Notwithstanding this, it may be urged, that although the globe was +composed of concentrical strata of different densities, the diurnal +motion might be equally certain, and the uniform inclination of the axis +as constant and undisturbed as it could be, on the supposition of its +being composed of homogeneous matter. I acknowledge it, but I ask at the +same time, if there is any reason to believe that strata of different +densities do exist? If these conclusions be not rather a desire to +adjust the works of Nature to our own ideas? And whether in physics we +ought to admit suppositions which are not founded on observations or +analogy? + +It appears, therefore, that the earth, by virtue of the mutual +attraction of its parts and its diurnal motion, assumed the figure of a +spheroid; that it necessarily took that form from being in a state of +fluidity; that, agreeable to the laws of gravity and of a centrifugal +force, it could have no other figure: that in the moment of its +formation as at present, there was a difference between the two +diameters equal to a 230th part, and that, consequently, every +hypothesis in which we find greater or less difference are fictions +which merit no attention. + +But it may be said, if this theory is true, and if 229 to 230 is the +just relation of the axis, why did the mathematicians, sent to Lapland +and Peru, agree to the relation of 174 to 175? From whence does this +difference arise between theory and practice? And is it not more +reasonable to give the preference to practice and measures, especially +when we have been taken by the most able mathematicians of +Europe[109:A], and with all necessary apparatus to establish the result. + +To this I answer, that I have paid attention to the observations made at +the equator and near the polar circle; that I have no doubt of their +being exact, and that the earth may possibly be elevated an 175th part +more at the equator than at the poles. But, at the same time, I maintain +my theory, and I see clearly how the two conclusions may be reconciled. +This difference is about four leagues in the two axes, so that the parts +at the equator are raised two leagues more than they ought to be, +according to my theory; this height answers exactly to the greatest +inequalities on the surface of the globe, produced by the motion of the +sea, and the action of the fluids. I will explain; it appears that when +the earth was formed, it must necessarily have taken, by virtue of the +mutual attraction of its parts, and the action of the centrifugal force, +a spheroidical figure, the axes of which differ a 230th part: the +original earth must have had this figure, which it took when it was +fluid, or rather liquified by the fire; but after its formation the +vapours which were extended and rarefied, as in the atmosphere and tail +of a comet, became condensed, and fell on the surface in form of air and +water: and when these waters became agitated by the flux and reflux, the +matters were, by degrees, carried from the poles towards the equatorial +parts; so that the poles were lowered about a league, and those of the +equator raised in the same proportion; this was not suddenly done, but +by degrees in succession of time; the earth being also exposed to the +action of the winds, air, and sun; all these irregular causes concurred +with the flux and reflux to furrow its surface, hollow it into valleys, +and raise it into mountains; and producing other inequalities and +irregularities, of which, nevertheless, the greatest thickness does not +exceed one league at the equator; this inequality of two leagues, is, +perhaps, the greatest which can be on the surface of the earth, for the +highest mountains are scarce above one league in height, and there is +much probability of the sea's not being more at its greatest depth. The +theory is therefore true, and practice may be so likewise; the earth at +first could not be raised above 6-1/2 leagues more at the equator than +the poles, but the changes which have happened to its surface might +afterwards raise it still more. Natural History wonderfully confirms +this opinion, for we have proved in the preceding discourse that the +flux and reflux, and other motions of the water, have produced mountains +and all the inequalities on the surface of the globe, that this surface +has undergone considerable changes, and that at the greatest depths, as +well as on the greatest heights, bones, shells and other wrecks of +animals, which inhabit the sea and earth, are met with. + +It may be conjectured, from what has been said, that to find ancient +earth, and matters which have never been removed from the spot in which +they were first placed, we must dig near the poles, where the bed of the +earth must be thinner than in the Southern climates. + +On the whole, if we strictly examine the measures by which the figure of +the earth is determined, we shall perceive this hypothesis enters into +such determination; for it supposes the earth to have the figure of a +regular curve, whereas from the constant changes the earth is +continually undergoing from a variety and combination of causes, it is +almost impossible that it should have retained any regular figure, and +hence the poles might, originally, only be flattened a 230th part, as +Newton says, and as my theory requires. Besides, although we had exactly +the length of the degree at the polar circle and equator, have we not +also the length of the degree as exactly in France? And the measure of +M. Picard, has it not been verified? Add to this that the augmentation +and diminution in the motion of the pendulum, do not agree with the +result drawn from measurement, and that, on the contrary, they differ +very little from the theory of Newton. This is surely more than is +requisite to convince us that the poles are not flattened more than a +230th part, and that if there is any difference, it can proceed only +from the inequalities, which the water and other external causes have +produced on its surface; but these inequalities being more irregular +than regular, we must not form any hypothesis thereon, nor suppose, that +the meridians are ellipses, or any other regular curves. From whence we +perceive, that if we should successively measure many degrees of the +earth in all directions, we still should not be certain by that alone, +of the exact situation of the poles, nor whether they were depressed +more or less than the 230th part. + +May it not also be conjectured, that if the inclination of the axis of +the earth has changed, it can only be produced by the changes which have +happened to the surface, since all the rest of the globe is homogeneous; +that consequently this variation is too little sensible to be perceived +by astronomers, and that if the earth is not encountered with a comet, +or deranged, by any other external cause, its axis will remain +perpetually inclined as it is at present, and as it has always been? + +In order not to omit any conjecture which appears reasonable, may it not +be said, that as the mountains and inequalities which are on the +surface of the earth have been formed by the flux and reflux of the sea, +the mountains and inequalities which we remark on the surface of the +moon, have been produced by a similar cause? they certainly are much +higher than those of the earth, but then her tides are also much +stronger, occasioned by the earth's being considerably larger than the +moon, and consequently producing her tides with a superior force; and +this effect would be much greater if the moon had, like the earth, a +rapid rotation; but as the moon presents always the same surface to the +earth, the tides cannot operate but in proportion to the motion arising +from her libration, by which it alternatively discovers to us a segment +of its other hemisphere; this, however, must produce a kind of flux and +reflux, quite different from that of our sea, and the effects of which +will be much less considerable than if the moon had from its course a +revolution round its axis, as quick as the rotation of the terrestrial +globe. + +I should furnish a volume as large as that of Burnet or Whiston's, if I +were to enlarge on the ideas which arise in support of the above; by +giving them a geometrical air, in imitation of the last author, I might +add considerably to their weight; but, in my opinion, hypothesis, +however probable, ought not to be treated with such pomposity; it being +a dress which borders so much on quackery. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[78:A] Vide Newton, 2d edit. page 525. + +[79:A] Vid. Newton, page 405. + +[109:A] M. de Maupertuis' Figure of the Earth. + + + + +ARTICLE II. + +FROM THE SYSTEM OF WHISTON[115:A]. + + +This Author commences his treatise by a dissertation on the creation of +the world; he says that the account of it given by Moses in the text of +Genesis has not been rightly understood; that the translators have +confined themselves too much to the letter and superficial views, +without attending to nature, reason, and philosophy. The common notion +of the world being made in six days, he says is absolutely false, and +that the description given by Moses, is not an exact and philosophical +narration of the creation and origin of the universe, but only an +historical representation of the terrestrial globe. The earth, +according to him, existed in the chaos; and, at the time mentioned by +Moses, received the form, situation and consistency necessary to be +inhabited by the human race. I shall not enter into a detail of his +proofs, nor undertake their refutation. The exposition we have just +made, is sufficient to demonstrate the difference of his opinion with +public facts, its contrariety with scripture, and consequently the +insufficiency of his proofs. On the whole, he treats this matter as a +theological controvertist, rather than as an enlightened philosopher. + +Leaving these erroneous principles, he flies to ingenious suppositions, +which, although extraordinary, yet have a degree of probability to those +who, like him, incline to the enthusiasm of system. He says, that the +ancient chaos, the origin of our earth, was the atmosphere of a comet: +that the annual motion of the earth began at the time it took its new +form, but that its diurnal motion began only when the first man fell. +That the ecliptic cut the tropic of cancer, opposite to the terrestrial +paradise, which was situated on the north-west side of the frontiers of +Assyria: that before the deluge, the year began at the autumnal +equinox: that the orbits of the planets, and the earth were then +perfect circles. That the deluge began the 18th of November, 2365 of the +Julian period, or 2349 years before Christ. That the solar and lunar +year were then the same, and that they exactly contained 360 days. That +a comet descending in the plane of the ecliptic towards its perihelion, +passed near the globe of the earth the same day as the deluge began: +that there is a great heat in the internal part of the terrestrial +globe, which constantly diffuses itself from the centre to the +circumference; that the form of the earth is like that of an egg, the +ancient emblem of the globe; that mountains are the lightest part of the +earth, &c. He afterwards attributes all the alterations and changes +which have happened to the earth, to the universal deluge; then blindly +adopts the theory of Woodward, and indiscriminately makes use of all the +observations of that author on the present state of the globe; but +assumes originality when he speaks of its future state: according to him +it will be consumed by fire, and its destruction will be preceded by +terrible earthquakes, thunder, and frightful meteors; the Sun and Moon +will have an hideous aspect, the heavens will appear to fall, and the +flames will be general over all the earth; but when the fire shall have +devoured all the impurities it contains; when it shall be vitrified and +rendered transparent as crystal, the saints and the blessed spirits will +return and take possession of it, and there remain till the day of +judgment. + +These hypotheses, at the first glance, appear to be rash and extravagant +assertions; nevertheless the author has managed them with such address, +and treated them with such strength, that they cease to appear +absolutely chimerical. He supports his subjects with much science, and +it is surprising that, from a mixture of ideas so very absurd, a system +could be formed with an air of probability. It has not affected vulgar +minds so much as it has dazzled the eyes of the learned, because they +are more easily deceived by the glare of erudition, and the power of +novel ideas. Mr. Whiston was a celebrated astronomer, in the constant +habit of considering the heavens, observing the stars, and contemplating +the wonderful course of nature; he could never persuade himself that +this small grain of sand, this Earth which we inhabit, occupied more the +attention of the Creator than the universe, the vast extent of which +contains millions of other Suns and Earths. He pretends, that Moses has +not given us the history of the first creation of this globe, but only a +detail of the new form that it took when the Almighty turned it from the +mass of a comet into a planet, and formed it into a proper habitation +for men. Comets are, in fact, subjected to terrible vicissitudes by +reason of the eccentricity of their orbits. Sometimes, like that in +1680, it is a thousand times hotter there than red-hot iron; and +sometimes a thousand times colder than ice; if they are, therefore, +inhabited it must be by strange creatures, of which we can have no +conception. + +The planets, on the contrary, are places of rest, where the distance of +the sun not varying much, the temperature remains nearly the same, and +permits different kinds of plants and animals to grow and multiply. + +In the beginning God created the world; but, observes our author, the +earth was then an uninhabitable comet, suffering alternatively the +excess of heat and cold, its liquifying and freezing by turns formed a +chaos, or an abyss, surrounded with thick darkness: "and darkness +covered the face of the deep," _& tenebræ erant superfaciam abissi_. +This chaos was the atmosphere of the comet, a body composed of +heterogeneous matters, the centre occupied by spherical, solid, and hot +substances, of about two thousand leagues in diameter, round which a +very great surface of a thick fluid extended, mixed with an unshapen and +confused matter, like the chaos of the ancient _rudis & indigestaque +moles_. + +This vast atmosphere contained but very few dry, solid, or terrestrial +particles, still less aqueous or aerial, but a great quantity of fluid, +dense and heavy matters, mixed, agitated and jumbled together in the +greatest disorder and confusion. Such was the earth before the six days, +but on the first day of the creation, when the eccentrical orbit of the +comet had been changed, every thing took its place, and bodies arranged +themselves according to the law of gravity, the heavy fluid descended to +the lowest places, and left the upper regions to the terrestrial, +aqueous and aerial parts; those likewise descended according to their +order of gravity; first the earth, then the water, and last of all the +air. The immense volume of chaos was thus reduced to a globe of a +moderate size, in the centre of which is the solid body that still +retains the heat which the sun formerly communicated to it, when it +belonged to a comet. This heat may possibly endure six thousand years, +since the comet of 1680 required fifty thousand years to cool. Around +this solid and burning matter, which occupies the centre of the earth, +the dense and heavy fluid which descended the first is to be found, and +this is the fluid which forms the great abyss on which the earth is +borne, like cork on quicksilver; but as the terrestrial parts were +originally mixed with a large quantity of water, in descending they have +dragged with them a part of this water, which, not being able to +re-ascend after the earth was consolidated, formed a concentrical bed +with the heavy fluid which surrounds this hot substance, insomuch that +the great abyss is composed of two concentrical orbs, the most internal +of which is a heavy fluid, and the other water; the last of which serves +for a foundation to the earth. It is from this admirable arrangement, +produced by the atmosphere of a comet, that the Theory of the Earth, and +the explanation of all its phenomena are to depend. + +When the atmosphere of the comet was once disembarrassed from all the +solid and terrestrial matters, there remained only the lighter air, +through which the rays of the sun freely passed and instantly produced +light: "Let there be light, and there was light." The columns which +composed the orb of the Earth being formed with such great precipitation +is the cause of their different densities: consequently the heaviest +sunk deeper into this subterraneous fluid than the lightest; and it is +this which has produced the vallies and mountains on the surface of the +earth. These inequalities were, before the deluge, dispersed and +situated otherwise than they are at present. Instead of the vast valley, +which contains the ocean, there were many small divided cavities on the +surface of the globe, each of which contained a part of this water; the +mountains were also more divided, and did not form chains as at present: +nevertheless, the earth contained a thousand times more people, and was +a thousand times more fertile; and the life of man and other animals +were ten times longer, all which was affected by the internal heat of +the earth that proceeded from the centre, and gave birth to a great +number of plants and animals, bestowing on them a degree of vigour +necessary for them to subsist a long time, and multiply in great +abundance. But this heat, by increasing the strength of bodies, +unfortunately extended to the heads of men and animals; it augmented +their passions; it deprived man of his innocence, and the brute creation +of part of their intelligence; all creatures, excepting fish, who +inhabited a colder element, felt the effects of this heat, became +criminal and merited death. It therefore came, and this universal death +happened on Wednesday the 28th of November, by a terrible deluge of +forty days and forty nights, and was caused by the tail of another comet +which encountered the earth in returning from its perihelion. + +The tail of a comet is the lightest part of its atmosphere; it is a +transparent mist, a subtile vapour, which the heat of the sun exhales +from the body of the comet: this vapour composed of extremely rarefied +aqueous and aerial particles, follows the comet when it descends to its +perihelion, and precedes when it re-ascends, so that it is always +situate opposite to the sun, as if it sought to be in the shade, and +avoid the too great heat of that luminary. The column which this vapour +forms is often of an immense length, and the more a comet approaches the +sun, the longer and more extended is its tail, and as many comets +descend below the annual orb of the earth, it is not surprising that +the earth is sometimes found surrounded with the vapour of this tail; +this is precisely what happened at the time of the deluge. In two hours +the tail of a comet will evacuate a quantity of water equal to what is +contained in the whole ocean. In short, this tail was what Moses calls +the cataracts of Heaven, "and the cataracts of Heaven were opened." The +terrestrial globe meeting with the tail of a comet, must, in going its +course through this vapour, appropriate to itself a part of the matter +which it contains; all which, coming within the sphere of the earth's +attraction, must fall on it, and fall in the form of rain, since this +tail is partly composed of aqueous vapours. Thus rain may come down in +such abundance as to produce an universal deluge the waters of which +might easily surmount the tops of the highest mountains. Nevertheless, +our author, cautious of not going directly against the letter of holy +writ, does not say that this rain was the sole cause of the universal +deluge, but takes the water from every place he can find it. The great +abyss as we see contains a considerable quantity. The earth, at the +approach of the comet, would prove the force of its attraction; and the +waters contained in the great abyss would be agitated by so violent a +kind of flux and reflux, that the superficial crust would not resist, +but split in several places, and the internal waters be dispersed over +the surface, "And the fountains of the abyss were opened." + +But what became of these waters, which the tail of the comet and great +abyss furnished so liberally? our author is not the least embarrassed +thereon. As soon as the earth, continuing its course, removed from the +comet, the effects of its attraction, the flux and reflux in the great +abyss ceased of course, and immediately the upper waters precipitated +back with violence by the same roads as they had been forced upon the +surface. The great abyss absorbed all the superfluous waters, and was of +a sufficient capacity not only to receive its own waters, but also all +those which the tail of the comet had left, because during its +agitation, and the rupture of its crust, it had enlarged the space by +driving out on all sides the earth that surrounded it. It was at this +time also the figure of the earth, which till then was spherical, became +elliptic. This effect was occasioned by the centrifugal force caused by +its diurnal motion, and by the attraction of the comet, for the earth, +in passing through the tail of the comet, found itself so placed that it +presented the parts of the equator to that planet; and the power of the +attraction of the comet, concurring with the centrifugal force of the +earth, caused the parts of the equator to be elevated, and that with the +more facility as the crust was broken and divided in an infinity of +places, and because the flux and reflux of the abyss drove against the +equator more violently than elsewhere. + +Here then is Mr. Whiston's history of the creation; the causes of the +universal deluge; the length of the life of the first men; and the +figure of the Earth; all which seem to have cost our author little or no +labour; but Noah's ark appears to have greatly disquieted him. In the +midst of so terrible a disorder occasioned by the conjunction of the +tail of a comet with the waters of the great abyss, in the terrible +moments wherein not only the elements of the earth were confused, but +when new elements still concurred to augment the chaos, how can it be +imagined that the ark floated quietly with its numerous cargo on the top +of the waves? Here our author makes great efforts to arrive at and give +a physical reason for the preservation of the ark, but which has always +appeared to me insufficient, poorly imagined, and but little +orthodoxical: I will not here relate it, but only observe how hard it is +for a man who has explained objects so great and wonderful, without +having recourse to a supernatural power, to be stopt by one particular +circumstance; our author, however, chose rather to risk drowning with +the ark, than to attribute to the immediate bounty of the Almighty the +preservation of this precious vessel. + +I shall only make one remark on this system, of which I have made a +faithful abridgement: which is, whenever we are rash enough to attempt +to explain theological truths by physical reasons, or interpret purely +by human views, the divine text of holy writ, or that we endeavour to +reason on the will of the Most High, and on the execution of his +decrees, we consequently shall involve ourselves in the darkness and +chaos of obscurity and confusion, like the author of this system, which, +in defiance of its absurdities, has been received with great applause. +He neither doubts the truth of the deluge, nor the authenticity of the +sacred writ; but as he was less employed with it than with physic and +astronomy, he has taken passages of the scripture for physical facts, +and the results of astronomical observations; and has so strangely +blended the divine knowledge with human science as to give birth to the +most extraordinary system that possibly ever was or will be conceived. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[115:A] A New Theory of the Earth by William Whiston, 1708. + + + + +ARTICLE III. + +FROM THE SYSTEM OF BURNET.[128:A] + + +This author is the first who has treated this subject generally and in a +systematical matter. He was possessed of much understanding, and was a +person well acquainted with the _belles lettres_. His work acquired +great reputation, and was criticised by many of the learned, among the +rest by Mr. Keil, who has geometrically demonstrated the errors of Mr. +Burnet, in a treatise called "Examination of the Theory of the Earth." +Mr. Keil also refuted Whiston's system; but he treats the last author +very different from the first, and seems even to be of his opinion in +several cases, and looks upon the tail of a comet to be a very probable +cause for the deluge. But, to return to Burnet, his book is elegantly +written; he knew how to paint noble images and magnificent scenes. His +plan is great, but the execution is deficient for want of proper +materials: his reasoning is good, but his proofs are weak; yet his +confidence in his writings is so great, that he frequently causes his +readers to pass over his errors. + +He begins by telling us, that before the deluge the earth had a very +different form from that which it has at present; it was at first, he +says, a fluid mass, compounded of matters of all kinds, and all sorts of +figures, the heaviest descended towards the centre, and formed a hard +and solid body; round which the waters collected, and the air, and all +the liquors lighter than water, surmounted them. Between the orb of air +and that of water, was an orb of oily matter, but as the air was still +very impure, and contained a great quantity of small particles of +terrestrial matter, they by degrees descended on the coat of oil, and +formed a terrestrial orb blended with earth and oil; and this was the +first habitable earth, and the first abode of man. This was an excellent +soil, light, and calculated to yield to the tenderness of the first +germs. The surface of the terrestrial globe was at first equal, uniform, +without mountains, without seas, and without inequalities; but it +remained only about sixteen centuries in this state, for the heat of the +sun by degrees drying the crust, split it at first on the surface, soon +after these cracks penetrated farther and increased so considerably by +time, that at length they entirely opened the crust; in an instant the +whole earth fell into pieces in the abyss of water it surrounded; and +this was the cause of the deluge. + +But all these masses of earth, by falling into the abyss, dragged along +with them a great quantity of air; these struck against each other, +divided, and accumulated so irregularly, that great cavities filled with +air were left between them. The waters by degrees opened these cavities, +and in proportion as they filled them, the surface of the earth +discovered itself in the highest parts; at length water alone remained +in the lowest parts; that is to say, the vast vallies which contain the +sea. Thus our ocean is a part of the ancient abyss, the rest is entered +into the internal cavities with which the ocean communicates. The +islands and sea rocks are the small fragments, and continents are the +great masses of the old crust. As the rupture and the fall of this crust +are made of a sudden, and with confusion, it was not surprising to find +eminences, depths, plains, and inequalities of all kinds on the surface +of the earth. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[128:A] Thomas Burnet. Telluris theoria sacra, orbis nostri originem & +mutationes generales, quas aut jam subut, aut olim Subiturus est +complectens. Londina, 1681. + + + + +ARTICLE IV. + +FROM THE SYSTEM OF WOODWARD. + + +It may be said of this author, that he attempted to raise an immense +monument on a less solid base than the moving sand, and to construct a +world with dust; for he pretends, that at the time of the deluge a total +dissolution of the earth was made. The first idea which presents, after +having gone through his book,[132:A] is, that this dissolution was made +by the waters of the great abyss. He asserts, that the abyss where the +water was included opened all at once at the command of God, and +dispersed over the surface an enormous quantity of water necessary to +cover the tops of the highest mountains, and that God suspended the +cause of cohesion which reduced all solid bodies into dust, &c. He did +not consider that by these suppositions he added other miracles to that +of the universal deluge, or at least physical impossibilities, which +agree neither with the letter of the holy writ, nor with the +mathematical principles of natural philosophy. But as this author has +the merit of having collected many important observations, and as he was +better acquainted with the materials of which the globe is composed than +those who preceded him, his system, although badly conceived, and worse +digested, has nevertheless dazzled many people, who, seduced by the +truth of some particular circumstances, put confidence in his general +conclusions; we shall, therefore, give a short view of his theory, in +which, by doing justice to the author's merit, and the exactness of his +observations, we shall put the reader in a state of judging of the +insufficiency of his system, and of the falsity of some of his remarks. +Mr. Woodward speaks of having discovered by his sight that all matters +which compose the English earth, from the surface to the deepest places +which had been dug, were disposed by beds of strata, and that in a great +number of these there were shells and other marine productions; he +afterwards adds, that by his correspondents and friends he was assured, +that in other countries the earth is composed of the same materials, and +that shells are found there, not only in the plains but on the highest +mountains, in the deepest quarries, and in an infinity of different +places. He perceived their strata to be horizontal and disposed one over +the other, as matters are which are transported by the waters, and +deposited in form of sediment. These general remarks, which are true, +are followed by particular observations, by which he evidently shews, +that fossils found incorporated in the strata are real shells and marine +productions, not minerals and singular bodies, the sport of nature, &c. + +To these observations, though partly made before him, which he has +collected and proved, he adds others less exact. He asserts, that all +matters of different strata are placed one on the other in the order of +their specific gravity. + +This general assertion is not true, for we daily see rocks placed above +clay, sand, coal, and bitumen, and which certainly are specifically +heavier than either of these latter materials. If, in fact, we found +throughout the earth that the first strata was bitumen, then chalk, then +marl, clay, sand, stone, marble, and at last metals, so that the +composition of the earth exactly followed the law of gravity, there +would be an appearance that they might have been precipitated at the +same time, which our author asserts with confidence, in spite of the +evidence to the contrary; for, without being a naturalist, we need only +have our eye-sight to be convinced that heavy strata are often found +above lighter, and that consequently these sediments were not +precipitated all at one time, but have been brought and deposited +successively by the water. As this is the foundation of his system, and +is manifestly false, we shall follow it no farther than to show how far +an erroneous principle may produce false combinations and erroneous +conclusions. + +All the matters, says our author, which compose the earth, from the +summits of the highest mountains, to the greatest depths of mines, are +disposed by strata, according to their specific weights; therefore he +concludes the whole has been dissolved and precipitated at one time. But +in what manner, and at what time was it dissolved? In water, replies he, +and at the time of the deluge. But there is not a sufficient quantity of +water on the globe for this to be effected, since there is more land +than water, and the bottom of the sea itself is earth. This he admits, +but says, there is more water than is requisite at the centre of the +earth, that it was only necessary for it to ascend, and possess a power +of dissolving every substance but shells, afterwards to find the means +for this water to re-enter the abyss, and to make all this agree with +the history of the deluge. This then is the system, of which the author +does not entertain the least doubt; for when it is opposed to him that +water cannot dissolve marble, stone, and metals, especially in forty +days, the duration of the deluge, he answers simply, that nevertheless +it did happen so. When he is asked, what the virtue of this water of +the abyss was, to dissolve all the earth, and at the same time preserve +the shells? he says, that he never pretended that this water was a +dissolvent; but that it is clear, by facts, that the earth has been +dissolved and the shells preserved. When he was evidently shown that if +he had no reason to give, or facts to support, for these phenomena, his +system was useless, he said, we have only to imagine that, during the +deluge, the force of gravity and the coherency of matter ceased on a +sudden, and by this supposition the dissolution of the old world would +be explained in a very easy and satisfactory manner. But, it was said to +him, if the power which holds the parts of matter united was suspended, +why were not the shells dissolved as well as all the rest? Here he makes +a discourse on the organization of shells and bones of animals, by which +he pretends to prove that their texture being fibrous, and different +from that of minerals, their power of cohesion was different also; after +all, we have, says he, only to suppose that the power of gravity and +cohesion did not entirely cease, but that it was only diminished +sufficient to disunite all the parts of minerals, and not those of +animals. To all this we cannot be prevented from discovering, that our +author's philosophy was not equal to his talents for observation; and I +do not think it necessary seriously to refute opinions which have no +foundation, especially when they have been imagined against the rules of +probability, and drawn from consequences contrary to mechanical laws. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[132:A] An Essay towards the Natural History of the Earth, &c. by John +Woodward. + + + + +ARTICLE V. + +EXPOSITION OF SOME OTHER SYSTEMS. + + +It is plain that the three forementioned hypotheses have much in common +with each other. They all agree in this point, that during the deluge +the earth changed its form, as well externally as internally; but these +speculators have not considered that the earth before the deluge was +inhabited by the same species of men and animals, and must necessarily +have been nearly such as it is at present. The sacred writings teach us, +that before the deluge there were rivers, seas, mountains, and forests. +That these rivers and mountains were, for the most part, retained in the +same situations; the Tigris and Euphrates were the rivers of the ancient +paradise; that the mountain of Armenia, on which the ark rested, was one +of the highest mountains in the world at the deluge, as it is at +present: that the same plants and animals which exist now, existed then; +for we read of the serpent, of the raven, of the crow, and of the dove, +which brought the olive branch into the ark. Although Tournefort asserts +there are no olive trees for more than 400 miles from Mount Ararat, and +passes some absurd jokes thereon[138:A], it is nevertheless certain +there were olives in this neighbourhood at the time of the deluge, since +holy writ assures us of it in the most express terms; but it is by no +means astonishing that in the space of 4000 years the olive trees should +have been destroyed in those quarters, and multiplied in others; it is +therefore contrary to scripture and reason, that those authors have +supposed the earth was quite different from its present state before the +deluge; and this contradiction between their hypothesis and the sacred +text, as well as physical truths, must cause their systems to be +rejected, if even they should agree with some phenomena. Burnet gives +neither observations, nor any real facts, for the support of his system. +Woodward has only given us an essay, in which he promised much more than +he could perform: his book is a project, the execution of which has not +been seen. He has made use of two general observations; the first, that +the earth is every where composed of matters which formerly were in a +state of fluidity, transported by the waters, and deposited in +horizontal strata. The second, that there are abundance of marine +productions in most parts of the bowels of the earth. To give a reason +for these facts, he has recourse to the universal deluge, or rather it +appears that he gives them as proofs of the deluge; but, like Burnet, he +falls into evident contradictions, for it is not to be supposed with +them that there were no mountains prior to the deluge, since it is +expressly stated, that the waters rose fifteen cubits above the tops of +the highest mountains. On the other hand, it is not said that these +waters destroyed or dissolved these mountains; but, on the contrary, +these mountains remained in their places, and the ark rested on that +which the water first deserted. Besides how can it be imagined that, +during the short duration of the deluge, the waters were able to +dissolve the mountains and the whole body of the earth? Is it not an +absurdity to suppose that in forty days all marble, rocks, stones, and +minerals, were dissolved by water? Is it not a manifest contradiction to +admit this total dissolution, and at the same time maintain that shells, +bones, and marine productions were preserved entire, and resisted that +which had dissolved the most solid substances? I shall not therefore +hesitate to say, that Woodward, with excellent facts and observations, +has formed but a poor and inconsistent system. + +Whiston, who came last, greatly enriched the other two, and +notwithstanding he gave a vast scope to his imagination has not fallen +into contradiction; he speaks of matters not very credible, but they are +neither absolutely nor evidently impossible. As we are ignorant of the +centre of the earth, he thought he might suppose it was a solid matter, +surrounded with a ring of heavy fluid, and afterwards with a ring of +water, on which the external crust was sustained; in the latter the +different parts of this crust were more or less sunk, in proportion to +their relative weights, which produced mountains and inequalities on the +surface of the earth. Here, however, this astronomer has committed a +mechanical blunder; he did not recollect that the earth, according to +this hypothesis, must be an uniform arch, and that consequently it could +not be borne on the water it contains, and much less sunk therein. I do +not know that there are any other physical errors; but he has made a +great number of errors, both in metaphysics and theology. On the whole +it cannot be denied absolutely that the earth meeting with the tail of a +comet might not be inundated, especially allowing the author that the +tail of a comet may contain aqueous vapours; nor can it be denied as an +absolute impossibility that the tail of a comet, in returning from its +perihelium, might not burn the earth, if we suppose, with Mr. Whiston, +that the comet passed very near the sun; it is the same with the rest of +the system. But though his ideas are not absolutely impossibilities, +there is so little probability to each thing, when taken separately, +that the result upon the whole taken together puts it beyond +credibility. + +The three systems we have spoken of are not the only works which have +been composed on the theory of the earth; a Memoir of M. Bourguet +appeared in 1729, printed at Amsterdam, with his "Philosophical Letters +on the Formation of Salts, &c." in which he gives a specimen of the +system he meditated, but which was prevented completion by the death of +the author. It is but justice to admit, that no person was more +industrious in making observations or collecting facts. To him we owe +that great and beautiful observation, the correspondence between the +angles of mountains. He presents every thing which he had collected in +great order; but with all those advantages, it appears that he has +succeeded no better than the rest in making a physical and reasonable +history of the changes which had happened to the globe, and that he was +very wide from having found the real cause of those effects which he +relates. To be convinced of this we need only cast our eyes on the +propositions which he deduces from the phenomena, and which ought to +serve for the basis of his theory. He says, that the whole globe took +its form at one time, and not successively; that its form and +disposition prove that it has been in a state of fluidity; that the +present state of the earth is very different from that in which it was +for many ages after its first formation; that the matter of the globe +was at the beginning less dense than since it altered its appearance; +that the condensation of its solid parts diminished by degrees with its +velocity, so that after having made a number of revolutions on its axis, +and round the sun, it found itself on a sudden in a state of +dissolution, which destroyed its first structure. This happened about +the vernal equinox. That the sea-shells introduced themselves into the +dissolved matters; that after this dissolution the earth took the form +it now has, and that the fire which directly infused itself therein +consumed it by degrees, and it will be one day destroyed by a terrible +explosion, accompanied with a general conflagration, which will augment +the atmosphere of the globe, and diminish its diameter, and that then +the earth, instead of beds of sand or earth, will have only strata of +calcined metal and mountains composed of amalgamas of different metals. + +This is sufficient to shew the system M. Bourguet meditated; to divine +in this manner the past, and predict the future, nearly as others have +predicted, does not appear to me to be an effort of judgment: this +author had more erudition than sound and general views: he appears to be +deficient in that capaciousness of ideas necessary to follow the extent +of the subject, and enable him to comprehend the chain of causes and +effects. + +In the acts of Leipsic, the famous Leibnitz published a scheme of quite +a different system, under the title of _Protogaea_. The earth, according +to Bourguet and others, must end by fire; according to Leibnitz it began +by it, and has suffered many more changes and revolutions than is +imagined. The greatest part of the terrestrial matter was surrounded by +violent flames at the time when Moses says light was divided from +darkness. The planets, as well as the earth, were fixed stars, luminous +of themselves. After having burnt a long time, he pretends that they +were extinguished for want of combustible matter, and are become opaque +bodies. The fire, by melting the matter, produced a vitrified crust, +and the basis of all the matter which composes the globe is glass, of +which sand and gravel are only fragments. The other kinds of earth are +formed from a mixture of this sand, with fixed salts and water, and when +the crust cooled, the humid particles, which were raised in form of +vapours, refel, and formed the sea. They at first covered the whole +surface, and even surmounted the highest mountains. According to this +author, the shells, and other wrecks of the sea, which are every where +to be found, positively prove that the sea has covered the whole earth; +and the great quantity of fixed salts, sand, and other melted and +calcined matters, which are included in the bowels of the earth, prove +that the conflagration had been general, and that it preceded the +existence of the sea. Although these thoughts are void of proofs, they +are capital. The ideas have connection, the hypotheses are not +impossible, and the consequences that may be drawn therefrom are not +contradictory: but the grand defect of this theory is, that it is not +applicable to the present state of the earth; it is the past which it +explains, and this past is so far back, and has left us so few remains, +that we may say what we please of it, and the probability will be in +proportion as a man has talents to elucidate what he asserts. To affirm +as Whiston has done, that the earth was originally a comet, or, with +Leibnitz, that it has been a sun, is saying things equally possible or +impossible, and to which it would be ridiculous to apply the rules of +probability. To say that the sea formerly covered all the earth, that it +surrounded the whole globe, and that it is for this reason shells are +every where found, is not paying attention to a very essential point, +the unity of the time of the creation; for if that was so, it must +necessarily be admitted, that shell-fish, and other inhabitants of the +sea, of which we find the remains in the internal part of the earth, +existed long before man, and all terrestrial animals. Now, independent +of the testimony of holy writ, is it not reasonable to think, that all +animals and vegetables are nearly as ancient as each other? + +M. Scheutzer, in a Dissertation, addressed to the Academy of Sciences in +1728, attributes, like Woodward, the change, or rather the second +formation of the globe, to the universal deluge; to explain that of +mountains, he says, that after the deluge, God chusing to return the +waters into subterraneous reservoirs, broke and displaced with his +all-powerful hand a number of beds, before horizontal, and raised them +above the surface of the globe, which was originally level. The whole +Dissertation is composed to imply this opinion. As it was requisite +these eminences should be of a solid consistence, M. Scheutzer remarks, +that God only drew them from places where there were many stones; from +hence, says he, it proceeds that those countries, like Switzerland, +which are very stony, are also mountainous; and on the contrary, those, +as Holland, Flanders, Hungary and Poland, have only sand or clay, even +to a very great depth, and are almost entirely without mountains.[147:A] + +This author, more than any other, is desirous of blending Physic with +Theology, and though he has given some good observations, the +systematical part of his works is still weaker than those who preceded +him. On this subject he has even made declamations and ridiculous +witticisms, as may be seen in his _Visciam quærelæ_, &c. without +speaking of his large work in many folio volumes, _Physica Sacra_, a +puerile work, which appears to be composed less for the instruction of +men than for the amusement of children. + +Steno, and some others, have attributed the cause of the inequalities of +the earth to particular inundations, earthquakes, &c. but the effects of +these secondary causes have been only able to produce some slight +changes. We admit of these causes after the first cause, the motion of +the flux and reflux, and of the sea from east to west. Neither Steno, +nor the rest, have given theory, nor even any general facts on this +matter.[148:A] + +Ray pretends that all mountains have been produced by earthquakes, and +he has composed a treatise to prove it; we shall shew under the article +of Volcanos what little foundation his opinion is built upon. + +We cannot dispense with observing that Burnet, Woodward, Whiston, and +most of these other authors, have committed an error which deserves to +be cleared up; which is, to have looked upon the deluge as possible by +the action of natural causes, whereas scripture presents it to us as +produced by the immediate will of God; there is no natural cause which +can produce on the whole surface of the earth, the quantity of water +required to cover the highest mountains; and if even we could imagine a +cause proportionate to this effect, it would still be impossible to find +another cause capable of causing the water to disappear: allowing +Whiston, that these waters proceeded from the tail of a comet, we deny +that any could proceed from the great abyss, or that they all returned +into it, since the great abyss, according to him, being surrounded on +every side by the crust, or terrestrial orb, it is impossible that the +attraction of the comet could cause any motion to the fluids it +contained; much less, as he says, a violent flux and reflux; hence there +could not be issued from, nor entered into, the great abyss, a single +drop of water; and unless it is supposed that the waters which fell from +the comet have been destroyed by a miracle, they would still be on the +surface of the earth, covering the summits of the highest mountains. +Nothing better characterises a miracle, than the impossibility of +explaining the effect of it by natural causes. Our authors have made +vain efforts to give a reason for the deluge; their physical efforts, +and the secondary causes, which they made use of, prove the truth of the +fact as reported in the scriptures, and demonstrate that it could only +have been performed by the first cause, the will of the Almighty. + +Besides, it is certain that it was neither at one time, nor by the +effect of the deluge, that the sea left dry these continents we inhabit: +for it is certain by the testimony of holy writ, that the terrestrial +paradise was in Asia, and that Asia was inhabited before the deluge; +consequently the sea, at that time, did not cover this considerable part +of the globe. The earth, before the deluge, was nearly as it is at +present, and this enormous quantity of water, which divine justice +caused to fall on the earth to punish guilty men, in fact, brought death +on every creature; but it produced no change on the surface of the +earth, it did not even destroy plants which grew upon it, since the dove +brought an olive branch to the ark in her beak. + +Why, therefore, imagine, as many of our naturalists have done, that this +water totally changed the surface of the globe even to a depth of two +thousand feet? Why do they desire it to be the deluge which has brought +the shells on the earth which we meet with at 7 or 800 feet depth in +rocks and marble? Why say, that the hills and mountains were formed at +that time? And how can we figure to ourselves, that it is possible for +these waters to have brought masses and banks of shells 100 miles long? +I see not how they can persist in this opinion, at least, without +admitting a double miracle in the deluge; the first, for the +augmentation of the waters; and the second, for the transportation of +the shells; but as there is only the first which is related in the +Bible, I do not see it necessary to make the second an article of our +creed. + +On the other hand, if the waters of the deluge had retired all at once, +they would have carried so great a quantity of mud and other impurities, +that the Earth would not have been capable of culture till many ages +after this inundation; as is known, by the deluge which happened in +Greece, where the overflowed country was totally forsaken, and could not +receive any cultivation for more than three centuries.[151:A] We ought +also to look on the universal deluge as a supernatural means of which +the Almighty made use for the chastisement of mankind, and not as an +effect of a natural cause. The universal deluge is a miracle both in its +cause and effects; we see clearly by the scripture that it was designed +for the destruction of men and animals, and that it did not in any mode +change the earth, since after the retreat of the waters, the mountains, +and even the trees, were in their places, and the surface of the earth +was proper to receive culture and produce vines and fruits. How could +all the race of fish, which did not enter the ark, be preserved, if the +earth had been dissolved in the water, or only if the waters had been +sufficiently agitated to transport shells from India to Europe, &c.? + +Nevertheless, this supposition, that it was the deluge which transported +the shells of the sea into every climate, is the opinion, or rather the +superstition, of naturalists. Woodward, Scheutzer, and some more, call +these petrified shells the remains of the deluge; they look on them as +the medals and monuments which God has left us of this terrible event, +in order that it never should be effaced from the human race. In short, +they have adopted this hypothesis with so much enthusiasm, that they +appear only desirous to reconcile holy scripture with their opinion; and +instead of making use of their observations, and deriving light +therefrom, they envelope themselves in the clouds of a physical +theology, the obscurity of which is derogatory to the simplicity and +dignity of religion, and only leaves the absurd to perceive a ridiculous +mixture of human ideas and divine truths. To pretend to explain the +universal Deluge, and its physical causes; to attempt to teach what +passed in the time of that great revolution; to divine what were the +effects of it; to add facts to those of Holy Writ, to draw consequences +from such facts, is only a presumptuous attempt to measure the power of +the Most High. The natural wonders which his benevolent hand performs in +an uniform and regular manner, are incomprehensible; and by the +strongest reason, these wonderful operations and miracles ought to hold +us in awful wonder, and in silent adoration. + +But they will say, the universal Deluge being a certain fact, is it not +permitted to reason on its consequences? It may be so; but it is +requisite that you should begin by allowing that the Deluge could not be +performed by physical causes; you ought to consider it is an immediate +effect of the will of the Almighty; you ought to confine yourselves to +know only what the Holy Writ teaches, and particularly not to blend bad +philosophy with the purity of divine truth. These precautions, which the +respect we owe to the Almighty exacts, being taken, what remains for +examination on the subject of the Deluge? Does the Scripture say +mountains were formed by the Deluge? No, it says the contrary. Is it +said that the agitation of the waters was so great as to raise up shells +from the bottom of the sea, and transport them all over the earth? No; +the ark floated quietly on the surface of the waters. Is it said, that +the earth suffered a total dissolution? None at all: the recital of the +sacred historian is simple and true, that of these naturalists complex +and fabulous. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[138:A] Voyage du Levant, vol. 2, page 336. + +[147:A] See the Hist. of the Acad. 1708, page 32. + +[148:A] See the Diss. de Solido intra Solidum, &c. + +[151:A] See Acta erudit, Lepiss, Ann. 1691, page 100. + + + + +ARTICLE VI. + +GEOGRAPHY. + + +The surface of the Earth, like that of Jupiter, is not divided by bands +alternative and parallel to the equator; on the contrary, it is divided +from one pole to the other, by two bands of earth, and two of sea; the +first and principal is the ancient continent, the greatest length of +which is found to be in a line, beginning on the east point of the +northern part of Tartary, and extending from thence to the land which +borders on the gulph of Linchidolkin, where the Muscovites fish for +whales; from thence to Tobolski, from Tobolski to the Caspian sea, from +the Caspian sea to Mecca, and from Mecca to the western part of the +country inhabited by the Galli, in Africa; afterwards to Monoemuci or +Monomotapa, and at last to the Cape of Good Hope; this line, which is +the greatest length of the old continent, is about 3600 leagues, Paris +measure; it is only interrupted by the Caspian and Red seas, the +breadths of which are not very considerable, and we must not pay any +regard to these interruptions, when it is considered, the surface of the +globe is divided only in four parts. + +This greatest length is found by measuring the old continent diagonally; +for if measured according to the meridians, we shall find that there are +only 2500 leagues from the northernmost Cape of Lapland to the Cape of +Good Hope; and that the Baltic and Mediterranean cause a much greater +interruption than is met with in the other way. With respect to all the +other distances that might be measured in the old continent under the +same meridian, we shall find them to be much smaller than this; having, +for example, only 1800 leagues from the most southern point of the +island of Ceylon to the northernmost coast of Nova Zembla. Likewise, if +we measure the continent parallel to the equator, we find that the +greatest uninterrupted length is found from Trefna, on the western coast +of Africa, to Ninpo, on the eastern coast of China, and that it is about +2800 leagues. Another course may be measured from the point of Brittany +near Brest, extending to the Chinese Tartary; about 2300 leagues. From +Bergen, in Norway, to the coast of Kamschatka, is no more than 1800 +leagues. All these lines have much less length than the first, therefore +the greatest extent of the old continent, is, in fact, from the eastern +point of Tartary to the Cape of Good Hope, that is about 3600 leagues. + +There is so great an equality of surface on each side of this line, +which is also the longest, that there is every probability to suppose it +really divides the contents of the ancient continent; for in measuring +on one side is found 2,471,092-3/4 square leagues, and on the other +2,469,687. + +Agreeable to this, the old continent consists of about 4,940,780 square +leagues, which is nearly one-fifth of the whole surface of the globe, +and has an inclination towards the equator of about 30 degrees. + +The greatest length of the new continent may be taken in a line from the +mouth of the river Plata to the lake of Assiniboils. From the former it +passes to the lake Caracara; from thence to Mataguais, Pocona, Zongo, +Mariana, Morua, St. Fe, and Carthagena; it then proceeds through the +gulph of Mexico, Jamaica, and Cuba, passes along the peninsula of +Florida, through Apolache, Chicachas, and from thence to St. Louis, Fort +le Suer, and ends on the borders of lake Assiniboils; the whole extent +of which is still unknown. + +This line, which is interrupted only by the Mexican gulph (which must be +looked upon as a mediterranean sea) may be about 2500 leagues long, and +divides the new continent into nearly two equal parts, the left of which +contains about 1,069,286-5/6 leagues square, and that on the right about +1,070,926-1/12; this line, which forms the middle of the band of the new +continent, is inclined to the equator about 30 degrees, but in an +opposite direction, for that of the old continent extends from the +north-east to the south-west, and that of the new continent from the +north-west to the south-east. All those lands together of the old and +new continent, make about 7,080,993 leagues square, which is not near +the third of the whole surface, which contains 25 millions of square +leagues. + +It must be remarked, that these two lines, which divide the continents +into two equal parts, both terminate at the same degree of southern and +northern latitude, and that the two continents make opposite +projections, which exactly face each other; to wit, the coasts of +Africa, from the Canary islands to the coasts of Guinea, and those of +America from Guiana to the mouth of Rio Janeiro. + +It appears, therefore, that the most ancient land of the globe, is on +the two sides of these lines, at the distance of from 2 to 250 leagues +on each side. By following this idea, which is founded on the +observations before related, we shall find in the old continent that the +most ancient lands of Africa are those which extend from the Cape of +Good Hope to the Red Sea, as far as Egypt, about 500 leagues broad, and +that, consequently, all the western coasts of Africa, from Guinea to the +straits of Gibraltar, are the newest lands. So likewise we shall +discover that in Asia, if we follow the line on the same breadth, the +most ancient lands are Arabia Felix and Deserta, Persia, Georgia, +Turcomania, part of Tartary, Circassia, part of Muscovy, &c. that +consequently Europe, and perhaps also China, and the eastern part of +Tartary, are more modern. In the new continent we shall find the Terra +Magellanica, the eastern part of Brasil, the country of the Amazons, +Guiana, and Canada, to be the new lands, in comparison with Peru, Terra +Firma, the islands in the gulph of Mexico, Florida, the Mississippi, and +Mexico. + +To these observations we may add two very remarkable facts, the old and +new continent are almost opposite each other; the old is more extensive +to the north of the equator than the south; the new is more to the south +than the north. The centre of the old continent is in the 16th or 18th +degree of north latitude, and the centre of the new is in the 16th or +18th degree south latitude, so that they seem to be made to +counterbalance each other. There is also a singular connexion between +the two continents, although it appears to be more accidental than those +which I have spoken of, which is, that if the two continents were +divided into two parts, all four would be surrounded by the sea, if it +were not for the two small isthmuses, Suez and Panama. + +This is the most general idea which an attentive inspection of the globe +furnishes us with, on the division of the earth. We shall abstain from +forming hypotheses thereon, and hazarding reasonings which might lead +into false conclusions; but no one as yet having considered the +division of the globe under this point of view, I shall submit a few +remarks. It is very singular that the line which forms the greatest +length of the terrestrial continents divides them also into two equal +parts; it is no less so that these two lines commence and end at the +same degrees of latitude, and are both alike inclined to the equator. +These relations may belong to some general conclusions, but of which we +are ignorant. The inequalities in the figure of the two continents we +shall hereafter examine more fully: it is sufficient here to observe, +that the most ancient countries are the nearest to these lines, and are +the highest; that the more modern lands are the farthest, and also the +lowest. Thus in America, the country of the Amazons, Guiana and Canada +will be the most modern parts; by casting our eyes on the map of this +country we see the waters on every side, and that they are divided by +numberless lakes and rivers, which also indicates that these lands are +of a late formation; while on the other hand Peru and Mexico are high +mountains, and situate at no great distance from the line that divides +the continent, which are circumstances that seem to prove their +antiquity. Africa is very mountainous, and that part of the world is +also very ancient. There are only Egypt, Barbary, and the western coasts +of Africa, as far as Senegal, in this part of the globe, which can be +looked upon as modern countries. Asia is an old land, and perhaps the +most ancient of all, particularly Arabia, Persia, and Tartary; but the +inequalities of this vast part of the globe, as well as those of Europe, +we will consider in a separate article. It might be said in general, +that Europe is a new country, and such position would be supported both +by the universal traditions relative to the emigrations of different +people, and the origin of arts and sciences. It is not long since it was +filled with morasses, and covered with forests, whereas in the land +anciently inhabited, there are but few woods, little water, no morasses, +much land, and a number of mountains, whose summits are dry and barren; +for men destroy the woods, drain the waters, confine rivers, dry up +morasses, and in time give a different appearance to the face of the +earth, from that, of uninhabited or newly-peopled countries. + +The ancients were acquainted with but a small part of the globe. All +America, the Magellanic, and a great part of the interior of Africa, +was entirely unknown to them. They knew not that the torrid zone was +inhabited, although they had navigated around Africa, for it is 2200 +years since Neco, king of Egypt, gave vessels to the Phenicians, who +sailed along the Red Sea, coasted round Africa, doubled the Cape of Good +Hope, and having employed two years in this voyage, the third year they +entered the straits of Gibraltar.[163:A] The ancients were unacquainted +with the property of the loadstone, if turned towards the poles, +although they knew that it attracted iron. They were ignorant of the +general cause of the flux and reflux of the sea, nor were they certain +the ocean surrounded the globe; some indeed suspected it might be so, +but with so little foundation, that no one dared to say, or even +conjecture, it was possible to make a voyage round the world. Magellan +was the first who attempted it in the year 1519, and accomplished the +great voyage in 1124 days. Sir Francis Drake was the second in 1577, and +he performed it in 1056 days; afterwards Thomas Cavendish made this +great voyage in 777 days, in the year 1586. These celebrated navigators +were the first who demonstrated physically the sphericity and the +extent of the earth's circumference; for the ancients had no conception +of the extent of this circumference, although they had travelled a great +deal. The trade winds, so useful in long voyages, were also unknown to +them; therefore we must not be surprised at the little progress they +made in geography. Notwithstanding the knowledge we have acquired by the +aid of mathematical sciences, and the discovery of navigators, many +things remain still unsettled, and vast countries undiscovered. Almost +all the land on the side of the Atlantic pole is unknown to us; we only +know that there is some, and that it is separated from all the other +continents by the ocean. Much land also remains to be discovered on the +side of the Arctic pole, and it is to be regretted that for more than a +century the ardour of discovering new countries is extremely abated. +European governments seem to prefer, and possibly with reason, +increasing the value of those countries we are acquainted with to the +glory of conquering new ones. + +Nevertheless, the discovery of the southern continent would be a great +object of curiosity, and might be useful. We have discovered only some +few of its coasts; those navigators who have attempted this discovery, +have always been stopt by the ice. The thick fogs, which are in those +latitudes, is another obstacle; yet, in defiance of these +inconveniencies, it is probable that by sailing from the Cape of Good +Hope at different seasons, we might at last discover a part of these +lands, which hitherto make a separate world. + +There is another method, which possibly might succeed better. The ice +and fogs having hitherto prevented the discovery, might it not be +attempted by the Pacific Sea; sailing from Baldivia, or any other port +on the coast of Chili, and traversing this sea under the 50th degree +south latitude? There is not the least appearance that this navigation +is perilous, and it is probable would be attended with the discovery of +new countries; for what remains for us to know on the coast of the +southern pole, is so considerable, that we may estimate it at a fourth +part of the globe, and of course may contain a continent, as large as +Europe, Asia, and Africa, all together. + +As we are not at all acquainted with this part of the globe, we cannot +justly know the proportion between the surface of the earth and that of +the sea; only as much as may be judged by inspection of what is known, +there is more sea than land. + +If we would have an idea of the enormous quantity of water which the sea +contains, we must suppose a medium depth, and by computing it only at +200 fathom, or the sixth part of a league, we shall find that there is +sufficient to cover the whole globe to the height of 600 feet of water, +and if we would reduce this water into one mass, it would form a globe +of more than 60 miles diameter. + +Navigators pretend, that the latitudes near the south pole are much +colder than those of the north, but there is no appearance that this +opinion is founded on truth, and probably has been adopted, because ice +is found in latitudes where it is scarcely ever seen in the southern +seas; but that may proceed from some particular cause. We find no ice in +April on this side 67 and 68 degrees northern latitude: and the savages +of Arcadia and Canada say, when it is not all melted in that month, it +is a sign the rest of the year will be cold and rainy. In 1725 there may +be said to have been no summer, it rained almost continually; and the +ice of the northern sea was not only not melted in April in the 67th +degree, but even it was found the 15th of June towards the 41st and 42d +degree[167:A]. + +A great quantity of floating ice appears in the northern sea, especially +at some distance from land. It comes from the Tartarian sea into that of +Nova Zembla, and other parts of the Frozen Ocean. I have been assured by +people of credit, that an English Captain, named Monson, instead of +seeking a passage between the northern land to go to China, directed his +course strait to the pole, and had approached it within two degrees; +that in this course he had found an open sea, without any ice, which +proves that the ice is formed near land, and never in open sea; for if +we should suppose, against all probability, that it might be cold enough +at the pole to freeze over the surface of the sea, it is still not +conceivable how these enormous floating mountains of ice could be +formed, if they did not find a fixed point against land, from whence +afterwards they were loosened by the heat of the sun. The two vessels +which the East India Company sent, in 1739, to discover land in the +South Seas, found ice in the latitude of 47 and 48 degrees, but this +ice was not far from shore, that being in sight although they were +unable to land. This must have been separated from the adjoining lands +of the south pole, and it may be conjectured that they follow the course +of some great rivers, which water the unknown land, the same as the Oby, +Jenisca, and other great floods, which fall into the North Seas, carry +with them the ice, which, during the greatest part of the year, stops up +the straits of Waigat, and renders the Tartarian sea unnavigable by this +course; whereas beyond Nova Zembla, and nearer the poles, where there +are few rivers, and but little land, ice is not so frequently met with, +and the sea is more navigable; so that if they would still attempt the +voyage to China and Japan by the North Seas, we should possibly, to keep +clear from the land and ice, shape our course to the pole, and seek the +open seas, where certainly there is but little or no ice; for it is +known that salt water can, without freezing, become colder than fresh +water when frozen, and consequently the excessive cold of the pole may +possibly render the sea colder than the ice, without the surface being +frozen: so much the more as at 80 or 82 degrees, the surface of the +sea, although mixed with much snow and fresh water, is only frozen near +the shore. By collecting the testimonies of travellers, on the passage +from Europe to China, it appears that one does exist by the north sea; +and the reason it has been so often attempted in vain is, because they +have always feared to go sufficiently far from land, and approach the +pole. + +Captain William Barents, who, as well as others, run aground in his +voyage, yet did not doubt but there was a passage, and that if he had +gone farther from shore, he should have found an open sea free from ice. +The Russian navigators, sent by the Czar to survey the north seas, +relate that Nova Zembla is not an island, but belonging to the continent +of Tartary, and that to the north of it is a free and open sea. A Dutch +navigator asserts, that the sea throws up whales on the coasts of Corea +and Japan, which have English and Dutch harpoons on their backs. Another +Dutchman has pretended to have been at the pole, and asserts it is as +warm there as it is at Amsterdam in the middle of the summer. An +Englishman, named Golding, who made more than thirty voyages to +Greenland, related to King Charles II. that two Dutch vessels with which +he had sailed, having found no whales on the coast of the island of +Edges, resolved to proceed farther north, and that upon their return at +the expiration of fifteen days, they told him that they had been as far +as 89 degrees latitude (within one degree of the pole), and that they +found no ice there, but an open deep sea like that of the Bay of Biscay, +and that they shewed him the journals of the two vessels, as a proof of +what they affirmed. In short, it is related in the Philosophical +Transactions that two navigators, who had undertaken the discovery of +this passage, shaped a course 300 leagues to the east of Nova Zembla, +but that the East India Company, who thought it their interest this +passage should not be discovered, hindered them from returning[170:A]. +But the Dutch East India Company thought, on the contrary, that it was +their interest to find this passage; having attempted it in vain on the +side of Europe, they sought it by that of Japan, and they would probably +have succeeded, if the Emperor of Japan had not forbidden all strangers +from navigating on the side of the land of Jesso. This passage, +therefore, cannot be found but by sailing to the pole, beyond +Spitzbergen, or by keeping the open sea between Nova Zembla and +Spitzbergen under the 79th degree of latitude. We need not fear to find +it frozen even under the pole itself, for reasons we have alledged; in +fact, there is no example of the sea being frozen at a considerable +distance from the shore; the only example of a sea being frozen entirely +over, is that of the Black Sea, which is narrow, contains but little +salt, and receives a number of rivers from the northern countries, and +which bring ice with them: and if we may credit historians, it was +frozen in the time of the Emperor Copronymus, thirty cubits deep, +without reckoning twenty cubits of snow above the ice. This appears to +be exaggerated, but it is certain that it freezes almost every winter; +whereas the open seas, a thousand leagues nearer the pole, do not freeze +at all: this can only proceed from the saltness, and the little ice +which they receive, in comparison with that transported into the Black +Sea. + +This ice, which is looked upon as a barrier that opposes the navigation +near the poles, and the discovery of the southern continent, proves only +that there are large rivers adjacent to the places where it is met +with; and indicates also there are vast continents from whence these +rivers flow; nor ought we to be discouraged at the sight of these +obstacles; for if we consider, we shall easily perceive, this ice must +be confined to some particular places; that it is almost impossible that +it should occupy the whole circle which encompasses, as we suppose, the +southern continent, and therefore we should probably succeed if we were +to direct our course towards some other point of this circle. The +description which Dampier and some others have given of New Holland, +leads us to suspect that this part of the globe is perhaps a part of the +southern lands, and is a country less ancient than the rest of this +unknown continent. New Holland is a low country, without water or +mountains, but thinly inhabited, and the natives without industry; all +this concurs to make us think that they are in this continent nearly +what the savages of Amaconia or Paraguais are in America. We have found +polished men, empires, and kings, at Peru and Mexico, which are the +highest, and consequently the most ancient countries of America. +Savages, on the contrary, are found in the lowest and most modern +countries; therefore we may presume that we should also find men united +by the bands of society in the upper countries, from whence these great +rivers, which bring this prodigious ice to the sea, derive their +sources. + +The interior parts of Africa are unknown to us, almost as much as they +were to the ancients: they had, like us, made the tour of that vast +peninsula, but they have left us neither charts, nor descriptions of the +coasts. Pliny informs us, that the tour of Africa was made in the time +of Alexander the Great, that the wrecks of some Spanish vessels had been +discovered in the Arabian sea, and that Hanno, a Carthaginian general, +had made a voyage from Gades to the Arabian sea, and that he had written +a relation of it. Besides that, he says Cornelius Nepos tells us that in +his time one Eudoxus, persecuted by the king Lathurus, was obliged to +fly from his country; that departing from the Arabian gulph, he arrived +at Gades, and that before this time they traded from Spain to Ethiopia +by sea[173:A]. Notwithstanding these testimonies of the ancients, we are +persuaded that they never doubled the Cape of Good Hope, and the course +which the Portuguese took the first to go to the East-Indies, was +looked upon as a new discovery; it will not perhaps, therefore, be +deemed amiss to give the belief of the 9th century on this subject. + +"In our time an entire new discovery has been made, which was wholly +unknown to those who lived before us. No one thought, or even suspected, +that the sea, which extends from India to China, had a communication +with the Syrian sea. We have found, according to what I have learnt, in +the sea Roum, or Mediterranean, the wreck of an Arabian vessel, +shattered to pieces by the tempest, some of which were carried by the +wind and waves to the Cozar sea, and from thence to the Mediterranean, +and was at length thrown on the coast of Syria. This proves that the sea +surrounds China and Cila, the extremity of Turqueston and the country of +the Cozars; that it afterwards flows by the strait till it has washed +the coast of Syria. The proof is drawn from the construction of the +vessel; for no other vessels but those of Siraf are built without nails, +which, as was the wreck we speak of, are joined together in a particular +manner, as if they were sewed. Those, of all the vessels of the +Mediterranean and of the coast of Syria, are nailed and not joined in +this manner[175:A]." + +To this the translator of this ancient relation adds.-- + +"Abuziel remarks, as a new and very extraordinary thing, that a vessel +was carried from the Indian sea, and cast on the coasts of Syria. To +find a passage into the Mediterranean, he supposes there is a great +extent above China, which has a communication with the Cozar sea, that +is, with Muscovia. The sea which is below Cape Current, was entirely +unknown to the Arabs, by reason of the extreme danger of the navigation, +and from the continent being inhabited by such a barbarous people, that +it was not easy to subject them, nor even to civilize them by commerce. +From the Cape of Good Hope to Soffala, the Portuguese found no +established settlement of Moors, like those in all the maritime towns as +far as China, which was the farthest place known to geographers; but +they could not tell whether the Chinese sea, by the extremity of Africa, +had a communication with the sea of Barbary, and they contented +themselves with describing it as far as the coast of Zing, or +Caffraria. This is the reason why we cannot doubt but that the first +discovery of the passage of this sea, by the Cape of Good Hope, was made +by the Europeans, under the conduct of Vasco de Gama, or at least some +years before he doubled the Cape, if it is true there are marine charts +of an older date, where the Cape is called by the name of Frontiera du +Africa. Antonio Galvin testifies, from the relation of Francisco de +Sousa Tavares, that, in 1528, the Infant Don Ferdinand shewed him such a +chart, which he found in the monastery of Acoboca, dated 120 years +before, copied perhaps from that said to be in the treasury of St. Mark, +at Venice, which also marks the point of Africa, according to the +testimony of Ramusio, &c." + +The ignorance of those ages, on the subject of the navigation around +Africa, will appear perhaps less singular than the silence of the editor +of this ancient relation on the subject of the passages of Herodotus, +Pliny, &c. which we have quoted, and which proves the ancients had made +the tour of Africa. + +Be it as it may, the African coasts are now well known; but whatever +attempts have been made to penetrate into the inner parts of the +country, we have not been able to attain sufficient knowledge of it to +give exact relations[177:A]. It might, nevertheless, be of great +advantage, if we were, by Senegal, or some other river, to get farther +up the country and establish settlements, as we should find, according +to all appearances, a country as rich in precious mines as Peru or the +Brazils. It is perfectly known that the African rivers abound with gold, +and as this country is very mountainous, and situated under the equator, +it is not to be doubted but it contains, as well as America, mines of +heavy metals, and of the most compact and hard stones. + +The vast extent of north and east Tartary has only been discovered in +these latter times. If the Muscovite maps are just, we are at present +acquainted with the coasts of all this part of Asia; and it appears that +from the point of eastern Tartary to North America, it is not more than +four or five hundred leagues: it has even been pretended that this tract +was much shorter, for in the Amsterdam Gazette, of the 24th of January, +1747, it is said, under the article of Petersburgh, that Mr. +Stalleravoit had discovered one of these American islands beyond +Kamschatca, and demonstrated that we might go thither from Russia by a +shorter tract. The Jesuits, and other missionaries, have also pretended +to have discovered savages in Tartary, whom they had catechised in +America, which should in fact suppose that passage to be still +shorter[178:A]. This author even pretends, that the two continents of +the old and new world join by the north, and says, that the last +navigations of the Japanese afford room to judge, that the tract of +which we have spoken is only a bay, above which we may pass by land from +Asia to America. But this requires confirmation, for hitherto it has +been thought that the continent of the north pole is separated from the +other continents, as well as that of the south pole. + +Astronomy and Navigation are carried to so high a pitch of perfection, +that it may reasonably be expected we shall soon have an exact +knowledge of the whole surface of the globe. The ancients knew only a +small part of it, because they had not the mariner's compass. Some +people have pretended that the Arabs invented the compass, and used it a +long time before we did, to trade on the Indian sea, as far as China; +but this opinion has always appeared destitute of all probability; for +there is no word in the Arab, Turkish, or Persian languages, which +signifies the compass; they make use of the Italian word Bossola; they +do not even at present know how to make a compass, nor give the +magnetical quality to the needle, but purchase them from the Europeans. +Father Maritini says, that the Chinese have been acquainted with the +compass for upwards of 3000 years; but if that was the case, how comes +it that they have made so little use of it? Why did they, in their +voyages to Cochinchina, take a course much longer than was necessary? +And why did they always confine themselves to the same voyages, the +greatest of which were to Java and Sumatra? And why did not they +discover, before the Europeans, an infinity of fertile islands, +bordering on their own country, if they had possessed the art of +navigating in the open seas? For a few years after the discovery of +this wonderful property of the loadstone, the Portuguese doubled the +Cape of Good Hope, traversed the African and Indian seas, and +Christopher Columbus made his voyage to America. + +By a little consideration, it was easy to divine there were immense +spaces towards the west; for, by comparing the known part of the globe, +as for example, the distance of Spain to China, and attending to the +revolution of the Earth and Heavens, it was easy to see that there +remained a much greater extent towards the west to be discovered, than +what they were acquainted with towards the east. It, therefore, was not +from the defect of astronomical knowledge that the ancients did not find +the new world, but only for want of the compass. The passages of Plato +and Aristotle, where they speak of countries far distant from the +Pillars of Hercules, seem to indicate that some navigators had been +driven by tempest as far as America, from whence they returned with much +difficulty; and it may be conjectured, that if even the ancients had +been persuaded of the existence of this continent, they would not have +even thought it possible to strike out the road, having no guide nor +any knowledge of the compass. + +I own, that it is not impossible to traverse the high seas without a +compass, and that very resolute people might have undertaken to seek +after the new world by conducting themselves simply by the stars. The +Astrolabe being known to the ancients, it might strike them they could +leave France or Spain, and sail to the west, by keeping the polar star +always to the right, and by frequent soundings might have kept nearly in +the same latitude; without doubt the Carthaginians, of whom Aristotle +makes mention, found the means of returning from these remote countries +by keeping the polar star to the left; but it must be allowed that a +like voyage would be looked upon as a rash enterprize, and that +consequently we must not be astonished that the ancients had not even +conceived the project. + +Previous to Christopher Columbus's expedition, the Azores, the Canaries, +and Madeira were discovered. It was remarked, that when the west winds +lasted a long time, the sea brought pieces of foreign wood on the coast +of these islands, canes of unknown species, and even dead bodies, which +by many marks were discovered to be neither European nor African. +Columbus himself remarked, that on the side of the west certain winds +blew only a few days, and which he was persuaded were land winds; but +although he had all these advantages over the ancients, and the +knowledge of the compass, the difficulties still to conquer were so +great, that there was only the success he met with which could justify +the enterprise. Suppose, for a moment, that the continent of the new +world had been 1000 or 1500 miles farther than it in fact is, a thing +with Columbus could neither know nor foresee, he would not have arrived +there, and perhaps this great country might still have remained unknown. +This conjecture is so much the better founded, as Columbus, although the +most able navigator of his time, was seized with fear and astonishment +in his second voyage to the new world; for as in his first, he only +found some islands, he directed his course more to the south to discover +a continent, and was stopt by currents, the considerable extent and +direction of which always opposed his course, and obliged him to direct +his search to the west; he imagined that what had hindered him from +advancing on the southern side was not currents, but that the sea flowed +by raising itself towards the heavens, and that perhaps both one and the +other touched on the southern side. True it is, that in great +enterprises the least unfortunate circumstance may turn a man's brain, +and abate his courage. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[163:A] Vide Herodotus, lib. iv. + +[167:A] See the Hist. of the Acad. Ann. 1725. + +[170:A] See the collection of Northern Voyages, page 200. + +[173:A] Vide Pliny, Hist. Nat. Vol. I. lib. 2. + +[175:A] See the ancient relations of travels by land to China, page 53 +and 54. + +[177:A] Since this time, however, great discoveries, have been made; +Mons. Vaillant has given a particular description of the country from +the Cape to the borders of Caffraria; and much information has also been +acquired by the Society for Asiatic Researches. + +[178:A] See the Hist. of New France, by the Pere Charlevoix. Vol. III. +page 30 and 31. + + + + +ARTICLE VII. + +ON THE PRODUCTION OF THE STRATA, OR BEDS OF EARTH. + + +We have shewn, in the first article, that by virtue of the mutual +attraction between the parts of matter, and of the centrifugal force, +which results from its diurnal rotation, the earth has necessarily taken +the form of a spheroid, the diameters of which differ about a 230th +part, and that it could only proceed from the changes on the surface, +caused by the motion of the air and water, that this difference could +become greater, as is pretended to be the case from the measures taken +under the equator, and within the polar circle. This figure of the +earth, which so well agrees with hydrostatical laws, and with our +theory, supposes the globe to have been in a state of liquefaction when +it assumed its form, and we have proved that the motions of projection +and rotation were imprinted at the same time by a like impulsion. We +shall the more easily believe that the earth has been in a state of +liquefaction produced by fire, when we consider the nature of the +matters which the globe incloses, the greatest part of which are +vitrified or vitrifiable; especially when we reflect on the +impossibility there is that the earth should ever have been in a state +of fluidity, produced by the waters; since there is infinitely more +earth than water, and that water has not the power of dissolving stone, +sand, and other matters of which the earth is composed. + +It is plain then that the earth took its figure at the time when it was +liquefied by fire: by pursuing our hypothesis it appears, that when the +sun quitted it, the earth had no other form than that of a torrent of +melted and inflamed vapour matter; that this torrent collected itself by +the mutual attraction of its parts, and became a globe, to which the +rotative motion gave the figure of a spheroid; and when the earth was +cooled, the vapours, which were first extended like the tails of comets, +by degrees condensed and fell upon the surface, depositing, at the same +time, a slimy substance mixed with sulphurous and saline matters, a part +of which, by the motion of the waters, was swept into the perpendicular +cracks, where it produced metals, while the rest remained on the +surface, and produced that reddish earth which forms the first strata; +and which, according to different places, is more or less blended with +animal and vegetable particles, so reduced that the organization is no +longer perceptible. + +Therefore, in the first state of the earth, the globe was internally +composed of vitrified matter, as I believe it is at present, above which +were placed those bodies the fire had most divided, as sand, which are +only fragments of glass; and above these, pumice stones and the scoria +of the vitrified matter, which formed the various clays; the whole was +covered with water 5 or 600 feet deep, produced by the condensation of +the vapours, when the globe began to cool. This water every where +deposited a muddy bed, mixed with waters which sublime and exhale by the +fire; and the air was formed of the most subtile vapours, which, by +their lightness, disengaged themselves from the waters, and surmounted +them. + +Such was the state of the globe when the action of the tides, the winds, +and the heat of the sun, began to change the surface of the earth. The +diurnal motion, and the flux and reflux, at first raised the waters +under the southern climate, which carried with them mud, clay, and sand, +and by raising the parts of the equator, they by degrees perhaps lowered +those of the poles about two leagues, as we before mentioned; for the +waters soon reduced into powder the pumice stones and other spongeous +parts of the vitrified matter that were at the surface, they hollowed +some places, and raised others, which in course of time became +continents, and produced all the inequalities, and which are more +considerable towards the equator than the poles; for the highest +mountains are between the tropics and the middle of the temperate zones, +and the lowest are from the polar circle to the poles; between the +tropics are the Cordeliers, and almost all the mountains of Mexico and +Brazil, the great and little Atlas, the Moon, &c. Beside the land which +is between the tropics, from the superior number of islands found in +those parts, is the most unequal of all the globe, as evidently is the +sea. + +However independent my theory may be of that hypothesis of what passed +at the time of the first state of the globe, I refer to it in this +article, in order to shew the connection and possibility of the system +which I endeavoured to maintain in the first article. It must only be +remarked, that my theory does not stray far from it, as I take the earth +in a state nearly similar to what it appears at present, and as I do not +make use of any of the suppositions which are used on reasoning on the +past state of the terrestrial globe. But as I here present a new idea on +the subject of the sediment deposited by the water, which, in my +opinion, has perforated the upper bed of earth, it appears to me also +necessary to give the reason on which I found this opinion. + +The vapours which rise in the air produce rain, dew, aerial fires, +thunder, and other meteors. These vapours are therefore blended with +aqueous, aerial, sulphurous and terrestrial particles, &c. and it is the +solid and earthy particles which form the mud or slime we are now +speaking of. When rain water is suffered to rest, a sediment is formed +at bottom; and having collected a quantity, if it is suffered to stand +and corrupt, it produces a kind of mud which falls to the bottom of the +vessel. Dew produces much more of this mud than rain water, which is +greasy, unctuous, and of a reddish colour. + +The first strata of the earth is composed of this mud, mixed with +perished vegetable or animal parts, or rather stony and sandy particles. +We may remark that almost all land proper for cultivation is reddish, +and more or less mixed with these different matters; the particles of +sand or stone found there are of two kinds, the one coarse and heavy, +the other fine and sometimes impalpable. The largest comes from the +lower strata loosened in cultivating the earth, or rather the upper +mould, by penetrating into the lower, which is of sand and other divided +matters, and forms those earths we call fat and fertile. The finer sort +proceeds from the air, and falls with dew and rain, and mixes intimately +with the soil. This is properly the residue of the powder, which the +wind continually raises from the surface of the earth, and which falls +again after having imbibed the humidity of the air. When the earth +predominates, and the stony and sandy parts are but few, the earth is +then reddish and fertile: if it is mixed with a considerable quantity of +perished animal or vegetable substances, it is blackish, and often more +fertile than the first; but if the mould is only in a small quantity, as +well as the animal or vegetable parts, the earth is white and sterile, +and when the sandy, stony, or cretaceous parts which compose these +sterile lands, are mixed with a sufficient quantity of perished animal +or vegetable substances, they form the black and lighter earths, but +have little fertility; so that according to the different combinations +of these three different matters, the land is more or less fecund and +differently coloured. + +To fix some ideas relative to these stratas; let us take, for example, +the earth of Marly-la-ville, where the pits are very deep: it is a high +country, but flat and fertile, and its strata lie arranged horizontally. +I had samples brought me of all these strata which M. Dalibard, an able +botanist, versed in different sciences, had dug under his inspection; +and after having proved the matters of which they consisted in +aquafortis, I formed the following table of them. + + + The state of the different beds of earth, found at Marly-la-ville, + to the depth of 100 feet. + + Feet. In. + + 1. A free reddish earth, mixed with + much mud, a very small quantity of + vitrifiable sand, and somewhat more of + calcinable sand 13 0 + + 2. A free earth mixed with gravel, + and a little more vitrifiable sand 2 6 + + 3. Mud mixed with vitrifiable sand + in a great quantity, and which made + but very little effervescence with + aquafortis 3 0 + + 4. Hard marl, which made a very + great effervescence with aquafortis 2 0 + + 5. Pretty hard marl stone 4 0 + + 6. Marl in powder, mixed with vitrifiable + sand 5 0 + + 7. Very fine vitrified sand 1 6 + + 8. Marl very like earth mixed with + a very little vitrifiable sand 3 6 + + 9. Hard marl, in which was real flint 3 6 + + 10. Gravel, or powdered marl 1 0 + + 11. Eglantine, a stone of the grain + and hardness of marble, and sonorous 1 6 + + 12. Marly gravel 1 6 + + 13. Marl in hard stone, whose grain + was very fine 1 6 + + 14. Marl in stone, whose grain was + not so fine 1 6 + + 15. More grained and thicker marl 2 6 + + 16. Very fine vitrifiable sand, mixed + with fossil sea-shells, which had no + adherence with the sand, and whose + colours were perfect 1 6 + + 17. Very small gravel, or fine marl + powder 2 0 + + 18. Marl in hard stone 3 6 + + 19. Very coarse powdered marl 1 6 + + 20. Hard and calcinable stone, like + marble 1 0 + + 21. Grey vitrifiable sand mixed with + fossil shells, particularly oysters and + muscles which have no adherence + with the sand, and which were not + petrified 3 0 + + 22. White vitrifiable sand mixed with + similar shells 2 0 + + 23. Sand streaked red and white, + vitrifiable and mixed with the like + shells 1 0 + + 24. Larger sand, but still vitrifiable + and mixed with the like shells 1 0 + + 25. Fine and vitrifiable grey sand + mixed with the like shells 8 6 + + 26. Very fine fat sand, with only a + few shells 3 0 + + 27. Brown free stone 3 0 + + 28. Vitrifiable sand, streaked red and + white 4 0 + + 29. White vitrifiable sand 3 6 + + 30. Reddish vitrifiable sand 15 0 + -------- + Total depth 101 0 + -------- + +I have before said that I tried all these matters in aquafortis, because +where the inspection and comparison of matters with others that we are +acquainted with is not sufficient to permit us to denominate and range +them in the class which they belong, there is no means more ready, nor +perhaps more sure, than to try by aquafortis the terrestrial or +lapidific matter: those which acid spirits dissolve immediately with +heat and ebullition, are generally calcinable, and those on which they +make no impression are vitrifiable. + +By this enumeration we perceive, that the soil of Marly-la-ville was +formerly the bottom of the sea, which has been raised above 75 feet, +since we find shells at that depth below the surface. Those shells have +been transported by the motion of the water, at the same time as the +sand in which they are met with, and the whole of the upper strata, even +to the first, have been transported after the same manner by the motion +of the water, and deposited in form of a sediment; which we cannot +doubt, as well by reason of their horizontal position, as of the +different beds of sand mixed with shells and marl, the last of which are +only the fragments of the shells. The last stratum itself has been +formed almost entirely by the mould we have spoken of, mixed with a +small part of the marl which was at the surface. + +I have chosen this example, as the most disadvantageous to my theory, +because it at first appears very difficult to conceive that the dust of +the air, rain and dew, could produce strata of free earth thirteen feet +thick; but it ought to be observed, that it is very rare to find, +especially in high lands, so considerable a thickness of cultivateable +earth; it is generally about three or four feet, and often not more than +one. In plains surrounded with hills, this thickness of good earth is +the greatest, because the rain loosens the earth of the hills, and +carries it into the vallies; but without supposing any thing of that +kind, I find that the last strata formed by the waters are thick beds of +marl. It is natural to imagine that the upper stratum had, at the +beginning, a still greater thickness, besides the thirteen feet of marl, +when the sea quitted the land and left it naked. This marl, exposed to +the air, melted with the rain; the action of the air and heat of the sun +produced flaws, and reduced it into powder on the surface; the sea would +not quit this land precipitately, but sometimes cover it, either by the +alternative motion of the tides, or by the extraordinary elevation of +the waters in foul weather, when it mixed with this bed of marl, mud, +clay, and other matters. When the land was raised above the waters, +plants would begin to grow, and it was then that the dust in the rain or +dew by degrees added to its substance and gave it a reddish colour; this +thickness and fertility was soon augmented by culture; by digging and +dividing its surface, and thus giving to the dust, in the dew or rain, +the facility of more deeply penetrating it, which at last produced that +bed of free earth thirteen feet thick. + +I shall not here examine whether the reddish colour of vegetable earth +proceeds from the iron which is contained in the earths that are +deposited by the rains and dews, but being of importance, shall take +notice of it when we come to treat of minerals; it is sufficient to have +explained our conception of the formation of the superficial strata of +the earth, and by other examples we shall prove, that the formation of +the interior strata, can only be the work of the waters. + +The surface of the globe, says Woodward, this external stratum on which +men and animals walk, which serves as a magazine for the formation of +vegetables and animals, is, for the greatest part, composed of vegetable +or animal matter, and is in continual motion and variation. All animals +and vegetables which have existed from the creation of the world, have +successively extracted from this stratum the matter which composes it, +and have, after their deaths, restored to it this borrowed matter: it +remains there always ready to be retaken, and to serve for the formation +of other bodies of the same species successively, for the matter which +composes one body is proper and natural to form another body of the same +kind. In uninhabited countries, where the woods are never cut, where +animals do not brouze on the plants, this stratum of vegetable earth +increases considerably. In all woods, even in those which are sometimes +cut, there is a bed of mould, of six or eight inches thick, formed +entirely by the leaves, small branches, and barks which have perished. I +have often observed on the ancient Roman way, which crosses Burgundy in +a long extent of soil, that there is formed a bed of black earth more +than a foot thick upon the stones, which nourishes very high trees; and +this stratum could be composed only of a black mould formed by the +leaves, bark, and perished wood. As vegetables inhale for their +nutriment much more from the air and water than the earth, it happens +that when they perish, they return to the earth more than they have +taken from it. Besides, forests collect the rain water, and by stopping +the vapours increase their moisture; so in a wood which is preserved a +long time, the stratum of earth which serves for vegetation increases +considerably. But animals restoring less to the earth than they take +from it, and men making enormous consumption of wood and plants for +fire, and other uses, it follows that the vegetable soil of inhabited +countries must diminish, and become, in time, like the soil of Arabia +Petrea, and other eastern provinces, which, in fact, are the most +ancient inhabited countries, where only sand and salt are now to be met +with; for the fixed salts of plants and animals remain, whereas all the +other parts volatilise, and are transported by the air. + +Let us now examine the position and formation of the interior strata: +the earth, says Woodward, appears in places that have been dug, composed +of strata placed one on the other, as so many sediments which +necessarily fell to the bottom of the water; the deepest strata are +generally the thickest, and those above the thinnest, and so gradually +lessening to the surface. We find sea shells, teeth, and bones of fish +in these different beds, and not only in those that are soft, as chalk +and clay, but even in those of hard stone, marble, &c. These marine +productions are incorporated with the stone, and when separated from +them, leave the impressions of the shells with the greatest exactness. +"I have been most clearly and positively assured," says this author, +"that in France, Flanders, Holland, Spain, Italy, Germany, Denmark, +Norway, and Sweden, stone, and other terrestrial substances are disposed +in strata, precisely the same as they are in England; that these strata +are divided by parallel fissures; that there are inclosed within stones +and other terrestrial and compact substances, a great quantity of shells +and other productions of the sea, disposed in the same manner as in this +island. I am also informed that these strata are found the same in +Barbary, Egypt, Guinea, and in other parts of Africa; in Arabia, Syria, +Persia, Malabar, China, and the rest of the provinces of Asia; in +Jamaica, Barbadoes, Virginia, New-England, Brazil, and other parts of +America[198:A]." + +This author does not say how he learnt, or by whom he was told, that the +strata of Peru contained shells; yet as in general his observations are +exact, I do not doubt but he was well informed; and am persuaded that +shells may be found in the earth of Peru, as well as elsewhere. This +remark is made from a doubt having been formed some time since on the +subject, and which I shall hereafter consider. + +In a trench made at Amsterdam, to the depth of 230 feet, the strata were +found as follows: 7 feet of vegetable earth, 9 of turf, 9 of soft clay, +8 of sand, 4 of earth, 10 of clay, 4 of earth, 10 of sand, then 2 feet +of clay, 4 of white sand, 5 of dry earth, 1 of soft earth, 14 of sand, 8 +of argil, mixed with earth; 4 of sand, mixed with shells; then clay 102 +feet thick, and at last 31 feet of sand, at which depth they ceased +digging[199:A]. + +It is very singular to dig so deep without meeting with water: and this +circumstance is remarkable in many particulars. 1. It shews, that the +water of the sea does not communicate with the interior part of the +earth, by means of filtration. 2. That shells are found at the depth of +100 feet below the surface, and that consequently the soil of Holland +has been raised 100 feet by the sediment of the sea. 3. We may draw an +induction, that this strata of thick clay of 102 feet, and the bed of +sand below it, in which they dug to 31 feet, and whose entire thickness +is unknown, are perhaps not very far distant from the first strata of +the original earth, such as it was before the motion of the water had +changed its surface. We have said in the first article, that if we +desired to find the ancient earth, we should dig in the northern +countries, rather than towards the south; in plains rather than in +mountainous regions. The circumstances in this instance, appear to be +nearly so, only it is to be wished they had continued the digging to a +greater depth, and that the author had informed us, whether there were +not shells and other marine productions, in the last bed of clay, and in +that of sand below it. The experiment confirms what we have already +said; and the more we dig, the greater thickness we shall find the +strata. + +The earth is composed of parallel and horizontal beds, not only in +plains, but hills and mountains are in general composed after the same +manner: it may be said, that the strata in hills and mountains are more +apparent there than in the plains, because the plains are generally +covered with a very considerable quantity of sand and earth, which the +water has brought from the higher grounds, and therefore, to find the +ancient strata, must dig deeper in the plains than in the mountains. + +I have often observed, that when a mountain is level at its summit, the +strata which compose it are also level; but if the summit is not placed +horizontally, the strata inclines also in the same direction. I have +heard that, in general, the beds of quarries inclined a little to the +east; but having myself observed all the chains of rocks which offered, +I discovered this opinion to be erroneous, and that the strata inclines +to the same side as the hill, whether it be east, west, north, or south. +When we dig stone and marble from the quarry, we take great care to +separate them according to their natural position, and we cannot even +get them of a large size, if we cut them in any other direction. Where +they are made use of for good masonry, the workmen are particular in +placing them as they stood in the quarry, for if they were placed in any +other direction, they would split, and would not resist the weight with +which they are loaded. This perfectly confirms that stones, are found +in parallel and horizontal strata, which have been successively heaped +one on the other, and that these strata composed masses where resistance +is greater in that direction than in any other. + +Every strata, whether horizontal or inclined, has an equal thickness +throughout its whole extent. In the quarries about Paris the bed of good +stone is not thick, scarcely more than 18 or 20 feet: in those of +Burgundy the stone is much thicker. It is the same with marble; the +black and white marble have a thicker bed than the coloured; and I know +beds of very hard stone, which the farmers in Burgundy make use of to +cover their houses, that are not above an inch thick. The different +strata vary much in thickness, but each bed preserves the same thickness +throughout its extent. The thickness of strata is so greatly varied, +that it is found from less than a line to 1, 10, 20, 30, or 100 feet +thick. The ancient and modern quarries, which are horizontally dug, the +perpendicular and other divisions of mines, prove that there are +extensive strata in all directions. "It is thoroughly proved," says the +historian of the academy, "that all stones have formerly been a soft +paste, and as there are quarries almost in every part, the surface of +the earth has therefore consisted, in all these places, of mud and +slime, at least to certain depths. The shells found in most quarries +prove that this mud was an earth diluted by the water of the sea, and +consequently that the sea covered all these places; and it could not +cover them without also covering all that was level with or lower than +it: and it is plain that it could not cover every place where there were +quarries, without covering the whole face of the terrestrial globe. We +do not here consider the mountains which the sea must also at one time +have covered, since quarries and shells are often found in them. + +"The sea," continues he, "therefore, covered the whole earth, and from +thence it proceeds that all the beds of stone in the plains are +horizontal and parallel; fish must have also been the most ancient +inhabitants of the globe, as there was no sustenance for either birds or +terrestrial animals." But how did the sea retire into these vast basins +which it at present occupies? What presents itself the most natural to +the mind is, that the earth, at least at a certain depth, was not +entirely solid, but intermixed with some great vacuums, whose vaults +were supported for a time, but at length, sunk in suddenly: then the +waters must have fallen into these vacancies, filled them, and left +naked a part of the earth's surface, which became an agreeable abode to +terrestrial animals and birds. The shells found in quarries perfectly +agree with this idea, for only the bony parts of fish could be preserved +till now. In general, shells are heaped up in great abundance in certain +parts of the sea, where they are immovable, and form a kind of rock, and +could not follow the water, which suddenly forsook them: this is the +reason that we find more shells than bones of the fish, and this even +proves a sudden fall of the sea into its present basins. At the same +time as our supposed vaults gave way, it is very possible that other +parts of the globe were raised by the same cause, and that mountains +were placed on this surface with quarries already formed, but the beds +of these quarries could not preserve the horizontal direction they +before had, unless the mountains were raised precisely perpendicular to +the surface of the earth, which could happen but very seldom: so also, +as we have already observed, in 1705, the beds of stone in mountains are +always inclined to the horizon, though parallel with each other; for +they have not changed their position with respect to each other, but +only with respect to the surface of the earth[205:A]. + +These parallel strata, these beds of earth and stone, which have been +formed by the sediment of the sea, often extend to considerable +distances, and we often find in hills, separated by a valley, the same +beds and the same matters at the same level. This observation agrees +perfectly with that of the height of the opposite hills. We may easily +be assured of the truth of these facts, for in all narrow vallies, where +rocks are discovered, we shall find the same beds of stone and marble on +both sides at the same height. In a country where I frequently reside, I +found a quarry of marble which extended more than 12 leagues in length, +and whose breadth was very considerable, although I have never been able +precisely to determine it. I have often observed that this bed of marble +is throughout of the same thickness, and in hills divided from this +quarry by a valley of 100 feet depth, and a quarter of a mile in +breadth, I found the same bed of marble at the same height. I am +persuaded it is the same in every stone and marble quarry where shells +are found; but this observation does not hold good in quarries of +freestone. In the course of this work, we shall give reasons for this +difference, and describe why freestone is not dispersed, like other +matters, in horizontal beds, and why it is in irregular blocks, both in +form and position. + +We have likewise observed that the strata are the same on both sides the +straits of the sea. This observation, which is important, may lead us to +discover the lands and islands which have been separated from the +continent; it proves, for example, that England has been divided from +France; Spain from Africa; Sicily from Italy; and it is to be wished +that the same observation had been made in all the straits. I am +persuaded that we should find it almost every where true. We do not know +whether the same beds of stone are found at the same height on both +sides the straits of Magellan, which is the longest; but we see, by the +particular maps and exact charts, that the two high coasts which confine +it, form nearly, like the mountains of the earth, correspondent angles, +which also proves that the Terra del Fuega, must be regarded as part of +the continent of America; it is the same with Forbisher's Strait and +the island of Friesland, which appear to have been divided from the +continent of Greenland. + +The Maldivian islands are only separated by small tracts of the sea, on +each side of which banks and rocks are found composed of the same +materials; and these islands, which, taken together, are near 200 miles +long, formed anciently only one land; they are now divided into 13 +provinces, called Clusters. Each cluster contains a great number of +small islands, most of which are sometimes overflowed and sometimes dry; +but what is remarkable, these thirteen clusters are each surrounded with +a chain of rocks of the same stone, and there are only three or four +dangerous inlets by which they can be entered. They are all placed one +after the other, and it evidently appears that these islands were +formerly a long mountain capped with rocks[216:A]. + +Many authors, as Verstegan, Twine, Somner, and especially Campbell, in +his Description of England, in the chapter of Kent, gives very strong +reasons, to prove that England was formerly joined to France, and has +been separated from it by an effort of the sea, which carried away the +neck of land that joined them, opened the channel, and left naked a +great quantity of low and marshy ground along the southern coasts of +England. Dr. Wallis, as a corroboration of this supposition, shews the +conformity of the ancient Gallic and British tongues, and adds many +observations, which we shall relate in the following articles. + +If we consider the form of lands, the position of mountains, and the +windings of rivers, we shall perceive that generally opposite hills are +not only composed of the same matters on the same level, but are nearly +of an equal height. This equality I have observed in my travels, and +have mostly found them the same on the two sides, especially in vallies +that were not more than a quarter or a third of a league broad, for in +vallies which are very broad, it is difficult to judge of the height and +equality of hills, because, by looking over a level plain of any great +extent, it appears to rise, and hills at a distance appear to lower; but +this is not the place to give a mathematical reason for this difference. +It is also very difficult to judge by the naked sight of the middle of a +great valley, at least if there is no river in it; whereas in confined +vallies our sight is less equivocal and our judgment more certain. That +part of Burgundy comprehended between Auxerre, Dijon, Autun, and +Bar-sur-seine, a considerable extent of which is called _la Bailliage de +la Montagne_, is one of the highest parts of France; from one side of +most of these mountains, which are only of the second class, the water +flows towards the Ocean, and on the other side towards the +Mediterranean. This high country is divided with many small vallies, +very confined, and almost all watered with rivulets. I have a thousand +times observed the correspondence of the angles of these hills and their +equality of height, and I am certain that I have every where found the +saliant angles opposite to the returning angles, and the heights nearly +equal on both sides. The farther we advance into the higher country, +where the points of division are, the higher are the mountains; but this +height is always the same on both sides of the vallies, and the hills +are raised or lowered alike. I have frequently made the like +observations in many other parts of France. It is this equality in the +height of the hills which forms the plains in the mountains, and these +plains form lands higher than others. But high mountains do not appear +so equal in height, most of them terminate in points and irregular +peaks; and I have seen, in crossing the Alps, and the Apennine +mountains, that the angles are, in fact, correspondent; but it is almost +impossible to judge by the eye of the equality or inequality in the +height of opposite mountains, because their summits are lost in mists +and clouds. + +The different strata of which the earth is composed are not disposed +according to their specific weight, for we often find strata of heavy +matters placed on those of lighter. To be assured of this, we have only +to examine the earth on which rocks are placed, and we shall find that +it is generally clay or sand, which is specifically lighter. In hills, +and other small elevations, we easily discover this to be the case; but +it is not so with large mountains, for not only their summits are rocks, +but those rocks are placed on others; there mountains are placed upon +mountains, and rocks upon rocks, to such a considerable height, and +through so great an extent of country, that we can scarcely be certain +whether there is earth at bottom, or of what nature it is. I have seen +cavities made in rocks to some hundred feet deep, without being able to +form an idea where they ended, for these rocks were supported by +others; nevertheless, may we not compare great with small? and since +the rocks of little mountains, whose bases are to be seen, rest on the +earth less heavy and solid than stone, may we not suppose that earth is +also the base of high mountains? All that I have here to prove by these +arguments is, that, by the motion of the waters, it may naturally happen +that the more ponderous matters accumulated on the lighter; and that, if +this in fact is found to be so in most hills, it is probable that it +happened as explained by my theory; but should it be objected that I am +not grounded in supposing, that before the formation of mountains the +heaviest matters were below the lighter; I answer, that I assert nothing +general in this respect, because this effect may have been produced in +many manners, whether the heaviest matters were uppermost or undermost, +or placed indiscriminately. To conceive how the sea at first formed a +mountain of clay, and afterwards capt it with rocks, it is sufficient to +consider the sediments may successively come from different parts, and +that they might be of different materials. In some parts, the sea may at +first have deposited sediments of clay, and the waters afterwards +brought sediment of strong matter, either because they had transported +all the clay from the bottom and sides, and then the waves attacked the +rocks, possibly because the first sediment came from one part, and the +second from another. This perfectly agrees with observation, by which we +perceive that beds of earth, stone, gravel, sand, &c. followed no rule +in their arrangement, but are placed indifferently one on the other as +it were by chance. + +But this chance must have some rules, which can be known only by +estimating the value of probabilities, and the truth of conjectures. +According to our hypothesis, on the formation of the globe, we have seen +that the interior part of the globe must have been a vitrified matter, +similar to vitrified sand, which is only the fragments of glass, and of +which the clays are perhaps the scoria; by this supposition, the centre +of the earth, and almost as far as the external circumference, must be +glass, or a vitrified matter; and above this we shall find sand, clay, +and other scoria. Thus the earth, in its first state, was a nucleus of +glass, or vitrified matter; either massive like glass, or divided like +sand, because that depends on the degree of heat it has undergone. Above +this matter was sand, and lastly clay. The soil of the waters and air +produced the external crust, which is thicker or thinner, according to +the situation of the ground; more or less coloured, according to the +different mixtures of mud, sand, clay, and the decayed parts of animals +and vegetables; and more or less fertile, according to the abundance or +want of these parts. To shew that this supposition on the formation of +sand and clay is not chimerical, I shall add some particular remarks. + +I conceive, that the earth, in its first state, was a globe, or rather a +spheroid of compact glass, covered with a light crust of pumice stone +and other scoria of the matter in fusion. The motion and agitation of +the waters and air soon reduced this crust into powder or sand, which, +by uniting afterwards, produced flints, and owe their hardness, colour, +or transparency and variety, to the different degrees of purity of the +sand which entered into their composition. + +These sands, whose constituting parts unite by fire, assimilate, and +become very dense, compact, and the more transparent as the sand is more +pure; on the contrary, being exposed a long time to the air, they +disunite and exfoliate, descend in the form of earth, and it is +probable the different clays are thus produced. This dust, sometimes of +a brightish yellow, and sometimes like silver, is nothing else but a +very pure sand somewhat perished, and almost reduced to an elementary +state. By time, particles will be so far attenuated and divided, that +they will no longer have power to reflect the light, and acquire all the +properties of clay. + +This theory is conformable to what every day is seen; let us immediately +wash sand upon its being dug, and the water will be loaded with a black +ductile and fat earth, which is genuine clay. In streets paved with +freestone, the dirt is always black and greasy, and when dried appears +to be an earth of the same nature as clay. Let us wash the earth taken +from a spot where there are neither freestone nor flints, and there will +always precipitate a great quantity of vitrifiable sand. + +But what perfectly proves that sand, and even flint and glass, exist in +clay, is, that the action of fire, by uniting the parts, restores it to +its original form. Clay, if heated to the degree of calcination, will +cover itself with a very hard enamel; if it is not vitrified internally, +it nevertheless will have acquired a very great hardness, so as to +resist the file; it will emit fire under the hammer, and it has all the +properties of flint; a greater degree of heat causes it to flow, and +converts it into real glass. + +Clay and sand are therefore matters perfectly analogous, and of the same +class; if clay, by condensing, may become flint and glass, why may not +sand, by dissolution, become clay? Glass appears to be true elementary +earth, and all mixed substances disguised glass. Metals, minerals, +salts, &c. are only vitrifiable earth; common stone and other matters +analogous to it, and testaceous and crustaceous shells, &c. are the only +substances which cannot be vitrified, and which seem to form a separate +class. Fire, by uniting the divided parts of the first, forms an +homogeneous matter, hard and transparent, without any diminution of +weight, and to which it is not possible to cause any alteration; those, +on the contrary, in which a greater quantity of active and volatile +principles enter, and which calcine, lose more than one-third of their +weight in the fire, and retake the form of simple earth, without any +other alteration than a disunion of their different parts: these bodies +excepted, which are no great number, and whose combinations produce no +great varieties in nature, every other substance, and particularly +clay, may be converted into glass, and are consequently only decomposed +glass. If the fire suddenly causes the form of these substances to +change, by vitrifying them, glass itself, whether pure, or in the form +of sand or flint, naturally, but by a slow and insensible progress, +changes into clay. + +Where flint is the predominant stone, the country is generally strewed +with parts of it, and if the place is uncultivated, and these stones +have been long exposed to the air, without having been stirred, their +upper superficies is always white, whereas the opposite side, which +touches the earth, is very brown, and preserves its natural colour. If +these flints are broken, we shall perceive that the whiteness is not +only external, but penetrates internally, and there forms a kind of +band, not very deep in some, but which in others occupies almost the +whole flint. This white part is somewhat grainy, entirely opaque, as +soft as freestone, and adheres to the tongue like the boles; whereas the +other part is smooth, has neither thread nor grain, and preserves its +natural colour, transparency, and hardness. If this flint is put into a +furnace, its white part becomes of a brick colour, and its brown part +of a very fine white. Let us not say with one of our most celebrated +naturalists, that these stones are imperfect flints of different ages, +which have not acquired their perfection; for why should they be all +imperfect? Why should they be imperfect only on the side exposed to the +weather? It, on the contrary, appears to me more reasonable that they +are flints changed from their original state, gradually decomposed, and +assuming the form and property of clay or bole. If this is thought to be +only conjecture, let the hardest and blackest flint be exposed to the +weather, in less than a year its surface will change colour; and if we +have patience to pursue this experiment, we shall see it by degrees lose +its hardness, transparency, and other specific characters, and approach +every day nearer and nearer the nature of clay. + +What happens to flint happens to sand; each grain of sand may possibly +be considered as a small flint, and each flint as a mass of extremely +fine grains of sand. The first example of the decomposition of sand is +found in the brilliant opaque powder called Mica, in which clay and +slate are always diffused. The entirely transparent flints, the Quartz, +produce, by decomposition, fat and soft talks, such as those of Venice +and Russia, which are as ductile and vitrifiable as clay: and it appears +to me, that talk is a mediate between glass, or transparent flint, and +clay; whereas coarse and impure flint, by decomposing, passes to clay +without any intermedium. + +Our factitious glass undergoes the same alterations: it decomposes and +perishes, as it were, in the air. At first, it assumes a variety of +colours, then exfoliates, and by working it, we perceive brilliant +scales fall off; but when its decomposition is more advanced, it +crumbles between the fingers, and is reduced into a very white fine +talky powder. Art has even imitated nature in the decomposition of glass +and flint. "Est etiam certa methodus solius aquæ communis ope, silices & +arenam in liquorem viscosum, eumdemque in sal viride convertendi, & hoc +in aleum rubicundum, &c. Solius ignis & aqua ope, speciali experimento, +durissimos quosque lapides in mucorem resolvo, qui distillan subtilem +spiritum exhibet & oleum nullus laudibus prÅ“dicabile[218:A]." + +These matters more particularly belong to metals, and when we come to +them, shall be fully treated on, therefore we shall content ourselves +here with adding, that the different strata which cover the terrestrial +globe, being materials to be considered as actual vitrifications or +analogous to glass, and possessing its most essential qualities; and as +it is evident, that from the decomposition of glass and flint, which is +every day made before our eyes, a genuine clay remains, it is not a +precarious supposition to advance, that clays and sands have been formed +by scoria, and vitrified drops of the terrestrial globe, especially when +we join the proofs _a priori_, which we have given to evince the earth +has been in a state of liquefaction caused by fire. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[198:A] Essay on the Natural History of the Earth, pages 40, 41, 42, &c. + +[199:A] See Varennii, Geograph. General, page 46. + +[205:A] See the Mem. of the Acad. 1716, page 14. + +[216:A] See the Voyages of Francis Piriard, vol. 1, page 108. + +[218:A] See Becher. Phys. subter. + + + + +ARTICLE VIII. + +ON SHELLS, AND OTHER MARINE PRODUCTIONS FOUND IN THE INTERIOR PARTS OF +THE EARTH. + + +I have often examined quarries, the banks of which were filled with +shells; I have seen entire hills composed of them, and chains of rocks +which contained them throughout their whole extent. The quantity of +these marine productions is astonishing, and the number in many places +so prodigious, that it appears scarcely possible that any should now +remain in the sea; it is by considering this innumerable multitude of +shells, that no doubt is left of our earth having been a long time under +the water of the ocean. The quantity found in a fossil, or petrified +state, is beyond conception, and it is only from the number of those +that have been discovered that we could possibly have formed an idea of +their multiplicity. We must imagine, like those who reason on matters +they never saw, that shells are only found at random, dispersed here and +there, or in small heaps, as oyster shells thrown before our doors; on +the contrary, they form mountains, are met with in shoals of 100 or 200 +miles length, nay, they may sometimes be traced through whole provinces +in masses of 50 or 60 feet thick. It is from these circumstances alone +that we can reason on the subject. + +We cannot give a more striking example on this subject than the shells +of Touraine. The following is the description given of them by the +historian of the Academy[220:A]. + +"The number of figured stones and fossil shells found in the bowels of +the earth were remarked in all ages and nations, but they were +considered merely as the sports of nature, and even by philosophers +themselves, as the productions of chance or accident; they regarded them +with a degree of surprise, but passed them over with a slight attention, +and all this phenomena perished without any fruit for the progress of +knowledge. A potter in Paris, who knew neither Latin nor Greek, towards +the end of the 16th century, was the first man who dared affirm, in +opposition to the learned, that the fossil shells were real shells +formerly deposited by the sea in those places where they were found; +that animals, and particularly fish, had given to stones all these +different figures, &c. and he desired the whole school of Aristotle to +contradict his proofs. This was Bernard Palissy, as great a natural +genius as nature could form: his system slept near 100 years, and even +his name was almost forgot. At length the ideas of Palissy were revived +in the mind of several philosophers; and science has profited by all the +shells and figured stones the earth furnishes us with; perhaps they are +at present become only too common, and the consequences drawn from them +too incontestable. + +"Notwithstanding this, the observations presented by M. Reaumer must +appear wonderful. He discovered a mass of 130 million, 680 thousand +cubical fathoms of shells, either whole or in fragments, without any +mixture of stone, earth, sand, or other extraneous matter: hitherto +fossil shells have never appeared in such an enormous quantity, nor +without mixture. It is in Touraine this prodigious mass is found, more +than 36 leagues from the sea; this is perfectly known there, as the +farmers of that province make use of these shells, which they dig up, as +manure for their lands, to fertilize their plains, which otherwise would +be absolutely sterile. + +"What is dug from the earth, and which generally is no more than eight +or nine feet deep, are only small fragments of shells, very +distinguishable as fragments, for they retain their original channels +and hollows, having only lost their gloss and colour, as almost all +shells do which we find in the earth. The smallest pieces, which are +only dust, are still distinguishable because they are perfectly of the +same matter as the rest, as well as of the whole shells which are +sometimes found. We discover the species as well in the whole shells as +in the larger fragments. Some of these species are known at Poictou, +others belong to more remote coasts. There are even fragments of +madrepores, coral, and other productions of the sea; all this matter in +the country is termed _Fallun_, and is found wherever the ground is dug +in that province for the space of nine leagues square. The peasants do +not dig above twenty feet deep, because they think it would not repay +them for their trouble, but they are certainly deeper. The calculation +of the quantity is however taken upon the supposition of only 18 feet +and 2200 fathoms to the league. This mass of shells of course exceeds +the calculation, and possibly contains double the quantity. + +"In physical points the smallest circumstances, which most people do not +think worthy of remarking, sometimes lead to consequences and afford +great lights. M. de Reaumer observed, that all these fragments of shells +lie horizontally, and hence he has concluded that this infinity of +fragments does not proceed from the heap being formed at one time, or of +whole shells, for the uppermost, by their weight, would have crushed +the others, and of course their fallings would have given an infinity of +different positions. They must, therefore, have been brought there by +the sea, either whole or broken, and necessarily placed horizontal; and +although the extreme length of time was of itself sufficient to break, +and almost calcine the greatest part, it could not change their +position. + +"By this it appears, that they must have been brought gradually, and, in +fact, how was it possible that the sea could convey at once such an +immense quantity of shells, and at the same time preserve a position +perfectly horizontal? they must have collected in one spot, and +consequently this spot must have been the bottom of a gulph or basin. + +"All this proves, that although there must remain upon the earth many +vestiges of the universal deluge, as recorded in scripture, the mass of +shells at Touraine was not produced by that deluge; there is perhaps not +so great a mass in any part of the sea; but even had the deluge forced +them away, it would have been with an impetuosity and violence that +would not have permitted them to retain one uniform position. They must +have been brought and deposited gently and slowly, and consequently +their accumulation required a space of time much longer than a year." + +The surface of the earth, it is evident, must have been before or after +the deluge very differently disposed to what it is at present, that the +sea and continent had another arrangement, and formerly there was a +great gulph in the middle of Touraine. The changes which are known from +history, or even ancient fable, are inconsiderable, but they give us +room to imagine those which a longer time might bring about. M. de +Reaumur supposes that Touraine was a gulph of the sea which communicated +with the ocean, and that the shells were carried there by a current; but +this is a simple conjecture laid down in room of the real unknown fact. +To speak with certainty on this matter, we should have geographical maps +of all the places where shells have been dug from the earth, to obtain +which would require almost an infinity of time and observation, yet it +is possible that hereafter science may accomplish it. + +This quantity of shells, considerable as it is, will astonish us less if +we consider the following circumstances: first, shell fish multiply +prodigiously, and are full grown in a very short time; the abundance of +individuals in each kind proves to us their fertility. We have a strong +example of this increase in oysters, a mass of many fathoms of which are +frequently raised in a single day. In a very short time the rocks to +which they are attached are considerably diminished, and some banks +quite exhausted, nevertheless the ensuing year we find them as plentiful +as before, nor do they appear to be in the least diminished; indeed I +know not whether a natural bed of oysters was ever entirely exhausted. +Secondly, the substance of shells is analogous to stone; they are a long +time preserved in soft matters, and petrify readily in hard; these +shells and marine productions therefore found on the earth, being the +wrecks of many ages, must of course have formed very considerable +masses. + +There are a prodigious quantity of shells in marble, lime, stone, chalk, +marl, &c. we find them, as before observed, in hills and mountains, and +they often make more than one half of the bodies which contain them; for +the most part they appear well preserved, others are in fragments, but +large enough to distinguish to what kind of shells they belong. Here our +knowledge on this subject, from observation, finds its limits; but I +shall go further and assert that shells are the intermedium which Nature +adopts for the formation of most kind of stones; that chalks, marls, and +lime-stone are composed only of the powder and pieces of shells; that +consequently the quantities of shells destroyed are infinitely more +considerable than those preserved. I shall here content myself with +indicating the point of view in which we ought to consider the strata of +which the globe is composed. The first stratum is composed of the dust +of the air, the sediment of the rain, dew, and vegetable or animal +parts, reduced to particles; the strata of chalk, marl, lime, stone, and +marble, are composed of the ruins of shells, and other marine +productions, mixed with fragments or whole shells; but the vitrifiable +sand or clay are the matters of which the internal parts of the globe +are composed. They were vitrified when the globe received its form, +which necessarily supposes that the matter was in fusion. The granate, +rock, flint, &c. owe their origin to sand and clay, and are likewise +disposed by strata; but tuffa[227:A], free-stone, and flints (not in +great masses), crystals, metals, pyrites, most minerals, sulphurs, &c. +are matters whose formation is novel, in comparison with marbles, +calcinable stones, chalk, marl, and all other materials disposed in +horizontal strata, and which contain shells and other productions of the +sea. + +As the denominations I make use of may appear obscure or equivocal, it +is necessary to explain them. By the term _clay_, I mean not only the +white and yellow, but also blue, soft, hard, foliated, and other clays, +which I look on as the scoria of glass, or as decomposed glass. By the +word _sand_ I always understand vitrifiable sand; and not only +comprehend under this denomination the fine sand which produces +freestone, and which I look upon as powdered glass, or rather pumice +stone, but also the sand which proceeds from the freestone destroyed by +friction, and also the larger sand, as small gravel, which proceeds from +the granate and rock-stone, and is sharp, angular, red, and commonly +found in the bed of rivers or rivulets that derive their waters +immediately from the higher mountains, or hills composed of stone or +granate. The river Armanson conveys a great quantity of this sand; it is +large and brittle, and in fact is only fragments of rock-stone, as +calcinable gravel is of freestone. _Rock-stone_ and _granate_ are one +and the same substance, but I have used both denominations, because +there are many persons who make two different species of them. It is the +same with respect to flints and free-stone in large pieces; I look on +them as kinds of granate, and I call them _large flints_, because they +are disposed like calcinable stone in strata, and to distinguish them +from the flints and free-stone in small masses, and the round flints +which have no regular quarries, and whose beds have a certain extent; +these are of a modern formation, and have not the same origin as the +flints and free-stone in large lumps, which are disposed in regular +strata. + +I understand by the term _slate_, not only the blue, which all the world +knows, but white, grey, and red slate: these bodies are generally met +with below laminated clay, and have every appearance of being nothing +more than clay hardened in this strata. Pit coal and jet are matters +which also belong to clay, and are commonly under slate. By the word +_tuffa_, I understood not only the common pumice which appears full of +holes, and, as I may say, organized, but all the beds of stone made by +the sediment of running waters, all the stalactites, incrustations, and +all kinds of stone that dissolve by fire. It is no ways doubtful that +these matters are not modern, and that they every day grow. Tuffa is +only a mass of lapidific matter in which we perceive no distinct strata: +this matter is disposed generally in small hollow cylinders, irregularly +grouped and formed by waters dropt at the foot of mountains, or on the +slope of hills, which contain beds of marl or soft and calcareous earth; +these cylinders, which make one of the specific characters of this kind +of tuffa, is either oblique or vertical according to the direction of +the streams or water which form them. These sort of spurious quarries +have no continuation; their extent is very confined, and proportionate +to the height of the mountains which furnish them with the matter of +their growth. The tuffa every day receiving lapidific juices, those +small cylindrical columns, between which intervals are left, close at +last, and the whole becomes one compact body, but never acquires the +hardness of stone, and is what Agricola terms _Marga tofocea fistulosa_. +In this tuffa are generally found impressions of leaves, trees, and +plants, like those which grow in the environs: terrestrial shells also +are often met with, but never any of the marine kind. The tuffa is +certainly therefore a new matter, which must be ranked with stalactites, +incrustations, &c. all these new matters are kinds of spurious stones, +formed at the expence of the rest, but which never arrive at true +petrification. + +Crystal, precious stones, and all those which have a regular figure, +even small flints formed by concentrical beds, whether found in +perpendicular cavities of rocks, or elsewhere, are only exudations of +large flints, or concrete juices of the like matters, and are therefore +spurious stones, and real stalactites of flint or rock. + +Shells are never found either in rock, granate, or free-stone, although +they are often met with in vitrifiable sand, from which these matters +derive their origin; this seems to prove that sand cannot unite to form +free-stone or rock but when it is pure, and that if it is mixed with +shells or substances of other kinds, which are heterogeneous to it, its +union is prevented. I have observed the little pebbles which are often +found in beds of sand mixed with shells, but never found any shell +therein: these pebbles are real concretions of free-stone formed in the +sand in the places where it is not mixed with heterogeneous matters +which oppose the formation of larger masses. + +We have before observed, that at Amsterdam, which is a very low country, +sea shells were found at 100 feet below the earth, and at +Marly-la-Ville, six miles from Paris, at 75 feet; we likewise meet with +the same at the bottom of mines, and in banks of rocks, beneath a height +of stone 50, 100, 200, and 1000 feet thick, as is apparent in the Alps +and Pyrennees, where, in the lower beds, shells and other marine +productions are constantly found. But to proceed in order, we find +shells on the mountains of Spain, France, and England; in all the marble +quarries of Flanders, in the mountains of Gueldres, in all hills around +Paris, Burgundy, and Champagne; in one word, in every place where the +basis of the soil is not free-stone or tuffa; and in most of these +places there are more shells than other matters in the substance of the +stones. By _shells_, I mean not only the wrecks of shell-fish, but those +of crustaceous animals, the bristles of sea hedge-hogs, and all +productions of the sea insects, as coral, madrepores, astroites, &c. We +may easily be convinced by inspection, that in most calculable stones +and marble, there is so great a quantity of these marine productions +that they appear to surpass the matter which unites them. + +But let us proceed; we meet with these marine productions even on the +tops of the highest mountains; for example, on Mount Cenis, in the +mountains of Genes, in the Apennines, and in most of the stone and +marble quarries in Italy; also in the stones of the most ancient +edifices of the Romans; in the mountains of Tirol; in the centre of +Italy, on the summits of Mount Paterne, near Bologna; in the hills of +Calabria; in many parts of Germany and Hungary, and generally in all the +high parts of Europe[233:A]. + +In Asia and Africa, travellers have remarked them in several parts; for +example, on the mountains of Castravan, above Barut, there is a bed of +white stone as thin as slate, each leaf of which contains a great number +and diversity of fishes; they lie for the most part very flat and +compressed, as does the fossil fearn-plants, but they are +notwithstanding so well preserved, that the smallest traces of the fins, +scales, and all the parts which distinguish each kind of fish, are +perfectly visible. So likewise we find many sea muscles, and petrified +shells between Suez and Cairo, and on all the hills and eminences of +Barbary; the greatest part are conformable to the kinds at present +caught in the Red Sea[234:A]. In Europe, we meet with petrified fish in +Sweden and Germany, and in the quarry of Oningen, &c. + +The long chain of mountains, says Bourguet, which extends from Portugal +to the most eastern parts of China, the mountains of Africa and America, +and the vallies of Europe, all inclose stones filled with shell-fish, +and from hence, he says, we may conclude the same of all the other parts +of the world unknown to us. + +The islands in Europe, Asia, and America, where men have had occasion to +dig, whether in mountains or plains, furnish examples of fossil shells, +which evince that they have that in common with the bordering +continents. + +Here then is sufficient facts to prove that sea shells, petrified fish, +and other marine productions are to be found in almost every place we +are disposed to seek them. + +"It is certain, says an English author (Tancred Robinson), that there +have been sea-shells dispersed on the earth by armies, and the +inhabitants of towns and villages, and that Loubere relates in his +Voyage to Siam, that the monkies of the Cape of Good Hope, continually +amuse themselves with carrying shells from the sea shores to the tops of +the mountains; but that cannot resolve the question, why these shells +are dispersed over all the earth, and even in the interior parts of +mountains, where they are deposited in beds like those in the bottom of +the sea." + +On reading an Italian letter on the changes happened to the terrestrial +globe, printed at Paris in the year 1746, I was surprised to find these +sentiments of Loubere exactly corresponded. Petrified fish, according to +this writer, are only fish rejected from the Roman tables, because they +were not esteemed wholesome; and with respect to fossil-shells, he says +the pilgrims of Syria brought, during the times of the Crusades, those +of the Levant Sea, into France, Italy, and other Christian states; why +has he not added that it was the monkies who transported the shells to +the tops of these mountains, which were never inhabited by men? This +would not have spoiled but rendered his explanation still more +probable. + +How comes it that enlightened persons, who pique themselves on +philosophy, have such various ideas on this subject? But doing so, we +shall not content ourselves with having said that petrified shells are +found in almost every part of the earth which has been dug, nor with +having related the testimonies of authors of natural history; as it +might be suspected, that with a view of some system, they perceived +shells where there were none; but quote the authority of some authors, +who merely remarked them accidentally, and whose observations went no +farther than recognising those that were whole and in the best +preservation. Their testimony will perhaps be of a still greater +authority with people who have it not in their power to be assured of +the truth of these facts, and who know not the difference between shells +and petrifications. + +All the world may see the banks of shells in the hills in the environs +of Pans, especially in the quarries of stone, as at ChaussĂ©e, near SĂ©ve, +at Issy, Passy, and elsewhere. We find a great quantity of lenticular +stones at Villers-Cotterets; these rocks are entirely formed thereof, +and they are blended without any order with a kind of stony mortar, +which binds them together. At Chaumont so great a quantity of petrified +shells are found that the hills appear to be composed of nothing else. +It is the same at Courtagnon, near Rheims, where there is a bank of +shells near four leagues broad, and whose length is considerably more. I +mention these places as being famous and striking the eye of every +beholder. + +With respect to foreign countries, here follows the observations of some +travellers: + +"In Syria and PhÅ“nicia, the rocks, particularly in the neighbourhood +of Latikea, are a kind of chalky substance, and it is perhaps from +thence that the city has taken the name of the white promontory. +Nakoura, anciently termed Scala Tyriorum, or the Tyrians Ladder, is +nearly of the same nature, and we still find there, by digging, +quantities of all sorts of shells, corals, and other remains of the +deluge[237:A]." + +On mount Sinai, we find only a few fossil shells, and other marks of the +deluge, at least if we do not rank the fossil Tarmarin of the +neighbouring mountains of Siam among this number, perhaps the first +matter of which their marble is formed, had a corrosive virtue not +proper to preserve them. But at Corondel, where the rocks approach +nearer our free-stone, I found many shells, as also a very singular sea +muscle, of the descoid kind, but closer and rounder. The ruins of the +little village Ain le Mousa, and many canals which conduct the water +thereto, furnish numbers of fossil shells. The ancient walls of Suez, +and what yet remains of its harbour, have been constructed of the same +materials, which seem to have been taken from the same quarry. Between, +as well as on all the mountains, eminences and hills of Lybia, near +Egypt, we meet with a great quantity of sea weed, as well as vivalvous +shells, and of these which terminate in a point, most of which are +exactly conformable to the kinds at present caught in the Red Sea. + +The moving sand in the neighbourhood of Ras Sem, in the kingdom of +Barca, covers many palm trees with petrifications. Ras Sem signifies the +head of a fish, and is what we term the petrified village, where it is +said men, women, and children are found, who with their cattle, +furniture, &c. have been converted into stone; but these, says Shaw, are +vain tales and fables, as I have not only learnt from M. le Maire, who +at the time he was Consul at Tripoly, sent several persons thither to +take cognizance of it, but also from very respectable persons who had +been at those places. + +Near the pyramids certain pieces of stone worked by the sculptor, were +found by Mr. Shaw, and among these stones many rude ones of the figure +and size of lentils; some even resemble barley half-peeled; these, he +says, were reported to be the remains of what the workmen ate, but which +does not appear probable, &c. These lentils and barley are nothing but +petrified shells called by naturalists lentil stones. + +According to Misson, several sorts of these shell-fish are found in the +environs of Maestricht, especially towards the village of Zicken, or +Tichen, and at the little mountain called Huns. In the environs of +Sienna, near Ceraldo, are many mountains of sand crammed with divers +sorts of shells. Montemario, a mile from Rome, is entirely filled with +them; I have seen them in the Alps, France, and elsewhere. Olearius, +Steno, Cambden, Speed, and a number of other authors, as well ancient as +modern, relate the same phenomena. + +"The island of Cerigo, says Thevenot, was anciently called Porphyris, +from the quantity of Porphyry which was taken out of it[240:A]. + +"Opposite the village of Inchene, and on the eastern shore of the Nile, +I found petrified plants, which grow naturally in a space about two +leagues long, by a very moderate breadth; this is one of the most +singular productions of nature. These plants resemble the white coral +found in the Red Sea[240:B]." + +"There are petrifications of divers kinds on Mount Libanus, and among +others flat stones, where the skeletons of fish are found well preserved +and entire; red chesnuts and small branches of coral, the same as grow +in the Red Sea, are also found on this mountain." + +"On Mount Carmel we find a great quantity of hollow stones, which have +something of the figure of melons, peaches, and other fruits, which are +said to be so petrified: they are commonly sold to pilgrims, not only as +mere curiosities, but also as remedies against many disorders. The +olives which are the _lapides jadaici_, are to be met with at the +druggists, and have always been looked upon, when dissolved in the +juice of lemon, as a specific for the stone and gravel." + +"M. la Roche, a physician, gave me some of these petrified olives, which +grew in great plenty in these mountains, where I am told are found other +stones, the inside of which perfectly resemble the natural parts of men +and women. These are Hysterolithes." + +"In going from Smyrna to Tauris, when we were at Tocat, says Tavernier, +the heat was so great, as obliged us to quit the common road, and go by +the mountains, where there is constantly shade and refreshing air. In +many places we found snow and a quantity of very fine sorrel, and on the +top of some of those mountains we found shells like those upon the sea +shores, which was very extraordinary." + +Here follows what Olearius says on the subject of petrified shells, +which he remarked in Persia, and in the rocks where the sepulchres are +cut out, near to the village of Pyrmaraus: + +"We were three in company that ascended to the top of the rock by the +most frightful precipices, mutually assisting each other; having gained +the summit, we found four large chambers, and within many niches cut in +the rocks to serve for beds: but what the most surprised us was to find +in this vault, on the top of the mountain, muscle shells; and in some +places they were in such great quantities, that the whole rock appeared +to be composed only of sand and shells. Returning to Persia, we +perceived many of these shelly mountains along the coast of the Caspian +sea." + +To these I could subjoin many other authorities which I suppress, not +willing to tire those who have no need of superabundant proofs, and who +are convinced by their sight, as I have been, of the existence of shells +wherever we chuse to seek for them. + +In France, we not only find the shells of the French coast, but also +such as have never been seen in those seas. Some philosophers assert, +that the quantity of these foreign petrified shells is much greater than +those of our climate; but I think this opinion unfounded; for, +independent of the shell-fish which inhabit the bottom of the sea, and +are seldom brought up by the fishermen, and which consequently may be +looked on as foreigners, although they exist in our seas, I see, by +comparing the petrifactions with the living analagous animals, there +are more of those of our coasts than of others: for example, most of the +cockles, muscles, oysters, ear-shells, limpets, nautili, stars, +tubulites, corals, madrepores, &c. found in so many places, are +certainly the productions of our seas; and though a great number appear +which are foreign or unknown, the cornu ammonis, the lapides juduica, +&c. yet I am convinced, from repeated observations, that the number of +these kinds is small in comparison with the shells of our own coasts: +besides, what composes the bottom of almost all our marble and +lime-stone but madrepores, astroites, and all those other productions +which are formed by sea insects, and formerly called marine plants? +Shells, however abundant, form only a small part of these productions, +many of which originate in our seas, and particularly in the +Mediterranean. + +The Red sea produces corals, madrepores, and marine plants in the +greatest abundance: no part furnishes a greater variety than the port of +Tor; in calm weather so great a quantity present themselves, that the +bottom of the sea resembles a forest; some of the branched madrepores +are eight or ten feet high. In the Mediterranean sea, at Marseilles, +near the coasts of Italy and Sicily; in most of the gulphs of the +ocean, around islands, on banks, and in all temperate climates, where +the sea is but of a moderate depth, they are very common. + +M. Peyssonel was the first who discovered that corals, madrepores, &c. +owed their origin to animals, and were not plants as had been supposed. +The observation of M. Peyssonel was a long time doubted; some +naturalists, at first, rejected it with a kind of disdain, nevertheless +they have been obliged since to acknowledge its truth, and the whole +world is at length satisfied that these formerly supposed marine plants, +are nothing but hives or cells formed by insects, in which they live as +fish do in their shells. These bodies were, at first, placed in the +class of minerals, then passed into that of vegetables, and now remain +fixed in that of animals, the genuine operations of which they must ever +be considered. + +There are shell-fish which live at the bottom of the sea, and which are +never cast on the shore; authors call them Pelogiæ, to distinguish them +from the others which they call Litterales. It is to be supposed the +cornu ammonis, and some other kinds that are only found in a petrified +state, belong to the former, and that they were filled with the stony +sediment in the very places they are found. There might also have been +certain animals, whose species are perished, and of which number this +shell-fish might be ranked. The extraordinary fossil bones found in +Siberia, Canada, Ireland, and many other places, seem to confirm this +conjecture, for no animal has hitherto been discovered to whom such +bones could belong, as they are, for the most part, of an enormous size. + +These shells, according to Woodward, are met with from the top to the +bottom of quarries, pits, and at the bottom of the deepest mines of +Hungary. And Mr. Ray assures us, they are found a thousand feet deep in +the rocks which border the isle of Calda, and in Pembrokeshire in +England. + +Shells are not only found in a petrified state, at great depths, and at +the tops of the highest mountains, but there are some met with in their +natural condition, and which have the gloss, colours, and lightness of +sea-shells; and to convince ourselves entirely of this matter, we have +only to compare them with those found on the sea shores. A slight +examination will prove that these fossil and petrified shells are the +same as those of the sea; they are marked with the same articulations +and in the glossopetri, and other teeth of fishes, which are sometimes +found adhering to the jaw-bone, the teeth of the fish are remarked to be +smooth and worn at the extremities, and that they have been made use of +when the animals were alive. + +Almost every where on land we meet with fossil-shells, and of those of +the same kind, some are small, others large, some young, others old; +some imperfect, others extremely perfect and we likewise sometimes see +the young ones adhering to the old. + +The shell-fish called _purpura_ has a long tongue, the extremity of +which is bony, and so sharp, that it pierces the shells of other fish; +by which means it draws nutriment from them. Shells pierced in this +manner are frequently found in the earth, which is an incontestible +proof that they formerly inclosed living fish, and existed in those +parts where there were the Purpura. + +The obelisks of St. Peter's at Rome, according to John of Latran, were +said to come from the pyramids of Egypt; they are of red granite, which +is a kind of rock-stone, and, as we have observed, contains no shells; +but the African and Egyptian marble, and the porphyry said to have been +cut from the temple of Solomon, and the palaces of the kings of Egypt, +and used at Rome in different buildings, are filled with shells. Red +porphyry is composed of an infinite number of prickles of the species of +echinus, or sea chesnut; they are placed pretty near each other, and +form all the small white spots which are in the porphyry. Each of these +white spots has a black one in its centre, which is the section of the +longitudinal tube of the prickles of the echinus. At Fichen, three +leagues from Dijon, in Burgundy, is a red stone perfectly similar in its +composition to porphyry, and which differs from it only in hardness, not +being more so than marble; it appears almost formed of prickles of the +echini, and its beds are of a very great extent. Many beautiful pieces +of workmanship have been made of it in this province, and particularly +the steps of the pedestal of the equestrian statue of Louis le Grand, at +Dijon. + +This species of stone is also found at Montbard, in Burgundy, where +there is an extensive quarry; it is not so hard as marble, contains more +of the echini, and less of the red matter. From this it appears that +the ancient porphyry of Egypt differs only from that of Burgundy in the +degree of hardness, and the number of the points of the echini. + +With respect to what the curious call green porphyry, I rather suppose +it to be a granite than a porphyry; it is not composed of spots like the +red porphyry, and its substance appears to be similar to that of a +common granite. In Tuscany, in the stone with which the ancient walls of +Volatera were built, there are a great quantity of shells, and this wall +was built 2500 years ago. Most marbles, porphyries, and other stones of +the most ancient buildings, contain shells and other wrecks of marine +productions, as well as the marble we at present take from the quarry; +therefore it cannot be doubted, independent even of the sacred testimony +of holy writ, that before the deluge the earth was composed of the same +materials at it is at present. + +From all these facts it is plain that petrified shells are found in +Europe, Asia, Africa, and in every place where the observations have +been made; they are also found in America, in the Brasils; for example, +in Tucumama, in Terra Magellinica, and in such a great quantity in the +Antilles, that directly below the cultivable land, the bottom of which +the inhabitants call lime, is nothing but a composition of shells, +madrepores, astroites, and other productions of the sea. These facts +would have made me think that shells and other petrified marine +productions were to be found in the greatest part of the continent of +America, and especially in the mountains, as Woodward asserts; but M. +Condamine, who lived several years at Peru, has assured me he could not +discover any in the Cordeliers, although he had carefully sought for +them. This exception would be singular, and the consequences that might +be drawn from it would be still more so; but I own that, in spite of the +testimony of this celebrated naturalist, I am much inclined to suppose, +that in the mountains of Peru, as well as elsewhere, there are shells +and other marine petrifications, although they have not been discovered. +It is well known, that in matter of testimonies, two positive witnesses, +who assert to have seen a thing, is sufficient to make a complete proof; +whereas ten thousand negative witnesses, and who can only assert not to +have seen a thing, can only raise a slight doubt. This reason, united +with the strength of analogy, induces me to persist in thinking the +shells will be found on the mountains of Peru, especially if we search +for them on the rise of the mountain, and not at the summit. + +The tops of the highest mountains are generally composed of rock, stone +granite, and other vitrifiable matters, which contain no shells. + +All these matters were formed out of the beds of the sand of the sea, +which covered the tops of these mountains. When the sea left them, the +sand and other light bodies were carried by the waters into the plains, +so that there remained only rocks on the tops of the mountains, which +had been formed under those beds of sand. At two, three, or four hundred +fathoms below the tops of these mountains, are often found marble and +other calcinable matter, which are disposed in parallel strata, and +contain shells and other marine productions; therefore it is not +surprising that M. de la Condamine did not find any shells on these +mountains, especially if he sought for them in the elevated parts of +those mountains which are composed of rock, free-stone, or vitrifiable +sand; but had he examined the lower parts of the Cordeliers, he would +undoubtedly have found strata of stone, marble, earth, &c. mixed with +shells; for in every country where observations have been made, such +beds have always been met with. + +But suppose that in fact there are no marine productions in the +mountains of Peru, all that may be concluded from it will no ways affect +our theory; and it might be possible, that there are some parts of the +globe which never were covered with water, especially of such elevation +as the Cordeliers. But in this case there might be some curious +observations made on those mountains, for they would not be composed of +parallel strata, the materials also would be very different from those +we are acquainted with; they would not have perpendicular cracks; the +composition of the rocks and stones would not at all resemble those of +other countries; and lastly, in these mountains we should find the +ancient structure of the earth such as it originally was before it was +changed by the motion of the waters; we should see the first state of +the globe, the old matters of which it was composed, its form, and the +natural arrangement of its parts; but this is too much to expect, and on +too slight foundations; and it is more conformable to reason to conclude +that fossil-shells are to be found in those mountains, as well as in +every other place. + +With respect to the manner in which shells are placed in the strata of +earth or sand, Woodward says, "All shells that are met with in an +infinity of strata of earth, and banks of rocks, in the highest +mountains, and in the deepest quarries and mines, in flints, &c. &c. in +masses of sulphur, marcasites, and other metallic and mineral bodies, +are filled with similar substances to that which includes them, and +never any heterogeneous matter, &c. + +"In the sand stones of all countries (the specific weight of the +different kinds of which vary but little, being generally with respect +to water as 2-1/2 or 9/16 to 1), we find only the conchae, and other +shells which are nearly of the same weight, but they are usually found +in very great numbers, whereas it is very rare to meet with +oyster-shells (whose specific weight is but as 2-1/3 to 1), or sea +cockles (whose weight is but as 2 or 2-1/8 to 1), or other sorts of +lighter shells; but on the contrary in chalk, (which is lighter than +stone, being to water but as 2-1/10 to 1), we find only cockles and +other kinds of lighter shells, page 32, 33." + +It must be remarked, that what Woodward says in this place with respect +to specific gravity, must not be looked upon as a general rule, for we +find lighter and heavier shells in the same matters; for example, shells +of cockles, of oysters, of echini, &c. are found in the same stones and +earth; and even in the royal cabinet may be seen a petrified cockle in a +cornelian, and echini petrified in an agate, &c. therefore the specific +weight of the shells has not influenced so much as Woodward supposes +their position in the earth. The reason why such light shells are found +more abundantly in chalk is, that chalk is only the ruinated part of +shells, and that those of the echini being lighter and thinner than +others, would have been most easily reduced into powder or chalk, so +that the strata of chalk are only met with in the places where formerly +a great abundance of these light shells were collected, the destruction +of which formed that chalk, in which we find those shells, which having +resisted the frictions, are preserved entire, or at least in parts large +enough to discover their species. + +But this subject is treated more fully in our discourse on minerals; we +shall here content ourselves with saying, that a modification must be +given to Woodward's expressions: he seems to say, that shells are found +in flints, cornelians, in ores, and sulphur, as often, and in as great +a number as in other matters; whereas the truth is, that they are very +rare in all vitrifiable or purely inflammable substances; and, on the +contrary, are in prodigious abundance in chalk, marl, and marbles, +insomuch that we cannot absolutely pretend to say, that the lightest and +heaviest shells are found in corresponding strata, but only that in +general they are oftener found so than otherwise. They are all filled +with the substance which surrounds them, whether found in horizontal +strata or in perpendicular fissures, because both have been formed by +the waters, although at different times and in different manners. Those +found in horizontal strata of stone, marble, &c. have been deposited by +the motion of the waves of the sea, and those in flints, cornelians, and +all matters which are in the perpendicular fissures, have been produced +by the particular motion of a small quantity of water, loaded with +lapidific or metallic substances. In both cases these matters were +reduced into a fine and impalpable powder, which has filled the shells +so fully and absolutely, as not to have left the least vacuum. + +There is therefore in stone, marble, &c. a great multitude of shells +which are whole, beautiful, and so little changed, that they may be +easily compared with the shells preserved in cabinets, or found on the +sea shores. + +Woodward, in pages 23 and 24, proceeds, "There are, besides these, great +multitudes of shells contained in stones, &c. which are entire and +absolutely free from any such mineral mixture; which may be compared +with those at this time seen on our shores, and which will be found not +to have any difference, being precisely of the same figure and size; of +the same substance and texture as the peculiar matter which composes +them is the same, and is disposed and arranged in the same manner; the +direction of their fibres and spiral lines are the same, the composition +of the small lama formed by their fibres is the same in the one as the +other; we see in the same part vestigia of tendons, by means of which +the animal was fastened and joined to its shell; we see the same +tubercles, stria and pipes; in short, the whole is alike, whether within +or without the shell, in its cavity or on its convexity, in its +substance or on its superficies. In other respects these fossil +shell-fish are subject to the same common accidents as those of the sea; +for example, they sometimes grow to one another, the least are adherent +to the large; they have vermicular conduits; pearls are found therein, +and other similar matters which have been produced by the animal when it +inhabited its shell; and what is very considerable, their specific +gravity is exactly the same as that of their kind found actually in the +sea; in all chymical experiments they answer exactly with sea-shells; +when dissolved they have the same appearance, smell and taste; in a +word, their resemblance is perfectly exact." + +I have often observed with astonishment, as I have already said, whole +mountains, chains of rocks, enormous banks of quarries, so full of +shells and other wrecks of marine productions, that their bulk surpassed +that of the matter in which they were deposited. + +I have seen cultivated fields so full of petrified cockles that a man +might pick them up with his eyes shut, others covered with cornu +ammonis, and some with cardites; and the more we examine the earth, the +more we shall be convinced that the number of these petrifications is +infinite, and conclude, that it is impossible that all the animals which +inhabited these shells existed at one time. + +I have made an observation, that in all countries where we find a very +great number of petrified shells in the cultivated lands which are +whole, well preserved, and totally apart, have been divided by the +action of the frost, which destroys the stone and suffers the petrified +shells to subsist a longer time. + +This immense quantity of marine fossils found in so many places, proves +that they could not have been transported thither by the deluge; for if +these shells had been brought on the earth by a deluge, the greatest +part would have remained on the surface of the earth, or at least would +not have entered to the depth of seven or eight hundred feet in the most +solid marble. + +In all quarries these shells form a share of the internal part of the +stone, sometimes externally covered with stalactites, which is much less +ancient matter than stone, which contains shells. Another proof this +happened not by a deluge is, that bones, horns, claws, &c. of land +animals, are found but very rarely, and not at all in marble and other +hard stone whereas if it was the effect of a deluge, where all must have +perished, we should meet with the remains of land animals as well as +those of the sea. + +It is a vain supposition to pretend that all the earth was dissolved at +the deluge, nor can we give any foundation to such idea, but by +supposing a second miracle, to give the water the property of a +universal dissolvent. Besides, what annihilates the supposition, and +renders it even contradictory, is, that if all matters were dissolved by +that water, yet shells have not been so, since we find them entire and +well preserved in all the masses which are said to have been dissolved; +this evidently proves that there never was such dissolution, and that +the arrangement of the parallel strata was not made in an instant, but +by successive sediments: for it is evident to all who will take the +trouble of observing, that the arrangement of all the materials which +compose the globe, is the work of the waters. The question therefore is +only whether this arrangement was made at once, or in a length of time: +now we have shewn it could not be done all at once, because the +materials have not kept the order of specific weight, and there has not +been a general dissolution; therefore this arrangement must have been +produced by sediments deposited in succession of time; any other +revolution, motion, or cause, would have produced a very different +arrangement. Besides, particular revolutions, or accidental causes, +could not have produced a similar effect on the whole globe. + +Let us see what the historian of the Academy says on this subject anno +1718, p. 3. "The numerous remains of extensive inundations, and the +manner in which we must conceive mountains to have been formed, +sufficiently proves that great revolutions have happened to the surface +of the earth. As far as we have been able to penetrate we find little +else but ruins, wrecks, and vast bodies heaped up together and +incorporated into one mass, without the smallest appearance of order or +design. If there is some kind of regular organization in the terrestrial +globe it is deeper than we have been able to examine, and all our +researches must terminate in digging among the ruins of the external +coat, but which will still find sufficient employment for our +philosophers. + +"M. de Jussieu found in the environs of St. Chaumont a great quantity of +slaty or foliated stones, every foliage of which was marked with the +impression of a branch, a leaf, or the fragment of a leaf of some plant: +the representations of leaves were exactly extended, as if they had been +carefully spread on the stone by the hand; this proves they had been +brought thither by the water, which always keeps leaves in that state: +they were in different situations, sometimes two or three together. It +may easily be supposed that a leaf deposited by water upon soft mud, and +afterwards covered with another layer of mud, imprints on the upper the +image of one of its two surfaces, and on the under the image of the +other; and on being hardened and petrified would appear to have taken +different impressions; but, however natural this supposition may be, the +fact is not so, for the two laminæ of stone bear impressions of the same +side of the leaf, the one in alto, the other in bas releaf. It was M. +Jussieu who made these observations on the figured stones of St. +Chaumont; to him we shall leave the explication, and pass to objects +which are more general and interesting. + +"All the impressions on the stones of St. Chaumont are of foreign +plants; they are not to be found in any part of France, but only in the +East Indies or the hot climates of America; they are for the most part +capillary plants, generally of the species of fern, whose hard and +compact coat renders them more able to imprint and preserve themselves. +Some leaves of Indian plants imprinted on the stones of Germany appeared +astonishing to M. Leibnitz, but here we find the same wonderful affair +infinitely multiplied. There even seems in this respect to be an +unaccountable destination of nature, for in all the stones of St. +Chaumont not a single plant of the country has been found. + +"It is certain, by the number of fossil-shells in the quarries and +mountains, that this country, as well as many others, must have formerly +been covered with the sea. But how has the American or Indian sea +reached thither? To explain this, and many other wonderful phenomena, it +may be supposed, with much probability, that the sea originally covered +the whole terrestrial globe: but this supposition will not hold good, +because how were terrestrial plants to exist? It evidently, therefore, +must have been great inundations which have conveyed the plants of one +country into the others. + +"M. de Jussieu thinks, that as the bed of the sea is continually rising, +in consequence of the mud and sand which the rivers incessantly convey +there, the sea, at first confined between natural dykes, surmounted +them, and was dispersed over the land, and that the dykes were +themselves undermined by the waters and overthrown therein. In the +earliest time of the formation of the earth, when no one thing had taken +a regular form, prodigious and sudden revolutions might then have been +made, of which we no longer have examples, because the whole is now in +such a permanent state, that the changes must be inconsiderable and by +degrees. + +"By some of these great revolutions the East and West Indian seas may +have been driven to Europe, and carried with them foreign plants +floating on its waters, which they tore up in their road, and deposited +gently in places where the water was but shallow and would soon +evaporate." + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[220:A] Anno 1720; page 5. + +[227:A] A kind of soft gravelly stone. + +[233:A] On this subject see Stenon, Ray, Woodward, and others. + +[234:A] See Shaw's Voyages, Vol. ii, pages 40 and 41. + +[237:A] See Shaw's Travels. + +[240:A] Thevenot, Vol. I, page 25. + +[240:B] Voyage of Paul Lucus, Vol. II, page 380. + + + + +ARTICLE IX. + +ON THE INEQUALITIES OF THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH. + + +The inequalities which are on the surface of the earth, and which might +be regarded as an imperfection to its figure, are necessary to preserve +vegetation and life on the terrestrial globe. To be assured of this, it +is only requisite to conceive what the earth would be if it was even and +regular. Instead of agreeable hills, from whence pure streams of waters +flow, to support the verdure of the earth; instead of those rich and +flourishing meadows, where plants and animals find agreeable +subsistence; a dismal sea would cover the whole globe, and the earth, +deprived of all its valuable qualities, would only remain an obscure and +forsaken planet, at best only destined for the abode of fishes. + +But independent of moral considerations, which seldom form a proof in +philosophy, there is a physical necessity why the earth must be +irregular on its surface; for supposing it was perfectly regular in its +origin, the motion of the waters, the subterraneous fires, the wind, and +other external causes, would, in course of time, have necessarily +produced irregularities similar to those now seen. + +The greatest inequalities next to the elevations of mountains, are the +depths of the ocean; this depth is very different even at great +distances from land; it is said there are parts above a league deep, but +those are few, and the most general depths are from 60 to 150 fathoms. +The gulphs bordering on the coasts are much less deep, and the straits +are generally the most shallow. + +To sound the depths of the sea, a piece of lead of 30 or 40lb. is made +use of, fastened to a small cord; this is a good method for common +depths, but is not to be depended upon when the depth is considerable; +because the cord being specifically lighter than the water, after it has +descended to a certain degree, the weight of the lead and that of the +cord is no more than a like volume of water; then the lead descends no +longer, but moves in an oblique line, and floats at the same depth: to +sound great depths, therefore, an iron chain is requisite, or some +substance heavier than water. It is very probable that for want of +considering this circumstance, navigators tell us that the sea in many +places has no bottom. + +In general, the profundities in open seas increase or diminish in a +pretty uniform manner, and commonly the farther from shore the greater +the depth; yet this is not without exception, there are places in the +midst of the sea where shoals are found, as at Abrolhos in the Atlantic; +and others where there are banks of a very considerable extent, as are +daily experienced by the navigators to the East Indies. + +So likewise along shore the depths are very unequal, nevertheless we may +lay it down as a certain rule, that the depth there is always +proportionate to the height of that shore. It is the same in great +rivers, where the high shores always announce a great depth. + +It is more easy to measure the heights of mountains, whether by means of +practical geometry, or by the barometer. This instrument gives the +height of a mountain very exactly, especially in a country where its +variation is not considerable, as at Peru, and under the other parts of +the equator. By one or other of these methods, the height of most +eminences has been measured; for example, it has been found that the +highest mountains of Switzerland are about 1600 fathoms higher than +Canigau, which is one of the most elevated of the Pyrennees; those +mountains appear to be the highest in Europe, since a great quantity of +rivers flow from them, which carry their water into very remote and +different seas, as the Po, which flows into the Adriatic; the Rhine, +which loses itself in the sands in Holland; the Rhone, which falls into +the Mediterranean; and the Danube, which goes to the Black Sea. These +four rivers, whose mouths are so remote from each other, all derive a +part of their waters from Mount Saint Godard and the neighbouring +mountain, which proves that this place is the highest in all Europe. +The highest mountains in Asia are Mount Taurus, Mount Imaus, Caucasus, +and the mountains of Japan, all which are loftier than those of Europe; +the mountains in Africa, as the Great Atlas, and the mountains of the +Moon, are at least as high as those in Asia, and the highest of all are +in South America, particularly those of Peru, which are more than 3000 +fathoms above the level of the sea. In general the mountains between the +tropics are loftier than those of the temperate zones, and these more +than the frigid zones, so that the nearer we approach the equator, the +greater are the inequalities of the earth. These inequalities, although +very considerable with respect to us, are scarcely any thing when +considered with respect to the whole globe. Three thousand fathom +difference to 3000 leagues diameter, is but one fathom to a league, or +one foot to 2200 feet, which on a globe of 2-1/2 feet diameter, does not +make the 16th part of a French line. Thus the earth, which appears to us +crossed and intersected by the enormous height of mountains, and by a +frightful depth of sea, is nevertheless, relative to its size, but +slightly furrowed with irregularities, so very trifling, that they can +cause no difference to the general figure of the globe. In continents +the mountains are continued and form chains. In islands, they are more +interrupted, and generally raised above the sea, in the forms of cones +or pyramids, and are called peaks. The peak of Teneriffe, in the island +of Fer, is one of the highest mountains on the earth; it is near a +league and a half perpendicular above the level of the sea; the peak of +St. George, in one of the Azores, and the peak of Adam, in the island of +Ceylon, are also very lofty. These peaks are composed of rocks, heaped +one upon the other, and they vomit from their summits fire, cinders, +bitumen, minerals, and stones. There are islands which are only tops of +mountains, as of St. Helena, Ascension, most of the Azores, and +Canaries. We must remark, that in most of the islands, promontories, and +other projecting lands in the sea, the middle is always the highest; and +they are generally separated by chains of mountains, which divide them +in their greatest length, as (Gransbain) the Grampian mountains in +Scotland, which extend from east to west, and divide Great Britain into +two parts. It is the same with the islands of Sumatra, Lucca, Borneo, +Celebes, Cuba, St. Domingo, and the peninsula of Malaya, &c. and also +Italy, which is traversed through its whole length by the Apennine +mountains. + +Mountains, as we find, differ greatly in height; the hills are lowest, +after them come the mountains of a moderate height, which are followed +by a third rank still higher, which, like the preceding, are generally +loaded with trees and plants, but which furnish no springs except at +their bottoms. In the highest mountains we find only sand, stones, +flints, and rocks, whose summits often rise above the clouds. Exactly at +the foot of these rocks there are small spaces, plains, hollows, and +kinds of vallies, where the rain, snow, and ice remain, and form ponds, +morasses, and springs, from whence rivers derive their origin. + +The form of mountains is also very different: some form chains whose +height is nearly equal in a long extent of soil, others are divided by +deep vallies; some are regular, and others as irregular as possible; and +sometimes in the middle of a valley or plain, we find a little mountain. +There are also two sorts of plains, the one in the low lands, the other +in mountains. The first are generally divided by some large river: the +others, though of a very considerable extent, are dry, and at farthest +have only a small rivulet. These plains on mountains are often very +high, and difficult of access; they form countries above other +countries, as in Auvergne, Savoy, and many other high places: the soil +is firm, and produces much grass, and odoriferous plants, which render +these plains the best pasture in the world. + +The summits of high mountains are composed of rocks of different +heights, which resemble from a distance the waves of the sea. It is not +on this observation alone we can rely that the mountains have been +formed by the waves, I only relate it because it accords with the rest: +but that which evidently proves that the sea once covered and formed +mountains, are the shells and other marine productions found throughout +in such great quantities, that it is not possible for them to have been +transported by the sea into such remote continents, and deposited to +such considerable depths; to this may be added, the horizontal and +parallel strata every where met with, and which can only have been +formed by the waters. The composition even of the hardest matters, as +stone and marble, prove they had been reduced into fine powder before +their formation, and precipitated to the bottom of the water in form of +a sediment: it is also proved by the exactness with which fossil-shells +are moulded in those matters in which they are found; the inside of +these shells are absolutely filled with the same matters as that in +which they are enclosed; the corresponding angles of mountains and +hills, which no other cause than the currents of the sea could have been +able to form; the equality in the height of opposite hills, and beds of +different matters, formed at the same levels, and, in short, the +direction of mountains, whose chains extend in length in the same +direction as the waves of the sea extend, incontestibly demonstrate the +fact. + +With respect to the depths on the surface of the earth, the greatest, +without contradiction, are the depths of the sea; but as they do not +present themselves to our sight, and as we can only judge of them by the +plumb line, we shall only speak of those which appear on dry land, such +as the deep vallies between mountains, the precipices between rocks, the +abysses perceived from the tops of mountains, as the abyss of Mount +Ararat, the precipices of the Alps, the vallies of the Pyrennees, &c. +These depths are a natural consequence of the elevation of mountains; +they receive the waters and the earth which flow from the mountains, and +the soil is generally very fertile, and are fully inhabited. + +The precipices which are between rocks are frequently formed by the +sinking of one side, the base of which sometimes gives way more on one +side than the other, by the action of the air and frost, which splits +and divides them, or by the impetuous violence of torrents. But these +abysses, or vast and enormous precipices, found at the summits of +mountains, and to the bottom of which it is not possible sometimes to +descend, although they are above a mile, or a mile and a half round, +have been formed by the fire. These were formerly the funnels of +volcanos, and all the matter which is there deficient has been ejected +by the action and explosion of these fires, which are since extinguished +through a defect of combustible matter. The abyss of Mount Ararat, of +which M. Tournefort gives a description in his voyage to the Levant, is +surrounded with black and burnt rocks, as one day the abysses of Etna, +Vesuvius, and other volcanos, will be, when they have consumed all the +combustible matters they include. + +In Plots' Natural History of Staffordshire, in England, a kind of gulph +is spoken of which has been sounded to the depth of 2600 perpendicular +feet without meeting with any water, or the bottom being found, as the +rope was not of sufficient length to reach it. + +Greatest cavities and deepest mines are generally in mountains, and they +never descend to a level with the plains, therefore by these cavities we +are only acquainted with the inside of a mountain, and not with the +internal part of the globe itself. + +Besides, these depths are not very considerable. Ray asserts that the +deepest mines are not above half a mile deep. The mine of Cotteberg, +which in the time of Agricola passed for the deepest of all known mines, +was only 2500 feet perpendicular. It is evident there are holes in +certain places, as that in Staffordshire, or Pool's Hole, in Derbyshire, +the depth of which is perhaps greater; but all this is nothing in +comparison with the thickness of the globe. + +If the kings of Egypt, instead of having erected pyramids, and raised +such sumptuous monuments of their riches and vanity, had been at the +same expence to sound the earth, and make a deep excavation to the depth +of a league, they, perhaps, might have found substances which would have +amply recompensed the trouble, labour, and expence, or at least we +should have received information on the matters of which the internal +part of the globe is composed, which might have been very useful, and +which we at present have not. + +But let us return to the mountains; the highest are in the southern +countries, and the nearer we approach the equator, the more inequalities +we find on the surface of the globe. This is easy to prove, by a short +enumeration of the mountains and islands. + +In America, the chain of the Cordeliers, the highest mountains of the +earth, is exactly under the equator, and extends on the two sides far +beyond the tropic circles. + +In Africa, the highest mountains of the Moon, and Monomotapa, the great +and the little Atlas, are under the equator, or not far from it. + +In Asia, Mount Caucasus, the chain of which extends under different +names as far as the mountains of China, is nearer the equator than the +poles. + +In Europe, the Pyrennees, the Alps, and mountains of Greece, which are +only the same chain, are still less distant from the equator than the +poles. + +Now these mountains which we have enumerated, are all higher, more +considerable and extended in length and breadth than the mountains of +the northern countries. + +With respect to their direction, the Alps form a chain which crosses the +whole continent from Spain to China. These mountains begin at the sea +coast of Galicia, reach to the Pyrennees, cross France, by Vivares, and +Auvergne, pass through Italy and extend into Germany, beyond Dalmatia, +as far as Macedonia; from thence they join with the mountains of +Armenia, Caucasus, Taurus, Imaus, and extend as far as the Tartarian +sea. So likewise Mount Atlas traverses the whole continent of Africa, +from west to east, from the kingdom of Fez to the Straits of the Red +Sea; and the mountains of the Moon have the same direction. + +But in America, the direction is quite contrary, and the chains of the +Cordeliers and other mountains extend from south to north more than from +east to west. + +What we have now said on the great eminences of the earth, may also be +observed on the greatest depths of the sea. The vast and highest seas +are nearer the equator than the poles; and there results from this +observation, that the greatest inequalities of the globe are in the +southern climate. These irregularities on the surface of the earth, are +the causes of an infinity of extraordinary effects: for example, between +the Indus and the Ganges, there is a large peninsula, which is divided +through its middle, by a chain of high mountains called the Gate, and +which extends from north to south, from the extremities of Mount +Caucasus to Cape Comorin; on one is the coast of Malabar, and the other +Coromandel; on the side of Malabar, between this chain of mountains and +the sea, the summer season lasts from September to April, during which +the sky is serene and dry; on the other side the Coromandel the above +period is their winter, and it rains every day plentifully and from the +month of April to the month of September is their summer, whereas it is +winter in Malabar; insomuch, that in many places, which are scarcely 20 +miles distant, we may, by crossing the mountains, change seasons. It is +said that the same thing takes place at Razalgat in Arabia, and at +Jamaica, which is divided through its middle by a chain of mountains, +whose direction is from east to west, and that the plantations to the +south of these mountains feel the summer heat, at the time those to the +north endure the rigor of winter. + +Peru, which is situated under the line, and extends about a thousand +leagues to the south, is divided into three long and narrow parts; these +the natives call Lanos, Sierras, and Andes. The Lanos, which comprehends +the plains, extends along the coast of the South Sea: the Sierras are +hills with some vallies, and the Andes are the famous Cordeliers, the +highest mountains that are known. The Lanos is about ten leagues in +breadth; in many places the Sierras are twenty leagues broad, and the +Andes in some places more and in some less. The breadth is from east to +west, and the length from north to south. This part of the world is +remarkable for the following particulars: first, in the Lanos the wind +almost constantly blows from the south-west, which is contrary to what +happens in the torrid zone: secondly, it never rains nor thunders in the +Lanos, although there is plenty of dew: thirdly, it almost continually +rains in the Andes: fourthly, in the Sierras, between the Lanos and the +Andes, it rains from September to April. + +It was for a long time supposed, that the chains of the high mountains +run from west to east, till the contrary was found in America. But no +person before M. Bourguet discovered the surprising regularity of the +structure of those great masses: he found (after having crossed the Alps +thirty times in fourteen different parts of it, twice over the Apennine +mountains, and made divers tours in the environs of these mountains, and +of Mount Jura) that all mountains are formed nearly after the manner of +works of a fortification. When the body of the mountain runs from east +to west, it forms prominences, which face the north and south; this +wonderful regularity is so striking in vallies, that we seem to walk in +a very regular covered way; if, for example, we travel in a valley from +north to south, we perceive that the mountain on the right forms +projections which front the east, and those of the mountain on the left +front the west, so that the saliant angles of one side reciprocally +answer the returning angles of the other, which are always alternatively +opposed to them. The angles which mountains form in great vallies are +less acute, because the direction is less steep, and they are farther +distant from each other. In plains they are not so perceptible, except +by the banks of rivers, which are generally in the middle of them, and +whose natural windings answer the most advanced angles or striking +projections of the mountains. It is astonishing so visible a thing was +so long unobserved, for when in a valley the inclination of one of the +mountains which border it is less steep than that of the other, the +river takes its course much nearer the steepest mountain, and does not +flow through its middle. + +To these observations we may join other particular ones, which confirm +them; for example, the mountains of Switzerland are much more steep, and +their direction much greater on the south side than on the north, and on +the west side than on the east. This may be perceived in the mountains +of Gemmi, Brisa, and almost every other mountain in this country. The +highest are those which separate Valesia and the Grisons from Savoy, +Piedmont, and Tirol. These countries are only a continuation of these +mountains, the chain of which extends to the Mediterranean, and +continues even pretty far under the sea. The Pyrennees are also only a +continuation of that vast mountain which begins in Upper Valesia, and +whose branches extend very far to the west and south, preserving +throughout the same great height; whereas on the side of the north and +of the east these mountains grow lower by degrees, till they become +plains; as we see by the large tract which the Rhine and Danube water +before they reach their mouths, whereas the Rhone descends with rapidity +towards the south into the Mediterranean. The same observation is found +to hold good in the mountains of England and Norway; but the part of the +world where this is most evidently seen is at Peru and Chili; the +Cordeliers are cut very sharply on the western side, the length of the +Pacific Ocean, whereas on the eastern side they lower by degrees into +large plains, watered by the greatest rivers of the world.[279:A] + +M. Bourguet, to whom we owe this great discovery of the correspondence +of the angles of mountains, terms it "_The Key of the Theory of the +Earth_;" nevertheless, it appears to me, that if he had conceived all +the importance of it, he would more successfully have made use of it, +by connecting it with suitable facts, and would have given a more +probable theory of the earth; whereas in his treatise he presents only +the skeleton of an hypothetical system, most of the conclusions of which +are false or precarious. The theory we have given turns on four +principal facts, which cannot be doubted, after the proofs have been +examined on which they are founded. The first is, that the earth is +every where, and to considerable depths, composed of parallel strata, +and matters which have formerly been in a state of softness: the second, +that the sea has for ages covered the earth which we now inhabit; the +third, that the tides and other motions of the waters produce +inequalities at the bottom of the sea; and the fourth, that the +mountains have taken their form and the correspondent direction from the +currents of the sea. + +After having read the proofs which the following articles contain, it +may be determined, whether I was wrong to assert, that these +circumstances solidly established also ascertains the truth of the +theory of the earth. What I have said on the formation of mountains has +no need of a more ample explanation; but as it might be objected that I +do not assign a reason for the formation of the peaks or points of +mountains, no more than for some other particular circumstances, shall +add the observations and reflections which I have made on this subject. + +I have endeavoured to form a clear and general idea of the manner in +which the different matters that compose the earth are arranged, and it +appears to me they may be reduced into two general classes; the first +includes all the matters we find placed in strata, or beds horizontally +or regularly inclined; and the second comprehends all matters formed in +masses, or in veins, either perpendicular or irregularly inclined. In +the first class are included sands, clays, granite, flints, free-stone, +coals, slates, marls, chalks, calcinable stones, marbles, &c. In the +second I rank metals, minerals, crystals, precious stones and small +flints: these two classes generally comprehend all the known materials +of the earth. The first owe their origin to the sediments carried away +and deposited by the sea, and should be distinguished into those which +being assayed in the fire, calcine and are reduced into lime, and those +which fuse and are convertible into glass. The materials of the second +class are all vitrifiable excepting those which the fire entirely +consumes by inflammation. + +In the first class we distinguish two kinds of sands; the one, which is +more abundant than any other matter of the globe, is vitrifiable, or +rather is only fragments of actual glass; the other, whose quantity is +much less, is calcinable, and must be looked upon as the powder of +stone, and which differs only from gravel by the size of the grains. The +vitrifiable sand is, in general, deposited in beds, which are often +interrupted by masses of free-stone, granite, and flint; and sometimes +these matters are also in banks of great extent. + +By examining these vitrifiable matters, we find only a few sea shells +there, and those not placed in beds, but dispersed about as if thrown +there by chance. For example, I have never seen them in free-stone; that +stone which is very plenty in certain places, is only composed of sandy +parts, which are re-united, and are only met with in sandy soils; and +the quarries of it are generally in peaked hills and in divided +eminences. We may work these quarries in all directions, and if they are +in large beds, they are much farther from each other than in quarries of +calcinable stone or marble. Blocks of free-stone may be cut of all +dimensions and in all directions, although it is difficult to work, it +nevertheless has but a degree of hardness sufficient to resist powerful +strokes without splitting; for friction easily reduces it into sand, +excepting certain black pieces found therein, and which are so very +hard, that the best files cannot touch them. Rock is vitrifiable as +free-stone, and of the same nature, only it is harder and the parts more +connected. This also contains many hard pieces, as may easily be +remarked on the summits of high mountains, which cut and tear the shoes +of travellers. This rocky stone, which is found at the top of high +mountains, and which I look upon as a kind of granite, contains a great +quantity of talky leaves, and is so hard as not to be worked but by an +infinite deal of labour. + +I have narrowly examined these sharp pieces which are found in +free-stone and rock, and have discovered it to be a metallic matter, +melted and calcined by a very violent fire, and which perfectly +resembles certain substances thrown out by the volcanos, of which I saw +a great quantity when I was in Italy, where the people called them +Schiarri. They are very heavy black masses, on which neither water nor +the file can make any impression, and the matter of which is different +from that of the lava; for this is a kind of glass, whereas the other +appears to be more metallic than vitreous. The sharp pieces in +free-stone, and rock, resemble greatly the first matter, which seems +still to prove that all these matters have been formerly liquified by +fire. + +We sometimes see on the upper parts of mountains, a prodigious quantity +of blocks of this mixed rock; their position is so irregular that they +appear to have been thrown there by chance, and it might be thought they +had fallen from some neighbouring height, if the places where they are +found were not raised above the other parts. But their vitrifiable +nature, and their angular and square figures, like those of free-stone, +discover them to be of one common origin. Thus in the great beds of +vitrifiable sand, blocks of free-stone and rock are formed, whose +figures and situations do not exactly follow the horizontal position of +these strata. The rain, by degrees, carried away from the summits of the +hills and mountains the sand which at first covered them, and then began +to furrow and cut those hills into the spaces which are found between +the nucleus in free-stone, as the hills of Fontainbleau are intersected. +Each hilly point answers to a nucleus in a quarry of free-stone, and +each interval has been excavated and loosened by the rain, which has +caused the sand, they at first contained, to flow into the vallies; so +likewise the highest mountains, whose summits are composed of rocks, and +terminated by these angular blocks of granite, have formerly been +covered with vitrifiable sand, and the rain having carried away the sand +which covered them, they remained on the tops of the mountains in the +position they were formed. These blocks generally present points; they +increase in size in proportion as they descend; one block often rests +upon another, the second upon a third, and so on, leaving irregular +intervals between them: and as in time the rain washed away all the sand +which covered these different parts on the top of the high mountains, +they would remain naked, forming larger or lesser points; and this is +the origin of the peaks or horns of mountains. + +For supposing, as it is easy to prove by the marine productions we find +there, that the chain of the Alps was formerly covered by the sea, and +that above this chain there was a great thickness of vitrifiable sand, +which rendered the whole mountains a flat and level country. In this +depth of sand, there would necessarily be formed granite, free-stone, +flint, and all matters which take their origin and figure in sand, +nearly in a similar manner to that of the crystallisation of salts. +These blocks once formed would support their original positions, after +the rains and torrents had carried away the sand which surrounded them, +and being left bare formed all those peaks or pointed eminences we see +in so many places. This is also the origin of those high and detached +rocks found in China and other countries, as in Ireland, where they are +called the Devil's stones, and whose formation as well as that of the +peaks of mountains, had hitherto appeared so difficult to explain; +nevertheless the explanation which I have given is so natural, that it +directly presents itself to the mind of those who examine these objects, +and I must here quote what Father Tatre says, "From Yanchu-in-yen, we +came to Hoytcheou, and on the road met with something particular, rocks +of an extraordinary height, of the shape of a large square tower, and +situate in the midst of vast plains: I cannot account for it, unless by +supposing they were formerly mountains, from which the rain having +washed away the earth that surrounded them, thus left the rocks entirely +bare. What strengthens this conjecture is, that we saw some which, +towards the base, are still covered with earth to a considerable +height." + +The summits of the highest mountains are composed of rocks, of granite, +free-stone, and other hard and vitrifiable matters, and this often as +deep as two or three hundred fathoms; below which we often meet with +quarries of marble, or hard stone, filled with fossil-shells, and whose +matter is calcinable; as may be remarked at Great Chartreuse, in +Dauphiny, and on Mount Cenis, where the stone and marble, which contains +shells, are some hundred fathoms below the summits, points and peaks of +high mountains; although these stones are more than a thousand fathom +above the level of the sea. Thus mountains, whereon we see points or +peaks, are generally vitrifiable rock, and those whose summits are flat, +mostly contain marble and hard stones filled with marine productions. It +is the same with respect to hills, for those containing granite, or +free-stone, are mostly intersected with points, eminences, cavities, +depths, and small intermediate valleys; on the contrary, those which +are composed of calcinable stone are nearly equal in height, and are +only interrupted by greater and more regular vallies, whose angles are +correspondent; and they are crowned with rocks whose position is regular +and level. + +Whatever difference may appear at first between these two species of +mountains, their forms proceed from the same cause, as we have already +observed; only it may be remarked, that the calcinable stones have not +undergone any alteration nor change since the formation of the +horizontal strata; whereas those of vitrifiable sand have been changed +and interrupted by the posterior production of rocks and angular blocks +formed within this sand. These two kinds of mountains have cracks which +are almost always perpendicular in those of calcinable stones; but those +of granite and free-stone appear to be a little more irregular in their +direction. It is in these cracks metal, minerals, crystals, sulphurs, +and all matters of the second class are found, and it is below these +cracks that the water collects to penetrate the earth, and form those +veins of water which are every where found below the surface. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[279:A] See Phil. Trans. Abr. Vol. VI. part ii. p. 153. + + + + +ARTICLE X. + +OF RIVERS. + + +We have before said that, generally speaking, the greatest mountains are +in islands and in the projections in the sea. That in the old continent +the greatest chains of mountains are directed from west to east, and +that those which incline towards the north or south are only branches of +these principal chains; we shall likewise find that the greatest rivers +are directed as the greatest mountains, and that there are but few which +follow the course of the branches of those mountains. To be assured of +this, we have only to look on a common globe, and trace the old +continent from Spain to China. We shall find, by beginning at Spain, +that the Vigo, Douro, Tagos, and Guadiana run from east to west, and the +Ebro from west to east, and that there is not one remarkable river whose +course is directed from south to north, or from north to south, although +Spain is entirely surrounded by the sea on the west side, and almost so +on the north. This observation on the directions of rivers in Spain not +only proves that the mountains in this country are directed from west to +east, but also that the southern lands, which border on the straits, are +higher than the coasts of Portugal; and on the northern coast, that the +mountains of Galicia, the Asturias, &c. are only a continuation of the +Pyrennees, and that it is this elevation of the country, as well north +as south, which does not permit the rivers to run into the sea that way. + +It will also be seen, by looking on the map of France, that there is +only the Rhone which runs from north to south, and nearly half its +course, from the mountains to Lyons, is directed from the east towards +the west; but that on the contrary all the other great rivers, as the +Loir, the Charantee, the Garonne, and even the Seine, have a direction +from east to west. + +It will be likewise perceived, that in Germany there is only the Rhine, +which like the Rhone shapes the greatest part of its course from north +to south, but that the others, as the Danube, the Drave, and all the +great rivers which fall into them, flow from the west to east into the +Black Sea. + +It will be perceived that this Black Sea, which should rather be +considered as a great lake, has almost three times more extent from east +to west than from north to south, and consequently its direction is +similar to the rivers in general. It is the same with the Mediterranean, +whose length from east to west is about six times greater than from +north to south. + +The Caspian Sea, according to the chart drawn by the order of Czar Peter +I. has more extent from the south to the north than from east to west; +whereas in the ancient charts it appears almost round, or rather more +broad from east to west than from south to north; but if we consider the +lake Aral as a part of the Caspian Sea, from which it is separated only +by plains of sand, we shall find the length is from the western coast of +the Caspian Sea as far as the greatest border of Lake Aral. + +So likewise the Euphrates, the Persian gulph, and almost all the rivers +in China run from west to east; all the rivers in Africa beyond Barbary +flow from east to west, or from west to east, and there are only the +rivers of Barbary and the Nile which flow from south to north. There +are, in fact, great rivers in Asia which partly run from north to +south, as the Wolga, the Don, &c. but by taking the whole length of +their course, we find, that they only turn from the south to run into +the Black and Caspian seas, which are only inland lakes. + +It may therefore in general be said, that in Europe, Asia, and Africa, +the rivers, and other mediterranean waters, extend more from east to +west than from north to south, which proceeds from the chains of +mountains being for the most part so directed, and that the whole +continent of Europe and Asia is broader in this direction than the +other; for there are two modes of considering the direction of +mountains. In a long and narrow continent like South America, in which +there is only one principal chain of mountains which stretches from +south to north, the river not being confined by any parallel range, +necessarily runs perpendicular to the course of the mountains, that is +from east to west, or from west to east; in fact, it is in this +direction all the rivers of America flow. In the old as well as the new +continent most of the waters have their greatest extent from west to +east, and most of the rivers flow in this direction; but yet this +similar direction is produced by different causes; for instance, those +in the old continent flow from east to west, because they are bounded +by mountains whose direction is from west to east; whereas those in +America preserve the same course from there being only one chain of +mountains that extends from north to south. + +In general, rivers run through the centre of vallies, or rather the +lowest ground betwixt two opposite hills or mountains; if the two hills +have nearly an equal inclination, the river will be nearly in the middle +of the intermediate valley, let the valley be broad or narrow. On the +contrary, if one of the hills has a more steep inclination than the +other, the river will not be in the middle of the valley, but much +nearer the hill whose inclination is greatest, and that too in +proportion to the superiority of its declivity: in this case, the lowest +ground is not in the middle of the valley, but inclines towards the +highest hill, and which the river must necessarily occupy. In all places +where there is any considerable difference in the height of the +mountains, the rivers flow at the foot of the steepest hills, and follow +them throughout all their directions, never quitting their course while +they maintain the superiority of height. In the length of time, however, +the steepest hills are diminished by the rain acting upon them with a +greater degree of force, proportionate to their height, and consequently +carry away the sand and gravel in more considerable quantities, and with +greater violence; the river is then constrained to change its bed, and +seek the lowest part of the valley: to this may be added, that as all +rivers overflow at times, they transport and deposit mud and sand in +different places, and that sands often accumulate in their own beds, and +cause a swell of the water, which changes the direction of its course. +It is very common to meet in vallies with a great number of old channels +of the river, particularly if it is subject to frequent inundations, and +carries off much sand and mud. + +In plains and large vallies, where there are great rivers, the beds are +generally the lowest part of the valley, but the surface of the water is +very often higher than the ground adjacent. For example, when a river +begins to overflow, the plain will presently be inundated to a +considerable breadth, and it will be observed that the borders of the +river will be covered the last; which proves that they are higher than +the rest of the ground, and that from the banks to a certain part of +the plain, there is an insensible inclination, so that the surface of +the water must be higher than the plain when the river is full. This +elevation on the banks of rivers proceeds from the deposit of the mud +and sand at the time of inundations. The water is commonly very muddy in +the great swellings of rivers; when it begins to overflow, it runs very +gently over the banks, and by depositing the mud and sand purifies +itself as it advances into the plain; so that all the soil which the +currents of the river does not carry along, is deposited on the banks, +which raises them by degrees above the rest of the plain. + +Rivers are always broadest at their mouths; in proportion as we advance +in the country, and are more remote from the sea, their breadth +diminishes; but what is more remarkable, in the inland parts they flow +in a direct line, and in proportion as they approach their mouths the +windings of their course increase. I have been informed by M. Fabry, a +sensible traveller, who went several times by land into the western part +of North America, that travellers, and even the savages, are seldom +deceived in the distance they are from the sea if they follow the bank +of a large river; when the direction of the river is straight for 15 or +20 leagues, they know themselves to be a great distance from the coast; +but, on the contrary, if the river winds, and often changes its +direction, they are certain of not being far from the sea. M. Fabry +himself verified this remark in his travels over that unknown and almost +uninhabited country. In large rivers there is a considerable eddy along +the banks, which is so much the more considerable as the river is less +remote from the sea, which may also serve as a guide to judge whether we +are at a great or short distance from the mouth; and as the windings of +rivers increase in proportion as they approach the sea, it is not +surprising that some of them should give way to the water, and be one +reason why great rivers generally divide into many arms before they gain +the sea. + +The motion of the waters in rivers is quite different from that supposed +by authors who attempt to give mathematical theories on this subject; +the surface of a river in motion is not level when taken from one bank +to the other, but according to circumstances the current in the middle +is considerably higher or lower than the water close to the banks; when +a river swells by a sudden melting of snow, or when by some other cause +its rapidity is augmented, if the direction of the river is straight, +the middle of the water where the current is rises, and the river forms +a convex curve, of a very sensible elevation. This elevation is +sometimes very considerable; M. Hupeau, an able engineer of bridges, +once measured the river Avieron, and found the middle was three feet +higher than near the bank. This, in fact, must happen every time the +water has a very great rapidity; the velocity with which it is carried, +diminishing the action of its weight in the middle of the current, so +that it has not time to sink to a level with that near shore, and +therefore remains higher. On the other hand, near the mouths, it often +happens that the water which is near the banks is higher than that of +the middle, although the current be ever so rapid. This happens wherever +the action of the tides is felt in a river, which in great ones often +sensibly extends as far as one or two hundred leagues from the sea; it +is also a well known fact that the current of a river preserves its +motion in the sea to a considerable distance; there is, in this case, +therefore, two contrary motions in a river; the middle, which forms the +current, precipitates itself towards the sea, and the action of the +tide forms a counter-current, which causes the water near the banks to +ascend, while that in the middle descends, and as then all the water +must be carried down by the current in the middle, that of the banks +continually descends thereto, and descends so much the more as it is +higher, and counteracted with more force by the tide. + +There are two kinds of ebbings in rivers; the first above-mentioned is a +strong power occasioned by the tide, which not only opposes the natural +motion of the river, but even forces a contrary and opposite current. +The other arises from an inactive cause, such as a projection of land, +an island, &c. This does not commonly occasion a very sensible +counter-current, yet it is sufficient to impede the progress of boats +and craft, and necessarily produces what is called a dead water, which +does not flow like the rest of the river, but whirls about in such a +manner that when boats are drawn therein they require great strength to +get them out. These dead waters are very perceptible at the arches of +bridges in rapid rivers. The velocity of the water increases in +proportion as the diameter of the channel through which it passes +diminishes, the impelling force being the same; the velocity of a +river, therefore, increases at the passage of a bridge, in an inverse +proportion of the breadth of the arches to the whole breadth of the +river; the rapidity being very considerable in coming through the arch, +it forces the water against the banks, from whence it is reflected with +such violence as to form dangerous eddies and whirlpools. In going +through the bridge St. Esprit, the men are forced to be careful not to +lose the stream, even after they are past the bridge, for if they suffer +the boat to go either to the right or left, it might be driven against +the shore, or forced into the whirling waters, which would be attended +with great danger. When this eddy is very considerable, it forms a kind +of small gulph, the middle of which appears hollow and to form a kind of +cylindrical cavity, around which the water whirls with rapidity: this +appearance of a cylindrical cavity is produced by the centrifugal force, +which causes the water to endeavour to remove itself from the centre of +the whirlpool. When a great swell of water happens, the watermen know it +by a particular motion; they then say the water at the bottom flows +quicker than common: this augmentation of rapidity at the bottom, +according to them, always announces a sudden rise of the water. The +motion and weight of the upper water communicates this motion to them; +for in certain respects we must consider a river as a pillar of water +contained in a tube, and the whole channel as a very long canal where +every motion must be communicated from one end to the other. Now, +independent of the motion of the upper waters, their weight alone might +cause the rapidity of the river to increase, and perhaps move it at +bottom; for it is known, that by putting many boats at one time into the +water, at that instant we increase the rapidity of the under part of the +river, as well as retard that of the upper. + +The rapidity of running waters does not exactly, nor even nearly, follow +the proportion of the declivity of their channels. One river whose +inclination is uniform and double that of another, ought, according to +appearance, to flow only as rapid again, but in fact it flows much +faster. Its rapidity, instead of being doubled, is sometimes triple, +quadruple, &c. This rapidity depends much more on the quantity of water +and the weight of the upper waters than on the declivity. When we are +desirous to hollow the bed of a river, we need not equally distribute +the inclination throughout its whole length, in order to give a greater +rapidity, as it is more easily effected by making the descent much +greater at the beginning, than at the mouth, where it may almost be +insensible, as we see it in natural rivers, and yet they preserve a +rapidity so much the greater as the river is fuller of water; in great +rivers, where the ground is level, the water does not cease flowing, and +even rapidly, not only with its original velocity, but also with the +addition of that which it has acquired by the action and weight of the +upper waters. To render this fact more conceivable, let us suppose the +Seine between the Pont-neuf and Pont-royal to be perfectly level, and +ten feet deep throughout: let us then suppose that the bed of the river +below Pont-royal and above Pont-neuf were left entirely dry, the water +would instantly run up and down the channel, and continue to do so until +it had recovered an equilibrium; for the weight of the water would keep +it in motion, nor would it cease flowing until its particles became +equally pressed and have sunk to a perfect level. The weight of water +therefore greatly contributes to its velocity, and this is the reason +that the greatest rapidity of the current is neither of the surface nor +at the bottom of the water, but nearly in the middle of its depth, being +pressed by the action of its weight at its surface, and by the re-action +from the bottom. Still more, if a river has acquired a great rapidity, +it will not only preserve it in passing a level country, but even +surmount an eminence without spreading much on either side, or at least +without causing any great inundation. + +We might be inclined to think that bridges, locks, and other obstacles +raised on rivers, considerably diminishes the celerity of the water's +course; nevertheless that occasions but little difference. Water rises +on meeting with any obstacle, and having surmounted it, the elevation +causes it to act with more rapidity in its fall, so that in fact it +suffers little or no diminution in its celerity, by these seeming +retardments. Sinuosities, projections, and islands, also but very little +diminish the velocity of the course of rivers. A considerable diminution +is produced by the sinking of the water, and, on the contrary, its +augmentation increases its velocity; thus if a river is shallow the +stream passes slowly along, and if deep with a proportionate rapidity. + +If rivers were always nearly of an equal fulness, the best means of +diminishing their rapidity, and confining them within their banks, would +be to enlarge their channel; but as almost all rivers are subject to +increase and diminish, to confine them we must retrench the channel, +because in shallow waters, if the channel is very broad, the water which +passes in the middle hollows a winding bed, and when it begins to swell +follows the direction it took in this particular bed, and striking +forcibly against the banks of the channel destroys them and does great +injuries. These effects of the water's fury might be prevented by +making, at particular distances, small gulphs in the earth; that is, by +cutting through one of these banks to a certain distance in the land. In +order that these gulphs might be advantageously placed, they should be +made in the obtuse angle of the river, for then the current of the water +in turning would run into them, and of course its velocity would be +diminished. This mode might be proper to prevent the fall of bridges in +places where it is not possible to make bars near the bridge which +sustain the action of the weight of the water. + +The manner in which inundations are occasioned merits peculiar +attention. When a river swells, the rapidity of the water always +increases till it begins to overflow the banks; at that instant the +velocity diminishes, which causes inundations to continue for several +days; for when even a less quantity of water comes after the overflowing +than before, the inundation will still be made, because it depends much +more on the velocity of the water than on the quantity; if it was not so +rivers would overflow for an hour or two and then return to their beds, +which never occurs; the inundations always remaining for several days; +whether the rain ceases, or a less quantity of water is brought, because +the overflowing has diminished the velocity, and consequently, although +the like quantity of water is no longer carried in the same time as +before, yet the effects are the same as if the greater quantity had come +there. It might be remarked on the occasion of this diminution, that if +a constant wind blows against the current of the river, the inundation +will be much greater than it would have been without this accidental +cause, which diminishes the celerity of the water; on the contrary, if +the wind blows in the same directions with the current, the inundation +will be much less, and will more speedily decline. + +"The swelling of the Nile, says M. Granger, and its inundations, has a +long time employed the learned; most of them have looked upon it as +marvellous, although nothing can be more natural, and is every day to be +seen in every country throughout the world. It is the rains which fall +in Abyssinia and Ethiopia which cause the swelling and inundation of +that river, though the north wind must be regarded as the principal +cause. 1. Because the north wind drives the clouds which contain this +rain into Abyssinia. 2. Because, blowing against the mouths of the Nile, +it causes the waters to return against the stream, and thus prevents +them from running out in any great quantity: this circumstance may be +every season observed, for when the wind, being at the north, suddenly +veers to the south, the Nile loses in one day more than it gathers in +four." + +Inundations are generally greatest in the upper part of rivers, because +the velocity of a river continues always increasing until it arrives at +the sea, for the reasons we have related. Father Costelli, who has +written very sensibly on this subject, remarks, that the height of the +banks made to confine the Po from overflowing diminishes as they advance +towards the sea; so that at Ferrara, which is 50 or 60 miles from the +sea, they are near 20 feet high above the common surface of the Po, but +that at 10 or 12 miles from it they are not above 12 feet, although the +channel of the river is as narrow there as at Ferrara[306:A]. + +On the whole, the theory of the motion of running waters is still +subject to many difficulties, nor is it easy to lay down rules which +might be applied to every particular case. Experience is here more +useful than speculation. We must not only know the general effects of +rivers, but we must also know in particular the river we have to do +with, if we would reason justly, make useful observations, and draw +stable conclusions. The remarks I have above given are mostly new; it is +to be wished that others may be collected, and then, possibly, in time, +we may obtain a sufficient knowledge of the subject to lay down certain +rules to confine and direct rivers, and prevent the ruin of bridges, +banks, and other damages which the violent impetuosity of the water +occasions. + +The greatest rivers in Europe are the Wolga, which is about 650 leagues +in its course from Reschow to Astracan, on the Caspian Sea; the Danube, +whose course is about 450 leagues from the mountains of Switzerland to +the Black Sea; the Don, which is 400 leagues in its course from the +source of the Sosnia, which it receives, to its mouth in the Black Sea; +the Dnieper, whose course is about 350 leagues, and which also runs into +the Black Sea; the Duine is about 400 leagues in its course, and empties +itself into the White Sea, &c. + +The greatest rivers in Asia are the Hoanho of China, whose course is 850 +leagues, taking its source at Raja-Ribron, and falls into the sea of +China, in the middle of the gulph Changi: the Jenisca of Tartary, which +is about 800 leagues in extent, from the lake Seligna to the northern +sea of Tartary; the river Oby, which is about 600 leagues from Lake +Kila, to the Northern Sea, beyond the Strait of Waigats. The river +Amour, of eastern Tartary, which is about 575 leagues in its course, +reckoning it from the source of the river Kerlon, to the sea of +Kamschatka. The river Menan, whose mouth is at Poulo Condor, may be +measured from the surface of the Longmu which falls into it; the Kian, +whose course is about 550 leagues from the source of the river Kinxa, +which it receives, to its mouth in the China Sea; the Ganges is also +about 550 leagues, and the Euphrates 500, taking it from the source of +Irma, which it receives. The Indus about 400 leagues, and which falls +into the Arabian Sea, on the east of Guzarat. The Sirderious, which is +about 400 leagues long, and falls into Lake Aral. + +The greatest rivers in Africa are Senegal, which is 1125 leagues long, +comprehending the Niger, which in fact is a continuation of it, and the +source of Gombarou, which falls into the Niger. The Nile 970 leagues +long, and which derives its source in Upper Ethiopia, where it makes +many windings. There are also the Zaira, the Coanza, and the Couma, +which are known as far as 400 leagues, but extend much farther; the +Quilmanci, whose course is 400 leagues, and which derives its source in +the kingdom of Gingiro. + +The greatest rivers of America, and which are also the greatest in the +world, are the river Amazons, whose course is 1200 leagues, if we go up +as far as the Lake near Guanuco, 30 leagues from Lima, where the +Maragnon takes its source; and even reckoning from the source of the +river Napo, some distance from Quito, the course of the river Amazons is +more than a thousand leagues. + +It might be said that the course of the river St. Lawrence, in Canada, +is more than 900 leagues from its mouth to the lake Ontaro, from thence +to lake Huron, afterwards to the lake Alemipigo, and to the lake +Assiniboils; the waters of these lakes falling one into another, and at +last into St. Lawrence. + +The river Mississippi more than 700 leagues long from its mouth to any +of its sources, which are not remote from the lake of the Assiniboils. + +The river de la Plata is more than 800 leagues long, from the source of +the river Parana, which it receives. + +The river Oroonoko runs more than 575 leagues, reckoning from the source +of the river Caketa, near Pasto, part of which falls into the Oroonoko, +and part flows also towards the river Amazons. + +The river Madera, which falls into the Amazons, is more than 660 +leagues. + +To know nearly the quantity of water the sea receives by all the rivers +which fall into it, let us suppose that one half of the globe is covered +by the sea, and that the other half is land, which is nearly the fact; +let us suppose also, that the mediate depth of the sea is 230 fathom. +The surface of all the earth being 170,981,012 square miles; and that of +the sea 85,490,506 square miles, which being multiplied by 1/4, the +depth of the sea gives 21,372,626, cubical miles for the quantity of +water contained in the ocean. Now, to calculate the quantity of water +which the ocean receives from the rivers, let us take some great river, +whose rapidity and quantity of waters are known; for example, the Po, +which runs through Lombardy, and waters a tract of land 380 miles long; +according to Riccioli, its breadth, before it divides into many +trenches, is 100 perches of Boulogne, or 1000 feet, its depth 10 feet, +and it runs four miles an hour; therefore the Po supplies the sea with +200,000 cubical perches of water in an hour, or 4 millions 800 thousand +in a day; but a cubical mile contains 125 millions cubical perches; +therefore 26 days is required to convey a cubical mile of water to the +sea: it remains therefore only to determine the proportion between the +river Po and all the rivers of the earth taken together, which is +impossible to do precisely. But to know it pretty exactly, let us +suppose that the quantity of water which the sea receives by the large +rivers in all countries is proportional to the extent and surface of +these countries, and that consequently the country watered by the Po, +and other rivers which fall therein, is in the same proportion on the +surface of the whole earth, as the Po is to all the rivers of the earth. +Now by the most correct charts, the Po, from its source to its mouth, +traverses a tract 380 miles long, and the rivers which fall therein, on +each side, proceed from the springs and rivers 60 miles distant from the +Po; therefore this great river, and the others it receives, waters a +tract 380 miles long, and 120 miles broad, which makes 450,600 square +miles, but the surface of all the dry land is 85,490,506 square miles; +consequently all the water which the rivers carry to the sea, will be +1974 times greater than the quantity which the Po furnishes; but as 26 +rivers equal to the Po furnish a cubical mile of water to the sea in a +day, of course 1874 rivers like the Po would supply the sea with 26,308 +cubical miles of water in a year, and that in the space of 812 years all +the rivers would supply the sea with 21,372,626 cubical miles of water; +that is to say, as much as there is in the ocean, and therefore 812 +years is only required to fill it.[312:A] + +The result of this calculation is, that the quantity of water evaporated +from the sea, and which the winds convey on the earth, is about 245 +lines, or from 20 to 21 inches a year, or about two thirds of a line +each day: this is a very trifling evaporation even when trebled, in +order to estimate the water which refalls in the sea, and which is not +conveyed over the earth. Mr. Halley, in the Phil. Transactions, page +192, evidently shews, that the vapours which rise above the sea, and +which the winds convey over all the earth, are sufficient to supply all +the rivers in the world. + +Next to the Nile the river Jordan is the most considerable in the +Levant, or even in Barbary; it supplies the Dead Sea with about six +million tons of water every day; all this water, and more, is raised by +evaporation; for, according to Halley's calculation of 6914 tons +evaporated from each mile, the Dead Sea, which is 72 miles in length by +18 broad, must every day lose near nine million tons of water, that is, +not only all the water it receives from the river Jordan, but also that +of the small rivers which come into it from the mountains of Moab and +elsewhere; consequently there is no necessity for its communicating with +any other sea by subterraneous canals.[313:A] + +The most rapid rivers are the Tigris, the Indus, the Danube, the Yrtis, +in Siberia, the Malmistra, in Silesia, &c. but, as we have already +observed, the proportion of the rapidity of rivers depends upon the +declivity and upon the weight and quantity of water; by examining the +globe, we shall find that the Danube is much less inclined than the Po, +the Rhine, or the Rhone, for the Danube has a much longer course than +any of these other rivers, and falls into the Black Sea, which is higher +than the Mediterranean, and perhaps more so than the ocean. + +All large rivers receive many others in the extent of their course; for +example, the Danube receives more than 200 rivulets and rivers; but by +reckoning only such as are considerable rivers, we shall find that the +Danube receives 31, the Wolga 32, the Don 5 or 6, the Nieper 19 or 20, +the Duine 11 or 12; so likewise in Asia the Hoanho receives 34 or 35, +the Jenisca 60, the Oby as many, the Amour about 40, the Kian, or river +Nankin about 30, the Ganges upwards of 20, the Euphrates 10 or 11, &c. +In Africa, the river Senegal receives upwards of 20 rivers: the Nile +does not receive any rivers for upwards of 500 miles from its mouth; the +last which falls therein is the Moraba, and from this place to its +source it receives about 12 or 13 rivers. In America, the river Amazons +receives more than 60, all of which are very considerable; the river St. +Lawrence about 40, by reckoning those which fall into the lakes; the +Mississippi more than 40, the Plata more than 50, &c. + +There are high countries on the earth, which seem to be points of +division marked by nature for the distribution of the waters. In +Europe, the environs of Mount St. Goddard are one of these points; +another is situate between the provinces of Belozera and Wologda, in +Muscovy, from whence many rivers descend, some of which go to the White +Sea, others to the Black, and some to the Caspian. In Asia there are +several, in the country of Mogul Tartary, from whence rivers flow into +Nova Zembla, others to the Gulph Linchidolin, others to the sea of +Corea, others to that of China: and so likewise the Little Thibet, whose +waters flow towards the sea of China; the Gulph of Bengal, the Gulph of +Cambay, and the Lake Aral; in America, the province of Quito; whose +rivers run into the North and South Seas, and the Gulph of Mexico. + +In the old continent there are about 430 rivers, which fall directly +into the ocean, or into the Mediterranean and Black Seas; but in the new +continent not more than 145 rivers are known, which fall directly into +the sea: in this number I have comprehended only the great rivers, like +the Somme in Picardy. + +All these rivers carry to the sea a great quantity of mineral and saline +particles, which they have washed from the different soils through +which they have passed. The particles of salt, which are easily +dissolved, are conveyed to the sea by the water. Some philosophers, and +among the rest Halley, have pretended that the saltness of the sea +proceeded only from the salts of the earth, which the rivers transport +therein. Others assert, that the saltness of the sea is as ancient as +the sea itself, and that this salt was created that the waters might not +corrupt; but we may justly suppose that the sea is preserved from +corruption by the agitations produced by the winds and tides, as much as +by the salt it contains; for when put in a barrel it corrupts in a few +days; and Boyle relates, that a mariner, who was becalmed for 13 days, +found, at the end of that time, the water so infected, that if the calm +had not ceased, the greatest part of his people would have perished. The +water of the sea is also mixed with a bituminous oil, which gives it a +disagreeable taste, and renders it very unhealthful. The quantity of +salt contained in sea water is about a fortieth part, and is nearly +equally saline throughout, at top as well as bottom, under the line, and +at the Cape of Good Hope; although there are several places, as off the +Mosambique Coast, where it is salter than elsewhere.[317:A] It is also +asserted not to be so saline under the Arctic Circle, which may proceed +from the amazing quantities of snow, and the great rivers which fall +into those seas, and because the heat of the sun produces but little +evaporation in hot climates. + +Be this as it may, I conceive that the saltness of the sea is not only +caused by the banks of salt at the bottom of the sea, and along the +coasts, but also by the salts of the earth, which the rivers continually +convey therein; and that Halley had some reason to presume that in the +beginning of the world the sea had but little or no saltness; that it is +become so by degrees, and in proportion as the rivers have brought salts +therein; that this saltness is every day increasing, and that +consequently, by computing the whole quantity of salt brought by all the +rivers, we might attain the knowledge of the age of the world by the +degrees of the saltness of the sea. + +Divers and pearl fishers assert, according to Boyle, that the deeper +they descend into the sea, the colder is the water; and that the cold is +so intense at considerable depths, that they cannot remain there so long +under water, but are obliged to come up again much sooner than when +they descended to only a moderate one. It appeared to me that the weight +of the water might be as much the cause of compelling them to shorten +their usual time as the intenseness of the cold, when they descend to a +depth of 3 or 400 fathoms; but, in fact, divers scarcely ever descend +above an hundred feet. The same author relates, that in a voyage to the +East-Indies, beyond the line, at about 35 degrees south latitude, a +sounding lead of 30 or 35lb weight was sunk to the depth of 400 fathoms, +and that being pulled up again, it had become as cold as ice. It is also +a frequent practice with mariners to cool their wine at sea by sinking +their bottles to the depth of several fathoms, and they affirm the +deeper the bottles are sunk, the cooler is the wine. + +These circumstances might induce us to presume that the sea is salter at +the bottom than at the surface; but we have testimonies which prove the +contrary, founded on experiments made to fill vessels with sea water, +which were not opened till they were sunk to a certain depth, and the +water was found to be no salter than at the surface. There are even some +places where the water at the surface is salt, and that at the bottom +fresh; and this must always be the case where there are springs at the +bottom of the sea, as near Goo, Ormus, and even in the sea of Naples, +where there are hot springs at the bottom. + +There are other places where sulphurous springs and beds of bitumen have +been discovered at the bottom of the sea, and on land there are many of +these springs of bitumen which run into it. + +At Barbadoes there is a pure bitumen spring, which flows from the rocks +into the sea: salt and bitumen, therefore, are predominant matters in +the sea water: but it is also mixed with many other matters; for the +taste of water is not the same in every part of the sea; besides, the +agitation and the heat of the sun alters the natural taste which the sea +should have; and the different colour of different seas, at different +times, prove that the waters of the sea contain several kinds of +matters, either which it loosens from its own bottom, or are brought +thither by rivers. + +Almost all countries watered by great rivers are subject to periodical +inundations, those which are low, and derive their sources from a great +distance, overflow the most regularly. Every person almost has heard of +the inundations of the Nile, which preserves the sweetness and whiteness +of its waters, though extended over a vast tract of country, and into +the sea. Strabo and other ancient authors have written that it had seven +mouths, but there now remain only two which are navigable; there is a +third canal which descends to Alexandria, and fills the cisterns there, +and a fourth which is still smaller; but as they have for a long time +neglected to clean their canals, they are nearly choaked up. The +ancients employed a great number of workmen and soldiers, and every +year, after the inundation, they carried away the mud and sand which was +in these canals. The cause of the overflowing of the Nile proceeds from +the rains which fall in Ethiopia. They begin in April and do not cease +till September; during the first three months, the days are serene and +fair, but as soon as the sun goes down the rains begin, nor stop till it +rises again, and are generally accompanied with thunder and lightning. +The inundation begins in Egypt about the 17th of June; it generally +increases during 40 days, and diminishes in about the same time; all the +flat country of Egypt is overflowed; but this inundation is much less +now than it was formerly, for Herodotus tells us, that the Nile was 100 +days in swelling, and as many in abating: if this is true, we can only +attribute the cause thereof to the elevation of the land, which the mud +of the waters has heightened by degrees, and to the diminution of the +mountains in Africa, from whence it derives its source. It is very +natural to believe that these mountains have diminished, because the +abundant rains which fall in these climates during half the year sweep +away great quantities of sand and earth from the mountains into the +valleys, from whence the torrents wash them into the Nile, which carries +great part into Egypt, where it deposits them in its overflowings. + +The Nile is not the only river whose inundations are regular; the river +Pegu is called the _Indian Nile_, because it overflows regularly every +year; it inundates the country for more than 30 leagues from its banks; +and, like the Nile, leaves an abundance of mud, which so greatly +fertilizes the earth, that the pasturage is excellent for cattle, and +rice grows in such great abundance, that every year a number of vessels +are laden with it, without leaving a scarcity in the country.[321:A] The +Niger, or what amounts to the same, the upper part of the Senegal, +likewise overflows and covers all the flat country of Nigritia; it +begins nearly at the same time as the Nile, and increases also for 40 +days: the river de la Plata, in Brasil, also overflows every year, and +at the same time as the Nile. The Ganges, the Indus, the Euphrates, and +some others, overflow annually; but all rivers have not periodical +overflowings, and when inundations happen it is the effect of many +causes, which combine to supply a greater quantity of water than common, +and, at the same time, to retard its velocity. We have before observed, +that in almost all rivers the inclination of their beds diminishes +towards their mouths in an almost insensible manner; but there are some +whose declivity is very sudden in some places, and forms what is termed +a _cataract_, which is nothing more than a fall of water, quicker than +the common current of the river. The Rhine, for example, has two +cataracts, the one at Bilefield, and the other near Schafhouse: the Nile +has many, and among the rest two which are very violent, and fall from a +great height between two mountains; the river Wologda, in Muscovy, has +also two near Ladoga; the Zaire, a river of Congo, begins by a very +large cataract, which falls from the top of a mountain; but the most +famous is that of Niagara, in Canada, that falls from a perpendicular +height of 156 feet, like a prodigious torrent, and is more than a +quarter of a mile broad: the fog, or mist, which the water makes in +falling, is perceived at five miles distance, and rises as high as the +clouds, forming a very beautiful rainbow when the sun shines thereon. +Below this cataract there are such terrible whirlpools, that nothing can +be navigated thereon for six miles distance, and above the cataract the +river is much narrower than it is in the upper lands[323:A]. The +description given of it by _Father Charlevoix_ is as follows: + +"My first care, when I arrived, was to visit the most beautiful cascade +that is, perhaps, in nature; but I immediately discovered that Baron la +Hontain was deceived so greatly, both in its height and figure, that one +might reasonably imagine he had never seen it. + +"It is true, that if we measure its height by the three mountains you +are obliged to ascend in going to it, there is not much abatement to be +made of the 600 feet, which the map of M. Delisse gives it, who +doubtless advanced this paradox only on the credit of the Baron la +Hontain, and Father Honnepin; but after I arrived at the top of the +third mountain, I observed that in the space of three leagues, which I +afterwards had to go to this fall of water, although you are forced +sometimes to ascend, you must nevertheless descend still more, and this +is what travellers do not appear to have paid proper attention to. As we +can only approach the cascade on one side, nor see it but in the +profile, it is not easy to measure its height by instruments: +experiments have been made to do it by a long cord, tied to a pole, and +after having often attempted this manner, it was found to be only 115 or +120 feet high; but it is impossible to ascertain whether the pole was +not stopped by some projection of the rock; for although when drawn up +again the end of the cord was always wet, yet that is no proof, since +the water which precipitates from the mountain, flies up again in foam +to a very great height: for my own part, after having considered it on +every side that I could examine it to advantage, I think that we cannot +allow it to be less than 140 or 150 feet. + +"Its figure is that of a horse-shoe, and its circumference is about 400 +paces; but exactly in its middle, it is divided by a very narrow +island, about half a quarter of a league long. It is true these two +parts join again; that which was on my side, and of which I could only +have a side view, has several projecting points, but that which I beheld +in front, appeared to be perfectly even." The Baron has also mentioned a +torrent, which, if not the offspring of his own invention, must fall +into some channel upon the melting of the snow. + +There is another cataract three miles from Albany, in the province of +New-York, whose height is 50 feet perpendicular, and from which there +arises a mist that occasions a faint rainbow.[325:A] + +In all countries where mankind are not sufficiently numerous to form +polished societies, the ground is more irregular, and the beds of rivers +more extended, less equal, and often abound with cataracts. Many ages +were required to render the Rhone and the Loire navigable. It is by +confining waters, by directing their course, and by cleansing the bottom +of rivers, that they obtain a fixed and regular course; in all countries +thinly inhabited Nature is rude, and often deformed. + +There are rivers which lose themselves in the sands, and others which +seem to precipitate into the bowels of the earth: the Guadalquiver in +Spain, the river Gottenburg in Sweden, and the Rhine itself, lose +themselves in the earth. It is asserted, that in the west part of the +island of St. Domingo there is a mountain of a considerable height, at +the foot of which are many caverns, into which the rivers and rivulets +fall with so much noise, as to be heard at the distance of seven or +eight leagues.[326:A] + +The number of rivers which lose themselves in the earth is very few, and +there is no appearance that they descend very low; it is more probable +that they lose themselves, like the Rhine, by dividing among the +quantity of sand; this is very common to small rivers that run through +dry and sandy soils, of which we have several examples in Africa, +Persia, Arabia, &c. + +The rivers of the north transport into the sea prodigious quantities of +ice, which accumulating, form those enormous masses so destructive to +mariners. These masses are the most abundant in the Strait of Waigat, +which is entirely frozen over the greatest part of the year, and are +formed by the great flakes which the river Oby almost continually brings +there; they attach themselves along the coasts, and heap up to a +considerable height on both sides, but the middle of the strait is the +last part which freezes, and where the ice is the lowest. When the wind +ceases to blow from the North, and comes in the direction of the Strait, +the ice begins to thaw and break in the middle; afterwards it loosens +from the sides in great masses, which are carried into the high sea. The +wind, which all winter blows from the north over the frozen countries of +Nova Zembla, renders the country watered by the Oby, and all Siberia, so +cold, that even at Tobolski, which is in the 57th degree, there are no +fruit trees, while at Sweden, Stockholm, and even in higher latitudes, +there are both fruit trees and pulse. This difference does not proceed, +as it has been thought, from the sea of Lapland being warmer than the +Straits; nor from the land of Nova Zembla being colder than Lapland; but +solely from the Baltic, and the Gulph of Bothnia, tempering the rigour +of the north winds, whereas in Siberia there is nothing that can +temperate the cold. It is a fact founded on experience, that it is never +so cold on the sea coasts as in the inland parts of a country. There +are plants which stand the winter in London exposed to the open air, +that cannot be preserved at Paris; and Siberia, which is a vast +continent, is for this reason colder than Sweden, which is surrounded on +all sides by the sea. + +The coldest country in the world is Spitzbergen: it lies in the 78th +degree of north latitude, and is entirely formed of small peaked +mountains; these mountains are composed of gravel, and flat stones +somewhat like slate, heaped one on the other; which, it is affirmed by +navigators, are raised by the wind, and increase so quick, that new ones +are discovered every year. The rein-deer is the only animal seen here, +which feeds on a short grass and moss. On the top of these little +mountains, and at more than a mile from the sea, the mast of a ship was +found with a pully fastened to one of its ends, which gives room to +suppose that the sea once covered the tops of these mountains, and that +this country is but of modern date; it is uninhabited, and +uninhabitable; the soil of these small mountains has no consistence, but +is loose, and so cold and penetrating a vapour strikes from it, that it +is impossible to remain any length of time thereon. + +The vessels which go to Spitzbergen for the whale fishery, arrive there +early in the month of July, and take their departure from it about the +15th of August, the ice preventing them from entering the sea earlier, +or quiting it after. Prodigious pieces of ice, 60, 70, and 80 fathoms +thick are seen there, and there are some parts of it where the sea +appears frozen to the very bottom[329:A]: this ice, which is so high +above the level of the sea, is as clear and transparent as glass. + +There is also much ice in the seas of North America, as in Ascension +Bay, in the Straits of Hudson, Cumberland, Davis, Forbishers, &c. Robert +Lade asserts that the mountains of Friezeland are entirely covered with +snow, and its coasts with ice, like a bulwark, which prevents any +approaching them. "It is, says he, very remarkable, that in this sea we +meet with islands of ice more than half a mile round, extremely high, +and 70 or 80 fathoms deep; this ice, which is sweet, is perhaps formed +in the rivers or straits of the neighbouring lands, &c. These islands +or mountains of ice are so moveable, that in stormy weather they follow +the track of a ship, as if they were drawn along in the same furrow by a +rope. There are some of them tower so high above the water, as to +surpass the tops of the masts of the largest vessels."[330:A] + +In the collection of voyages made for the service of the Dutch East +India Company, we meet with the following account of the ice at Nova +Zembla:--"At Cape Troost the weather was so foggy as to oblige us to +moor the vessel to a mountain of ice, which was 36 fathoms deep in the +water, and about 16 fathoms out of it. + +"On the 10th of August the ice dividing, it began to float, and then we +observed that the large piece of ice, to which the ship had been moored, +touched the bottom, as all the others passing by struck against without +moving it. We then began to fear being inclosed between the ice, that we +should either be frozen in or crushed to pieces, and therefore +endeavoured to avoid the danger by attempting to get into another +latitude, in doing of which the vessel was forced through the floating +ice, which made a tremendous noise, and seemingly to a great distance; +at length we moored to another mountain, for the purpose of remaining +there that night. + +"During the first watch the ice began to split with an inexpressible +noise, and the ship keeping to the current, in which the ice was now +floating, we were obliged to cut the cable to avoid it; we reckoned more +than 400 large mountains of ice, which were 10 fathoms under and +appeared more than 2 fathoms above water. + +"We afterwards moored the vessel to another mountain of ice, which +reached above 6 fathoms under water. As soon as we were fixed we +perceived another piece beyond us, which terminated in a point, and went +to the bottom of the sea; we advanced towards it, and found it 20 +fathoms under water, and 12 above the surface. + +"The 11th we reached another large shelve of ice, 18 fathoms under +water, and 10 above it. + +"The 21st the Dutch got pretty far in among the ice, and remained there +the whole night; the next morning they moored their vessel to a large +bank of ice, which they ascended, and considered as a very singular +phenomenon, that its top was covered with earth, and they found near 40 +eggs thereon. The colour was not the common colour of ice, but a fine +sky blue. Those who were on it had various conjectures from this +circumstance, some contending it was an effect of the ice, while others +maintained it to be a mass of frozen earth. It was about eighteen +fathoms under water, and ten above."[332:A] + +Wafer relates, that near Terra del Fuega he met with many high floating +pieces of ice, which he at first mistook for islands. Some appeared a +mile or two in length, and the largest not less than 4 or 500 feet above +the water. + +All this ice, as I have observed in the sixth article, was brought +thither by the rivers; the ice in the sea of Nova Zembla, and the +Straits of Waigat come from the Oby, and perhaps from Jenisca, and other +great rivers of Siberia and Tartary; that in Hudson's Straits, from +Ascension Bay, into which many of the North American rivers fall; that +of Terra del Fuega, from the southern continent. If there are less on +the North coasts of Lapland, than on those of Siberia, and the Straits +of Waigat, it is because all the rivers of Lapland fall into the Gulph +of Bothnia, and none go into the northern sea. The ice may also be +formed in the straits, where the tides swell much higher than in the +open sea, and where, consequently, the ice that is at the surface may +heap up and form those mountains, which are several fathoms high; but +with respect to those which are 4 or 500 feet high, they appear to be +formed on high coasts; and I imagine that when the snow which covers the +tops of these coasts melts, the water flows on the flakes of ice, and +being frozen thereon, thus increases the size of the first until it +comes to that amazing height. That afterwards, in a warm summer, these +hills of ice loosen from the coasts by the action of the wind and motion +of the sea, or perhaps even by their own weight, and are driven as the +wind directs, so that they at length may arrive into temperate climates +before they are entirely melted. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[306:A] See Racolta d'autori che trattano del motto dell' acque, vol. 1, +page 123. + +[312:A] See Keil's Examination of Burnet's Theory, page 126. + +[313:A] See Shaw's Travels, vol. ii, page 71. + +[317:A] See Boyle, vol. iii. page 217. + +[321:A] See Ovington's Travels, vol. ii. page 290. + +[323:A] See Phil. Trans. Abr. vol. vi. part ii. page 119. + +[325:A] Phil. Trans. vol. vi. part ii. page 19. + +[326:A] See Varenii Geograph. gen. page 48. + +[329:A] In contradiction to this idea it is now a generally received +opinion, that the mountains of ice in the North and South Seas are +exactly the same depth under as they are height above the surface of the +water. + +[330:A] See the Voyages of Lade, vol. ii, page 305, &. + +[332:A] Voyage of the Dutch to the North, vol. 1, 3. Page 49. + + +_END OF THE FIRST VOLUME._ + + + + +TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES + + +Variations in spelling and hyphenation have been left as in the +original. + +The following changes have been made to the original text: + + Page vi: It would have been singular[original has "singuar"] + + Page 9: moon, which are the causes of["of" missing in + original] it + + Page 23: these particles[original has "particels"] of earth + and stone + + Page 31: In a word, the materials[original has "mateterials"] + of the globe + + Page 37: has occurred, and in my opinion[original has + "oppinion"] very naturally + + Page 51: These[original has "these"] could not have been + occasioned + + Page 74: in the regions of the sky [original has "fky"] + + Page 94: that fire cannot[original has "connot"] subsist + + Page 94: planets at[original has "as"] the time of their + quitting the sun + + Page 97: there will be detached[original has "detatched"] from + its equator + + Page 104: which are as 229 to 230.[period missing in original] + + Page 155: ARTICLE VI.[original has "VII."] + + Page 182: conjecture is so much the better[original has + "bettter"] founded + + Page 189: where the pits are very deep[original has "deeep"] + + Page 192: 23. Sand streaked red[original has "read"] and white + + Page 194: In plains surrounded[original has "surounded"] with + hills + + Page 198: in France, Flanders, Holland, Spain,[comma missing + in original] Italy + + Page 199: 10 of sand, then 2 feet of["of" missing in original] + clay + + Page 203: either birds or terrestrial animals."[quotation mark + missing in original] + + Page 210: the Alps, and the Apennine[original has "Appenine"] + mountains + + Page 225: time much longer than a year."[quotation mark + missing in original] + + Page 228: formation is novel, in[original has "n"] comparison + + Page 256: resemblance is perfectly exact."[quotation mark + missing in original] + + [78:A] Vide Newton, 2d edit. page 525.[period missing in + original] + + [177:A] Footnote letter missing in original. + + [178:A] See the Hist. of New France, by the Pere Charlevoix. + [letter and period missing in original. + + [234:A] See Shaw's Voyages, Vol. ii[original has "11"], pages + 40 and 41. + + [240:B] Voyage of Paul Lucus, Vol. II[original has "11"], page + 380. + + [329:A] above the surface of the water.[original has a comma] + + [330:A] See the Voyages of Lade, vol. ii.[original has "11"] + page 305, &. + + [332:A] Voyage of the Dutch to the North, vol. 1, 3.[original + has a comma] Page 49. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Buffon's Natural History, Volume I (of +II), by Georges Louis Leclerc de Buffon + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BUFFON'S NATURAL HISTORY *** + +***** This file should be named 44792-0.txt or 44792-0.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/4/4/7/9/44792/ + +Produced by Chris Curnow, Lisa Reigel, and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + diff --git a/old/44792-0.zip b/old/44792-0.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..757fd3a --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44792-0.zip diff --git a/old/44792-8.txt b/old/44792-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3f9dc24 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44792-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,7089 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Buffon's Natural History, Volume I (of II), by +Georges Louis Leclerc de Buffon + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Buffon's Natural History, Volume I (of II) + Containing a Therory of ther Earth, a General History of + Man, of the Brute Creation, and of Vegetables, Mineral, + &c. &c + +Author: Georges Louis Leclerc de Buffon + +Translator: James Smith Barr + +Release Date: January 29, 2014 [EBook #44792] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BUFFON'S NATURAL HISTORY *** + + + + +Produced by Chris Curnow, Lisa Reigel, and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive) + + + + + + + +Transcriber's Notes: Words in italics in the original are surrounded by +_underscores_. Characters superscripted in the original are surrounded +by {braces}. Other notes follow the text. + + + + + _Barr's Buffon._ + + + Buffon's Natural History. + + CONTAINING + + A THEORY OF THE EARTH, + + A GENERAL + + _HISTORY OF MAN_, + + OF THE BRUTE CREATION, AND OF + VEGETABLES, MINERALS, + _&c. &c._ + + FROM THE FRENCH. + + WITH NOTES BY THE TRANSLATOR. + + IN TEN VOLUMES. + + VOL. I. + + + London: + PRINTED FOR THE PROPRIETOR, + AND SOLD BY H. D. SYMONDS, PATERNOSTER-ROW. + + 1797. + + + + +CONTENTS + +OF + +THE FIRST VOLUME. + + + _Page_ + _THE Theory of the Earth_ 1 + + Proof of the Theory of the Earth. + + Article I. _On the Formation of the Planets_ 69 + + Article II. _From the System of Whiston_ 115 + + Article III. _From the System of Burnet_ 128 + + Article IV. _From the System of Woodward_ 131 + + Article V. _Exposition of some other Systems_ 137 + + Article VI. _Geography_ 155 + + Article VII. _On the Production of the Strata, or Beds of + the Earth_ 183 + + Article VIII. _On Shells and other Marine Productions found + in the interior Parts of the Earth_ 219 + + Article IX. _On the Inequalities of the Surface + of the Earth_ 262 + + Article X. _Of Rivers_ 298 + + + + +PREFACE. + + +We should certainly be guilty of a gross absurdity if, in an age like +the present, we were to enter into an elaborate discussion on the +advantages to be derived from the study of NATURAL HISTORY; the ancients +recommended it as useful, instructive, and entertaining; and the moderns +have so far pursued and cultivated this first of sciences, that it is +now admitted to be the source of universal instruction and knowledge; +where every active mind may find subjects to amuse and delight, and the +artist a never failing field to enrich his glowing imagination. + +It would have been singular if, on such a subject, a number of authors +had not submitted the produce of their observations and labour; many +have written upon Natural Philosophy, but the Comte de BUFFON stands +eminently distinguished among them; he has entered into a minute +investigation, and drawn numberless facts from unwearied observations +far beyond any other, and this he has accomplished in a style fully +accordant with the importance of his subject. Ray, Linnæus, Rheaumur, +and other of his cotemporaries, deserve much credit for their classing +of animals, vegetables, &c. but it was BUFFON alone who entered into a +description of their nature, habits, uses, and properties. In his Theory +of the Earth he has displayed a wonderful ingenuity, and shewn the +general order of Nature with a masterly hand, although he may be subject +to some objections for preferring physical reasonings on general +causes, rather than allowing aught to have arisen from supernatural +agency, or the will of the Almighty. In this he has followed the example +of all great philosophers, who seem unwilling to admit that the +formation of any part of the Universe is beyond their comprehension. + +As the works of this Author will best speak for themselves, we shall +avoid unnecessary panegyric, hoping they will have received no material +injury in the following translation; we shall therefore content +ourselves with observing, that in our plan we have followed that adopted +by the Comte himself in a latter edition, from which he exploded his +long and minute treatises on anatomy and mensuration; though elegant and +highly finished in themselves, they appeared to us of too abstruse and +confined a nature for general estimation, and which we could not have +gone into without almost doubling the expence; a circumstance we had to +guard against, for the advantage of those of our readers to whom that +part would have been totally uninteresting. + +As to this edition, we presume it is no vain boast, that every exertion +has been made to do justice to a work of such acknowledged merit. In the +literary part, it has been the Proprietor's chief endeavour to preserve +the spirit and accuracy of the Author, as far as could be done in +translating from one language into another; and it is with gratitude he +acknowledges, that those endeavours have been amply supported by the +engraver; for the decorative executions of MILTON will remain a lasting +monument of his abilities, as long as delicacy in the arts is held in +estimation. + + + + +BUFFON's + +NATURAL HISTORY. + + + + +_THE THEORY OF THE EARTH._ + + +Neither the figure of the earth, its motion, nor its external +connections with the rest of the universe, pertain to our present +investigation. It is the internal structure of the globe, its +composition, form, and manner of existence which we purpose to examine. +The general history of the earth should doubtless precede that of its +productions, as a necessary study for those who wish to be acquainted +with Nature in her variety of shapes, and the detail of facts relative +to the life and manners of animals, or to the culture and vegetation of +plants, belong not, perhaps, so much to Natural History, as to the +general deductions drawn from the observations that have been made upon +the different materials which compose the terrestrial globe: as the +heights, depths, and inequalities of its form; the motion of the sea, +the direction of mountains, the situation of rocks and quarries, the +rapidity and effects of currents in the ocean, &c. This is the history +of nature in its most ample extent, and these are the operations by +which every other effect is influenced and produced. The theory of these +effects constitutes what may be termed a primary science, upon which the +exact knowledge of particular appearances as well as terrestrial +substances entirely depends. This description of science may fairly be +considered as appertaining to physics; but does not all physical +knowledge, in which no system is admitted, form part of the History of +Nature? + +In a subject of great magnitude, whose relative connections are +difficult to trace, and where some facts are but partially known, and +others uncertain and obscure, it is more easy to form a visionary +system, than to establish a rational theory; thus it is that the Theory +of the Earth has only hitherto been treated in a vague and hypothetical +manner; I shall therefore but slightly mention the singular notions of +some authors who have written upon the subject. + +The first hypothesis I shall allude to, deserves to be mentioned more +for its ingenuity than its reasonable solidity; it is that of an English +astronomer, (WHISTON) versed in the system of NEWTON, and an +enthusiastic admirer of his philosophy; convinced that every event which +happens on the terrestrial globe, depends upon the motions of the stars, +he endeavours to prove, by the assistance of mathematical calculations, +that the tail of a comet has produced every alteration the earth has +ever undergone. + +The next is the formation of an heterodox theologician, (BURNET) whose +brain was so heated with poetical visions, that he imagined he had seen +the creation of the universe. After explaining what the earth was in its +primary state, when it sprung from nothing; what changes were occasioned +by the deluge; what it has been and what it is, he then assumes a +prophetic style, and predicts what will be its state after the +destruction of the human race. + +The third comes from a writer (WOODWARD) certainly a better and more +extensive observer of nature than the two former, though little less +irregular and confused in his ideas; he explains the principal +appearances of the globe, by an immense abyss in the bowels of the +earth, which in his opinion is nothing more than a thin crust that +serves as a covering to the fluid it incloses. + +The whole of these hypotheses are raised on unstable foundations; have +given no light upon the subject, the ideas being unconnected, the facts +confused, and the whole confounded with a mixture of physic and fable; +and consequently have been adopted only by those who implicitly believe +opinions without investigation, and who, incapable of distinguishing +probability, are more impressed with the wonders of the marvellous than +the relation of truth. + +What we shall say on this subject will doubtless be less extraordinary, +and appear unimportant, if put in comparison with the grand systems just +mentioned, but it should be remembered that it is an historian's +business to describe, not invent; that no suppositions should be +admitted upon subjects that depend upon facts and observation; that his +imagination ought only to be exercised for the purpose of combining +observations, rendering facts more general, and forming one connected +whole, so as to present to the mind a distinct arrangement of clear +ideas and probable conjectures; I say probable, because we must not +expect to give exact demonstration on this subject, that being confined +to mathematical sciences, while our knowledge in physics and natural +history depends solely upon experience, and is confined to reasoning +upon inductions. + +In the history of the Earth, we shall therefore begin with those facts +that have been obtained from the experience of time, together with what +we have collected by our own observations. + +This immense globe exhibits upon its surface heights, depths, plains, +seas, lakes, marshes, rivers, caverns, gulphs, and volcanos; and upon +the first view of these objects we cannot discover in their dispositions +either order or regularity. If we penetrate into its internal part, we +shall there find metals, minerals, stones, bitumens, sands, earths, +waters, and matters of every kind, placed as it were by chance, and +without the smallest apparent design. Examining with a more strict +attention, we discover sunk mountains, caverns filled, rocks split and +broken, countries swallowed up, and new islands rising from the ocean; +we shall also perceive heavy substances placed above light ones, hard +bodies surrounded with soft; in short, we shall there find matter in +every form, wet and dry, hot and cold, solid and brittle, mixed in such +a sort of confusion as to leave room to compare them only to a mass of +rubbish and the ruins of a wrecked world. + +We inhabit these ruins however with a perfect security. The various +generations of men, animals, and plants, succeed each other without +interruption; the earth produces fully sufficient for their subsistence; +the sea has its limits; its motions and the currents of air are +regulated by fixed laws: the returns of the seasons are certain and +regular; the severity of the winter being constantly succeeded by the +beauties of the spring: every thing appears in order, and the earth, +formerly a CHAOS, is now a tranquil and delightful abode, where all is +animated, and regulated by such an amazing display of power and +intelligence as fills us with admiration, and elevates our minds with +the most sublime ideas of an all-potent and wonderful Creator. + +Let us not then draw any hasty conclusions upon the irregularities of +the surface of the earth, nor the apparent disorders in the interior +parts, for we shall soon discover the utility, and even the necessity of +them; and, by considering them with a little attention, we shall, +perhaps, find an order of which we had no conception, and a general +connection that we could neither perceive nor comprehend, by a slight +examination: but in fact, our knowledge on this subject must always be +confined. There are many parts of the surface of the globe with which we +are entirely unacquainted, and have but partial ideas of the bottom of +the sea, which in many places we have not been able to fathom. We can +only penetrate into the coat of the earth; the greatest caverns and the +deepest mines do not descend above the eight thousandth part of its +diameter, we can therefore judge only of the external and mere +superficial part; we know, indeed, that bulk for bulk the earth weighs +four times heavier than the sun, and we also know the proportion its +weight bears with other planets; but this is merely a relative +estimation; we have no certain standard nor proportion; we are so +entirely ignorant of the real weight of the materials, that the internal +part of the globe may be a void space, or composed of matter a thousand +times heavier than gold; nor is there any method to make further +discoveries on this subject; and it is with the greatest difficulty any +rational conjectures can be formed thereon. + +We must therefore confine ourselves to a correct examination and +description of the surface of the earth, and to those trifling depths to +which we have been enabled to penetrate. The first object which presents +itself is that immense quantity of water which covers the greatest part +of the globe; this water always occupies the lowest ground, its surface +always level, and constantly tending to equilibrium and rest; +nevertheless it is kept in perpetual agitation by a powerful agent, +which opposing its natural tranquillity, impresses it with a regular +periodical motion, alternately raising and depressing its waves, +producing a vibration in the total mass, by disturbing the whole body to +the greatest depths. This motion we know has existed from the +commencement of time, and will continue as long as the sun and moon, +which are the causes of it. + +By an examination of the bottom of the sea, we discover that to be fully +as irregular as the surface of the earth; we there find hills and +vallies, plains and cavities, rocks and soils of every kind: we there +perceive that islands are only the summits of vast mountains, whose +foundations are at the bottom of the Ocean; we also find other mountains +whose tops are nearly on a level with the surface of the water, and +rapid currents which run contrary to the general movement: they +sometimes run in the same direction, at others, their motions are +retrograde, but never exceeding their bounds, which appear to be as +fixed and invariable as those which confine the rivers of the earth. In +one part we meet with tempestuous regions, where the winds blow with +irresistible fury, where the sea and the heavens equally agitated, join +in contact with each other, are mixed and confounded in the general +shock: in others, violent intestine motions, tumultuous swellings, +water-spouts, and extraordinary agitations, caused by volcanos, whose +mouths though a considerable depth under water, yet vomit fire from the +midst of the waves, and send up to the clouds a thick vapour, composed +of water, sulphur, and bitumen. Further we perceive dreadful gulphs or +whirlpools, which seem to attract vessels, merely to swallow them up. On +the other hand, we discover immense regions, totally opposite in their +natures, always calm and tranquil, yet equally dangerous; where the +winds never exert their power, where the art of the mariner becomes +useless, and where the becalmed voyager must remain until death relieves +him from the horrors of despair. In conclusion, if we turn our eyes +towards the northern or southern extremities of the globe, we there +perceive enormous flakes of ice separating themselves from the polar +regions, advancing like huge mountains into the more temperate climes, +where they dissolve and are lost to the sight. + +Exclusive of these principal objects the vast empire of the sea abounds +with animated beings, almost innumerable in numbers and variety. Some of +them, covered with light scales, move with astonishing celerity; others, +loaded with thick shells, drag heavily along, leaving their track in the +sand; on others Nature has bestowed fins, resembling wings, with which +they raise and support themselves in the air, and fly to considerable +distances; while there are those to whom all motion has been denied, who +live and die immoveably fixed to the same rock: every species, however, +find abundance of food in this their native element. The bottom of the +sea, and the shelving sides of the various rocks, produce great +abundance of plants and mosses of different kinds; its soil is composed +of sand, gravel, rocks, and shells; in some parts a fine clay, in others +a solid earth, and in general it has a complete resemblance to the land +which we inhabit. + +Let us now take a view of the earth. What prodigious differences do we +find in different climates? What a variety of soils? What inequalities +in the surface? but upon a minute and attentive observation we shall +find the greatest chain of mountains are nearer the equator than the +poles; that in the Old Continent their direction is more from the east +to west than from the north to south; and that, on the contrary, in the +New World they extend more from north to south than from east to west; +but what is still more remarkable, the form and direction of those +mountains, whose appearance is so very irregular, correspond so +precisely, that the prominent angles of one mountain are always +opposite to the concave angles of the neighbouring mountain, and are of +equal dimensions, whether they are separated by a small valley or an +extensive plain. I have also observed that opposite hills are nearly of +the same height, and that, in general, mountains occupy the middle of +continents, islands, and promontories, which they divide by the greatest +lengths. + +In following the courses of the principal rivers, I have likewise found +that they are almost always perpendicular with those of the sea into +which they empty themselves; and that in the greatest part of their +courses they proceed nearly in the direction of the mountains from which +they derive their source. + +The sea shores are generally bounded with rocks, marble, and other hard +stones, or by earth and sand which has accumulated by the waters from +the sea, or been brought down by the rivers; and I observe that opposite +coasts, separated only by an arm of the sea, are composed of similar +materials, and the beds of the earth are exactly the same. Volcanos I +find exist only in the highest mountains; that many of them are entirely +extinct; that some are connected with others by subterraneous passages, +and that their explosions frequently happen at one and the same time. +There are similar correspondences between certain lakes and neighbouring +seas; some rivers suddenly disappear, and seem to precipitate themselves +into the earth. We also find internal, or mediterranean seas, constantly +receiving an enormous quantity of water from a number of rivers without +ever extending their bounds, most probably discharging by subterraneous +passages all their superfluous supplies. Lands which have been long +inhabited are easily distinguished from those new countries where the +soil appears in a rude state, where the rivers are full of cataracts, +where the earth is either overflowed with water, or parched up with +drought, and where every spot upon which a tree will grow is covered +with uncultivated woods. + +Pursuing our examination in a more extensive view, we find that the +upper strata that surrounds the globe, is universally the same. That +this substance which serves for the growth and nourishment of animals +and vegetables, is nothing but a composition of decayed animal and +vegetable bodies reduced into such small particles, that their former +organization is not distinguishable; or penetrating a little further, +we find the real earth, beds of sand, lime-stone, argol, shells, marble, +gravel, chalk, &c. These beds are always parallel to each other and of +the same thickness throughout their whole extent. In neighbouring hills +beds of the same materials are invariably found upon the same levels, +though the hills are separated by deep and extensive intervals. All beds +of earth, even the most solid strata, as rocks, quarries of marble, &c. +are uniformly divided by perpendicular fissures; it is the same in the +largest as well as smallest depths, and appears a rule which nature +invariably pursues. + +In the very bowels of the earth, on the tops of mountains, and even the +most remote parts from the sea, shells, skeletons of fish, marine +plants, &c. are frequently found, and these shells, fish, and plants, +are exactly similar to those which exist in the Ocean. There are a +prodigious quantity of petrified shells to be met with in an infinity of +places, not only inclosed in rocks, masses of marble, lime-stone, as +well as in earth and clays, but are actually incorporated and filled +with the very substance which surrounds them. In short, I find myself +convinced, by repeated observations, that marbles, stones, chalks, +marls, clay, sand, and almost all terrestrial substances, wherever they +may be placed, are filled with shells and other substances, the +productions of the sea. + +These facts being enumerated, let us now see what reasonable conclusions +are to be drawn from them. + +The changes and alterations which have happened to the earth, in the +space of the last two or three thousand years, are very inconsiderable +indeed, when compared with those important revolutions which must have +taken place in those ages which immediately followed the creation; for +as all terrestrial substances could only acquire solidity by the +continued action of gravity, it would be easy to demonstrate that the +surface of the earth was much softer at first than it is at present, and +consequently the same causes which now produce but slight and almost +imperceptible changes during many ages, would then effect great +revolutions in a very short space. It appears to be a certain fact, that +the earth which we now inhabit, and even the tops of the highest +mountains, were formerly covered with the sea, for shells and other +marine productions are frequently found in almost every part; it appears +also that the water remained a considerable time on the surface of the +earth, since in many places there have been discovered such prodigious +banks of shells, that it is impossible so great a multitude of animals +could exist at the same time: this fact seems likewise to prove, that +although the materials which composed the surface of the earth were then +in a state of softness, that rendered them easy to be disunited, moved +and transported by the waters, yet that these removals were not made at +once; they must indeed have been successive, gradual, and by degrees, +because these kind of sea productions are frequently met with more than +a thousand feet below the surface, and such a considerable thickness of +earth and stone could not have accumulated but by the length of time. If +we were to suppose that at the Deluge all the shell-fish were raised +from the bottom of the sea, and transported over all the earth; besides +the difficulty of establishing this supposition, it is evident, that as +we find shells incorporated in marble and in the rocks of the highest +mountains, we must likewise suppose that all these marbles and rocks +were formed at the same time, and that too at the very instant of the +Deluge; and besides, that previous to this great revolution there were +neither mountains, marble, nor rocks, nor clays, nor matters of any kind +similar to those we are at present acquainted with, as they almost all +contain shells and other productions of the sea. Besides, at the time of +the Deluge, the earth must have acquired a considerable degree of +solidity, from the action of gravity for more than sixteen centuries, +and consequently it does not appear possible that the waters, during the +short time the Deluge lasted, should have overturned and dissolved its +surface to the greatest depths we have since been enabled to penetrate. + +But without dwelling longer on this point, which shall hereafter be more +amply discussed, I shall confine myself to well-known observations and +established facts. There is no doubt but that the waters of the sea at +some period covered and remained for ages upon that part of the globe +which is now known to be dry land; and consequently the whole continents +of Asia, Europe, Africa, and America, were then the bottom of an ocean +abounding with similar productions to those which the sea at present +contains: it is equally certain that the different strata which compose +the earth are parallel and horizontal, and it is evident their being in +this situation is the operation of the waters which have collected and +accumulated by degrees the different materials, and given them the same +position as the water itself always assumes. We observe that the +position of strata is almost universally horizontal: in plains it is +exactly so, and it is only in the mountains that they are inclined to +the horizon, from their having been originally formed by a sediment +deposited upon an inclined base. Now I insist that these strata must +have been formed by degrees, and not all at once, by any revolution +whatever, because strata, composed of heavy materials, are very +frequently found placed above light ones, which could not be, if, as +some authors assert, the whole had been mixed with the waters at the +time of the Deluge, and afterwards precipitated; in that case every +thing must have had a very different appearance to that which now +exists. The heaviest bodies would have descended first, and each +particular stratum would have been arranged according to its weight and +specific gravity, and we should not see solid rocks or metals placed +above light sand any more than clay under coal. + +We should also pay attention to another circumstance; it confirms what +we have said on the formation of the strata; no other cause than the +motions and sediments of water could possibly produce so regular a +position of it, for the highest mountains are composed of parallel +strata as well as the lowest plains, and therefore we cannot attribute +the origin and formation of mountains to the shocks of earthquakes, or +eruptions of volcanos. The small eminences which are sometimes raised by +volcanos, or convulsive motions of the earth, are not by any means +composed of parallel strata, they are a mere disordered heap of matters +thrown confusedly together; but the horizontal and parallel position of +the strata must necessarily proceed from the operations of a constant +cause and motion, always regulated and directed in the same uniform +manner. + +From repeated observations, and these incontrovertible facts, we are +convinced that the dry part of the globe, which is now habitable, has +remained for a long time under the waters of the sea, and consequently +this earth underwent the same fluctuations and changes which the bottom +of the ocean is at present actually undergoing. To discover therefore +what formerly passed on the earth, let us examine what now passes at +the bottom of the sea, and from thence we shall soon be enabled to draw +rational conclusions with regard to the external form and internal +composition of that which we inhabit. + +From the Creation the sea has constantly been subject to a regular flux +and reflux: this motion, which raises and falls the waters twice in +every twenty-four hours, is principally occasioned by the action of the +moon, and is much greater under the equator than in any other climates. +The earth performs a rapid motion on its axis, and consequently has a +centrifugal force, which is also the greatest at the equator; this +latter, independent of actual observation, proves that the earth is not +perfectly spherical, but that it must be more elevated under the equator +then at the poles. + +From these combined causes, the ebbing and flowing of the tides, and the +motion of the earth, we may fairly conclude, that although the earth was +a perfect sphere in its original form, yet its diurnal motion, together +with the constant flux and reflux of the sea, must, by degrees, in the +course of time, have raised the equatorial parts, by carrying mud, +earth, sand, shells, &c. from other climes, and there depositing of +them. Agreeable to this idea the greatest irregularities must be found, +and, in fact, are found near the equator. Besides, as this motion of the +tides is made by diurnal alternatives, and been repeated, without +interruption, from the commencement of time, is it not natural to +imagine, that each time the tide flows the water carries a small +quantity of matter from one place to another, which may fall to the +bottom like a sediment, and form those parallel and horizontal strata +which are every where to be met with? for the whole motion of the water, +in the flux and reflux, being horizontal, the matters carried away with +them will naturally be deposited in the same parallel direction. + +But to this it may be said, that as the flux and reflux of the waters +are equal and regularly succeed, two motions would counterpoise each +other, and the matters brought by the flux would be returned by the +reflux, and of course this cause for the formation of the strata must be +chimerical; that the bottom of the sea could not experience any material +alteration by two uniform motions, wherein the effects of the one would +be regularly destroyed by the other; much less could they change the +original form by the production of heights and inequalities. + +To which it may be answered, that the alternate motions of the waters +are not equal, the sea having a constant motion from the east to the +west, besides, the agitation, caused by the winds, opposes and prevents +the equality of the tides. It will also be admitted, that by every +motion of which the sea is susceptible, particles of earth and other +matters will be carried from one place and deposited in another; and +these collections will necessarily assume the form of horizontal and +parallel strata, from the various combinations of the motions of the sea +always tending to move the earth, and to level these materials wherever +they fall, in the form of a sediment. But this objection is easily +obviated by the well-known fact, that upon all coasts, bordering the +sea, where the ebbing and flowing of the tide is observed, the flux +constantly brings in a number of things which the reflux does not carry +back. There are many places upon which the sea insensibly gains and +gradually covers over, while there are others from which it recedes, +narrowing as it were its limits, by depositing earth, sands, shells, +&c. which naturally take an horizontal position; these matters +accumulate by degrees in the course of time, and being raised to a +certain point gradually exclude the water, and so become part of the dry +land for ever after. + +But not to leave any doubt upon this important point, let us strictly +examine into the possibility of a mountain's being formed at the bottom +of the sea by the motions and sediments of the waters. It is certain +that on a coast which the sea beats with violence during the agitation +of its flow, that every wave must carry off some part of the earth; for +wherever the sea is bounded by rocks, it is a plain fact that the water +by degrees wears away those rocks, and consequently carries away small +particles every time the waves retire; these particles of earth and +stone will necessarily be transported to some distance, and being +arrived where the agitation of the water is abated, and left to their +own weight, they precipitate to the bottom in form of a sediment, and +there form a first stratum, either horizontal or inclined, according to +the position of the surface upon which they fall; this will shortly be +covered by a similar stratum produced by the same cause, and thus will a +considerable quantity of matter be almost insensibly collected +together, and the strata of which will be placed, parallel to each +other. + +This mass will continue to increase by new sediments, and by gradually +accumulating, in the course of time become a mountain at the bottom of +the sea, exactly similar to those we see on dry land, both as to outward +form and internal composition. If there happen to be shells in this part +of the sea, where we have supposed this deposit to be made, they will be +filled and covered with the sediment, and incorporated in the deposited +matter, making a part of the whole mass, and they will be found situated +in the parts of the mountain according to the time they had been there +deposited; those that lay at the bottom, previous to the formation of +the first stratum, will be found in the lowest, and so according to the +time of their being deposited, the latest in the most elevated parts. + +So likewise, when the bottom of the sea, at particular places, is +troubled by the agitation of the water, there will necessarily ensue, in +the same manner, a removal of earth, shells, and other matters, from the +troubled to other parts; for we are assumed by all divers, that at the +greatest depths they descend, i. e. twenty fathoms, the bottom of the +sea is so troubled by the agitation of the waters, that the mud and +shells are carried to considerable distances, consequently +transportations of this kind are made in every part of the sea, and this +matter falling must form eminences, composed like our mountains, and in +every respect similar; therefore the flux and reflux, by the winds, the +currents, and all the motions of the water, must inevitably create +inequalities at the bottom of the sea. + +Nor must we imagine that these matters cannot be transported to great +distances, because we daily see grain, and other productions of the East +and West Indies, arriving on our own coasts.[25:A] It is true these +bodies are specifically lighter than water, whereas the substances of +which we have been speaking are specifically heavier; but, however, +being reduced to an impalpable powder, they may be sustained a long time +in the water so as to be conveyed to considerable distances. + +It has been supposed that the sea is not troubled at the bottom, +especially if it is very deep, by the agitations produced by the winds +and tides; but it should be recollected that the whole mass, however +deep, is put in motion by the tides, and that in a liquid globe this +motion would be communicated to the very centre; that the power which +produces the flux and reflux is a penetrating force, which acts +proportionably upon every particle of its mass, so that we can determine +by calculation the quantity of its force at different depths; but, in +short, this point is so certain, that it cannot be contested but by +refusing the evidence of reason. + +Therefore, we cannot possibly have the least doubt that the tides, the +winds, and every other cause which agitates the sea, must produce +eminences and inequalities at the bottom, and those heights must ever be +composed of horizontal or equally inclined strata. These eminences will +gradually encrease until they become hills, which will rise in +situations similar to the waves that produce them; and if there is a +long extent of soil, they will continue to augment by degrees; so that +in course of time they will form a vast chain of mountains. Being formed +into mountains, they become an obstacle to and interrupt the common +motion of the sea, producing at the same time other motions, which are +generally called currents. Between two neighbouring heights at the +bottom of the sea a current will necessarily be formed, which will +follow their common direction, and, like a river, form a channel, whose +angles will be alternately opposite during the whole extent of its +course. These heights will be continually increasing, being subject only +to the motion of the flux, for the waters during the flow will leave the +common sediment upon their ridges; and those waters which are impelled +by the current will force along with them, to great distances, those +matters which would be deposited between both, at the same time +hollowing out a valley with corresponding angles at their foundation. By +the effects of these motions and sediments the bottom of the sea, +although originally smooth, must become unequal, and abounding with +hills and chains of mountains, as we find it at present. The soft +materials of which the eminences are originally composed will harden by +degrees with their own weight; some forming parts, purely angular, +produce hills of clay; others, consisting of sandy and crystalline +particles, compose those enormous masses of rock and flint from whence +crystal and other precious stones are extracted; those formed with stony +particles, mixed with shells, form those of lime-stone and marble, +wherein we daily meet with shells incorporated; and others, compounded +of matter more shelly, united with pure earth, compose all our beds of +marle and chalk. All these substances are placed in regular beds, and +all contain heterogeneous matter; marine productions are found among +them in abundance, and nearly according to the relation of their +specific weights; the lightest shells in chalk, and the heaviest in clay +and lime-stone; these shells are invariably filled with the matter in +which they have been inclosed, whether stones or earth; an incontestible +proof that they have been transported with the matter that fills and +surrounds them, and that this matter was at that time in an impalpable +powder. In short, all those substances whose horizontal situations have +been established by the level of the waters of the sea, will constantly +preserve their original position. + +But here it may be observed, that most hills, whose summits consist of +solid rocks, stone, or marble, are formed upon small eminences of much +lighter materials, such for instance as clay, or strata of sand, which +we commonly find extended over the neighbouring plains, upon which it +may be asked, how, if the foregoing theory be just, this seemingly +contradictory arrangement happens? To me this phenomenon appears to be +very easy and naturally explained. The water at first acts upon the +upper stratum of coasts, or bottom of the sea, which commonly consists +of clay or sand, and having transported this, and deposited the +sediment, it of course composes small eminences, which form a base for +the more heavy particles to rest upon. Having removed the lighter +substances, it operates upon the more heavy, and by constant attrition +reduces them to an impalpable powder; which it conveys to the same spot, +and where, being deposited, these stony particles, in the course of +time, form those solid rocks and quarries which we now find upon the +tops of hills and mountains. It is not unlikely that as these particles +are much heavier than sand or clay, that they were formerly a +considerable depth under a strata of that kind, and now owe their high +situations to having been last raised up and transported by the motion +of the water. + +To confirm what we here assert, let us more closely investigate the +situation of those materials which compose the superficial outer part of +the globe, indeed the only part with which we have any knowledge. The +different beds of strata in stone quarries are almost all horizontal, or +regularly inclined; those whose foundations are on clays or other solid +matters are clearly horizontal, especially in plains. The quarries +wherein we find flint, or brownish grey free-stone, in detached +portions, have a less regular position, but even in those the uniformity +of nature plainly appears, for the horizontal or regularly inclined +strata are apparent in quarries where these stones are found in great +masses. This position is universal, except in quarries where flint and +brown free-stone are found in small detached portions, the formation of +which we shall prove to have been posterior to those we have just been +treating of; for granite, vitrifiable sand, argol, marble, calcareous +stone, chalk, and marles, are always deposited in parallel strata, +horizontally or equally inclined; the original formation of these are +easily discovered, for the strata are exactly horizontal and very thin, +and are arranged above each other like the leaves of a book. Beds of +sand, soft and hard clay, chalk, and shells, are also either horizontal +or regularly inclined. Strata of every kind preserves the same thickness +throughout its whole extent, which often occupies the space of many +miles, and may be traced still farther by close and exact observations. +In a word, the materials of the globe, as far as mankind have been +enabled to penetrate, are arranged in an uniform position, and are +exactly similar. + +The strata of sand and gravel which have been washed down from mountains +must in some measure be excepted; in vallies they are sometimes of a +considerable extent, and are generally placed under the first strata of +the earth; in plains, they are as even as the most ancient and interior +strata, but near the bottom and upon the ridges of hills they are +inclined, and follow the inclination of the ground upon which they have +flowed. These being formed by rivers and rivulets, which are constantly +in vallies changing their beds, and dragging these sands and gravel with +them, they are of course very numerous. A small rivulet flowing from the +neighbouring heights, in the course of time will be sufficient to cover +a very spacious valley with a strata of sand and gravel, and I have +often observed in hilly countries, whose base, as well as the upper +stratum, was hard clay, that above the source of the rivulet the clay is +found immediately under the vegetable soil, and below it there is the +thickness of a foot of sand upon the clay, and which extends itself to a +considerable distance. These strata formed by rivers are not very +ancient, and are easily discovered by the inequality of their thickness, +which is constantly varying, while the ancient strata preserves the same +dimensions throughout; they are also to be known by the matter itself, +which bears evident marks of having been smoothed and rounded by the +motions of the water. The same may be said of the turf and perished +vegetables which are found below the first stratum of earth in marshy +grounds; they cannot be considered as ancient, but entirely produced by +successive heaps of decayed trees and other plants. Nor are the strata +of slime and mud, which are found in many countries, to be considered as +ancient productions, having been formed by stagnated waters or +inundations of rivers, and are neither so horizontal, nor equally +inclined, as the strata anciently produced by the regular motions of the +sea. In the strata formed by rivers we constantly meet with river, but +scarcely ever sea shells, and the few that are found are broken and +irregularly placed; whereas in the ancient strata there are no river +shells; the sea shells are in great quantities, well preserved, and all +placed in the same manner, having been transported at the same time and +by the same cause. How are we to account for this astonishing +regularity? Instead of regular strata, why do we not meet with the +matters that compose the earth jumbled together, without any kind of +order? Why are not rocks, marbles, clays, marles, &c. variously +dispersed, or joined by irregular or vertical strata? Why are not the +heaviest bodies uniformly found placed beneath the lightest? It is easy +to perceive that this uniformity of nature, this organization of earth, +this connection of different materials, by parallel strata, without +respect to their weights, could only be produced by a cause as powerful +and constant as the motion of the sea, whether occasioned by the regular +winds or by that of the flux and reflux, &c. + +These causes act with greater force under the equator than in other +climates, for there the winds are more regular and the tides run +higher; the most extensive chains of mountains are also near the +equator. The mountains of Africa and Peru are the highest known, they +frequently extend themselves through whole provinces, and stretch, to +considerable distances under the ocean. The mountains of Europe and +Asia, which extend from Spain to China, are not so high as those of +South America and Africa. The mountains of the North, according to the +relation of travellers, are only hills in comparison with those of the +Southern countries. Besides, there are very few islands in the Northern +Seas, whereas in the torrid zone they are almost innumerable, and as +islands are only the summits of mountains, it is evident that the +surface of the earth has many more inequalities towards the equator than +in the northerly climes. + +It is therefore evident that the prodigious chain of mountains which run +from the West to the East in the old continent, and from the North to +the South in the new, must have been produced by the general motion of +the tides; but the origin of all the inferior mountains must be +attributed to the particular motions of currents, occasioned by the +winds and other irregular agitations of the sea: they may probably have +been produced by a combination of all those motions, which must be +capable of infinite variations, since the winds and different positions +of islands and coasts change the regular course of the tides, and compel +them to flow in every possible direction: it is, therefore, not in the +least astonishing that we should see considerable eminences, whose +courses have no determined direction. But it is sufficient for our +present purpose to have demonstrated that mountains are not the produce +of earthquakes, or other accidental causes, but that they are the +effects resulting from the general order of nature, both as to their +organization and the position of the materials of which they are +composed. + +But how has it happened that this earth which we and our ancestors have +inhabited for ages, which, from time immemorial, has been an immense +continent, dry and removed from the reach of the waters, should, if +formerly the bottom of the ocean, be actually larger than all the +waters, and raised to such a height as to be distinctly separated from +them? Having remained so long on the earth, why have the waters now +abandoned it? What accident, what cause could produce so great a +change? Is it possible to conceive one possessed of sufficient power to +produce such an amazing effect? + +These questions are difficult to be resolved, but as the facts are +certain and incontrovertible, the exact manner in which they happened +may remain unknown, without prejudicing the conclusions that may be +drawn from them; nevertheless, by a little reflection, we shall find at +least plausible reasons for these changes. We daily observe the sea +gaining ground on some coasts and losing it on others; we know that the +ocean has a continued regular motion from East to West; that it makes +loud and violent efforts against the low lands and rocks which confine +it; that there are whole provinces which human industry can hardly +secure from the rage of the sea; that there are instances of islands +rising above, and others being sunk under the waters. History speaks of +much greater deluges and inundations. Ought not this to incline us to +believe that the surface of the earth has undergone great revolutions, +and that the sea may have quitted the greatest part of the earth which +it formerly covered? Let us but suppose that the old and new worlds were +formerly but one continent, and that the Atlantis of Plato was sunk by +a violent earthquake; the natural consequence would be, that the sea +would necessarily have flowed in from all sides, and formed what is now +called the Atlantic Ocean, leaving vast continents dry, and possibly +those which we now inhabit. This revolution, therefore, might be made of +a sudden by the opening of some vast cavern in the interior part of the +globe, which an universal deluge must inevitably succeed; or possibly +this change was not effected at once, but required a length of time, +which I am rather inclined to think; however these conjectures may be, +it is certain the revolution has occurred, and in my opinion very +naturally; for to judge of the future, as well as the past, we must +carefully attend to what daily happens before our eyes. It is a fact +clearly established by repeated observations of travellers, that the +ocean has a constant motion from the East to West; this motion, like the +trade winds, is not only felt between the tropics, but also throughout +the temperate climates, and as near the poles as navigators have gone; +of course the Pacific Ocean makes a continual effort against the coasts +of Tartary, China, and India; the Indian Ocean acts against the east +coast of Africa; and the Atlantic in like manner against all the eastern +coasts of America; therefore the sea must have always and still +continues to gain land on the east and lose it on the west; and this +alone is sufficient to prove the possibility of the change Of earth into +sea, and sea into land. If, in fact, such are the effects of the sea's +motion from east to west, may we not very reasonably suppose that Asia +and the eastern continent is the oldest country in the world, and that +Europe and part of Africa, especially the western coasts of these +continents, as Great Britain, France, Spain, Muratania, &c. are of a +more modern date? Both history and physics agree in confirming this +conjecture. + +There are, however, many other causes which concur with the continual +motion of the sea from east to west, in producing these effects. + +In many places there are lands lower than the level of the sea, and +which are only defended from it by an isthmus of rocks, or by banks and +dykes of still weaker materials; these barriers must gradually be +destroyed by the constant action of the sea, when the lands will be +overflowed, and constantly make part of the ocean. Besides, are not +mountains daily decreasing by the rains, which loosen the earth, and +carry it down into the vallies? It is also well known that floods wash +the earth from the plains and high grounds into the small brooks and +rivers, which in their turn convey it into the sea. By these means the +bottom of the sea is filling up by degrees, the surface of the earth +lowering to a level, and nothing but time is necessary for the sea's +successively changing places with the earth. + +I speak not here of those remote causes which stand above our +comprehension; of those convulsions of nature, whose least effects would +be fatal to the world; the near approach of a comet, the absence of the +moon, the introduction of a new planet, &c. are suppositions on which it +is easy to give scope to the imagination. Such causes would produce any +effects we chose, and from a single hypothesis of this nature, a +thousand physical romances might be drawn, and which the authors might +term, THE THEORY OF THE EARTH. As historians we reject these vain +speculations; they are mere possibilities which suppose the destruction +of the universe, in which our globe, like a particle of forsaken matter, +escapes our observation, and is no longer an object worthy regard; but +to preserve consistency, we must take the earth as it is, closely +observing every part, and by inductions judge of the future from what +exists at present; in other respects we ought not to be affected by +causes which seldom happen, and whose effects are always sudden and +violent; they do not occur in the common course of nature; but effects +which are daily repeated, motions which succeed each other without +interruption, and operations that are constant, ought alone to be the +ground of our reasoning. + +We will add some examples thereto; we will combine particular effects +with general causes, and give a detail of facts which will render +apparent, and explain the different changes that the earth has +undergone, whether by the eruption of the sea upon the land, or by +retiring from that which it had formerly covered. + +The greatest eruption was certainly that which gave rise to the +Mediterranean sea. The ocean flows through a narrow channel between two +promontories with great rapidity, and then forms a vast sea, which, +without including the Black sea, is about seven times larger than the +kingdom of France. Its motion through the straits of Gibraltar is +contrary to all other straits, for the general motion of the sea is from +east to west, but in that alone it is from the west to the east, which +proves that the Mediterranean sea is not an ancient gulph, but that it +has been formed by an eruption, produced by some accidental cause; as an +earthquake which might swallow up the earth in the strait, or by a +violent effort of the ocean, caused by the wind, which might have forced +its way through the banks between the promontories of Gibraltar and +Ceuta. This opinion is authorised by the testimony of the ancients, who +declare in their writings, that the Mediterranean sea did not formerly +exist; and confirmed by natural history and observations made on the +opposite coasts of Spain, where similar beds of stones and earth are +found upon the same levels, in like manner as they are in two mountains, +separated by a small valley. + +The ocean having forced this passage, it ran at first through the +straits with much greater rapidity than at present, and overflowed the +continent that joined Europe to Africa. The waters covered all the low +countries, of which we can only now perceive the tops of some of the +considerable mountains, such as parts of Italy, the islands of Sicily, +Malta, Corsica, Sardinia, Cyprus, Rhodes, and those of the Archipelago. + +In this eruption I have not included the Black sea, because the quantity +of water it receives from the Danube, Nieper, Don, and various other +rivers, is fully sufficient to form and support it; and besides, it +flows with great rapidity through the Bosphorus into the Mediterranean. +It might also be presumed that the Black and Caspian seas were formerly +only two large lakes, joined by a narrow communication, or by a morass, +or small lake, which united the Don and the Wolga near Tria, where these +two rivers flow near each other; nor is it improbable that these two +seas or lakes were then of much greater extent, for the immense rivers +which fall into the Black and Caspian seas may have brought down a +sufficient quantity of earth to shut up the communication, and form that +neck of land by which they are now separated; for we know great rivers, +in the course of time, fill up seas and form new land, as the province +at the mouth of the Yellow river in China; Louisania at the mouth of the +Mississippi, and the northern part of Egypt, which owes its existence to +the inundations of the Nile; the rapidity of which brings down such +quantities of earth from the internal parts of Africa, as to deposit on +the shores, during the inundations, a body of slime and mud of more than +fifty feet in depth. The province of the Yellow river and Louisania +have, in like manner, been formed by the soil from the rivers. + +The Caspian sea is actually a real lake; having no communication with +other seas, not even with the lake Aral, which seems to have been a part +of it, being only separated from it by a large track of sand, in which +neither rivers nor canals for communication the waters have as yet been +found. This sea, therefore, has no external communication with any +other; and I do not know that we are authorised to suspect that it has +an internal one with the Black sea, or with the Gulph of Persia. It is +true the Caspian sea receives the Wolga and many other rivers, which +seem to furnish it with more water than is lost by evaporation; but +independent of the difficulty of such calculation, if it had a +communication with any other sea, a constant and rapid current towards +the opening would have marked its course, and I never heard of any such +discovery being made; travellers of the best credit affirm to the +contrary, and consequently the Caspian sea must lose by evaporation just +as much water as it receives from the Wolga and other rivers. + +Nor is it any improbable conjecture that the Black sea will at some +period be separated from the Mediterranean; and that the Bosphorus will +be shut up, whenever the great rivers shall have accumulated a +sufficient quantity of earth to answer that effect; this may be the case +in the course of time by the successive diminution of waters in rivers, +in proportion as the mountains from whence they draw their sources are +lowered by the rains, and those other causes we have just alluded to. + +The Caspian and Black seas must therefore be looked upon rather as lakes +than gulphs of the ocean, for they resemble other lakes which receive a +number of rivers without any apparent outlet, such as the Dead sea, +many lakes in Africa and other places. These two seas are not near so +salt as the Mediterranean or the ocean; and all voyagers affirm that the +navigation in the Black and Caspian seas, upon account of its +shallowness and quantity of rocks and quicksands, is so extremely +dangerous, that only small vessels can be used with safety which farther +proves they must not be looked upon as gulphs of the ocean, but as +immense bodies of water collected from great rivers. + +A considerable eruption of the sea would doubtless take place upon the +earth, if the isthmus which separates Africa from Asia was divided, as +the Kings of Egypt, and afterwards the Caliphs projected; and I do not +know that the communication between the Red sea and Mediterranean is +sufficiently established, as the former must be higher than the latter. +The Red sea is a narrow branch of the ocean, and does not receive into +it a single river on the side of Egypt, and very few on the opposite +coast; it will not therefore be subject to diminution, like those seas +and lakes which are constantly receiving slime and sand from those +rivers that flow into them. The ocean supplies the Red sea with all its +water, and the motion of the tides is very evident in it, of course it +must be affected by every movement of the ocean. But the Mediterranean +must be lower than the ocean, because the current passes with great +rapidity through the straits; besides, it receives the Nile, which flows +parallel to the west coast of the Red sea, and which divides Egypt, a +very low country; from all which it appears probable, that the Red sea +is higher than the Mediterranean, and that if the isthmus of Suez was +cut through, there Would be a great inundation, and a considerable +augmentation of the Mediterranean would ensue; at least if the waters +were not restrained by dykes and sluices placed at proper distances, and +which was most likely the case if the ancient canal of communication +ever had existence. + +Without dwelling longer upon conjectures, which, although well founded, +may appear hazardous and rash, we shall give some recent and certain +examples of the change of the sea into land, and the land into sea. At +Venice the bottom of the Adriatic is daily rising, and if great care had +not been taken to clean and empty the canals, the whole would long +since have formed part of the continent; the same may be said of most +ports, bays, and mouths of rivers. In Holland the bottom of the sea has +risen in many places; the gulph of Zuyderzee and the strait of the Texel +cannot receive such large vessels as formerly. At the mouth of all +rivers we find small islands, and banks of sand and earth brought down +by the waters, and it is certain the sea will be filled up in every part +where great rivers empty themselves. The Rhine is lost in the sands +which itself accumulated. The Danube and the Nile, and all great rivers, +after bringing down much sand and earth, no longer come to the sea by a +single channel; they divide into different branches, and the intervals +are filled up by the materials they have themselves brought thither. +Morasses daily dry up; lands forsaken by the sea are cultivated; we +navigate countries now covered by waters; in short, we see so many +instances of land changing into water, and water into land, that we must +be convinced of these alterations having, and will continue to take +place; so that in time gulphs will become continents; isthmusses, +straits; morasses, dry lands; and the tops of our mountains, the shoals +of the sea. + +Since then the waters have covered, and may successively cover, every +part of the present dry land, our surprise must cease at finding every +where marine productions and compositions, which could only be the works +of the waters. We have already explained how the horizontal strata of +the earth were formed, but the perpendicular divisions that are commonly +found in rocks, clays, and all matters of which the globe is composed, +still remain to be considered. These perpendicular stratas are, in fact, +placed much farther from each other than the horizontal, and the softer +the matter the greater the distance; in marble and hard earths they are +frequently found only a few feet; but if the mass of rock be very +extensive, then these fissures are at some fathoms distant; sometimes +they descend from the top of the rock to the bottom, and sometimes +terminate at an horizontal fissure. They are always perpendicular in the +strata of calcinable matters, as chalk, marle, marble, &c. but are more +oblique and irregularly placed in vitrifiable substances, brown +freestone, and rocks of flint, where they are frequently adorned with +chrystals, and other minerals. In quarries of marble or calcinable +stone, the divisions are filled with spar, gypsum, gravel, and an earthy +sand, which contains a great quantity of chalk. In clay, marls, and +every other kind of earth, excepting turf, these perpendicular divisions +are either empty or filled with such matters as the water has +transported thither. + +We need seek very little farther for the cause and origin of those +perpendicular cracks. The materials by which the different strata are +composed being carried by the water, and deposited as a kind of +sediment, must necessarily, at first, contain a considerable share of +water, the which, as they began to harden, they would part with by +degrees, and, as they must necessarily lessen in the course of drying, +that decrease would occasion them to split at irregular distances. They +naturally split in a perpendicular direction, because in that direction +the action of gravity of one particle upon another has no actual effect, +while, on the contrary, it is directly opposite in a horizontal +situation; the diminution of bulk therefore could have no sensible +effect but in a vertical line. I say it is the diminution of drying, and +not the contained water forcing a place to issue, is the cause of these +perpendicular fissures, for I have often observed that the two sides of +those fissures answer throughout their whole height, as exactly as two +sides of a split piece of wood; their insides are rough and irregular, +whereas if they had been made by the motion of the water, they would +have been smooth and polished; therefore these cracks must be produced +suddenly and at once or by degrees in drying, like the flaws in wood, +and the greatest part of the water they contained evaporated through the +pores. The divisions of these perpendicular cracks vary greatly as to +the extent of their openings; some of them being not more than half an +inch, others increasing to one or two feet; there are some many fathoms, +and which form those precipices so often met with in the Alps and other +high mountains. The small ones are produced by drying alone, but those +which extend to several feet are the effects of other causes; for +instance, the sinking of the foundation on one side while the other +remains unmoved; if the base sinks but a line or two, it is sufficient +to produce openings of many feet in a rock of considerable height. +Sometimes rocks, which are founded on clay or sand, incline to one +side, by which motion the perpendicular cracks become extended. + +I have not yet mentioned those large openings which are found in rocks +and mountains; they must have been produced by great sinkings, as of +immense caverns, unable longer to support the weight with which they +were encumbered, but these intervals are very different from +perpendicular fissures; they appear to be vacancies opened by the hand +of Nature for the communication of nations. In this manner all vacancies +in large mountains and divisions, by straits in the sea, seem to present +themselves; such as the straits of Thermopylæ, the ports of Caucasus, +the Cordeliers, the extremity of the straits of Gibraltar, the entrance +of the Hellespont, &c. These could not have been occasioned by the +simple separation by drying of matter, but by considerable parts of the +lands themselves being sunk, swallowed up, or overturned. + +These great sinkings, though produced by accidental causes, hold a first +place in the principal circumstances in the History of the Earth, and +not a little contributed to change the face of the Globe; the greatest +part of them have been produced by subterraneous fires, whose +explosions cause earthquakes and volcanos; the force of these inflamed +and confined matters in the bowels of the earth is beyond compare; by it +cities have been swallowed up, provinces overturned, and mountains +overthrown. But however great this force may be, and prodigious as the +effects appear, we cannot assent to the opinion of those authors who +suppose these subterraneous fires proceed from an immense abyss of flame +in the centre of the earth, neither give we credit to the common notion +that they proceed from a great depth below the surface of the earth, air +being absolutely necessary for the support of inflammation. In examining +the materials which issue from volcanos, even in the most violent +eruptions, it appears very plain, that the furnace of the inflamed +matters is not at any great depth, as they are similar to those found in +mountains, disfigured only by the calcination, and the melting of the +metallic parts which they contain; and to be convinced that the matters +cast out by volcanos do not come from any great depth, we have only to +consider of the height of the mountain, and judge of the immense force +that would be necessary to cast up stones and minerals to the height of +half a league; for Ætna, Hecla, and many other volcanos have at least +that elevation from the plains. Now it is perfectly well known that the +action of fire is equal in every direction; it cannot therefore act +upwards, with a force capable of throwing large stones half a league +high, without an equal re-action downwards, and on the sides, and which +re-action must very soon pierce and destroy the mountain on every side, +because the materials which compose it are not more dense and firm than +those thrown out; how then can it be imagined that the cavity, which +must be considered as the type or cannon, could resist so great a force +as would be necessary to raise those bodies to the mouth of the volcano? +Besides, if this cavity was deeper, as the external orifice is not +great, it would be impossible for so large a quantity of inflamed and +liquid matter to issue out at once, without clashing against each other, +and against the sides of the tube, and by passing through so long a +space they would run the chance of being extinguished and hardened. We +often see rivers of bitumen and melted sulphur, thrown out of the +volcanos with stones and minerals, flow from the tops of the mountains +into the plains; is it natural to imagine that matters so fluid, and so +little able to resist violent action, should be elevated from any great +depth? All the observations that can be made on this subject will prove +that the fire of the volcano is not far from the summit of the mountain, +and that it never descends to the level of the plain. + +This idea of volcanos does not, however, render it inconsistent that +they are the cause of earthquakes, and that their shocks may be felt on +the plains to very considerable distances; nor that one volcano may not +communicate with another by means of subterraneous passages; but it is +of the depth of the fire's confinement that we now speak, and which can +only be at a small distance from the mouth of the volcano. It is not +necessary to produce an earthquake on a plain, that the bottom of the +volcano should be below the level of that plain; nor that there should +be internal cavities filled with the same combustible matter, for a +violent explosion, such as generally attends an eruption, may, like that +of a powder magazine give so great a shock by its re-action, as to +produce an earthquake that might be felt at a considerable distance. + +I do not mean to say that there are no earthquakes produced by +subterraneous fires, but merely that there are some which proceed only +from the explosion of volcanos. In confirmation of what has been +advanced on this subject, it is certain that volcanos are seldom met +with on plains; on the contrary, they are constantly found in the +highest mountains, and their mouths at the very summit of them. If the +internal fires of the volcanos extended below the plains, would not +passages be opened in them during violent eruptions? In the first +eruption would not these fires rather have pierced the plains, where, by +comparison, the resistance must be infinitely weaker, than force their +way through a mountain more than half a league in height. + +The reason why volcanos appear alone in mountains, is, because much +greater quantities of minerals, sulphur, and pyrites, are contained in +mountains, and more exposed than in the plains; besides which, those +high places are more subject to the impressions of air, and receive +greater quantities of rain and damps, by which mineral substances are +capable of being heated and fermented into an absolute state of +inflammation. + +In short, it has often been observed, that, after violent eruptions, the +mountains have shrunk and diminished in proportion to the quantity of +matter which has been thrown out; another proof that the volcanos are +not situated at the bottom of the mountain, but rather at no great +distance from the summit itself. + +In many places earthquakes have formed considerable hollows, and even +separations in mountains; all other inequalities have been produced at +the same time with the mountains themselves by the currents of the sea, +for in every place where there has not been a violent convulsion, the +strata of the mountains are parallel, and their angles exactly +correspond. Those subterraneous caverns which have been produced by +volcanos are easily to be distinguished from those formed by water; for +the water, having washed away the sand and clay with which they are +filled, leaves only the stones and rocks, and this is the origin of +caverns upon hills; while those found upon the plains are commonly +nothing but ancient pits and quarries, such as the salt quarries of +Maestricht, the mines of Poland, &c. But natural caverns belong to +mountains: they receive the water from the summit and its environs, from +whence it issues over the surface wherever it can obtain a passage; and +these are the sources of springs and rivers, and whenever a cavern is +filled by any part falling in, an inundation generally ensues. + +From what we have related, it is easy to be seen how much subterraneous +fires contribute to change the surface and internal part of the globe. +This cause is sufficiently powerful to produce very great effects: but +it is difficult to conceive how the winds should occasion any sensible +alterations upon the earth. The sea appears to be their empire, and +indeed, excepting the tides, nothing has so powerful an influence upon +the ocean; even the flux and reflux move in an uniform manner, and their +effects are regularly the same; but the action of the winds is +capricious and violent; they sometimes rush on with such impetuosity, +and agitate the sea with such violence, that from a calm, smooth, and +tranquil plain, it becomes furrowed with waves rolling mountains high, +and dashing themselves to pieces against the rocks and shores. The winds +cause constant alterations on the surface of the sea, but the surface of +the land, which has so solid an appearance, we should suppose would not +be subject to similar effects; by experience, however, it is known that +the winds raise mountains of sand in Arabia and Africa; and that they +cover plains with it; they frequently transport sand to great distances, +and many miles into the sea, where they accumulate in such quantities as +to form banks, downs, and even islands. It is also known that hurricanes +are the scourge of the Antilles, Madagascar, and other countries, where +they act with such fury, as to sweep away trees, plants, and animals, +together with the soil which gave them subsistence: they cause rivers to +ascend and descend, and produce new ones; they overthrow rocks and +mountains; they make holes and gulphs on the earth, and entirely change +the face of those unfortunate countries where they exist. Happily there +are but few climates exposed to the impetuosity of those dreadful +agitations of the air. + +But the greatest and most general changes in the surface of the earth +are produced by rains, floods, and torrents from the high lands. Their +origins proceed from the vapours which the sun raises above the surface +of the ocean, and which the wind transports through every climate. These +vapours, which are sustained in the air, and conveyed at the will of the +winds, are stopped in their progress by the tops of the hills which they +encounter, where they accumulate until they become clouds and fall in +the form of rain, dew, or snow. These waters at first descend upon the +plains without any fixed course, but by degrees hollow out a bed for +themselves; by their natural bent they run to the bottom of mountains, +and penetrating or dissolving the land easiest to divide, they carry +earth and sand away with them, cut deep channels in the plains, form +themselves into rivers, and open a passage into the sea, which +constantly receives as much water from the land rivers as it loses by +evaporation. The windings in the channels of rivers have sinuosities, +whose angles are correspondent to each other, so that where the waves +form a saliant angle on one side, the other has an exactly opposite one; +and as hills and mountains, which may be considered as the banks of the +vallies which separate them, have also sinuosities in corresponding +angles, it seems to demonstrate that the vallies have been formed, by +degrees, by the currents of the sea, in the same manner as the rivers +have hollowed out their beds on the earth. + +The waters which run on the surface of the earth, and support its +verdure and fertility, are not perhaps one half of those which the +vapours produce; for there are many veins of water which sink to great +depths in the internal part of the earth. In some places we are certain +to meet with water by digging; in others, not any can be found. In +almost all vallies and low grounds water is certain to be met with at +moderate depths; but, on the contrary, in all high places it cannot be +extracted from the bowels of the earth, but must be collected from the +heavens. There are countries of great extent where a spring cannot be +found, and where all the water which supplies the inhabitants and +animals with drink is contained in pools and cisterns. In the east, +especially in Arabia, Egypt, and Persia, wells are extremely scarce, and +the people have been obliged to make reservoirs of a considerable extent +to collect the waters as it falls from the heavens. These works, +projected and executed from public necessity, are the most beautiful and +magnificent monuments of the eastern nations; some of the reservoirs +occupy a space of two square miles, and serve to fertilize whole +provinces, by means of baths and small rivulets that let it out on every +side. But in low countries, where the greatest rivers flow, we cannot +dig far from the surface, without meeting with water, and in fields +situate in the environs of rivers it is often obtained by a few strokes +with a pick-axe. + +The water, found in such quantities in low grounds, comes principally +from the neighbouring hills and eminences; at the time of great rains or +sudden melting of snow, a part of the water flows on the surface, but +most of it penetrates through the small cracks and crevices it finds in +the earth and rocks. This water springs up again to the surface wherever +it can find vent; but it often filters through the sand until it comes +to a bottom of clay or solid earth, where it forms subterraneous lakes, +rivulets, and perhaps rivers, whose courses are entirely unknown; they +must, however, follow the general laws of nature, and constantly flow +from the higher grounds to the lower, and consequently these +subterraneous waters must, in the end, fall into the sea, or collect in +some low place, either on the surface or in the interior part of the +earth; for there are several lakes into which no rivers enter, nor from +which there are not any issue; and a much greater number, which do not +receive any considerable river, that are the sources of the greatest +rivers on earth; such as the lake of St. Laurence; the lake Chiamè, +from whence spring two great rivers that water the kingdoms of Asam and +Pegu; the lake of Assiniboil in America; those of Ozera in Muscovy, that +give rise to the river Irtis, and a great number of others. These lakes, +it is evident, must be produced by the waters from the high lands +passing through subterraneous passages, and collecting in the lowest +places. Some indeed have asserted that lakes are to be found on the +summit of the highest mountains; but to this no credit can be given, for +those found on the Alps, and other elevated places, are all surrounded +by much more lofty mountains, and derive their origin from the waters +which run down the sides, or are filtered through those eminences in the +same manner as the lakes in the plains obtain their sources from the +neighbouring hills which overtop them. + +It is apparent, therefore, that lakes have existence in the bowels of +the earth, especially under large plains and extensive vallies. +Mountains, hills, and all eminences have either a perpendicular or +inclined situation, and are exposed on all sides; the waters which fall +on their summits, after having penetrated into the earth, cannot fail, +from the declivity of the ground, of finding issue in many places, and +breaking in forms out of springs and fountains, and consequently there +will be little, if any water, remain in the mountains. On the contrary, +in plains, as the water which filters through the earth can find no +vent, it must collect in subterraneous caverns, or be dispersed and +divided among sand and gravel. It is these waters which are so +universally diffused through low grounds. The bottom of a pit or well is +nothing else but a kind of bason into which the waters that issue from +the adjoining lands insinuate themselves, at first falling drop by drop, +but afterwards, as the passages are opened, it receives supplies from +greater distances, and then continually runs in little streams or rills; +from which circumstance, although we can find water in any part of a +plain, yet we can obtain a supply but for a certain number of wells, +proportionate to the quantity of water dispersed, or rather to the +extent of the higher lands from whence they come. + +It is unnecessary to dig below the level of the river to find water; it +is generally met with at much less depths, and there is no appearance +that waters of rivers filter far through the earth. The origin of waters +found in the earth below the level of rivers is not to be attributed to +them; for in rivers or torrents which are dried up, or whose courses +have been turned, we find no greater quantity of water by digging in +their beds than in the neighbouring lands at an equal depth. + +A piece of land of five or six feet in thickness is sufficient to +contain water, and prevent it from escaping; and I have often observed +that the banks of brooks and pools are not sensibly wet at six inches +distance from the water. + +It is true that the extent of the filtration is in proportion as the +soil is more or less penetrable; but if we examine the standing pools +with sandy bottoms, we shall perceive the water confined in the small +compass it had hollowed itself, and the moisture spread but a very few +inches; even in vegetable earth it has no great extent, which must be +more porous than sand or hard soil. It is a certain fact, that in a +garden we may almost inundate one bed without those nearly adjoining +feeling any moisture from it[65:A]. I have examined pieces of garden +ground, eight or ten feet thick, which had not been stirred for many +years, and whose surface was nearly level, and found that the rain water +never penetrated deeper than three or four feet; and on turning it up in +the spring, after a wet winter, I found it as dry as when first heaped +together. + +I made the same observation on earth which had laid in ridges two +hundred years; below three or four feet it was as dry as dust; from +which it is plain that water does not extend so far by filtration as has +been generally imagined. + +By this means, therefore, the internal part of the earth can be supplied +with a very small part; but water by its own weight descends from the +surface to the greatest depths; it sinks through natural conduits, or +penetrates small passages for itself; it follows the roots of trees, the +cracks in rocks, the interstices in the earth, and divides and extends +on all sides into an infinity of small branches and rills, always +descending until its passage is opposed by clay or some solid body, +where it continues collecting, and at length breaks out in form of +springs upon the surface. + +It would be very difficult to make an exact calculation of the quantity +of subterraneous waters which have no apparent vent. Many have pretended +that it greatly surpasses all the waters that are on the surface of the +earth. + +Without mentioning those who have advanced that the interior part of the +globe is entirely filled with water, there are some who believe there +are an infinity of floods, rivulets, and lakes in the bowels of the +earth. But this opinion does not seem to be properly founded, and it is +more probable that the quantity of subterraneous water, which never +appears on the surface, is not very considerable; for if these +subterraneous rivers are so very numerous, why do we never see any of +their mouths forcing their way through the surface? Besides, rivers, and +all running waters, produce great alterations on the surface of the +earth; they transport the soil, wear away the most solid rocks, and +displace all matters which oppose their passage. It would certainly be +the same in subterraneous rivers; the same effects would be produced; +but no such alterations have ever as yet been observed; the different +strata remains parallel, and every where preserves its original +position; and it is but in a very few places that any considerable +subterraneous veins of water have been discovered. Thus water in the +internal part of the earth, though great, acts but in a small degree, as +it is divided in an infinity of little streams, and retained by a number +of obstacles; and being so generally dispersed, it gives rise to many +substances totally different from primitive matters, both in form and +organization. + +From all these observations we may fairly conclude, that it is the +continual motion of the flux and reflux of the sea which has produced +mountains, vallies, and other inequalities on the surface of the earth; +that it is the currents of the ocean which have hollowed vallies, raised +hills, and given them corresponding directions; that it is those waters +of the sea which, by transporting earth, &c. and depositing them in +horizontal layers, have formed the parallel strata; that it is the +waters from heaven, which by degrees destroy the effects of the sea, by +continually lowering the summit of mountains, filling up vallies, and +stopping the mouths of gulphs and rivers, and which, by bringing all to +a level, will, in the course of time, return this earth to the sea, +which, by its natural operations, will again form new continents, +containing vallies and mountains exactly similar to those which we at +present inhabit. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[25:A] Particularly Scotland and Ireland. + +[65:A] These facts are so easily demonstrated, that the smallest +observation will prove their veracity. + + + + +PROOF + +OF + +_THE THEORY OF THE EARTH_. + + + + +ARTICLE I. + +ON THE FORMATION OF THE PLANETS. + + +Our subject being Natural History, we would willingly dispense with +astronomical observations; but as the nature of the earth is so closely +connected with the heavenly bodies, and such observations being +calculated to illustrate more fully what has been said, it is necessary +to give some general ideas of the formation, motion, figure of the earth +and other planets. + +The earth is a globe of about three thousand leagues diameter; it is +situate one thousand millions of leagues from the sun, around which it +makes its revolution in three hundred and sixty-five days. This +revolution is the result of two forces; the one may be considered as an +impulse from right to left, or from left to right, and the other an +attraction from above downwards, or beneath upwards, to a common centre. +The direction of these two forces, and their quantities, are so nicely +combined and proportioned, that they produce an almost uniform motion in +an ellipse, very near to a circle. Like the other planets the earth is +opaque, it throws out a shadow; it receives and reflects the light of +the sun, round which it revolves in a space of time proportioned to its +relative distance and density. It also turns round its own axis once in +twenty-four hours, and its axis is inclined 66-1/4 degrees on the plane +of the orbit. Its figure is spheroidical, the two axes of which differ +about 160th part from each other, and the smallest axis is that round +which the revolution is made. + +These are the principal phenomena of the earth, the result of +discoveries made by means of geometry, astronomy, and navigation. We +shall not here enter into the detail of the proofs and observations by +which those facts have been ascertained, but only make a few remarks to +clear up what is still doubtful, and at the same time give our ideas +respecting the formation of the planets, and the different changes thro' +which it is possible they have passed before they arrived at the state +we at present see them. + +There have been so many systems and hypotheses framed upon the formation +of the terrestrial globe, and the changes which it has undergone, that +we may presume to add our conjectures to those who have written upon the +subject, especially as we mean to support them with a greater degree of +probability than has hitherto been done: and we are the more inclined to +deliver our opinion upon this subject, from the hope that we shall +enable the reader to pronounce on the difference between an hypothesis +drawn from possibilities, and a theory founded in facts; between a +system, such as we are here about to present, on the formation and +original state of the earth, and a physical history of its real +condition, which has been given in the preceding discourse. + +Galileo having found the laws of falling bodies, and Kepler having +observed that the area described by the principal planets in moving +round the sun, and those of the satellites round the planets to which +they belong, are proportionable to the time of their revolutions, and +that such periods were also in proportion to the square roots of the +cubes of their distances from the sun, or principal planets. Newton +found that the force which caused heavy bodies to fall on the surface of +the earth, extended to the moon, and retained it in its orbit; that this +force diminished in the same proportion as the square of the distance +increased, and consequently that the moon is attracted by the earth; +that the earth and planets are attracted by the sun; and that in general +all bodies which revolve round a centre, and describe areas proportioned +to the times of their revolution, are attracted towards that point. This +power, known by the name of GRAVITY, is therefore diffused throughout +all matter; planets, comets, the sun, the earth, and all nature, is +subject to its laws, and it serves as a basis to the general harmony +which reigns in the universe. Nothing is better proved in physics than +the actual existence of this power in every material substance. +Observation has confirmed the effects of this power, and geometrical +calculations have determined the quantity and relations of it. + +This general cause being known, the effects would easily be deduced from +it, if the action of the powers which produce it were not too +complicated. A single moment's reflection upon the solar system will +fully demonstrate the difficulties that have attended this subject; the +principal planets are attracted by the sun, and the sun by the planets; +the satellites are also attracted by their principal planets, and each +planet attracts all the rest, and is attracted by them. All these +actions and reactions vary according to the quantities of matter and the +distances, and produce great inequalities and irregularities. How is so +great a number of connections to be combined and estimated? It appears +almost impossible in such a crowd of objects to follow any particular +one; nevertheless those difficulties have been surmounted, and +calculation has confirmed the suppositions of them, each observation is +become a new demonstration, and the systematic order of the universe is +laid open to the eyes of all those who can distinguish truth from error. + +We feel some little stop, by the force of impulsion remaining unknown; +but this, however, does not by any means affect the general theory. We +evidently see the force of attraction always draws the planets towards +the sun, they would fall in a perpendicular line, on that planet, if +they were not repelled by some other power that obliges them to move in +a straight line, and which impulsive force would compel them to fly off +the tangents of their respective orbits, if the force of attraction +ceased one moment. The force of impulsion was certainly communicated to +the planets by the hand of the Almighty, when he gave motion to the +universe; but we ought as much as possible to abstain in physics from +having recourse to supernatural causes; and it appears that a probable +reason may be given for this impulsive force, perfectly accordant with +the law of mechanics, and not by any means more astonishing than the +changes and revolutions which may and must happen in the universe. + +The sphere of the sun's attraction does not confine itself to the orbs +of the planets, but extends to a remote distance, always decreasing in +the same ratio as the square of the distance increases; it is +demonstrated that the comets which are lost to our sight, in the regions +of the sky, obey this power, and by it their motions, like that of the +planets, are regulated. All these stars, whose tracts are so different, +move round the sun, and describe areas proportioned to the time; the +planets in ellipses more or less approaching a circle, and the comets in +narrow ellipses of a great extent. Comets and planets move, therefore, +by virtue of the force of attraction and impulsion, which continually +acting at one time obliges them to describe these courses; but it must +be remarked that comets pass over the solar system in all directions, +and that the inclinations of their orbits are very different, insomuch +that, although subject like the planets to the force of attraction, they +have nothing in common with respect to their progressive or impulsive +motions, but appear in this respect independent of each other: the +planets, on the contrary, move round the sun in the same direction, and +almost in the same plane, never exceeding 7-1/2 degrees of inclination +in their planes, the most distant from their orbits. This conformity of +position and direction in the motion of the planets, necessarily implies +that their impulsive force has been communicated to them by one and the +same cause. + +May it not be imagined, with some degree of probability, that a comet +falling into the body of the sun, will displace and separate some parts +from the surface, and communicate to them a motion of impulsion, +insomuch that the planets may formerly have belonged to the body of the +sun, and been detached therefrom by an impulsive force, and which they +still preserve. + +This supposition appears to be at least as well founded as the opinion +of Leibnitz, who supposes that the earth and planets had formerly been +suns; and his system, of which an account will be given in the fifth +article, would have been more comprehensive and more agreeable to +probability, if he had raised himself to this idea. We agree with him in +thinking that this effect was produced at the time when Moses said that +God divided light from darkness; for, according to Leibnitz, light was +divided from darkness when the planets were extinguished; but in our +supposition there was a real physical separation, since the opaque +bodies of the planets were divided from the luminous matter which +composes the sun. + +This idea of the cause of the impulsive force of the planets will be +found much less objectionable, when an estimation is made of the +analogies and degrees of probability, by which it may be supported. In +the first place, the motion of the planets are in the same direction, +from West to East, and therefore, according to calculation, it is +sixty-four to one that such would not have been the case, if they had +not been indebted to the same cause for their impulsive forces. + +This, probably, will be considerably augmented by the second analogy, +viz. that the inclination of the planes of the orbits do not exceed +7-1/2 degrees; for, by comparing the spaces, we shall find there is +twenty-four to one, that two planets are found in their most distant +places at the same time, and consequently {5}, or 7,692,624 to one, +that all six would by chance be thus placed; or, what amounts to the +same, there is a great degree of probability that the planets have been +impressed with one common moving force, and which has given them this +position. But what can have bestowed this common impulsive motion, but +the force and direction of the bodies by which it was originally +communicated? It may therefore be concluded, with great probability, +that the planets received their impulsive motion by one single stroke. +This likelihood, which is almost equivalent to a certainty, being +established, I seek to know what moving bodies could produce this +effect, and I find nothing but comets capable of communicating a motion +to such vast bodies. + +By examining the course of comets, we shall be easily persuaded, that it +is almost necessary for some of them occasionally to fall into the sun. +That of 1680 approached so near, that at its perihelium it was not more +distant from the sun than a sixteenth part of its diameter, and if it +returns, as there is every appearance it will, in 2255, it may then +possibly fall into the sun; that must depend on the rencounters it will +meet with in its road, and of the retardment it suffers in passing +through the atmosphere of the sun[78:A]. + +We may, therefore, presume with the great Newton, that comets sometimes +fall into the sun; but this fall may be made in different directions. If +they fall perpendicular, or in a direction not very oblique, they will +remain in the sun, and serve for food to the fire which that luminary +consumes, and the motion of impulsion which they will have communicated +to the sun, will produce no other effect than that of removing it more +or less, according as the mass of the comet will be more or less +considerable; but if the fall of the comet is in a very oblique +direction, which will most frequently happen, then the comet will only +graze the surface of the sun, or slightly furrow it; and in this case it +may drive out some parts of matter to which it will communicate a common +motion of impulsion, and these parts so forced out of the body of the +sun, and even the comet itself, may then become planets, and turn round +this luminary in the same direction, and in almost the same plane. We +might perhaps calculate what quantity of matter, velocity, and direction +a comet should have, to impel from the sun an equal quantity of matter +to that which the six planets and their satellites contain; but it will +be sufficient to observe here, that all the planets, with their +satellites, do not make the 650th part of the mass of the sun,[79:A] +because the density of the large planets, Saturn and Jupiter, is less +than that of the sun; and although the earth be four times, and the moon +near five times more dense than the sun, they are nevertheless but as +atoms in comparison with his extensive body. + +However inconsiderable the 650th part may be, yet it certainly at first +appears to require a very powerful comet to separate even that much +from the body of the sun; but if we reflect on the prodigious velocity +of comets in their perihelion, a velocity so much the greater as they +approach nearer the sun; if, besides, we pay attention to the density +and solidity of the matter of which they must be composed, to suffer, +without being destroyed, the inconceivable heat they endure; and +consider the bright and solid light which shines through their dark and +immense atmospheres, which surround, and must obscure them, it cannot be +doubted that the comets are composed of extremely solid and dense +matters, and that they contain a greater quantity of matter in a small +compass; that consequently a comet of no extraordinary bulk may have +sufficient weight and velocity to displace the sun, and give a +projectile motion to a quantity of matter, equal to the 650th part of +the mass of this luminary. This perfectly agrees with what is known +concerning the density of planets, which always decreases as their +distance from the sun is increased, they having less heat to support; so +that Saturn is less dense than Jupiter, and Jupiter much less than the +earth; therefore if the density of the planets be, as Newton asserts, +proportionable to the quantity of heat which they have to support, +Mercury will be seven times more dense than the earth, and twenty-eight +times denser than the sun; and the comet of 1680 would be 28,000 times +denser than the earth, or 112,000 times denser than the sun, and by +supposing it as large as the earth, it would contain nearly an equal +quantity of matter to the ninth part of the sun, or by giving it only +the 100th part of the size of the earth, its mass would still be equal +to the 900th part of the sun. From whence it is easy to conclude, that +such a body, though it would be but a small comet, might separate and +drive off from the sun a 900th or a 650th part, particularly if we +attend to the immense velocity with which comets move when they pass in +the vicinity of the sun. + +Besides this, the conformity between the density of the matter of the +planets, that of the sun deserves some attention. It is well known, +that, both on and near the surface of the earth, there are some matters +14 or 1500 times denser than others. The densities of gold and air are +nearly in this relation. But the internal parts of the earth and planets +are composed of a more uniform matter, whose comparative density varies +much less; and the conformity in the density of the planets and that of +the sun is such, that of 650 parts which compose the whole of the matter +of the planets, there are more than 640 of the same density as the +matter of the sun, and only ten parts out of these 650 which are of a +greater density, for Saturn and Jupiter are nearly of the same density +as the sun, and the quantity of matter which these planets contain, is +at least 64 times greater than that of the four inferior planets, Mars, +the Earth, Venus, and Mercury. We must therefore admit, that the matter +of which the planets are generally composed is nearly the same as that +of the sun, and that consequently the one may have been separated from +the other. + +But it may be said, if the comet, by falling obliquely on the sun, drove +off the matter which compose the planets, they, instead of describing +circles of which the sun is the centre, would, on the contrary, at each +revolution, have returned to the same point from whence they departed, +as every projectile would which might be thrown off with sufficient +force from the surface of the earth, to oblige it to turn perpetually: +for it is easy to demonstrate that such, in that instance, would be the +case, and therefore that the projection of the planets from the sun +cannot be attributed to the impulsion of a comet. + +To this I reply, that the matter which composes the planets did not come +from the sun, in ready formed globes, but in the form of torrents, the +motion of the anterior parts of which were accelerated by that of the +posterior; and that the attraction of the anterior parts also +accelerated the motion of the posterior, and that this acceleration +produced by one or other of these causes, or perhaps by both, might be +so great as to change the original direction of the motion occasioned by +the impulse of the comet, from which cause a motion has resulted, such +as we at present observe in the planets; especially when it is +considered the sun is displaced from its station by the shock of the +comet. An example will render this more reasonable; let us suppose, that +from the top of a mountain a musket ball is discharged, and that the +strength of the powder was sufficient to send it beyond the +semi-diameter of the earth, it is certain that this ball would pass +round the earth, and at each revolution return to the spot from whence +it had been discharged: but, if instead of a musket-ball, we suppose a +rocket had been discharged, wherein the action of the fire being +durable, would greatly accelerate the motion of impulsion; this rocket, +or rather the cartouch which contained it, would not return to the same +place like the musket-ball, but would describe an orbit, whose perigee +would be much farther distant from the earth, as the force of +acceleration would be greater, and have changed the first direction. + +Thus, provided there had been any acceleration in the motion of +impulsion communicated to the torrent of matter by the fall of the +comet, it is probable that the planets formed in this torrent, acquired +the motion which we know they have in the circles and ellipsis of which +the sun is the centre and focus. + +The manner in which the great eruptions of volcanos are made, may afford +us an idea of this acceleration of motion. It has been remarked that +when Vesuvius begins to roar and eject the inflamed matter it contains, +the first cloud has but a small degree of velocity, but which is soon +accelerated by the impulse of the second; the second by the action of a +third, and so on, until the heavy mass of bitumen, sulphur, cinders, +melted metal, and huge stones, appear like massive clouds, and although +they succeed each other nearly in the same directions, yet they greatly +change that of the first, and drive it far beyond what it would have +reached of itself. + +In answer to this objection, it may be further observed, that the sun +having been struck by the comet, received a degree of motion by the +impulse, which displaced it from its former situation; and that although +this motion of the sun is at present too little sensible for the notice +of astronomers, nevertheless it may still exist, and the sun describe a +curve round the centre of gravity of the whole system and if this is so, +as I presume it is, we see perfectly that the planets, instead of +returning near the sun at each revolution, will, on the contrary, have +described orbits, the points of the perihelion of which will be as far +distant from the sun, as it is itself from the place it originally +occupied. + +It may also be said, that if this acceleration of motion is made in the +same direction, no change in the perihelion will be produced: but can it +be thought that in a torrent, the particles of which succeed each other, +there has been no change of direction; it is, on the contrary, very +probable that a considerable change did take place, sufficient to cause +the planets to move in the course they at present occupy. + +It may be further urged, that if the sun had been displaced by the shock +of a comet, it would move uniformly, and that hence this motion being +common to the whole system, no alteration was necessary; but might not +the sun before the shock have had a motion round the centre of the +cometry system, to which primitive motion the stroke of the comet may +have added or diminished? and would not that fully account for the +actual motion of the planets? + +If these suppositions are not admitted, may it not be presumed, that in +the stroke of the comet against the sun, there was an elastic force +which raised the torrent above the surface of the sun, instead of +directly impelling it? which alone would be sufficient to remove the +perihelion, and give the planets the motion they have retained. This +supposition is not without probability, for the matter of the sun may +possibly be very elastic, since light, the only part of it we are +acquainted with, seems, by its effects, to be perfectly so. I own that +I cannot say whether it is by the one or the other of these reasons, +that the direction of the first motion of the impulse of the planets has +changed, but they suffice to shew that such an alteration is not only +possible but even probable, and that is sufficient for my purpose. + +But, without dwelling any longer on the objections which might be made, +I shall pursue the subject, and draw the fair conclusions on the proofs +which analogies might furnish in favour of my hypothesis: let us, +therefore, first see what might happen when these planets, and +particularly the earth, received their impulsive motion, and in what +state they were after having been separated from the sun. The comet +having, by a single stroke, communicated a projectile motion to a +quantity of matter equal to the 650th part of the sun's mass, the light +particles would of course separate from the dense, and form, by their +mutual attraction, globes of different densities: Saturn being composed +of the most gross and light parts, would be the most remote from the +sun: Jupiter being more dense than Saturn, would be less distant, and so +on. The larger and least solid planets are the most remote, because +they received an impulsive motion stronger than the smallest, and more +dense: for, the force of impulsion communicating itself according to the +surface, the same stroke would have moved the grosser and lighter parts +of the matter of the sun with more velocity than the smallest and more +weighty; a separation therefore will be made of the dense parts of +different degrees, so that the density of the sun being equal to 100, +that of Saturn will be equal to 67, that of Jupiter to 94-1/2, that of +Mars to 200, that of the Earth to 400, that of Venus to 800, and that of +Mercury to 2800. But the force of attraction not communicating like that +of impulsion, according to the surface, but acting on the contrary on +all parts of the mass, it will have checked the densest portions of +matter; and it is for this reason that the densest planets are the +nighest the sun, and turn round that planet with greater rapidity than +the less dense planets, which are also the most remote. + +Jupiter and Saturn, which are the largest and principal planets of the +solar system, have retained the relation between their density and +impulsive motions, in the most exact proportions; the density of Saturn +is to that of Jupiter as 67 to 94-1/2 and their velocities are nearly +as 88-2/3 to 120-1/72, or as 67 to 90-11/16; it is seldom that pure +conjectures can draw such exact relations. It is true, that by following +this relation between the velocity and density of planets, the density +of the earth ought to be only as 206-7/18, and not 400, which is its +real density; from hence it may be conceived, that our globe was +formerly less dense than it is at present. With respect to the other +planets, Mars, Venus, and Mercury, as their densities are known only by +conjecture, we cannot be certain whether this circumstance will destroy +or confirm our hypothesis. The opinion of Newton is, that density is so +much the greater, as the heat to which the planet is exposed is the +stronger; and it is on this idea that we have just said that Mars is one +time less dense than the Earth, Venus one time, Mercury seven times, and +the comet in 1680, 28,000 times denser than the earth: but this +proportion between the density of the planets and the heat which they +sustain, seems not well founded, when we consider Saturn and Jupiter, +which are the principal objects; for, according to this relation between +the density and heat, the density of Saturn would be about 4-7/18, and +that of Jupiter as 14-17/22, instead of 67 and 94-1/2, a difference too +great to be admitted, and must destroy the principles upon which it was +founded. Thus, notwithstanding the confidence which the conjectures of +Newton merit, I can but think that the density of the planets has more +relation with their velocity than with the degree of heat to which they +are exposed. This is only a final cause, and the other a physical +relation, the preciseness of which is remarkable in Jupiter and Saturn: +it is nevertheless true, that the density of the earth, instead of being +206-7/8, is found to be 400, and that consequently the terrestrial globe +must be condensed in this ratio of 206-7/8 to 400. + +But have not the condensations of the planets some relation with the +quantity of the heat of the sun which they sustain? If so, Saturn, which +is the most distant from that luminary, will have suffered little or no +condensation; and Jupiter will be condensed from 90-11/16 to 94-1/2. Now +the heat of the sun in Jupiter being to that of the sun upon the earth +as 14-17/22 are to 400, the condensations ought to be in the same +proportion. For instance, if Jupiter be condensed, as 90-11/16 to +94-1/2, and the earth had been placed in his orbit, it would have been +condensed from 206-7/8 to 215-990/1451, but the earth being nearer the +sun, and receiving a heat, whose relation to that which Jupiter receives +is from 400 to 14-17/22, the quantity of condensation it would have +experienced on the orbit of Jupiter by the proportion of 400 to +14-17/22, which gives nearly 234-1/3 for the quantity which the earth +would be condensed. Its density was 206-7/8, by adding the quantity of +its acquired condensation, we find 400-7/8 for its actual density, which +nearly approaches the real density 400, determined to be so by the +parallax of the moon. As to other planets, I do not here pretend to give +exact proportions, but only approximations, to point out that their +densities have a strong relation to their velocity in their respective +orbits. + +The comet, therefore, by its oblique fall upon the surface of the sun, +having driven therefrom a quantity of matter equal to the 650th part of +its whole mass; this matter, which must be considered in a liquid state, +will at first have formed a torrent, the grosser and less dense parts of +which will have been driven the farthest, and the smaller and more +dense, having received only the like impulsion, will remain nearest its +source; the force of the sun's attraction would inevitably act upon all +the parts detached from him, and constrain them to circulate around his +body, and at the same time the mutual attraction of the particles of +matter would form themselves into globes at different distances from the +sun, the nearest of which necessarily moving with greater rapidity in +their orbits than those at a distance. + +But another objection may be started, and it may be said, if the matter +which composes the planets had been separated from the sun, they, like +him, would have been burning and luminous bodies, not cold and opaque, +for nothing resembles a globe of fire less than a globe of earth and +water; and by comparison, the matter of the earth and planets is +perfectly different from that of the sun? + +To this it may be answered, that in the separation the matter changed +its form, and the light or fire was extinguished by the stroke which +caused this motion of impulsion. Besides, may it not be supposed that if +the sun, or a burning star, moved with such velocity as the planet, that +the fire would soon be extinguished; and that is the reason why all +luminous stars are fixed, and that those stars which are called new, and +which have probably changed places, are frequently extinguished and +lost? This remark is somewhat confirmed by what has been observed in +comets; they must burn to the centre when they pass to their perihelium: +nevertheless they do not become luminous themselves, they only exhale +burning vapours, of which they leave a considerable part behind them in +their course. + +I own, that in a medium where there is very little or no resistance, +fire may subsist and suffer a very great motion without being +extinguished: I also own, that what I have just said extends only to the +stars which totally disappear, and not to those which have periodical +returns, and appear and disappear alternately without changing place in +the heavens. The phenomena of these stars has been explained in a very +satisfactory manner by M. de Maupertuis, in his discourse on the figures +of the planets. But the stars which appear and afterwards disappear +entirely, must certainly have been extinguished, either by the velocity +of their motion, or some other cause. We have not a single example of +one luminous star revolving round another; and among the number of +planets which compose our system, and which move round the sun with +more or less rapidity, there is not one luminous of itself. + +It may also be added, that fire cannot subsist so long in the small as +in large masses, and that the planets must have burnt for some time +after they were separated from the sun, but were at length extinguished +for want of combustible matter, as probably would be the sun itself, and +for the same reason; but in a length of time as far beyond that which +extinguished the planets, as it exceeds in quantity of matter. Be this +as it may, the matter of which the planets are formed being separated +from the sun, by the stroke of a comet, that appears a sufficient reason +for the extinction of their fires. + +The earth and planets at the time of their quitting the sun, were in a +state of total liquid fire; in this state they remained only as long as +the violence of the heat which had produced it; and which heat +necessarily underwent a gradual decay: it was in this state of fluidity +that they took their circular forms, and that their regular motions +raised the parts of their equators, and lowered their poles. This +figure, which agrees so perfectly with the laws of hydrostatics, I am of +opinion with Leibnitz, necessarily supposes that the earth and planets +have been in a state of fluidity, caused by fire, and that the internal +part of the earth must be a vitrifiable matter, of which sand, granite, +&c. are the fragments and scoria. + +It may, therefore, with some probability, be thought that the planets +appertained to the sun, that they were separated by a single stroke, +which gave to them a motion of impulsion, and that their position at +different distances from the sun proceeds only from their different +densities. It now only remains, to complete this theory, to explain the +diurnal motion of the planets, and the formation or the satellites; but +this, far from adding difficulties to my hypothesis, seems, on the +contrary, to confirm it. + +For the diurnal motion, or rotation, depends solely on the obliquity of +the stroke, an oblique impulse therefore on the surface of a body will +necessarily give it a rotative motion; this motion will be equal and +always the same, if the body which receives it is homogeneous, and it +will be unequal if the body is composed of heterogeneous parts, or of +different densities; hence we may conclude that in all the planets the +matter is homogeneous, since their diurnal motions are equal, and +regularly performed in the same period of time. Another proof that the +separation of the dense or less dense parts were originally from the +sun. + +But the obliquity of the stroke might be such, as to separate from the +body of the principal planet a small part of matter, which would of +course continue to move in the same direction; these parts would be +united, according to their densities, at different distances from the +planet, by the force of their mutual attraction, and at the same time +follow its course round the sun, by revolving about the body of the +planet, nearly in the plane of its orbit. It is plain, that those small +parts so separated are the satellites: thus the formation, position, and +direction of the motions of the satellites perfectly agree with our +theory; for they have all the same motion in concentrical circles round +their principal planet; their motion is in the same direction, and that +nearly in the plane of their orbits. All these effects, which are common +to them, and which depend on an impulsive force, can proceed only from +one common cause, which is, impulsive motion, communicated to them by +one and the same oblique stroke. + +What we have just said on the cause of the motion and formation of the +satellites, will acquire more probability, if we consider all the +circumstances of the phenomena. The planets which turn the swiftest on +their axis, are those which have satellites. The earth turns quicker +than Mars in the relation of about 24 to 15; the earth has a satellite, +but Mars has none. Jupiter, whose rapidity round its axis is five to six +hundred times greater than that of the earth, has four satellites, and +there is a great appearance that Saturn, which has five, and a ring, +turns still more quickly than Jupiter. + +It may even be conjectured with some foundation, that the ring of Saturn +is parallel to the equator of the planet, so that the plane of the +equator of the ring, and that of Saturn, are nearly the same; for by +supposing, according to the preceding theory, that the obliquity of the +stroke by which Saturn has been set in motion was very great, the +velocity around the axis will, at first, have been in proportion as the +centrifugal force exceeds that of gravity, and there will be detached +from its equator and neighbouring parts, a considerable quantity of +matter, which will necessarily have taken the figure of a ring, whose +plane must be nearly the same as that of the equator of the planet; and +this quantity of matter having been detached from the vicinity of the +equator of Saturn, must have lowered the equator of that planet, which +causes that, notwithstanding its rapidity, the diameters of Saturn +cannot be so unequal as those of Jupiter, which differ from each other +more than an eleventh part. + +However great the probability of what I have advanced on the formation +of the planets and their satellites may appear to me, yet, every man has +his particular measurement, to estimate probabilities of this nature; +and as this measurement depends on the strength of the understanding to +combine more or less distant relations, I do not pretend to convince the +incredulous. I have not only thought it my duty to offer these ideas, +because they appear to me reasonable, and calculated to clear up a +subject, on which, however important, nothing has hitherto been written, +but because the impulsive motion in the planets enter at least as one +half of the composition of the universe, which gravity alone cannot +unfold. I shall only add the following questions to those who are +inclined to deny the possibility of my system. + +1. Is it not natural to imagine, that a body in motion has received that +motion by the stroke of another body? + +2. Is it not very probable, that when many bodies move in the same +direction, that they have received this direction by one single stroke, +or by many strokes directed in the same manner? + +3. Is it not more probable that when many bodies have the same direction +in their motion, and are placed in the same plane, that they received +this direction and this position by one and the same stroke, rather than +by a number? + +4. At the time a body is put in motion by the force of impulsion, is it +not probable that it receives it obliquely, and, consequently, is +obliged to turn on its axis so much the quicker, as the obliquity of the +stroke will have been greater? If these questions should not appear +unreasonable, the theory, of which we have presented the outlines, will +cease to appear an absurdity. + +Let us now pass on to something which more nearly concerns us, and +examine the figure of the earth, on which so many researches and such +great observations have been made. The earth being, as it appears by the +equality of its diurnal motion and the constancy of the inclination of +its axis, composed of homogeneous parts, which attract each other in +proportion to their quantity of matter, it would necessarily have taken +the figure of a globe perfectly spherical, if the motion of impulsation +had been given it in a perpendicular direction to the surface; but this +stroke having been obliquely given, the earth turned on its axis at the +moment it took its form; and from the combination of this impulsive +force, the attraction of the parts, there has resulted a spheroid +figure, more elevated under the great circle of rotation, and lower at +the two extremities of the axis, and this because the action of the +centrifugal force proceeding from the diurnal rotation must diminish the +action of gravity. Thus, the earth being homogeneous, and having +received a rotative motion, necessarily took a spheroidical figure, the +two axes of which differ a 230th part from each other. This may be +clearly demonstrated, and does not depend on any hypothesis whatever. +The laws of gravity are perfectly known, and we cannot doubt that +bodies attract each other in a direct ratio of their masses, and in an +inverted ratio, at the squares of their distances; so likewise we cannot +doubt, that the general action of any body is not composed of all the +particular actions of its parts. Thus each part of matter mutually +attracts in a direct ratio of its mass and an inverted ratio of its +distance, and from all these attractions there results a sphere when +there is no rotatory motion, and a spheroid when there is one. This +spheroid is longer or shorter at the two extremities of the axis of +rotation, in proportion to the velocity of its diurnal motion, and the +earth has then, by virtue of its rotative velocity, and of the mutual +attraction of all its parts, the figure of a spheroid, the two axes of +which are as 229 to 230 to one another. + +Thus, by its original constituent, by its homogeneousness, and +independent of every hypothesis from the direction of gravity, the earth +has taken this figure of a spheroid at its formation, and agreeable to +mechanical laws: its equatorial diameter was raised about 6-1/2 leagues +higher than under the poles. + +I shall dwell on this article, because there are still geometricians who +think that the figure of the earth depends upon theory, and this from a +system of philosophy they have embraced, and from a supposed direction +of gravity. The first thing we have to demonstrate is, the mutual +attraction of every part of matter, and the second the homogeneousness +of the terrestrial globe; if we clearly prove, that these two +circumstances are really so, there will no longer be any hypothesis to +be made on the direction of gravity: the earth will necessarily have the +figure Newton decided in favour of, and every other figure given to it +by virtue of vortexes or other hypotheses, will not be able to subsist. + +It cannot be doubted, that it is the force of gravity which retains the +planets in their orbits; the satellites of Saturn gravitate towards +Saturn, those of Jupiter towards Jupiter, the Moon gravitates towards +the Earth: and Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, the Earth, Venus, and Mercury, +gravitate towards the Sun: so likewise Saturn and Jupiter gravitate +towards their satellites, the Earth gravitates towards the Moon, and the +Sun towards the whole of the planets. Gravitation is therefore general +and mutual in all the planetary system, for action cannot be exercised +without a re-action; all the planets, therefore, act mutually one on the +other. This mutual attraction serves as a foundation to the laws of +their motion, and is demonstrated to exist by its effects. When Saturn +and Jupiter are in conjunction, they act one on the other, and this +attraction produces an irregularity in their motion round the Sun. It is +the same with the Earth and the Moon, they also mutually attract each +other; but the irregularities of the motion of the Moon, proceeds from +the attraction of the Sun, so that the Earth, the Sun, and the Moon, +mutually act one on the other. Now this mutual attraction of the +planets, when the distances are equal, is proportional to their quantity +of matter, and the same force of gravity which causes heavy matter to +fall on the surface of the Earth, and which extends to the Moon, is also +proportional to the quantity of matter; therefore the total gravity of a +planet is composed of the gravity of each of its parts; from whence all +the parts of the matter, either in the Earth or in the planets, mutually +attract each other and the Earth, by its rotation round its own axis, +has necessarily taken the figure of a spheroid, the axes of which are as +229 to 230. The direction of the weight must be perpendicular to the +Earth's surface; consequently no hypothesis, drawn from the direction of +gravity, can be sustained, unless the general attraction of the parts of +matter be denied; but the existence of this mutual attraction is +demonstrated by observations, and the experiment of pendulums prove, +that its extension is general; therefore we cannot support an hypothesis +on the direction of gravity without going against experience and reason. + +Let us now proceed to examine whether the matter of which the +terrestrial globe is composed be homogeneous. I admit, that if it is +supposed the globe is more dense in some parts than in others, the +direction of gravity must be different from what we have just assigned, +and that the figure of the Earth would also differ agreeable to those +suppositions. But what reason have we to make these suppositions? Why, +for example, should we suppose that the parts near the centre are denser +than those which are more remote? Are not all the particles which +compose the globe collected together by their mutual attraction? hence, +each particle is a centre, and there is no reason to believe, that the +parts which surround the centre are denser than those which are about +any other point. Besides, if one considerable part of the globe was +denser than another, the axis of rotation would be found near the dense +parts, and an inequality would ensue in the diurnal revolution; we +should remark an inequality in the apparent motion of the fixed stars; +they would appear to move more quick or slow in the zenith, or horizon, +according as we should be placed on the denser or lighter parts of the +earth; and the axis of the globe no longer passing through the centre of +gravity, would also very sensibly change its position: but nothing like +this ever happens; on the contrary, the diurnal motion of the earth is +equal and uniform. At all parts of the Earth's surface, the stars appear +to move with the same velocity at all heights, and if there be any +rotation in its axis, it is so trifling as to have escaped observation: +it must therefore be concluded, that the globe is homogeneous, or nearly +so in all its parts. + +If the earth was a hollow and void globe, and the crust of which, for +example, not more than two or three miles thick; it would produce these +effects. 1. The mountains would be such considerable parts of the whole +thickness of the crust, that great irregularities in the motions of the +Earth would be occasioned by the attraction of the Moon and Sun: for +when the highest parts of the globe, as the Cordeliers, should have the +Moon at noon, the attraction would be much stronger on the whole globe +than when she was in the meridian of the lowest parts. 2. The attraction +of mountains would be much more considerable than it is in comparison +with the attraction of the whole globe, and experiments made at the +mountain of Chimboraco, in Peru, would in this case give more degrees +than they have given seconds for the deviation of the plumb line. 3. The +weight of bodies would be greater on the tops of high mountains than on +the planes; so that we should feel ourselves considerably heavier, and +should walk with more difficulty in high than in low places. These +observations, with many others that might be added, must convince us, +that the inner parts of the globe is not void, but filled with a dense +matter. + +On the other hand, if below the depth of two or three miles, the earth +was filled with a matter much more dense than any known, it would +necessarily occur, that every time we descended to moderate depths, we +should weigh much more, and the motion of pendulums would be more +accelerated than in fact they are when carried from an eminence into a +plain: thus, we may presume that the internal part of the Earth is +filled with a matter nearly similar to that which composes its surface. +What may complete our determination in favour of this opinion is, that +in the first formation of the globe, when it took its present +spheroidical figure, the matter which composed it was in fusion, and, +consequently, all its parts were homogeneous, and nearly equally dense. +From that time the matter on the surface, although originally the same +with the interior, has undergone a variety of changes by external +causes, which has produced materials of such different densities; but it +must be remarked, that the densest matters, as gold and metals, are also +those the most seldom to be met with, and consequently the greatest part +of the matter at the surface of the globe has not undergone any very +great changes with relation to its density; the most common materials, +as sand and clay, differ very little, insomuch, that we may conjecture, +with great probability, that the internal part of the earth is composed +of a vitrified matter, the density of which is nearly the same as that +of sand, and that consequently the terrestrial globe in general may be +regarded as homogeneous. + +Notwithstanding this, it may be urged, that although the globe was +composed of concentrical strata of different densities, the diurnal +motion might be equally certain, and the uniform inclination of the axis +as constant and undisturbed as it could be, on the supposition of its +being composed of homogeneous matter. I acknowledge it, but I ask at the +same time, if there is any reason to believe that strata of different +densities do exist? If these conclusions be not rather a desire to +adjust the works of Nature to our own ideas? And whether in physics we +ought to admit suppositions which are not founded on observations or +analogy? + +It appears, therefore, that the earth, by virtue of the mutual +attraction of its parts and its diurnal motion, assumed the figure of a +spheroid; that it necessarily took that form from being in a state of +fluidity; that, agreeable to the laws of gravity and of a centrifugal +force, it could have no other figure: that in the moment of its +formation as at present, there was a difference between the two +diameters equal to a 230th part, and that, consequently, every +hypothesis in which we find greater or less difference are fictions +which merit no attention. + +But it may be said, if this theory is true, and if 229 to 230 is the +just relation of the axis, why did the mathematicians, sent to Lapland +and Peru, agree to the relation of 174 to 175? From whence does this +difference arise between theory and practice? And is it not more +reasonable to give the preference to practice and measures, especially +when we have been taken by the most able mathematicians of +Europe[109:A], and with all necessary apparatus to establish the result. + +To this I answer, that I have paid attention to the observations made at +the equator and near the polar circle; that I have no doubt of their +being exact, and that the earth may possibly be elevated an 175th part +more at the equator than at the poles. But, at the same time, I maintain +my theory, and I see clearly how the two conclusions may be reconciled. +This difference is about four leagues in the two axes, so that the parts +at the equator are raised two leagues more than they ought to be, +according to my theory; this height answers exactly to the greatest +inequalities on the surface of the globe, produced by the motion of the +sea, and the action of the fluids. I will explain; it appears that when +the earth was formed, it must necessarily have taken, by virtue of the +mutual attraction of its parts, and the action of the centrifugal force, +a spheroidical figure, the axes of which differ a 230th part: the +original earth must have had this figure, which it took when it was +fluid, or rather liquified by the fire; but after its formation the +vapours which were extended and rarefied, as in the atmosphere and tail +of a comet, became condensed, and fell on the surface in form of air and +water: and when these waters became agitated by the flux and reflux, the +matters were, by degrees, carried from the poles towards the equatorial +parts; so that the poles were lowered about a league, and those of the +equator raised in the same proportion; this was not suddenly done, but +by degrees in succession of time; the earth being also exposed to the +action of the winds, air, and sun; all these irregular causes concurred +with the flux and reflux to furrow its surface, hollow it into valleys, +and raise it into mountains; and producing other inequalities and +irregularities, of which, nevertheless, the greatest thickness does not +exceed one league at the equator; this inequality of two leagues, is, +perhaps, the greatest which can be on the surface of the earth, for the +highest mountains are scarce above one league in height, and there is +much probability of the sea's not being more at its greatest depth. The +theory is therefore true, and practice may be so likewise; the earth at +first could not be raised above 6-1/2 leagues more at the equator than +the poles, but the changes which have happened to its surface might +afterwards raise it still more. Natural History wonderfully confirms +this opinion, for we have proved in the preceding discourse that the +flux and reflux, and other motions of the water, have produced mountains +and all the inequalities on the surface of the globe, that this surface +has undergone considerable changes, and that at the greatest depths, as +well as on the greatest heights, bones, shells and other wrecks of +animals, which inhabit the sea and earth, are met with. + +It may be conjectured, from what has been said, that to find ancient +earth, and matters which have never been removed from the spot in which +they were first placed, we must dig near the poles, where the bed of the +earth must be thinner than in the Southern climates. + +On the whole, if we strictly examine the measures by which the figure of +the earth is determined, we shall perceive this hypothesis enters into +such determination; for it supposes the earth to have the figure of a +regular curve, whereas from the constant changes the earth is +continually undergoing from a variety and combination of causes, it is +almost impossible that it should have retained any regular figure, and +hence the poles might, originally, only be flattened a 230th part, as +Newton says, and as my theory requires. Besides, although we had exactly +the length of the degree at the polar circle and equator, have we not +also the length of the degree as exactly in France? And the measure of +M. Picard, has it not been verified? Add to this that the augmentation +and diminution in the motion of the pendulum, do not agree with the +result drawn from measurement, and that, on the contrary, they differ +very little from the theory of Newton. This is surely more than is +requisite to convince us that the poles are not flattened more than a +230th part, and that if there is any difference, it can proceed only +from the inequalities, which the water and other external causes have +produced on its surface; but these inequalities being more irregular +than regular, we must not form any hypothesis thereon, nor suppose, that +the meridians are ellipses, or any other regular curves. From whence we +perceive, that if we should successively measure many degrees of the +earth in all directions, we still should not be certain by that alone, +of the exact situation of the poles, nor whether they were depressed +more or less than the 230th part. + +May it not also be conjectured, that if the inclination of the axis of +the earth has changed, it can only be produced by the changes which have +happened to the surface, since all the rest of the globe is homogeneous; +that consequently this variation is too little sensible to be perceived +by astronomers, and that if the earth is not encountered with a comet, +or deranged, by any other external cause, its axis will remain +perpetually inclined as it is at present, and as it has always been? + +In order not to omit any conjecture which appears reasonable, may it not +be said, that as the mountains and inequalities which are on the +surface of the earth have been formed by the flux and reflux of the sea, +the mountains and inequalities which we remark on the surface of the +moon, have been produced by a similar cause? they certainly are much +higher than those of the earth, but then her tides are also much +stronger, occasioned by the earth's being considerably larger than the +moon, and consequently producing her tides with a superior force; and +this effect would be much greater if the moon had, like the earth, a +rapid rotation; but as the moon presents always the same surface to the +earth, the tides cannot operate but in proportion to the motion arising +from her libration, by which it alternatively discovers to us a segment +of its other hemisphere; this, however, must produce a kind of flux and +reflux, quite different from that of our sea, and the effects of which +will be much less considerable than if the moon had from its course a +revolution round its axis, as quick as the rotation of the terrestrial +globe. + +I should furnish a volume as large as that of Burnet or Whiston's, if I +were to enlarge on the ideas which arise in support of the above; by +giving them a geometrical air, in imitation of the last author, I might +add considerably to their weight; but, in my opinion, hypothesis, +however probable, ought not to be treated with such pomposity; it being +a dress which borders so much on quackery. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[78:A] Vide Newton, 2d edit. page 525. + +[79:A] Vid. Newton, page 405. + +[109:A] M. de Maupertuis' Figure of the Earth. + + + + +ARTICLE II. + +FROM THE SYSTEM OF WHISTON[115:A]. + + +This Author commences his treatise by a dissertation on the creation of +the world; he says that the account of it given by Moses in the text of +Genesis has not been rightly understood; that the translators have +confined themselves too much to the letter and superficial views, +without attending to nature, reason, and philosophy. The common notion +of the world being made in six days, he says is absolutely false, and +that the description given by Moses, is not an exact and philosophical +narration of the creation and origin of the universe, but only an +historical representation of the terrestrial globe. The earth, +according to him, existed in the chaos; and, at the time mentioned by +Moses, received the form, situation and consistency necessary to be +inhabited by the human race. I shall not enter into a detail of his +proofs, nor undertake their refutation. The exposition we have just +made, is sufficient to demonstrate the difference of his opinion with +public facts, its contrariety with scripture, and consequently the +insufficiency of his proofs. On the whole, he treats this matter as a +theological controvertist, rather than as an enlightened philosopher. + +Leaving these erroneous principles, he flies to ingenious suppositions, +which, although extraordinary, yet have a degree of probability to those +who, like him, incline to the enthusiasm of system. He says, that the +ancient chaos, the origin of our earth, was the atmosphere of a comet: +that the annual motion of the earth began at the time it took its new +form, but that its diurnal motion began only when the first man fell. +That the ecliptic cut the tropic of cancer, opposite to the terrestrial +paradise, which was situated on the north-west side of the frontiers of +Assyria: that before the deluge, the year began at the autumnal +equinox: that the orbits of the planets, and the earth were then +perfect circles. That the deluge began the 18th of November, 2365 of the +Julian period, or 2349 years before Christ. That the solar and lunar +year were then the same, and that they exactly contained 360 days. That +a comet descending in the plane of the ecliptic towards its perihelion, +passed near the globe of the earth the same day as the deluge began: +that there is a great heat in the internal part of the terrestrial +globe, which constantly diffuses itself from the centre to the +circumference; that the form of the earth is like that of an egg, the +ancient emblem of the globe; that mountains are the lightest part of the +earth, &c. He afterwards attributes all the alterations and changes +which have happened to the earth, to the universal deluge; then blindly +adopts the theory of Woodward, and indiscriminately makes use of all the +observations of that author on the present state of the globe; but +assumes originality when he speaks of its future state: according to him +it will be consumed by fire, and its destruction will be preceded by +terrible earthquakes, thunder, and frightful meteors; the Sun and Moon +will have an hideous aspect, the heavens will appear to fall, and the +flames will be general over all the earth; but when the fire shall have +devoured all the impurities it contains; when it shall be vitrified and +rendered transparent as crystal, the saints and the blessed spirits will +return and take possession of it, and there remain till the day of +judgment. + +These hypotheses, at the first glance, appear to be rash and extravagant +assertions; nevertheless the author has managed them with such address, +and treated them with such strength, that they cease to appear +absolutely chimerical. He supports his subjects with much science, and +it is surprising that, from a mixture of ideas so very absurd, a system +could be formed with an air of probability. It has not affected vulgar +minds so much as it has dazzled the eyes of the learned, because they +are more easily deceived by the glare of erudition, and the power of +novel ideas. Mr. Whiston was a celebrated astronomer, in the constant +habit of considering the heavens, observing the stars, and contemplating +the wonderful course of nature; he could never persuade himself that +this small grain of sand, this Earth which we inhabit, occupied more the +attention of the Creator than the universe, the vast extent of which +contains millions of other Suns and Earths. He pretends, that Moses has +not given us the history of the first creation of this globe, but only a +detail of the new form that it took when the Almighty turned it from the +mass of a comet into a planet, and formed it into a proper habitation +for men. Comets are, in fact, subjected to terrible vicissitudes by +reason of the eccentricity of their orbits. Sometimes, like that in +1680, it is a thousand times hotter there than red-hot iron; and +sometimes a thousand times colder than ice; if they are, therefore, +inhabited it must be by strange creatures, of which we can have no +conception. + +The planets, on the contrary, are places of rest, where the distance of +the sun not varying much, the temperature remains nearly the same, and +permits different kinds of plants and animals to grow and multiply. + +In the beginning God created the world; but, observes our author, the +earth was then an uninhabitable comet, suffering alternatively the +excess of heat and cold, its liquifying and freezing by turns formed a +chaos, or an abyss, surrounded with thick darkness: "and darkness +covered the face of the deep," _& tenebræ erant superfaciam abissi_. +This chaos was the atmosphere of the comet, a body composed of +heterogeneous matters, the centre occupied by spherical, solid, and hot +substances, of about two thousand leagues in diameter, round which a +very great surface of a thick fluid extended, mixed with an unshapen and +confused matter, like the chaos of the ancient _rudis & indigestaque +moles_. + +This vast atmosphere contained but very few dry, solid, or terrestrial +particles, still less aqueous or aerial, but a great quantity of fluid, +dense and heavy matters, mixed, agitated and jumbled together in the +greatest disorder and confusion. Such was the earth before the six days, +but on the first day of the creation, when the eccentrical orbit of the +comet had been changed, every thing took its place, and bodies arranged +themselves according to the law of gravity, the heavy fluid descended to +the lowest places, and left the upper regions to the terrestrial, +aqueous and aerial parts; those likewise descended according to their +order of gravity; first the earth, then the water, and last of all the +air. The immense volume of chaos was thus reduced to a globe of a +moderate size, in the centre of which is the solid body that still +retains the heat which the sun formerly communicated to it, when it +belonged to a comet. This heat may possibly endure six thousand years, +since the comet of 1680 required fifty thousand years to cool. Around +this solid and burning matter, which occupies the centre of the earth, +the dense and heavy fluid which descended the first is to be found, and +this is the fluid which forms the great abyss on which the earth is +borne, like cork on quicksilver; but as the terrestrial parts were +originally mixed with a large quantity of water, in descending they have +dragged with them a part of this water, which, not being able to +re-ascend after the earth was consolidated, formed a concentrical bed +with the heavy fluid which surrounds this hot substance, insomuch that +the great abyss is composed of two concentrical orbs, the most internal +of which is a heavy fluid, and the other water; the last of which serves +for a foundation to the earth. It is from this admirable arrangement, +produced by the atmosphere of a comet, that the Theory of the Earth, and +the explanation of all its phenomena are to depend. + +When the atmosphere of the comet was once disembarrassed from all the +solid and terrestrial matters, there remained only the lighter air, +through which the rays of the sun freely passed and instantly produced +light: "Let there be light, and there was light." The columns which +composed the orb of the Earth being formed with such great precipitation +is the cause of their different densities: consequently the heaviest +sunk deeper into this subterraneous fluid than the lightest; and it is +this which has produced the vallies and mountains on the surface of the +earth. These inequalities were, before the deluge, dispersed and +situated otherwise than they are at present. Instead of the vast valley, +which contains the ocean, there were many small divided cavities on the +surface of the globe, each of which contained a part of this water; the +mountains were also more divided, and did not form chains as at present: +nevertheless, the earth contained a thousand times more people, and was +a thousand times more fertile; and the life of man and other animals +were ten times longer, all which was affected by the internal heat of +the earth that proceeded from the centre, and gave birth to a great +number of plants and animals, bestowing on them a degree of vigour +necessary for them to subsist a long time, and multiply in great +abundance. But this heat, by increasing the strength of bodies, +unfortunately extended to the heads of men and animals; it augmented +their passions; it deprived man of his innocence, and the brute creation +of part of their intelligence; all creatures, excepting fish, who +inhabited a colder element, felt the effects of this heat, became +criminal and merited death. It therefore came, and this universal death +happened on Wednesday the 28th of November, by a terrible deluge of +forty days and forty nights, and was caused by the tail of another comet +which encountered the earth in returning from its perihelion. + +The tail of a comet is the lightest part of its atmosphere; it is a +transparent mist, a subtile vapour, which the heat of the sun exhales +from the body of the comet: this vapour composed of extremely rarefied +aqueous and aerial particles, follows the comet when it descends to its +perihelion, and precedes when it re-ascends, so that it is always +situate opposite to the sun, as if it sought to be in the shade, and +avoid the too great heat of that luminary. The column which this vapour +forms is often of an immense length, and the more a comet approaches the +sun, the longer and more extended is its tail, and as many comets +descend below the annual orb of the earth, it is not surprising that +the earth is sometimes found surrounded with the vapour of this tail; +this is precisely what happened at the time of the deluge. In two hours +the tail of a comet will evacuate a quantity of water equal to what is +contained in the whole ocean. In short, this tail was what Moses calls +the cataracts of Heaven, "and the cataracts of Heaven were opened." The +terrestrial globe meeting with the tail of a comet, must, in going its +course through this vapour, appropriate to itself a part of the matter +which it contains; all which, coming within the sphere of the earth's +attraction, must fall on it, and fall in the form of rain, since this +tail is partly composed of aqueous vapours. Thus rain may come down in +such abundance as to produce an universal deluge the waters of which +might easily surmount the tops of the highest mountains. Nevertheless, +our author, cautious of not going directly against the letter of holy +writ, does not say that this rain was the sole cause of the universal +deluge, but takes the water from every place he can find it. The great +abyss as we see contains a considerable quantity. The earth, at the +approach of the comet, would prove the force of its attraction; and the +waters contained in the great abyss would be agitated by so violent a +kind of flux and reflux, that the superficial crust would not resist, +but split in several places, and the internal waters be dispersed over +the surface, "And the fountains of the abyss were opened." + +But what became of these waters, which the tail of the comet and great +abyss furnished so liberally? our author is not the least embarrassed +thereon. As soon as the earth, continuing its course, removed from the +comet, the effects of its attraction, the flux and reflux in the great +abyss ceased of course, and immediately the upper waters precipitated +back with violence by the same roads as they had been forced upon the +surface. The great abyss absorbed all the superfluous waters, and was of +a sufficient capacity not only to receive its own waters, but also all +those which the tail of the comet had left, because during its +agitation, and the rupture of its crust, it had enlarged the space by +driving out on all sides the earth that surrounded it. It was at this +time also the figure of the earth, which till then was spherical, became +elliptic. This effect was occasioned by the centrifugal force caused by +its diurnal motion, and by the attraction of the comet, for the earth, +in passing through the tail of the comet, found itself so placed that it +presented the parts of the equator to that planet; and the power of the +attraction of the comet, concurring with the centrifugal force of the +earth, caused the parts of the equator to be elevated, and that with the +more facility as the crust was broken and divided in an infinity of +places, and because the flux and reflux of the abyss drove against the +equator more violently than elsewhere. + +Here then is Mr. Whiston's history of the creation; the causes of the +universal deluge; the length of the life of the first men; and the +figure of the Earth; all which seem to have cost our author little or no +labour; but Noah's ark appears to have greatly disquieted him. In the +midst of so terrible a disorder occasioned by the conjunction of the +tail of a comet with the waters of the great abyss, in the terrible +moments wherein not only the elements of the earth were confused, but +when new elements still concurred to augment the chaos, how can it be +imagined that the ark floated quietly with its numerous cargo on the top +of the waves? Here our author makes great efforts to arrive at and give +a physical reason for the preservation of the ark, but which has always +appeared to me insufficient, poorly imagined, and but little +orthodoxical: I will not here relate it, but only observe how hard it is +for a man who has explained objects so great and wonderful, without +having recourse to a supernatural power, to be stopt by one particular +circumstance; our author, however, chose rather to risk drowning with +the ark, than to attribute to the immediate bounty of the Almighty the +preservation of this precious vessel. + +I shall only make one remark on this system, of which I have made a +faithful abridgement: which is, whenever we are rash enough to attempt +to explain theological truths by physical reasons, or interpret purely +by human views, the divine text of holy writ, or that we endeavour to +reason on the will of the Most High, and on the execution of his +decrees, we consequently shall involve ourselves in the darkness and +chaos of obscurity and confusion, like the author of this system, which, +in defiance of its absurdities, has been received with great applause. +He neither doubts the truth of the deluge, nor the authenticity of the +sacred writ; but as he was less employed with it than with physic and +astronomy, he has taken passages of the scripture for physical facts, +and the results of astronomical observations; and has so strangely +blended the divine knowledge with human science as to give birth to the +most extraordinary system that possibly ever was or will be conceived. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[115:A] A New Theory of the Earth by William Whiston, 1708. + + + + +ARTICLE III. + +FROM THE SYSTEM OF BURNET.[128:A] + + +This author is the first who has treated this subject generally and in a +systematical matter. He was possessed of much understanding, and was a +person well acquainted with the _belles lettres_. His work acquired +great reputation, and was criticised by many of the learned, among the +rest by Mr. Keil, who has geometrically demonstrated the errors of Mr. +Burnet, in a treatise called "Examination of the Theory of the Earth." +Mr. Keil also refuted Whiston's system; but he treats the last author +very different from the first, and seems even to be of his opinion in +several cases, and looks upon the tail of a comet to be a very probable +cause for the deluge. But, to return to Burnet, his book is elegantly +written; he knew how to paint noble images and magnificent scenes. His +plan is great, but the execution is deficient for want of proper +materials: his reasoning is good, but his proofs are weak; yet his +confidence in his writings is so great, that he frequently causes his +readers to pass over his errors. + +He begins by telling us, that before the deluge the earth had a very +different form from that which it has at present; it was at first, he +says, a fluid mass, compounded of matters of all kinds, and all sorts of +figures, the heaviest descended towards the centre, and formed a hard +and solid body; round which the waters collected, and the air, and all +the liquors lighter than water, surmounted them. Between the orb of air +and that of water, was an orb of oily matter, but as the air was still +very impure, and contained a great quantity of small particles of +terrestrial matter, they by degrees descended on the coat of oil, and +formed a terrestrial orb blended with earth and oil; and this was the +first habitable earth, and the first abode of man. This was an excellent +soil, light, and calculated to yield to the tenderness of the first +germs. The surface of the terrestrial globe was at first equal, uniform, +without mountains, without seas, and without inequalities; but it +remained only about sixteen centuries in this state, for the heat of the +sun by degrees drying the crust, split it at first on the surface, soon +after these cracks penetrated farther and increased so considerably by +time, that at length they entirely opened the crust; in an instant the +whole earth fell into pieces in the abyss of water it surrounded; and +this was the cause of the deluge. + +But all these masses of earth, by falling into the abyss, dragged along +with them a great quantity of air; these struck against each other, +divided, and accumulated so irregularly, that great cavities filled with +air were left between them. The waters by degrees opened these cavities, +and in proportion as they filled them, the surface of the earth +discovered itself in the highest parts; at length water alone remained +in the lowest parts; that is to say, the vast vallies which contain the +sea. Thus our ocean is a part of the ancient abyss, the rest is entered +into the internal cavities with which the ocean communicates. The +islands and sea rocks are the small fragments, and continents are the +great masses of the old crust. As the rupture and the fall of this crust +are made of a sudden, and with confusion, it was not surprising to find +eminences, depths, plains, and inequalities of all kinds on the surface +of the earth. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[128:A] Thomas Burnet. Telluris theoria sacra, orbis nostri originem & +mutationes generales, quas aut jam subut, aut olim Subiturus est +complectens. Londina, 1681. + + + + +ARTICLE IV. + +FROM THE SYSTEM OF WOODWARD. + + +It may be said of this author, that he attempted to raise an immense +monument on a less solid base than the moving sand, and to construct a +world with dust; for he pretends, that at the time of the deluge a total +dissolution of the earth was made. The first idea which presents, after +having gone through his book,[132:A] is, that this dissolution was made +by the waters of the great abyss. He asserts, that the abyss where the +water was included opened all at once at the command of God, and +dispersed over the surface an enormous quantity of water necessary to +cover the tops of the highest mountains, and that God suspended the +cause of cohesion which reduced all solid bodies into dust, &c. He did +not consider that by these suppositions he added other miracles to that +of the universal deluge, or at least physical impossibilities, which +agree neither with the letter of the holy writ, nor with the +mathematical principles of natural philosophy. But as this author has +the merit of having collected many important observations, and as he was +better acquainted with the materials of which the globe is composed than +those who preceded him, his system, although badly conceived, and worse +digested, has nevertheless dazzled many people, who, seduced by the +truth of some particular circumstances, put confidence in his general +conclusions; we shall, therefore, give a short view of his theory, in +which, by doing justice to the author's merit, and the exactness of his +observations, we shall put the reader in a state of judging of the +insufficiency of his system, and of the falsity of some of his remarks. +Mr. Woodward speaks of having discovered by his sight that all matters +which compose the English earth, from the surface to the deepest places +which had been dug, were disposed by beds of strata, and that in a great +number of these there were shells and other marine productions; he +afterwards adds, that by his correspondents and friends he was assured, +that in other countries the earth is composed of the same materials, and +that shells are found there, not only in the plains but on the highest +mountains, in the deepest quarries, and in an infinity of different +places. He perceived their strata to be horizontal and disposed one over +the other, as matters are which are transported by the waters, and +deposited in form of sediment. These general remarks, which are true, +are followed by particular observations, by which he evidently shews, +that fossils found incorporated in the strata are real shells and marine +productions, not minerals and singular bodies, the sport of nature, &c. + +To these observations, though partly made before him, which he has +collected and proved, he adds others less exact. He asserts, that all +matters of different strata are placed one on the other in the order of +their specific gravity. + +This general assertion is not true, for we daily see rocks placed above +clay, sand, coal, and bitumen, and which certainly are specifically +heavier than either of these latter materials. If, in fact, we found +throughout the earth that the first strata was bitumen, then chalk, then +marl, clay, sand, stone, marble, and at last metals, so that the +composition of the earth exactly followed the law of gravity, there +would be an appearance that they might have been precipitated at the +same time, which our author asserts with confidence, in spite of the +evidence to the contrary; for, without being a naturalist, we need only +have our eye-sight to be convinced that heavy strata are often found +above lighter, and that consequently these sediments were not +precipitated all at one time, but have been brought and deposited +successively by the water. As this is the foundation of his system, and +is manifestly false, we shall follow it no farther than to show how far +an erroneous principle may produce false combinations and erroneous +conclusions. + +All the matters, says our author, which compose the earth, from the +summits of the highest mountains, to the greatest depths of mines, are +disposed by strata, according to their specific weights; therefore he +concludes the whole has been dissolved and precipitated at one time. But +in what manner, and at what time was it dissolved? In water, replies he, +and at the time of the deluge. But there is not a sufficient quantity of +water on the globe for this to be effected, since there is more land +than water, and the bottom of the sea itself is earth. This he admits, +but says, there is more water than is requisite at the centre of the +earth, that it was only necessary for it to ascend, and possess a power +of dissolving every substance but shells, afterwards to find the means +for this water to re-enter the abyss, and to make all this agree with +the history of the deluge. This then is the system, of which the author +does not entertain the least doubt; for when it is opposed to him that +water cannot dissolve marble, stone, and metals, especially in forty +days, the duration of the deluge, he answers simply, that nevertheless +it did happen so. When he is asked, what the virtue of this water of +the abyss was, to dissolve all the earth, and at the same time preserve +the shells? he says, that he never pretended that this water was a +dissolvent; but that it is clear, by facts, that the earth has been +dissolved and the shells preserved. When he was evidently shown that if +he had no reason to give, or facts to support, for these phenomena, his +system was useless, he said, we have only to imagine that, during the +deluge, the force of gravity and the coherency of matter ceased on a +sudden, and by this supposition the dissolution of the old world would +be explained in a very easy and satisfactory manner. But, it was said to +him, if the power which holds the parts of matter united was suspended, +why were not the shells dissolved as well as all the rest? Here he makes +a discourse on the organization of shells and bones of animals, by which +he pretends to prove that their texture being fibrous, and different +from that of minerals, their power of cohesion was different also; after +all, we have, says he, only to suppose that the power of gravity and +cohesion did not entirely cease, but that it was only diminished +sufficient to disunite all the parts of minerals, and not those of +animals. To all this we cannot be prevented from discovering, that our +author's philosophy was not equal to his talents for observation; and I +do not think it necessary seriously to refute opinions which have no +foundation, especially when they have been imagined against the rules of +probability, and drawn from consequences contrary to mechanical laws. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[132:A] An Essay towards the Natural History of the Earth, &c. by John +Woodward. + + + + +ARTICLE V. + +EXPOSITION OF SOME OTHER SYSTEMS. + + +It is plain that the three forementioned hypotheses have much in common +with each other. They all agree in this point, that during the deluge +the earth changed its form, as well externally as internally; but these +speculators have not considered that the earth before the deluge was +inhabited by the same species of men and animals, and must necessarily +have been nearly such as it is at present. The sacred writings teach us, +that before the deluge there were rivers, seas, mountains, and forests. +That these rivers and mountains were, for the most part, retained in the +same situations; the Tigris and Euphrates were the rivers of the ancient +paradise; that the mountain of Armenia, on which the ark rested, was one +of the highest mountains in the world at the deluge, as it is at +present: that the same plants and animals which exist now, existed then; +for we read of the serpent, of the raven, of the crow, and of the dove, +which brought the olive branch into the ark. Although Tournefort asserts +there are no olive trees for more than 400 miles from Mount Ararat, and +passes some absurd jokes thereon[138:A], it is nevertheless certain +there were olives in this neighbourhood at the time of the deluge, since +holy writ assures us of it in the most express terms; but it is by no +means astonishing that in the space of 4000 years the olive trees should +have been destroyed in those quarters, and multiplied in others; it is +therefore contrary to scripture and reason, that those authors have +supposed the earth was quite different from its present state before the +deluge; and this contradiction between their hypothesis and the sacred +text, as well as physical truths, must cause their systems to be +rejected, if even they should agree with some phenomena. Burnet gives +neither observations, nor any real facts, for the support of his system. +Woodward has only given us an essay, in which he promised much more than +he could perform: his book is a project, the execution of which has not +been seen. He has made use of two general observations; the first, that +the earth is every where composed of matters which formerly were in a +state of fluidity, transported by the waters, and deposited in +horizontal strata. The second, that there are abundance of marine +productions in most parts of the bowels of the earth. To give a reason +for these facts, he has recourse to the universal deluge, or rather it +appears that he gives them as proofs of the deluge; but, like Burnet, he +falls into evident contradictions, for it is not to be supposed with +them that there were no mountains prior to the deluge, since it is +expressly stated, that the waters rose fifteen cubits above the tops of +the highest mountains. On the other hand, it is not said that these +waters destroyed or dissolved these mountains; but, on the contrary, +these mountains remained in their places, and the ark rested on that +which the water first deserted. Besides how can it be imagined that, +during the short duration of the deluge, the waters were able to +dissolve the mountains and the whole body of the earth? Is it not an +absurdity to suppose that in forty days all marble, rocks, stones, and +minerals, were dissolved by water? Is it not a manifest contradiction to +admit this total dissolution, and at the same time maintain that shells, +bones, and marine productions were preserved entire, and resisted that +which had dissolved the most solid substances? I shall not therefore +hesitate to say, that Woodward, with excellent facts and observations, +has formed but a poor and inconsistent system. + +Whiston, who came last, greatly enriched the other two, and +notwithstanding he gave a vast scope to his imagination has not fallen +into contradiction; he speaks of matters not very credible, but they are +neither absolutely nor evidently impossible. As we are ignorant of the +centre of the earth, he thought he might suppose it was a solid matter, +surrounded with a ring of heavy fluid, and afterwards with a ring of +water, on which the external crust was sustained; in the latter the +different parts of this crust were more or less sunk, in proportion to +their relative weights, which produced mountains and inequalities on the +surface of the earth. Here, however, this astronomer has committed a +mechanical blunder; he did not recollect that the earth, according to +this hypothesis, must be an uniform arch, and that consequently it could +not be borne on the water it contains, and much less sunk therein. I do +not know that there are any other physical errors; but he has made a +great number of errors, both in metaphysics and theology. On the whole +it cannot be denied absolutely that the earth meeting with the tail of a +comet might not be inundated, especially allowing the author that the +tail of a comet may contain aqueous vapours; nor can it be denied as an +absolute impossibility that the tail of a comet, in returning from its +perihelium, might not burn the earth, if we suppose, with Mr. Whiston, +that the comet passed very near the sun; it is the same with the rest of +the system. But though his ideas are not absolutely impossibilities, +there is so little probability to each thing, when taken separately, +that the result upon the whole taken together puts it beyond +credibility. + +The three systems we have spoken of are not the only works which have +been composed on the theory of the earth; a Memoir of M. Bourguet +appeared in 1729, printed at Amsterdam, with his "Philosophical Letters +on the Formation of Salts, &c." in which he gives a specimen of the +system he meditated, but which was prevented completion by the death of +the author. It is but justice to admit, that no person was more +industrious in making observations or collecting facts. To him we owe +that great and beautiful observation, the correspondence between the +angles of mountains. He presents every thing which he had collected in +great order; but with all those advantages, it appears that he has +succeeded no better than the rest in making a physical and reasonable +history of the changes which had happened to the globe, and that he was +very wide from having found the real cause of those effects which he +relates. To be convinced of this we need only cast our eyes on the +propositions which he deduces from the phenomena, and which ought to +serve for the basis of his theory. He says, that the whole globe took +its form at one time, and not successively; that its form and +disposition prove that it has been in a state of fluidity; that the +present state of the earth is very different from that in which it was +for many ages after its first formation; that the matter of the globe +was at the beginning less dense than since it altered its appearance; +that the condensation of its solid parts diminished by degrees with its +velocity, so that after having made a number of revolutions on its axis, +and round the sun, it found itself on a sudden in a state of +dissolution, which destroyed its first structure. This happened about +the vernal equinox. That the sea-shells introduced themselves into the +dissolved matters; that after this dissolution the earth took the form +it now has, and that the fire which directly infused itself therein +consumed it by degrees, and it will be one day destroyed by a terrible +explosion, accompanied with a general conflagration, which will augment +the atmosphere of the globe, and diminish its diameter, and that then +the earth, instead of beds of sand or earth, will have only strata of +calcined metal and mountains composed of amalgamas of different metals. + +This is sufficient to shew the system M. Bourguet meditated; to divine +in this manner the past, and predict the future, nearly as others have +predicted, does not appear to me to be an effort of judgment: this +author had more erudition than sound and general views: he appears to be +deficient in that capaciousness of ideas necessary to follow the extent +of the subject, and enable him to comprehend the chain of causes and +effects. + +In the acts of Leipsic, the famous Leibnitz published a scheme of quite +a different system, under the title of _Protogaea_. The earth, according +to Bourguet and others, must end by fire; according to Leibnitz it began +by it, and has suffered many more changes and revolutions than is +imagined. The greatest part of the terrestrial matter was surrounded by +violent flames at the time when Moses says light was divided from +darkness. The planets, as well as the earth, were fixed stars, luminous +of themselves. After having burnt a long time, he pretends that they +were extinguished for want of combustible matter, and are become opaque +bodies. The fire, by melting the matter, produced a vitrified crust, +and the basis of all the matter which composes the globe is glass, of +which sand and gravel are only fragments. The other kinds of earth are +formed from a mixture of this sand, with fixed salts and water, and when +the crust cooled, the humid particles, which were raised in form of +vapours, refel, and formed the sea. They at first covered the whole +surface, and even surmounted the highest mountains. According to this +author, the shells, and other wrecks of the sea, which are every where +to be found, positively prove that the sea has covered the whole earth; +and the great quantity of fixed salts, sand, and other melted and +calcined matters, which are included in the bowels of the earth, prove +that the conflagration had been general, and that it preceded the +existence of the sea. Although these thoughts are void of proofs, they +are capital. The ideas have connection, the hypotheses are not +impossible, and the consequences that may be drawn therefrom are not +contradictory: but the grand defect of this theory is, that it is not +applicable to the present state of the earth; it is the past which it +explains, and this past is so far back, and has left us so few remains, +that we may say what we please of it, and the probability will be in +proportion as a man has talents to elucidate what he asserts. To affirm +as Whiston has done, that the earth was originally a comet, or, with +Leibnitz, that it has been a sun, is saying things equally possible or +impossible, and to which it would be ridiculous to apply the rules of +probability. To say that the sea formerly covered all the earth, that it +surrounded the whole globe, and that it is for this reason shells are +every where found, is not paying attention to a very essential point, +the unity of the time of the creation; for if that was so, it must +necessarily be admitted, that shell-fish, and other inhabitants of the +sea, of which we find the remains in the internal part of the earth, +existed long before man, and all terrestrial animals. Now, independent +of the testimony of holy writ, is it not reasonable to think, that all +animals and vegetables are nearly as ancient as each other? + +M. Scheutzer, in a Dissertation, addressed to the Academy of Sciences in +1728, attributes, like Woodward, the change, or rather the second +formation of the globe, to the universal deluge; to explain that of +mountains, he says, that after the deluge, God chusing to return the +waters into subterraneous reservoirs, broke and displaced with his +all-powerful hand a number of beds, before horizontal, and raised them +above the surface of the globe, which was originally level. The whole +Dissertation is composed to imply this opinion. As it was requisite +these eminences should be of a solid consistence, M. Scheutzer remarks, +that God only drew them from places where there were many stones; from +hence, says he, it proceeds that those countries, like Switzerland, +which are very stony, are also mountainous; and on the contrary, those, +as Holland, Flanders, Hungary and Poland, have only sand or clay, even +to a very great depth, and are almost entirely without mountains.[147:A] + +This author, more than any other, is desirous of blending Physic with +Theology, and though he has given some good observations, the +systematical part of his works is still weaker than those who preceded +him. On this subject he has even made declamations and ridiculous +witticisms, as may be seen in his _Visciam quærelæ_, &c. without +speaking of his large work in many folio volumes, _Physica Sacra_, a +puerile work, which appears to be composed less for the instruction of +men than for the amusement of children. + +Steno, and some others, have attributed the cause of the inequalities of +the earth to particular inundations, earthquakes, &c. but the effects of +these secondary causes have been only able to produce some slight +changes. We admit of these causes after the first cause, the motion of +the flux and reflux, and of the sea from east to west. Neither Steno, +nor the rest, have given theory, nor even any general facts on this +matter.[148:A] + +Ray pretends that all mountains have been produced by earthquakes, and +he has composed a treatise to prove it; we shall shew under the article +of Volcanos what little foundation his opinion is built upon. + +We cannot dispense with observing that Burnet, Woodward, Whiston, and +most of these other authors, have committed an error which deserves to +be cleared up; which is, to have looked upon the deluge as possible by +the action of natural causes, whereas scripture presents it to us as +produced by the immediate will of God; there is no natural cause which +can produce on the whole surface of the earth, the quantity of water +required to cover the highest mountains; and if even we could imagine a +cause proportionate to this effect, it would still be impossible to find +another cause capable of causing the water to disappear: allowing +Whiston, that these waters proceeded from the tail of a comet, we deny +that any could proceed from the great abyss, or that they all returned +into it, since the great abyss, according to him, being surrounded on +every side by the crust, or terrestrial orb, it is impossible that the +attraction of the comet could cause any motion to the fluids it +contained; much less, as he says, a violent flux and reflux; hence there +could not be issued from, nor entered into, the great abyss, a single +drop of water; and unless it is supposed that the waters which fell from +the comet have been destroyed by a miracle, they would still be on the +surface of the earth, covering the summits of the highest mountains. +Nothing better characterises a miracle, than the impossibility of +explaining the effect of it by natural causes. Our authors have made +vain efforts to give a reason for the deluge; their physical efforts, +and the secondary causes, which they made use of, prove the truth of the +fact as reported in the scriptures, and demonstrate that it could only +have been performed by the first cause, the will of the Almighty. + +Besides, it is certain that it was neither at one time, nor by the +effect of the deluge, that the sea left dry these continents we inhabit: +for it is certain by the testimony of holy writ, that the terrestrial +paradise was in Asia, and that Asia was inhabited before the deluge; +consequently the sea, at that time, did not cover this considerable part +of the globe. The earth, before the deluge, was nearly as it is at +present, and this enormous quantity of water, which divine justice +caused to fall on the earth to punish guilty men, in fact, brought death +on every creature; but it produced no change on the surface of the +earth, it did not even destroy plants which grew upon it, since the dove +brought an olive branch to the ark in her beak. + +Why, therefore, imagine, as many of our naturalists have done, that this +water totally changed the surface of the globe even to a depth of two +thousand feet? Why do they desire it to be the deluge which has brought +the shells on the earth which we meet with at 7 or 800 feet depth in +rocks and marble? Why say, that the hills and mountains were formed at +that time? And how can we figure to ourselves, that it is possible for +these waters to have brought masses and banks of shells 100 miles long? +I see not how they can persist in this opinion, at least, without +admitting a double miracle in the deluge; the first, for the +augmentation of the waters; and the second, for the transportation of +the shells; but as there is only the first which is related in the +Bible, I do not see it necessary to make the second an article of our +creed. + +On the other hand, if the waters of the deluge had retired all at once, +they would have carried so great a quantity of mud and other impurities, +that the Earth would not have been capable of culture till many ages +after this inundation; as is known, by the deluge which happened in +Greece, where the overflowed country was totally forsaken, and could not +receive any cultivation for more than three centuries.[151:A] We ought +also to look on the universal deluge as a supernatural means of which +the Almighty made use for the chastisement of mankind, and not as an +effect of a natural cause. The universal deluge is a miracle both in its +cause and effects; we see clearly by the scripture that it was designed +for the destruction of men and animals, and that it did not in any mode +change the earth, since after the retreat of the waters, the mountains, +and even the trees, were in their places, and the surface of the earth +was proper to receive culture and produce vines and fruits. How could +all the race of fish, which did not enter the ark, be preserved, if the +earth had been dissolved in the water, or only if the waters had been +sufficiently agitated to transport shells from India to Europe, &c.? + +Nevertheless, this supposition, that it was the deluge which transported +the shells of the sea into every climate, is the opinion, or rather the +superstition, of naturalists. Woodward, Scheutzer, and some more, call +these petrified shells the remains of the deluge; they look on them as +the medals and monuments which God has left us of this terrible event, +in order that it never should be effaced from the human race. In short, +they have adopted this hypothesis with so much enthusiasm, that they +appear only desirous to reconcile holy scripture with their opinion; and +instead of making use of their observations, and deriving light +therefrom, they envelope themselves in the clouds of a physical +theology, the obscurity of which is derogatory to the simplicity and +dignity of religion, and only leaves the absurd to perceive a ridiculous +mixture of human ideas and divine truths. To pretend to explain the +universal Deluge, and its physical causes; to attempt to teach what +passed in the time of that great revolution; to divine what were the +effects of it; to add facts to those of Holy Writ, to draw consequences +from such facts, is only a presumptuous attempt to measure the power of +the Most High. The natural wonders which his benevolent hand performs in +an uniform and regular manner, are incomprehensible; and by the +strongest reason, these wonderful operations and miracles ought to hold +us in awful wonder, and in silent adoration. + +But they will say, the universal Deluge being a certain fact, is it not +permitted to reason on its consequences? It may be so; but it is +requisite that you should begin by allowing that the Deluge could not be +performed by physical causes; you ought to consider it is an immediate +effect of the will of the Almighty; you ought to confine yourselves to +know only what the Holy Writ teaches, and particularly not to blend bad +philosophy with the purity of divine truth. These precautions, which the +respect we owe to the Almighty exacts, being taken, what remains for +examination on the subject of the Deluge? Does the Scripture say +mountains were formed by the Deluge? No, it says the contrary. Is it +said that the agitation of the waters was so great as to raise up shells +from the bottom of the sea, and transport them all over the earth? No; +the ark floated quietly on the surface of the waters. Is it said, that +the earth suffered a total dissolution? None at all: the recital of the +sacred historian is simple and true, that of these naturalists complex +and fabulous. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[138:A] Voyage du Levant, vol. 2, page 336. + +[147:A] See the Hist. of the Acad. 1708, page 32. + +[148:A] See the Diss. de Solido intra Solidum, &c. + +[151:A] See Acta erudit, Lepiss, Ann. 1691, page 100. + + + + +ARTICLE VI. + +GEOGRAPHY. + + +The surface of the Earth, like that of Jupiter, is not divided by bands +alternative and parallel to the equator; on the contrary, it is divided +from one pole to the other, by two bands of earth, and two of sea; the +first and principal is the ancient continent, the greatest length of +which is found to be in a line, beginning on the east point of the +northern part of Tartary, and extending from thence to the land which +borders on the gulph of Linchidolkin, where the Muscovites fish for +whales; from thence to Tobolski, from Tobolski to the Caspian sea, from +the Caspian sea to Mecca, and from Mecca to the western part of the +country inhabited by the Galli, in Africa; afterwards to Monoemuci or +Monomotapa, and at last to the Cape of Good Hope; this line, which is +the greatest length of the old continent, is about 3600 leagues, Paris +measure; it is only interrupted by the Caspian and Red seas, the +breadths of which are not very considerable, and we must not pay any +regard to these interruptions, when it is considered, the surface of the +globe is divided only in four parts. + +This greatest length is found by measuring the old continent diagonally; +for if measured according to the meridians, we shall find that there are +only 2500 leagues from the northernmost Cape of Lapland to the Cape of +Good Hope; and that the Baltic and Mediterranean cause a much greater +interruption than is met with in the other way. With respect to all the +other distances that might be measured in the old continent under the +same meridian, we shall find them to be much smaller than this; having, +for example, only 1800 leagues from the most southern point of the +island of Ceylon to the northernmost coast of Nova Zembla. Likewise, if +we measure the continent parallel to the equator, we find that the +greatest uninterrupted length is found from Trefna, on the western coast +of Africa, to Ninpo, on the eastern coast of China, and that it is about +2800 leagues. Another course may be measured from the point of Brittany +near Brest, extending to the Chinese Tartary; about 2300 leagues. From +Bergen, in Norway, to the coast of Kamschatka, is no more than 1800 +leagues. All these lines have much less length than the first, therefore +the greatest extent of the old continent, is, in fact, from the eastern +point of Tartary to the Cape of Good Hope, that is about 3600 leagues. + +There is so great an equality of surface on each side of this line, +which is also the longest, that there is every probability to suppose it +really divides the contents of the ancient continent; for in measuring +on one side is found 2,471,092-3/4 square leagues, and on the other +2,469,687. + +Agreeable to this, the old continent consists of about 4,940,780 square +leagues, which is nearly one-fifth of the whole surface of the globe, +and has an inclination towards the equator of about 30 degrees. + +The greatest length of the new continent may be taken in a line from the +mouth of the river Plata to the lake of Assiniboils. From the former it +passes to the lake Caracara; from thence to Mataguais, Pocona, Zongo, +Mariana, Morua, St. Fe, and Carthagena; it then proceeds through the +gulph of Mexico, Jamaica, and Cuba, passes along the peninsula of +Florida, through Apolache, Chicachas, and from thence to St. Louis, Fort +le Suer, and ends on the borders of lake Assiniboils; the whole extent +of which is still unknown. + +This line, which is interrupted only by the Mexican gulph (which must be +looked upon as a mediterranean sea) may be about 2500 leagues long, and +divides the new continent into nearly two equal parts, the left of which +contains about 1,069,286-5/6 leagues square, and that on the right about +1,070,926-1/12; this line, which forms the middle of the band of the new +continent, is inclined to the equator about 30 degrees, but in an +opposite direction, for that of the old continent extends from the +north-east to the south-west, and that of the new continent from the +north-west to the south-east. All those lands together of the old and +new continent, make about 7,080,993 leagues square, which is not near +the third of the whole surface, which contains 25 millions of square +leagues. + +It must be remarked, that these two lines, which divide the continents +into two equal parts, both terminate at the same degree of southern and +northern latitude, and that the two continents make opposite +projections, which exactly face each other; to wit, the coasts of +Africa, from the Canary islands to the coasts of Guinea, and those of +America from Guiana to the mouth of Rio Janeiro. + +It appears, therefore, that the most ancient land of the globe, is on +the two sides of these lines, at the distance of from 2 to 250 leagues +on each side. By following this idea, which is founded on the +observations before related, we shall find in the old continent that the +most ancient lands of Africa are those which extend from the Cape of +Good Hope to the Red Sea, as far as Egypt, about 500 leagues broad, and +that, consequently, all the western coasts of Africa, from Guinea to the +straits of Gibraltar, are the newest lands. So likewise we shall +discover that in Asia, if we follow the line on the same breadth, the +most ancient lands are Arabia Felix and Deserta, Persia, Georgia, +Turcomania, part of Tartary, Circassia, part of Muscovy, &c. that +consequently Europe, and perhaps also China, and the eastern part of +Tartary, are more modern. In the new continent we shall find the Terra +Magellanica, the eastern part of Brasil, the country of the Amazons, +Guiana, and Canada, to be the new lands, in comparison with Peru, Terra +Firma, the islands in the gulph of Mexico, Florida, the Mississippi, and +Mexico. + +To these observations we may add two very remarkable facts, the old and +new continent are almost opposite each other; the old is more extensive +to the north of the equator than the south; the new is more to the south +than the north. The centre of the old continent is in the 16th or 18th +degree of north latitude, and the centre of the new is in the 16th or +18th degree south latitude, so that they seem to be made to +counterbalance each other. There is also a singular connexion between +the two continents, although it appears to be more accidental than those +which I have spoken of, which is, that if the two continents were +divided into two parts, all four would be surrounded by the sea, if it +were not for the two small isthmuses, Suez and Panama. + +This is the most general idea which an attentive inspection of the globe +furnishes us with, on the division of the earth. We shall abstain from +forming hypotheses thereon, and hazarding reasonings which might lead +into false conclusions; but no one as yet having considered the +division of the globe under this point of view, I shall submit a few +remarks. It is very singular that the line which forms the greatest +length of the terrestrial continents divides them also into two equal +parts; it is no less so that these two lines commence and end at the +same degrees of latitude, and are both alike inclined to the equator. +These relations may belong to some general conclusions, but of which we +are ignorant. The inequalities in the figure of the two continents we +shall hereafter examine more fully: it is sufficient here to observe, +that the most ancient countries are the nearest to these lines, and are +the highest; that the more modern lands are the farthest, and also the +lowest. Thus in America, the country of the Amazons, Guiana and Canada +will be the most modern parts; by casting our eyes on the map of this +country we see the waters on every side, and that they are divided by +numberless lakes and rivers, which also indicates that these lands are +of a late formation; while on the other hand Peru and Mexico are high +mountains, and situate at no great distance from the line that divides +the continent, which are circumstances that seem to prove their +antiquity. Africa is very mountainous, and that part of the world is +also very ancient. There are only Egypt, Barbary, and the western coasts +of Africa, as far as Senegal, in this part of the globe, which can be +looked upon as modern countries. Asia is an old land, and perhaps the +most ancient of all, particularly Arabia, Persia, and Tartary; but the +inequalities of this vast part of the globe, as well as those of Europe, +we will consider in a separate article. It might be said in general, +that Europe is a new country, and such position would be supported both +by the universal traditions relative to the emigrations of different +people, and the origin of arts and sciences. It is not long since it was +filled with morasses, and covered with forests, whereas in the land +anciently inhabited, there are but few woods, little water, no morasses, +much land, and a number of mountains, whose summits are dry and barren; +for men destroy the woods, drain the waters, confine rivers, dry up +morasses, and in time give a different appearance to the face of the +earth, from that, of uninhabited or newly-peopled countries. + +The ancients were acquainted with but a small part of the globe. All +America, the Magellanic, and a great part of the interior of Africa, +was entirely unknown to them. They knew not that the torrid zone was +inhabited, although they had navigated around Africa, for it is 2200 +years since Neco, king of Egypt, gave vessels to the Phenicians, who +sailed along the Red Sea, coasted round Africa, doubled the Cape of Good +Hope, and having employed two years in this voyage, the third year they +entered the straits of Gibraltar.[163:A] The ancients were unacquainted +with the property of the loadstone, if turned towards the poles, +although they knew that it attracted iron. They were ignorant of the +general cause of the flux and reflux of the sea, nor were they certain +the ocean surrounded the globe; some indeed suspected it might be so, +but with so little foundation, that no one dared to say, or even +conjecture, it was possible to make a voyage round the world. Magellan +was the first who attempted it in the year 1519, and accomplished the +great voyage in 1124 days. Sir Francis Drake was the second in 1577, and +he performed it in 1056 days; afterwards Thomas Cavendish made this +great voyage in 777 days, in the year 1586. These celebrated navigators +were the first who demonstrated physically the sphericity and the +extent of the earth's circumference; for the ancients had no conception +of the extent of this circumference, although they had travelled a great +deal. The trade winds, so useful in long voyages, were also unknown to +them; therefore we must not be surprised at the little progress they +made in geography. Notwithstanding the knowledge we have acquired by the +aid of mathematical sciences, and the discovery of navigators, many +things remain still unsettled, and vast countries undiscovered. Almost +all the land on the side of the Atlantic pole is unknown to us; we only +know that there is some, and that it is separated from all the other +continents by the ocean. Much land also remains to be discovered on the +side of the Arctic pole, and it is to be regretted that for more than a +century the ardour of discovering new countries is extremely abated. +European governments seem to prefer, and possibly with reason, +increasing the value of those countries we are acquainted with to the +glory of conquering new ones. + +Nevertheless, the discovery of the southern continent would be a great +object of curiosity, and might be useful. We have discovered only some +few of its coasts; those navigators who have attempted this discovery, +have always been stopt by the ice. The thick fogs, which are in those +latitudes, is another obstacle; yet, in defiance of these +inconveniencies, it is probable that by sailing from the Cape of Good +Hope at different seasons, we might at last discover a part of these +lands, which hitherto make a separate world. + +There is another method, which possibly might succeed better. The ice +and fogs having hitherto prevented the discovery, might it not be +attempted by the Pacific Sea; sailing from Baldivia, or any other port +on the coast of Chili, and traversing this sea under the 50th degree +south latitude? There is not the least appearance that this navigation +is perilous, and it is probable would be attended with the discovery of +new countries; for what remains for us to know on the coast of the +southern pole, is so considerable, that we may estimate it at a fourth +part of the globe, and of course may contain a continent, as large as +Europe, Asia, and Africa, all together. + +As we are not at all acquainted with this part of the globe, we cannot +justly know the proportion between the surface of the earth and that of +the sea; only as much as may be judged by inspection of what is known, +there is more sea than land. + +If we would have an idea of the enormous quantity of water which the sea +contains, we must suppose a medium depth, and by computing it only at +200 fathom, or the sixth part of a league, we shall find that there is +sufficient to cover the whole globe to the height of 600 feet of water, +and if we would reduce this water into one mass, it would form a globe +of more than 60 miles diameter. + +Navigators pretend, that the latitudes near the south pole are much +colder than those of the north, but there is no appearance that this +opinion is founded on truth, and probably has been adopted, because ice +is found in latitudes where it is scarcely ever seen in the southern +seas; but that may proceed from some particular cause. We find no ice in +April on this side 67 and 68 degrees northern latitude: and the savages +of Arcadia and Canada say, when it is not all melted in that month, it +is a sign the rest of the year will be cold and rainy. In 1725 there may +be said to have been no summer, it rained almost continually; and the +ice of the northern sea was not only not melted in April in the 67th +degree, but even it was found the 15th of June towards the 41st and 42d +degree[167:A]. + +A great quantity of floating ice appears in the northern sea, especially +at some distance from land. It comes from the Tartarian sea into that of +Nova Zembla, and other parts of the Frozen Ocean. I have been assured by +people of credit, that an English Captain, named Monson, instead of +seeking a passage between the northern land to go to China, directed his +course strait to the pole, and had approached it within two degrees; +that in this course he had found an open sea, without any ice, which +proves that the ice is formed near land, and never in open sea; for if +we should suppose, against all probability, that it might be cold enough +at the pole to freeze over the surface of the sea, it is still not +conceivable how these enormous floating mountains of ice could be +formed, if they did not find a fixed point against land, from whence +afterwards they were loosened by the heat of the sun. The two vessels +which the East India Company sent, in 1739, to discover land in the +South Seas, found ice in the latitude of 47 and 48 degrees, but this +ice was not far from shore, that being in sight although they were +unable to land. This must have been separated from the adjoining lands +of the south pole, and it may be conjectured that they follow the course +of some great rivers, which water the unknown land, the same as the Oby, +Jenisca, and other great floods, which fall into the North Seas, carry +with them the ice, which, during the greatest part of the year, stops up +the straits of Waigat, and renders the Tartarian sea unnavigable by this +course; whereas beyond Nova Zembla, and nearer the poles, where there +are few rivers, and but little land, ice is not so frequently met with, +and the sea is more navigable; so that if they would still attempt the +voyage to China and Japan by the North Seas, we should possibly, to keep +clear from the land and ice, shape our course to the pole, and seek the +open seas, where certainly there is but little or no ice; for it is +known that salt water can, without freezing, become colder than fresh +water when frozen, and consequently the excessive cold of the pole may +possibly render the sea colder than the ice, without the surface being +frozen: so much the more as at 80 or 82 degrees, the surface of the +sea, although mixed with much snow and fresh water, is only frozen near +the shore. By collecting the testimonies of travellers, on the passage +from Europe to China, it appears that one does exist by the north sea; +and the reason it has been so often attempted in vain is, because they +have always feared to go sufficiently far from land, and approach the +pole. + +Captain William Barents, who, as well as others, run aground in his +voyage, yet did not doubt but there was a passage, and that if he had +gone farther from shore, he should have found an open sea free from ice. +The Russian navigators, sent by the Czar to survey the north seas, +relate that Nova Zembla is not an island, but belonging to the continent +of Tartary, and that to the north of it is a free and open sea. A Dutch +navigator asserts, that the sea throws up whales on the coasts of Corea +and Japan, which have English and Dutch harpoons on their backs. Another +Dutchman has pretended to have been at the pole, and asserts it is as +warm there as it is at Amsterdam in the middle of the summer. An +Englishman, named Golding, who made more than thirty voyages to +Greenland, related to King Charles II. that two Dutch vessels with which +he had sailed, having found no whales on the coast of the island of +Edges, resolved to proceed farther north, and that upon their return at +the expiration of fifteen days, they told him that they had been as far +as 89 degrees latitude (within one degree of the pole), and that they +found no ice there, but an open deep sea like that of the Bay of Biscay, +and that they shewed him the journals of the two vessels, as a proof of +what they affirmed. In short, it is related in the Philosophical +Transactions that two navigators, who had undertaken the discovery of +this passage, shaped a course 300 leagues to the east of Nova Zembla, +but that the East India Company, who thought it their interest this +passage should not be discovered, hindered them from returning[170:A]. +But the Dutch East India Company thought, on the contrary, that it was +their interest to find this passage; having attempted it in vain on the +side of Europe, they sought it by that of Japan, and they would probably +have succeeded, if the Emperor of Japan had not forbidden all strangers +from navigating on the side of the land of Jesso. This passage, +therefore, cannot be found but by sailing to the pole, beyond +Spitzbergen, or by keeping the open sea between Nova Zembla and +Spitzbergen under the 79th degree of latitude. We need not fear to find +it frozen even under the pole itself, for reasons we have alledged; in +fact, there is no example of the sea being frozen at a considerable +distance from the shore; the only example of a sea being frozen entirely +over, is that of the Black Sea, which is narrow, contains but little +salt, and receives a number of rivers from the northern countries, and +which bring ice with them: and if we may credit historians, it was +frozen in the time of the Emperor Copronymus, thirty cubits deep, +without reckoning twenty cubits of snow above the ice. This appears to +be exaggerated, but it is certain that it freezes almost every winter; +whereas the open seas, a thousand leagues nearer the pole, do not freeze +at all: this can only proceed from the saltness, and the little ice +which they receive, in comparison with that transported into the Black +Sea. + +This ice, which is looked upon as a barrier that opposes the navigation +near the poles, and the discovery of the southern continent, proves only +that there are large rivers adjacent to the places where it is met +with; and indicates also there are vast continents from whence these +rivers flow; nor ought we to be discouraged at the sight of these +obstacles; for if we consider, we shall easily perceive, this ice must +be confined to some particular places; that it is almost impossible that +it should occupy the whole circle which encompasses, as we suppose, the +southern continent, and therefore we should probably succeed if we were +to direct our course towards some other point of this circle. The +description which Dampier and some others have given of New Holland, +leads us to suspect that this part of the globe is perhaps a part of the +southern lands, and is a country less ancient than the rest of this +unknown continent. New Holland is a low country, without water or +mountains, but thinly inhabited, and the natives without industry; all +this concurs to make us think that they are in this continent nearly +what the savages of Amaconia or Paraguais are in America. We have found +polished men, empires, and kings, at Peru and Mexico, which are the +highest, and consequently the most ancient countries of America. +Savages, on the contrary, are found in the lowest and most modern +countries; therefore we may presume that we should also find men united +by the bands of society in the upper countries, from whence these great +rivers, which bring this prodigious ice to the sea, derive their +sources. + +The interior parts of Africa are unknown to us, almost as much as they +were to the ancients: they had, like us, made the tour of that vast +peninsula, but they have left us neither charts, nor descriptions of the +coasts. Pliny informs us, that the tour of Africa was made in the time +of Alexander the Great, that the wrecks of some Spanish vessels had been +discovered in the Arabian sea, and that Hanno, a Carthaginian general, +had made a voyage from Gades to the Arabian sea, and that he had written +a relation of it. Besides that, he says Cornelius Nepos tells us that in +his time one Eudoxus, persecuted by the king Lathurus, was obliged to +fly from his country; that departing from the Arabian gulph, he arrived +at Gades, and that before this time they traded from Spain to Ethiopia +by sea[173:A]. Notwithstanding these testimonies of the ancients, we are +persuaded that they never doubled the Cape of Good Hope, and the course +which the Portuguese took the first to go to the East-Indies, was +looked upon as a new discovery; it will not perhaps, therefore, be +deemed amiss to give the belief of the 9th century on this subject. + +"In our time an entire new discovery has been made, which was wholly +unknown to those who lived before us. No one thought, or even suspected, +that the sea, which extends from India to China, had a communication +with the Syrian sea. We have found, according to what I have learnt, in +the sea Roum, or Mediterranean, the wreck of an Arabian vessel, +shattered to pieces by the tempest, some of which were carried by the +wind and waves to the Cozar sea, and from thence to the Mediterranean, +and was at length thrown on the coast of Syria. This proves that the sea +surrounds China and Cila, the extremity of Turqueston and the country of +the Cozars; that it afterwards flows by the strait till it has washed +the coast of Syria. The proof is drawn from the construction of the +vessel; for no other vessels but those of Siraf are built without nails, +which, as was the wreck we speak of, are joined together in a particular +manner, as if they were sewed. Those, of all the vessels of the +Mediterranean and of the coast of Syria, are nailed and not joined in +this manner[175:A]." + +To this the translator of this ancient relation adds.-- + +"Abuziel remarks, as a new and very extraordinary thing, that a vessel +was carried from the Indian sea, and cast on the coasts of Syria. To +find a passage into the Mediterranean, he supposes there is a great +extent above China, which has a communication with the Cozar sea, that +is, with Muscovia. The sea which is below Cape Current, was entirely +unknown to the Arabs, by reason of the extreme danger of the navigation, +and from the continent being inhabited by such a barbarous people, that +it was not easy to subject them, nor even to civilize them by commerce. +From the Cape of Good Hope to Soffala, the Portuguese found no +established settlement of Moors, like those in all the maritime towns as +far as China, which was the farthest place known to geographers; but +they could not tell whether the Chinese sea, by the extremity of Africa, +had a communication with the sea of Barbary, and they contented +themselves with describing it as far as the coast of Zing, or +Caffraria. This is the reason why we cannot doubt but that the first +discovery of the passage of this sea, by the Cape of Good Hope, was made +by the Europeans, under the conduct of Vasco de Gama, or at least some +years before he doubled the Cape, if it is true there are marine charts +of an older date, where the Cape is called by the name of Frontiera du +Africa. Antonio Galvin testifies, from the relation of Francisco de +Sousa Tavares, that, in 1528, the Infant Don Ferdinand shewed him such a +chart, which he found in the monastery of Acoboca, dated 120 years +before, copied perhaps from that said to be in the treasury of St. Mark, +at Venice, which also marks the point of Africa, according to the +testimony of Ramusio, &c." + +The ignorance of those ages, on the subject of the navigation around +Africa, will appear perhaps less singular than the silence of the editor +of this ancient relation on the subject of the passages of Herodotus, +Pliny, &c. which we have quoted, and which proves the ancients had made +the tour of Africa. + +Be it as it may, the African coasts are now well known; but whatever +attempts have been made to penetrate into the inner parts of the +country, we have not been able to attain sufficient knowledge of it to +give exact relations[177:A]. It might, nevertheless, be of great +advantage, if we were, by Senegal, or some other river, to get farther +up the country and establish settlements, as we should find, according +to all appearances, a country as rich in precious mines as Peru or the +Brazils. It is perfectly known that the African rivers abound with gold, +and as this country is very mountainous, and situated under the equator, +it is not to be doubted but it contains, as well as America, mines of +heavy metals, and of the most compact and hard stones. + +The vast extent of north and east Tartary has only been discovered in +these latter times. If the Muscovite maps are just, we are at present +acquainted with the coasts of all this part of Asia; and it appears that +from the point of eastern Tartary to North America, it is not more than +four or five hundred leagues: it has even been pretended that this tract +was much shorter, for in the Amsterdam Gazette, of the 24th of January, +1747, it is said, under the article of Petersburgh, that Mr. +Stalleravoit had discovered one of these American islands beyond +Kamschatca, and demonstrated that we might go thither from Russia by a +shorter tract. The Jesuits, and other missionaries, have also pretended +to have discovered savages in Tartary, whom they had catechised in +America, which should in fact suppose that passage to be still +shorter[178:A]. This author even pretends, that the two continents of +the old and new world join by the north, and says, that the last +navigations of the Japanese afford room to judge, that the tract of +which we have spoken is only a bay, above which we may pass by land from +Asia to America. But this requires confirmation, for hitherto it has +been thought that the continent of the north pole is separated from the +other continents, as well as that of the south pole. + +Astronomy and Navigation are carried to so high a pitch of perfection, +that it may reasonably be expected we shall soon have an exact +knowledge of the whole surface of the globe. The ancients knew only a +small part of it, because they had not the mariner's compass. Some +people have pretended that the Arabs invented the compass, and used it a +long time before we did, to trade on the Indian sea, as far as China; +but this opinion has always appeared destitute of all probability; for +there is no word in the Arab, Turkish, or Persian languages, which +signifies the compass; they make use of the Italian word Bossola; they +do not even at present know how to make a compass, nor give the +magnetical quality to the needle, but purchase them from the Europeans. +Father Maritini says, that the Chinese have been acquainted with the +compass for upwards of 3000 years; but if that was the case, how comes +it that they have made so little use of it? Why did they, in their +voyages to Cochinchina, take a course much longer than was necessary? +And why did they always confine themselves to the same voyages, the +greatest of which were to Java and Sumatra? And why did not they +discover, before the Europeans, an infinity of fertile islands, +bordering on their own country, if they had possessed the art of +navigating in the open seas? For a few years after the discovery of +this wonderful property of the loadstone, the Portuguese doubled the +Cape of Good Hope, traversed the African and Indian seas, and +Christopher Columbus made his voyage to America. + +By a little consideration, it was easy to divine there were immense +spaces towards the west; for, by comparing the known part of the globe, +as for example, the distance of Spain to China, and attending to the +revolution of the Earth and Heavens, it was easy to see that there +remained a much greater extent towards the west to be discovered, than +what they were acquainted with towards the east. It, therefore, was not +from the defect of astronomical knowledge that the ancients did not find +the new world, but only for want of the compass. The passages of Plato +and Aristotle, where they speak of countries far distant from the +Pillars of Hercules, seem to indicate that some navigators had been +driven by tempest as far as America, from whence they returned with much +difficulty; and it may be conjectured, that if even the ancients had +been persuaded of the existence of this continent, they would not have +even thought it possible to strike out the road, having no guide nor +any knowledge of the compass. + +I own, that it is not impossible to traverse the high seas without a +compass, and that very resolute people might have undertaken to seek +after the new world by conducting themselves simply by the stars. The +Astrolabe being known to the ancients, it might strike them they could +leave France or Spain, and sail to the west, by keeping the polar star +always to the right, and by frequent soundings might have kept nearly in +the same latitude; without doubt the Carthaginians, of whom Aristotle +makes mention, found the means of returning from these remote countries +by keeping the polar star to the left; but it must be allowed that a +like voyage would be looked upon as a rash enterprize, and that +consequently we must not be astonished that the ancients had not even +conceived the project. + +Previous to Christopher Columbus's expedition, the Azores, the Canaries, +and Madeira were discovered. It was remarked, that when the west winds +lasted a long time, the sea brought pieces of foreign wood on the coast +of these islands, canes of unknown species, and even dead bodies, which +by many marks were discovered to be neither European nor African. +Columbus himself remarked, that on the side of the west certain winds +blew only a few days, and which he was persuaded were land winds; but +although he had all these advantages over the ancients, and the +knowledge of the compass, the difficulties still to conquer were so +great, that there was only the success he met with which could justify +the enterprise. Suppose, for a moment, that the continent of the new +world had been 1000 or 1500 miles farther than it in fact is, a thing +with Columbus could neither know nor foresee, he would not have arrived +there, and perhaps this great country might still have remained unknown. +This conjecture is so much the better founded, as Columbus, although the +most able navigator of his time, was seized with fear and astonishment +in his second voyage to the new world; for as in his first, he only +found some islands, he directed his course more to the south to discover +a continent, and was stopt by currents, the considerable extent and +direction of which always opposed his course, and obliged him to direct +his search to the west; he imagined that what had hindered him from +advancing on the southern side was not currents, but that the sea flowed +by raising itself towards the heavens, and that perhaps both one and the +other touched on the southern side. True it is, that in great +enterprises the least unfortunate circumstance may turn a man's brain, +and abate his courage. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[163:A] Vide Herodotus, lib. iv. + +[167:A] See the Hist. of the Acad. Ann. 1725. + +[170:A] See the collection of Northern Voyages, page 200. + +[173:A] Vide Pliny, Hist. Nat. Vol. I. lib. 2. + +[175:A] See the ancient relations of travels by land to China, page 53 +and 54. + +[177:A] Since this time, however, great discoveries, have been made; +Mons. Vaillant has given a particular description of the country from +the Cape to the borders of Caffraria; and much information has also been +acquired by the Society for Asiatic Researches. + +[178:A] See the Hist. of New France, by the Pere Charlevoix. Vol. III. +page 30 and 31. + + + + +ARTICLE VII. + +ON THE PRODUCTION OF THE STRATA, OR BEDS OF EARTH. + + +We have shewn, in the first article, that by virtue of the mutual +attraction between the parts of matter, and of the centrifugal force, +which results from its diurnal rotation, the earth has necessarily taken +the form of a spheroid, the diameters of which differ about a 230th +part, and that it could only proceed from the changes on the surface, +caused by the motion of the air and water, that this difference could +become greater, as is pretended to be the case from the measures taken +under the equator, and within the polar circle. This figure of the +earth, which so well agrees with hydrostatical laws, and with our +theory, supposes the globe to have been in a state of liquefaction when +it assumed its form, and we have proved that the motions of projection +and rotation were imprinted at the same time by a like impulsion. We +shall the more easily believe that the earth has been in a state of +liquefaction produced by fire, when we consider the nature of the +matters which the globe incloses, the greatest part of which are +vitrified or vitrifiable; especially when we reflect on the +impossibility there is that the earth should ever have been in a state +of fluidity, produced by the waters; since there is infinitely more +earth than water, and that water has not the power of dissolving stone, +sand, and other matters of which the earth is composed. + +It is plain then that the earth took its figure at the time when it was +liquefied by fire: by pursuing our hypothesis it appears, that when the +sun quitted it, the earth had no other form than that of a torrent of +melted and inflamed vapour matter; that this torrent collected itself by +the mutual attraction of its parts, and became a globe, to which the +rotative motion gave the figure of a spheroid; and when the earth was +cooled, the vapours, which were first extended like the tails of comets, +by degrees condensed and fell upon the surface, depositing, at the same +time, a slimy substance mixed with sulphurous and saline matters, a part +of which, by the motion of the waters, was swept into the perpendicular +cracks, where it produced metals, while the rest remained on the +surface, and produced that reddish earth which forms the first strata; +and which, according to different places, is more or less blended with +animal and vegetable particles, so reduced that the organization is no +longer perceptible. + +Therefore, in the first state of the earth, the globe was internally +composed of vitrified matter, as I believe it is at present, above which +were placed those bodies the fire had most divided, as sand, which are +only fragments of glass; and above these, pumice stones and the scoria +of the vitrified matter, which formed the various clays; the whole was +covered with water 5 or 600 feet deep, produced by the condensation of +the vapours, when the globe began to cool. This water every where +deposited a muddy bed, mixed with waters which sublime and exhale by the +fire; and the air was formed of the most subtile vapours, which, by +their lightness, disengaged themselves from the waters, and surmounted +them. + +Such was the state of the globe when the action of the tides, the winds, +and the heat of the sun, began to change the surface of the earth. The +diurnal motion, and the flux and reflux, at first raised the waters +under the southern climate, which carried with them mud, clay, and sand, +and by raising the parts of the equator, they by degrees perhaps lowered +those of the poles about two leagues, as we before mentioned; for the +waters soon reduced into powder the pumice stones and other spongeous +parts of the vitrified matter that were at the surface, they hollowed +some places, and raised others, which in course of time became +continents, and produced all the inequalities, and which are more +considerable towards the equator than the poles; for the highest +mountains are between the tropics and the middle of the temperate zones, +and the lowest are from the polar circle to the poles; between the +tropics are the Cordeliers, and almost all the mountains of Mexico and +Brazil, the great and little Atlas, the Moon, &c. Beside the land which +is between the tropics, from the superior number of islands found in +those parts, is the most unequal of all the globe, as evidently is the +sea. + +However independent my theory may be of that hypothesis of what passed +at the time of the first state of the globe, I refer to it in this +article, in order to shew the connection and possibility of the system +which I endeavoured to maintain in the first article. It must only be +remarked, that my theory does not stray far from it, as I take the earth +in a state nearly similar to what it appears at present, and as I do not +make use of any of the suppositions which are used on reasoning on the +past state of the terrestrial globe. But as I here present a new idea on +the subject of the sediment deposited by the water, which, in my +opinion, has perforated the upper bed of earth, it appears to me also +necessary to give the reason on which I found this opinion. + +The vapours which rise in the air produce rain, dew, aerial fires, +thunder, and other meteors. These vapours are therefore blended with +aqueous, aerial, sulphurous and terrestrial particles, &c. and it is the +solid and earthy particles which form the mud or slime we are now +speaking of. When rain water is suffered to rest, a sediment is formed +at bottom; and having collected a quantity, if it is suffered to stand +and corrupt, it produces a kind of mud which falls to the bottom of the +vessel. Dew produces much more of this mud than rain water, which is +greasy, unctuous, and of a reddish colour. + +The first strata of the earth is composed of this mud, mixed with +perished vegetable or animal parts, or rather stony and sandy particles. +We may remark that almost all land proper for cultivation is reddish, +and more or less mixed with these different matters; the particles of +sand or stone found there are of two kinds, the one coarse and heavy, +the other fine and sometimes impalpable. The largest comes from the +lower strata loosened in cultivating the earth, or rather the upper +mould, by penetrating into the lower, which is of sand and other divided +matters, and forms those earths we call fat and fertile. The finer sort +proceeds from the air, and falls with dew and rain, and mixes intimately +with the soil. This is properly the residue of the powder, which the +wind continually raises from the surface of the earth, and which falls +again after having imbibed the humidity of the air. When the earth +predominates, and the stony and sandy parts are but few, the earth is +then reddish and fertile: if it is mixed with a considerable quantity of +perished animal or vegetable substances, it is blackish, and often more +fertile than the first; but if the mould is only in a small quantity, as +well as the animal or vegetable parts, the earth is white and sterile, +and when the sandy, stony, or cretaceous parts which compose these +sterile lands, are mixed with a sufficient quantity of perished animal +or vegetable substances, they form the black and lighter earths, but +have little fertility; so that according to the different combinations +of these three different matters, the land is more or less fecund and +differently coloured. + +To fix some ideas relative to these stratas; let us take, for example, +the earth of Marly-la-ville, where the pits are very deep: it is a high +country, but flat and fertile, and its strata lie arranged horizontally. +I had samples brought me of all these strata which M. Dalibard, an able +botanist, versed in different sciences, had dug under his inspection; +and after having proved the matters of which they consisted in +aquafortis, I formed the following table of them. + + + The state of the different beds of earth, found at Marly-la-ville, + to the depth of 100 feet. + + Feet. In. + + 1. A free reddish earth, mixed with + much mud, a very small quantity of + vitrifiable sand, and somewhat more of + calcinable sand 13 0 + + 2. A free earth mixed with gravel, + and a little more vitrifiable sand 2 6 + + 3. Mud mixed with vitrifiable sand + in a great quantity, and which made + but very little effervescence with + aquafortis 3 0 + + 4. Hard marl, which made a very + great effervescence with aquafortis 2 0 + + 5. Pretty hard marl stone 4 0 + + 6. Marl in powder, mixed with vitrifiable + sand 5 0 + + 7. Very fine vitrified sand 1 6 + + 8. Marl very like earth mixed with + a very little vitrifiable sand 3 6 + + 9. Hard marl, in which was real flint 3 6 + + 10. Gravel, or powdered marl 1 0 + + 11. Eglantine, a stone of the grain + and hardness of marble, and sonorous 1 6 + + 12. Marly gravel 1 6 + + 13. Marl in hard stone, whose grain + was very fine 1 6 + + 14. Marl in stone, whose grain was + not so fine 1 6 + + 15. More grained and thicker marl 2 6 + + 16. Very fine vitrifiable sand, mixed + with fossil sea-shells, which had no + adherence with the sand, and whose + colours were perfect 1 6 + + 17. Very small gravel, or fine marl + powder 2 0 + + 18. Marl in hard stone 3 6 + + 19. Very coarse powdered marl 1 6 + + 20. Hard and calcinable stone, like + marble 1 0 + + 21. Grey vitrifiable sand mixed with + fossil shells, particularly oysters and + muscles which have no adherence + with the sand, and which were not + petrified 3 0 + + 22. White vitrifiable sand mixed with + similar shells 2 0 + + 23. Sand streaked red and white, + vitrifiable and mixed with the like + shells 1 0 + + 24. Larger sand, but still vitrifiable + and mixed with the like shells 1 0 + + 25. Fine and vitrifiable grey sand + mixed with the like shells 8 6 + + 26. Very fine fat sand, with only a + few shells 3 0 + + 27. Brown free stone 3 0 + + 28. Vitrifiable sand, streaked red and + white 4 0 + + 29. White vitrifiable sand 3 6 + + 30. Reddish vitrifiable sand 15 0 + -------- + Total depth 101 0 + -------- + +I have before said that I tried all these matters in aquafortis, because +where the inspection and comparison of matters with others that we are +acquainted with is not sufficient to permit us to denominate and range +them in the class which they belong, there is no means more ready, nor +perhaps more sure, than to try by aquafortis the terrestrial or +lapidific matter: those which acid spirits dissolve immediately with +heat and ebullition, are generally calcinable, and those on which they +make no impression are vitrifiable. + +By this enumeration we perceive, that the soil of Marly-la-ville was +formerly the bottom of the sea, which has been raised above 75 feet, +since we find shells at that depth below the surface. Those shells have +been transported by the motion of the water, at the same time as the +sand in which they are met with, and the whole of the upper strata, even +to the first, have been transported after the same manner by the motion +of the water, and deposited in form of a sediment; which we cannot +doubt, as well by reason of their horizontal position, as of the +different beds of sand mixed with shells and marl, the last of which are +only the fragments of the shells. The last stratum itself has been +formed almost entirely by the mould we have spoken of, mixed with a +small part of the marl which was at the surface. + +I have chosen this example, as the most disadvantageous to my theory, +because it at first appears very difficult to conceive that the dust of +the air, rain and dew, could produce strata of free earth thirteen feet +thick; but it ought to be observed, that it is very rare to find, +especially in high lands, so considerable a thickness of cultivateable +earth; it is generally about three or four feet, and often not more than +one. In plains surrounded with hills, this thickness of good earth is +the greatest, because the rain loosens the earth of the hills, and +carries it into the vallies; but without supposing any thing of that +kind, I find that the last strata formed by the waters are thick beds of +marl. It is natural to imagine that the upper stratum had, at the +beginning, a still greater thickness, besides the thirteen feet of marl, +when the sea quitted the land and left it naked. This marl, exposed to +the air, melted with the rain; the action of the air and heat of the sun +produced flaws, and reduced it into powder on the surface; the sea would +not quit this land precipitately, but sometimes cover it, either by the +alternative motion of the tides, or by the extraordinary elevation of +the waters in foul weather, when it mixed with this bed of marl, mud, +clay, and other matters. When the land was raised above the waters, +plants would begin to grow, and it was then that the dust in the rain or +dew by degrees added to its substance and gave it a reddish colour; this +thickness and fertility was soon augmented by culture; by digging and +dividing its surface, and thus giving to the dust, in the dew or rain, +the facility of more deeply penetrating it, which at last produced that +bed of free earth thirteen feet thick. + +I shall not here examine whether the reddish colour of vegetable earth +proceeds from the iron which is contained in the earths that are +deposited by the rains and dews, but being of importance, shall take +notice of it when we come to treat of minerals; it is sufficient to have +explained our conception of the formation of the superficial strata of +the earth, and by other examples we shall prove, that the formation of +the interior strata, can only be the work of the waters. + +The surface of the globe, says Woodward, this external stratum on which +men and animals walk, which serves as a magazine for the formation of +vegetables and animals, is, for the greatest part, composed of vegetable +or animal matter, and is in continual motion and variation. All animals +and vegetables which have existed from the creation of the world, have +successively extracted from this stratum the matter which composes it, +and have, after their deaths, restored to it this borrowed matter: it +remains there always ready to be retaken, and to serve for the formation +of other bodies of the same species successively, for the matter which +composes one body is proper and natural to form another body of the same +kind. In uninhabited countries, where the woods are never cut, where +animals do not brouze on the plants, this stratum of vegetable earth +increases considerably. In all woods, even in those which are sometimes +cut, there is a bed of mould, of six or eight inches thick, formed +entirely by the leaves, small branches, and barks which have perished. I +have often observed on the ancient Roman way, which crosses Burgundy in +a long extent of soil, that there is formed a bed of black earth more +than a foot thick upon the stones, which nourishes very high trees; and +this stratum could be composed only of a black mould formed by the +leaves, bark, and perished wood. As vegetables inhale for their +nutriment much more from the air and water than the earth, it happens +that when they perish, they return to the earth more than they have +taken from it. Besides, forests collect the rain water, and by stopping +the vapours increase their moisture; so in a wood which is preserved a +long time, the stratum of earth which serves for vegetation increases +considerably. But animals restoring less to the earth than they take +from it, and men making enormous consumption of wood and plants for +fire, and other uses, it follows that the vegetable soil of inhabited +countries must diminish, and become, in time, like the soil of Arabia +Petrea, and other eastern provinces, which, in fact, are the most +ancient inhabited countries, where only sand and salt are now to be met +with; for the fixed salts of plants and animals remain, whereas all the +other parts volatilise, and are transported by the air. + +Let us now examine the position and formation of the interior strata: +the earth, says Woodward, appears in places that have been dug, composed +of strata placed one on the other, as so many sediments which +necessarily fell to the bottom of the water; the deepest strata are +generally the thickest, and those above the thinnest, and so gradually +lessening to the surface. We find sea shells, teeth, and bones of fish +in these different beds, and not only in those that are soft, as chalk +and clay, but even in those of hard stone, marble, &c. These marine +productions are incorporated with the stone, and when separated from +them, leave the impressions of the shells with the greatest exactness. +"I have been most clearly and positively assured," says this author, +"that in France, Flanders, Holland, Spain, Italy, Germany, Denmark, +Norway, and Sweden, stone, and other terrestrial substances are disposed +in strata, precisely the same as they are in England; that these strata +are divided by parallel fissures; that there are inclosed within stones +and other terrestrial and compact substances, a great quantity of shells +and other productions of the sea, disposed in the same manner as in this +island. I am also informed that these strata are found the same in +Barbary, Egypt, Guinea, and in other parts of Africa; in Arabia, Syria, +Persia, Malabar, China, and the rest of the provinces of Asia; in +Jamaica, Barbadoes, Virginia, New-England, Brazil, and other parts of +America[198:A]." + +This author does not say how he learnt, or by whom he was told, that the +strata of Peru contained shells; yet as in general his observations are +exact, I do not doubt but he was well informed; and am persuaded that +shells may be found in the earth of Peru, as well as elsewhere. This +remark is made from a doubt having been formed some time since on the +subject, and which I shall hereafter consider. + +In a trench made at Amsterdam, to the depth of 230 feet, the strata were +found as follows: 7 feet of vegetable earth, 9 of turf, 9 of soft clay, +8 of sand, 4 of earth, 10 of clay, 4 of earth, 10 of sand, then 2 feet +of clay, 4 of white sand, 5 of dry earth, 1 of soft earth, 14 of sand, 8 +of argil, mixed with earth; 4 of sand, mixed with shells; then clay 102 +feet thick, and at last 31 feet of sand, at which depth they ceased +digging[199:A]. + +It is very singular to dig so deep without meeting with water: and this +circumstance is remarkable in many particulars. 1. It shews, that the +water of the sea does not communicate with the interior part of the +earth, by means of filtration. 2. That shells are found at the depth of +100 feet below the surface, and that consequently the soil of Holland +has been raised 100 feet by the sediment of the sea. 3. We may draw an +induction, that this strata of thick clay of 102 feet, and the bed of +sand below it, in which they dug to 31 feet, and whose entire thickness +is unknown, are perhaps not very far distant from the first strata of +the original earth, such as it was before the motion of the water had +changed its surface. We have said in the first article, that if we +desired to find the ancient earth, we should dig in the northern +countries, rather than towards the south; in plains rather than in +mountainous regions. The circumstances in this instance, appear to be +nearly so, only it is to be wished they had continued the digging to a +greater depth, and that the author had informed us, whether there were +not shells and other marine productions, in the last bed of clay, and in +that of sand below it. The experiment confirms what we have already +said; and the more we dig, the greater thickness we shall find the +strata. + +The earth is composed of parallel and horizontal beds, not only in +plains, but hills and mountains are in general composed after the same +manner: it may be said, that the strata in hills and mountains are more +apparent there than in the plains, because the plains are generally +covered with a very considerable quantity of sand and earth, which the +water has brought from the higher grounds, and therefore, to find the +ancient strata, must dig deeper in the plains than in the mountains. + +I have often observed, that when a mountain is level at its summit, the +strata which compose it are also level; but if the summit is not placed +horizontally, the strata inclines also in the same direction. I have +heard that, in general, the beds of quarries inclined a little to the +east; but having myself observed all the chains of rocks which offered, +I discovered this opinion to be erroneous, and that the strata inclines +to the same side as the hill, whether it be east, west, north, or south. +When we dig stone and marble from the quarry, we take great care to +separate them according to their natural position, and we cannot even +get them of a large size, if we cut them in any other direction. Where +they are made use of for good masonry, the workmen are particular in +placing them as they stood in the quarry, for if they were placed in any +other direction, they would split, and would not resist the weight with +which they are loaded. This perfectly confirms that stones, are found +in parallel and horizontal strata, which have been successively heaped +one on the other, and that these strata composed masses where resistance +is greater in that direction than in any other. + +Every strata, whether horizontal or inclined, has an equal thickness +throughout its whole extent. In the quarries about Paris the bed of good +stone is not thick, scarcely more than 18 or 20 feet: in those of +Burgundy the stone is much thicker. It is the same with marble; the +black and white marble have a thicker bed than the coloured; and I know +beds of very hard stone, which the farmers in Burgundy make use of to +cover their houses, that are not above an inch thick. The different +strata vary much in thickness, but each bed preserves the same thickness +throughout its extent. The thickness of strata is so greatly varied, +that it is found from less than a line to 1, 10, 20, 30, or 100 feet +thick. The ancient and modern quarries, which are horizontally dug, the +perpendicular and other divisions of mines, prove that there are +extensive strata in all directions. "It is thoroughly proved," says the +historian of the academy, "that all stones have formerly been a soft +paste, and as there are quarries almost in every part, the surface of +the earth has therefore consisted, in all these places, of mud and +slime, at least to certain depths. The shells found in most quarries +prove that this mud was an earth diluted by the water of the sea, and +consequently that the sea covered all these places; and it could not +cover them without also covering all that was level with or lower than +it: and it is plain that it could not cover every place where there were +quarries, without covering the whole face of the terrestrial globe. We +do not here consider the mountains which the sea must also at one time +have covered, since quarries and shells are often found in them. + +"The sea," continues he, "therefore, covered the whole earth, and from +thence it proceeds that all the beds of stone in the plains are +horizontal and parallel; fish must have also been the most ancient +inhabitants of the globe, as there was no sustenance for either birds or +terrestrial animals." But how did the sea retire into these vast basins +which it at present occupies? What presents itself the most natural to +the mind is, that the earth, at least at a certain depth, was not +entirely solid, but intermixed with some great vacuums, whose vaults +were supported for a time, but at length, sunk in suddenly: then the +waters must have fallen into these vacancies, filled them, and left +naked a part of the earth's surface, which became an agreeable abode to +terrestrial animals and birds. The shells found in quarries perfectly +agree with this idea, for only the bony parts of fish could be preserved +till now. In general, shells are heaped up in great abundance in certain +parts of the sea, where they are immovable, and form a kind of rock, and +could not follow the water, which suddenly forsook them: this is the +reason that we find more shells than bones of the fish, and this even +proves a sudden fall of the sea into its present basins. At the same +time as our supposed vaults gave way, it is very possible that other +parts of the globe were raised by the same cause, and that mountains +were placed on this surface with quarries already formed, but the beds +of these quarries could not preserve the horizontal direction they +before had, unless the mountains were raised precisely perpendicular to +the surface of the earth, which could happen but very seldom: so also, +as we have already observed, in 1705, the beds of stone in mountains are +always inclined to the horizon, though parallel with each other; for +they have not changed their position with respect to each other, but +only with respect to the surface of the earth[205:A]. + +These parallel strata, these beds of earth and stone, which have been +formed by the sediment of the sea, often extend to considerable +distances, and we often find in hills, separated by a valley, the same +beds and the same matters at the same level. This observation agrees +perfectly with that of the height of the opposite hills. We may easily +be assured of the truth of these facts, for in all narrow vallies, where +rocks are discovered, we shall find the same beds of stone and marble on +both sides at the same height. In a country where I frequently reside, I +found a quarry of marble which extended more than 12 leagues in length, +and whose breadth was very considerable, although I have never been able +precisely to determine it. I have often observed that this bed of marble +is throughout of the same thickness, and in hills divided from this +quarry by a valley of 100 feet depth, and a quarter of a mile in +breadth, I found the same bed of marble at the same height. I am +persuaded it is the same in every stone and marble quarry where shells +are found; but this observation does not hold good in quarries of +freestone. In the course of this work, we shall give reasons for this +difference, and describe why freestone is not dispersed, like other +matters, in horizontal beds, and why it is in irregular blocks, both in +form and position. + +We have likewise observed that the strata are the same on both sides the +straits of the sea. This observation, which is important, may lead us to +discover the lands and islands which have been separated from the +continent; it proves, for example, that England has been divided from +France; Spain from Africa; Sicily from Italy; and it is to be wished +that the same observation had been made in all the straits. I am +persuaded that we should find it almost every where true. We do not know +whether the same beds of stone are found at the same height on both +sides the straits of Magellan, which is the longest; but we see, by the +particular maps and exact charts, that the two high coasts which confine +it, form nearly, like the mountains of the earth, correspondent angles, +which also proves that the Terra del Fuega, must be regarded as part of +the continent of America; it is the same with Forbisher's Strait and +the island of Friesland, which appear to have been divided from the +continent of Greenland. + +The Maldivian islands are only separated by small tracts of the sea, on +each side of which banks and rocks are found composed of the same +materials; and these islands, which, taken together, are near 200 miles +long, formed anciently only one land; they are now divided into 13 +provinces, called Clusters. Each cluster contains a great number of +small islands, most of which are sometimes overflowed and sometimes dry; +but what is remarkable, these thirteen clusters are each surrounded with +a chain of rocks of the same stone, and there are only three or four +dangerous inlets by which they can be entered. They are all placed one +after the other, and it evidently appears that these islands were +formerly a long mountain capped with rocks[216:A]. + +Many authors, as Verstegan, Twine, Somner, and especially Campbell, in +his Description of England, in the chapter of Kent, gives very strong +reasons, to prove that England was formerly joined to France, and has +been separated from it by an effort of the sea, which carried away the +neck of land that joined them, opened the channel, and left naked a +great quantity of low and marshy ground along the southern coasts of +England. Dr. Wallis, as a corroboration of this supposition, shews the +conformity of the ancient Gallic and British tongues, and adds many +observations, which we shall relate in the following articles. + +If we consider the form of lands, the position of mountains, and the +windings of rivers, we shall perceive that generally opposite hills are +not only composed of the same matters on the same level, but are nearly +of an equal height. This equality I have observed in my travels, and +have mostly found them the same on the two sides, especially in vallies +that were not more than a quarter or a third of a league broad, for in +vallies which are very broad, it is difficult to judge of the height and +equality of hills, because, by looking over a level plain of any great +extent, it appears to rise, and hills at a distance appear to lower; but +this is not the place to give a mathematical reason for this difference. +It is also very difficult to judge by the naked sight of the middle of a +great valley, at least if there is no river in it; whereas in confined +vallies our sight is less equivocal and our judgment more certain. That +part of Burgundy comprehended between Auxerre, Dijon, Autun, and +Bar-sur-seine, a considerable extent of which is called _la Bailliage de +la Montagne_, is one of the highest parts of France; from one side of +most of these mountains, which are only of the second class, the water +flows towards the Ocean, and on the other side towards the +Mediterranean. This high country is divided with many small vallies, +very confined, and almost all watered with rivulets. I have a thousand +times observed the correspondence of the angles of these hills and their +equality of height, and I am certain that I have every where found the +saliant angles opposite to the returning angles, and the heights nearly +equal on both sides. The farther we advance into the higher country, +where the points of division are, the higher are the mountains; but this +height is always the same on both sides of the vallies, and the hills +are raised or lowered alike. I have frequently made the like +observations in many other parts of France. It is this equality in the +height of the hills which forms the plains in the mountains, and these +plains form lands higher than others. But high mountains do not appear +so equal in height, most of them terminate in points and irregular +peaks; and I have seen, in crossing the Alps, and the Apennine +mountains, that the angles are, in fact, correspondent; but it is almost +impossible to judge by the eye of the equality or inequality in the +height of opposite mountains, because their summits are lost in mists +and clouds. + +The different strata of which the earth is composed are not disposed +according to their specific weight, for we often find strata of heavy +matters placed on those of lighter. To be assured of this, we have only +to examine the earth on which rocks are placed, and we shall find that +it is generally clay or sand, which is specifically lighter. In hills, +and other small elevations, we easily discover this to be the case; but +it is not so with large mountains, for not only their summits are rocks, +but those rocks are placed on others; there mountains are placed upon +mountains, and rocks upon rocks, to such a considerable height, and +through so great an extent of country, that we can scarcely be certain +whether there is earth at bottom, or of what nature it is. I have seen +cavities made in rocks to some hundred feet deep, without being able to +form an idea where they ended, for these rocks were supported by +others; nevertheless, may we not compare great with small? and since +the rocks of little mountains, whose bases are to be seen, rest on the +earth less heavy and solid than stone, may we not suppose that earth is +also the base of high mountains? All that I have here to prove by these +arguments is, that, by the motion of the waters, it may naturally happen +that the more ponderous matters accumulated on the lighter; and that, if +this in fact is found to be so in most hills, it is probable that it +happened as explained by my theory; but should it be objected that I am +not grounded in supposing, that before the formation of mountains the +heaviest matters were below the lighter; I answer, that I assert nothing +general in this respect, because this effect may have been produced in +many manners, whether the heaviest matters were uppermost or undermost, +or placed indiscriminately. To conceive how the sea at first formed a +mountain of clay, and afterwards capt it with rocks, it is sufficient to +consider the sediments may successively come from different parts, and +that they might be of different materials. In some parts, the sea may at +first have deposited sediments of clay, and the waters afterwards +brought sediment of strong matter, either because they had transported +all the clay from the bottom and sides, and then the waves attacked the +rocks, possibly because the first sediment came from one part, and the +second from another. This perfectly agrees with observation, by which we +perceive that beds of earth, stone, gravel, sand, &c. followed no rule +in their arrangement, but are placed indifferently one on the other as +it were by chance. + +But this chance must have some rules, which can be known only by +estimating the value of probabilities, and the truth of conjectures. +According to our hypothesis, on the formation of the globe, we have seen +that the interior part of the globe must have been a vitrified matter, +similar to vitrified sand, which is only the fragments of glass, and of +which the clays are perhaps the scoria; by this supposition, the centre +of the earth, and almost as far as the external circumference, must be +glass, or a vitrified matter; and above this we shall find sand, clay, +and other scoria. Thus the earth, in its first state, was a nucleus of +glass, or vitrified matter; either massive like glass, or divided like +sand, because that depends on the degree of heat it has undergone. Above +this matter was sand, and lastly clay. The soil of the waters and air +produced the external crust, which is thicker or thinner, according to +the situation of the ground; more or less coloured, according to the +different mixtures of mud, sand, clay, and the decayed parts of animals +and vegetables; and more or less fertile, according to the abundance or +want of these parts. To shew that this supposition on the formation of +sand and clay is not chimerical, I shall add some particular remarks. + +I conceive, that the earth, in its first state, was a globe, or rather a +spheroid of compact glass, covered with a light crust of pumice stone +and other scoria of the matter in fusion. The motion and agitation of +the waters and air soon reduced this crust into powder or sand, which, +by uniting afterwards, produced flints, and owe their hardness, colour, +or transparency and variety, to the different degrees of purity of the +sand which entered into their composition. + +These sands, whose constituting parts unite by fire, assimilate, and +become very dense, compact, and the more transparent as the sand is more +pure; on the contrary, being exposed a long time to the air, they +disunite and exfoliate, descend in the form of earth, and it is +probable the different clays are thus produced. This dust, sometimes of +a brightish yellow, and sometimes like silver, is nothing else but a +very pure sand somewhat perished, and almost reduced to an elementary +state. By time, particles will be so far attenuated and divided, that +they will no longer have power to reflect the light, and acquire all the +properties of clay. + +This theory is conformable to what every day is seen; let us immediately +wash sand upon its being dug, and the water will be loaded with a black +ductile and fat earth, which is genuine clay. In streets paved with +freestone, the dirt is always black and greasy, and when dried appears +to be an earth of the same nature as clay. Let us wash the earth taken +from a spot where there are neither freestone nor flints, and there will +always precipitate a great quantity of vitrifiable sand. + +But what perfectly proves that sand, and even flint and glass, exist in +clay, is, that the action of fire, by uniting the parts, restores it to +its original form. Clay, if heated to the degree of calcination, will +cover itself with a very hard enamel; if it is not vitrified internally, +it nevertheless will have acquired a very great hardness, so as to +resist the file; it will emit fire under the hammer, and it has all the +properties of flint; a greater degree of heat causes it to flow, and +converts it into real glass. + +Clay and sand are therefore matters perfectly analogous, and of the same +class; if clay, by condensing, may become flint and glass, why may not +sand, by dissolution, become clay? Glass appears to be true elementary +earth, and all mixed substances disguised glass. Metals, minerals, +salts, &c. are only vitrifiable earth; common stone and other matters +analogous to it, and testaceous and crustaceous shells, &c. are the only +substances which cannot be vitrified, and which seem to form a separate +class. Fire, by uniting the divided parts of the first, forms an +homogeneous matter, hard and transparent, without any diminution of +weight, and to which it is not possible to cause any alteration; those, +on the contrary, in which a greater quantity of active and volatile +principles enter, and which calcine, lose more than one-third of their +weight in the fire, and retake the form of simple earth, without any +other alteration than a disunion of their different parts: these bodies +excepted, which are no great number, and whose combinations produce no +great varieties in nature, every other substance, and particularly +clay, may be converted into glass, and are consequently only decomposed +glass. If the fire suddenly causes the form of these substances to +change, by vitrifying them, glass itself, whether pure, or in the form +of sand or flint, naturally, but by a slow and insensible progress, +changes into clay. + +Where flint is the predominant stone, the country is generally strewed +with parts of it, and if the place is uncultivated, and these stones +have been long exposed to the air, without having been stirred, their +upper superficies is always white, whereas the opposite side, which +touches the earth, is very brown, and preserves its natural colour. If +these flints are broken, we shall perceive that the whiteness is not +only external, but penetrates internally, and there forms a kind of +band, not very deep in some, but which in others occupies almost the +whole flint. This white part is somewhat grainy, entirely opaque, as +soft as freestone, and adheres to the tongue like the boles; whereas the +other part is smooth, has neither thread nor grain, and preserves its +natural colour, transparency, and hardness. If this flint is put into a +furnace, its white part becomes of a brick colour, and its brown part +of a very fine white. Let us not say with one of our most celebrated +naturalists, that these stones are imperfect flints of different ages, +which have not acquired their perfection; for why should they be all +imperfect? Why should they be imperfect only on the side exposed to the +weather? It, on the contrary, appears to me more reasonable that they +are flints changed from their original state, gradually decomposed, and +assuming the form and property of clay or bole. If this is thought to be +only conjecture, let the hardest and blackest flint be exposed to the +weather, in less than a year its surface will change colour; and if we +have patience to pursue this experiment, we shall see it by degrees lose +its hardness, transparency, and other specific characters, and approach +every day nearer and nearer the nature of clay. + +What happens to flint happens to sand; each grain of sand may possibly +be considered as a small flint, and each flint as a mass of extremely +fine grains of sand. The first example of the decomposition of sand is +found in the brilliant opaque powder called Mica, in which clay and +slate are always diffused. The entirely transparent flints, the Quartz, +produce, by decomposition, fat and soft talks, such as those of Venice +and Russia, which are as ductile and vitrifiable as clay: and it appears +to me, that talk is a mediate between glass, or transparent flint, and +clay; whereas coarse and impure flint, by decomposing, passes to clay +without any intermedium. + +Our factitious glass undergoes the same alterations: it decomposes and +perishes, as it were, in the air. At first, it assumes a variety of +colours, then exfoliates, and by working it, we perceive brilliant +scales fall off; but when its decomposition is more advanced, it +crumbles between the fingers, and is reduced into a very white fine +talky powder. Art has even imitated nature in the decomposition of glass +and flint. "Est etiam certa methodus solius aquæ communis ope, silices & +arenam in liquorem viscosum, eumdemque in sal viride convertendi, & hoc +in aleum rubicundum, &c. Solius ignis & aqua ope, speciali experimento, +durissimos quosque lapides in mucorem resolvo, qui distillan subtilem +spiritum exhibet & oleum nullus laudibus proedicabile[218:A]." + +These matters more particularly belong to metals, and when we come to +them, shall be fully treated on, therefore we shall content ourselves +here with adding, that the different strata which cover the terrestrial +globe, being materials to be considered as actual vitrifications or +analogous to glass, and possessing its most essential qualities; and as +it is evident, that from the decomposition of glass and flint, which is +every day made before our eyes, a genuine clay remains, it is not a +precarious supposition to advance, that clays and sands have been formed +by scoria, and vitrified drops of the terrestrial globe, especially when +we join the proofs _a priori_, which we have given to evince the earth +has been in a state of liquefaction caused by fire. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[198:A] Essay on the Natural History of the Earth, pages 40, 41, 42, &c. + +[199:A] See Varennii, Geograph. General, page 46. + +[205:A] See the Mem. of the Acad. 1716, page 14. + +[216:A] See the Voyages of Francis Piriard, vol. 1, page 108. + +[218:A] See Becher. Phys. subter. + + + + +ARTICLE VIII. + +ON SHELLS, AND OTHER MARINE PRODUCTIONS FOUND IN THE INTERIOR PARTS OF +THE EARTH. + + +I have often examined quarries, the banks of which were filled with +shells; I have seen entire hills composed of them, and chains of rocks +which contained them throughout their whole extent. The quantity of +these marine productions is astonishing, and the number in many places +so prodigious, that it appears scarcely possible that any should now +remain in the sea; it is by considering this innumerable multitude of +shells, that no doubt is left of our earth having been a long time under +the water of the ocean. The quantity found in a fossil, or petrified +state, is beyond conception, and it is only from the number of those +that have been discovered that we could possibly have formed an idea of +their multiplicity. We must imagine, like those who reason on matters +they never saw, that shells are only found at random, dispersed here and +there, or in small heaps, as oyster shells thrown before our doors; on +the contrary, they form mountains, are met with in shoals of 100 or 200 +miles length, nay, they may sometimes be traced through whole provinces +in masses of 50 or 60 feet thick. It is from these circumstances alone +that we can reason on the subject. + +We cannot give a more striking example on this subject than the shells +of Touraine. The following is the description given of them by the +historian of the Academy[220:A]. + +"The number of figured stones and fossil shells found in the bowels of +the earth were remarked in all ages and nations, but they were +considered merely as the sports of nature, and even by philosophers +themselves, as the productions of chance or accident; they regarded them +with a degree of surprise, but passed them over with a slight attention, +and all this phenomena perished without any fruit for the progress of +knowledge. A potter in Paris, who knew neither Latin nor Greek, towards +the end of the 16th century, was the first man who dared affirm, in +opposition to the learned, that the fossil shells were real shells +formerly deposited by the sea in those places where they were found; +that animals, and particularly fish, had given to stones all these +different figures, &c. and he desired the whole school of Aristotle to +contradict his proofs. This was Bernard Palissy, as great a natural +genius as nature could form: his system slept near 100 years, and even +his name was almost forgot. At length the ideas of Palissy were revived +in the mind of several philosophers; and science has profited by all the +shells and figured stones the earth furnishes us with; perhaps they are +at present become only too common, and the consequences drawn from them +too incontestable. + +"Notwithstanding this, the observations presented by M. Reaumer must +appear wonderful. He discovered a mass of 130 million, 680 thousand +cubical fathoms of shells, either whole or in fragments, without any +mixture of stone, earth, sand, or other extraneous matter: hitherto +fossil shells have never appeared in such an enormous quantity, nor +without mixture. It is in Touraine this prodigious mass is found, more +than 36 leagues from the sea; this is perfectly known there, as the +farmers of that province make use of these shells, which they dig up, as +manure for their lands, to fertilize their plains, which otherwise would +be absolutely sterile. + +"What is dug from the earth, and which generally is no more than eight +or nine feet deep, are only small fragments of shells, very +distinguishable as fragments, for they retain their original channels +and hollows, having only lost their gloss and colour, as almost all +shells do which we find in the earth. The smallest pieces, which are +only dust, are still distinguishable because they are perfectly of the +same matter as the rest, as well as of the whole shells which are +sometimes found. We discover the species as well in the whole shells as +in the larger fragments. Some of these species are known at Poictou, +others belong to more remote coasts. There are even fragments of +madrepores, coral, and other productions of the sea; all this matter in +the country is termed _Fallun_, and is found wherever the ground is dug +in that province for the space of nine leagues square. The peasants do +not dig above twenty feet deep, because they think it would not repay +them for their trouble, but they are certainly deeper. The calculation +of the quantity is however taken upon the supposition of only 18 feet +and 2200 fathoms to the league. This mass of shells of course exceeds +the calculation, and possibly contains double the quantity. + +"In physical points the smallest circumstances, which most people do not +think worthy of remarking, sometimes lead to consequences and afford +great lights. M. de Reaumer observed, that all these fragments of shells +lie horizontally, and hence he has concluded that this infinity of +fragments does not proceed from the heap being formed at one time, or of +whole shells, for the uppermost, by their weight, would have crushed +the others, and of course their fallings would have given an infinity of +different positions. They must, therefore, have been brought there by +the sea, either whole or broken, and necessarily placed horizontal; and +although the extreme length of time was of itself sufficient to break, +and almost calcine the greatest part, it could not change their +position. + +"By this it appears, that they must have been brought gradually, and, in +fact, how was it possible that the sea could convey at once such an +immense quantity of shells, and at the same time preserve a position +perfectly horizontal? they must have collected in one spot, and +consequently this spot must have been the bottom of a gulph or basin. + +"All this proves, that although there must remain upon the earth many +vestiges of the universal deluge, as recorded in scripture, the mass of +shells at Touraine was not produced by that deluge; there is perhaps not +so great a mass in any part of the sea; but even had the deluge forced +them away, it would have been with an impetuosity and violence that +would not have permitted them to retain one uniform position. They must +have been brought and deposited gently and slowly, and consequently +their accumulation required a space of time much longer than a year." + +The surface of the earth, it is evident, must have been before or after +the deluge very differently disposed to what it is at present, that the +sea and continent had another arrangement, and formerly there was a +great gulph in the middle of Touraine. The changes which are known from +history, or even ancient fable, are inconsiderable, but they give us +room to imagine those which a longer time might bring about. M. de +Reaumur supposes that Touraine was a gulph of the sea which communicated +with the ocean, and that the shells were carried there by a current; but +this is a simple conjecture laid down in room of the real unknown fact. +To speak with certainty on this matter, we should have geographical maps +of all the places where shells have been dug from the earth, to obtain +which would require almost an infinity of time and observation, yet it +is possible that hereafter science may accomplish it. + +This quantity of shells, considerable as it is, will astonish us less if +we consider the following circumstances: first, shell fish multiply +prodigiously, and are full grown in a very short time; the abundance of +individuals in each kind proves to us their fertility. We have a strong +example of this increase in oysters, a mass of many fathoms of which are +frequently raised in a single day. In a very short time the rocks to +which they are attached are considerably diminished, and some banks +quite exhausted, nevertheless the ensuing year we find them as plentiful +as before, nor do they appear to be in the least diminished; indeed I +know not whether a natural bed of oysters was ever entirely exhausted. +Secondly, the substance of shells is analogous to stone; they are a long +time preserved in soft matters, and petrify readily in hard; these +shells and marine productions therefore found on the earth, being the +wrecks of many ages, must of course have formed very considerable +masses. + +There are a prodigious quantity of shells in marble, lime, stone, chalk, +marl, &c. we find them, as before observed, in hills and mountains, and +they often make more than one half of the bodies which contain them; for +the most part they appear well preserved, others are in fragments, but +large enough to distinguish to what kind of shells they belong. Here our +knowledge on this subject, from observation, finds its limits; but I +shall go further and assert that shells are the intermedium which Nature +adopts for the formation of most kind of stones; that chalks, marls, and +lime-stone are composed only of the powder and pieces of shells; that +consequently the quantities of shells destroyed are infinitely more +considerable than those preserved. I shall here content myself with +indicating the point of view in which we ought to consider the strata of +which the globe is composed. The first stratum is composed of the dust +of the air, the sediment of the rain, dew, and vegetable or animal +parts, reduced to particles; the strata of chalk, marl, lime, stone, and +marble, are composed of the ruins of shells, and other marine +productions, mixed with fragments or whole shells; but the vitrifiable +sand or clay are the matters of which the internal parts of the globe +are composed. They were vitrified when the globe received its form, +which necessarily supposes that the matter was in fusion. The granate, +rock, flint, &c. owe their origin to sand and clay, and are likewise +disposed by strata; but tuffa[227:A], free-stone, and flints (not in +great masses), crystals, metals, pyrites, most minerals, sulphurs, &c. +are matters whose formation is novel, in comparison with marbles, +calcinable stones, chalk, marl, and all other materials disposed in +horizontal strata, and which contain shells and other productions of the +sea. + +As the denominations I make use of may appear obscure or equivocal, it +is necessary to explain them. By the term _clay_, I mean not only the +white and yellow, but also blue, soft, hard, foliated, and other clays, +which I look on as the scoria of glass, or as decomposed glass. By the +word _sand_ I always understand vitrifiable sand; and not only +comprehend under this denomination the fine sand which produces +freestone, and which I look upon as powdered glass, or rather pumice +stone, but also the sand which proceeds from the freestone destroyed by +friction, and also the larger sand, as small gravel, which proceeds from +the granate and rock-stone, and is sharp, angular, red, and commonly +found in the bed of rivers or rivulets that derive their waters +immediately from the higher mountains, or hills composed of stone or +granate. The river Armanson conveys a great quantity of this sand; it is +large and brittle, and in fact is only fragments of rock-stone, as +calcinable gravel is of freestone. _Rock-stone_ and _granate_ are one +and the same substance, but I have used both denominations, because +there are many persons who make two different species of them. It is the +same with respect to flints and free-stone in large pieces; I look on +them as kinds of granate, and I call them _large flints_, because they +are disposed like calcinable stone in strata, and to distinguish them +from the flints and free-stone in small masses, and the round flints +which have no regular quarries, and whose beds have a certain extent; +these are of a modern formation, and have not the same origin as the +flints and free-stone in large lumps, which are disposed in regular +strata. + +I understand by the term _slate_, not only the blue, which all the world +knows, but white, grey, and red slate: these bodies are generally met +with below laminated clay, and have every appearance of being nothing +more than clay hardened in this strata. Pit coal and jet are matters +which also belong to clay, and are commonly under slate. By the word +_tuffa_, I understood not only the common pumice which appears full of +holes, and, as I may say, organized, but all the beds of stone made by +the sediment of running waters, all the stalactites, incrustations, and +all kinds of stone that dissolve by fire. It is no ways doubtful that +these matters are not modern, and that they every day grow. Tuffa is +only a mass of lapidific matter in which we perceive no distinct strata: +this matter is disposed generally in small hollow cylinders, irregularly +grouped and formed by waters dropt at the foot of mountains, or on the +slope of hills, which contain beds of marl or soft and calcareous earth; +these cylinders, which make one of the specific characters of this kind +of tuffa, is either oblique or vertical according to the direction of +the streams or water which form them. These sort of spurious quarries +have no continuation; their extent is very confined, and proportionate +to the height of the mountains which furnish them with the matter of +their growth. The tuffa every day receiving lapidific juices, those +small cylindrical columns, between which intervals are left, close at +last, and the whole becomes one compact body, but never acquires the +hardness of stone, and is what Agricola terms _Marga tofocea fistulosa_. +In this tuffa are generally found impressions of leaves, trees, and +plants, like those which grow in the environs: terrestrial shells also +are often met with, but never any of the marine kind. The tuffa is +certainly therefore a new matter, which must be ranked with stalactites, +incrustations, &c. all these new matters are kinds of spurious stones, +formed at the expence of the rest, but which never arrive at true +petrification. + +Crystal, precious stones, and all those which have a regular figure, +even small flints formed by concentrical beds, whether found in +perpendicular cavities of rocks, or elsewhere, are only exudations of +large flints, or concrete juices of the like matters, and are therefore +spurious stones, and real stalactites of flint or rock. + +Shells are never found either in rock, granate, or free-stone, although +they are often met with in vitrifiable sand, from which these matters +derive their origin; this seems to prove that sand cannot unite to form +free-stone or rock but when it is pure, and that if it is mixed with +shells or substances of other kinds, which are heterogeneous to it, its +union is prevented. I have observed the little pebbles which are often +found in beds of sand mixed with shells, but never found any shell +therein: these pebbles are real concretions of free-stone formed in the +sand in the places where it is not mixed with heterogeneous matters +which oppose the formation of larger masses. + +We have before observed, that at Amsterdam, which is a very low country, +sea shells were found at 100 feet below the earth, and at +Marly-la-Ville, six miles from Paris, at 75 feet; we likewise meet with +the same at the bottom of mines, and in banks of rocks, beneath a height +of stone 50, 100, 200, and 1000 feet thick, as is apparent in the Alps +and Pyrennees, where, in the lower beds, shells and other marine +productions are constantly found. But to proceed in order, we find +shells on the mountains of Spain, France, and England; in all the marble +quarries of Flanders, in the mountains of Gueldres, in all hills around +Paris, Burgundy, and Champagne; in one word, in every place where the +basis of the soil is not free-stone or tuffa; and in most of these +places there are more shells than other matters in the substance of the +stones. By _shells_, I mean not only the wrecks of shell-fish, but those +of crustaceous animals, the bristles of sea hedge-hogs, and all +productions of the sea insects, as coral, madrepores, astroites, &c. We +may easily be convinced by inspection, that in most calculable stones +and marble, there is so great a quantity of these marine productions +that they appear to surpass the matter which unites them. + +But let us proceed; we meet with these marine productions even on the +tops of the highest mountains; for example, on Mount Cenis, in the +mountains of Genes, in the Apennines, and in most of the stone and +marble quarries in Italy; also in the stones of the most ancient +edifices of the Romans; in the mountains of Tirol; in the centre of +Italy, on the summits of Mount Paterne, near Bologna; in the hills of +Calabria; in many parts of Germany and Hungary, and generally in all the +high parts of Europe[233:A]. + +In Asia and Africa, travellers have remarked them in several parts; for +example, on the mountains of Castravan, above Barut, there is a bed of +white stone as thin as slate, each leaf of which contains a great number +and diversity of fishes; they lie for the most part very flat and +compressed, as does the fossil fearn-plants, but they are +notwithstanding so well preserved, that the smallest traces of the fins, +scales, and all the parts which distinguish each kind of fish, are +perfectly visible. So likewise we find many sea muscles, and petrified +shells between Suez and Cairo, and on all the hills and eminences of +Barbary; the greatest part are conformable to the kinds at present +caught in the Red Sea[234:A]. In Europe, we meet with petrified fish in +Sweden and Germany, and in the quarry of Oningen, &c. + +The long chain of mountains, says Bourguet, which extends from Portugal +to the most eastern parts of China, the mountains of Africa and America, +and the vallies of Europe, all inclose stones filled with shell-fish, +and from hence, he says, we may conclude the same of all the other parts +of the world unknown to us. + +The islands in Europe, Asia, and America, where men have had occasion to +dig, whether in mountains or plains, furnish examples of fossil shells, +which evince that they have that in common with the bordering +continents. + +Here then is sufficient facts to prove that sea shells, petrified fish, +and other marine productions are to be found in almost every place we +are disposed to seek them. + +"It is certain, says an English author (Tancred Robinson), that there +have been sea-shells dispersed on the earth by armies, and the +inhabitants of towns and villages, and that Loubere relates in his +Voyage to Siam, that the monkies of the Cape of Good Hope, continually +amuse themselves with carrying shells from the sea shores to the tops of +the mountains; but that cannot resolve the question, why these shells +are dispersed over all the earth, and even in the interior parts of +mountains, where they are deposited in beds like those in the bottom of +the sea." + +On reading an Italian letter on the changes happened to the terrestrial +globe, printed at Paris in the year 1746, I was surprised to find these +sentiments of Loubere exactly corresponded. Petrified fish, according to +this writer, are only fish rejected from the Roman tables, because they +were not esteemed wholesome; and with respect to fossil-shells, he says +the pilgrims of Syria brought, during the times of the Crusades, those +of the Levant Sea, into France, Italy, and other Christian states; why +has he not added that it was the monkies who transported the shells to +the tops of these mountains, which were never inhabited by men? This +would not have spoiled but rendered his explanation still more +probable. + +How comes it that enlightened persons, who pique themselves on +philosophy, have such various ideas on this subject? But doing so, we +shall not content ourselves with having said that petrified shells are +found in almost every part of the earth which has been dug, nor with +having related the testimonies of authors of natural history; as it +might be suspected, that with a view of some system, they perceived +shells where there were none; but quote the authority of some authors, +who merely remarked them accidentally, and whose observations went no +farther than recognising those that were whole and in the best +preservation. Their testimony will perhaps be of a still greater +authority with people who have it not in their power to be assured of +the truth of these facts, and who know not the difference between shells +and petrifications. + +All the world may see the banks of shells in the hills in the environs +of Pans, especially in the quarries of stone, as at Chaussée, near Séve, +at Issy, Passy, and elsewhere. We find a great quantity of lenticular +stones at Villers-Cotterets; these rocks are entirely formed thereof, +and they are blended without any order with a kind of stony mortar, +which binds them together. At Chaumont so great a quantity of petrified +shells are found that the hills appear to be composed of nothing else. +It is the same at Courtagnon, near Rheims, where there is a bank of +shells near four leagues broad, and whose length is considerably more. I +mention these places as being famous and striking the eye of every +beholder. + +With respect to foreign countries, here follows the observations of some +travellers: + +"In Syria and Phoenicia, the rocks, particularly in the neighbourhood +of Latikea, are a kind of chalky substance, and it is perhaps from +thence that the city has taken the name of the white promontory. +Nakoura, anciently termed Scala Tyriorum, or the Tyrians Ladder, is +nearly of the same nature, and we still find there, by digging, +quantities of all sorts of shells, corals, and other remains of the +deluge[237:A]." + +On mount Sinai, we find only a few fossil shells, and other marks of the +deluge, at least if we do not rank the fossil Tarmarin of the +neighbouring mountains of Siam among this number, perhaps the first +matter of which their marble is formed, had a corrosive virtue not +proper to preserve them. But at Corondel, where the rocks approach +nearer our free-stone, I found many shells, as also a very singular sea +muscle, of the descoid kind, but closer and rounder. The ruins of the +little village Ain le Mousa, and many canals which conduct the water +thereto, furnish numbers of fossil shells. The ancient walls of Suez, +and what yet remains of its harbour, have been constructed of the same +materials, which seem to have been taken from the same quarry. Between, +as well as on all the mountains, eminences and hills of Lybia, near +Egypt, we meet with a great quantity of sea weed, as well as vivalvous +shells, and of these which terminate in a point, most of which are +exactly conformable to the kinds at present caught in the Red Sea. + +The moving sand in the neighbourhood of Ras Sem, in the kingdom of +Barca, covers many palm trees with petrifications. Ras Sem signifies the +head of a fish, and is what we term the petrified village, where it is +said men, women, and children are found, who with their cattle, +furniture, &c. have been converted into stone; but these, says Shaw, are +vain tales and fables, as I have not only learnt from M. le Maire, who +at the time he was Consul at Tripoly, sent several persons thither to +take cognizance of it, but also from very respectable persons who had +been at those places. + +Near the pyramids certain pieces of stone worked by the sculptor, were +found by Mr. Shaw, and among these stones many rude ones of the figure +and size of lentils; some even resemble barley half-peeled; these, he +says, were reported to be the remains of what the workmen ate, but which +does not appear probable, &c. These lentils and barley are nothing but +petrified shells called by naturalists lentil stones. + +According to Misson, several sorts of these shell-fish are found in the +environs of Maestricht, especially towards the village of Zicken, or +Tichen, and at the little mountain called Huns. In the environs of +Sienna, near Ceraldo, are many mountains of sand crammed with divers +sorts of shells. Montemario, a mile from Rome, is entirely filled with +them; I have seen them in the Alps, France, and elsewhere. Olearius, +Steno, Cambden, Speed, and a number of other authors, as well ancient as +modern, relate the same phenomena. + +"The island of Cerigo, says Thevenot, was anciently called Porphyris, +from the quantity of Porphyry which was taken out of it[240:A]. + +"Opposite the village of Inchene, and on the eastern shore of the Nile, +I found petrified plants, which grow naturally in a space about two +leagues long, by a very moderate breadth; this is one of the most +singular productions of nature. These plants resemble the white coral +found in the Red Sea[240:B]." + +"There are petrifications of divers kinds on Mount Libanus, and among +others flat stones, where the skeletons of fish are found well preserved +and entire; red chesnuts and small branches of coral, the same as grow +in the Red Sea, are also found on this mountain." + +"On Mount Carmel we find a great quantity of hollow stones, which have +something of the figure of melons, peaches, and other fruits, which are +said to be so petrified: they are commonly sold to pilgrims, not only as +mere curiosities, but also as remedies against many disorders. The +olives which are the _lapides jadaici_, are to be met with at the +druggists, and have always been looked upon, when dissolved in the +juice of lemon, as a specific for the stone and gravel." + +"M. la Roche, a physician, gave me some of these petrified olives, which +grew in great plenty in these mountains, where I am told are found other +stones, the inside of which perfectly resemble the natural parts of men +and women. These are Hysterolithes." + +"In going from Smyrna to Tauris, when we were at Tocat, says Tavernier, +the heat was so great, as obliged us to quit the common road, and go by +the mountains, where there is constantly shade and refreshing air. In +many places we found snow and a quantity of very fine sorrel, and on the +top of some of those mountains we found shells like those upon the sea +shores, which was very extraordinary." + +Here follows what Olearius says on the subject of petrified shells, +which he remarked in Persia, and in the rocks where the sepulchres are +cut out, near to the village of Pyrmaraus: + +"We were three in company that ascended to the top of the rock by the +most frightful precipices, mutually assisting each other; having gained +the summit, we found four large chambers, and within many niches cut in +the rocks to serve for beds: but what the most surprised us was to find +in this vault, on the top of the mountain, muscle shells; and in some +places they were in such great quantities, that the whole rock appeared +to be composed only of sand and shells. Returning to Persia, we +perceived many of these shelly mountains along the coast of the Caspian +sea." + +To these I could subjoin many other authorities which I suppress, not +willing to tire those who have no need of superabundant proofs, and who +are convinced by their sight, as I have been, of the existence of shells +wherever we chuse to seek for them. + +In France, we not only find the shells of the French coast, but also +such as have never been seen in those seas. Some philosophers assert, +that the quantity of these foreign petrified shells is much greater than +those of our climate; but I think this opinion unfounded; for, +independent of the shell-fish which inhabit the bottom of the sea, and +are seldom brought up by the fishermen, and which consequently may be +looked on as foreigners, although they exist in our seas, I see, by +comparing the petrifactions with the living analagous animals, there +are more of those of our coasts than of others: for example, most of the +cockles, muscles, oysters, ear-shells, limpets, nautili, stars, +tubulites, corals, madrepores, &c. found in so many places, are +certainly the productions of our seas; and though a great number appear +which are foreign or unknown, the cornu ammonis, the lapides juduica, +&c. yet I am convinced, from repeated observations, that the number of +these kinds is small in comparison with the shells of our own coasts: +besides, what composes the bottom of almost all our marble and +lime-stone but madrepores, astroites, and all those other productions +which are formed by sea insects, and formerly called marine plants? +Shells, however abundant, form only a small part of these productions, +many of which originate in our seas, and particularly in the +Mediterranean. + +The Red sea produces corals, madrepores, and marine plants in the +greatest abundance: no part furnishes a greater variety than the port of +Tor; in calm weather so great a quantity present themselves, that the +bottom of the sea resembles a forest; some of the branched madrepores +are eight or ten feet high. In the Mediterranean sea, at Marseilles, +near the coasts of Italy and Sicily; in most of the gulphs of the +ocean, around islands, on banks, and in all temperate climates, where +the sea is but of a moderate depth, they are very common. + +M. Peyssonel was the first who discovered that corals, madrepores, &c. +owed their origin to animals, and were not plants as had been supposed. +The observation of M. Peyssonel was a long time doubted; some +naturalists, at first, rejected it with a kind of disdain, nevertheless +they have been obliged since to acknowledge its truth, and the whole +world is at length satisfied that these formerly supposed marine plants, +are nothing but hives or cells formed by insects, in which they live as +fish do in their shells. These bodies were, at first, placed in the +class of minerals, then passed into that of vegetables, and now remain +fixed in that of animals, the genuine operations of which they must ever +be considered. + +There are shell-fish which live at the bottom of the sea, and which are +never cast on the shore; authors call them Pelogiæ, to distinguish them +from the others which they call Litterales. It is to be supposed the +cornu ammonis, and some other kinds that are only found in a petrified +state, belong to the former, and that they were filled with the stony +sediment in the very places they are found. There might also have been +certain animals, whose species are perished, and of which number this +shell-fish might be ranked. The extraordinary fossil bones found in +Siberia, Canada, Ireland, and many other places, seem to confirm this +conjecture, for no animal has hitherto been discovered to whom such +bones could belong, as they are, for the most part, of an enormous size. + +These shells, according to Woodward, are met with from the top to the +bottom of quarries, pits, and at the bottom of the deepest mines of +Hungary. And Mr. Ray assures us, they are found a thousand feet deep in +the rocks which border the isle of Calda, and in Pembrokeshire in +England. + +Shells are not only found in a petrified state, at great depths, and at +the tops of the highest mountains, but there are some met with in their +natural condition, and which have the gloss, colours, and lightness of +sea-shells; and to convince ourselves entirely of this matter, we have +only to compare them with those found on the sea shores. A slight +examination will prove that these fossil and petrified shells are the +same as those of the sea; they are marked with the same articulations +and in the glossopetri, and other teeth of fishes, which are sometimes +found adhering to the jaw-bone, the teeth of the fish are remarked to be +smooth and worn at the extremities, and that they have been made use of +when the animals were alive. + +Almost every where on land we meet with fossil-shells, and of those of +the same kind, some are small, others large, some young, others old; +some imperfect, others extremely perfect and we likewise sometimes see +the young ones adhering to the old. + +The shell-fish called _purpura_ has a long tongue, the extremity of +which is bony, and so sharp, that it pierces the shells of other fish; +by which means it draws nutriment from them. Shells pierced in this +manner are frequently found in the earth, which is an incontestible +proof that they formerly inclosed living fish, and existed in those +parts where there were the Purpura. + +The obelisks of St. Peter's at Rome, according to John of Latran, were +said to come from the pyramids of Egypt; they are of red granite, which +is a kind of rock-stone, and, as we have observed, contains no shells; +but the African and Egyptian marble, and the porphyry said to have been +cut from the temple of Solomon, and the palaces of the kings of Egypt, +and used at Rome in different buildings, are filled with shells. Red +porphyry is composed of an infinite number of prickles of the species of +echinus, or sea chesnut; they are placed pretty near each other, and +form all the small white spots which are in the porphyry. Each of these +white spots has a black one in its centre, which is the section of the +longitudinal tube of the prickles of the echinus. At Fichen, three +leagues from Dijon, in Burgundy, is a red stone perfectly similar in its +composition to porphyry, and which differs from it only in hardness, not +being more so than marble; it appears almost formed of prickles of the +echini, and its beds are of a very great extent. Many beautiful pieces +of workmanship have been made of it in this province, and particularly +the steps of the pedestal of the equestrian statue of Louis le Grand, at +Dijon. + +This species of stone is also found at Montbard, in Burgundy, where +there is an extensive quarry; it is not so hard as marble, contains more +of the echini, and less of the red matter. From this it appears that +the ancient porphyry of Egypt differs only from that of Burgundy in the +degree of hardness, and the number of the points of the echini. + +With respect to what the curious call green porphyry, I rather suppose +it to be a granite than a porphyry; it is not composed of spots like the +red porphyry, and its substance appears to be similar to that of a +common granite. In Tuscany, in the stone with which the ancient walls of +Volatera were built, there are a great quantity of shells, and this wall +was built 2500 years ago. Most marbles, porphyries, and other stones of +the most ancient buildings, contain shells and other wrecks of marine +productions, as well as the marble we at present take from the quarry; +therefore it cannot be doubted, independent even of the sacred testimony +of holy writ, that before the deluge the earth was composed of the same +materials at it is at present. + +From all these facts it is plain that petrified shells are found in +Europe, Asia, Africa, and in every place where the observations have +been made; they are also found in America, in the Brasils; for example, +in Tucumama, in Terra Magellinica, and in such a great quantity in the +Antilles, that directly below the cultivable land, the bottom of which +the inhabitants call lime, is nothing but a composition of shells, +madrepores, astroites, and other productions of the sea. These facts +would have made me think that shells and other petrified marine +productions were to be found in the greatest part of the continent of +America, and especially in the mountains, as Woodward asserts; but M. +Condamine, who lived several years at Peru, has assured me he could not +discover any in the Cordeliers, although he had carefully sought for +them. This exception would be singular, and the consequences that might +be drawn from it would be still more so; but I own that, in spite of the +testimony of this celebrated naturalist, I am much inclined to suppose, +that in the mountains of Peru, as well as elsewhere, there are shells +and other marine petrifications, although they have not been discovered. +It is well known, that in matter of testimonies, two positive witnesses, +who assert to have seen a thing, is sufficient to make a complete proof; +whereas ten thousand negative witnesses, and who can only assert not to +have seen a thing, can only raise a slight doubt. This reason, united +with the strength of analogy, induces me to persist in thinking the +shells will be found on the mountains of Peru, especially if we search +for them on the rise of the mountain, and not at the summit. + +The tops of the highest mountains are generally composed of rock, stone +granite, and other vitrifiable matters, which contain no shells. + +All these matters were formed out of the beds of the sand of the sea, +which covered the tops of these mountains. When the sea left them, the +sand and other light bodies were carried by the waters into the plains, +so that there remained only rocks on the tops of the mountains, which +had been formed under those beds of sand. At two, three, or four hundred +fathoms below the tops of these mountains, are often found marble and +other calcinable matter, which are disposed in parallel strata, and +contain shells and other marine productions; therefore it is not +surprising that M. de la Condamine did not find any shells on these +mountains, especially if he sought for them in the elevated parts of +those mountains which are composed of rock, free-stone, or vitrifiable +sand; but had he examined the lower parts of the Cordeliers, he would +undoubtedly have found strata of stone, marble, earth, &c. mixed with +shells; for in every country where observations have been made, such +beds have always been met with. + +But suppose that in fact there are no marine productions in the +mountains of Peru, all that may be concluded from it will no ways affect +our theory; and it might be possible, that there are some parts of the +globe which never were covered with water, especially of such elevation +as the Cordeliers. But in this case there might be some curious +observations made on those mountains, for they would not be composed of +parallel strata, the materials also would be very different from those +we are acquainted with; they would not have perpendicular cracks; the +composition of the rocks and stones would not at all resemble those of +other countries; and lastly, in these mountains we should find the +ancient structure of the earth such as it originally was before it was +changed by the motion of the waters; we should see the first state of +the globe, the old matters of which it was composed, its form, and the +natural arrangement of its parts; but this is too much to expect, and on +too slight foundations; and it is more conformable to reason to conclude +that fossil-shells are to be found in those mountains, as well as in +every other place. + +With respect to the manner in which shells are placed in the strata of +earth or sand, Woodward says, "All shells that are met with in an +infinity of strata of earth, and banks of rocks, in the highest +mountains, and in the deepest quarries and mines, in flints, &c. &c. in +masses of sulphur, marcasites, and other metallic and mineral bodies, +are filled with similar substances to that which includes them, and +never any heterogeneous matter, &c. + +"In the sand stones of all countries (the specific weight of the +different kinds of which vary but little, being generally with respect +to water as 2-1/2 or 9/16 to 1), we find only the conchae, and other +shells which are nearly of the same weight, but they are usually found +in very great numbers, whereas it is very rare to meet with +oyster-shells (whose specific weight is but as 2-1/3 to 1), or sea +cockles (whose weight is but as 2 or 2-1/8 to 1), or other sorts of +lighter shells; but on the contrary in chalk, (which is lighter than +stone, being to water but as 2-1/10 to 1), we find only cockles and +other kinds of lighter shells, page 32, 33." + +It must be remarked, that what Woodward says in this place with respect +to specific gravity, must not be looked upon as a general rule, for we +find lighter and heavier shells in the same matters; for example, shells +of cockles, of oysters, of echini, &c. are found in the same stones and +earth; and even in the royal cabinet may be seen a petrified cockle in a +cornelian, and echini petrified in an agate, &c. therefore the specific +weight of the shells has not influenced so much as Woodward supposes +their position in the earth. The reason why such light shells are found +more abundantly in chalk is, that chalk is only the ruinated part of +shells, and that those of the echini being lighter and thinner than +others, would have been most easily reduced into powder or chalk, so +that the strata of chalk are only met with in the places where formerly +a great abundance of these light shells were collected, the destruction +of which formed that chalk, in which we find those shells, which having +resisted the frictions, are preserved entire, or at least in parts large +enough to discover their species. + +But this subject is treated more fully in our discourse on minerals; we +shall here content ourselves with saying, that a modification must be +given to Woodward's expressions: he seems to say, that shells are found +in flints, cornelians, in ores, and sulphur, as often, and in as great +a number as in other matters; whereas the truth is, that they are very +rare in all vitrifiable or purely inflammable substances; and, on the +contrary, are in prodigious abundance in chalk, marl, and marbles, +insomuch that we cannot absolutely pretend to say, that the lightest and +heaviest shells are found in corresponding strata, but only that in +general they are oftener found so than otherwise. They are all filled +with the substance which surrounds them, whether found in horizontal +strata or in perpendicular fissures, because both have been formed by +the waters, although at different times and in different manners. Those +found in horizontal strata of stone, marble, &c. have been deposited by +the motion of the waves of the sea, and those in flints, cornelians, and +all matters which are in the perpendicular fissures, have been produced +by the particular motion of a small quantity of water, loaded with +lapidific or metallic substances. In both cases these matters were +reduced into a fine and impalpable powder, which has filled the shells +so fully and absolutely, as not to have left the least vacuum. + +There is therefore in stone, marble, &c. a great multitude of shells +which are whole, beautiful, and so little changed, that they may be +easily compared with the shells preserved in cabinets, or found on the +sea shores. + +Woodward, in pages 23 and 24, proceeds, "There are, besides these, great +multitudes of shells contained in stones, &c. which are entire and +absolutely free from any such mineral mixture; which may be compared +with those at this time seen on our shores, and which will be found not +to have any difference, being precisely of the same figure and size; of +the same substance and texture as the peculiar matter which composes +them is the same, and is disposed and arranged in the same manner; the +direction of their fibres and spiral lines are the same, the composition +of the small lama formed by their fibres is the same in the one as the +other; we see in the same part vestigia of tendons, by means of which +the animal was fastened and joined to its shell; we see the same +tubercles, stria and pipes; in short, the whole is alike, whether within +or without the shell, in its cavity or on its convexity, in its +substance or on its superficies. In other respects these fossil +shell-fish are subject to the same common accidents as those of the sea; +for example, they sometimes grow to one another, the least are adherent +to the large; they have vermicular conduits; pearls are found therein, +and other similar matters which have been produced by the animal when it +inhabited its shell; and what is very considerable, their specific +gravity is exactly the same as that of their kind found actually in the +sea; in all chymical experiments they answer exactly with sea-shells; +when dissolved they have the same appearance, smell and taste; in a +word, their resemblance is perfectly exact." + +I have often observed with astonishment, as I have already said, whole +mountains, chains of rocks, enormous banks of quarries, so full of +shells and other wrecks of marine productions, that their bulk surpassed +that of the matter in which they were deposited. + +I have seen cultivated fields so full of petrified cockles that a man +might pick them up with his eyes shut, others covered with cornu +ammonis, and some with cardites; and the more we examine the earth, the +more we shall be convinced that the number of these petrifications is +infinite, and conclude, that it is impossible that all the animals which +inhabited these shells existed at one time. + +I have made an observation, that in all countries where we find a very +great number of petrified shells in the cultivated lands which are +whole, well preserved, and totally apart, have been divided by the +action of the frost, which destroys the stone and suffers the petrified +shells to subsist a longer time. + +This immense quantity of marine fossils found in so many places, proves +that they could not have been transported thither by the deluge; for if +these shells had been brought on the earth by a deluge, the greatest +part would have remained on the surface of the earth, or at least would +not have entered to the depth of seven or eight hundred feet in the most +solid marble. + +In all quarries these shells form a share of the internal part of the +stone, sometimes externally covered with stalactites, which is much less +ancient matter than stone, which contains shells. Another proof this +happened not by a deluge is, that bones, horns, claws, &c. of land +animals, are found but very rarely, and not at all in marble and other +hard stone whereas if it was the effect of a deluge, where all must have +perished, we should meet with the remains of land animals as well as +those of the sea. + +It is a vain supposition to pretend that all the earth was dissolved at +the deluge, nor can we give any foundation to such idea, but by +supposing a second miracle, to give the water the property of a +universal dissolvent. Besides, what annihilates the supposition, and +renders it even contradictory, is, that if all matters were dissolved by +that water, yet shells have not been so, since we find them entire and +well preserved in all the masses which are said to have been dissolved; +this evidently proves that there never was such dissolution, and that +the arrangement of the parallel strata was not made in an instant, but +by successive sediments: for it is evident to all who will take the +trouble of observing, that the arrangement of all the materials which +compose the globe, is the work of the waters. The question therefore is +only whether this arrangement was made at once, or in a length of time: +now we have shewn it could not be done all at once, because the +materials have not kept the order of specific weight, and there has not +been a general dissolution; therefore this arrangement must have been +produced by sediments deposited in succession of time; any other +revolution, motion, or cause, would have produced a very different +arrangement. Besides, particular revolutions, or accidental causes, +could not have produced a similar effect on the whole globe. + +Let us see what the historian of the Academy says on this subject anno +1718, p. 3. "The numerous remains of extensive inundations, and the +manner in which we must conceive mountains to have been formed, +sufficiently proves that great revolutions have happened to the surface +of the earth. As far as we have been able to penetrate we find little +else but ruins, wrecks, and vast bodies heaped up together and +incorporated into one mass, without the smallest appearance of order or +design. If there is some kind of regular organization in the terrestrial +globe it is deeper than we have been able to examine, and all our +researches must terminate in digging among the ruins of the external +coat, but which will still find sufficient employment for our +philosophers. + +"M. de Jussieu found in the environs of St. Chaumont a great quantity of +slaty or foliated stones, every foliage of which was marked with the +impression of a branch, a leaf, or the fragment of a leaf of some plant: +the representations of leaves were exactly extended, as if they had been +carefully spread on the stone by the hand; this proves they had been +brought thither by the water, which always keeps leaves in that state: +they were in different situations, sometimes two or three together. It +may easily be supposed that a leaf deposited by water upon soft mud, and +afterwards covered with another layer of mud, imprints on the upper the +image of one of its two surfaces, and on the under the image of the +other; and on being hardened and petrified would appear to have taken +different impressions; but, however natural this supposition may be, the +fact is not so, for the two laminæ of stone bear impressions of the same +side of the leaf, the one in alto, the other in bas releaf. It was M. +Jussieu who made these observations on the figured stones of St. +Chaumont; to him we shall leave the explication, and pass to objects +which are more general and interesting. + +"All the impressions on the stones of St. Chaumont are of foreign +plants; they are not to be found in any part of France, but only in the +East Indies or the hot climates of America; they are for the most part +capillary plants, generally of the species of fern, whose hard and +compact coat renders them more able to imprint and preserve themselves. +Some leaves of Indian plants imprinted on the stones of Germany appeared +astonishing to M. Leibnitz, but here we find the same wonderful affair +infinitely multiplied. There even seems in this respect to be an +unaccountable destination of nature, for in all the stones of St. +Chaumont not a single plant of the country has been found. + +"It is certain, by the number of fossil-shells in the quarries and +mountains, that this country, as well as many others, must have formerly +been covered with the sea. But how has the American or Indian sea +reached thither? To explain this, and many other wonderful phenomena, it +may be supposed, with much probability, that the sea originally covered +the whole terrestrial globe: but this supposition will not hold good, +because how were terrestrial plants to exist? It evidently, therefore, +must have been great inundations which have conveyed the plants of one +country into the others. + +"M. de Jussieu thinks, that as the bed of the sea is continually rising, +in consequence of the mud and sand which the rivers incessantly convey +there, the sea, at first confined between natural dykes, surmounted +them, and was dispersed over the land, and that the dykes were +themselves undermined by the waters and overthrown therein. In the +earliest time of the formation of the earth, when no one thing had taken +a regular form, prodigious and sudden revolutions might then have been +made, of which we no longer have examples, because the whole is now in +such a permanent state, that the changes must be inconsiderable and by +degrees. + +"By some of these great revolutions the East and West Indian seas may +have been driven to Europe, and carried with them foreign plants +floating on its waters, which they tore up in their road, and deposited +gently in places where the water was but shallow and would soon +evaporate." + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[220:A] Anno 1720; page 5. + +[227:A] A kind of soft gravelly stone. + +[233:A] On this subject see Stenon, Ray, Woodward, and others. + +[234:A] See Shaw's Voyages, Vol. ii, pages 40 and 41. + +[237:A] See Shaw's Travels. + +[240:A] Thevenot, Vol. I, page 25. + +[240:B] Voyage of Paul Lucus, Vol. II, page 380. + + + + +ARTICLE IX. + +ON THE INEQUALITIES OF THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH. + + +The inequalities which are on the surface of the earth, and which might +be regarded as an imperfection to its figure, are necessary to preserve +vegetation and life on the terrestrial globe. To be assured of this, it +is only requisite to conceive what the earth would be if it was even and +regular. Instead of agreeable hills, from whence pure streams of waters +flow, to support the verdure of the earth; instead of those rich and +flourishing meadows, where plants and animals find agreeable +subsistence; a dismal sea would cover the whole globe, and the earth, +deprived of all its valuable qualities, would only remain an obscure and +forsaken planet, at best only destined for the abode of fishes. + +But independent of moral considerations, which seldom form a proof in +philosophy, there is a physical necessity why the earth must be +irregular on its surface; for supposing it was perfectly regular in its +origin, the motion of the waters, the subterraneous fires, the wind, and +other external causes, would, in course of time, have necessarily +produced irregularities similar to those now seen. + +The greatest inequalities next to the elevations of mountains, are the +depths of the ocean; this depth is very different even at great +distances from land; it is said there are parts above a league deep, but +those are few, and the most general depths are from 60 to 150 fathoms. +The gulphs bordering on the coasts are much less deep, and the straits +are generally the most shallow. + +To sound the depths of the sea, a piece of lead of 30 or 40lb. is made +use of, fastened to a small cord; this is a good method for common +depths, but is not to be depended upon when the depth is considerable; +because the cord being specifically lighter than the water, after it has +descended to a certain degree, the weight of the lead and that of the +cord is no more than a like volume of water; then the lead descends no +longer, but moves in an oblique line, and floats at the same depth: to +sound great depths, therefore, an iron chain is requisite, or some +substance heavier than water. It is very probable that for want of +considering this circumstance, navigators tell us that the sea in many +places has no bottom. + +In general, the profundities in open seas increase or diminish in a +pretty uniform manner, and commonly the farther from shore the greater +the depth; yet this is not without exception, there are places in the +midst of the sea where shoals are found, as at Abrolhos in the Atlantic; +and others where there are banks of a very considerable extent, as are +daily experienced by the navigators to the East Indies. + +So likewise along shore the depths are very unequal, nevertheless we may +lay it down as a certain rule, that the depth there is always +proportionate to the height of that shore. It is the same in great +rivers, where the high shores always announce a great depth. + +It is more easy to measure the heights of mountains, whether by means of +practical geometry, or by the barometer. This instrument gives the +height of a mountain very exactly, especially in a country where its +variation is not considerable, as at Peru, and under the other parts of +the equator. By one or other of these methods, the height of most +eminences has been measured; for example, it has been found that the +highest mountains of Switzerland are about 1600 fathoms higher than +Canigau, which is one of the most elevated of the Pyrennees; those +mountains appear to be the highest in Europe, since a great quantity of +rivers flow from them, which carry their water into very remote and +different seas, as the Po, which flows into the Adriatic; the Rhine, +which loses itself in the sands in Holland; the Rhone, which falls into +the Mediterranean; and the Danube, which goes to the Black Sea. These +four rivers, whose mouths are so remote from each other, all derive a +part of their waters from Mount Saint Godard and the neighbouring +mountain, which proves that this place is the highest in all Europe. +The highest mountains in Asia are Mount Taurus, Mount Imaus, Caucasus, +and the mountains of Japan, all which are loftier than those of Europe; +the mountains in Africa, as the Great Atlas, and the mountains of the +Moon, are at least as high as those in Asia, and the highest of all are +in South America, particularly those of Peru, which are more than 3000 +fathoms above the level of the sea. In general the mountains between the +tropics are loftier than those of the temperate zones, and these more +than the frigid zones, so that the nearer we approach the equator, the +greater are the inequalities of the earth. These inequalities, although +very considerable with respect to us, are scarcely any thing when +considered with respect to the whole globe. Three thousand fathom +difference to 3000 leagues diameter, is but one fathom to a league, or +one foot to 2200 feet, which on a globe of 2-1/2 feet diameter, does not +make the 16th part of a French line. Thus the earth, which appears to us +crossed and intersected by the enormous height of mountains, and by a +frightful depth of sea, is nevertheless, relative to its size, but +slightly furrowed with irregularities, so very trifling, that they can +cause no difference to the general figure of the globe. In continents +the mountains are continued and form chains. In islands, they are more +interrupted, and generally raised above the sea, in the forms of cones +or pyramids, and are called peaks. The peak of Teneriffe, in the island +of Fer, is one of the highest mountains on the earth; it is near a +league and a half perpendicular above the level of the sea; the peak of +St. George, in one of the Azores, and the peak of Adam, in the island of +Ceylon, are also very lofty. These peaks are composed of rocks, heaped +one upon the other, and they vomit from their summits fire, cinders, +bitumen, minerals, and stones. There are islands which are only tops of +mountains, as of St. Helena, Ascension, most of the Azores, and +Canaries. We must remark, that in most of the islands, promontories, and +other projecting lands in the sea, the middle is always the highest; and +they are generally separated by chains of mountains, which divide them +in their greatest length, as (Gransbain) the Grampian mountains in +Scotland, which extend from east to west, and divide Great Britain into +two parts. It is the same with the islands of Sumatra, Lucca, Borneo, +Celebes, Cuba, St. Domingo, and the peninsula of Malaya, &c. and also +Italy, which is traversed through its whole length by the Apennine +mountains. + +Mountains, as we find, differ greatly in height; the hills are lowest, +after them come the mountains of a moderate height, which are followed +by a third rank still higher, which, like the preceding, are generally +loaded with trees and plants, but which furnish no springs except at +their bottoms. In the highest mountains we find only sand, stones, +flints, and rocks, whose summits often rise above the clouds. Exactly at +the foot of these rocks there are small spaces, plains, hollows, and +kinds of vallies, where the rain, snow, and ice remain, and form ponds, +morasses, and springs, from whence rivers derive their origin. + +The form of mountains is also very different: some form chains whose +height is nearly equal in a long extent of soil, others are divided by +deep vallies; some are regular, and others as irregular as possible; and +sometimes in the middle of a valley or plain, we find a little mountain. +There are also two sorts of plains, the one in the low lands, the other +in mountains. The first are generally divided by some large river: the +others, though of a very considerable extent, are dry, and at farthest +have only a small rivulet. These plains on mountains are often very +high, and difficult of access; they form countries above other +countries, as in Auvergne, Savoy, and many other high places: the soil +is firm, and produces much grass, and odoriferous plants, which render +these plains the best pasture in the world. + +The summits of high mountains are composed of rocks of different +heights, which resemble from a distance the waves of the sea. It is not +on this observation alone we can rely that the mountains have been +formed by the waves, I only relate it because it accords with the rest: +but that which evidently proves that the sea once covered and formed +mountains, are the shells and other marine productions found throughout +in such great quantities, that it is not possible for them to have been +transported by the sea into such remote continents, and deposited to +such considerable depths; to this may be added, the horizontal and +parallel strata every where met with, and which can only have been +formed by the waters. The composition even of the hardest matters, as +stone and marble, prove they had been reduced into fine powder before +their formation, and precipitated to the bottom of the water in form of +a sediment: it is also proved by the exactness with which fossil-shells +are moulded in those matters in which they are found; the inside of +these shells are absolutely filled with the same matters as that in +which they are enclosed; the corresponding angles of mountains and +hills, which no other cause than the currents of the sea could have been +able to form; the equality in the height of opposite hills, and beds of +different matters, formed at the same levels, and, in short, the +direction of mountains, whose chains extend in length in the same +direction as the waves of the sea extend, incontestibly demonstrate the +fact. + +With respect to the depths on the surface of the earth, the greatest, +without contradiction, are the depths of the sea; but as they do not +present themselves to our sight, and as we can only judge of them by the +plumb line, we shall only speak of those which appear on dry land, such +as the deep vallies between mountains, the precipices between rocks, the +abysses perceived from the tops of mountains, as the abyss of Mount +Ararat, the precipices of the Alps, the vallies of the Pyrennees, &c. +These depths are a natural consequence of the elevation of mountains; +they receive the waters and the earth which flow from the mountains, and +the soil is generally very fertile, and are fully inhabited. + +The precipices which are between rocks are frequently formed by the +sinking of one side, the base of which sometimes gives way more on one +side than the other, by the action of the air and frost, which splits +and divides them, or by the impetuous violence of torrents. But these +abysses, or vast and enormous precipices, found at the summits of +mountains, and to the bottom of which it is not possible sometimes to +descend, although they are above a mile, or a mile and a half round, +have been formed by the fire. These were formerly the funnels of +volcanos, and all the matter which is there deficient has been ejected +by the action and explosion of these fires, which are since extinguished +through a defect of combustible matter. The abyss of Mount Ararat, of +which M. Tournefort gives a description in his voyage to the Levant, is +surrounded with black and burnt rocks, as one day the abysses of Etna, +Vesuvius, and other volcanos, will be, when they have consumed all the +combustible matters they include. + +In Plots' Natural History of Staffordshire, in England, a kind of gulph +is spoken of which has been sounded to the depth of 2600 perpendicular +feet without meeting with any water, or the bottom being found, as the +rope was not of sufficient length to reach it. + +Greatest cavities and deepest mines are generally in mountains, and they +never descend to a level with the plains, therefore by these cavities we +are only acquainted with the inside of a mountain, and not with the +internal part of the globe itself. + +Besides, these depths are not very considerable. Ray asserts that the +deepest mines are not above half a mile deep. The mine of Cotteberg, +which in the time of Agricola passed for the deepest of all known mines, +was only 2500 feet perpendicular. It is evident there are holes in +certain places, as that in Staffordshire, or Pool's Hole, in Derbyshire, +the depth of which is perhaps greater; but all this is nothing in +comparison with the thickness of the globe. + +If the kings of Egypt, instead of having erected pyramids, and raised +such sumptuous monuments of their riches and vanity, had been at the +same expence to sound the earth, and make a deep excavation to the depth +of a league, they, perhaps, might have found substances which would have +amply recompensed the trouble, labour, and expence, or at least we +should have received information on the matters of which the internal +part of the globe is composed, which might have been very useful, and +which we at present have not. + +But let us return to the mountains; the highest are in the southern +countries, and the nearer we approach the equator, the more inequalities +we find on the surface of the globe. This is easy to prove, by a short +enumeration of the mountains and islands. + +In America, the chain of the Cordeliers, the highest mountains of the +earth, is exactly under the equator, and extends on the two sides far +beyond the tropic circles. + +In Africa, the highest mountains of the Moon, and Monomotapa, the great +and the little Atlas, are under the equator, or not far from it. + +In Asia, Mount Caucasus, the chain of which extends under different +names as far as the mountains of China, is nearer the equator than the +poles. + +In Europe, the Pyrennees, the Alps, and mountains of Greece, which are +only the same chain, are still less distant from the equator than the +poles. + +Now these mountains which we have enumerated, are all higher, more +considerable and extended in length and breadth than the mountains of +the northern countries. + +With respect to their direction, the Alps form a chain which crosses the +whole continent from Spain to China. These mountains begin at the sea +coast of Galicia, reach to the Pyrennees, cross France, by Vivares, and +Auvergne, pass through Italy and extend into Germany, beyond Dalmatia, +as far as Macedonia; from thence they join with the mountains of +Armenia, Caucasus, Taurus, Imaus, and extend as far as the Tartarian +sea. So likewise Mount Atlas traverses the whole continent of Africa, +from west to east, from the kingdom of Fez to the Straits of the Red +Sea; and the mountains of the Moon have the same direction. + +But in America, the direction is quite contrary, and the chains of the +Cordeliers and other mountains extend from south to north more than from +east to west. + +What we have now said on the great eminences of the earth, may also be +observed on the greatest depths of the sea. The vast and highest seas +are nearer the equator than the poles; and there results from this +observation, that the greatest inequalities of the globe are in the +southern climate. These irregularities on the surface of the earth, are +the causes of an infinity of extraordinary effects: for example, between +the Indus and the Ganges, there is a large peninsula, which is divided +through its middle, by a chain of high mountains called the Gate, and +which extends from north to south, from the extremities of Mount +Caucasus to Cape Comorin; on one is the coast of Malabar, and the other +Coromandel; on the side of Malabar, between this chain of mountains and +the sea, the summer season lasts from September to April, during which +the sky is serene and dry; on the other side the Coromandel the above +period is their winter, and it rains every day plentifully and from the +month of April to the month of September is their summer, whereas it is +winter in Malabar; insomuch, that in many places, which are scarcely 20 +miles distant, we may, by crossing the mountains, change seasons. It is +said that the same thing takes place at Razalgat in Arabia, and at +Jamaica, which is divided through its middle by a chain of mountains, +whose direction is from east to west, and that the plantations to the +south of these mountains feel the summer heat, at the time those to the +north endure the rigor of winter. + +Peru, which is situated under the line, and extends about a thousand +leagues to the south, is divided into three long and narrow parts; these +the natives call Lanos, Sierras, and Andes. The Lanos, which comprehends +the plains, extends along the coast of the South Sea: the Sierras are +hills with some vallies, and the Andes are the famous Cordeliers, the +highest mountains that are known. The Lanos is about ten leagues in +breadth; in many places the Sierras are twenty leagues broad, and the +Andes in some places more and in some less. The breadth is from east to +west, and the length from north to south. This part of the world is +remarkable for the following particulars: first, in the Lanos the wind +almost constantly blows from the south-west, which is contrary to what +happens in the torrid zone: secondly, it never rains nor thunders in the +Lanos, although there is plenty of dew: thirdly, it almost continually +rains in the Andes: fourthly, in the Sierras, between the Lanos and the +Andes, it rains from September to April. + +It was for a long time supposed, that the chains of the high mountains +run from west to east, till the contrary was found in America. But no +person before M. Bourguet discovered the surprising regularity of the +structure of those great masses: he found (after having crossed the Alps +thirty times in fourteen different parts of it, twice over the Apennine +mountains, and made divers tours in the environs of these mountains, and +of Mount Jura) that all mountains are formed nearly after the manner of +works of a fortification. When the body of the mountain runs from east +to west, it forms prominences, which face the north and south; this +wonderful regularity is so striking in vallies, that we seem to walk in +a very regular covered way; if, for example, we travel in a valley from +north to south, we perceive that the mountain on the right forms +projections which front the east, and those of the mountain on the left +front the west, so that the saliant angles of one side reciprocally +answer the returning angles of the other, which are always alternatively +opposed to them. The angles which mountains form in great vallies are +less acute, because the direction is less steep, and they are farther +distant from each other. In plains they are not so perceptible, except +by the banks of rivers, which are generally in the middle of them, and +whose natural windings answer the most advanced angles or striking +projections of the mountains. It is astonishing so visible a thing was +so long unobserved, for when in a valley the inclination of one of the +mountains which border it is less steep than that of the other, the +river takes its course much nearer the steepest mountain, and does not +flow through its middle. + +To these observations we may join other particular ones, which confirm +them; for example, the mountains of Switzerland are much more steep, and +their direction much greater on the south side than on the north, and on +the west side than on the east. This may be perceived in the mountains +of Gemmi, Brisa, and almost every other mountain in this country. The +highest are those which separate Valesia and the Grisons from Savoy, +Piedmont, and Tirol. These countries are only a continuation of these +mountains, the chain of which extends to the Mediterranean, and +continues even pretty far under the sea. The Pyrennees are also only a +continuation of that vast mountain which begins in Upper Valesia, and +whose branches extend very far to the west and south, preserving +throughout the same great height; whereas on the side of the north and +of the east these mountains grow lower by degrees, till they become +plains; as we see by the large tract which the Rhine and Danube water +before they reach their mouths, whereas the Rhone descends with rapidity +towards the south into the Mediterranean. The same observation is found +to hold good in the mountains of England and Norway; but the part of the +world where this is most evidently seen is at Peru and Chili; the +Cordeliers are cut very sharply on the western side, the length of the +Pacific Ocean, whereas on the eastern side they lower by degrees into +large plains, watered by the greatest rivers of the world.[279:A] + +M. Bourguet, to whom we owe this great discovery of the correspondence +of the angles of mountains, terms it "_The Key of the Theory of the +Earth_;" nevertheless, it appears to me, that if he had conceived all +the importance of it, he would more successfully have made use of it, +by connecting it with suitable facts, and would have given a more +probable theory of the earth; whereas in his treatise he presents only +the skeleton of an hypothetical system, most of the conclusions of which +are false or precarious. The theory we have given turns on four +principal facts, which cannot be doubted, after the proofs have been +examined on which they are founded. The first is, that the earth is +every where, and to considerable depths, composed of parallel strata, +and matters which have formerly been in a state of softness: the second, +that the sea has for ages covered the earth which we now inhabit; the +third, that the tides and other motions of the waters produce +inequalities at the bottom of the sea; and the fourth, that the +mountains have taken their form and the correspondent direction from the +currents of the sea. + +After having read the proofs which the following articles contain, it +may be determined, whether I was wrong to assert, that these +circumstances solidly established also ascertains the truth of the +theory of the earth. What I have said on the formation of mountains has +no need of a more ample explanation; but as it might be objected that I +do not assign a reason for the formation of the peaks or points of +mountains, no more than for some other particular circumstances, shall +add the observations and reflections which I have made on this subject. + +I have endeavoured to form a clear and general idea of the manner in +which the different matters that compose the earth are arranged, and it +appears to me they may be reduced into two general classes; the first +includes all the matters we find placed in strata, or beds horizontally +or regularly inclined; and the second comprehends all matters formed in +masses, or in veins, either perpendicular or irregularly inclined. In +the first class are included sands, clays, granite, flints, free-stone, +coals, slates, marls, chalks, calcinable stones, marbles, &c. In the +second I rank metals, minerals, crystals, precious stones and small +flints: these two classes generally comprehend all the known materials +of the earth. The first owe their origin to the sediments carried away +and deposited by the sea, and should be distinguished into those which +being assayed in the fire, calcine and are reduced into lime, and those +which fuse and are convertible into glass. The materials of the second +class are all vitrifiable excepting those which the fire entirely +consumes by inflammation. + +In the first class we distinguish two kinds of sands; the one, which is +more abundant than any other matter of the globe, is vitrifiable, or +rather is only fragments of actual glass; the other, whose quantity is +much less, is calcinable, and must be looked upon as the powder of +stone, and which differs only from gravel by the size of the grains. The +vitrifiable sand is, in general, deposited in beds, which are often +interrupted by masses of free-stone, granite, and flint; and sometimes +these matters are also in banks of great extent. + +By examining these vitrifiable matters, we find only a few sea shells +there, and those not placed in beds, but dispersed about as if thrown +there by chance. For example, I have never seen them in free-stone; that +stone which is very plenty in certain places, is only composed of sandy +parts, which are re-united, and are only met with in sandy soils; and +the quarries of it are generally in peaked hills and in divided +eminences. We may work these quarries in all directions, and if they are +in large beds, they are much farther from each other than in quarries of +calcinable stone or marble. Blocks of free-stone may be cut of all +dimensions and in all directions, although it is difficult to work, it +nevertheless has but a degree of hardness sufficient to resist powerful +strokes without splitting; for friction easily reduces it into sand, +excepting certain black pieces found therein, and which are so very +hard, that the best files cannot touch them. Rock is vitrifiable as +free-stone, and of the same nature, only it is harder and the parts more +connected. This also contains many hard pieces, as may easily be +remarked on the summits of high mountains, which cut and tear the shoes +of travellers. This rocky stone, which is found at the top of high +mountains, and which I look upon as a kind of granite, contains a great +quantity of talky leaves, and is so hard as not to be worked but by an +infinite deal of labour. + +I have narrowly examined these sharp pieces which are found in +free-stone and rock, and have discovered it to be a metallic matter, +melted and calcined by a very violent fire, and which perfectly +resembles certain substances thrown out by the volcanos, of which I saw +a great quantity when I was in Italy, where the people called them +Schiarri. They are very heavy black masses, on which neither water nor +the file can make any impression, and the matter of which is different +from that of the lava; for this is a kind of glass, whereas the other +appears to be more metallic than vitreous. The sharp pieces in +free-stone, and rock, resemble greatly the first matter, which seems +still to prove that all these matters have been formerly liquified by +fire. + +We sometimes see on the upper parts of mountains, a prodigious quantity +of blocks of this mixed rock; their position is so irregular that they +appear to have been thrown there by chance, and it might be thought they +had fallen from some neighbouring height, if the places where they are +found were not raised above the other parts. But their vitrifiable +nature, and their angular and square figures, like those of free-stone, +discover them to be of one common origin. Thus in the great beds of +vitrifiable sand, blocks of free-stone and rock are formed, whose +figures and situations do not exactly follow the horizontal position of +these strata. The rain, by degrees, carried away from the summits of the +hills and mountains the sand which at first covered them, and then began +to furrow and cut those hills into the spaces which are found between +the nucleus in free-stone, as the hills of Fontainbleau are intersected. +Each hilly point answers to a nucleus in a quarry of free-stone, and +each interval has been excavated and loosened by the rain, which has +caused the sand, they at first contained, to flow into the vallies; so +likewise the highest mountains, whose summits are composed of rocks, and +terminated by these angular blocks of granite, have formerly been +covered with vitrifiable sand, and the rain having carried away the sand +which covered them, they remained on the tops of the mountains in the +position they were formed. These blocks generally present points; they +increase in size in proportion as they descend; one block often rests +upon another, the second upon a third, and so on, leaving irregular +intervals between them: and as in time the rain washed away all the sand +which covered these different parts on the top of the high mountains, +they would remain naked, forming larger or lesser points; and this is +the origin of the peaks or horns of mountains. + +For supposing, as it is easy to prove by the marine productions we find +there, that the chain of the Alps was formerly covered by the sea, and +that above this chain there was a great thickness of vitrifiable sand, +which rendered the whole mountains a flat and level country. In this +depth of sand, there would necessarily be formed granite, free-stone, +flint, and all matters which take their origin and figure in sand, +nearly in a similar manner to that of the crystallisation of salts. +These blocks once formed would support their original positions, after +the rains and torrents had carried away the sand which surrounded them, +and being left bare formed all those peaks or pointed eminences we see +in so many places. This is also the origin of those high and detached +rocks found in China and other countries, as in Ireland, where they are +called the Devil's stones, and whose formation as well as that of the +peaks of mountains, had hitherto appeared so difficult to explain; +nevertheless the explanation which I have given is so natural, that it +directly presents itself to the mind of those who examine these objects, +and I must here quote what Father Tatre says, "From Yanchu-in-yen, we +came to Hoytcheou, and on the road met with something particular, rocks +of an extraordinary height, of the shape of a large square tower, and +situate in the midst of vast plains: I cannot account for it, unless by +supposing they were formerly mountains, from which the rain having +washed away the earth that surrounded them, thus left the rocks entirely +bare. What strengthens this conjecture is, that we saw some which, +towards the base, are still covered with earth to a considerable +height." + +The summits of the highest mountains are composed of rocks, of granite, +free-stone, and other hard and vitrifiable matters, and this often as +deep as two or three hundred fathoms; below which we often meet with +quarries of marble, or hard stone, filled with fossil-shells, and whose +matter is calcinable; as may be remarked at Great Chartreuse, in +Dauphiny, and on Mount Cenis, where the stone and marble, which contains +shells, are some hundred fathoms below the summits, points and peaks of +high mountains; although these stones are more than a thousand fathom +above the level of the sea. Thus mountains, whereon we see points or +peaks, are generally vitrifiable rock, and those whose summits are flat, +mostly contain marble and hard stones filled with marine productions. It +is the same with respect to hills, for those containing granite, or +free-stone, are mostly intersected with points, eminences, cavities, +depths, and small intermediate valleys; on the contrary, those which +are composed of calcinable stone are nearly equal in height, and are +only interrupted by greater and more regular vallies, whose angles are +correspondent; and they are crowned with rocks whose position is regular +and level. + +Whatever difference may appear at first between these two species of +mountains, their forms proceed from the same cause, as we have already +observed; only it may be remarked, that the calcinable stones have not +undergone any alteration nor change since the formation of the +horizontal strata; whereas those of vitrifiable sand have been changed +and interrupted by the posterior production of rocks and angular blocks +formed within this sand. These two kinds of mountains have cracks which +are almost always perpendicular in those of calcinable stones; but those +of granite and free-stone appear to be a little more irregular in their +direction. It is in these cracks metal, minerals, crystals, sulphurs, +and all matters of the second class are found, and it is below these +cracks that the water collects to penetrate the earth, and form those +veins of water which are every where found below the surface. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[279:A] See Phil. Trans. Abr. Vol. VI. part ii. p. 153. + + + + +ARTICLE X. + +OF RIVERS. + + +We have before said that, generally speaking, the greatest mountains are +in islands and in the projections in the sea. That in the old continent +the greatest chains of mountains are directed from west to east, and +that those which incline towards the north or south are only branches of +these principal chains; we shall likewise find that the greatest rivers +are directed as the greatest mountains, and that there are but few which +follow the course of the branches of those mountains. To be assured of +this, we have only to look on a common globe, and trace the old +continent from Spain to China. We shall find, by beginning at Spain, +that the Vigo, Douro, Tagos, and Guadiana run from east to west, and the +Ebro from west to east, and that there is not one remarkable river whose +course is directed from south to north, or from north to south, although +Spain is entirely surrounded by the sea on the west side, and almost so +on the north. This observation on the directions of rivers in Spain not +only proves that the mountains in this country are directed from west to +east, but also that the southern lands, which border on the straits, are +higher than the coasts of Portugal; and on the northern coast, that the +mountains of Galicia, the Asturias, &c. are only a continuation of the +Pyrennees, and that it is this elevation of the country, as well north +as south, which does not permit the rivers to run into the sea that way. + +It will also be seen, by looking on the map of France, that there is +only the Rhone which runs from north to south, and nearly half its +course, from the mountains to Lyons, is directed from the east towards +the west; but that on the contrary all the other great rivers, as the +Loir, the Charantee, the Garonne, and even the Seine, have a direction +from east to west. + +It will be likewise perceived, that in Germany there is only the Rhine, +which like the Rhone shapes the greatest part of its course from north +to south, but that the others, as the Danube, the Drave, and all the +great rivers which fall into them, flow from the west to east into the +Black Sea. + +It will be perceived that this Black Sea, which should rather be +considered as a great lake, has almost three times more extent from east +to west than from north to south, and consequently its direction is +similar to the rivers in general. It is the same with the Mediterranean, +whose length from east to west is about six times greater than from +north to south. + +The Caspian Sea, according to the chart drawn by the order of Czar Peter +I. has more extent from the south to the north than from east to west; +whereas in the ancient charts it appears almost round, or rather more +broad from east to west than from south to north; but if we consider the +lake Aral as a part of the Caspian Sea, from which it is separated only +by plains of sand, we shall find the length is from the western coast of +the Caspian Sea as far as the greatest border of Lake Aral. + +So likewise the Euphrates, the Persian gulph, and almost all the rivers +in China run from west to east; all the rivers in Africa beyond Barbary +flow from east to west, or from west to east, and there are only the +rivers of Barbary and the Nile which flow from south to north. There +are, in fact, great rivers in Asia which partly run from north to +south, as the Wolga, the Don, &c. but by taking the whole length of +their course, we find, that they only turn from the south to run into +the Black and Caspian seas, which are only inland lakes. + +It may therefore in general be said, that in Europe, Asia, and Africa, +the rivers, and other mediterranean waters, extend more from east to +west than from north to south, which proceeds from the chains of +mountains being for the most part so directed, and that the whole +continent of Europe and Asia is broader in this direction than the +other; for there are two modes of considering the direction of +mountains. In a long and narrow continent like South America, in which +there is only one principal chain of mountains which stretches from +south to north, the river not being confined by any parallel range, +necessarily runs perpendicular to the course of the mountains, that is +from east to west, or from west to east; in fact, it is in this +direction all the rivers of America flow. In the old as well as the new +continent most of the waters have their greatest extent from west to +east, and most of the rivers flow in this direction; but yet this +similar direction is produced by different causes; for instance, those +in the old continent flow from east to west, because they are bounded +by mountains whose direction is from west to east; whereas those in +America preserve the same course from there being only one chain of +mountains that extends from north to south. + +In general, rivers run through the centre of vallies, or rather the +lowest ground betwixt two opposite hills or mountains; if the two hills +have nearly an equal inclination, the river will be nearly in the middle +of the intermediate valley, let the valley be broad or narrow. On the +contrary, if one of the hills has a more steep inclination than the +other, the river will not be in the middle of the valley, but much +nearer the hill whose inclination is greatest, and that too in +proportion to the superiority of its declivity: in this case, the lowest +ground is not in the middle of the valley, but inclines towards the +highest hill, and which the river must necessarily occupy. In all places +where there is any considerable difference in the height of the +mountains, the rivers flow at the foot of the steepest hills, and follow +them throughout all their directions, never quitting their course while +they maintain the superiority of height. In the length of time, however, +the steepest hills are diminished by the rain acting upon them with a +greater degree of force, proportionate to their height, and consequently +carry away the sand and gravel in more considerable quantities, and with +greater violence; the river is then constrained to change its bed, and +seek the lowest part of the valley: to this may be added, that as all +rivers overflow at times, they transport and deposit mud and sand in +different places, and that sands often accumulate in their own beds, and +cause a swell of the water, which changes the direction of its course. +It is very common to meet in vallies with a great number of old channels +of the river, particularly if it is subject to frequent inundations, and +carries off much sand and mud. + +In plains and large vallies, where there are great rivers, the beds are +generally the lowest part of the valley, but the surface of the water is +very often higher than the ground adjacent. For example, when a river +begins to overflow, the plain will presently be inundated to a +considerable breadth, and it will be observed that the borders of the +river will be covered the last; which proves that they are higher than +the rest of the ground, and that from the banks to a certain part of +the plain, there is an insensible inclination, so that the surface of +the water must be higher than the plain when the river is full. This +elevation on the banks of rivers proceeds from the deposit of the mud +and sand at the time of inundations. The water is commonly very muddy in +the great swellings of rivers; when it begins to overflow, it runs very +gently over the banks, and by depositing the mud and sand purifies +itself as it advances into the plain; so that all the soil which the +currents of the river does not carry along, is deposited on the banks, +which raises them by degrees above the rest of the plain. + +Rivers are always broadest at their mouths; in proportion as we advance +in the country, and are more remote from the sea, their breadth +diminishes; but what is more remarkable, in the inland parts they flow +in a direct line, and in proportion as they approach their mouths the +windings of their course increase. I have been informed by M. Fabry, a +sensible traveller, who went several times by land into the western part +of North America, that travellers, and even the savages, are seldom +deceived in the distance they are from the sea if they follow the bank +of a large river; when the direction of the river is straight for 15 or +20 leagues, they know themselves to be a great distance from the coast; +but, on the contrary, if the river winds, and often changes its +direction, they are certain of not being far from the sea. M. Fabry +himself verified this remark in his travels over that unknown and almost +uninhabited country. In large rivers there is a considerable eddy along +the banks, which is so much the more considerable as the river is less +remote from the sea, which may also serve as a guide to judge whether we +are at a great or short distance from the mouth; and as the windings of +rivers increase in proportion as they approach the sea, it is not +surprising that some of them should give way to the water, and be one +reason why great rivers generally divide into many arms before they gain +the sea. + +The motion of the waters in rivers is quite different from that supposed +by authors who attempt to give mathematical theories on this subject; +the surface of a river in motion is not level when taken from one bank +to the other, but according to circumstances the current in the middle +is considerably higher or lower than the water close to the banks; when +a river swells by a sudden melting of snow, or when by some other cause +its rapidity is augmented, if the direction of the river is straight, +the middle of the water where the current is rises, and the river forms +a convex curve, of a very sensible elevation. This elevation is +sometimes very considerable; M. Hupeau, an able engineer of bridges, +once measured the river Avieron, and found the middle was three feet +higher than near the bank. This, in fact, must happen every time the +water has a very great rapidity; the velocity with which it is carried, +diminishing the action of its weight in the middle of the current, so +that it has not time to sink to a level with that near shore, and +therefore remains higher. On the other hand, near the mouths, it often +happens that the water which is near the banks is higher than that of +the middle, although the current be ever so rapid. This happens wherever +the action of the tides is felt in a river, which in great ones often +sensibly extends as far as one or two hundred leagues from the sea; it +is also a well known fact that the current of a river preserves its +motion in the sea to a considerable distance; there is, in this case, +therefore, two contrary motions in a river; the middle, which forms the +current, precipitates itself towards the sea, and the action of the +tide forms a counter-current, which causes the water near the banks to +ascend, while that in the middle descends, and as then all the water +must be carried down by the current in the middle, that of the banks +continually descends thereto, and descends so much the more as it is +higher, and counteracted with more force by the tide. + +There are two kinds of ebbings in rivers; the first above-mentioned is a +strong power occasioned by the tide, which not only opposes the natural +motion of the river, but even forces a contrary and opposite current. +The other arises from an inactive cause, such as a projection of land, +an island, &c. This does not commonly occasion a very sensible +counter-current, yet it is sufficient to impede the progress of boats +and craft, and necessarily produces what is called a dead water, which +does not flow like the rest of the river, but whirls about in such a +manner that when boats are drawn therein they require great strength to +get them out. These dead waters are very perceptible at the arches of +bridges in rapid rivers. The velocity of the water increases in +proportion as the diameter of the channel through which it passes +diminishes, the impelling force being the same; the velocity of a +river, therefore, increases at the passage of a bridge, in an inverse +proportion of the breadth of the arches to the whole breadth of the +river; the rapidity being very considerable in coming through the arch, +it forces the water against the banks, from whence it is reflected with +such violence as to form dangerous eddies and whirlpools. In going +through the bridge St. Esprit, the men are forced to be careful not to +lose the stream, even after they are past the bridge, for if they suffer +the boat to go either to the right or left, it might be driven against +the shore, or forced into the whirling waters, which would be attended +with great danger. When this eddy is very considerable, it forms a kind +of small gulph, the middle of which appears hollow and to form a kind of +cylindrical cavity, around which the water whirls with rapidity: this +appearance of a cylindrical cavity is produced by the centrifugal force, +which causes the water to endeavour to remove itself from the centre of +the whirlpool. When a great swell of water happens, the watermen know it +by a particular motion; they then say the water at the bottom flows +quicker than common: this augmentation of rapidity at the bottom, +according to them, always announces a sudden rise of the water. The +motion and weight of the upper water communicates this motion to them; +for in certain respects we must consider a river as a pillar of water +contained in a tube, and the whole channel as a very long canal where +every motion must be communicated from one end to the other. Now, +independent of the motion of the upper waters, their weight alone might +cause the rapidity of the river to increase, and perhaps move it at +bottom; for it is known, that by putting many boats at one time into the +water, at that instant we increase the rapidity of the under part of the +river, as well as retard that of the upper. + +The rapidity of running waters does not exactly, nor even nearly, follow +the proportion of the declivity of their channels. One river whose +inclination is uniform and double that of another, ought, according to +appearance, to flow only as rapid again, but in fact it flows much +faster. Its rapidity, instead of being doubled, is sometimes triple, +quadruple, &c. This rapidity depends much more on the quantity of water +and the weight of the upper waters than on the declivity. When we are +desirous to hollow the bed of a river, we need not equally distribute +the inclination throughout its whole length, in order to give a greater +rapidity, as it is more easily effected by making the descent much +greater at the beginning, than at the mouth, where it may almost be +insensible, as we see it in natural rivers, and yet they preserve a +rapidity so much the greater as the river is fuller of water; in great +rivers, where the ground is level, the water does not cease flowing, and +even rapidly, not only with its original velocity, but also with the +addition of that which it has acquired by the action and weight of the +upper waters. To render this fact more conceivable, let us suppose the +Seine between the Pont-neuf and Pont-royal to be perfectly level, and +ten feet deep throughout: let us then suppose that the bed of the river +below Pont-royal and above Pont-neuf were left entirely dry, the water +would instantly run up and down the channel, and continue to do so until +it had recovered an equilibrium; for the weight of the water would keep +it in motion, nor would it cease flowing until its particles became +equally pressed and have sunk to a perfect level. The weight of water +therefore greatly contributes to its velocity, and this is the reason +that the greatest rapidity of the current is neither of the surface nor +at the bottom of the water, but nearly in the middle of its depth, being +pressed by the action of its weight at its surface, and by the re-action +from the bottom. Still more, if a river has acquired a great rapidity, +it will not only preserve it in passing a level country, but even +surmount an eminence without spreading much on either side, or at least +without causing any great inundation. + +We might be inclined to think that bridges, locks, and other obstacles +raised on rivers, considerably diminishes the celerity of the water's +course; nevertheless that occasions but little difference. Water rises +on meeting with any obstacle, and having surmounted it, the elevation +causes it to act with more rapidity in its fall, so that in fact it +suffers little or no diminution in its celerity, by these seeming +retardments. Sinuosities, projections, and islands, also but very little +diminish the velocity of the course of rivers. A considerable diminution +is produced by the sinking of the water, and, on the contrary, its +augmentation increases its velocity; thus if a river is shallow the +stream passes slowly along, and if deep with a proportionate rapidity. + +If rivers were always nearly of an equal fulness, the best means of +diminishing their rapidity, and confining them within their banks, would +be to enlarge their channel; but as almost all rivers are subject to +increase and diminish, to confine them we must retrench the channel, +because in shallow waters, if the channel is very broad, the water which +passes in the middle hollows a winding bed, and when it begins to swell +follows the direction it took in this particular bed, and striking +forcibly against the banks of the channel destroys them and does great +injuries. These effects of the water's fury might be prevented by +making, at particular distances, small gulphs in the earth; that is, by +cutting through one of these banks to a certain distance in the land. In +order that these gulphs might be advantageously placed, they should be +made in the obtuse angle of the river, for then the current of the water +in turning would run into them, and of course its velocity would be +diminished. This mode might be proper to prevent the fall of bridges in +places where it is not possible to make bars near the bridge which +sustain the action of the weight of the water. + +The manner in which inundations are occasioned merits peculiar +attention. When a river swells, the rapidity of the water always +increases till it begins to overflow the banks; at that instant the +velocity diminishes, which causes inundations to continue for several +days; for when even a less quantity of water comes after the overflowing +than before, the inundation will still be made, because it depends much +more on the velocity of the water than on the quantity; if it was not so +rivers would overflow for an hour or two and then return to their beds, +which never occurs; the inundations always remaining for several days; +whether the rain ceases, or a less quantity of water is brought, because +the overflowing has diminished the velocity, and consequently, although +the like quantity of water is no longer carried in the same time as +before, yet the effects are the same as if the greater quantity had come +there. It might be remarked on the occasion of this diminution, that if +a constant wind blows against the current of the river, the inundation +will be much greater than it would have been without this accidental +cause, which diminishes the celerity of the water; on the contrary, if +the wind blows in the same directions with the current, the inundation +will be much less, and will more speedily decline. + +"The swelling of the Nile, says M. Granger, and its inundations, has a +long time employed the learned; most of them have looked upon it as +marvellous, although nothing can be more natural, and is every day to be +seen in every country throughout the world. It is the rains which fall +in Abyssinia and Ethiopia which cause the swelling and inundation of +that river, though the north wind must be regarded as the principal +cause. 1. Because the north wind drives the clouds which contain this +rain into Abyssinia. 2. Because, blowing against the mouths of the Nile, +it causes the waters to return against the stream, and thus prevents +them from running out in any great quantity: this circumstance may be +every season observed, for when the wind, being at the north, suddenly +veers to the south, the Nile loses in one day more than it gathers in +four." + +Inundations are generally greatest in the upper part of rivers, because +the velocity of a river continues always increasing until it arrives at +the sea, for the reasons we have related. Father Costelli, who has +written very sensibly on this subject, remarks, that the height of the +banks made to confine the Po from overflowing diminishes as they advance +towards the sea; so that at Ferrara, which is 50 or 60 miles from the +sea, they are near 20 feet high above the common surface of the Po, but +that at 10 or 12 miles from it they are not above 12 feet, although the +channel of the river is as narrow there as at Ferrara[306:A]. + +On the whole, the theory of the motion of running waters is still +subject to many difficulties, nor is it easy to lay down rules which +might be applied to every particular case. Experience is here more +useful than speculation. We must not only know the general effects of +rivers, but we must also know in particular the river we have to do +with, if we would reason justly, make useful observations, and draw +stable conclusions. The remarks I have above given are mostly new; it is +to be wished that others may be collected, and then, possibly, in time, +we may obtain a sufficient knowledge of the subject to lay down certain +rules to confine and direct rivers, and prevent the ruin of bridges, +banks, and other damages which the violent impetuosity of the water +occasions. + +The greatest rivers in Europe are the Wolga, which is about 650 leagues +in its course from Reschow to Astracan, on the Caspian Sea; the Danube, +whose course is about 450 leagues from the mountains of Switzerland to +the Black Sea; the Don, which is 400 leagues in its course from the +source of the Sosnia, which it receives, to its mouth in the Black Sea; +the Dnieper, whose course is about 350 leagues, and which also runs into +the Black Sea; the Duine is about 400 leagues in its course, and empties +itself into the White Sea, &c. + +The greatest rivers in Asia are the Hoanho of China, whose course is 850 +leagues, taking its source at Raja-Ribron, and falls into the sea of +China, in the middle of the gulph Changi: the Jenisca of Tartary, which +is about 800 leagues in extent, from the lake Seligna to the northern +sea of Tartary; the river Oby, which is about 600 leagues from Lake +Kila, to the Northern Sea, beyond the Strait of Waigats. The river +Amour, of eastern Tartary, which is about 575 leagues in its course, +reckoning it from the source of the river Kerlon, to the sea of +Kamschatka. The river Menan, whose mouth is at Poulo Condor, may be +measured from the surface of the Longmu which falls into it; the Kian, +whose course is about 550 leagues from the source of the river Kinxa, +which it receives, to its mouth in the China Sea; the Ganges is also +about 550 leagues, and the Euphrates 500, taking it from the source of +Irma, which it receives. The Indus about 400 leagues, and which falls +into the Arabian Sea, on the east of Guzarat. The Sirderious, which is +about 400 leagues long, and falls into Lake Aral. + +The greatest rivers in Africa are Senegal, which is 1125 leagues long, +comprehending the Niger, which in fact is a continuation of it, and the +source of Gombarou, which falls into the Niger. The Nile 970 leagues +long, and which derives its source in Upper Ethiopia, where it makes +many windings. There are also the Zaira, the Coanza, and the Couma, +which are known as far as 400 leagues, but extend much farther; the +Quilmanci, whose course is 400 leagues, and which derives its source in +the kingdom of Gingiro. + +The greatest rivers of America, and which are also the greatest in the +world, are the river Amazons, whose course is 1200 leagues, if we go up +as far as the Lake near Guanuco, 30 leagues from Lima, where the +Maragnon takes its source; and even reckoning from the source of the +river Napo, some distance from Quito, the course of the river Amazons is +more than a thousand leagues. + +It might be said that the course of the river St. Lawrence, in Canada, +is more than 900 leagues from its mouth to the lake Ontaro, from thence +to lake Huron, afterwards to the lake Alemipigo, and to the lake +Assiniboils; the waters of these lakes falling one into another, and at +last into St. Lawrence. + +The river Mississippi more than 700 leagues long from its mouth to any +of its sources, which are not remote from the lake of the Assiniboils. + +The river de la Plata is more than 800 leagues long, from the source of +the river Parana, which it receives. + +The river Oroonoko runs more than 575 leagues, reckoning from the source +of the river Caketa, near Pasto, part of which falls into the Oroonoko, +and part flows also towards the river Amazons. + +The river Madera, which falls into the Amazons, is more than 660 +leagues. + +To know nearly the quantity of water the sea receives by all the rivers +which fall into it, let us suppose that one half of the globe is covered +by the sea, and that the other half is land, which is nearly the fact; +let us suppose also, that the mediate depth of the sea is 230 fathom. +The surface of all the earth being 170,981,012 square miles; and that of +the sea 85,490,506 square miles, which being multiplied by 1/4, the +depth of the sea gives 21,372,626, cubical miles for the quantity of +water contained in the ocean. Now, to calculate the quantity of water +which the ocean receives from the rivers, let us take some great river, +whose rapidity and quantity of waters are known; for example, the Po, +which runs through Lombardy, and waters a tract of land 380 miles long; +according to Riccioli, its breadth, before it divides into many +trenches, is 100 perches of Boulogne, or 1000 feet, its depth 10 feet, +and it runs four miles an hour; therefore the Po supplies the sea with +200,000 cubical perches of water in an hour, or 4 millions 800 thousand +in a day; but a cubical mile contains 125 millions cubical perches; +therefore 26 days is required to convey a cubical mile of water to the +sea: it remains therefore only to determine the proportion between the +river Po and all the rivers of the earth taken together, which is +impossible to do precisely. But to know it pretty exactly, let us +suppose that the quantity of water which the sea receives by the large +rivers in all countries is proportional to the extent and surface of +these countries, and that consequently the country watered by the Po, +and other rivers which fall therein, is in the same proportion on the +surface of the whole earth, as the Po is to all the rivers of the earth. +Now by the most correct charts, the Po, from its source to its mouth, +traverses a tract 380 miles long, and the rivers which fall therein, on +each side, proceed from the springs and rivers 60 miles distant from the +Po; therefore this great river, and the others it receives, waters a +tract 380 miles long, and 120 miles broad, which makes 450,600 square +miles, but the surface of all the dry land is 85,490,506 square miles; +consequently all the water which the rivers carry to the sea, will be +1974 times greater than the quantity which the Po furnishes; but as 26 +rivers equal to the Po furnish a cubical mile of water to the sea in a +day, of course 1874 rivers like the Po would supply the sea with 26,308 +cubical miles of water in a year, and that in the space of 812 years all +the rivers would supply the sea with 21,372,626 cubical miles of water; +that is to say, as much as there is in the ocean, and therefore 812 +years is only required to fill it.[312:A] + +The result of this calculation is, that the quantity of water evaporated +from the sea, and which the winds convey on the earth, is about 245 +lines, or from 20 to 21 inches a year, or about two thirds of a line +each day: this is a very trifling evaporation even when trebled, in +order to estimate the water which refalls in the sea, and which is not +conveyed over the earth. Mr. Halley, in the Phil. Transactions, page +192, evidently shews, that the vapours which rise above the sea, and +which the winds convey over all the earth, are sufficient to supply all +the rivers in the world. + +Next to the Nile the river Jordan is the most considerable in the +Levant, or even in Barbary; it supplies the Dead Sea with about six +million tons of water every day; all this water, and more, is raised by +evaporation; for, according to Halley's calculation of 6914 tons +evaporated from each mile, the Dead Sea, which is 72 miles in length by +18 broad, must every day lose near nine million tons of water, that is, +not only all the water it receives from the river Jordan, but also that +of the small rivers which come into it from the mountains of Moab and +elsewhere; consequently there is no necessity for its communicating with +any other sea by subterraneous canals.[313:A] + +The most rapid rivers are the Tigris, the Indus, the Danube, the Yrtis, +in Siberia, the Malmistra, in Silesia, &c. but, as we have already +observed, the proportion of the rapidity of rivers depends upon the +declivity and upon the weight and quantity of water; by examining the +globe, we shall find that the Danube is much less inclined than the Po, +the Rhine, or the Rhone, for the Danube has a much longer course than +any of these other rivers, and falls into the Black Sea, which is higher +than the Mediterranean, and perhaps more so than the ocean. + +All large rivers receive many others in the extent of their course; for +example, the Danube receives more than 200 rivulets and rivers; but by +reckoning only such as are considerable rivers, we shall find that the +Danube receives 31, the Wolga 32, the Don 5 or 6, the Nieper 19 or 20, +the Duine 11 or 12; so likewise in Asia the Hoanho receives 34 or 35, +the Jenisca 60, the Oby as many, the Amour about 40, the Kian, or river +Nankin about 30, the Ganges upwards of 20, the Euphrates 10 or 11, &c. +In Africa, the river Senegal receives upwards of 20 rivers: the Nile +does not receive any rivers for upwards of 500 miles from its mouth; the +last which falls therein is the Moraba, and from this place to its +source it receives about 12 or 13 rivers. In America, the river Amazons +receives more than 60, all of which are very considerable; the river St. +Lawrence about 40, by reckoning those which fall into the lakes; the +Mississippi more than 40, the Plata more than 50, &c. + +There are high countries on the earth, which seem to be points of +division marked by nature for the distribution of the waters. In +Europe, the environs of Mount St. Goddard are one of these points; +another is situate between the provinces of Belozera and Wologda, in +Muscovy, from whence many rivers descend, some of which go to the White +Sea, others to the Black, and some to the Caspian. In Asia there are +several, in the country of Mogul Tartary, from whence rivers flow into +Nova Zembla, others to the Gulph Linchidolin, others to the sea of +Corea, others to that of China: and so likewise the Little Thibet, whose +waters flow towards the sea of China; the Gulph of Bengal, the Gulph of +Cambay, and the Lake Aral; in America, the province of Quito; whose +rivers run into the North and South Seas, and the Gulph of Mexico. + +In the old continent there are about 430 rivers, which fall directly +into the ocean, or into the Mediterranean and Black Seas; but in the new +continent not more than 145 rivers are known, which fall directly into +the sea: in this number I have comprehended only the great rivers, like +the Somme in Picardy. + +All these rivers carry to the sea a great quantity of mineral and saline +particles, which they have washed from the different soils through +which they have passed. The particles of salt, which are easily +dissolved, are conveyed to the sea by the water. Some philosophers, and +among the rest Halley, have pretended that the saltness of the sea +proceeded only from the salts of the earth, which the rivers transport +therein. Others assert, that the saltness of the sea is as ancient as +the sea itself, and that this salt was created that the waters might not +corrupt; but we may justly suppose that the sea is preserved from +corruption by the agitations produced by the winds and tides, as much as +by the salt it contains; for when put in a barrel it corrupts in a few +days; and Boyle relates, that a mariner, who was becalmed for 13 days, +found, at the end of that time, the water so infected, that if the calm +had not ceased, the greatest part of his people would have perished. The +water of the sea is also mixed with a bituminous oil, which gives it a +disagreeable taste, and renders it very unhealthful. The quantity of +salt contained in sea water is about a fortieth part, and is nearly +equally saline throughout, at top as well as bottom, under the line, and +at the Cape of Good Hope; although there are several places, as off the +Mosambique Coast, where it is salter than elsewhere.[317:A] It is also +asserted not to be so saline under the Arctic Circle, which may proceed +from the amazing quantities of snow, and the great rivers which fall +into those seas, and because the heat of the sun produces but little +evaporation in hot climates. + +Be this as it may, I conceive that the saltness of the sea is not only +caused by the banks of salt at the bottom of the sea, and along the +coasts, but also by the salts of the earth, which the rivers continually +convey therein; and that Halley had some reason to presume that in the +beginning of the world the sea had but little or no saltness; that it is +become so by degrees, and in proportion as the rivers have brought salts +therein; that this saltness is every day increasing, and that +consequently, by computing the whole quantity of salt brought by all the +rivers, we might attain the knowledge of the age of the world by the +degrees of the saltness of the sea. + +Divers and pearl fishers assert, according to Boyle, that the deeper +they descend into the sea, the colder is the water; and that the cold is +so intense at considerable depths, that they cannot remain there so long +under water, but are obliged to come up again much sooner than when +they descended to only a moderate one. It appeared to me that the weight +of the water might be as much the cause of compelling them to shorten +their usual time as the intenseness of the cold, when they descend to a +depth of 3 or 400 fathoms; but, in fact, divers scarcely ever descend +above an hundred feet. The same author relates, that in a voyage to the +East-Indies, beyond the line, at about 35 degrees south latitude, a +sounding lead of 30 or 35lb weight was sunk to the depth of 400 fathoms, +and that being pulled up again, it had become as cold as ice. It is also +a frequent practice with mariners to cool their wine at sea by sinking +their bottles to the depth of several fathoms, and they affirm the +deeper the bottles are sunk, the cooler is the wine. + +These circumstances might induce us to presume that the sea is salter at +the bottom than at the surface; but we have testimonies which prove the +contrary, founded on experiments made to fill vessels with sea water, +which were not opened till they were sunk to a certain depth, and the +water was found to be no salter than at the surface. There are even some +places where the water at the surface is salt, and that at the bottom +fresh; and this must always be the case where there are springs at the +bottom of the sea, as near Goo, Ormus, and even in the sea of Naples, +where there are hot springs at the bottom. + +There are other places where sulphurous springs and beds of bitumen have +been discovered at the bottom of the sea, and on land there are many of +these springs of bitumen which run into it. + +At Barbadoes there is a pure bitumen spring, which flows from the rocks +into the sea: salt and bitumen, therefore, are predominant matters in +the sea water: but it is also mixed with many other matters; for the +taste of water is not the same in every part of the sea; besides, the +agitation and the heat of the sun alters the natural taste which the sea +should have; and the different colour of different seas, at different +times, prove that the waters of the sea contain several kinds of +matters, either which it loosens from its own bottom, or are brought +thither by rivers. + +Almost all countries watered by great rivers are subject to periodical +inundations, those which are low, and derive their sources from a great +distance, overflow the most regularly. Every person almost has heard of +the inundations of the Nile, which preserves the sweetness and whiteness +of its waters, though extended over a vast tract of country, and into +the sea. Strabo and other ancient authors have written that it had seven +mouths, but there now remain only two which are navigable; there is a +third canal which descends to Alexandria, and fills the cisterns there, +and a fourth which is still smaller; but as they have for a long time +neglected to clean their canals, they are nearly choaked up. The +ancients employed a great number of workmen and soldiers, and every +year, after the inundation, they carried away the mud and sand which was +in these canals. The cause of the overflowing of the Nile proceeds from +the rains which fall in Ethiopia. They begin in April and do not cease +till September; during the first three months, the days are serene and +fair, but as soon as the sun goes down the rains begin, nor stop till it +rises again, and are generally accompanied with thunder and lightning. +The inundation begins in Egypt about the 17th of June; it generally +increases during 40 days, and diminishes in about the same time; all the +flat country of Egypt is overflowed; but this inundation is much less +now than it was formerly, for Herodotus tells us, that the Nile was 100 +days in swelling, and as many in abating: if this is true, we can only +attribute the cause thereof to the elevation of the land, which the mud +of the waters has heightened by degrees, and to the diminution of the +mountains in Africa, from whence it derives its source. It is very +natural to believe that these mountains have diminished, because the +abundant rains which fall in these climates during half the year sweep +away great quantities of sand and earth from the mountains into the +valleys, from whence the torrents wash them into the Nile, which carries +great part into Egypt, where it deposits them in its overflowings. + +The Nile is not the only river whose inundations are regular; the river +Pegu is called the _Indian Nile_, because it overflows regularly every +year; it inundates the country for more than 30 leagues from its banks; +and, like the Nile, leaves an abundance of mud, which so greatly +fertilizes the earth, that the pasturage is excellent for cattle, and +rice grows in such great abundance, that every year a number of vessels +are laden with it, without leaving a scarcity in the country.[321:A] The +Niger, or what amounts to the same, the upper part of the Senegal, +likewise overflows and covers all the flat country of Nigritia; it +begins nearly at the same time as the Nile, and increases also for 40 +days: the river de la Plata, in Brasil, also overflows every year, and +at the same time as the Nile. The Ganges, the Indus, the Euphrates, and +some others, overflow annually; but all rivers have not periodical +overflowings, and when inundations happen it is the effect of many +causes, which combine to supply a greater quantity of water than common, +and, at the same time, to retard its velocity. We have before observed, +that in almost all rivers the inclination of their beds diminishes +towards their mouths in an almost insensible manner; but there are some +whose declivity is very sudden in some places, and forms what is termed +a _cataract_, which is nothing more than a fall of water, quicker than +the common current of the river. The Rhine, for example, has two +cataracts, the one at Bilefield, and the other near Schafhouse: the Nile +has many, and among the rest two which are very violent, and fall from a +great height between two mountains; the river Wologda, in Muscovy, has +also two near Ladoga; the Zaire, a river of Congo, begins by a very +large cataract, which falls from the top of a mountain; but the most +famous is that of Niagara, in Canada, that falls from a perpendicular +height of 156 feet, like a prodigious torrent, and is more than a +quarter of a mile broad: the fog, or mist, which the water makes in +falling, is perceived at five miles distance, and rises as high as the +clouds, forming a very beautiful rainbow when the sun shines thereon. +Below this cataract there are such terrible whirlpools, that nothing can +be navigated thereon for six miles distance, and above the cataract the +river is much narrower than it is in the upper lands[323:A]. The +description given of it by _Father Charlevoix_ is as follows: + +"My first care, when I arrived, was to visit the most beautiful cascade +that is, perhaps, in nature; but I immediately discovered that Baron la +Hontain was deceived so greatly, both in its height and figure, that one +might reasonably imagine he had never seen it. + +"It is true, that if we measure its height by the three mountains you +are obliged to ascend in going to it, there is not much abatement to be +made of the 600 feet, which the map of M. Delisse gives it, who +doubtless advanced this paradox only on the credit of the Baron la +Hontain, and Father Honnepin; but after I arrived at the top of the +third mountain, I observed that in the space of three leagues, which I +afterwards had to go to this fall of water, although you are forced +sometimes to ascend, you must nevertheless descend still more, and this +is what travellers do not appear to have paid proper attention to. As we +can only approach the cascade on one side, nor see it but in the +profile, it is not easy to measure its height by instruments: +experiments have been made to do it by a long cord, tied to a pole, and +after having often attempted this manner, it was found to be only 115 or +120 feet high; but it is impossible to ascertain whether the pole was +not stopped by some projection of the rock; for although when drawn up +again the end of the cord was always wet, yet that is no proof, since +the water which precipitates from the mountain, flies up again in foam +to a very great height: for my own part, after having considered it on +every side that I could examine it to advantage, I think that we cannot +allow it to be less than 140 or 150 feet. + +"Its figure is that of a horse-shoe, and its circumference is about 400 +paces; but exactly in its middle, it is divided by a very narrow +island, about half a quarter of a league long. It is true these two +parts join again; that which was on my side, and of which I could only +have a side view, has several projecting points, but that which I beheld +in front, appeared to be perfectly even." The Baron has also mentioned a +torrent, which, if not the offspring of his own invention, must fall +into some channel upon the melting of the snow. + +There is another cataract three miles from Albany, in the province of +New-York, whose height is 50 feet perpendicular, and from which there +arises a mist that occasions a faint rainbow.[325:A] + +In all countries where mankind are not sufficiently numerous to form +polished societies, the ground is more irregular, and the beds of rivers +more extended, less equal, and often abound with cataracts. Many ages +were required to render the Rhone and the Loire navigable. It is by +confining waters, by directing their course, and by cleansing the bottom +of rivers, that they obtain a fixed and regular course; in all countries +thinly inhabited Nature is rude, and often deformed. + +There are rivers which lose themselves in the sands, and others which +seem to precipitate into the bowels of the earth: the Guadalquiver in +Spain, the river Gottenburg in Sweden, and the Rhine itself, lose +themselves in the earth. It is asserted, that in the west part of the +island of St. Domingo there is a mountain of a considerable height, at +the foot of which are many caverns, into which the rivers and rivulets +fall with so much noise, as to be heard at the distance of seven or +eight leagues.[326:A] + +The number of rivers which lose themselves in the earth is very few, and +there is no appearance that they descend very low; it is more probable +that they lose themselves, like the Rhine, by dividing among the +quantity of sand; this is very common to small rivers that run through +dry and sandy soils, of which we have several examples in Africa, +Persia, Arabia, &c. + +The rivers of the north transport into the sea prodigious quantities of +ice, which accumulating, form those enormous masses so destructive to +mariners. These masses are the most abundant in the Strait of Waigat, +which is entirely frozen over the greatest part of the year, and are +formed by the great flakes which the river Oby almost continually brings +there; they attach themselves along the coasts, and heap up to a +considerable height on both sides, but the middle of the strait is the +last part which freezes, and where the ice is the lowest. When the wind +ceases to blow from the North, and comes in the direction of the Strait, +the ice begins to thaw and break in the middle; afterwards it loosens +from the sides in great masses, which are carried into the high sea. The +wind, which all winter blows from the north over the frozen countries of +Nova Zembla, renders the country watered by the Oby, and all Siberia, so +cold, that even at Tobolski, which is in the 57th degree, there are no +fruit trees, while at Sweden, Stockholm, and even in higher latitudes, +there are both fruit trees and pulse. This difference does not proceed, +as it has been thought, from the sea of Lapland being warmer than the +Straits; nor from the land of Nova Zembla being colder than Lapland; but +solely from the Baltic, and the Gulph of Bothnia, tempering the rigour +of the north winds, whereas in Siberia there is nothing that can +temperate the cold. It is a fact founded on experience, that it is never +so cold on the sea coasts as in the inland parts of a country. There +are plants which stand the winter in London exposed to the open air, +that cannot be preserved at Paris; and Siberia, which is a vast +continent, is for this reason colder than Sweden, which is surrounded on +all sides by the sea. + +The coldest country in the world is Spitzbergen: it lies in the 78th +degree of north latitude, and is entirely formed of small peaked +mountains; these mountains are composed of gravel, and flat stones +somewhat like slate, heaped one on the other; which, it is affirmed by +navigators, are raised by the wind, and increase so quick, that new ones +are discovered every year. The rein-deer is the only animal seen here, +which feeds on a short grass and moss. On the top of these little +mountains, and at more than a mile from the sea, the mast of a ship was +found with a pully fastened to one of its ends, which gives room to +suppose that the sea once covered the tops of these mountains, and that +this country is but of modern date; it is uninhabited, and +uninhabitable; the soil of these small mountains has no consistence, but +is loose, and so cold and penetrating a vapour strikes from it, that it +is impossible to remain any length of time thereon. + +The vessels which go to Spitzbergen for the whale fishery, arrive there +early in the month of July, and take their departure from it about the +15th of August, the ice preventing them from entering the sea earlier, +or quiting it after. Prodigious pieces of ice, 60, 70, and 80 fathoms +thick are seen there, and there are some parts of it where the sea +appears frozen to the very bottom[329:A]: this ice, which is so high +above the level of the sea, is as clear and transparent as glass. + +There is also much ice in the seas of North America, as in Ascension +Bay, in the Straits of Hudson, Cumberland, Davis, Forbishers, &c. Robert +Lade asserts that the mountains of Friezeland are entirely covered with +snow, and its coasts with ice, like a bulwark, which prevents any +approaching them. "It is, says he, very remarkable, that in this sea we +meet with islands of ice more than half a mile round, extremely high, +and 70 or 80 fathoms deep; this ice, which is sweet, is perhaps formed +in the rivers or straits of the neighbouring lands, &c. These islands +or mountains of ice are so moveable, that in stormy weather they follow +the track of a ship, as if they were drawn along in the same furrow by a +rope. There are some of them tower so high above the water, as to +surpass the tops of the masts of the largest vessels."[330:A] + +In the collection of voyages made for the service of the Dutch East +India Company, we meet with the following account of the ice at Nova +Zembla:--"At Cape Troost the weather was so foggy as to oblige us to +moor the vessel to a mountain of ice, which was 36 fathoms deep in the +water, and about 16 fathoms out of it. + +"On the 10th of August the ice dividing, it began to float, and then we +observed that the large piece of ice, to which the ship had been moored, +touched the bottom, as all the others passing by struck against without +moving it. We then began to fear being inclosed between the ice, that we +should either be frozen in or crushed to pieces, and therefore +endeavoured to avoid the danger by attempting to get into another +latitude, in doing of which the vessel was forced through the floating +ice, which made a tremendous noise, and seemingly to a great distance; +at length we moored to another mountain, for the purpose of remaining +there that night. + +"During the first watch the ice began to split with an inexpressible +noise, and the ship keeping to the current, in which the ice was now +floating, we were obliged to cut the cable to avoid it; we reckoned more +than 400 large mountains of ice, which were 10 fathoms under and +appeared more than 2 fathoms above water. + +"We afterwards moored the vessel to another mountain of ice, which +reached above 6 fathoms under water. As soon as we were fixed we +perceived another piece beyond us, which terminated in a point, and went +to the bottom of the sea; we advanced towards it, and found it 20 +fathoms under water, and 12 above the surface. + +"The 11th we reached another large shelve of ice, 18 fathoms under +water, and 10 above it. + +"The 21st the Dutch got pretty far in among the ice, and remained there +the whole night; the next morning they moored their vessel to a large +bank of ice, which they ascended, and considered as a very singular +phenomenon, that its top was covered with earth, and they found near 40 +eggs thereon. The colour was not the common colour of ice, but a fine +sky blue. Those who were on it had various conjectures from this +circumstance, some contending it was an effect of the ice, while others +maintained it to be a mass of frozen earth. It was about eighteen +fathoms under water, and ten above."[332:A] + +Wafer relates, that near Terra del Fuega he met with many high floating +pieces of ice, which he at first mistook for islands. Some appeared a +mile or two in length, and the largest not less than 4 or 500 feet above +the water. + +All this ice, as I have observed in the sixth article, was brought +thither by the rivers; the ice in the sea of Nova Zembla, and the +Straits of Waigat come from the Oby, and perhaps from Jenisca, and other +great rivers of Siberia and Tartary; that in Hudson's Straits, from +Ascension Bay, into which many of the North American rivers fall; that +of Terra del Fuega, from the southern continent. If there are less on +the North coasts of Lapland, than on those of Siberia, and the Straits +of Waigat, it is because all the rivers of Lapland fall into the Gulph +of Bothnia, and none go into the northern sea. The ice may also be +formed in the straits, where the tides swell much higher than in the +open sea, and where, consequently, the ice that is at the surface may +heap up and form those mountains, which are several fathoms high; but +with respect to those which are 4 or 500 feet high, they appear to be +formed on high coasts; and I imagine that when the snow which covers the +tops of these coasts melts, the water flows on the flakes of ice, and +being frozen thereon, thus increases the size of the first until it +comes to that amazing height. That afterwards, in a warm summer, these +hills of ice loosen from the coasts by the action of the wind and motion +of the sea, or perhaps even by their own weight, and are driven as the +wind directs, so that they at length may arrive into temperate climates +before they are entirely melted. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[306:A] See Racolta d'autori che trattano del motto dell' acque, vol. 1, +page 123. + +[312:A] See Keil's Examination of Burnet's Theory, page 126. + +[313:A] See Shaw's Travels, vol. ii, page 71. + +[317:A] See Boyle, vol. iii. page 217. + +[321:A] See Ovington's Travels, vol. ii. page 290. + +[323:A] See Phil. Trans. Abr. vol. vi. part ii. page 119. + +[325:A] Phil. Trans. vol. vi. part ii. page 19. + +[326:A] See Varenii Geograph. gen. page 48. + +[329:A] In contradiction to this idea it is now a generally received +opinion, that the mountains of ice in the North and South Seas are +exactly the same depth under as they are height above the surface of the +water. + +[330:A] See the Voyages of Lade, vol. ii, page 305, &. + +[332:A] Voyage of the Dutch to the North, vol. 1, 3. Page 49. + + +_END OF THE FIRST VOLUME._ + + + + +TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES + + +Variations in spelling and hyphenation have been left as in the +original. + +The words "Phoenicia" and "proedicable" use an oe ligature in the +original. + +The following changes have been made to the original text: + + Page vi: It would have been singular[original has "singuar"] + + Page 9: moon, which are the causes of["of" missing in + original] it + + Page 23: these particles[original has "particels"] of earth + and stone + + Page 31: In a word, the materials[original has "mateterials"] + of the globe + + Page 37: has occurred, and in my opinion[original has + "oppinion"] very naturally + + Page 51: These[original has "these"] could not have been + occasioned + + Page 74: in the regions of the sky [original has "fky"] + + Page 94: that fire cannot[original has "connot"] subsist + + Page 94: planets at[original has "as"] the time of their + quitting the sun + + Page 97: there will be detached[original has "detatched"] from + its equator + + Page 104: which are as 229 to 230.[period missing in original] + + Page 155: ARTICLE VI.[original has "VII."] + + Page 182: conjecture is so much the better[original has + "bettter"] founded + + Page 189: where the pits are very deep[original has "deeep"] + + Page 192: 23. Sand streaked red[original has "read"] and white + + Page 194: In plains surrounded[original has "surounded"] with + hills + + Page 198: in France, Flanders, Holland, Spain,[comma missing + in original] Italy + + Page 199: 10 of sand, then 2 feet of["of" missing in original] + clay + + Page 203: either birds or terrestrial animals."[quotation mark + missing in original] + + Page 210: the Alps, and the Apennine[original has "Appenine"] + mountains + + Page 225: time much longer than a year."[quotation mark + missing in original] + + Page 228: formation is novel, in[original has "n"] comparison + + Page 256: resemblance is perfectly exact."[quotation mark + missing in original] + + [78:A] Vide Newton, 2d edit. page 525.[period missing in + original] + + [177:A] Footnote letter missing in original. + + [178:A] See the Hist. of New France, by the Pere Charlevoix. + [letter and period missing in original. + + [234:A] See Shaw's Voyages, Vol. ii[original has "11"], pages + 40 and 41. + + [240:B] Voyage of Paul Lucus, Vol. II[original has "11"], page + 380. + + [329:A] above the surface of the water.[original has a comma] + + [330:A] See the Voyages of Lade, vol. ii.[original has "11"] + page 305, &. + + [332:A] Voyage of the Dutch to the North, vol. 1, 3.[original + has a comma] Page 49. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Buffon's Natural History, Volume I (of +II), by Georges Louis Leclerc de Buffon + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BUFFON'S NATURAL HISTORY *** + +***** This file should be named 44792-8.txt or 44792-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/4/4/7/9/44792/ + +Produced by Chris Curnow, Lisa Reigel, and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Buffon's Natural History, Volume I (of II) + Containing a Therory of ther Earth, a General History of + Man, of the Brute Creation, and of Vegetables, Mineral, + &c. &c + +Author: Georges Louis Leclerc de Buffon + +Translator: James Smith Barr + +Release Date: January 29, 2014 [EBook #44792] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BUFFON'S NATURAL HISTORY *** + + + + +Produced by Chris Curnow, Lisa Reigel, and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive) + + + + + + +</pre> + + + + + +<p><!-- Page i --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i"></a>[i]</span></p> +<div> +<p class="firsttitle">Barr's Buffon.</p> + + + + +<h1>Buffon's Natural History.</h1> + +<p class="subtitle"><small>CONTAINING</small><br /> + +<big>A THEORY OF THE EARTH,</big><br /> + +A GENERAL<br /> + +<big><i>HISTORY OF MAN</i>,</big><br /> + +OF THE BRUTE CREATION, AND OF<br /> +VEGETABLES, MINERALS,<br /> +<i>&c. &c.</i></p> + +<p class="tpother">FROM THE FRENCH.</p> + +<p class="tpother"><small>WITH NOTES BY THE TRANSLATOR.</small></p> + +<p class="tpother"><small>IN TEN VOLUMES.</small></p> + +<p class="tpother">VOL. I.</p> + + +<p class="tppublisher">London:<br /> + PRINTED FOR THE PROPRIETOR,<br /> + AND SOLD BY H. D. SYMONDS, PATERNOSTER-ROW.<br /> + 1797.</p> + +<p><!-- Page ii --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ii" id="Page_ii"></a>[ii]</span></p> +</div> + + + + +<div> +<hr class="newchapter" /> +<p><!-- Page iii --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii"></a>[iii]</span></p> + +<h2>CONTENTS<br /> + + <small>OF</small><br /> + + THE FIRST VOLUME.</h2> + + +<table summary="Table of Contents" border="0"> + <tr> + <td class="tdright" colspan="3"><i>Page</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefttop" colspan="2"><i><a href="#THE_THEORY_OF_THE_EARTH">THE Theory of the Earth</a></i></td> + <td class="tdpage"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdcenter" colspan="3">Proof of the Theory of the Earth.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefttop"><a href="#ARTICLE_I">Article I.</a></td> + <td class="tdlefthangit">On the Formation of the Planets</td> + <td class="tdpage"><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefttop"><a href="#ARTICLE_II">Article II.</a></td> + <td class="tdlefthangit">From the System of Whiston</td> + <td class="tdpage"><a href="#Page_115">115</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefttop"><a href="#ARTICLE_III">Article III.</a></td> + <td class="tdlefthangit">From the System of Burnet</td> + <td class="tdpage"><a href="#Page_128">128</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefttop"><a href="#ARTICLE_IV">Article IV.</a></td> + <td class="tdlefthangit">From the System of Woodward</td> + <td class="tdpage"><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefttop"><a href="#ARTICLE_V">Article V.</a></td> + <td class="tdlefthangit">Exposition of some other Systems</td> + <td class="tdpage"><a href="#Page_137">137</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefttop"><a href="#ARTICLE_VI">Article VI.</a></td> + <td class="tdlefthangit">Geography</td> + <td class="tdpage"><a href="#Page_155">155</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefttop"><a href="#ARTICLE_VII">Article VII.</a></td> + <td class="tdlefthangit">On the Production of the Strata, or Beds of + <!-- Page iv --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv"></a>[iv]</span>the Earth</td> + <td class="tdpage"><a href="#Page_183">183</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefttop"><a href="#ARTICLE_VIII">Article VIII.</a></td> + <td class="tdlefthangit" style="padding-right: 1.5em;">On Shells and other Marine Productions found + in the interior Parts of the Earth</td> + <td class="tdpage"><a href="#Page_219">219</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefttop"><a href="#ARTICLE_IX">Article IX.</a></td> + <td class="tdlefthangit">On the Inequalities of the Surface + of the Earth</td> + <td class="tdpage"><a href="#Page_262">262</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefttop"><a href="#ARTICLE_X">Article X.</a></td> + <td class="tdlefthangit">Of Rivers</td> + <td class="tdpage"><a href="#Page_298">298</a></td> + </tr> +</table> +</div> + + + +<div> +<hr class="newchapter" /> +<p><!-- Page v --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v"></a>[v]</span></p> +<h2>PREFACE.</h2> + + +<p>We should certainly be guilty of a gross absurdity if, in an age like +the present, we were to enter into an elaborate discussion on the +advantages to be derived from the study of <strong>Natural History</strong>; the ancients +recommended it as useful, instructive, and entertaining; and the moderns +have so far pursued and cultivated this first of sciences, that it is +now admitted to be the source of universal instruction and knowledge; +where every active mind may find subjects to amuse and delight, and the +artist a never failing field to enrich his glowing imagination.</p> + +<p><!-- Page vi --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi"></a>[vi]</span>It would have been singular if, on such a subject, a number of authors +had not submitted the produce of their observations and labour; many +have written upon Natural Philosophy, but the Comte de <strong>Buffon</strong> stands +eminently distinguished among them; he has entered into a minute +investigation, and drawn numberless facts from unwearied observations +far beyond any other, and this he has accomplished in a style fully +accordant with the importance of his subject. Ray, Linnæus, Rheaumur, +and other of his cotemporaries, deserve much credit for their classing +of animals, vegetables, &c. but it was <strong>Buffon</strong> alone who entered into a +description of their nature, habits, uses, and properties. In his Theory +of the Earth he has displayed a wonderful ingenuity, and shewn the +general order of Nature with a masterly hand, although he may be subject +to some objections for preferring physical reasonings on general +<!-- Page vii --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii"></a>[vii]</span>causes, rather than allowing aught to have arisen from supernatural +agency, or the will of the Almighty. In this he has followed the example +of all great philosophers, who seem unwilling to admit that the +formation of any part of the Universe is beyond their comprehension.</p> + +<p>As the works of this Author will best speak for themselves, we shall +avoid unnecessary panegyric, hoping they will have received no material +injury in the following translation; we shall therefore content +ourselves with observing, that in our plan we have followed that adopted +by the Comte himself in a latter edition, from which he exploded his +long and minute treatises on anatomy and mensuration; though elegant and +highly finished in themselves, they appeared to us of too abstruse and +confined a nature for general estimation, and which we could not have +gone into without almost doubling <!-- Page viii --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii"></a>[viii]</span>the expence; a circumstance we had to +guard against, for the advantage of those of our readers to whom that +part would have been totally uninteresting.</p> + +<p>As to this edition, we presume it is no vain boast, that every exertion +has been made to do justice to a work of such acknowledged merit. In the +literary part, it has been the Proprietor's chief endeavour to preserve +the spirit and accuracy of the Author, as far as could be done in +translating from one language into another; and it is with gratitude he +acknowledges, that those endeavours have been amply supported by the +engraver; for the decorative executions of <strong>Milton</strong> will remain a lasting +monument of his abilities, as long as delicacy in the arts is held in +estimation.</p> +</div> + + + + +<div> +<hr class="newchapter" /> +<p class="titletwo"><!-- Page 1 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1"></a>[1]</span>BUFFON's<br /> + +NATURAL HISTORY.</p> + + + +<hr class="newchapter" /> +<h2><a name="THE_THEORY_OF_THE_EARTH" id="THE_THEORY_OF_THE_EARTH"></a><i>THE THEORY OF THE EARTH.</i></h2> + + +<p>Neither the figure of the earth, its motion, nor its external +connections with the rest of the universe, pertain to our present +investigation. It is the internal structure of the globe, its +composition, form, and manner of existence which we purpose to examine. +The general history of the earth should doubtless precede that of its +productions, as a necessary study for those who wish to be acquainted +with Nature in her variety of shapes, <!-- Page 2 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2"></a>[2]</span>and the detail of facts relative +to the life and manners of animals, or to the culture and vegetation of +plants, belong not, perhaps, so much to Natural History, as to the +general deductions drawn from the observations that have been made upon +the different materials which compose the terrestrial globe: as the +heights, depths, and inequalities of its form; the motion of the sea, +the direction of mountains, the situation of rocks and quarries, the +rapidity and effects of currents in the ocean, &c. This is the history +of nature in its most ample extent, and these are the operations by +which every other effect is influenced and produced. The theory of these +effects constitutes what may be termed a primary science, upon which the +exact knowledge of particular appearances as well as terrestrial +substances entirely depends. This description of science may fairly be +considered as appertaining to physics; but does not all physical +knowledge, in which no system is admitted, form part of the History of +Nature?</p> + +<p>In a subject of great magnitude, whose relative connections are +difficult to trace, and where some facts are but partially known, and +others uncertain and obscure, it is more easy <!-- Page 3 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3"></a>[3]</span>to form a visionary +system, than to establish a rational theory; thus it is that the Theory +of the Earth has only hitherto been treated in a vague and hypothetical +manner; I shall therefore but slightly mention the singular notions of +some authors who have written upon the subject.</p> + +<p>The first hypothesis I shall allude to, deserves to be mentioned more +for its ingenuity than its reasonable solidity; it is that of an English +astronomer, (<strong>Whiston</strong>) versed in the system of <strong>Newton</strong>, and an +enthusiastic admirer of his philosophy; convinced that every event which +happens on the terrestrial globe, depends upon the motions of the stars, +he endeavours to prove, by the assistance of mathematical calculations, +that the tail of a comet has produced every alteration the earth has +ever undergone.</p> + +<p>The next is the formation of an heterodox theologician, (<strong>Burnet</strong>) whose +brain was so heated with poetical visions, that he imagined he had seen +the creation of the universe. After explaining what the earth was in its +primary state, when it sprung from nothing; what changes were occasioned +by the deluge; what it has been and what it is, he then assumes a +<!-- Page 4 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4"></a>[4]</span>prophetic style, and predicts what will be its state after the +destruction of the human race.</p> + +<p>The third comes from a writer (<strong>Woodward</strong>) certainly a better and more +extensive observer of nature than the two former, though little less +irregular and confused in his ideas; he explains the principal +appearances of the globe, by an immense abyss in the bowels of the +earth, which in his opinion is nothing more than a thin crust that +serves as a covering to the fluid it incloses.</p> + +<p>The whole of these hypotheses are raised on unstable foundations; have +given no light upon the subject, the ideas being unconnected, the facts +confused, and the whole confounded with a mixture of physic and fable; +and consequently have been adopted only by those who implicitly believe +opinions without investigation, and who, incapable of distinguishing +probability, are more impressed with the wonders of the marvellous than +the relation of truth.</p> + +<p>What we shall say on this subject will doubtless be less extraordinary, +and appear unimportant, if put in comparison with the grand systems just +mentioned, but it should be remembered that it is an historian's +business to describe, not <!-- Page 5 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5"></a>[5]</span>invent; that no suppositions should be +admitted upon subjects that depend upon facts and observation; that his +imagination ought only to be exercised for the purpose of combining +observations, rendering facts more general, and forming one connected +whole, so as to present to the mind a distinct arrangement of clear +ideas and probable conjectures; I say probable, because we must not +expect to give exact demonstration on this subject, that being confined +to mathematical sciences, while our knowledge in physics and natural +history depends solely upon experience, and is confined to reasoning +upon inductions.</p> + +<p>In the history of the Earth, we shall therefore begin with those facts +that have been obtained from the experience of time, together with what +we have collected by our own observations.</p> + +<p>This immense globe exhibits upon its surface heights, depths, plains, +seas, lakes, marshes, rivers, caverns, gulphs, and volcanos; and upon +the first view of these objects we cannot discover in their dispositions +either order or regularity. If we penetrate into its internal part, we +shall there find metals, minerals, stones, bitumens, sands, earths, +waters, and <!-- Page 6 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6"></a>[6]</span>matters of every kind, placed as it were by chance, and +without the smallest apparent design. Examining with a more strict +attention, we discover sunk mountains, caverns filled, rocks split and +broken, countries swallowed up, and new islands rising from the ocean; +we shall also perceive heavy substances placed above light ones, hard +bodies surrounded with soft; in short, we shall there find matter in +every form, wet and dry, hot and cold, solid and brittle, mixed in such +a sort of confusion as to leave room to compare them only to a mass of +rubbish and the ruins of a wrecked world.</p> + +<p>We inhabit these ruins however with a perfect security. The various +generations of men, animals, and plants, succeed each other without +interruption; the earth produces fully sufficient for their subsistence; +the sea has its limits; its motions and the currents of air are +regulated by fixed laws: the returns of the seasons are certain and +regular; the severity of the winter being constantly succeeded by the +beauties of the spring: every thing appears in order, and the earth, +formerly a <strong class="allcapsc">CHAOS</strong>, is now a tranquil and delightful abode, where all is +animated, and regulated by such an amazing display of power and +intelligence as fills us <!-- Page 7 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7"></a>[7]</span>with admiration, and elevates our minds with +the most sublime ideas of an all-potent and wonderful Creator.</p> + +<p>Let us not then draw any hasty conclusions upon the irregularities of +the surface of the earth, nor the apparent disorders in the interior +parts, for we shall soon discover the utility, and even the necessity of +them; and, by considering them with a little attention, we shall, +perhaps, find an order of which we had no conception, and a general +connection that we could neither perceive nor comprehend, by a slight +examination: but in fact, our knowledge on this subject must always be +confined. There are many parts of the surface of the globe with which we +are entirely unacquainted, and have but partial ideas of the bottom of +the sea, which in many places we have not been able to fathom. We can +only penetrate into the coat of the earth; the greatest caverns and the +deepest mines do not descend above the eight thousandth part of its +diameter, we can therefore judge only of the external and mere +superficial part; we know, indeed, that bulk for bulk the earth weighs +four times heavier than the sun, and we also know the proportion its +weight bears with other planets; but this <!-- Page 8 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8"></a>[8]</span>is merely a relative +estimation; we have no certain standard nor proportion; we are so +entirely ignorant of the real weight of the materials, that the internal +part of the globe may be a void space, or composed of matter a thousand +times heavier than gold; nor is there any method to make further +discoveries on this subject; and it is with the greatest difficulty any +rational conjectures can be formed thereon.</p> + +<p>We must therefore confine ourselves to a correct examination and +description of the surface of the earth, and to those trifling depths to +which we have been enabled to penetrate. The first object which presents +itself is that immense quantity of water which covers the greatest part +of the globe; this water always occupies the lowest ground, its surface +always level, and constantly tending to equilibrium and rest; +nevertheless it is kept in perpetual agitation by a powerful agent, +which opposing its natural tranquillity, impresses it with a regular +periodical motion, alternately raising and depressing its waves, +producing a vibration in the total mass, by disturbing the whole body to +the greatest depths. This motion we know has existed from the +commencement of time, <!-- Page 9 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9"></a>[9]</span>and will continue as long as the sun and moon, +which are the causes of it.</p> + +<p>By an examination of the bottom of the sea, we discover that to be fully +as irregular as the surface of the earth; we there find hills and +vallies, plains and cavities, rocks and soils of every kind: we there +perceive that islands are only the summits of vast mountains, whose +foundations are at the bottom of the Ocean; we also find other mountains +whose tops are nearly on a level with the surface of the water, and +rapid currents which run contrary to the general movement: they +sometimes run in the same direction, at others, their motions are +retrograde, but never exceeding their bounds, which appear to be as +fixed and invariable as those which confine the rivers of the earth. In +one part we meet with tempestuous regions, where the winds blow with +irresistible fury, where the sea and the heavens equally agitated, join +in contact with each other, are mixed and confounded in the general +shock: in others, violent intestine motions, tumultuous swellings, +water-spouts, and extraordinary agitations, caused by volcanos, whose +mouths though a considerable depth under water, yet vomit fire from the +<!-- Page 10 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10"></a>[10]</span>midst of the waves, and send up to the clouds a thick vapour, composed +of water, sulphur, and bitumen. Further we perceive dreadful gulphs or +whirlpools, which seem to attract vessels, merely to swallow them up. On +the other hand, we discover immense regions, totally opposite in their +natures, always calm and tranquil, yet equally dangerous; where the +winds never exert their power, where the art of the mariner becomes +useless, and where the becalmed voyager must remain until death relieves +him from the horrors of despair. In conclusion, if we turn our eyes +towards the northern or southern extremities of the globe, we there +perceive enormous flakes of ice separating themselves from the polar +regions, advancing like huge mountains into the more temperate climes, +where they dissolve and are lost to the sight.</p> + +<p>Exclusive of these principal objects the vast empire of the sea abounds +with animated beings, almost innumerable in numbers and variety. Some of +them, covered with light scales, move with astonishing celerity; others, +loaded with thick shells, drag heavily along, leaving their track in the +sand; on others Nature has bestowed fins, resembling wings, with which +<!-- Page 11 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11"></a>[11]</span>they raise and support themselves in the air, and fly to considerable +distances; while there are those to whom all motion has been denied, who +live and die immoveably fixed to the same rock: every species, however, +find abundance of food in this their native element. The bottom of the +sea, and the shelving sides of the various rocks, produce great +abundance of plants and mosses of different kinds; its soil is composed +of sand, gravel, rocks, and shells; in some parts a fine clay, in others +a solid earth, and in general it has a complete resemblance to the land +which we inhabit.</p> + +<p>Let us now take a view of the earth. What prodigious differences do we +find in different climates? What a variety of soils? What inequalities +in the surface? but upon a minute and attentive observation we shall +find the greatest chain of mountains are nearer the equator than the +poles; that in the Old Continent their direction is more from the east +to west than from the north to south; and that, on the contrary, in the +New World they extend more from north to south than from east to west; +but what is still more remarkable, the form and direction of those +mountains, whose appearance is so very irregular, correspond so +precisely, that <!-- Page 12 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12"></a>[12]</span>the prominent angles of one mountain are always +opposite to the concave angles of the neighbouring mountain, and are of +equal dimensions, whether they are separated by a small valley or an +extensive plain. I have also observed that opposite hills are nearly of +the same height, and that, in general, mountains occupy the middle of +continents, islands, and promontories, which they divide by the greatest +lengths.</p> + +<p>In following the courses of the principal rivers, I have likewise found +that they are almost always perpendicular with those of the sea into +which they empty themselves; and that in the greatest part of their +courses they proceed nearly in the direction of the mountains from which +they derive their source.</p> + +<p>The sea shores are generally bounded with rocks, marble, and other hard +stones, or by earth and sand which has accumulated by the waters from +the sea, or been brought down by the rivers; and I observe that opposite +coasts, separated only by an arm of the sea, are composed of similar +materials, and the beds of the earth are exactly the same. Volcanos I +find exist only in the highest mountains; that many of them are entirely +extinct; that some <!-- Page 13 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13"></a>[13]</span>are connected with others by subterraneous passages, +and that their explosions frequently happen at one and the same time. +There are similar correspondences between certain lakes and neighbouring +seas; some rivers suddenly disappear, and seem to precipitate themselves +into the earth. We also find internal, or mediterranean seas, constantly +receiving an enormous quantity of water from a number of rivers without +ever extending their bounds, most probably discharging by subterraneous +passages all their superfluous supplies. Lands which have been long +inhabited are easily distinguished from those new countries where the +soil appears in a rude state, where the rivers are full of cataracts, +where the earth is either overflowed with water, or parched up with +drought, and where every spot upon which a tree will grow is covered +with uncultivated woods.</p> + +<p>Pursuing our examination in a more extensive view, we find that the +upper strata that surrounds the globe, is universally the same. That +this substance which serves for the growth and nourishment of animals +and vegetables, is nothing but a composition of decayed animal and +vegetable bodies reduced into such small particles, that their former +organization <!-- Page 14 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14"></a>[14]</span>is not distinguishable; or penetrating a little further, +we find the real earth, beds of sand, lime-stone, argol, shells, marble, +gravel, chalk, &c. These beds are always parallel to each other and of +the same thickness throughout their whole extent. In neighbouring hills +beds of the same materials are invariably found upon the same levels, +though the hills are separated by deep and extensive intervals. All beds +of earth, even the most solid strata, as rocks, quarries of marble, &c. +are uniformly divided by perpendicular fissures; it is the same in the +largest as well as smallest depths, and appears a rule which nature +invariably pursues.</p> + +<p>In the very bowels of the earth, on the tops of mountains, and even the +most remote parts from the sea, shells, skeletons of fish, marine +plants, &c. are frequently found, and these shells, fish, and plants, +are exactly similar to those which exist in the Ocean. There are a +prodigious quantity of petrified shells to be met with in an infinity of +places, not only inclosed in rocks, masses of marble, lime-stone, as +well as in earth and clays, but are actually incorporated and filled +with the very substance which surrounds them. In short, I find myself +convinced, by repeated observations, <!-- Page 15 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15"></a>[15]</span>that marbles, stones, chalks, +marls, clay, sand, and almost all terrestrial substances, wherever they +may be placed, are filled with shells and other substances, the +productions of the sea.</p> + +<p>These facts being enumerated, let us now see what reasonable conclusions +are to be drawn from them.</p> + +<p>The changes and alterations which have happened to the earth, in the +space of the last two or three thousand years, are very inconsiderable +indeed, when compared with those important revolutions which must have +taken place in those ages which immediately followed the creation; for +as all terrestrial substances could only acquire solidity by the +continued action of gravity, it would be easy to demonstrate that the +surface of the earth was much softer at first than it is at present, and +consequently the same causes which now produce but slight and almost +imperceptible changes during many ages, would then effect great +revolutions in a very short space. It appears to be a certain fact, that +the earth which we now inhabit, and even the tops of the highest +mountains, were formerly covered with the sea, for shells and other +marine productions are frequently found in almost every part; it appears +also that the <!-- Page 16 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16"></a>[16]</span>water remained a considerable time on the surface of the +earth, since in many places there have been discovered such prodigious +banks of shells, that it is impossible so great a multitude of animals +could exist at the same time: this fact seems likewise to prove, that +although the materials which composed the surface of the earth were then +in a state of softness, that rendered them easy to be disunited, moved +and transported by the waters, yet that these removals were not made at +once; they must indeed have been successive, gradual, and by degrees, +because these kind of sea productions are frequently met with more than +a thousand feet below the surface, and such a considerable thickness of +earth and stone could not have accumulated but by the length of time. If +we were to suppose that at the Deluge all the shell-fish were raised +from the bottom of the sea, and transported over all the earth; besides +the difficulty of establishing this supposition, it is evident, that as +we find shells incorporated in marble and in the rocks of the highest +mountains, we must likewise suppose that all these marbles and rocks +were formed at the same time, and that too at the very instant of the +Deluge; and besides, that previous to this <!-- Page 17 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17"></a>[17]</span>great revolution there were +neither mountains, marble, nor rocks, nor clays, nor matters of any kind +similar to those we are at present acquainted with, as they almost all +contain shells and other productions of the sea. Besides, at the time of +the Deluge, the earth must have acquired a considerable degree of +solidity, from the action of gravity for more than sixteen centuries, +and consequently it does not appear possible that the waters, during the +short time the Deluge lasted, should have overturned and dissolved its +surface to the greatest depths we have since been enabled to penetrate.</p> + +<p>But without dwelling longer on this point, which shall hereafter be more +amply discussed, I shall confine myself to well-known observations and +established facts. There is no doubt but that the waters of the sea at +some period covered and remained for ages upon that part of the globe +which is now known to be dry land; and consequently the whole continents +of Asia, Europe, Africa, and America, were then the bottom of an ocean +abounding with similar productions to those which the sea at present +contains: it is equally certain that the different strata which compose +the earth are parallel and horizontal, and it is evident their <!-- Page 18 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18"></a>[18]</span>being in +this situation is the operation of the waters which have collected and +accumulated by degrees the different materials, and given them the same +position as the water itself always assumes. We observe that the +position of strata is almost universally horizontal: in plains it is +exactly so, and it is only in the mountains that they are inclined to +the horizon, from their having been originally formed by a sediment +deposited upon an inclined base. Now I insist that these strata must +have been formed by degrees, and not all at once, by any revolution +whatever, because strata, composed of heavy materials, are very +frequently found placed above light ones, which could not be, if, as +some authors assert, the whole had been mixed with the waters at the +time of the Deluge, and afterwards precipitated; in that case every +thing must have had a very different appearance to that which now +exists. The heaviest bodies would have descended first, and each +particular stratum would have been arranged according to its weight and +specific gravity, and we should not see solid rocks or metals placed +above light sand any more than clay under coal.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 19 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19"></a>[19]</span>We should also pay attention to another circumstance; it confirms what +we have said on the formation of the strata; no other cause than the +motions and sediments of water could possibly produce so regular a +position of it, for the highest mountains are composed of parallel +strata as well as the lowest plains, and therefore we cannot attribute +the origin and formation of mountains to the shocks of earthquakes, or +eruptions of volcanos. The small eminences which are sometimes raised by +volcanos, or convulsive motions of the earth, are not by any means +composed of parallel strata, they are a mere disordered heap of matters +thrown confusedly together; but the horizontal and parallel position of +the strata must necessarily proceed from the operations of a constant +cause and motion, always regulated and directed in the same uniform +manner.</p> + +<p>From repeated observations, and these incontrovertible facts, we are +convinced that the dry part of the globe, which is now habitable, has +remained for a long time under the waters of the sea, and consequently +this earth underwent the same fluctuations and changes which the bottom +of the ocean is at present actually undergoing. To discover therefore +what <!-- Page 20 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20"></a>[20]</span>formerly passed on the earth, let us examine what now passes at +the bottom of the sea, and from thence we shall soon be enabled to draw +rational conclusions with regard to the external form and internal +composition of that which we inhabit.</p> + +<p>From the Creation the sea has constantly been subject to a regular flux +and reflux: this motion, which raises and falls the waters twice in +every twenty-four hours, is principally occasioned by the action of the +moon, and is much greater under the equator than in any other climates. +The earth performs a rapid motion on its axis, and consequently has a +centrifugal force, which is also the greatest at the equator; this +latter, independent of actual observation, proves that the earth is not +perfectly spherical, but that it must be more elevated under the equator +then at the poles.</p> + +<p>From these combined causes, the ebbing and flowing of the tides, and the +motion of the earth, we may fairly conclude, that although the earth was +a perfect sphere in its original form, yet its diurnal motion, together +with the constant flux and reflux of the sea, must, by degrees, in the +course of time, have raised the equatorial parts, by carrying mud, +earth, sand, <!-- Page 21 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21"></a>[21]</span>shells, &c. from other climes, and there depositing of +them. Agreeable to this idea the greatest irregularities must be found, +and, in fact, are found near the equator. Besides, as this motion of the +tides is made by diurnal alternatives, and been repeated, without +interruption, from the commencement of time, is it not natural to +imagine, that each time the tide flows the water carries a small +quantity of matter from one place to another, which may fall to the +bottom like a sediment, and form those parallel and horizontal strata +which are every where to be met with? for the whole motion of the water, +in the flux and reflux, being horizontal, the matters carried away with +them will naturally be deposited in the same parallel direction.</p> + +<p>But to this it may be said, that as the flux and reflux of the waters +are equal and regularly succeed, two motions would counterpoise each +other, and the matters brought by the flux would be returned by the +reflux, and of course this cause for the formation of the strata must be +chimerical; that the bottom of the sea could not experience any material +alteration by two uniform motions, wherein the effects of the one would +be regularly destroyed <!-- Page 22 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22"></a>[22]</span>by the other; much less could they change the +original form by the production of heights and inequalities.</p> + +<p>To which it may be answered, that the alternate motions of the waters +are not equal, the sea having a constant motion from the east to the +west, besides, the agitation, caused by the winds, opposes and prevents +the equality of the tides. It will also be admitted, that by every +motion of which the sea is susceptible, particles of earth and other +matters will be carried from one place and deposited in another; and +these collections will necessarily assume the form of horizontal and +parallel strata, from the various combinations of the motions of the sea +always tending to move the earth, and to level these materials wherever +they fall, in the form of a sediment. But this objection is easily +obviated by the well-known fact, that upon all coasts, bordering the +sea, where the ebbing and flowing of the tide is observed, the flux +constantly brings in a number of things which the reflux does not carry +back. There are many places upon which the sea insensibly gains and +gradually covers over, while there are others from which it recedes, +narrowing as it were its limits, by depositing earth, sands, <!-- Page 23 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23"></a>[23]</span>shells, +&c. which naturally take an horizontal position; these matters +accumulate by degrees in the course of time, and being raised to a +certain point gradually exclude the water, and so become part of the dry +land for ever after.</p> + +<p>But not to leave any doubt upon this important point, let us strictly +examine into the possibility of a mountain's being formed at the bottom +of the sea by the motions and sediments of the waters. It is certain +that on a coast which the sea beats with violence during the agitation +of its flow, that every wave must carry off some part of the earth; for +wherever the sea is bounded by rocks, it is a plain fact that the water +by degrees wears away those rocks, and consequently carries away small +particles every time the waves retire; these particles of earth and +stone will necessarily be transported to some distance, and being +arrived where the agitation of the water is abated, and left to their +own weight, they precipitate to the bottom in form of a sediment, and +there form a first stratum, either horizontal or inclined, according to +the position of the surface upon which they fall; this will shortly be +covered by a similar stratum produced by the same cause, and thus will a +considerable quantity of matter <!-- Page 24 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24"></a>[24]</span>be almost insensibly collected +together, and the strata of which will be placed, parallel to each +other.</p> + +<p>This mass will continue to increase by new sediments, and by gradually +accumulating, in the course of time become a mountain at the bottom of +the sea, exactly similar to those we see on dry land, both as to outward +form and internal composition. If there happen to be shells in this part +of the sea, where we have supposed this deposit to be made, they will be +filled and covered with the sediment, and incorporated in the deposited +matter, making a part of the whole mass, and they will be found situated +in the parts of the mountain according to the time they had been there +deposited; those that lay at the bottom, previous to the formation of +the first stratum, will be found in the lowest, and so according to the +time of their being deposited, the latest in the most elevated parts.</p> + +<p>So likewise, when the bottom of the sea, at particular places, is +troubled by the agitation of the water, there will necessarily ensue, in +the same manner, a removal of earth, shells, and other matters, from the +troubled to other parts; for we are assumed by all divers, that at <!-- Page 25 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25"></a>[25]</span>the +greatest depths they descend, i. e. twenty fathoms, the bottom of the +sea is so troubled by the agitation of the waters, that the mud and +shells are carried to considerable distances, consequently +transportations of this kind are made in every part of the sea, and this +matter falling must form eminences, composed like our mountains, and in +every respect similar; therefore the flux and reflux, by the winds, the +currents, and all the motions of the water, must inevitably create +inequalities at the bottom of the sea.</p> + +<p>Nor must we imagine that these matters cannot be transported to great +distances, because we daily see grain, and other productions of the East +and West Indies, arriving on our own coasts.<a name="FNanchor_25:A_1" id="FNanchor_25:A_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_25:A_1" class="fnanchor">[25:A]</a> It is true these +bodies are specifically lighter than water, whereas the substances of +which we have been speaking are specifically heavier; but, however, +being reduced to an impalpable powder, they may be sustained a long time +in the water so as to be conveyed to considerable distances.</p> + +<p>It has been supposed that the sea is not troubled at the bottom, +especially if it is very <!-- Page 26 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26"></a>[26]</span>deep, by the agitations produced by the winds +and tides; but it should be recollected that the whole mass, however +deep, is put in motion by the tides, and that in a liquid globe this +motion would be communicated to the very centre; that the power which +produces the flux and reflux is a penetrating force, which acts +proportionably upon every particle of its mass, so that we can determine +by calculation the quantity of its force at different depths; but, in +short, this point is so certain, that it cannot be contested but by +refusing the evidence of reason.</p> + +<p>Therefore, we cannot possibly have the least doubt that the tides, the +winds, and every other cause which agitates the sea, must produce +eminences and inequalities at the bottom, and those heights must ever be +composed of horizontal or equally inclined strata. These eminences will +gradually encrease until they become hills, which will rise in +situations similar to the waves that produce them; and if there is a +long extent of soil, they will continue to augment by degrees; so that +in course of time they will form a vast chain of mountains. Being formed +into mountains, they become an obstacle to and interrupt the common +<!-- Page 27 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27"></a>[27]</span>motion of the sea, producing at the same time other motions, which are +generally called currents. Between two neighbouring heights at the +bottom of the sea a current will necessarily be formed, which will +follow their common direction, and, like a river, form a channel, whose +angles will be alternately opposite during the whole extent of its +course. These heights will be continually increasing, being subject only +to the motion of the flux, for the waters during the flow will leave the +common sediment upon their ridges; and those waters which are impelled +by the current will force along with them, to great distances, those +matters which would be deposited between both, at the same time +hollowing out a valley with corresponding angles at their foundation. By +the effects of these motions and sediments the bottom of the sea, +although originally smooth, must become unequal, and abounding with +hills and chains of mountains, as we find it at present. The soft +materials of which the eminences are originally composed will harden by +degrees with their own weight; some forming parts, purely angular, +produce hills of clay; others, consisting of sandy and crystalline +particles, compose those enormous masses of <!-- Page 28 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28"></a>[28]</span>rock and flint from whence +crystal and other precious stones are extracted; those formed with stony +particles, mixed with shells, form those of lime-stone and marble, +wherein we daily meet with shells incorporated; and others, compounded +of matter more shelly, united with pure earth, compose all our beds of +marle and chalk. All these substances are placed in regular beds, and +all contain heterogeneous matter; marine productions are found among +them in abundance, and nearly according to the relation of their +specific weights; the lightest shells in chalk, and the heaviest in clay +and lime-stone; these shells are invariably filled with the matter in +which they have been inclosed, whether stones or earth; an incontestible +proof that they have been transported with the matter that fills and +surrounds them, and that this matter was at that time in an impalpable +powder. In short, all those substances whose horizontal situations have +been established by the level of the waters of the sea, will constantly +preserve their original position.</p> + +<p>But here it may be observed, that most hills, whose summits consist of +solid rocks, stone, or marble, are formed upon small eminences of much +lighter materials, such for instance as <!-- Page 29 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29"></a>[29]</span>clay, or strata of sand, which +we commonly find extended over the neighbouring plains, upon which it +may be asked, how, if the foregoing theory be just, this seemingly +contradictory arrangement happens? To me this phenomenon appears to be +very easy and naturally explained. The water at first acts upon the +upper stratum of coasts, or bottom of the sea, which commonly consists +of clay or sand, and having transported this, and deposited the +sediment, it of course composes small eminences, which form a base for +the more heavy particles to rest upon. Having removed the lighter +substances, it operates upon the more heavy, and by constant attrition +reduces them to an impalpable powder; which it conveys to the same spot, +and where, being deposited, these stony particles, in the course of +time, form those solid rocks and quarries which we now find upon the +tops of hills and mountains. It is not unlikely that as these particles +are much heavier than sand or clay, that they were formerly a +considerable depth under a strata of that kind, and now owe their high +situations to having been last raised up and transported by the motion +of the water.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 30 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30"></a>[30]</span>To confirm what we here assert, let us more closely investigate the +situation of those materials which compose the superficial outer part of +the globe, indeed the only part with which we have any knowledge. The +different beds of strata in stone quarries are almost all horizontal, or +regularly inclined; those whose foundations are on clays or other solid +matters are clearly horizontal, especially in plains. The quarries +wherein we find flint, or brownish grey free-stone, in detached +portions, have a less regular position, but even in those the uniformity +of nature plainly appears, for the horizontal or regularly inclined +strata are apparent in quarries where these stones are found in great +masses. This position is universal, except in quarries where flint and +brown free-stone are found in small detached portions, the formation of +which we shall prove to have been posterior to those we have just been +treating of; for granite, vitrifiable sand, argol, marble, calcareous +stone, chalk, and marles, are always deposited in parallel strata, +horizontally or equally inclined; the original formation of these are +easily discovered, for the strata are exactly horizontal and very thin, +and are arranged above each other like the leaves <!-- Page 31 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31"></a>[31]</span>of a book. Beds of +sand, soft and hard clay, chalk, and shells, are also either horizontal +or regularly inclined. Strata of every kind preserves the same thickness +throughout its whole extent, which often occupies the space of many +miles, and may be traced still farther by close and exact observations. +In a word, the materials of the globe, as far as mankind have been +enabled to penetrate, are arranged in an uniform position, and are +exactly similar.</p> + +<p>The strata of sand and gravel which have been washed down from mountains +must in some measure be excepted; in vallies they are sometimes of a +considerable extent, and are generally placed under the first strata of +the earth; in plains, they are as even as the most ancient and interior +strata, but near the bottom and upon the ridges of hills they are +inclined, and follow the inclination of the ground upon which they have +flowed. These being formed by rivers and rivulets, which are constantly +in vallies changing their beds, and dragging these sands and gravel with +them, they are of course very numerous. A small rivulet flowing from the +neighbouring heights, in the course of time will be sufficient to cover +a very spacious valley with a strata of sand and gravel, and I <!-- Page 32 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32"></a>[32]</span>have +often observed in hilly countries, whose base, as well as the upper +stratum, was hard clay, that above the source of the rivulet the clay is +found immediately under the vegetable soil, and below it there is the +thickness of a foot of sand upon the clay, and which extends itself to a +considerable distance. These strata formed by rivers are not very +ancient, and are easily discovered by the inequality of their thickness, +which is constantly varying, while the ancient strata preserves the same +dimensions throughout; they are also to be known by the matter itself, +which bears evident marks of having been smoothed and rounded by the +motions of the water. The same may be said of the turf and perished +vegetables which are found below the first stratum of earth in marshy +grounds; they cannot be considered as ancient, but entirely produced by +successive heaps of decayed trees and other plants. Nor are the strata +of slime and mud, which are found in many countries, to be considered as +ancient productions, having been formed by stagnated waters or +inundations of rivers, and are neither so horizontal, nor equally +inclined, as the strata anciently produced by the regular motions of the +sea. In the strata formed by rivers we <!-- Page 33 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33"></a>[33]</span>constantly meet with river, but +scarcely ever sea shells, and the few that are found are broken and +irregularly placed; whereas in the ancient strata there are no river +shells; the sea shells are in great quantities, well preserved, and all +placed in the same manner, having been transported at the same time and +by the same cause. How are we to account for this astonishing +regularity? Instead of regular strata, why do we not meet with the +matters that compose the earth jumbled together, without any kind of +order? Why are not rocks, marbles, clays, marles, &c. variously +dispersed, or joined by irregular or vertical strata? Why are not the +heaviest bodies uniformly found placed beneath the lightest? It is easy +to perceive that this uniformity of nature, this organization of earth, +this connection of different materials, by parallel strata, without +respect to their weights, could only be produced by a cause as powerful +and constant as the motion of the sea, whether occasioned by the regular +winds or by that of the flux and reflux, &c.</p> + +<p>These causes act with greater force under the equator than in other +climates, for there the winds are more regular and the tides run +<!-- Page 34 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34"></a>[34]</span>higher; the most extensive chains of mountains are also near the +equator. The mountains of Africa and Peru are the highest known, they +frequently extend themselves through whole provinces, and stretch, to +considerable distances under the ocean. The mountains of Europe and +Asia, which extend from Spain to China, are not so high as those of +South America and Africa. The mountains of the North, according to the +relation of travellers, are only hills in comparison with those of the +Southern countries. Besides, there are very few islands in the Northern +Seas, whereas in the torrid zone they are almost innumerable, and as +islands are only the summits of mountains, it is evident that the +surface of the earth has many more inequalities towards the equator than +in the northerly climes.</p> + +<p>It is therefore evident that the prodigious chain of mountains which run +from the West to the East in the old continent, and from the North to +the South in the new, must have been produced by the general motion of +the tides; but the origin of all the inferior mountains must be +attributed to the particular motions of currents, occasioned by the +winds and other irregular agitations of the sea: they <!-- Page 35 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35"></a>[35]</span>may probably have +been produced by a combination of all those motions, which must be +capable of infinite variations, since the winds and different positions +of islands and coasts change the regular course of the tides, and compel +them to flow in every possible direction: it is, therefore, not in the +least astonishing that we should see considerable eminences, whose +courses have no determined direction. But it is sufficient for our +present purpose to have demonstrated that mountains are not the produce +of earthquakes, or other accidental causes, but that they are the +effects resulting from the general order of nature, both as to their +organization and the position of the materials of which they are +composed.</p> + +<p>But how has it happened that this earth which we and our ancestors have +inhabited for ages, which, from time immemorial, has been an immense +continent, dry and removed from the reach of the waters, should, if +formerly the bottom of the ocean, be actually larger than all the +waters, and raised to such a height as to be distinctly separated from +them? Having remained so long on the earth, why have the waters now +abandoned it? What accident, what cause could produce <!-- Page 36 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36"></a>[36]</span>so great a +change? Is it possible to conceive one possessed of sufficient power to +produce such an amazing effect?</p> + +<p>These questions are difficult to be resolved, but as the facts are +certain and incontrovertible, the exact manner in which they happened +may remain unknown, without prejudicing the conclusions that may be +drawn from them; nevertheless, by a little reflection, we shall find at +least plausible reasons for these changes. We daily observe the sea +gaining ground on some coasts and losing it on others; we know that the +ocean has a continued regular motion from East to West; that it makes +loud and violent efforts against the low lands and rocks which confine +it; that there are whole provinces which human industry can hardly +secure from the rage of the sea; that there are instances of islands +rising above, and others being sunk under the waters. History speaks of +much greater deluges and inundations. Ought not this to incline us to +believe that the surface of the earth has undergone great revolutions, +and that the sea may have quitted the greatest part of the earth which +it formerly covered? Let us but suppose that the old and new worlds were +formerly but one continent, and that the <!-- Page 37 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37"></a>[37]</span>Atlantis of Plato was sunk by +a violent earthquake; the natural consequence would be, that the sea +would necessarily have flowed in from all sides, and formed what is now +called the Atlantic Ocean, leaving vast continents dry, and possibly +those which we now inhabit. This revolution, therefore, might be made of +a sudden by the opening of some vast cavern in the interior part of the +globe, which an universal deluge must inevitably succeed; or possibly +this change was not effected at once, but required a length of time, +which I am rather inclined to think; however these conjectures may be, +it is certain the revolution has occurred, and in my opinion very +naturally; for to judge of the future, as well as the past, we must +carefully attend to what daily happens before our eyes. It is a fact +clearly established by repeated observations of travellers, that the +ocean has a constant motion from the East to West; this motion, like the +trade winds, is not only felt between the tropics, but also throughout +the temperate climates, and as near the poles as navigators have gone; +of course the Pacific Ocean makes a continual effort against the coasts +of Tartary, China, and India; the Indian Ocean acts <!-- Page 38 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38"></a>[38]</span>against the east +coast of Africa; and the Atlantic in like manner against all the eastern +coasts of America; therefore the sea must have always and still +continues to gain land on the east and lose it on the west; and this +alone is sufficient to prove the possibility of the change Of earth into +sea, and sea into land. If, in fact, such are the effects of the sea's +motion from east to west, may we not very reasonably suppose that Asia +and the eastern continent is the oldest country in the world, and that +Europe and part of Africa, especially the western coasts of these +continents, as Great Britain, France, Spain, Muratania, &c. are of a +more modern date? Both history and physics agree in confirming this +conjecture.</p> + +<p>There are, however, many other causes which concur with the continual +motion of the sea from east to west, in producing these effects.</p> + +<p>In many places there are lands lower than the level of the sea, and +which are only defended from it by an isthmus of rocks, or by banks and +dykes of still weaker materials; these barriers must gradually be +destroyed by the constant action of the sea, when the lands <!-- Page 39 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39"></a>[39]</span>will be +overflowed, and constantly make part of the ocean. Besides, are not +mountains daily decreasing by the rains, which loosen the earth, and +carry it down into the vallies? It is also well known that floods wash +the earth from the plains and high grounds into the small brooks and +rivers, which in their turn convey it into the sea. By these means the +bottom of the sea is filling up by degrees, the surface of the earth +lowering to a level, and nothing but time is necessary for the sea's +successively changing places with the earth.</p> + +<p>I speak not here of those remote causes which stand above our +comprehension; of those convulsions of nature, whose least effects would +be fatal to the world; the near approach of a comet, the absence of the +moon, the introduction of a new planet, &c. are suppositions on which it +is easy to give scope to the imagination. Such causes would produce any +effects we chose, and from a single hypothesis of this nature, a +thousand physical romances might be drawn, and which the authors might +term, <strong class="allcapsc">THE THEORY OF THE EARTH</strong>. As historians we reject these vain +speculations; they are mere possibilities which suppose the destruction +<!-- Page 40 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40"></a>[40]</span>of the universe, in which our globe, like a particle of forsaken matter, +escapes our observation, and is no longer an object worthy regard; but +to preserve consistency, we must take the earth as it is, closely +observing every part, and by inductions judge of the future from what +exists at present; in other respects we ought not to be affected by +causes which seldom happen, and whose effects are always sudden and +violent; they do not occur in the common course of nature; but effects +which are daily repeated, motions which succeed each other without +interruption, and operations that are constant, ought alone to be the +ground of our reasoning.</p> + +<p>We will add some examples thereto; we will combine particular effects +with general causes, and give a detail of facts which will render +apparent, and explain the different changes that the earth has +undergone, whether by the eruption of the sea upon the land, or by +retiring from that which it had formerly covered.</p> + +<p>The greatest eruption was certainly that which gave rise to the +Mediterranean sea. The ocean flows through a narrow channel <!-- Page 41 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41"></a>[41]</span>between two +promontories with great rapidity, and then forms a vast sea, which, +without including the Black sea, is about seven times larger than the +kingdom of France. Its motion through the straits of Gibraltar is +contrary to all other straits, for the general motion of the sea is from +east to west, but in that alone it is from the west to the east, which +proves that the Mediterranean sea is not an ancient gulph, but that it +has been formed by an eruption, produced by some accidental cause; as an +earthquake which might swallow up the earth in the strait, or by a +violent effort of the ocean, caused by the wind, which might have forced +its way through the banks between the promontories of Gibraltar and +Ceuta. This opinion is authorised by the testimony of the ancients, who +declare in their writings, that the Mediterranean sea did not formerly +exist; and confirmed by natural history and observations made on the +opposite coasts of Spain, where similar beds of stones and earth are +found upon the same levels, in like manner as they are in two mountains, +separated by a small valley.</p> + +<p>The ocean having forced this passage, it ran at first through the +straits with much greater <!-- Page 42 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42"></a>[42]</span>rapidity than at present, and overflowed the +continent that joined Europe to Africa. The waters covered all the low +countries, of which we can only now perceive the tops of some of the +considerable mountains, such as parts of Italy, the islands of Sicily, +Malta, Corsica, Sardinia, Cyprus, Rhodes, and those of the Archipelago.</p> + +<p>In this eruption I have not included the Black sea, because the quantity +of water it receives from the Danube, Nieper, Don, and various other +rivers, is fully sufficient to form and support it; and besides, it +flows with great rapidity through the Bosphorus into the Mediterranean. +It might also be presumed that the Black and Caspian seas were formerly +only two large lakes, joined by a narrow communication, or by a morass, +or small lake, which united the Don and the Wolga near Tria, where these +two rivers flow near each other; nor is it improbable that these two +seas or lakes were then of much greater extent, for the immense rivers +which fall into the Black and Caspian seas may have brought down a +sufficient quantity of earth to shut up the communication, and form that +neck of land by which they are now separated; for we know great <!-- Page 43 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43"></a>[43]</span>rivers, +in the course of time, fill up seas and form new land, as the province +at the mouth of the Yellow river in China; Louisania at the mouth of the +Mississippi, and the northern part of Egypt, which owes its existence to +the inundations of the Nile; the rapidity of which brings down such +quantities of earth from the internal parts of Africa, as to deposit on +the shores, during the inundations, a body of slime and mud of more than +fifty feet in depth. The province of the Yellow river and Louisania +have, in like manner, been formed by the soil from the rivers.</p> + +<p>The Caspian sea is actually a real lake; having no communication with +other seas, not even with the lake Aral, which seems to have been a part +of it, being only separated from it by a large track of sand, in which +neither rivers nor canals for communication the waters have as yet been +found. This sea, therefore, has no external communication with any +other; and I do not know that we are authorised to suspect that it has +an internal one with the Black sea, or with the Gulph of Persia. It is +true the Caspian sea receives the Wolga and many other rivers, which +seem to furnish it <!-- Page 44 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44"></a>[44]</span>with more water than is lost by evaporation; but +independent of the difficulty of such calculation, if it had a +communication with any other sea, a constant and rapid current towards +the opening would have marked its course, and I never heard of any such +discovery being made; travellers of the best credit affirm to the +contrary, and consequently the Caspian sea must lose by evaporation just +as much water as it receives from the Wolga and other rivers.</p> + +<p>Nor is it any improbable conjecture that the Black sea will at some +period be separated from the Mediterranean; and that the Bosphorus will +be shut up, whenever the great rivers shall have accumulated a +sufficient quantity of earth to answer that effect; this may be the case +in the course of time by the successive diminution of waters in rivers, +in proportion as the mountains from whence they draw their sources are +lowered by the rains, and those other causes we have just alluded to.</p> + +<p>The Caspian and Black seas must therefore be looked upon rather as lakes +than gulphs of the ocean, for they resemble other lakes which receive a +number of rivers without any <!-- Page 45 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45"></a>[45]</span>apparent outlet, such as the Dead sea, +many lakes in Africa and other places. These two seas are not near so +salt as the Mediterranean or the ocean; and all voyagers affirm that the +navigation in the Black and Caspian seas, upon account of its +shallowness and quantity of rocks and quicksands, is so extremely +dangerous, that only small vessels can be used with safety which farther +proves they must not be looked upon as gulphs of the ocean, but as +immense bodies of water collected from great rivers.</p> + +<p>A considerable eruption of the sea would doubtless take place upon the +earth, if the isthmus which separates Africa from Asia was divided, as +the Kings of Egypt, and afterwards the Caliphs projected; and I do not +know that the communication between the Red sea and Mediterranean is +sufficiently established, as the former must be higher than the latter. +The Red sea is a narrow branch of the ocean, and does not receive into +it a single river on the side of Egypt, and very few on the opposite +coast; it will not therefore be subject to diminution, like those seas +and lakes which are constantly receiving slime and sand from those +rivers that flow into them. The <!-- Page 46 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46"></a>[46]</span>ocean supplies the Red sea with all its +water, and the motion of the tides is very evident in it, of course it +must be affected by every movement of the ocean. But the Mediterranean +must be lower than the ocean, because the current passes with great +rapidity through the straits; besides, it receives the Nile, which flows +parallel to the west coast of the Red sea, and which divides Egypt, a +very low country; from all which it appears probable, that the Red sea +is higher than the Mediterranean, and that if the isthmus of Suez was +cut through, there Would be a great inundation, and a considerable +augmentation of the Mediterranean would ensue; at least if the waters +were not restrained by dykes and sluices placed at proper distances, and +which was most likely the case if the ancient canal of communication +ever had existence.</p> + +<p>Without dwelling longer upon conjectures, which, although well founded, +may appear hazardous and rash, we shall give some recent and certain +examples of the change of the sea into land, and the land into sea. At +Venice the bottom of the Adriatic is daily rising, and if great care had +not been taken to clean and empty the canals, the whole would long +since <!-- Page 47 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47"></a>[47]</span>have formed part of the continent; the same may be said of most +ports, bays, and mouths of rivers. In Holland the bottom of the sea has +risen in many places; the gulph of Zuyderzee and the strait of the Texel +cannot receive such large vessels as formerly. At the mouth of all +rivers we find small islands, and banks of sand and earth brought down +by the waters, and it is certain the sea will be filled up in every part +where great rivers empty themselves. The Rhine is lost in the sands +which itself accumulated. The Danube and the Nile, and all great rivers, +after bringing down much sand and earth, no longer come to the sea by a +single channel; they divide into different branches, and the intervals +are filled up by the materials they have themselves brought thither. +Morasses daily dry up; lands forsaken by the sea are cultivated; we +navigate countries now covered by waters; in short, we see so many +instances of land changing into water, and water into land, that we must +be convinced of these alterations having, and will continue to take +place; so that in time gulphs will become continents; isthmusses, +straits; morasses, dry lands; and <!-- Page 48 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48"></a>[48]</span>the tops of our mountains, the shoals +of the sea.</p> + +<p>Since then the waters have covered, and may successively cover, every +part of the present dry land, our surprise must cease at finding every +where marine productions and compositions, which could only be the works +of the waters. We have already explained how the horizontal strata of +the earth were formed, but the perpendicular divisions that are commonly +found in rocks, clays, and all matters of which the globe is composed, +still remain to be considered. These perpendicular stratas are, in fact, +placed much farther from each other than the horizontal, and the softer +the matter the greater the distance; in marble and hard earths they are +frequently found only a few feet; but if the mass of rock be very +extensive, then these fissures are at some fathoms distant; sometimes +they descend from the top of the rock to the bottom, and sometimes +terminate at an horizontal fissure. They are always perpendicular in the +strata of calcinable matters, as chalk, marle, marble, &c. but are more +oblique and irregularly placed in vitrifiable substances, brown +freestone, and rocks of flint, where they are frequently adorned with +<!-- Page 49 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49"></a>[49]</span>chrystals, and other minerals. In quarries of marble or calcinable +stone, the divisions are filled with spar, gypsum, gravel, and an earthy +sand, which contains a great quantity of chalk. In clay, marls, and +every other kind of earth, excepting turf, these perpendicular divisions +are either empty or filled with such matters as the water has +transported thither.</p> + +<p>We need seek very little farther for the cause and origin of those +perpendicular cracks. The materials by which the different strata are +composed being carried by the water, and deposited as a kind of +sediment, must necessarily, at first, contain a considerable share of +water, the which, as they began to harden, they would part with by +degrees, and, as they must necessarily lessen in the course of drying, +that decrease would occasion them to split at irregular distances. They +naturally split in a perpendicular direction, because in that direction +the action of gravity of one particle upon another has no actual effect, +while, on the contrary, it is directly opposite in a horizontal +situation; the diminution of bulk therefore could have no sensible +effect but in a vertical line. I say it is the diminution of drying, and +not the <!-- Page 50 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50"></a>[50]</span>contained water forcing a place to issue, is the cause of these +perpendicular fissures, for I have often observed that the two sides of +those fissures answer throughout their whole height, as exactly as two +sides of a split piece of wood; their insides are rough and irregular, +whereas if they had been made by the motion of the water, they would +have been smooth and polished; therefore these cracks must be produced +suddenly and at once or by degrees in drying, like the flaws in wood, +and the greatest part of the water they contained evaporated through the +pores. The divisions of these perpendicular cracks vary greatly as to +the extent of their openings; some of them being not more than half an +inch, others increasing to one or two feet; there are some many fathoms, +and which form those precipices so often met with in the Alps and other +high mountains. The small ones are produced by drying alone, but those +which extend to several feet are the effects of other causes; for +instance, the sinking of the foundation on one side while the other +remains unmoved; if the base sinks but a line or two, it is sufficient +to produce openings of many feet in a rock of considerable height. +Sometimes rocks, which are founded on clay or <!-- Page 51 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51"></a>[51]</span>sand, incline to one +side, by which motion the perpendicular cracks become extended.</p> + +<p>I have not yet mentioned those large openings which are found in rocks +and mountains; they must have been produced by great sinkings, as of +immense caverns, unable longer to support the weight with which they +were encumbered, but these intervals are very different from +perpendicular fissures; they appear to be vacancies opened by the hand +of Nature for the communication of nations. In this manner all vacancies +in large mountains and divisions, by straits in the sea, seem to present +themselves; such as the straits of Thermopylæ, the ports of Caucasus, +the Cordeliers, the extremity of the straits of Gibraltar, the entrance +of the Hellespont, &c. These could not have been occasioned by the +simple separation by drying of matter, but by considerable parts of the +lands themselves being sunk, swallowed up, or overturned.</p> + +<p>These great sinkings, though produced by accidental causes, hold a first +place in the principal circumstances in the History of the Earth, and +not a little contributed to change the face of the Globe; the greatest +part of them have been produced by subterraneous fires, whose +<!-- Page 52 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52"></a>[52]</span>explosions cause earthquakes and volcanos; the force of these inflamed +and confined matters in the bowels of the earth is beyond compare; by it +cities have been swallowed up, provinces overturned, and mountains +overthrown. But however great this force may be, and prodigious as the +effects appear, we cannot assent to the opinion of those authors who +suppose these subterraneous fires proceed from an immense abyss of flame +in the centre of the earth, neither give we credit to the common notion +that they proceed from a great depth below the surface of the earth, air +being absolutely necessary for the support of inflammation. In examining +the materials which issue from volcanos, even in the most violent +eruptions, it appears very plain, that the furnace of the inflamed +matters is not at any great depth, as they are similar to those found in +mountains, disfigured only by the calcination, and the melting of the +metallic parts which they contain; and to be convinced that the matters +cast out by volcanos do not come from any great depth, we have only to +consider of the height of the mountain, and judge of the immense force +that would be necessary to cast up stones and minerals to the height of +half a league; for Ætna, Hecla, <!-- Page 53 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53"></a>[53]</span>and many other volcanos have at least +that elevation from the plains. Now it is perfectly well known that the +action of fire is equal in every direction; it cannot therefore act +upwards, with a force capable of throwing large stones half a league +high, without an equal re-action downwards, and on the sides, and which +re-action must very soon pierce and destroy the mountain on every side, +because the materials which compose it are not more dense and firm than +those thrown out; how then can it be imagined that the cavity, which +must be considered as the type or cannon, could resist so great a force +as would be necessary to raise those bodies to the mouth of the volcano? +Besides, if this cavity was deeper, as the external orifice is not +great, it would be impossible for so large a quantity of inflamed and +liquid matter to issue out at once, without clashing against each other, +and against the sides of the tube, and by passing through so long a +space they would run the chance of being extinguished and hardened. We +often see rivers of bitumen and melted sulphur, thrown out of the +volcanos with stones and minerals, flow from the tops of the mountains +into the plains; is it natural to imagine that matters so fluid, and so +little able to resist <!-- Page 54 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54"></a>[54]</span>violent action, should be elevated from any great +depth? All the observations that can be made on this subject will prove +that the fire of the volcano is not far from the summit of the mountain, +and that it never descends to the level of the plain.</p> + +<p>This idea of volcanos does not, however, render it inconsistent that +they are the cause of earthquakes, and that their shocks may be felt on +the plains to very considerable distances; nor that one volcano may not +communicate with another by means of subterraneous passages; but it is +of the depth of the fire's confinement that we now speak, and which can +only be at a small distance from the mouth of the volcano. It is not +necessary to produce an earthquake on a plain, that the bottom of the +volcano should be below the level of that plain; nor that there should +be internal cavities filled with the same combustible matter, for a +violent explosion, such as generally attends an eruption, may, like that +of a powder magazine give so great a shock by its re-action, as to +produce an earthquake that might be felt at a considerable distance.</p> + +<p>I do not mean to say that there are no earthquakes produced by +subterraneous fires, but <!-- Page 55 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55"></a>[55]</span>merely that there are some which proceed only +from the explosion of volcanos. In confirmation of what has been +advanced on this subject, it is certain that volcanos are seldom met +with on plains; on the contrary, they are constantly found in the +highest mountains, and their mouths at the very summit of them. If the +internal fires of the volcanos extended below the plains, would not +passages be opened in them during violent eruptions? In the first +eruption would not these fires rather have pierced the plains, where, by +comparison, the resistance must be infinitely weaker, than force their +way through a mountain more than half a league in height.</p> + +<p>The reason why volcanos appear alone in mountains, is, because much +greater quantities of minerals, sulphur, and pyrites, are contained in +mountains, and more exposed than in the plains; besides which, those +high places are more subject to the impressions of air, and receive +greater quantities of rain and damps, by which mineral substances are +capable of being heated and fermented into an absolute state of +inflammation.</p> + +<p>In short, it has often been observed, that, after violent eruptions, the +mountains have <!-- Page 56 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56"></a>[56]</span>shrunk and diminished in proportion to the quantity of +matter which has been thrown out; another proof that the volcanos are +not situated at the bottom of the mountain, but rather at no great +distance from the summit itself.</p> + +<p>In many places earthquakes have formed considerable hollows, and even +separations in mountains; all other inequalities have been produced at +the same time with the mountains themselves by the currents of the sea, +for in every place where there has not been a violent convulsion, the +strata of the mountains are parallel, and their angles exactly +correspond. Those subterraneous caverns which have been produced by +volcanos are easily to be distinguished from those formed by water; for +the water, having washed away the sand and clay with which they are +filled, leaves only the stones and rocks, and this is the origin of +caverns upon hills; while those found upon the plains are commonly +nothing but ancient pits and quarries, such as the salt quarries of +Maestricht, the mines of Poland, &c. But natural caverns belong to +mountains: they receive the water from the summit and its environs, from +whence it issues over the surface wherever it can obtain a passage; and +these are the sources of springs <!-- Page 57 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57"></a>[57]</span>and rivers, and whenever a cavern is +filled by any part falling in, an inundation generally ensues.</p> + +<p>From what we have related, it is easy to be seen how much subterraneous +fires contribute to change the surface and internal part of the globe. +This cause is sufficiently powerful to produce very great effects: but +it is difficult to conceive how the winds should occasion any sensible +alterations upon the earth. The sea appears to be their empire, and +indeed, excepting the tides, nothing has so powerful an influence upon +the ocean; even the flux and reflux move in an uniform manner, and their +effects are regularly the same; but the action of the winds is +capricious and violent; they sometimes rush on with such impetuosity, +and agitate the sea with such violence, that from a calm, smooth, and +tranquil plain, it becomes furrowed with waves rolling mountains high, +and dashing themselves to pieces against the rocks and shores. The winds +cause constant alterations on the surface of the sea, but the surface of +the land, which has so solid an appearance, we should suppose would not +be subject to similar effects; by experience, however, it is known that +the winds raise mountains of <!-- Page 58 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58"></a>[58]</span>sand in Arabia and Africa; and that they +cover plains with it; they frequently transport sand to great distances, +and many miles into the sea, where they accumulate in such quantities as +to form banks, downs, and even islands. It is also known that hurricanes +are the scourge of the Antilles, Madagascar, and other countries, where +they act with such fury, as to sweep away trees, plants, and animals, +together with the soil which gave them subsistence: they cause rivers to +ascend and descend, and produce new ones; they overthrow rocks and +mountains; they make holes and gulphs on the earth, and entirely change +the face of those unfortunate countries where they exist. Happily there +are but few climates exposed to the impetuosity of those dreadful +agitations of the air.</p> + +<p>But the greatest and most general changes in the surface of the earth +are produced by rains, floods, and torrents from the high lands. Their +origins proceed from the vapours which the sun raises above the surface +of the ocean, and which the wind transports through every climate. These +vapours, which are sustained in the air, and conveyed at the will of the +winds, are stopped in their progress by the tops of the hills which they +encounter, where they <!-- Page 59 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59"></a>[59]</span>accumulate until they become clouds and fall in +the form of rain, dew, or snow. These waters at first descend upon the +plains without any fixed course, but by degrees hollow out a bed for +themselves; by their natural bent they run to the bottom of mountains, +and penetrating or dissolving the land easiest to divide, they carry +earth and sand away with them, cut deep channels in the plains, form +themselves into rivers, and open a passage into the sea, which +constantly receives as much water from the land rivers as it loses by +evaporation. The windings in the channels of rivers have sinuosities, +whose angles are correspondent to each other, so that where the waves +form a saliant angle on one side, the other has an exactly opposite one; +and as hills and mountains, which may be considered as the banks of the +vallies which separate them, have also sinuosities in corresponding +angles, it seems to demonstrate that the vallies have been formed, by +degrees, by the currents of the sea, in the same manner as the rivers +have hollowed out their beds on the earth.</p> + +<p>The waters which run on the surface of the earth, and support its +verdure and fertility, are not perhaps one half of those which the +vapours <!-- Page 60 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60"></a>[60]</span>produce; for there are many veins of water which sink to great +depths in the internal part of the earth. In some places we are certain +to meet with water by digging; in others, not any can be found. In +almost all vallies and low grounds water is certain to be met with at +moderate depths; but, on the contrary, in all high places it cannot be +extracted from the bowels of the earth, but must be collected from the +heavens. There are countries of great extent where a spring cannot be +found, and where all the water which supplies the inhabitants and +animals with drink is contained in pools and cisterns. In the east, +especially in Arabia, Egypt, and Persia, wells are extremely scarce, and +the people have been obliged to make reservoirs of a considerable extent +to collect the waters as it falls from the heavens. These works, +projected and executed from public necessity, are the most beautiful and +magnificent monuments of the eastern nations; some of the reservoirs +occupy a space of two square miles, and serve to fertilize whole +provinces, by means of baths and small rivulets that let it out on every +side. But in low countries, where the greatest rivers flow, we cannot +dig far from the surface, without <!-- Page 61 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61"></a>[61]</span>meeting with water, and in fields +situate in the environs of rivers it is often obtained by a few strokes +with a pick-axe.</p> + +<p>The water, found in such quantities in low grounds, comes principally +from the neighbouring hills and eminences; at the time of great rains or +sudden melting of snow, a part of the water flows on the surface, but +most of it penetrates through the small cracks and crevices it finds in +the earth and rocks. This water springs up again to the surface wherever +it can find vent; but it often filters through the sand until it comes +to a bottom of clay or solid earth, where it forms subterraneous lakes, +rivulets, and perhaps rivers, whose courses are entirely unknown; they +must, however, follow the general laws of nature, and constantly flow +from the higher grounds to the lower, and consequently these +subterraneous waters must, in the end, fall into the sea, or collect in +some low place, either on the surface or in the interior part of the +earth; for there are several lakes into which no rivers enter, nor from +which there are not any issue; and a much greater number, which do not +receive any considerable river, that are the sources of the greatest +rivers <!-- Page 62 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62"></a>[62]</span>on earth; such as the lake of St. Laurence; the lake Chiamè, +from whence spring two great rivers that water the kingdoms of Asam and +Pegu; the lake of Assiniboil in America; those of Ozera in Muscovy, that +give rise to the river Irtis, and a great number of others. These lakes, +it is evident, must be produced by the waters from the high lands +passing through subterraneous passages, and collecting in the lowest +places. Some indeed have asserted that lakes are to be found on the +summit of the highest mountains; but to this no credit can be given, for +those found on the Alps, and other elevated places, are all surrounded +by much more lofty mountains, and derive their origin from the waters +which run down the sides, or are filtered through those eminences in the +same manner as the lakes in the plains obtain their sources from the +neighbouring hills which overtop them.</p> + +<p>It is apparent, therefore, that lakes have existence in the bowels of +the earth, especially under large plains and extensive vallies. +Mountains, hills, and all eminences have either a perpendicular or +inclined situation, and are exposed on all sides; the waters which fall +on <!-- Page 63 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63"></a>[63]</span>their summits, after having penetrated into the earth, cannot fail, +from the declivity of the ground, of finding issue in many places, and +breaking in forms out of springs and fountains, and consequently there +will be little, if any water, remain in the mountains. On the contrary, +in plains, as the water which filters through the earth can find no +vent, it must collect in subterraneous caverns, or be dispersed and +divided among sand and gravel. It is these waters which are so +universally diffused through low grounds. The bottom of a pit or well is +nothing else but a kind of bason into which the waters that issue from +the adjoining lands insinuate themselves, at first falling drop by drop, +but afterwards, as the passages are opened, it receives supplies from +greater distances, and then continually runs in little streams or rills; +from which circumstance, although we can find water in any part of a +plain, yet we can obtain a supply but for a certain number of wells, +proportionate to the quantity of water dispersed, or rather to the +extent of the higher lands from whence they come.</p> + +<p>It is unnecessary to dig below the level of the river to find water; it +is generally met with <!-- Page 64 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64"></a>[64]</span>at much less depths, and there is no appearance +that waters of rivers filter far through the earth. The origin of waters +found in the earth below the level of rivers is not to be attributed to +them; for in rivers or torrents which are dried up, or whose courses +have been turned, we find no greater quantity of water by digging in +their beds than in the neighbouring lands at an equal depth.</p> + +<p>A piece of land of five or six feet in thickness is sufficient to +contain water, and prevent it from escaping; and I have often observed +that the banks of brooks and pools are not sensibly wet at six inches +distance from the water.</p> + +<p>It is true that the extent of the filtration is in proportion as the +soil is more or less penetrable; but if we examine the standing pools +with sandy bottoms, we shall perceive the water confined in the small +compass it had hollowed itself, and the moisture spread but a very few +inches; even in vegetable earth it has no great extent, which must be +more porous than sand or hard soil. It is a certain fact, that in a +garden we may almost inundate one bed without those nearly adjoining +feeling <!-- Page 65 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65"></a>[65]</span>any moisture from it<a name="FNanchor_65:A_2" id="FNanchor_65:A_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_65:A_2" class="fnanchor">[65:A]</a>. I have examined pieces of garden +ground, eight or ten feet thick, which had not been stirred for many +years, and whose surface was nearly level, and found that the rain water +never penetrated deeper than three or four feet; and on turning it up in +the spring, after a wet winter, I found it as dry as when first heaped +together.</p> + +<p>I made the same observation on earth which had laid in ridges two +hundred years; below three or four feet it was as dry as dust; from +which it is plain that water does not extend so far by filtration as has +been generally imagined.</p> + +<p>By this means, therefore, the internal part of the earth can be supplied +with a very small part; but water by its own weight descends from the +surface to the greatest depths; it sinks through natural conduits, or +penetrates small passages for itself; it follows the roots of trees, the +cracks in rocks, the interstices in the earth, and divides and extends +on all sides into an infinity of small branches and rills, always +<!-- Page 66 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66"></a>[66]</span>descending until its passage is opposed by clay or some solid body, +where it continues collecting, and at length breaks out in form of +springs upon the surface.</p> + +<p>It would be very difficult to make an exact calculation of the quantity +of subterraneous waters which have no apparent vent. Many have pretended +that it greatly surpasses all the waters that are on the surface of the +earth.</p> + +<p>Without mentioning those who have advanced that the interior part of the +globe is entirely filled with water, there are some who believe there +are an infinity of floods, rivulets, and lakes in the bowels of the +earth. But this opinion does not seem to be properly founded, and it is +more probable that the quantity of subterraneous water, which never +appears on the surface, is not very considerable; for if these +subterraneous rivers are so very numerous, why do we never see any of +their mouths forcing their way through the surface? Besides, rivers, and +all running waters, produce great alterations on the surface of the +earth; they transport the soil, wear away the most solid rocks, and +displace all matters which oppose <!-- Page 67 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67"></a>[67]</span>their passage. It would certainly be +the same in subterraneous rivers; the same effects would be produced; +but no such alterations have ever as yet been observed; the different +strata remains parallel, and every where preserves its original +position; and it is but in a very few places that any considerable +subterraneous veins of water have been discovered. Thus water in the +internal part of the earth, though great, acts but in a small degree, as +it is divided in an infinity of little streams, and retained by a number +of obstacles; and being so generally dispersed, it gives rise to many +substances totally different from primitive matters, both in form and +organization.</p> + +<p>From all these observations we may fairly conclude, that it is the +continual motion of the flux and reflux of the sea which has produced +mountains, vallies, and other inequalities on the surface of the earth; +that it is the currents of the ocean which have hollowed vallies, raised +hills, and given them corresponding directions; that it is those waters +of the sea which, by transporting earth, &c. and depositing them in +horizontal layers, have formed the parallel strata; that it is the +waters from heaven, <!-- Page 68 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68"></a>[68]</span>which by degrees destroy the effects of the sea, by +continually lowering the summit of mountains, filling up vallies, and +stopping the mouths of gulphs and rivers, and which, by bringing all to +a level, will, in the course of time, return this earth to the sea, +which, by its natural operations, will again form new continents, +containing vallies and mountains exactly similar to those which we at +present inhabit.</p> + + +<div> +<hr class="footnotes" /> +<p class="sectctrfn">FOOTNOTES:</p> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_25:A_1" id="Footnote_25:A_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25:A_1"><span class="label">[25:A]</span></a> Particularly Scotland and Ireland.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_65:A_2" id="Footnote_65:A_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65:A_2"><span class="label">[65:A]</span></a> These facts are so easily demonstrated, that the +smallest observation will prove their veracity.</p> +</div> +</div> +</div> + + + +<div> +<hr class="newchapter" /> +<p><!-- Page 69 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69"></a>[69]</span></p> +<p class="titletwo">PROOF<br /> + +OF<br /> + +<i>THE THEORY OF THE EARTH</i>.</p> + + + + +<hr class="newchapter" /> +<h2><a name="ARTICLE_I" id="ARTICLE_I"></a>ARTICLE I.<br /> + +<small>ON THE FORMATION OF THE PLANETS</small>.</h2> + + +<p>Our subject being Natural History, we would willingly dispense with +astronomical observations; but as the nature of the earth is so closely +connected with the heavenly bodies, and such observations being +calculated to illustrate more fully what has been said, it is necessary +to give some general ideas of the formation, motion, figure of the earth +and other planets.</p> + +<p>The earth is a globe of about three thousand leagues diameter; it is +situate one thousand millions of leagues from the sun, around which it +makes its revolution in three hundred and sixty-five days. This +revolution is the <!-- Page 70 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70"></a>[70]</span>result of two forces; the one may be considered as an +impulse from right to left, or from left to right, and the other an +attraction from above downwards, or beneath upwards, to a common centre. +The direction of these two forces, and their quantities, are so nicely +combined and proportioned, that they produce an almost uniform motion in +an ellipse, very near to a circle. Like the other planets the earth is +opaque, it throws out a shadow; it receives and reflects the light of +the sun, round which it revolves in a space of time proportioned to its +relative distance and density. It also turns round its own axis once in +twenty-four hours, and its axis is inclined 66-1/4 degrees on the plane +of the orbit. Its figure is spheroidical, the two axes of which differ +about 160th part from each other, and the smallest axis is that round +which the revolution is made.</p> + +<p>These are the principal phenomena of the earth, the result of +discoveries made by means of geometry, astronomy, and navigation. We +shall not here enter into the detail of the proofs and observations by +which those facts have been ascertained, but only make a few remarks to +clear up what is still doubtful, and at the <!-- Page 71 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71"></a>[71]</span>same time give our ideas +respecting the formation of the planets, and the different changes thro' +which it is possible they have passed before they arrived at the state +we at present see them.</p> + +<p>There have been so many systems and hypotheses framed upon the formation +of the terrestrial globe, and the changes which it has undergone, that +we may presume to add our conjectures to those who have written upon the +subject, especially as we mean to support them with a greater degree of +probability than has hitherto been done: and we are the more inclined to +deliver our opinion upon this subject, from the hope that we shall +enable the reader to pronounce on the difference between an hypothesis +drawn from possibilities, and a theory founded in facts; between a +system, such as we are here about to present, on the formation and +original state of the earth, and a physical history of its real +condition, which has been given in the preceding discourse.</p> + +<p>Galileo having found the laws of falling bodies, and Kepler having +observed that the area described by the principal planets in moving +round the sun, and those of the satellites round the planets to which +they belong, are proportionable to the time of their revolutions, <!-- Page 72 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72"></a>[72]</span>and +that such periods were also in proportion to the square roots of the +cubes of their distances from the sun, or principal planets. Newton +found that the force which caused heavy bodies to fall on the surface of +the earth, extended to the moon, and retained it in its orbit; that this +force diminished in the same proportion as the square of the distance +increased, and consequently that the moon is attracted by the earth; +that the earth and planets are attracted by the sun; and that in general +all bodies which revolve round a centre, and describe areas proportioned +to the times of their revolution, are attracted towards that point. This +power, known by the name of <strong class="allcapsc">GRAVITY</strong>, is therefore diffused throughout +all matter; planets, comets, the sun, the earth, and all nature, is +subject to its laws, and it serves as a basis to the general harmony +which reigns in the universe. Nothing is better proved in physics than +the actual existence of this power in every material substance. +Observation has confirmed the effects of this power, and geometrical +calculations have determined the quantity and relations of it.</p> + +<p>This general cause being known, the effects would easily be deduced from +it, if the action <!-- Page 73 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73"></a>[73]</span>of the powers which produce it were not too +complicated. A single moment's reflection upon the solar system will +fully demonstrate the difficulties that have attended this subject; the +principal planets are attracted by the sun, and the sun by the planets; +the satellites are also attracted by their principal planets, and each +planet attracts all the rest, and is attracted by them. All these +actions and reactions vary according to the quantities of matter and the +distances, and produce great inequalities and irregularities. How is so +great a number of connections to be combined and estimated? It appears +almost impossible in such a crowd of objects to follow any particular +one; nevertheless those difficulties have been surmounted, and +calculation has confirmed the suppositions of them, each observation is +become a new demonstration, and the systematic order of the universe is +laid open to the eyes of all those who can distinguish truth from error.</p> + +<p>We feel some little stop, by the force of impulsion remaining unknown; +but this, however, does not by any means affect the general theory. We +evidently see the force of attraction always draws the planets towards +<!-- Page 74 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74"></a>[74]</span>the sun, they would fall in a perpendicular line, on that planet, if +they were not repelled by some other power that obliges them to move in +a straight line, and which impulsive force would compel them to fly off +the tangents of their respective orbits, if the force of attraction +ceased one moment. The force of impulsion was certainly communicated to +the planets by the hand of the Almighty, when he gave motion to the +universe; but we ought as much as possible to abstain in physics from +having recourse to supernatural causes; and it appears that a probable +reason may be given for this impulsive force, perfectly accordant with +the law of mechanics, and not by any means more astonishing than the +changes and revolutions which may and must happen in the universe.</p> + +<p>The sphere of the sun's attraction does not confine itself to the orbs +of the planets, but extends to a remote distance, always decreasing in +the same ratio as the square of the distance increases; it is +demonstrated that the comets which are lost to our sight, in the regions +of the sky, obey this power, and by it their motions, like that of the +planets, are regulated. All these stars, whose tracts are so different, +<!-- Page 75 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75"></a>[75]</span>move round the sun, and describe areas proportioned to the time; the +planets in ellipses more or less approaching a circle, and the comets in +narrow ellipses of a great extent. Comets and planets move, therefore, +by virtue of the force of attraction and impulsion, which continually +acting at one time obliges them to describe these courses; but it must +be remarked that comets pass over the solar system in all directions, +and that the inclinations of their orbits are very different, insomuch +that, although subject like the planets to the force of attraction, they +have nothing in common with respect to their progressive or impulsive +motions, but appear in this respect independent of each other: the +planets, on the contrary, move round the sun in the same direction, and +almost in the same plane, never exceeding 7-1/2 degrees of inclination +in their planes, the most distant from their orbits. This conformity of +position and direction in the motion of the planets, necessarily implies +that their impulsive force has been communicated to them by one and the +same cause.</p> + +<p>May it not be imagined, with some degree of probability, that a comet +falling into the body of the sun, will displace and separate some <!-- Page 76 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76"></a>[76]</span>parts +from the surface, and communicate to them a motion of impulsion, +insomuch that the planets may formerly have belonged to the body of the +sun, and been detached therefrom by an impulsive force, and which they +still preserve.</p> + +<p>This supposition appears to be at least as well founded as the opinion +of Leibnitz, who supposes that the earth and planets had formerly been +suns; and his system, of which an account will be given in the fifth +article, would have been more comprehensive and more agreeable to +probability, if he had raised himself to this idea. We agree with him in +thinking that this effect was produced at the time when Moses said that +God divided light from darkness; for, according to Leibnitz, light was +divided from darkness when the planets were extinguished; but in our +supposition there was a real physical separation, since the opaque +bodies of the planets were divided from the luminous matter which +composes the sun.</p> + +<p>This idea of the cause of the impulsive force of the planets will be +found much less objectionable, when an estimation is made of the +analogies and degrees of probability, by <!-- Page 77 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77"></a>[77]</span>which it may be supported. In +the first place, the motion of the planets are in the same direction, +from West to East, and therefore, according to calculation, it is +sixty-four to one that such would not have been the case, if they had +not been indebted to the same cause for their impulsive forces.</p> + +<p>This, probably, will be considerably augmented by the second analogy, +viz. that the inclination of the planes of the orbits do not exceed +7-1/2 degrees; for, by comparing the spaces, we shall find there is +twenty-four to one, that two planets are found in their most distant +places at the same time, and consequently âµ, or 7,692,624 to one, +that all six would by chance be thus placed; or, what amounts to the +same, there is a great degree of probability that the planets have been +impressed with one common moving force, and which has given them this +position. But what can have bestowed this common impulsive motion, but +the force and direction of the bodies by which it was originally +communicated? It may therefore be concluded, with great probability, +that the planets received their impulsive motion by one single stroke. +This likelihood, which is almost equivalent to a <!-- Page 78 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78"></a>[78]</span>certainty, being +established, I seek to know what moving bodies could produce this +effect, and I find nothing but comets capable of communicating a motion +to such vast bodies.</p> + +<p>By examining the course of comets, we shall be easily persuaded, that it +is almost necessary for some of them occasionally to fall into the sun. +That of 1680 approached so near, that at its perihelium it was not more +distant from the sun than a sixteenth part of its diameter, and if it +returns, as there is every appearance it will, in 2255, it may then +possibly fall into the sun; that must depend on the rencounters it will +meet with in its road, and of the retardment it suffers in passing +through the atmosphere of the sun<a name="FNanchor_78:A_3" id="FNanchor_78:A_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_78:A_3" class="fnanchor">[78:A]</a>.</p> + +<p>We may, therefore, presume with the great Newton, that comets sometimes +fall into the sun; but this fall may be made in different directions. If +they fall perpendicular, or in a direction not very oblique, they will +remain in the sun, and serve for food to the fire which that luminary +consumes, and the motion of impulsion which they will have communicated +to the sun, will produce no other effect than that of removing it more +or less, according as the mass of the comet will be more or less +<!-- Page 79 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79"></a>[79]</span>considerable; but if the fall of the comet is in a very oblique +direction, which will most frequently happen, then the comet will only +graze the surface of the sun, or slightly furrow it; and in this case it +may drive out some parts of matter to which it will communicate a common +motion of impulsion, and these parts so forced out of the body of the +sun, and even the comet itself, may then become planets, and turn round +this luminary in the same direction, and in almost the same plane. We +might perhaps calculate what quantity of matter, velocity, and direction +a comet should have, to impel from the sun an equal quantity of matter +to that which the six planets and their satellites contain; but it will +be sufficient to observe here, that all the planets, with their +satellites, do not make the 650th part of the mass of the sun,<a name="FNanchor_79:A_4" id="FNanchor_79:A_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_79:A_4" class="fnanchor">[79:A]</a> +because the density of the large planets, Saturn and Jupiter, is less +than that of the sun; and although the earth be four times, and the moon +near five times more dense than the sun, they are nevertheless but as +atoms in comparison with his extensive body.</p> + +<p>However inconsiderable the 650th part may be, yet it certainly at first +appears to require a very powerful comet to separate even that much +<!-- Page 80 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80"></a>[80]</span>from the body of the sun; but if we reflect on the prodigious velocity +of comets in their perihelion, a velocity so much the greater as they +approach nearer the sun; if, besides, we pay attention to the density +and solidity of the matter of which they must be composed, to suffer, +without being destroyed, the inconceivable heat they endure; and +consider the bright and solid light which shines through their dark and +immense atmospheres, which surround, and must obscure them, it cannot be +doubted that the comets are composed of extremely solid and dense +matters, and that they contain a greater quantity of matter in a small +compass; that consequently a comet of no extraordinary bulk may have +sufficient weight and velocity to displace the sun, and give a +projectile motion to a quantity of matter, equal to the 650th part of +the mass of this luminary. This perfectly agrees with what is known +concerning the density of planets, which always decreases as their +distance from the sun is increased, they having less heat to support; so +that Saturn is less dense than Jupiter, and Jupiter much less than the +earth; therefore if the density of the planets be, as Newton asserts, +proportionable to the quantity <!-- Page 81 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81"></a>[81]</span>of heat which they have to support, +Mercury will be seven times more dense than the earth, and twenty-eight +times denser than the sun; and the comet of 1680 would be 28,000 times +denser than the earth, or 112,000 times denser than the sun, and by +supposing it as large as the earth, it would contain nearly an equal +quantity of matter to the ninth part of the sun, or by giving it only +the 100th part of the size of the earth, its mass would still be equal +to the 900th part of the sun. From whence it is easy to conclude, that +such a body, though it would be but a small comet, might separate and +drive off from the sun a 900th or a 650th part, particularly if we +attend to the immense velocity with which comets move when they pass in +the vicinity of the sun.</p> + +<p>Besides this, the conformity between the density of the matter of the +planets, that of the sun deserves some attention. It is well known, +that, both on and near the surface of the earth, there are some matters +14 or 1500 times denser than others. The densities of gold and air are +nearly in this relation. But the internal parts of the earth and planets +are composed of a more uniform matter, whose <!-- Page 82 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82"></a>[82]</span>comparative density varies +much less; and the conformity in the density of the planets and that of +the sun is such, that of 650 parts which compose the whole of the matter +of the planets, there are more than 640 of the same density as the +matter of the sun, and only ten parts out of these 650 which are of a +greater density, for Saturn and Jupiter are nearly of the same density +as the sun, and the quantity of matter which these planets contain, is +at least 64 times greater than that of the four inferior planets, Mars, +the Earth, Venus, and Mercury. We must therefore admit, that the matter +of which the planets are generally composed is nearly the same as that +of the sun, and that consequently the one may have been separated from +the other.</p> + +<p>But it may be said, if the comet, by falling obliquely on the sun, drove +off the matter which compose the planets, they, instead of describing +circles of which the sun is the centre, would, on the contrary, at each +revolution, have returned to the same point from whence they departed, +as every projectile would which might be thrown off with sufficient +force from the surface of the earth, to oblige it to turn perpetually: +for it is easy to demonstrate that such, <!-- Page 83 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83"></a>[83]</span>in that instance, would be the +case, and therefore that the projection of the planets from the sun +cannot be attributed to the impulsion of a comet.</p> + +<p>To this I reply, that the matter which composes the planets did not come +from the sun, in ready formed globes, but in the form of torrents, the +motion of the anterior parts of which were accelerated by that of the +posterior; and that the attraction of the anterior parts also +accelerated the motion of the posterior, and that this acceleration +produced by one or other of these causes, or perhaps by both, might be +so great as to change the original direction of the motion occasioned by +the impulse of the comet, from which cause a motion has resulted, such +as we at present observe in the planets; especially when it is +considered the sun is displaced from its station by the shock of the +comet. An example will render this more reasonable; let us suppose, that +from the top of a mountain a musket ball is discharged, and that the +strength of the powder was sufficient to send it beyond the +semi-diameter of the earth, it is certain that this ball would pass +round the earth, and at each revolution return to the spot from whence +it had been discharged: <!-- Page 84 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84"></a>[84]</span>but, if instead of a musket-ball, we suppose a +rocket had been discharged, wherein the action of the fire being +durable, would greatly accelerate the motion of impulsion; this rocket, +or rather the cartouch which contained it, would not return to the same +place like the musket-ball, but would describe an orbit, whose perigee +would be much farther distant from the earth, as the force of +acceleration would be greater, and have changed the first direction.</p> + +<p>Thus, provided there had been any acceleration in the motion of +impulsion communicated to the torrent of matter by the fall of the +comet, it is probable that the planets formed in this torrent, acquired +the motion which we know they have in the circles and ellipsis of which +the sun is the centre and focus.</p> + +<p>The manner in which the great eruptions of volcanos are made, may afford +us an idea of this acceleration of motion. It has been remarked that +when Vesuvius begins to roar and eject the inflamed matter it contains, +the first cloud has but a small degree of velocity, but which is soon +accelerated by the impulse of the second; the second by the action of a +third, and so on, until the heavy mass of bitumen, <!-- Page 85 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85"></a>[85]</span>sulphur, cinders, +melted metal, and huge stones, appear like massive clouds, and although +they succeed each other nearly in the same directions, yet they greatly +change that of the first, and drive it far beyond what it would have +reached of itself.</p> + +<p>In answer to this objection, it may be further observed, that the sun +having been struck by the comet, received a degree of motion by the +impulse, which displaced it from its former situation; and that although +this motion of the sun is at present too little sensible for the notice +of astronomers, nevertheless it may still exist, and the sun describe a +curve round the centre of gravity of the whole system and if this is so, +as I presume it is, we see perfectly that the planets, instead of +returning near the sun at each revolution, will, on the contrary, have +described orbits, the points of the perihelion of which will be as far +distant from the sun, as it is itself from the place it originally +occupied.</p> + +<p>It may also be said, that if this acceleration of motion is made in the +same direction, no change in the perihelion will be produced: but can it +be thought that in a torrent, the particles of which succeed each other, +there has <!-- Page 86 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86"></a>[86]</span>been no change of direction; it is, on the contrary, very +probable that a considerable change did take place, sufficient to cause +the planets to move in the course they at present occupy.</p> + +<p>It may be further urged, that if the sun had been displaced by the shock +of a comet, it would move uniformly, and that hence this motion being +common to the whole system, no alteration was necessary; but might not +the sun before the shock have had a motion round the centre of the +cometry system, to which primitive motion the stroke of the comet may +have added or diminished? and would not that fully account for the +actual motion of the planets?</p> + +<p>If these suppositions are not admitted, may it not be presumed, that in +the stroke of the comet against the sun, there was an elastic force +which raised the torrent above the surface of the sun, instead of +directly impelling it? which alone would be sufficient to remove the +perihelion, and give the planets the motion they have retained. This +supposition is not without probability, for the matter of the sun may +possibly be very elastic, since light, the only part of it we are +acquainted with, seems, <!-- Page 87 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87"></a>[87]</span>by its effects, to be perfectly so. I own that +I cannot say whether it is by the one or the other of these reasons, +that the direction of the first motion of the impulse of the planets has +changed, but they suffice to shew that such an alteration is not only +possible but even probable, and that is sufficient for my purpose.</p> + +<p>But, without dwelling any longer on the objections which might be made, +I shall pursue the subject, and draw the fair conclusions on the proofs +which analogies might furnish in favour of my hypothesis: let us, +therefore, first see what might happen when these planets, and +particularly the earth, received their impulsive motion, and in what +state they were after having been separated from the sun. The comet +having, by a single stroke, communicated a projectile motion to a +quantity of matter equal to the 650th part of the sun's mass, the light +particles would of course separate from the dense, and form, by their +mutual attraction, globes of different densities: Saturn being composed +of the most gross and light parts, would be the most remote from the +sun: Jupiter being more dense than Saturn, would be less distant, and so +on. The larger and least solid planets are the most remote, because +they <!-- Page 88 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88"></a>[88]</span>received an impulsive motion stronger than the smallest, and more +dense: for, the force of impulsion communicating itself according to the +surface, the same stroke would have moved the grosser and lighter parts +of the matter of the sun with more velocity than the smallest and more +weighty; a separation therefore will be made of the dense parts of +different degrees, so that the density of the sun being equal to 100, +that of Saturn will be equal to 67, that of Jupiter to 94-1/2, that of +Mars to 200, that of the Earth to 400, that of Venus to 800, and that of +Mercury to 2800. But the force of attraction not communicating like that +of impulsion, according to the surface, but acting on the contrary on +all parts of the mass, it will have checked the densest portions of +matter; and it is for this reason that the densest planets are the +nighest the sun, and turn round that planet with greater rapidity than +the less dense planets, which are also the most remote.</p> + +<p>Jupiter and Saturn, which are the largest and principal planets of the +solar system, have retained the relation between their density and +impulsive motions, in the most exact proportions; the density of Saturn +is to that of Jupiter as 67 to 94-1/2 and their velocities are <!-- Page 89 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89"></a>[89]</span>nearly +as 88-2/3 to 120-1/72, or as 67 to 90-11/16; it is seldom that pure +conjectures can draw such exact relations. It is true, that by following +this relation between the velocity and density of planets, the density +of the earth ought to be only as 206-7/18, and not 400, which is its +real density; from hence it may be conceived, that our globe was +formerly less dense than it is at present. With respect to the other +planets, Mars, Venus, and Mercury, as their densities are known only by +conjecture, we cannot be certain whether this circumstance will destroy +or confirm our hypothesis. The opinion of Newton is, that density is so +much the greater, as the heat to which the planet is exposed is the +stronger; and it is on this idea that we have just said that Mars is one +time less dense than the Earth, Venus one time, Mercury seven times, and +the comet in 1680, 28,000 times denser than the earth: but this +proportion between the density of the planets and the heat which they +sustain, seems not well founded, when we consider Saturn and Jupiter, +which are the principal objects; for, according to this relation between +the density and heat, the density of Saturn would be about 4-7/18, and +that of Jupiter as 14-17/22, instead of 67 and <!-- Page 90 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90"></a>[90]</span>94-1/2, a difference too +great to be admitted, and must destroy the principles upon which it was +founded. Thus, notwithstanding the confidence which the conjectures of +Newton merit, I can but think that the density of the planets has more +relation with their velocity than with the degree of heat to which they +are exposed. This is only a final cause, and the other a physical +relation, the preciseness of which is remarkable in Jupiter and Saturn: +it is nevertheless true, that the density of the earth, instead of being +206-7/8, is found to be 400, and that consequently the terrestrial globe +must be condensed in this ratio of 206-7/8 to 400.</p> + +<p>But have not the condensations of the planets some relation with the +quantity of the heat of the sun which they sustain? If so, Saturn, which +is the most distant from that luminary, will have suffered little or no +condensation; and Jupiter will be condensed from 90-11/16 to 94-1/2. Now +the heat of the sun in Jupiter being to that of the sun upon the earth +as 14-17/22 are to 400, the condensations ought to be in the same +proportion. For instance, if Jupiter be condensed, as 90-11/16 to +94-1/2, and the earth had been placed in his orbit, it would have been +condensed from 206-7/8 to 215-990/1451, but the earth <!-- Page 91 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91"></a>[91]</span>being nearer the +sun, and receiving a heat, whose relation to that which Jupiter receives +is from 400 to 14-17/22, the quantity of condensation it would have +experienced on the orbit of Jupiter by the proportion of 400 to +14-17/22, which gives nearly 234-1/3 for the quantity which the earth +would be condensed. Its density was 206-7/8, by adding the quantity of +its acquired condensation, we find 400-7/8 for its actual density, which +nearly approaches the real density 400, determined to be so by the +parallax of the moon. As to other planets, I do not here pretend to give +exact proportions, but only approximations, to point out that their +densities have a strong relation to their velocity in their respective +orbits.</p> + +<p>The comet, therefore, by its oblique fall upon the surface of the sun, +having driven therefrom a quantity of matter equal to the 650th part of +its whole mass; this matter, which must be considered in a liquid state, +will at first have formed a torrent, the grosser and less dense parts of +which will have been driven the farthest, and the smaller and more +dense, having received only the like impulsion, will remain nearest its +source; the force of the sun's attraction would inevitably act upon all +the <!-- Page 92 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92"></a>[92]</span>parts detached from him, and constrain them to circulate around his +body, and at the same time the mutual attraction of the particles of +matter would form themselves into globes at different distances from the +sun, the nearest of which necessarily moving with greater rapidity in +their orbits than those at a distance.</p> + +<p>But another objection may be started, and it may be said, if the matter +which composes the planets had been separated from the sun, they, like +him, would have been burning and luminous bodies, not cold and opaque, +for nothing resembles a globe of fire less than a globe of earth and +water; and by comparison, the matter of the earth and planets is +perfectly different from that of the sun?</p> + +<p>To this it may be answered, that in the separation the matter changed +its form, and the light or fire was extinguished by the stroke which +caused this motion of impulsion. Besides, may it not be supposed that if +the sun, or a burning star, moved with such velocity as the planet, that +the fire would soon be extinguished; and that is the reason why all +luminous stars are fixed, and that those stars which are called new, and +which have probably <!-- Page 93 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93"></a>[93]</span>changed places, are frequently extinguished and +lost? This remark is somewhat confirmed by what has been observed in +comets; they must burn to the centre when they pass to their perihelium: +nevertheless they do not become luminous themselves, they only exhale +burning vapours, of which they leave a considerable part behind them in +their course.</p> + +<p>I own, that in a medium where there is very little or no resistance, +fire may subsist and suffer a very great motion without being +extinguished: I also own, that what I have just said extends only to the +stars which totally disappear, and not to those which have periodical +returns, and appear and disappear alternately without changing place in +the heavens. The phenomena of these stars has been explained in a very +satisfactory manner by M. de Maupertuis, in his discourse on the figures +of the planets. But the stars which appear and afterwards disappear +entirely, must certainly have been extinguished, either by the velocity +of their motion, or some other cause. We have not a single example of +one luminous star revolving round another; and among the number of +planets which compose our system, and <!-- Page 94 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94"></a>[94]</span>which move round the sun with +more or less rapidity, there is not one luminous of itself.</p> + +<p>It may also be added, that fire cannot subsist so long in the small as +in large masses, and that the planets must have burnt for some time +after they were separated from the sun, but were at length extinguished +for want of combustible matter, as probably would be the sun itself, and +for the same reason; but in a length of time as far beyond that which +extinguished the planets, as it exceeds in quantity of matter. Be this +as it may, the matter of which the planets are formed being separated +from the sun, by the stroke of a comet, that appears a sufficient reason +for the extinction of their fires.</p> + +<p>The earth and planets at the time of their quitting the sun, were in a +state of total liquid fire; in this state they remained only as long as +the violence of the heat which had produced it; and which heat +necessarily underwent a gradual decay: it was in this state of fluidity +that they took their circular forms, and that their regular motions +raised the parts of their equators, and lowered their poles. This +figure, which agrees so perfectly with the laws of hydrostatics, I am of +opinion with Leibnitz, <!-- Page 95 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95"></a>[95]</span>necessarily supposes that the earth and planets +have been in a state of fluidity, caused by fire, and that the internal +part of the earth must be a vitrifiable matter, of which sand, granite, +&c. are the fragments and scoria.</p> + +<p>It may, therefore, with some probability, be thought that the planets +appertained to the sun, that they were separated by a single stroke, +which gave to them a motion of impulsion, and that their position at +different distances from the sun proceeds only from their different +densities. It now only remains, to complete this theory, to explain the +diurnal motion of the planets, and the formation or the satellites; but +this, far from adding difficulties to my hypothesis, seems, on the +contrary, to confirm it.</p> + +<p>For the diurnal motion, or rotation, depends solely on the obliquity of +the stroke, an oblique impulse therefore on the surface of a body will +necessarily give it a rotative motion; this motion will be equal and +always the same, if the body which receives it is homogeneous, and it +will be unequal if the body is composed of heterogeneous parts, or of +different densities; hence we may conclude that in all the planets the +matter is homogeneous, since their diurnal <!-- Page 96 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96"></a>[96]</span>motions are equal, and +regularly performed in the same period of time. Another proof that the +separation of the dense or less dense parts were originally from the +sun.</p> + +<p>But the obliquity of the stroke might be such, as to separate from the +body of the principal planet a small part of matter, which would of +course continue to move in the same direction; these parts would be +united, according to their densities, at different distances from the +planet, by the force of their mutual attraction, and at the same time +follow its course round the sun, by revolving about the body of the +planet, nearly in the plane of its orbit. It is plain, that those small +parts so separated are the satellites: thus the formation, position, and +direction of the motions of the satellites perfectly agree with our +theory; for they have all the same motion in concentrical circles round +their principal planet; their motion is in the same direction, and that +nearly in the plane of their orbits. All these effects, which are common +to them, and which depend on an impulsive force, can proceed only from +one common cause, which is, impulsive motion, communicated to them by +one and the same oblique stroke.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 97 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97"></a>[97]</span>What we have just said on the cause of the motion and formation of the +satellites, will acquire more probability, if we consider all the +circumstances of the phenomena. The planets which turn the swiftest on +their axis, are those which have satellites. The earth turns quicker +than Mars in the relation of about 24 to 15; the earth has a satellite, +but Mars has none. Jupiter, whose rapidity round its axis is five to six +hundred times greater than that of the earth, has four satellites, and +there is a great appearance that Saturn, which has five, and a ring, +turns still more quickly than Jupiter.</p> + +<p>It may even be conjectured with some foundation, that the ring of Saturn +is parallel to the equator of the planet, so that the plane of the +equator of the ring, and that of Saturn, are nearly the same; for by +supposing, according to the preceding theory, that the obliquity of the +stroke by which Saturn has been set in motion was very great, the +velocity around the axis will, at first, have been in proportion as the +centrifugal force exceeds that of gravity, and there will be detached +from its equator and neighbouring parts, a considerable quantity of +<!-- Page 98 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98"></a>[98]</span>matter, which will necessarily have taken the figure of a ring, whose +plane must be nearly the same as that of the equator of the planet; and +this quantity of matter having been detached from the vicinity of the +equator of Saturn, must have lowered the equator of that planet, which +causes that, notwithstanding its rapidity, the diameters of Saturn +cannot be so unequal as those of Jupiter, which differ from each other +more than an eleventh part.</p> + +<p>However great the probability of what I have advanced on the formation +of the planets and their satellites may appear to me, yet, every man has +his particular measurement, to estimate probabilities of this nature; +and as this measurement depends on the strength of the understanding to +combine more or less distant relations, I do not pretend to convince the +incredulous. I have not only thought it my duty to offer these ideas, +because they appear to me reasonable, and calculated to clear up a +subject, on which, however important, nothing has hitherto been written, +but because the impulsive motion in the planets enter at least as one +half of the composition of the universe, which gravity alone cannot +unfold. I <!-- Page 99 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99"></a>[99]</span>shall only add the following questions to those who are +inclined to deny the possibility of my system.</p> + +<p>1. Is it not natural to imagine, that a body in motion has received that +motion by the stroke of another body?</p> + +<p>2. Is it not very probable, that when many bodies move in the same +direction, that they have received this direction by one single stroke, +or by many strokes directed in the same manner?</p> + +<p>3. Is it not more probable that when many bodies have the same direction +in their motion, and are placed in the same plane, that they received +this direction and this position by one and the same stroke, rather than +by a number?</p> + +<p>4. At the time a body is put in motion by the force of impulsion, is it +not probable that it receives it obliquely, and, consequently, is +obliged to turn on its axis so much the quicker, as the obliquity of the +stroke will have been greater? If these questions should not appear +unreasonable, the theory, of which we have presented the outlines, will +cease to appear an absurdity.</p> + +<p>Let us now pass on to something which more nearly concerns us, and +examine the <!-- Page 100 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100"></a>[100]</span>figure of the earth, on which so many researches and such +great observations have been made. The earth being, as it appears by the +equality of its diurnal motion and the constancy of the inclination of +its axis, composed of homogeneous parts, which attract each other in +proportion to their quantity of matter, it would necessarily have taken +the figure of a globe perfectly spherical, if the motion of impulsation +had been given it in a perpendicular direction to the surface; but this +stroke having been obliquely given, the earth turned on its axis at the +moment it took its form; and from the combination of this impulsive +force, the attraction of the parts, there has resulted a spheroid +figure, more elevated under the great circle of rotation, and lower at +the two extremities of the axis, and this because the action of the +centrifugal force proceeding from the diurnal rotation must diminish the +action of gravity. Thus, the earth being homogeneous, and having +received a rotative motion, necessarily took a spheroidical figure, the +two axes of which differ a 230th part from each other. This may be +clearly demonstrated, and does not depend on any hypothesis whatever. +The laws of gravity are perfectly <!-- Page 101 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101"></a>[101]</span>known, and we cannot doubt that +bodies attract each other in a direct ratio of their masses, and in an +inverted ratio, at the squares of their distances; so likewise we cannot +doubt, that the general action of any body is not composed of all the +particular actions of its parts. Thus each part of matter mutually +attracts in a direct ratio of its mass and an inverted ratio of its +distance, and from all these attractions there results a sphere when +there is no rotatory motion, and a spheroid when there is one. This +spheroid is longer or shorter at the two extremities of the axis of +rotation, in proportion to the velocity of its diurnal motion, and the +earth has then, by virtue of its rotative velocity, and of the mutual +attraction of all its parts, the figure of a spheroid, the two axes of +which are as 229 to 230 to one another.</p> + +<p>Thus, by its original constituent, by its homogeneousness, and +independent of every hypothesis from the direction of gravity, the earth +has taken this figure of a spheroid at its formation, and agreeable to +mechanical laws: its equatorial diameter was raised about 6-1/2 leagues +higher than under the poles.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 102 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102"></a>[102]</span>I shall dwell on this article, because there are still geometricians who +think that the figure of the earth depends upon theory, and this from a +system of philosophy they have embraced, and from a supposed direction +of gravity. The first thing we have to demonstrate is, the mutual +attraction of every part of matter, and the second the homogeneousness +of the terrestrial globe; if we clearly prove, that these two +circumstances are really so, there will no longer be any hypothesis to +be made on the direction of gravity: the earth will necessarily have the +figure Newton decided in favour of, and every other figure given to it +by virtue of vortexes or other hypotheses, will not be able to subsist.</p> + +<p>It cannot be doubted, that it is the force of gravity which retains the +planets in their orbits; the satellites of Saturn gravitate towards +Saturn, those of Jupiter towards Jupiter, the Moon gravitates towards +the Earth: and Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, the Earth, Venus, and Mercury, +gravitate towards the Sun: so likewise Saturn and Jupiter gravitate +towards their satellites, the Earth gravitates towards the Moon, and the +Sun towards the whole of the <!-- Page 103 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103"></a>[103]</span>planets. Gravitation is therefore general +and mutual in all the planetary system, for action cannot be exercised +without a re-action; all the planets, therefore, act mutually one on the +other. This mutual attraction serves as a foundation to the laws of +their motion, and is demonstrated to exist by its effects. When Saturn +and Jupiter are in conjunction, they act one on the other, and this +attraction produces an irregularity in their motion round the Sun. It is +the same with the Earth and the Moon, they also mutually attract each +other; but the irregularities of the motion of the Moon, proceeds from +the attraction of the Sun, so that the Earth, the Sun, and the Moon, +mutually act one on the other. Now this mutual attraction of the +planets, when the distances are equal, is proportional to their quantity +of matter, and the same force of gravity which causes heavy matter to +fall on the surface of the Earth, and which extends to the Moon, is also +proportional to the quantity of matter; therefore the total gravity of a +planet is composed of the gravity of each of its parts; from whence all +the parts of the matter, either in the Earth or in the planets, mutually +attract each other and the Earth, by its rotation round its own <!-- Page 104 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104"></a>[104]</span>axis, +has necessarily taken the figure of a spheroid, the axes of which are as +229 to 230. The direction of the weight must be perpendicular to the +Earth's surface; consequently no hypothesis, drawn from the direction of +gravity, can be sustained, unless the general attraction of the parts of +matter be denied; but the existence of this mutual attraction is +demonstrated by observations, and the experiment of pendulums prove, +that its extension is general; therefore we cannot support an hypothesis +on the direction of gravity without going against experience and reason.</p> + +<p>Let us now proceed to examine whether the matter of which the +terrestrial globe is composed be homogeneous. I admit, that if it is +supposed the globe is more dense in some parts than in others, the +direction of gravity must be different from what we have just assigned, +and that the figure of the Earth would also differ agreeable to those +suppositions. But what reason have we to make these suppositions? Why, +for example, should we suppose that the parts near the centre are denser +than those which are more remote? Are not all the particles which +compose the globe collected together by their mutual attraction? <!-- Page 105 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105"></a>[105]</span>hence, +each particle is a centre, and there is no reason to believe, that the +parts which surround the centre are denser than those which are about +any other point. Besides, if one considerable part of the globe was +denser than another, the axis of rotation would be found near the dense +parts, and an inequality would ensue in the diurnal revolution; we +should remark an inequality in the apparent motion of the fixed stars; +they would appear to move more quick or slow in the zenith, or horizon, +according as we should be placed on the denser or lighter parts of the +earth; and the axis of the globe no longer passing through the centre of +gravity, would also very sensibly change its position: but nothing like +this ever happens; on the contrary, the diurnal motion of the earth is +equal and uniform. At all parts of the Earth's surface, the stars appear +to move with the same velocity at all heights, and if there be any +rotation in its axis, it is so trifling as to have escaped observation: +it must therefore be concluded, that the globe is homogeneous, or nearly +so in all its parts.</p> + +<p>If the earth was a hollow and void globe, and the crust of which, for +example, not more than two or three miles thick; it would <!-- Page 106 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106"></a>[106]</span>produce these +effects. 1. The mountains would be such considerable parts of the whole +thickness of the crust, that great irregularities in the motions of the +Earth would be occasioned by the attraction of the Moon and Sun: for +when the highest parts of the globe, as the Cordeliers, should have the +Moon at noon, the attraction would be much stronger on the whole globe +than when she was in the meridian of the lowest parts. 2. The attraction +of mountains would be much more considerable than it is in comparison +with the attraction of the whole globe, and experiments made at the +mountain of Chimboraco, in Peru, would in this case give more degrees +than they have given seconds for the deviation of the plumb line. 3. The +weight of bodies would be greater on the tops of high mountains than on +the planes; so that we should feel ourselves considerably heavier, and +should walk with more difficulty in high than in low places. These +observations, with many others that might be added, must convince us, +that the inner parts of the globe is not void, but filled with a dense +matter.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, if below the depth of two or three miles, the earth +was filled with <!-- Page 107 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107"></a>[107]</span>a matter much more dense than any known, it would +necessarily occur, that every time we descended to moderate depths, we +should weigh much more, and the motion of pendulums would be more +accelerated than in fact they are when carried from an eminence into a +plain: thus, we may presume that the internal part of the Earth is +filled with a matter nearly similar to that which composes its surface. +What may complete our determination in favour of this opinion is, that +in the first formation of the globe, when it took its present +spheroidical figure, the matter which composed it was in fusion, and, +consequently, all its parts were homogeneous, and nearly equally dense. +From that time the matter on the surface, although originally the same +with the interior, has undergone a variety of changes by external +causes, which has produced materials of such different densities; but it +must be remarked, that the densest matters, as gold and metals, are also +those the most seldom to be met with, and consequently the greatest part +of the matter at the surface of the globe has not undergone any very +great changes with relation to its density; the most common materials, +as sand and clay, differ very little, insomuch, that we may conjecture, +<!-- Page 108 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108"></a>[108]</span>with great probability, that the internal part of the earth is composed +of a vitrified matter, the density of which is nearly the same as that +of sand, and that consequently the terrestrial globe in general may be +regarded as homogeneous.</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding this, it may be urged, that although the globe was +composed of concentrical strata of different densities, the diurnal +motion might be equally certain, and the uniform inclination of the axis +as constant and undisturbed as it could be, on the supposition of its +being composed of homogeneous matter. I acknowledge it, but I ask at the +same time, if there is any reason to believe that strata of different +densities do exist? If these conclusions be not rather a desire to +adjust the works of Nature to our own ideas? And whether in physics we +ought to admit suppositions which are not founded on observations or +analogy?</p> + +<p>It appears, therefore, that the earth, by virtue of the mutual +attraction of its parts and its diurnal motion, assumed the figure of a +spheroid; that it necessarily took that form from being in a state of +fluidity; that, agreeable to the laws of gravity and of a centrifugal +force, it could have no other figure: that in the moment of its +<!-- Page 109 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109"></a>[109]</span>formation as at present, there was a difference between the two +diameters equal to a 230th part, and that, consequently, every +hypothesis in which we find greater or less difference are fictions +which merit no attention.</p> + +<p>But it may be said, if this theory is true, and if 229 to 230 is the +just relation of the axis, why did the mathematicians, sent to Lapland +and Peru, agree to the relation of 174 to 175? From whence does this +difference arise between theory and practice? And is it not more +reasonable to give the preference to practice and measures, especially +when we have been taken by the most able mathematicians of +Europe<a name="FNanchor_109:A_5" id="FNanchor_109:A_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_109:A_5" class="fnanchor">[109:A]</a>, and with all necessary apparatus to establish the result.</p> + +<p>To this I answer, that I have paid attention to the observations made at +the equator and near the polar circle; that I have no doubt of their +being exact, and that the earth may possibly be elevated an 175th part +more at the equator than at the poles. But, at the same time, I maintain +my theory, and I see clearly how the two conclusions may be reconciled. +This difference is about four leagues in the two axes, so that the parts +at the equator are raised two leagues more <!-- Page 110 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110"></a>[110]</span>than they ought to be, +according to my theory; this height answers exactly to the greatest +inequalities on the surface of the globe, produced by the motion of the +sea, and the action of the fluids. I will explain; it appears that when +the earth was formed, it must necessarily have taken, by virtue of the +mutual attraction of its parts, and the action of the centrifugal force, +a spheroidical figure, the axes of which differ a 230th part: the +original earth must have had this figure, which it took when it was +fluid, or rather liquified by the fire; but after its formation the +vapours which were extended and rarefied, as in the atmosphere and tail +of a comet, became condensed, and fell on the surface in form of air and +water: and when these waters became agitated by the flux and reflux, the +matters were, by degrees, carried from the poles towards the equatorial +parts; so that the poles were lowered about a league, and those of the +equator raised in the same proportion; this was not suddenly done, but +by degrees in succession of time; the earth being also exposed to the +action of the winds, air, and sun; all these irregular causes concurred +with the flux and reflux to furrow its surface, hollow it into valleys, +and raise it into mountains; and <!-- Page 111 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111"></a>[111]</span>producing other inequalities and +irregularities, of which, nevertheless, the greatest thickness does not +exceed one league at the equator; this inequality of two leagues, is, +perhaps, the greatest which can be on the surface of the earth, for the +highest mountains are scarce above one league in height, and there is +much probability of the sea's not being more at its greatest depth. The +theory is therefore true, and practice may be so likewise; the earth at +first could not be raised above 6-1/2 leagues more at the equator than +the poles, but the changes which have happened to its surface might +afterwards raise it still more. Natural History wonderfully confirms +this opinion, for we have proved in the preceding discourse that the +flux and reflux, and other motions of the water, have produced mountains +and all the inequalities on the surface of the globe, that this surface +has undergone considerable changes, and that at the greatest depths, as +well as on the greatest heights, bones, shells and other wrecks of +animals, which inhabit the sea and earth, are met with.</p> + +<p>It may be conjectured, from what has been said, that to find ancient +earth, and matters which have never been removed from the spot <!-- Page 112 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112"></a>[112]</span>in which +they were first placed, we must dig near the poles, where the bed of the +earth must be thinner than in the Southern climates.</p> + +<p>On the whole, if we strictly examine the measures by which the figure of +the earth is determined, we shall perceive this hypothesis enters into +such determination; for it supposes the earth to have the figure of a +regular curve, whereas from the constant changes the earth is +continually undergoing from a variety and combination of causes, it is +almost impossible that it should have retained any regular figure, and +hence the poles might, originally, only be flattened a 230th part, as +Newton says, and as my theory requires. Besides, although we had exactly +the length of the degree at the polar circle and equator, have we not +also the length of the degree as exactly in France? And the measure of +M. Picard, has it not been verified? Add to this that the augmentation +and diminution in the motion of the pendulum, do not agree with the +result drawn from measurement, and that, on the contrary, they differ +very little from the theory of Newton. This is surely more than is +requisite to convince us that the poles are not flattened more than a +230th part, and that if <!-- Page 113 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113"></a>[113]</span>there is any difference, it can proceed only +from the inequalities, which the water and other external causes have +produced on its surface; but these inequalities being more irregular +than regular, we must not form any hypothesis thereon, nor suppose, that +the meridians are ellipses, or any other regular curves. From whence we +perceive, that if we should successively measure many degrees of the +earth in all directions, we still should not be certain by that alone, +of the exact situation of the poles, nor whether they were depressed +more or less than the 230th part.</p> + +<p>May it not also be conjectured, that if the inclination of the axis of +the earth has changed, it can only be produced by the changes which have +happened to the surface, since all the rest of the globe is homogeneous; +that consequently this variation is too little sensible to be perceived +by astronomers, and that if the earth is not encountered with a comet, +or deranged, by any other external cause, its axis will remain +perpetually inclined as it is at present, and as it has always been?</p> + +<p>In order not to omit any conjecture which appears reasonable, may it not +be said, that as the mountains and inequalities which are on the +<!-- Page 114 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114"></a>[114]</span>surface of the earth have been formed by the flux and reflux of the sea, +the mountains and inequalities which we remark on the surface of the +moon, have been produced by a similar cause? they certainly are much +higher than those of the earth, but then her tides are also much +stronger, occasioned by the earth's being considerably larger than the +moon, and consequently producing her tides with a superior force; and +this effect would be much greater if the moon had, like the earth, a +rapid rotation; but as the moon presents always the same surface to the +earth, the tides cannot operate but in proportion to the motion arising +from her libration, by which it alternatively discovers to us a segment +of its other hemisphere; this, however, must produce a kind of flux and +reflux, quite different from that of our sea, and the effects of which +will be much less considerable than if the moon had from its course a +revolution round its axis, as quick as the rotation of the terrestrial +globe.</p> + +<p>I should furnish a volume as large as that of Burnet or Whiston's, if I +were to enlarge on the ideas which arise in support of the above; by +giving them a geometrical air, in imitation of the last author, I might +add considerably to <!-- Page 115 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115"></a>[115]</span>their weight; but, in my opinion, hypothesis, +however probable, ought not to be treated with such pomposity; it being +a dress which borders so much on quackery.</p> + + +<div> +<hr class="footnotes" /> +<p class="sectctrfn">FOOTNOTES:</p> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_78:A_3" id="Footnote_78:A_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78:A_3"><span class="label">[78:A]</span></a> Vide Newton, 2d edit. page 525.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_79:A_4" id="Footnote_79:A_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79:A_4"><span class="label">[79:A]</span></a> Vid. Newton, page 405.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_109:A_5" id="Footnote_109:A_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_109:A_5"><span class="label">[109:A]</span></a> M. de Maupertuis' Figure of the Earth.</p> +</div> +</div> +</div> + + + + +<div> +<hr class="newchapter" /> +<h2><a name="ARTICLE_II" id="ARTICLE_II"></a>ARTICLE II.<br /> + +<small>FROM THE SYSTEM OF WHISTON<a name="FNanchor_115:A_6" id="FNanchor_115:A_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_115:A_6" class="fnanchor">[115:A]</a>.</small></h2> + + +<p>This Author commences his treatise by a dissertation on the creation of +the world; he says that the account of it given by Moses in the text of +Genesis has not been rightly understood; that the translators have +confined themselves too much to the letter and superficial views, +without attending to nature, reason, and philosophy. The common notion +of the world being made in six days, he says is absolutely false, and +that the description given by Moses, is not an exact and philosophical +narration of the creation and origin of the universe, but only an +historical representation <!-- Page 116 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116"></a>[116]</span>of the terrestrial globe. The earth, +according to him, existed in the chaos; and, at the time mentioned by +Moses, received the form, situation and consistency necessary to be +inhabited by the human race. I shall not enter into a detail of his +proofs, nor undertake their refutation. The exposition we have just +made, is sufficient to demonstrate the difference of his opinion with +public facts, its contrariety with scripture, and consequently the +insufficiency of his proofs. On the whole, he treats this matter as a +theological controvertist, rather than as an enlightened philosopher.</p> + +<p>Leaving these erroneous principles, he flies to ingenious suppositions, +which, although extraordinary, yet have a degree of probability to those +who, like him, incline to the enthusiasm of system. He says, that the +ancient chaos, the origin of our earth, was the atmosphere of a comet: +that the annual motion of the earth began at the time it took its new +form, but that its diurnal motion began only when the first man fell. +That the ecliptic cut the tropic of cancer, opposite to the terrestrial +paradise, which was situated on the north-west side of the frontiers of +Assyria: that before the deluge, the year began at the autumnal +equinox: <!-- Page 117 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117"></a>[117]</span>that the orbits of the planets, and the earth were then +perfect circles. That the deluge began the 18th of November, 2365 of the +Julian period, or 2349 years before Christ. That the solar and lunar +year were then the same, and that they exactly contained 360 days. That +a comet descending in the plane of the ecliptic towards its perihelion, +passed near the globe of the earth the same day as the deluge began: +that there is a great heat in the internal part of the terrestrial +globe, which constantly diffuses itself from the centre to the +circumference; that the form of the earth is like that of an egg, the +ancient emblem of the globe; that mountains are the lightest part of the +earth, &c. He afterwards attributes all the alterations and changes +which have happened to the earth, to the universal deluge; then blindly +adopts the theory of Woodward, and indiscriminately makes use of all the +observations of that author on the present state of the globe; but +assumes originality when he speaks of its future state: according to him +it will be consumed by fire, and its destruction will be preceded by +terrible earthquakes, thunder, and frightful meteors; the Sun and Moon +will have an hideous aspect, the heavens will appear to <!-- Page 118 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118"></a>[118]</span>fall, and the +flames will be general over all the earth; but when the fire shall have +devoured all the impurities it contains; when it shall be vitrified and +rendered transparent as crystal, the saints and the blessed spirits will +return and take possession of it, and there remain till the day of +judgment.</p> + +<p>These hypotheses, at the first glance, appear to be rash and extravagant +assertions; nevertheless the author has managed them with such address, +and treated them with such strength, that they cease to appear +absolutely chimerical. He supports his subjects with much science, and +it is surprising that, from a mixture of ideas so very absurd, a system +could be formed with an air of probability. It has not affected vulgar +minds so much as it has dazzled the eyes of the learned, because they +are more easily deceived by the glare of erudition, and the power of +novel ideas. Mr. Whiston was a celebrated astronomer, in the constant +habit of considering the heavens, observing the stars, and contemplating +the wonderful course of nature; he could never persuade himself that +this small grain of sand, this Earth which we inhabit, occupied more the +attention of the Creator than the universe, the vast extent of which +<!-- Page 119 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119"></a>[119]</span>contains millions of other Suns and Earths. He pretends, that Moses has +not given us the history of the first creation of this globe, but only a +detail of the new form that it took when the Almighty turned it from the +mass of a comet into a planet, and formed it into a proper habitation +for men. Comets are, in fact, subjected to terrible vicissitudes by +reason of the eccentricity of their orbits. Sometimes, like that in +1680, it is a thousand times hotter there than red-hot iron; and +sometimes a thousand times colder than ice; if they are, therefore, +inhabited it must be by strange creatures, of which we can have no +conception.</p> + +<p>The planets, on the contrary, are places of rest, where the distance of +the sun not varying much, the temperature remains nearly the same, and +permits different kinds of plants and animals to grow and multiply.</p> + +<p>In the beginning God created the world; but, observes our author, the +earth was then an uninhabitable comet, suffering alternatively the +excess of heat and cold, its liquifying and freezing by turns formed a +chaos, or an abyss, surrounded with thick darkness: "and darkness +covered the face of the deep," <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">& tenebræ erant superfaciam abissi</i>. +This chaos was the <!-- Page 120 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120"></a>[120]</span>atmosphere of the comet, a body composed of +heterogeneous matters, the centre occupied by spherical, solid, and hot +substances, of about two thousand leagues in diameter, round which a +very great surface of a thick fluid extended, mixed with an unshapen and +confused matter, like the chaos of the ancient <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rudis & indigestaque +moles</i>.</p> + +<p>This vast atmosphere contained but very few dry, solid, or terrestrial +particles, still less aqueous or aerial, but a great quantity of fluid, +dense and heavy matters, mixed, agitated and jumbled together in the +greatest disorder and confusion. Such was the earth before the six days, +but on the first day of the creation, when the eccentrical orbit of the +comet had been changed, every thing took its place, and bodies arranged +themselves according to the law of gravity, the heavy fluid descended to +the lowest places, and left the upper regions to the terrestrial, +aqueous and aerial parts; those likewise descended according to their +order of gravity; first the earth, then the water, and last of all the +air. The immense volume of chaos was thus reduced to a globe of a +moderate size, in the centre of which is the solid body that still +retains the heat which the sun formerly communicated to it, when it +belonged to a <!-- Page 121 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121"></a>[121]</span>comet. This heat may possibly endure six thousand years, +since the comet of 1680 required fifty thousand years to cool. Around +this solid and burning matter, which occupies the centre of the earth, +the dense and heavy fluid which descended the first is to be found, and +this is the fluid which forms the great abyss on which the earth is +borne, like cork on quicksilver; but as the terrestrial parts were +originally mixed with a large quantity of water, in descending they have +dragged with them a part of this water, which, not being able to +re-ascend after the earth was consolidated, formed a concentrical bed +with the heavy fluid which surrounds this hot substance, insomuch that +the great abyss is composed of two concentrical orbs, the most internal +of which is a heavy fluid, and the other water; the last of which serves +for a foundation to the earth. It is from this admirable arrangement, +produced by the atmosphere of a comet, that the Theory of the Earth, and +the explanation of all its phenomena are to depend.</p> + +<p>When the atmosphere of the comet was once disembarrassed from all the +solid and terrestrial matters, there remained only the lighter air, +through which the rays of the <!-- Page 122 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122"></a>[122]</span>sun freely passed and instantly produced +light: "Let there be light, and there was light." The columns which +composed the orb of the Earth being formed with such great precipitation +is the cause of their different densities: consequently the heaviest +sunk deeper into this subterraneous fluid than the lightest; and it is +this which has produced the vallies and mountains on the surface of the +earth. These inequalities were, before the deluge, dispersed and +situated otherwise than they are at present. Instead of the vast valley, +which contains the ocean, there were many small divided cavities on the +surface of the globe, each of which contained a part of this water; the +mountains were also more divided, and did not form chains as at present: +nevertheless, the earth contained a thousand times more people, and was +a thousand times more fertile; and the life of man and other animals +were ten times longer, all which was affected by the internal heat of +the earth that proceeded from the centre, and gave birth to a great +number of plants and animals, bestowing on them a degree of vigour +necessary for them to subsist a long time, and multiply in great +abundance. But this heat, by increasing the strength of <!-- Page 123 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123"></a>[123]</span>bodies, +unfortunately extended to the heads of men and animals; it augmented +their passions; it deprived man of his innocence, and the brute creation +of part of their intelligence; all creatures, excepting fish, who +inhabited a colder element, felt the effects of this heat, became +criminal and merited death. It therefore came, and this universal death +happened on Wednesday the 28th of November, by a terrible deluge of +forty days and forty nights, and was caused by the tail of another comet +which encountered the earth in returning from its perihelion.</p> + +<p>The tail of a comet is the lightest part of its atmosphere; it is a +transparent mist, a subtile vapour, which the heat of the sun exhales +from the body of the comet: this vapour composed of extremely rarefied +aqueous and aerial particles, follows the comet when it descends to its +perihelion, and precedes when it re-ascends, so that it is always +situate opposite to the sun, as if it sought to be in the shade, and +avoid the too great heat of that luminary. The column which this vapour +forms is often of an immense length, and the more a comet approaches the +sun, the longer and more extended is its tail, and as many comets +descend below the annual orb of the earth, it is not <!-- Page 124 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124"></a>[124]</span>surprising that +the earth is sometimes found surrounded with the vapour of this tail; +this is precisely what happened at the time of the deluge. In two hours +the tail of a comet will evacuate a quantity of water equal to what is +contained in the whole ocean. In short, this tail was what Moses calls +the cataracts of Heaven, "and the cataracts of Heaven were opened." The +terrestrial globe meeting with the tail of a comet, must, in going its +course through this vapour, appropriate to itself a part of the matter +which it contains; all which, coming within the sphere of the earth's +attraction, must fall on it, and fall in the form of rain, since this +tail is partly composed of aqueous vapours. Thus rain may come down in +such abundance as to produce an universal deluge the waters of which +might easily surmount the tops of the highest mountains. Nevertheless, +our author, cautious of not going directly against the letter of holy +writ, does not say that this rain was the sole cause of the universal +deluge, but takes the water from every place he can find it. The great +abyss as we see contains a considerable quantity. The earth, at the +approach of the comet, would prove the force of its attraction; and the +waters <!-- Page 125 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125"></a>[125]</span>contained in the great abyss would be agitated by so violent a +kind of flux and reflux, that the superficial crust would not resist, +but split in several places, and the internal waters be dispersed over +the surface, "And the fountains of the abyss were opened."</p> + +<p>But what became of these waters, which the tail of the comet and great +abyss furnished so liberally? our author is not the least embarrassed +thereon. As soon as the earth, continuing its course, removed from the +comet, the effects of its attraction, the flux and reflux in the great +abyss ceased of course, and immediately the upper waters precipitated +back with violence by the same roads as they had been forced upon the +surface. The great abyss absorbed all the superfluous waters, and was of +a sufficient capacity not only to receive its own waters, but also all +those which the tail of the comet had left, because during its +agitation, and the rupture of its crust, it had enlarged the space by +driving out on all sides the earth that surrounded it. It was at this +time also the figure of the earth, which till then was spherical, became +elliptic. This effect was occasioned by the centrifugal force caused by +its diurnal motion, and by the attraction of the <!-- Page 126 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126"></a>[126]</span>comet, for the earth, +in passing through the tail of the comet, found itself so placed that it +presented the parts of the equator to that planet; and the power of the +attraction of the comet, concurring with the centrifugal force of the +earth, caused the parts of the equator to be elevated, and that with the +more facility as the crust was broken and divided in an infinity of +places, and because the flux and reflux of the abyss drove against the +equator more violently than elsewhere.</p> + +<p>Here then is Mr. Whiston's history of the creation; the causes of the +universal deluge; the length of the life of the first men; and the +figure of the Earth; all which seem to have cost our author little or no +labour; but Noah's ark appears to have greatly disquieted him. In the +midst of so terrible a disorder occasioned by the conjunction of the +tail of a comet with the waters of the great abyss, in the terrible +moments wherein not only the elements of the earth were confused, but +when new elements still concurred to augment the chaos, how can it be +imagined that the ark floated quietly with its numerous cargo on the top +of the waves? Here our author makes great efforts to arrive at and give +a physical reason for the preservation <!-- Page 127 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127"></a>[127]</span>of the ark, but which has always +appeared to me insufficient, poorly imagined, and but little +orthodoxical: I will not here relate it, but only observe how hard it is +for a man who has explained objects so great and wonderful, without +having recourse to a supernatural power, to be stopt by one particular +circumstance; our author, however, chose rather to risk drowning with +the ark, than to attribute to the immediate bounty of the Almighty the +preservation of this precious vessel.</p> + +<p>I shall only make one remark on this system, of which I have made a +faithful abridgement: which is, whenever we are rash enough to attempt +to explain theological truths by physical reasons, or interpret purely +by human views, the divine text of holy writ, or that we endeavour to +reason on the will of the Most High, and on the execution of his +decrees, we consequently shall involve ourselves in the darkness and +chaos of obscurity and confusion, like the author of this system, which, +in defiance of its absurdities, has been received with great applause. +He neither doubts the truth of the deluge, nor the authenticity of the +sacred writ; but as he was less employed with it than with physic and +astronomy, he has taken passages of <!-- Page 128 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128"></a>[128]</span>the scripture for physical facts, +and the results of astronomical observations; and has so strangely +blended the divine knowledge with human science as to give birth to the +most extraordinary system that possibly ever was or will be conceived.</p> + + +<div> +<hr class="footnotes" /> +<p class="sectctrfn">FOOTNOTES:</p> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_115:A_6" id="Footnote_115:A_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_115:A_6"><span class="label">[115:A]</span></a> A New Theory of the Earth by William Whiston, 1708.</p> +</div> +</div> +</div> + + + + +<div> +<hr class="newchapter" /> +<h2><a name="ARTICLE_III" id="ARTICLE_III"></a>ARTICLE III.<br /> + +<small>FROM THE SYSTEM OF BURNET.<a name="FNanchor_128:A_7" id="FNanchor_128:A_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_128:A_7" class="fnanchor">[128:A]</a></small></h2> + + +<p>This author is the first who has treated this subject generally and in a +systematical matter. He was possessed of much understanding, and was a +person well acquainted with the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">belles lettres</i>. His work acquired +great reputation, and was criticised by many of the <!-- Page 129 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129"></a>[129]</span>learned, among the +rest by Mr. Keil, who has geometrically demonstrated the errors of Mr. +Burnet, in a treatise called "Examination of the Theory of the Earth." +Mr. Keil also refuted Whiston's system; but he treats the last author +very different from the first, and seems even to be of his opinion in +several cases, and looks upon the tail of a comet to be a very probable +cause for the deluge. But, to return to Burnet, his book is elegantly +written; he knew how to paint noble images and magnificent scenes. His +plan is great, but the execution is deficient for want of proper +materials: his reasoning is good, but his proofs are weak; yet his +confidence in his writings is so great, that he frequently causes his +readers to pass over his errors.</p> + +<p>He begins by telling us, that before the deluge the earth had a very +different form from that which it has at present; it was at first, he +says, a fluid mass, compounded of matters of all kinds, and all sorts of +figures, the heaviest descended towards the centre, and formed a hard +and solid body; round which the waters collected, and the air, and all +the liquors lighter than water, surmounted them. Between the orb of air +and that of water, was an orb of <!-- Page 130 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130"></a>[130]</span>oily matter, but as the air was still +very impure, and contained a great quantity of small particles of +terrestrial matter, they by degrees descended on the coat of oil, and +formed a terrestrial orb blended with earth and oil; and this was the +first habitable earth, and the first abode of man. This was an excellent +soil, light, and calculated to yield to the tenderness of the first +germs. The surface of the terrestrial globe was at first equal, uniform, +without mountains, without seas, and without inequalities; but it +remained only about sixteen centuries in this state, for the heat of the +sun by degrees drying the crust, split it at first on the surface, soon +after these cracks penetrated farther and increased so considerably by +time, that at length they entirely opened the crust; in an instant the +whole earth fell into pieces in the abyss of water it surrounded; and +this was the cause of the deluge.</p> + +<p>But all these masses of earth, by falling into the abyss, dragged along +with them a great quantity of air; these struck against each other, +divided, and accumulated so irregularly, that great cavities filled with +air were left between them. The waters by degrees opened these cavities, +and in proportion as they filled them, <!-- Page 131 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131"></a>[131]</span>the surface of the earth +discovered itself in the highest parts; at length water alone remained +in the lowest parts; that is to say, the vast vallies which contain the +sea. Thus our ocean is a part of the ancient abyss, the rest is entered +into the internal cavities with which the ocean communicates. The +islands and sea rocks are the small fragments, and continents are the +great masses of the old crust. As the rupture and the fall of this crust +are made of a sudden, and with confusion, it was not surprising to find +eminences, depths, plains, and inequalities of all kinds on the surface +of the earth.</p> + + +<div> +<hr class="footnotes" /> +<p class="sectctrfn">FOOTNOTES:</p> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_128:A_7" id="Footnote_128:A_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_128:A_7"><span class="label">[128:A]</span></a> Thomas Burnet. <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Telluris theoria sacra, orbis nostri +originem & mutationes generales, quas aut jam subut, aut olim Subiturus +est complectens.</span> Londina, 1681.</p> +</div> +</div> +</div> + + + + +<div> +<hr class="newchapter" /> +<h2><a name="ARTICLE_IV" id="ARTICLE_IV"></a>ARTICLE IV.<br /> + +<small>FROM THE SYSTEM OF WOODWARD.</small></h2> + + +<p>It may be said of this author, that he attempted to raise an immense +monument on a less solid base than the moving sand, and to construct a +world with dust; for he pretends, that at the time of the deluge a total +dissolution of the earth was made. The first idea <!-- Page 132 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132"></a>[132]</span>which presents, after +having gone through his book,<a name="FNanchor_132:A_8" id="FNanchor_132:A_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_132:A_8" class="fnanchor">[132:A]</a> is, that this dissolution was made +by the waters of the great abyss. He asserts, that the abyss where the +water was included opened all at once at the command of God, and +dispersed over the surface an enormous quantity of water necessary to +cover the tops of the highest mountains, and that God suspended the +cause of cohesion which reduced all solid bodies into dust, &c. He did +not consider that by these suppositions he added other miracles to that +of the universal deluge, or at least physical impossibilities, which +agree neither with the letter of the holy writ, nor with the +mathematical principles of natural philosophy. But as this author has +the merit of having collected many important observations, and as he was +better acquainted with the materials of which the globe is composed than +those who preceded him, his system, although badly conceived, and worse +digested, has nevertheless dazzled many people, who, seduced by the +truth of some particular circumstances, put confidence in his general +conclusions; we shall, therefore, give a short view <!-- Page 133 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133"></a>[133]</span>of his theory, in +which, by doing justice to the author's merit, and the exactness of his +observations, we shall put the reader in a state of judging of the +insufficiency of his system, and of the falsity of some of his remarks. +Mr. Woodward speaks of having discovered by his sight that all matters +which compose the English earth, from the surface to the deepest places +which had been dug, were disposed by beds of strata, and that in a great +number of these there were shells and other marine productions; he +afterwards adds, that by his correspondents and friends he was assured, +that in other countries the earth is composed of the same materials, and +that shells are found there, not only in the plains but on the highest +mountains, in the deepest quarries, and in an infinity of different +places. He perceived their strata to be horizontal and disposed one over +the other, as matters are which are transported by the waters, and +deposited in form of sediment. These general remarks, which are true, +are followed by particular observations, by which he evidently shews, +that fossils found incorporated in the strata are real shells and marine +productions, not minerals and singular bodies, the sport of nature, &c.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 134 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134"></a>[134]</span>To these observations, though partly made before him, which he has +collected and proved, he adds others less exact. He asserts, that all +matters of different strata are placed one on the other in the order of +their specific gravity.</p> + +<p>This general assertion is not true, for we daily see rocks placed above +clay, sand, coal, and bitumen, and which certainly are specifically +heavier than either of these latter materials. If, in fact, we found +throughout the earth that the first strata was bitumen, then chalk, then +marl, clay, sand, stone, marble, and at last metals, so that the +composition of the earth exactly followed the law of gravity, there +would be an appearance that they might have been precipitated at the +same time, which our author asserts with confidence, in spite of the +evidence to the contrary; for, without being a naturalist, we need only +have our eye-sight to be convinced that heavy strata are often found +above lighter, and that consequently these sediments were not +precipitated all at one time, but have been brought and deposited +successively by the water. As this is the foundation of his system, and +is manifestly false, we shall follow it no farther than to show how far +an erroneous <!-- Page 135 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135"></a>[135]</span>principle may produce false combinations and erroneous +conclusions.</p> + +<p>All the matters, says our author, which compose the earth, from the +summits of the highest mountains, to the greatest depths of mines, are +disposed by strata, according to their specific weights; therefore he +concludes the whole has been dissolved and precipitated at one time. But +in what manner, and at what time was it dissolved? In water, replies he, +and at the time of the deluge. But there is not a sufficient quantity of +water on the globe for this to be effected, since there is more land +than water, and the bottom of the sea itself is earth. This he admits, +but says, there is more water than is requisite at the centre of the +earth, that it was only necessary for it to ascend, and possess a power +of dissolving every substance but shells, afterwards to find the means +for this water to re-enter the abyss, and to make all this agree with +the history of the deluge. This then is the system, of which the author +does not entertain the least doubt; for when it is opposed to him that +water cannot dissolve marble, stone, and metals, especially in forty +days, the duration of the deluge, he answers simply, that nevertheless +it did happen <!-- Page 136 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136"></a>[136]</span>so. When he is asked, what the virtue of this water of +the abyss was, to dissolve all the earth, and at the same time preserve +the shells? he says, that he never pretended that this water was a +dissolvent; but that it is clear, by facts, that the earth has been +dissolved and the shells preserved. When he was evidently shown that if +he had no reason to give, or facts to support, for these phenomena, his +system was useless, he said, we have only to imagine that, during the +deluge, the force of gravity and the coherency of matter ceased on a +sudden, and by this supposition the dissolution of the old world would +be explained in a very easy and satisfactory manner. But, it was said to +him, if the power which holds the parts of matter united was suspended, +why were not the shells dissolved as well as all the rest? Here he makes +a discourse on the organization of shells and bones of animals, by which +he pretends to prove that their texture being fibrous, and different +from that of minerals, their power of cohesion was different also; after +all, we have, says he, only to suppose that the power of gravity and +cohesion did not entirely cease, but that it was only diminished +sufficient to disunite all the parts of minerals, and not those of +<!-- Page 137 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137"></a>[137]</span>animals. To all this we cannot be prevented from discovering, that our +author's philosophy was not equal to his talents for observation; and I +do not think it necessary seriously to refute opinions which have no +foundation, especially when they have been imagined against the rules of +probability, and drawn from consequences contrary to mechanical laws.</p> + + +<div> +<hr class="footnotes" /> +<p class="sectctrfn">FOOTNOTES:</p> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_132:A_8" id="Footnote_132:A_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_132:A_8"><span class="label">[132:A]</span></a> An Essay towards the Natural History of the Earth, &c. +by John Woodward.</p> +</div> +</div> +</div> + + + + +<div> +<hr class="newchapter" /> +<h2><a name="ARTICLE_V" id="ARTICLE_V"></a>ARTICLE V.<br /> + +<small>EXPOSITION OF SOME OTHER SYSTEMS.</small></h2> + + +<p>It is plain that the three forementioned hypotheses have much in common +with each other. They all agree in this point, that during the deluge +the earth changed its form, as well externally as internally; but these +speculators have not considered that the earth before <!-- Page 138 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138"></a>[138]</span>the deluge was +inhabited by the same species of men and animals, and must necessarily +have been nearly such as it is at present. The sacred writings teach us, +that before the deluge there were rivers, seas, mountains, and forests. +That these rivers and mountains were, for the most part, retained in the +same situations; the Tigris and Euphrates were the rivers of the ancient +paradise; that the mountain of Armenia, on which the ark rested, was one +of the highest mountains in the world at the deluge, as it is at +present: that the same plants and animals which exist now, existed then; +for we read of the serpent, of the raven, of the crow, and of the dove, +which brought the olive branch into the ark. Although Tournefort asserts +there are no olive trees for more than 400 miles from Mount Ararat, and +passes some absurd jokes thereon<a name="FNanchor_138:A_9" id="FNanchor_138:A_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_138:A_9" class="fnanchor">[138:A]</a>, it is nevertheless certain +there were olives in this neighbourhood at the time of the deluge, since +holy writ assures us of it in the most express terms; but it is by no +means astonishing that in the space of 4000 years the olive trees should +have been destroyed in those quarters, and multiplied in others; <!-- Page 139 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139"></a>[139]</span>it is +therefore contrary to scripture and reason, that those authors have +supposed the earth was quite different from its present state before the +deluge; and this contradiction between their hypothesis and the sacred +text, as well as physical truths, must cause their systems to be +rejected, if even they should agree with some phenomena. Burnet gives +neither observations, nor any real facts, for the support of his system. +Woodward has only given us an essay, in which he promised much more than +he could perform: his book is a project, the execution of which has not +been seen. He has made use of two general observations; the first, that +the earth is every where composed of matters which formerly were in a +state of fluidity, transported by the waters, and deposited in +horizontal strata. The second, that there are abundance of marine +productions in most parts of the bowels of the earth. To give a reason +for these facts, he has recourse to the universal deluge, or rather it +appears that he gives them as proofs of the deluge; but, like Burnet, he +falls into evident contradictions, for it is not to be supposed with +them that there were no mountains prior to the deluge, since it is +expressly <!-- Page 140 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140"></a>[140]</span>stated, that the waters rose fifteen cubits above the tops of +the highest mountains. On the other hand, it is not said that these +waters destroyed or dissolved these mountains; but, on the contrary, +these mountains remained in their places, and the ark rested on that +which the water first deserted. Besides how can it be imagined that, +during the short duration of the deluge, the waters were able to +dissolve the mountains and the whole body of the earth? Is it not an +absurdity to suppose that in forty days all marble, rocks, stones, and +minerals, were dissolved by water? Is it not a manifest contradiction to +admit this total dissolution, and at the same time maintain that shells, +bones, and marine productions were preserved entire, and resisted that +which had dissolved the most solid substances? I shall not therefore +hesitate to say, that Woodward, with excellent facts and observations, +has formed but a poor and inconsistent system.</p> + +<p>Whiston, who came last, greatly enriched the other two, and +notwithstanding he gave a vast scope to his imagination has not fallen +into contradiction; he speaks of matters not very credible, but they are +neither absolutely nor evidently impossible. As we are ignorant of <!-- Page 141 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141"></a>[141]</span>the +centre of the earth, he thought he might suppose it was a solid matter, +surrounded with a ring of heavy fluid, and afterwards with a ring of +water, on which the external crust was sustained; in the latter the +different parts of this crust were more or less sunk, in proportion to +their relative weights, which produced mountains and inequalities on the +surface of the earth. Here, however, this astronomer has committed a +mechanical blunder; he did not recollect that the earth, according to +this hypothesis, must be an uniform arch, and that consequently it could +not be borne on the water it contains, and much less sunk therein. I do +not know that there are any other physical errors; but he has made a +great number of errors, both in metaphysics and theology. On the whole +it cannot be denied absolutely that the earth meeting with the tail of a +comet might not be inundated, especially allowing the author that the +tail of a comet may contain aqueous vapours; nor can it be denied as an +absolute impossibility that the tail of a comet, in returning from its +perihelium, might not burn the earth, if we suppose, with Mr. Whiston, +that the comet passed very near the sun; it is the same with the rest of +the system. But <!-- Page 142 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142"></a>[142]</span>though his ideas are not absolutely impossibilities, +there is so little probability to each thing, when taken separately, +that the result upon the whole taken together puts it beyond +credibility.</p> + +<p>The three systems we have spoken of are not the only works which have +been composed on the theory of the earth; a Memoir of M. Bourguet +appeared in 1729, printed at Amsterdam, with his "Philosophical Letters +on the Formation of Salts, &c." in which he gives a specimen of the +system he meditated, but which was prevented completion by the death of +the author. It is but justice to admit, that no person was more +industrious in making observations or collecting facts. To him we owe +that great and beautiful observation, the correspondence between the +angles of mountains. He presents every thing which he had collected in +great order; but with all those advantages, it appears that he has +succeeded no better than the rest in making a physical and reasonable +history of the changes which had happened to the globe, and that he was +very wide from having found the real cause of those effects which he +relates. To be convinced of this we need only cast our eyes on the +<!-- Page 143 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143"></a>[143]</span>propositions which he deduces from the phenomena, and which ought to +serve for the basis of his theory. He says, that the whole globe took +its form at one time, and not successively; that its form and +disposition prove that it has been in a state of fluidity; that the +present state of the earth is very different from that in which it was +for many ages after its first formation; that the matter of the globe +was at the beginning less dense than since it altered its appearance; +that the condensation of its solid parts diminished by degrees with its +velocity, so that after having made a number of revolutions on its axis, +and round the sun, it found itself on a sudden in a state of +dissolution, which destroyed its first structure. This happened about +the vernal equinox. That the sea-shells introduced themselves into the +dissolved matters; that after this dissolution the earth took the form +it now has, and that the fire which directly infused itself therein +consumed it by degrees, and it will be one day destroyed by a terrible +explosion, accompanied with a general conflagration, which will augment +the atmosphere of the globe, and diminish its diameter, and that then +the earth, instead of beds of sand or earth, will have only strata <!-- Page 144 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144"></a>[144]</span>of +calcined metal and mountains composed of amalgamas of different metals.</p> + +<p>This is sufficient to shew the system M. Bourguet meditated; to divine +in this manner the past, and predict the future, nearly as others have +predicted, does not appear to me to be an effort of judgment: this +author had more erudition than sound and general views: he appears to be +deficient in that capaciousness of ideas necessary to follow the extent +of the subject, and enable him to comprehend the chain of causes and +effects.</p> + +<p>In the acts of Leipsic, the famous Leibnitz published a scheme of quite +a different system, under the title of <i>Protogaea</i>. The earth, according +to Bourguet and others, must end by fire; according to Leibnitz it began +by it, and has suffered many more changes and revolutions than is +imagined. The greatest part of the terrestrial matter was surrounded by +violent flames at the time when Moses says light was divided from +darkness. The planets, as well as the earth, were fixed stars, luminous +of themselves. After having burnt a long time, he pretends that they +were extinguished for want of combustible matter, and are become opaque +bodies. The fire, by melting the <!-- Page 145 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145"></a>[145]</span>matter, produced a vitrified crust, +and the basis of all the matter which composes the globe is glass, of +which sand and gravel are only fragments. The other kinds of earth are +formed from a mixture of this sand, with fixed salts and water, and when +the crust cooled, the humid particles, which were raised in form of +vapours, refel, and formed the sea. They at first covered the whole +surface, and even surmounted the highest mountains. According to this +author, the shells, and other wrecks of the sea, which are every where +to be found, positively prove that the sea has covered the whole earth; +and the great quantity of fixed salts, sand, and other melted and +calcined matters, which are included in the bowels of the earth, prove +that the conflagration had been general, and that it preceded the +existence of the sea. Although these thoughts are void of proofs, they +are capital. The ideas have connection, the hypotheses are not +impossible, and the consequences that may be drawn therefrom are not +contradictory: but the grand defect of this theory is, that it is not +applicable to the present state of the earth; it is the past which it +explains, and this past is so far back, and has left us so few remains, +that we may say what <!-- Page 146 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146"></a>[146]</span>we please of it, and the probability will be in +proportion as a man has talents to elucidate what he asserts. To affirm +as Whiston has done, that the earth was originally a comet, or, with +Leibnitz, that it has been a sun, is saying things equally possible or +impossible, and to which it would be ridiculous to apply the rules of +probability. To say that the sea formerly covered all the earth, that it +surrounded the whole globe, and that it is for this reason shells are +every where found, is not paying attention to a very essential point, +the unity of the time of the creation; for if that was so, it must +necessarily be admitted, that shell-fish, and other inhabitants of the +sea, of which we find the remains in the internal part of the earth, +existed long before man, and all terrestrial animals. Now, independent +of the testimony of holy writ, is it not reasonable to think, that all +animals and vegetables are nearly as ancient as each other?</p> + +<p>M. Scheutzer, in a Dissertation, addressed to the Academy of Sciences in +1728, attributes, like Woodward, the change, or rather the second +formation of the globe, to the universal deluge; to explain that of +mountains, he says, that after the deluge, God chusing to return <!-- Page 147 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147"></a>[147]</span>the +waters into subterraneous reservoirs, broke and displaced with his +all-powerful hand a number of beds, before horizontal, and raised them +above the surface of the globe, which was originally level. The whole +Dissertation is composed to imply this opinion. As it was requisite +these eminences should be of a solid consistence, M. Scheutzer remarks, +that God only drew them from places where there were many stones; from +hence, says he, it proceeds that those countries, like Switzerland, +which are very stony, are also mountainous; and on the contrary, those, +as Holland, Flanders, Hungary and Poland, have only sand or clay, even +to a very great depth, and are almost entirely without mountains.<a name="FNanchor_147:A_10" id="FNanchor_147:A_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_147:A_10" class="fnanchor">[147:A]</a></p> + +<p>This author, more than any other, is desirous of blending Physic with +Theology, and though he has given some good observations, the +systematical part of his works is still weaker than those who preceded +him. On this subject he has even made declamations and ridiculous +witticisms, as may be seen in his <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Visciam quærelæ</cite>, &c. without +speaking of his large work in many folio volumes, <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Physica Sacra</cite>, a +puerile work, which appears to be composed <!-- Page 148 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148"></a>[148]</span>less for the instruction of +men than for the amusement of children.</p> + +<p>Steno, and some others, have attributed the cause of the inequalities of +the earth to particular inundations, earthquakes, &c. but the effects of +these secondary causes have been only able to produce some slight +changes. We admit of these causes after the first cause, the motion of +the flux and reflux, and of the sea from east to west. Neither Steno, +nor the rest, have given theory, nor even any general facts on this +matter.<a name="FNanchor_148:A_11" id="FNanchor_148:A_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_148:A_11" class="fnanchor">[148:A]</a></p> + +<p>Ray pretends that all mountains have been produced by earthquakes, and +he has composed a treatise to prove it; we shall shew under the article +of Volcanos what little foundation his opinion is built upon.</p> + +<p>We cannot dispense with observing that Burnet, Woodward, Whiston, and +most of these other authors, have committed an error which deserves to +be cleared up; which is, to have looked upon the deluge as possible by +the action of natural causes, whereas scripture presents it to us as +produced by the immediate will of God; there is no natural cause which +can produce on the whole surface of the earth, <!-- Page 149 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149"></a>[149]</span>the quantity of water +required to cover the highest mountains; and if even we could imagine a +cause proportionate to this effect, it would still be impossible to find +another cause capable of causing the water to disappear: allowing +Whiston, that these waters proceeded from the tail of a comet, we deny +that any could proceed from the great abyss, or that they all returned +into it, since the great abyss, according to him, being surrounded on +every side by the crust, or terrestrial orb, it is impossible that the +attraction of the comet could cause any motion to the fluids it +contained; much less, as he says, a violent flux and reflux; hence there +could not be issued from, nor entered into, the great abyss, a single +drop of water; and unless it is supposed that the waters which fell from +the comet have been destroyed by a miracle, they would still be on the +surface of the earth, covering the summits of the highest mountains. +Nothing better characterises a miracle, than the impossibility of +explaining the effect of it by natural causes. Our authors have made +vain efforts to give a reason for the deluge; their physical efforts, +and the secondary causes, which they made use of, prove the truth of the +fact as reported in the scriptures, <!-- Page 150 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150"></a>[150]</span>and demonstrate that it could only +have been performed by the first cause, the will of the Almighty.</p> + +<p>Besides, it is certain that it was neither at one time, nor by the +effect of the deluge, that the sea left dry these continents we inhabit: +for it is certain by the testimony of holy writ, that the terrestrial +paradise was in Asia, and that Asia was inhabited before the deluge; +consequently the sea, at that time, did not cover this considerable part +of the globe. The earth, before the deluge, was nearly as it is at +present, and this enormous quantity of water, which divine justice +caused to fall on the earth to punish guilty men, in fact, brought death +on every creature; but it produced no change on the surface of the +earth, it did not even destroy plants which grew upon it, since the dove +brought an olive branch to the ark in her beak.</p> + +<p>Why, therefore, imagine, as many of our naturalists have done, that this +water totally changed the surface of the globe even to a depth of two +thousand feet? Why do they desire it to be the deluge which has brought +the shells on the earth which we meet with at 7 or 800 feet depth in +rocks and marble? Why say, that <!-- Page 151 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151"></a>[151]</span>the hills and mountains were formed at +that time? And how can we figure to ourselves, that it is possible for +these waters to have brought masses and banks of shells 100 miles long? +I see not how they can persist in this opinion, at least, without +admitting a double miracle in the deluge; the first, for the +augmentation of the waters; and the second, for the transportation of +the shells; but as there is only the first which is related in the +Bible, I do not see it necessary to make the second an article of our +creed.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, if the waters of the deluge had retired all at once, +they would have carried so great a quantity of mud and other impurities, +that the Earth would not have been capable of culture till many ages +after this inundation; as is known, by the deluge which happened in +Greece, where the overflowed country was totally forsaken, and could not +receive any cultivation for more than three centuries.<a name="FNanchor_151:A_12" id="FNanchor_151:A_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_151:A_12" class="fnanchor">[151:A]</a> We ought +also to look on the universal deluge as a supernatural means of which +the Almighty made use for the chastisement of mankind, and not as an +effect of a natural cause. The universal deluge is a miracle both in its +<!-- Page 152 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152"></a>[152]</span>cause and effects; we see clearly by the scripture that it was designed +for the destruction of men and animals, and that it did not in any mode +change the earth, since after the retreat of the waters, the mountains, +and even the trees, were in their places, and the surface of the earth +was proper to receive culture and produce vines and fruits. How could +all the race of fish, which did not enter the ark, be preserved, if the +earth had been dissolved in the water, or only if the waters had been +sufficiently agitated to transport shells from India to Europe, &c.?</p> + +<p>Nevertheless, this supposition, that it was the deluge which transported +the shells of the sea into every climate, is the opinion, or rather the +superstition, of naturalists. Woodward, Scheutzer, and some more, call +these petrified shells the remains of the deluge; they look on them as +the medals and monuments which God has left us of this terrible event, +in order that it never should be effaced from the human race. In short, +they have adopted this hypothesis with so much enthusiasm, that they +appear only desirous to reconcile holy scripture with their opinion; and +instead of making use of their observations, and deriving light +therefrom, <!-- Page 153 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153"></a>[153]</span>they envelope themselves in the clouds of a physical +theology, the obscurity of which is derogatory to the simplicity and +dignity of religion, and only leaves the absurd to perceive a ridiculous +mixture of human ideas and divine truths. To pretend to explain the +universal Deluge, and its physical causes; to attempt to teach what +passed in the time of that great revolution; to divine what were the +effects of it; to add facts to those of Holy Writ, to draw consequences +from such facts, is only a presumptuous attempt to measure the power of +the Most High. The natural wonders which his benevolent hand performs in +an uniform and regular manner, are incomprehensible; and by the +strongest reason, these wonderful operations and miracles ought to hold +us in awful wonder, and in silent adoration.</p> + +<p>But they will say, the universal Deluge being a certain fact, is it not +permitted to reason on its consequences? It may be so; but it is +requisite that you should begin by allowing that the Deluge could not be +performed by physical causes; you ought to consider it is an immediate +effect of the will of the Almighty; you ought to confine yourselves to +know only what the Holy Writ teaches, and particularly not to <!-- Page 154 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154"></a>[154]</span>blend bad +philosophy with the purity of divine truth. These precautions, which the +respect we owe to the Almighty exacts, being taken, what remains for +examination on the subject of the Deluge? Does the Scripture say +mountains were formed by the Deluge? No, it says the contrary. Is it +said that the agitation of the waters was so great as to raise up shells +from the bottom of the sea, and transport them all over the earth? No; +the ark floated quietly on the surface of the waters. Is it said, that +the earth suffered a total dissolution? None at all: the recital of the +sacred historian is simple and true, that of these naturalists complex +and fabulous.</p> + + +<div> +<hr class="footnotes" /> +<p class="sectctrfn">FOOTNOTES:</p> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_138:A_9" id="Footnote_138:A_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_138:A_9"><span class="label">[138:A]</span></a> Voyage du Levant, vol. 2, page 336.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_147:A_10" id="Footnote_147:A_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_147:A_10"><span class="label">[147:A]</span></a> See the Hist. of the Acad. 1708, page 32.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_148:A_11" id="Footnote_148:A_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_148:A_11"><span class="label">[148:A]</span></a> See the <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Diss. de Solido intra Solidum, &c.</span></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_151:A_12" id="Footnote_151:A_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_151:A_12"><span class="label">[151:A]</span></a> See <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Acta erudit</span>, Lepiss, Ann. 1691, page 100.</p> +</div> +</div> +</div> + + + + +<div> +<hr class="newchapter" /> +<p><!-- Page 155 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155"></a>[155]</span></p> +<h2><a name="ARTICLE_VI" id="ARTICLE_VI"></a>ARTICLE VI.<br /> + +<small>GEOGRAPHY.</small></h2> + + +<p>The surface of the Earth, like that of Jupiter, is not divided by bands +alternative and parallel to the equator; on the contrary, it is divided +from one pole to the other, by two bands of earth, and two of sea; the +first and principal is the ancient continent, the greatest length of +which is found to be in a line, beginning on the east point of the +northern part of Tartary, and extending from thence to the land which +borders on the gulph of Linchidolkin, where the Muscovites fish for +whales; from thence to Tobolski, from Tobolski to the Caspian sea, from +the Caspian sea to Mecca, and from Mecca to the western part of the +country inhabited by the Galli, in Africa; afterwards to Monoemuci or +Monomotapa, and at last to the Cape of Good Hope; this line, which is +the greatest length of the <!-- Page 156 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156"></a>[156]</span>old continent, is about 3600 leagues, Paris +measure; it is only interrupted by the Caspian and Red seas, the +breadths of which are not very considerable, and we must not pay any +regard to these interruptions, when it is considered, the surface of the +globe is divided only in four parts.</p> + +<p>This greatest length is found by measuring the old continent diagonally; +for if measured according to the meridians, we shall find that there are +only 2500 leagues from the northernmost Cape of Lapland to the Cape of +Good Hope; and that the Baltic and Mediterranean cause a much greater +interruption than is met with in the other way. With respect to all the +other distances that might be measured in the old continent under the +same meridian, we shall find them to be much smaller than this; having, +for example, only 1800 leagues from the most southern point of the +island of Ceylon to the northernmost coast of Nova Zembla. Likewise, if +we measure the continent parallel to the equator, we find that the +greatest uninterrupted length is found from Trefna, on the western coast +of Africa, to Ninpo, on the eastern coast of China, and that it is about +2800 leagues. Another course may be measured <!-- Page 157 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157"></a>[157]</span>from the point of Brittany +near Brest, extending to the Chinese Tartary; about 2300 leagues. From +Bergen, in Norway, to the coast of Kamschatka, is no more than 1800 +leagues. All these lines have much less length than the first, therefore +the greatest extent of the old continent, is, in fact, from the eastern +point of Tartary to the Cape of Good Hope, that is about 3600 leagues.</p> + +<p>There is so great an equality of surface on each side of this line, +which is also the longest, that there is every probability to suppose it +really divides the contents of the ancient continent; for in measuring +on one side is found 2,471,092-3/4 square leagues, and on the other +2,469,687.</p> + +<p>Agreeable to this, the old continent consists of about 4,940,780 square +leagues, which is nearly one-fifth of the whole surface of the globe, +and has an inclination towards the equator of about 30 degrees.</p> + +<p>The greatest length of the new continent may be taken in a line from the +mouth of the river Plata to the lake of Assiniboils. From the former it +passes to the lake Caracara; from thence to Mataguais, Pocona, Zongo, +Mariana, Morua, St. Fe, and Carthagena; it then <!-- Page 158 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158"></a>[158]</span>proceeds through the +gulph of Mexico, Jamaica, and Cuba, passes along the peninsula of +Florida, through Apolache, Chicachas, and from thence to St. Louis, Fort +le Suer, and ends on the borders of lake Assiniboils; the whole extent +of which is still unknown.</p> + +<p>This line, which is interrupted only by the Mexican gulph (which must be +looked upon as a mediterranean sea) may be about 2500 leagues long, and +divides the new continent into nearly two equal parts, the left of which +contains about 1,069,286-5/6 leagues square, and that on the right about +1,070,926-1/12; this line, which forms the middle of the band of the new +continent, is inclined to the equator about 30 degrees, but in an +opposite direction, for that of the old continent extends from the +north-east to the south-west, and that of the new continent from the +north-west to the south-east. All those lands together of the old and +new continent, make about 7,080,993 leagues square, which is not near +the third of the whole surface, which contains 25 millions of square +leagues.</p> + +<p>It must be remarked, that these two lines, which divide the continents +into two equal parts, both terminate at the same degree of <!-- Page 159 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159"></a>[159]</span>southern and +northern latitude, and that the two continents make opposite +projections, which exactly face each other; to wit, the coasts of +Africa, from the Canary islands to the coasts of Guinea, and those of +America from Guiana to the mouth of Rio Janeiro.</p> + +<p>It appears, therefore, that the most ancient land of the globe, is on +the two sides of these lines, at the distance of from 2 to 250 leagues +on each side. By following this idea, which is founded on the +observations before related, we shall find in the old continent that the +most ancient lands of Africa are those which extend from the Cape of +Good Hope to the Red Sea, as far as Egypt, about 500 leagues broad, and +that, consequently, all the western coasts of Africa, from Guinea to the +straits of Gibraltar, are the newest lands. So likewise we shall +discover that in Asia, if we follow the line on the same breadth, the +most ancient lands are Arabia Felix and Deserta, Persia, Georgia, +Turcomania, part of Tartary, Circassia, part of Muscovy, &c. that +consequently Europe, and perhaps also China, and the eastern part of +Tartary, are more modern. In the new continent we shall find the Terra +Magellanica, the eastern part of Brasil, the country of the <!-- Page 160 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160"></a>[160]</span>Amazons, +Guiana, and Canada, to be the new lands, in comparison with Peru, Terra +Firma, the islands in the gulph of Mexico, Florida, the Mississippi, and +Mexico.</p> + +<p>To these observations we may add two very remarkable facts, the old and +new continent are almost opposite each other; the old is more extensive +to the north of the equator than the south; the new is more to the south +than the north. The centre of the old continent is in the 16th or 18th +degree of north latitude, and the centre of the new is in the 16th or +18th degree south latitude, so that they seem to be made to +counterbalance each other. There is also a singular connexion between +the two continents, although it appears to be more accidental than those +which I have spoken of, which is, that if the two continents were +divided into two parts, all four would be surrounded by the sea, if it +were not for the two small isthmuses, Suez and Panama.</p> + +<p>This is the most general idea which an attentive inspection of the globe +furnishes us with, on the division of the earth. We shall abstain from +forming hypotheses thereon, and hazarding reasonings which might lead +into false conclusions; but no one as yet having <!-- Page 161 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161"></a>[161]</span>considered the +division of the globe under this point of view, I shall submit a few +remarks. It is very singular that the line which forms the greatest +length of the terrestrial continents divides them also into two equal +parts; it is no less so that these two lines commence and end at the +same degrees of latitude, and are both alike inclined to the equator. +These relations may belong to some general conclusions, but of which we +are ignorant. The inequalities in the figure of the two continents we +shall hereafter examine more fully: it is sufficient here to observe, +that the most ancient countries are the nearest to these lines, and are +the highest; that the more modern lands are the farthest, and also the +lowest. Thus in America, the country of the Amazons, Guiana and Canada +will be the most modern parts; by casting our eyes on the map of this +country we see the waters on every side, and that they are divided by +numberless lakes and rivers, which also indicates that these lands are +of a late formation; while on the other hand Peru and Mexico are high +mountains, and situate at no great distance from the line that divides +the continent, which are circumstances that seem to prove their +antiquity. Africa is very <!-- Page 162 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162"></a>[162]</span>mountainous, and that part of the world is +also very ancient. There are only Egypt, Barbary, and the western coasts +of Africa, as far as Senegal, in this part of the globe, which can be +looked upon as modern countries. Asia is an old land, and perhaps the +most ancient of all, particularly Arabia, Persia, and Tartary; but the +inequalities of this vast part of the globe, as well as those of Europe, +we will consider in a separate article. It might be said in general, +that Europe is a new country, and such position would be supported both +by the universal traditions relative to the emigrations of different +people, and the origin of arts and sciences. It is not long since it was +filled with morasses, and covered with forests, whereas in the land +anciently inhabited, there are but few woods, little water, no morasses, +much land, and a number of mountains, whose summits are dry and barren; +for men destroy the woods, drain the waters, confine rivers, dry up +morasses, and in time give a different appearance to the face of the +earth, from that, of uninhabited or newly-peopled countries.</p> + +<p>The ancients were acquainted with but a small part of the globe. All +America, the Magellanic, and a great part of the interior <!-- Page 163 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163"></a>[163]</span>of Africa, +was entirely unknown to them. They knew not that the torrid zone was +inhabited, although they had navigated around Africa, for it is 2200 +years since Neco, king of Egypt, gave vessels to the Phenicians, who +sailed along the Red Sea, coasted round Africa, doubled the Cape of Good +Hope, and having employed two years in this voyage, the third year they +entered the straits of Gibraltar.<a name="FNanchor_163:A_13" id="FNanchor_163:A_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_163:A_13" class="fnanchor">[163:A]</a> The ancients were unacquainted +with the property of the loadstone, if turned towards the poles, +although they knew that it attracted iron. They were ignorant of the +general cause of the flux and reflux of the sea, nor were they certain +the ocean surrounded the globe; some indeed suspected it might be so, +but with so little foundation, that no one dared to say, or even +conjecture, it was possible to make a voyage round the world. Magellan +was the first who attempted it in the year 1519, and accomplished the +great voyage in 1124 days. Sir Francis Drake was the second in 1577, and +he performed it in 1056 days; afterwards Thomas Cavendish made this +great voyage in 777 days, in the year 1586. These celebrated navigators +were the first who <!-- Page 164 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164"></a>[164]</span>demonstrated physically the sphericity and the +extent of the earth's circumference; for the ancients had no conception +of the extent of this circumference, although they had travelled a great +deal. The trade winds, so useful in long voyages, were also unknown to +them; therefore we must not be surprised at the little progress they +made in geography. Notwithstanding the knowledge we have acquired by the +aid of mathematical sciences, and the discovery of navigators, many +things remain still unsettled, and vast countries undiscovered. Almost +all the land on the side of the Atlantic pole is unknown to us; we only +know that there is some, and that it is separated from all the other +continents by the ocean. Much land also remains to be discovered on the +side of the Arctic pole, and it is to be regretted that for more than a +century the ardour of discovering new countries is extremely abated. +European governments seem to prefer, and possibly with reason, +increasing the value of those countries we are acquainted with to the +glory of conquering new ones.</p> + +<p>Nevertheless, the discovery of the southern continent would be a great +object of curiosity, and might be useful. We have discovered only <!-- Page 165 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165"></a>[165]</span>some +few of its coasts; those navigators who have attempted this discovery, +have always been stopt by the ice. The thick fogs, which are in those +latitudes, is another obstacle; yet, in defiance of these +inconveniencies, it is probable that by sailing from the Cape of Good +Hope at different seasons, we might at last discover a part of these +lands, which hitherto make a separate world.</p> + +<p>There is another method, which possibly might succeed better. The ice +and fogs having hitherto prevented the discovery, might it not be +attempted by the Pacific Sea; sailing from Baldivia, or any other port +on the coast of Chili, and traversing this sea under the 50th degree +south latitude? There is not the least appearance that this navigation +is perilous, and it is probable would be attended with the discovery of +new countries; for what remains for us to know on the coast of the +southern pole, is so considerable, that we may estimate it at a fourth +part of the globe, and of course may contain a continent, as large as +Europe, Asia, and Africa, all together.</p> + +<p>As we are not at all acquainted with this part of the globe, we cannot +justly know the proportion between the surface of the earth <!-- Page 166 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166"></a>[166]</span>and that of +the sea; only as much as may be judged by inspection of what is known, +there is more sea than land.</p> + +<p>If we would have an idea of the enormous quantity of water which the sea +contains, we must suppose a medium depth, and by computing it only at +200 fathom, or the sixth part of a league, we shall find that there is +sufficient to cover the whole globe to the height of 600 feet of water, +and if we would reduce this water into one mass, it would form a globe +of more than 60 miles diameter.</p> + +<p>Navigators pretend, that the latitudes near the south pole are much +colder than those of the north, but there is no appearance that this +opinion is founded on truth, and probably has been adopted, because ice +is found in latitudes where it is scarcely ever seen in the southern +seas; but that may proceed from some particular cause. We find no ice in +April on this side 67 and 68 degrees northern latitude: and the savages +of Arcadia and Canada say, when it is not all melted in that month, it +is a sign the rest of the year will be cold and rainy. In 1725 there may +be said to have been no summer, it rained almost continually; and the +<!-- Page 167 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167"></a>[167]</span>ice of the northern sea was not only not melted in April in the 67th +degree, but even it was found the 15th of June towards the 41st and 42d +degree<a name="FNanchor_167:A_14" id="FNanchor_167:A_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_167:A_14" class="fnanchor">[167:A]</a>.</p> + +<p>A great quantity of floating ice appears in the northern sea, especially +at some distance from land. It comes from the Tartarian sea into that of +Nova Zembla, and other parts of the Frozen Ocean. I have been assured by +people of credit, that an English Captain, named Monson, instead of +seeking a passage between the northern land to go to China, directed his +course strait to the pole, and had approached it within two degrees; +that in this course he had found an open sea, without any ice, which +proves that the ice is formed near land, and never in open sea; for if +we should suppose, against all probability, that it might be cold enough +at the pole to freeze over the surface of the sea, it is still not +conceivable how these enormous floating mountains of ice could be +formed, if they did not find a fixed point against land, from whence +afterwards they were loosened by the heat of the sun. The two vessels +which the East India Company sent, in 1739, to discover land in the +<!-- Page 168 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168"></a>[168]</span>South Seas, found ice in the latitude of 47 and 48 degrees, but this +ice was not far from shore, that being in sight although they were +unable to land. This must have been separated from the adjoining lands +of the south pole, and it may be conjectured that they follow the course +of some great rivers, which water the unknown land, the same as the Oby, +Jenisca, and other great floods, which fall into the North Seas, carry +with them the ice, which, during the greatest part of the year, stops up +the straits of Waigat, and renders the Tartarian sea unnavigable by this +course; whereas beyond Nova Zembla, and nearer the poles, where there +are few rivers, and but little land, ice is not so frequently met with, +and the sea is more navigable; so that if they would still attempt the +voyage to China and Japan by the North Seas, we should possibly, to keep +clear from the land and ice, shape our course to the pole, and seek the +open seas, where certainly there is but little or no ice; for it is +known that salt water can, without freezing, become colder than fresh +water when frozen, and consequently the excessive cold of the pole may +possibly render the sea colder than the ice, without the surface being +frozen: so much the <!-- Page 169 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169"></a>[169]</span>more as at 80 or 82 degrees, the surface of the +sea, although mixed with much snow and fresh water, is only frozen near +the shore. By collecting the testimonies of travellers, on the passage +from Europe to China, it appears that one does exist by the north sea; +and the reason it has been so often attempted in vain is, because they +have always feared to go sufficiently far from land, and approach the +pole.</p> + +<p>Captain William Barents, who, as well as others, run aground in his +voyage, yet did not doubt but there was a passage, and that if he had +gone farther from shore, he should have found an open sea free from ice. +The Russian navigators, sent by the Czar to survey the north seas, +relate that Nova Zembla is not an island, but belonging to the continent +of Tartary, and that to the north of it is a free and open sea. A Dutch +navigator asserts, that the sea throws up whales on the coasts of Corea +and Japan, which have English and Dutch harpoons on their backs. Another +Dutchman has pretended to have been at the pole, and asserts it is as +warm there as it is at Amsterdam in the middle of the summer. An +Englishman, named Golding, who made more than thirty <!-- Page 170 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170"></a>[170]</span>voyages to +Greenland, related to King Charles II. that two Dutch vessels with which +he had sailed, having found no whales on the coast of the island of +Edges, resolved to proceed farther north, and that upon their return at +the expiration of fifteen days, they told him that they had been as far +as 89 degrees latitude (within one degree of the pole), and that they +found no ice there, but an open deep sea like that of the Bay of Biscay, +and that they shewed him the journals of the two vessels, as a proof of +what they affirmed. In short, it is related in the Philosophical +Transactions that two navigators, who had undertaken the discovery of +this passage, shaped a course 300 leagues to the east of Nova Zembla, +but that the East India Company, who thought it their interest this +passage should not be discovered, hindered them from returning<a name="FNanchor_170:A_15" id="FNanchor_170:A_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_170:A_15" class="fnanchor">[170:A]</a>. +But the Dutch East India Company thought, on the contrary, that it was +their interest to find this passage; having attempted it in vain on the +side of Europe, they sought it by that of Japan, and they would probably +have succeeded, if the Emperor of Japan had not forbidden all strangers +from navigating on the side of the land of Jesso. This passage, +therefore, <!-- Page 171 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171"></a>[171]</span>cannot be found but by sailing to the pole, beyond +Spitzbergen, or by keeping the open sea between Nova Zembla and +Spitzbergen under the 79th degree of latitude. We need not fear to find +it frozen even under the pole itself, for reasons we have alledged; in +fact, there is no example of the sea being frozen at a considerable +distance from the shore; the only example of a sea being frozen entirely +over, is that of the Black Sea, which is narrow, contains but little +salt, and receives a number of rivers from the northern countries, and +which bring ice with them: and if we may credit historians, it was +frozen in the time of the Emperor Copronymus, thirty cubits deep, +without reckoning twenty cubits of snow above the ice. This appears to +be exaggerated, but it is certain that it freezes almost every winter; +whereas the open seas, a thousand leagues nearer the pole, do not freeze +at all: this can only proceed from the saltness, and the little ice +which they receive, in comparison with that transported into the Black +Sea.</p> + +<p>This ice, which is looked upon as a barrier that opposes the navigation +near the poles, and the discovery of the southern continent, proves only +that there are large rivers adjacent to the <!-- Page 172 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172"></a>[172]</span>places where it is met +with; and indicates also there are vast continents from whence these +rivers flow; nor ought we to be discouraged at the sight of these +obstacles; for if we consider, we shall easily perceive, this ice must +be confined to some particular places; that it is almost impossible that +it should occupy the whole circle which encompasses, as we suppose, the +southern continent, and therefore we should probably succeed if we were +to direct our course towards some other point of this circle. The +description which Dampier and some others have given of New Holland, +leads us to suspect that this part of the globe is perhaps a part of the +southern lands, and is a country less ancient than the rest of this +unknown continent. New Holland is a low country, without water or +mountains, but thinly inhabited, and the natives without industry; all +this concurs to make us think that they are in this continent nearly +what the savages of Amaconia or Paraguais are in America. We have found +polished men, empires, and kings, at Peru and Mexico, which are the +highest, and consequently the most ancient countries of America. +Savages, on the contrary, are found in the lowest and most modern +countries; <!-- Page 173 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173"></a>[173]</span>therefore we may presume that we should also find men united +by the bands of society in the upper countries, from whence these great +rivers, which bring this prodigious ice to the sea, derive their +sources.</p> + +<p>The interior parts of Africa are unknown to us, almost as much as they +were to the ancients: they had, like us, made the tour of that vast +peninsula, but they have left us neither charts, nor descriptions of the +coasts. Pliny informs us, that the tour of Africa was made in the time +of Alexander the Great, that the wrecks of some Spanish vessels had been +discovered in the Arabian sea, and that Hanno, a Carthaginian general, +had made a voyage from Gades to the Arabian sea, and that he had written +a relation of it. Besides that, he says Cornelius Nepos tells us that in +his time one Eudoxus, persecuted by the king Lathurus, was obliged to +fly from his country; that departing from the Arabian gulph, he arrived +at Gades, and that before this time they traded from Spain to Ethiopia +by sea<a name="FNanchor_173:A_16" id="FNanchor_173:A_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_173:A_16" class="fnanchor">[173:A]</a>. Notwithstanding these testimonies of the ancients, we are +persuaded that they never doubled the Cape of Good Hope, and the course +which the Portuguese took the <!-- Page 174 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174"></a>[174]</span>first to go to the East-Indies, was +looked upon as a new discovery; it will not perhaps, therefore, be +deemed amiss to give the belief of the 9th century on this subject.</p> + +<p>"In our time an entire new discovery has been made, which was wholly +unknown to those who lived before us. No one thought, or even suspected, +that the sea, which extends from India to China, had a communication +with the Syrian sea. We have found, according to what I have learnt, in +the sea Roum, or Mediterranean, the wreck of an Arabian vessel, +shattered to pieces by the tempest, some of which were carried by the +wind and waves to the Cozar sea, and from thence to the Mediterranean, +and was at length thrown on the coast of Syria. This proves that the sea +surrounds China and Cila, the extremity of Turqueston and the country of +the Cozars; that it afterwards flows by the strait till it has washed +the coast of Syria. The proof is drawn from the construction of the +vessel; for no other vessels but those of Siraf are built without nails, +which, as was the wreck we speak of, are joined together in a particular +manner, as if they were sewed. Those, of all the vessels of the +Mediterranean and of the <!-- Page 175 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175"></a>[175]</span>coast of Syria, are nailed and not joined in +this manner<a name="FNanchor_175:A_17" id="FNanchor_175:A_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_175:A_17" class="fnanchor">[175:A]</a>."</p> + +<p>To this the translator of this ancient relation adds.—</p> + +<p>"Abuziel remarks, as a new and very extraordinary thing, that a vessel +was carried from the Indian sea, and cast on the coasts of Syria. To +find a passage into the Mediterranean, he supposes there is a great +extent above China, which has a communication with the Cozar sea, that +is, with Muscovia. The sea which is below Cape Current, was entirely +unknown to the Arabs, by reason of the extreme danger of the navigation, +and from the continent being inhabited by such a barbarous people, that +it was not easy to subject them, nor even to civilize them by commerce. +From the Cape of Good Hope to Soffala, the Portuguese found no +established settlement of Moors, like those in all the maritime towns as +far as China, which was the farthest place known to geographers; but +they could not tell whether the Chinese sea, by the extremity of Africa, +had a communication with the sea of Barbary, and they contented +themselves <!-- Page 176 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176"></a>[176]</span>with describing it as far as the coast of Zing, or +Caffraria. This is the reason why we cannot doubt but that the first +discovery of the passage of this sea, by the Cape of Good Hope, was made +by the Europeans, under the conduct of Vasco de Gama, or at least some +years before he doubled the Cape, if it is true there are marine charts +of an older date, where the Cape is called by the name of Frontiera du +Africa. Antonio Galvin testifies, from the relation of Francisco de +Sousa Tavares, that, in 1528, the Infant Don Ferdinand shewed him such a +chart, which he found in the monastery of Acoboca, dated 120 years +before, copied perhaps from that said to be in the treasury of St. Mark, +at Venice, which also marks the point of Africa, according to the +testimony of Ramusio, &c."</p> + +<p>The ignorance of those ages, on the subject of the navigation around +Africa, will appear perhaps less singular than the silence of the editor +of this ancient relation on the subject of the passages of Herodotus, +Pliny, &c. which we have quoted, and which proves the ancients had made +the tour of Africa.</p> + +<p>Be it as it may, the African coasts are now well known; but whatever +attempts have been <!-- Page 177 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177"></a>[177]</span>made to penetrate into the inner parts of the +country, we have not been able to attain sufficient knowledge of it to +give exact relations<a name="FNanchor_177:A_18" id="FNanchor_177:A_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_177:A_18" class="fnanchor">[177:A]</a>. It might, nevertheless, be of great +advantage, if we were, by Senegal, or some other river, to get farther +up the country and establish settlements, as we should find, according +to all appearances, a country as rich in precious mines as Peru or the +Brazils. It is perfectly known that the African rivers abound with gold, +and as this country is very mountainous, and situated under the equator, +it is not to be doubted but it contains, as well as America, mines of +heavy metals, and of the most compact and hard stones.</p> + +<p>The vast extent of north and east Tartary has only been discovered in +these latter times. If the Muscovite maps are just, we are at present +acquainted with the coasts of all this part of Asia; and it appears that +from the point of eastern Tartary to North America, it is not <!-- Page 178 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178"></a>[178]</span>more than +four or five hundred leagues: it has even been pretended that this tract +was much shorter, for in the Amsterdam Gazette, of the 24th of January, +1747, it is said, under the article of Petersburgh, that Mr. +Stalleravoit had discovered one of these American islands beyond +Kamschatca, and demonstrated that we might go thither from Russia by a +shorter tract. The Jesuits, and other missionaries, have also pretended +to have discovered savages in Tartary, whom they had catechised in +America, which should in fact suppose that passage to be still +shorter<a name="FNanchor_178:A_19" id="FNanchor_178:A_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_178:A_19" class="fnanchor">[178:A]</a>. This author even pretends, that the two continents of +the old and new world join by the north, and says, that the last +navigations of the Japanese afford room to judge, that the tract of +which we have spoken is only a bay, above which we may pass by land from +Asia to America. But this requires confirmation, for hitherto it has +been thought that the continent of the north pole is separated from the +other continents, as well as that of the south pole.</p> + +<p>Astronomy and Navigation are carried to so high a pitch of perfection, +that it may reasonably <!-- Page 179 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179"></a>[179]</span>be expected we shall soon have an exact +knowledge of the whole surface of the globe. The ancients knew only a +small part of it, because they had not the mariner's compass. Some +people have pretended that the Arabs invented the compass, and used it a +long time before we did, to trade on the Indian sea, as far as China; +but this opinion has always appeared destitute of all probability; for +there is no word in the Arab, Turkish, or Persian languages, which +signifies the compass; they make use of the Italian word Bossola; they +do not even at present know how to make a compass, nor give the +magnetical quality to the needle, but purchase them from the Europeans. +Father Maritini says, that the Chinese have been acquainted with the +compass for upwards of 3000 years; but if that was the case, how comes +it that they have made so little use of it? Why did they, in their +voyages to Cochinchina, take a course much longer than was necessary? +And why did they always confine themselves to the same voyages, the +greatest of which were to Java and Sumatra? And why did not they +discover, before the Europeans, an infinity of fertile islands, +bordering on their own country, if they had possessed the art of +navigating <!-- Page 180 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180"></a>[180]</span>in the open seas? For a few years after the discovery of +this wonderful property of the loadstone, the Portuguese doubled the +Cape of Good Hope, traversed the African and Indian seas, and +Christopher Columbus made his voyage to America.</p> + +<p>By a little consideration, it was easy to divine there were immense +spaces towards the west; for, by comparing the known part of the globe, +as for example, the distance of Spain to China, and attending to the +revolution of the Earth and Heavens, it was easy to see that there +remained a much greater extent towards the west to be discovered, than +what they were acquainted with towards the east. It, therefore, was not +from the defect of astronomical knowledge that the ancients did not find +the new world, but only for want of the compass. The passages of Plato +and Aristotle, where they speak of countries far distant from the +Pillars of Hercules, seem to indicate that some navigators had been +driven by tempest as far as America, from whence they returned with much +difficulty; and it may be conjectured, that if even the ancients had +been persuaded of the existence of this continent, they would not have +even thought it possible to strike out <!-- Page 181 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181"></a>[181]</span>the road, having no guide nor +any knowledge of the compass.</p> + +<p>I own, that it is not impossible to traverse the high seas without a +compass, and that very resolute people might have undertaken to seek +after the new world by conducting themselves simply by the stars. The +Astrolabe being known to the ancients, it might strike them they could +leave France or Spain, and sail to the west, by keeping the polar star +always to the right, and by frequent soundings might have kept nearly in +the same latitude; without doubt the Carthaginians, of whom Aristotle +makes mention, found the means of returning from these remote countries +by keeping the polar star to the left; but it must be allowed that a +like voyage would be looked upon as a rash enterprize, and that +consequently we must not be astonished that the ancients had not even +conceived the project.</p> + +<p>Previous to Christopher Columbus's expedition, the Azores, the Canaries, +and Madeira were discovered. It was remarked, that when the west winds +lasted a long time, the sea brought pieces of foreign wood on the coast +of these islands, canes of unknown species, <!-- Page 182 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182"></a>[182]</span>and even dead bodies, which +by many marks were discovered to be neither European nor African. +Columbus himself remarked, that on the side of the west certain winds +blew only a few days, and which he was persuaded were land winds; but +although he had all these advantages over the ancients, and the +knowledge of the compass, the difficulties still to conquer were so +great, that there was only the success he met with which could justify +the enterprise. Suppose, for a moment, that the continent of the new +world had been 1000 or 1500 miles farther than it in fact is, a thing +with Columbus could neither know nor foresee, he would not have arrived +there, and perhaps this great country might still have remained unknown. +This conjecture is so much the better founded, as Columbus, although the +most able navigator of his time, was seized with fear and astonishment +in his second voyage to the new world; for as in his first, he only +found some islands, he directed his course more to the south to discover +a continent, and was stopt by currents, the considerable extent and +direction of which always opposed his course, and obliged him to direct +his search to the west; he imagined that what had hindered him from +<!-- Page 183 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183"></a>[183]</span>advancing on the southern side was not currents, but that the sea flowed +by raising itself towards the heavens, and that perhaps both one and the +other touched on the southern side. True it is, that in great +enterprises the least unfortunate circumstance may turn a man's brain, +and abate his courage.</p> + + +<div> +<hr class="footnotes" /> +<p class="sectctrfn">FOOTNOTES:</p> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_163:A_13" id="Footnote_163:A_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_163:A_13"><span class="label">[163:A]</span></a> Vide Herodotus, lib. iv.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_167:A_14" id="Footnote_167:A_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_167:A_14"><span class="label">[167:A]</span></a> See the Hist. of the Acad. Ann. 1725.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_170:A_15" id="Footnote_170:A_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_170:A_15"><span class="label">[170:A]</span></a> See the collection of Northern Voyages, page 200.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_173:A_16" id="Footnote_173:A_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_173:A_16"><span class="label">[173:A]</span></a> Vide Pliny, Hist. Nat. Vol. I. lib. 2.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_175:A_17" id="Footnote_175:A_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_175:A_17"><span class="label">[175:A]</span></a> See the ancient relations of travels by land to China, +page 53 and 54.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_177:A_18" id="Footnote_177:A_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_177:A_18"><span class="label">[177:A]</span></a> Since this time, however, great discoveries, have been +made; Mons. Vaillant has given a particular description of the country +from the Cape to the borders of Caffraria; and much information has also +been acquired by the Society for Asiatic Researches.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_178:A_19" id="Footnote_178:A_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_178:A_19"><span class="label">[178:A]</span></a> See the Hist. of New France, by the Pere Charlevoix. +Vol. III. page 30 and 31.</p> +</div> +</div> +</div> + + + + +<div> +<hr class="newchapter" /> +<h2><a name="ARTICLE_VII" id="ARTICLE_VII"></a>ARTICLE VII.<br /> + +<small>ON THE PRODUCTION OF THE STRATA, OR BEDS OF EARTH.</small></h2> + + +<p>We have shewn, in the first article, that by virtue of the mutual +attraction between the parts of matter, and of the centrifugal force, +which results from its diurnal rotation, the earth has necessarily taken +the form of a spheroid, the diameters of which differ about a <!-- Page 184 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184"></a>[184]</span>230th +part, and that it could only proceed from the changes on the surface, +caused by the motion of the air and water, that this difference could +become greater, as is pretended to be the case from the measures taken +under the equator, and within the polar circle. This figure of the +earth, which so well agrees with hydrostatical laws, and with our +theory, supposes the globe to have been in a state of liquefaction when +it assumed its form, and we have proved that the motions of projection +and rotation were imprinted at the same time by a like impulsion. We +shall the more easily believe that the earth has been in a state of +liquefaction produced by fire, when we consider the nature of the +matters which the globe incloses, the greatest part of which are +vitrified or vitrifiable; especially when we reflect on the +impossibility there is that the earth should ever have been in a state +of fluidity, produced by the waters; since there is infinitely more +earth than water, and that water has not the power of dissolving stone, +sand, and other matters of which the earth is composed.</p> + +<p>It is plain then that the earth took its figure at the time when it was +liquefied by fire: by pursuing our hypothesis it appears, that when <!-- Page 185 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185"></a>[185]</span>the +sun quitted it, the earth had no other form than that of a torrent of +melted and inflamed vapour matter; that this torrent collected itself by +the mutual attraction of its parts, and became a globe, to which the +rotative motion gave the figure of a spheroid; and when the earth was +cooled, the vapours, which were first extended like the tails of comets, +by degrees condensed and fell upon the surface, depositing, at the same +time, a slimy substance mixed with sulphurous and saline matters, a part +of which, by the motion of the waters, was swept into the perpendicular +cracks, where it produced metals, while the rest remained on the +surface, and produced that reddish earth which forms the first strata; +and which, according to different places, is more or less blended with +animal and vegetable particles, so reduced that the organization is no +longer perceptible.</p> + +<p>Therefore, in the first state of the earth, the globe was internally +composed of vitrified matter, as I believe it is at present, above which +were placed those bodies the fire had most divided, as sand, which are +only fragments of glass; and above these, pumice stones and the scoria +of the vitrified matter, which formed the various clays; the whole was +covered with <!-- Page 186 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186"></a>[186]</span>water 5 or 600 feet deep, produced by the condensation of +the vapours, when the globe began to cool. This water every where +deposited a muddy bed, mixed with waters which sublime and exhale by the +fire; and the air was formed of the most subtile vapours, which, by +their lightness, disengaged themselves from the waters, and surmounted +them.</p> + +<p>Such was the state of the globe when the action of the tides, the winds, +and the heat of the sun, began to change the surface of the earth. The +diurnal motion, and the flux and reflux, at first raised the waters +under the southern climate, which carried with them mud, clay, and sand, +and by raising the parts of the equator, they by degrees perhaps lowered +those of the poles about two leagues, as we before mentioned; for the +waters soon reduced into powder the pumice stones and other spongeous +parts of the vitrified matter that were at the surface, they hollowed +some places, and raised others, which in course of time became +continents, and produced all the inequalities, and which are more +considerable towards the equator than the poles; for the highest +mountains are between the tropics and the middle of the temperate zones, +and the lowest <!-- Page 187 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187"></a>[187]</span>are from the polar circle to the poles; between the +tropics are the Cordeliers, and almost all the mountains of Mexico and +Brazil, the great and little Atlas, the Moon, &c. Beside the land which +is between the tropics, from the superior number of islands found in +those parts, is the most unequal of all the globe, as evidently is the +sea.</p> + +<p>However independent my theory may be of that hypothesis of what passed +at the time of the first state of the globe, I refer to it in this +article, in order to shew the connection and possibility of the system +which I endeavoured to maintain in the first article. It must only be +remarked, that my theory does not stray far from it, as I take the earth +in a state nearly similar to what it appears at present, and as I do not +make use of any of the suppositions which are used on reasoning on the +past state of the terrestrial globe. But as I here present a new idea on +the subject of the sediment deposited by the water, which, in my +opinion, has perforated the upper bed of earth, it appears to me also +necessary to give the reason on which I found this opinion.</p> + +<p>The vapours which rise in the air produce rain, dew, aerial fires, +thunder, and other <!-- Page 188 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188"></a>[188]</span>meteors. These vapours are therefore blended with +aqueous, aerial, sulphurous and terrestrial particles, &c. and it is the +solid and earthy particles which form the mud or slime we are now +speaking of. When rain water is suffered to rest, a sediment is formed +at bottom; and having collected a quantity, if it is suffered to stand +and corrupt, it produces a kind of mud which falls to the bottom of the +vessel. Dew produces much more of this mud than rain water, which is +greasy, unctuous, and of a reddish colour.</p> + +<p>The first strata of the earth is composed of this mud, mixed with +perished vegetable or animal parts, or rather stony and sandy particles. +We may remark that almost all land proper for cultivation is reddish, +and more or less mixed with these different matters; the particles of +sand or stone found there are of two kinds, the one coarse and heavy, +the other fine and sometimes impalpable. The largest comes from the +lower strata loosened in cultivating the earth, or rather the upper +mould, by penetrating into the lower, which is of sand and other divided +matters, and forms those earths we call fat and fertile. The finer sort +proceeds from the air, and falls with dew and rain, and mixes intimately +with the soil. This is properly <!-- Page 189 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189"></a>[189]</span>the residue of the powder, which the +wind continually raises from the surface of the earth, and which falls +again after having imbibed the humidity of the air. When the earth +predominates, and the stony and sandy parts are but few, the earth is +then reddish and fertile: if it is mixed with a considerable quantity of +perished animal or vegetable substances, it is blackish, and often more +fertile than the first; but if the mould is only in a small quantity, as +well as the animal or vegetable parts, the earth is white and sterile, +and when the sandy, stony, or cretaceous parts which compose these +sterile lands, are mixed with a sufficient quantity of perished animal +or vegetable substances, they form the black and lighter earths, but +have little fertility; so that according to the different combinations +of these three different matters, the land is more or less fecund and +differently coloured.</p> + +<p>To fix some ideas relative to these stratas; let us take, for example, +the earth of Marly-la-ville, where the pits are very deep: it is a high +country, but flat and fertile, and its strata lie arranged horizontally. +I had samples brought me of all these strata which M. Dalibard, an able +botanist, versed in different sciences, had <!-- Page 190 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190"></a>[190]</span>dug under his inspection; +and after having proved the matters of which they consisted in +aquafortis, I formed the following table of them.</p> + + +<p class="sectctrb">The state of the different beds of earth, found at Marly-la-ville, to +the depth of 100 feet.</p> + +<table class="layers" summary="earth layers found at Marly-la-ville" border="0"> + <tr> + <th colspan="2">Feet.</th> + <th>In.</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefthang">1. A free reddish earth, mixed with + much mud, a very small quantity of + vitrifiable sand, and somewhat more of + calcinable sand</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">13</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">0</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefthang">2. A free earth mixed with gravel, + and a little more vitrifiable sand</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">2</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">6</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefthang">3. Mud mixed with vitrifiable sand + in a great quantity, and which made + but very little effervescence with + aquafortis</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">3</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">0</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefthang">4. Hard marl, which made a very + great effervescence with aquafortis</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">2</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">0</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefthang">5. Pretty hard marl stone</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">4</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">0</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefthang">6. Marl in powder, mixed with vitrifiable + sand</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">5</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">0</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefthang">7. Very fine vitrified sand</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">1</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">6</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefthang">8. Marl very like earth mixed with + a very little vitrifiable sand</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">3</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">6</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefthang"><!-- Page 191 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191"></a>[191]</span>9. Hard marl, in which was real flint</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">3</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">6</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefthang">10. Gravel, or powdered marl</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">1</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">0</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefthang">11. Eglantine, a stone of the grain + and hardness of marble, and sonorous</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">1</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">6</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefthang">12. Marly gravel</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">1</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">6</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefthang">13. Marl in hard stone, whose grain + was very fine</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">1</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">6</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefthang">14. Marl in stone, whose grain was + not so fine</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">1</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">6</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefthang">15. More grained and thicker marl</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">2</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">6</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefthang">16. Very fine vitrifiable sand, mixed + with fossil sea-shells, which had no + adherence with the sand, and whose + colours were perfect</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">1</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">6</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefthang">17. Very small gravel, or fine marl + powder</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">2</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">0</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefthang">18. Marl in hard stone</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">3</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">6</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefthang">19. Very coarse powdered marl</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">1</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">6</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefthang">20. Hard and calcinable stone, like + marble</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">1</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">0</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefthang">21. Grey vitrifiable sand mixed with + fossil shells, particularly oysters and + muscles which have no adherence + <!-- Page 192 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192"></a>[192]</span>with the sand, and which were not + petrified</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">3</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">0</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefthang">22. White vitrifiable sand mixed with + similar shells</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">2</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">0</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefthang">23. Sand streaked red and white, + vitrifiable and mixed with the like + shells</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">1</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">0</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefthang">24. Larger sand, but still vitrifiable + and mixed with the like shells</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">1</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">0</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefthang">25. Fine and vitrifiable grey sand + mixed with the like shells</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">8</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">6</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefthang">26. Very fine fat sand, with only a + few shells</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">3</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">0</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefthang">27. Brown free stone</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">3</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">0</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefthang">28. Vitrifiable sand, streaked red and + white</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">4</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">0</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefthang">29. White vitrifiable sand</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">3</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">6</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlefthang">30. Reddish vitrifiable sand</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">15</td> + <td class="tdrightbot">0</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdright" colspan="3">————</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdleftind">Total depth</td> + <td class="tdright">101</td> + <td class="tdright">0</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdright" colspan="3">————</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>I have before said that I tried all these matters in aquafortis, because +where the inspection and comparison of matters with others that we are +acquainted with is not sufficient to permit <!-- Page 193 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193"></a>[193]</span>us to denominate and range +them in the class which they belong, there is no means more ready, nor +perhaps more sure, than to try by aquafortis the terrestrial or +lapidific matter: those which acid spirits dissolve immediately with +heat and ebullition, are generally calcinable, and those on which they +make no impression are vitrifiable.</p> + +<p>By this enumeration we perceive, that the soil of Marly-la-ville was +formerly the bottom of the sea, which has been raised above 75 feet, +since we find shells at that depth below the surface. Those shells have +been transported by the motion of the water, at the same time as the +sand in which they are met with, and the whole of the upper strata, even +to the first, have been transported after the same manner by the motion +of the water, and deposited in form of a sediment; which we cannot +doubt, as well by reason of their horizontal position, as of the +different beds of sand mixed with shells and marl, the last of which are +only the fragments of the shells. The last stratum itself has been +formed almost entirely by the mould we have spoken of, mixed with a +small part of the marl which was at the surface.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 194 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194"></a>[194]</span>I have chosen this example, as the most disadvantageous to my theory, +because it at first appears very difficult to conceive that the dust of +the air, rain and dew, could produce strata of free earth thirteen feet +thick; but it ought to be observed, that it is very rare to find, +especially in high lands, so considerable a thickness of cultivateable +earth; it is generally about three or four feet, and often not more than +one. In plains surrounded with hills, this thickness of good earth is +the greatest, because the rain loosens the earth of the hills, and +carries it into the vallies; but without supposing any thing of that +kind, I find that the last strata formed by the waters are thick beds of +marl. It is natural to imagine that the upper stratum had, at the +beginning, a still greater thickness, besides the thirteen feet of marl, +when the sea quitted the land and left it naked. This marl, exposed to +the air, melted with the rain; the action of the air and heat of the sun +produced flaws, and reduced it into powder on the surface; the sea would +not quit this land precipitately, but sometimes cover it, either by the +alternative motion of the tides, or by the extraordinary elevation of +the waters in foul weather, when it mixed with this bed of marl, <!-- Page 195 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195"></a>[195]</span>mud, +clay, and other matters. When the land was raised above the waters, +plants would begin to grow, and it was then that the dust in the rain or +dew by degrees added to its substance and gave it a reddish colour; this +thickness and fertility was soon augmented by culture; by digging and +dividing its surface, and thus giving to the dust, in the dew or rain, +the facility of more deeply penetrating it, which at last produced that +bed of free earth thirteen feet thick.</p> + +<p>I shall not here examine whether the reddish colour of vegetable earth +proceeds from the iron which is contained in the earths that are +deposited by the rains and dews, but being of importance, shall take +notice of it when we come to treat of minerals; it is sufficient to have +explained our conception of the formation of the superficial strata of +the earth, and by other examples we shall prove, that the formation of +the interior strata, can only be the work of the waters.</p> + +<p>The surface of the globe, says Woodward, this external stratum on which +men and animals walk, which serves as a magazine for the formation of +vegetables and animals, is, for the greatest part, composed of vegetable +or animal <!-- Page 196 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196"></a>[196]</span>matter, and is in continual motion and variation. All animals +and vegetables which have existed from the creation of the world, have +successively extracted from this stratum the matter which composes it, +and have, after their deaths, restored to it this borrowed matter: it +remains there always ready to be retaken, and to serve for the formation +of other bodies of the same species successively, for the matter which +composes one body is proper and natural to form another body of the same +kind. In uninhabited countries, where the woods are never cut, where +animals do not brouze on the plants, this stratum of vegetable earth +increases considerably. In all woods, even in those which are sometimes +cut, there is a bed of mould, of six or eight inches thick, formed +entirely by the leaves, small branches, and barks which have perished. I +have often observed on the ancient Roman way, which crosses Burgundy in +a long extent of soil, that there is formed a bed of black earth more +than a foot thick upon the stones, which nourishes very high trees; and +this stratum could be composed only of a black mould formed by the +leaves, bark, and perished wood. As vegetables inhale for their +nutriment much more <!-- Page 197 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197"></a>[197]</span>from the air and water than the earth, it happens +that when they perish, they return to the earth more than they have +taken from it. Besides, forests collect the rain water, and by stopping +the vapours increase their moisture; so in a wood which is preserved a +long time, the stratum of earth which serves for vegetation increases +considerably. But animals restoring less to the earth than they take +from it, and men making enormous consumption of wood and plants for +fire, and other uses, it follows that the vegetable soil of inhabited +countries must diminish, and become, in time, like the soil of Arabia +Petrea, and other eastern provinces, which, in fact, are the most +ancient inhabited countries, where only sand and salt are now to be met +with; for the fixed salts of plants and animals remain, whereas all the +other parts volatilise, and are transported by the air.</p> + +<p>Let us now examine the position and formation of the interior strata: +the earth, says Woodward, appears in places that have been dug, composed +of strata placed one on the other, as so many sediments which +necessarily fell to the bottom of the water; the deepest strata are +generally the thickest, and those above the thinnest, and so gradually +lessening to <!-- Page 198 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198"></a>[198]</span>the surface. We find sea shells, teeth, and bones of fish +in these different beds, and not only in those that are soft, as chalk +and clay, but even in those of hard stone, marble, &c. These marine +productions are incorporated with the stone, and when separated from +them, leave the impressions of the shells with the greatest exactness. +"I have been most clearly and positively assured," says this author, +"that in France, Flanders, Holland, Spain, Italy, Germany, Denmark, +Norway, and Sweden, stone, and other terrestrial substances are disposed +in strata, precisely the same as they are in England; that these strata +are divided by parallel fissures; that there are inclosed within stones +and other terrestrial and compact substances, a great quantity of shells +and other productions of the sea, disposed in the same manner as in this +island. I am also informed that these strata are found the same in +Barbary, Egypt, Guinea, and in other parts of Africa; in Arabia, Syria, +Persia, Malabar, China, and the rest of the provinces of Asia; in +Jamaica, Barbadoes, Virginia, New-England, Brazil, and other parts of +America<a name="FNanchor_198:A_20" id="FNanchor_198:A_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_198:A_20" class="fnanchor">[198:A]</a>."</p> + +<p><!-- Page 199 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199"></a>[199]</span>This author does not say how he learnt, or by whom he was told, that the +strata of Peru contained shells; yet as in general his observations are +exact, I do not doubt but he was well informed; and am persuaded that +shells may be found in the earth of Peru, as well as elsewhere. This +remark is made from a doubt having been formed some time since on the +subject, and which I shall hereafter consider.</p> + +<p>In a trench made at Amsterdam, to the depth of 230 feet, the strata were +found as follows: 7 feet of vegetable earth, 9 of turf, 9 of soft clay, +8 of sand, 4 of earth, 10 of clay, 4 of earth, 10 of sand, then 2 feet +of clay, 4 of white sand, 5 of dry earth, 1 of soft earth, 14 of sand, 8 +of argil, mixed with earth; 4 of sand, mixed with shells; then clay 102 +feet thick, and at last 31 feet of sand, at which depth they ceased +digging<a name="FNanchor_199:A_21" id="FNanchor_199:A_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_199:A_21" class="fnanchor">[199:A]</a>.</p> + +<p>It is very singular to dig so deep without meeting with water: and this +circumstance is remarkable in many particulars. 1. It shews, that the +water of the sea does not communicate with the interior part of the +earth, by means of filtration. 2. That shells are found at the depth of +100 feet below the surface, and that <!-- Page 200 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200"></a>[200]</span>consequently the soil of Holland +has been raised 100 feet by the sediment of the sea. 3. We may draw an +induction, that this strata of thick clay of 102 feet, and the bed of +sand below it, in which they dug to 31 feet, and whose entire thickness +is unknown, are perhaps not very far distant from the first strata of +the original earth, such as it was before the motion of the water had +changed its surface. We have said in the first article, that if we +desired to find the ancient earth, we should dig in the northern +countries, rather than towards the south; in plains rather than in +mountainous regions. The circumstances in this instance, appear to be +nearly so, only it is to be wished they had continued the digging to a +greater depth, and that the author had informed us, whether there were +not shells and other marine productions, in the last bed of clay, and in +that of sand below it. The experiment confirms what we have already +said; and the more we dig, the greater thickness we shall find the +strata.</p> + +<p>The earth is composed of parallel and horizontal beds, not only in +plains, but hills and mountains are in general composed after the same +manner: it may be said, that the strata in hills and mountains are more +apparent there <!-- Page 201 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201"></a>[201]</span>than in the plains, because the plains are generally +covered with a very considerable quantity of sand and earth, which the +water has brought from the higher grounds, and therefore, to find the +ancient strata, must dig deeper in the plains than in the mountains.</p> + +<p>I have often observed, that when a mountain is level at its summit, the +strata which compose it are also level; but if the summit is not placed +horizontally, the strata inclines also in the same direction. I have +heard that, in general, the beds of quarries inclined a little to the +east; but having myself observed all the chains of rocks which offered, +I discovered this opinion to be erroneous, and that the strata inclines +to the same side as the hill, whether it be east, west, north, or south. +When we dig stone and marble from the quarry, we take great care to +separate them according to their natural position, and we cannot even +get them of a large size, if we cut them in any other direction. Where +they are made use of for good masonry, the workmen are particular in +placing them as they stood in the quarry, for if they were placed in any +other direction, they would split, and would not resist the weight with +which they are loaded. This perfectly <!-- Page 202 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202"></a>[202]</span>confirms that stones, are found +in parallel and horizontal strata, which have been successively heaped +one on the other, and that these strata composed masses where resistance +is greater in that direction than in any other.</p> + +<p>Every strata, whether horizontal or inclined, has an equal thickness +throughout its whole extent. In the quarries about Paris the bed of good +stone is not thick, scarcely more than 18 or 20 feet: in those of +Burgundy the stone is much thicker. It is the same with marble; the +black and white marble have a thicker bed than the coloured; and I know +beds of very hard stone, which the farmers in Burgundy make use of to +cover their houses, that are not above an inch thick. The different +strata vary much in thickness, but each bed preserves the same thickness +throughout its extent. The thickness of strata is so greatly varied, +that it is found from less than a line to 1, 10, 20, 30, or 100 feet +thick. The ancient and modern quarries, which are horizontally dug, the +perpendicular and other divisions of mines, prove that there are +extensive strata in all directions. "It is thoroughly proved," says the +historian of the academy, "that all stones have formerly been a soft +paste, and as there are <!-- Page 203 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203"></a>[203]</span>quarries almost in every part, the surface of +the earth has therefore consisted, in all these places, of mud and +slime, at least to certain depths. The shells found in most quarries +prove that this mud was an earth diluted by the water of the sea, and +consequently that the sea covered all these places; and it could not +cover them without also covering all that was level with or lower than +it: and it is plain that it could not cover every place where there were +quarries, without covering the whole face of the terrestrial globe. We +do not here consider the mountains which the sea must also at one time +have covered, since quarries and shells are often found in them.</p> + +<p>"The sea," continues he, "therefore, covered the whole earth, and from +thence it proceeds that all the beds of stone in the plains are +horizontal and parallel; fish must have also been the most ancient +inhabitants of the globe, as there was no sustenance for either birds or +terrestrial animals." But how did the sea retire into these vast basins +which it at present occupies? What presents itself the most natural to +the mind is, that the earth, at least at a certain depth, was not +entirely solid, but intermixed with some great vacuums, whose <!-- Page 204 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204"></a>[204]</span>vaults +were supported for a time, but at length, sunk in suddenly: then the +waters must have fallen into these vacancies, filled them, and left +naked a part of the earth's surface, which became an agreeable abode to +terrestrial animals and birds. The shells found in quarries perfectly +agree with this idea, for only the bony parts of fish could be preserved +till now. In general, shells are heaped up in great abundance in certain +parts of the sea, where they are immovable, and form a kind of rock, and +could not follow the water, which suddenly forsook them: this is the +reason that we find more shells than bones of the fish, and this even +proves a sudden fall of the sea into its present basins. At the same +time as our supposed vaults gave way, it is very possible that other +parts of the globe were raised by the same cause, and that mountains +were placed on this surface with quarries already formed, but the beds +of these quarries could not preserve the horizontal direction they +before had, unless the mountains were raised precisely perpendicular to +the surface of the earth, which could happen but very seldom: so also, +as we have already observed, in 1705, the beds of stone in mountains are +always inclined to the horizon, though <!-- Page 205 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205"></a>[205]</span>parallel with each other; for +they have not changed their position with respect to each other, but +only with respect to the surface of the earth<a name="FNanchor_205:A_22" id="FNanchor_205:A_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_205:A_22" class="fnanchor">[205:A]</a>.</p> + +<p>These parallel strata, these beds of earth and stone, which have been +formed by the sediment of the sea, often extend to considerable +distances, and we often find in hills, separated by a valley, the same +beds and the same matters at the same level. This observation agrees +perfectly with that of the height of the opposite hills. We may easily +be assured of the truth of these facts, for in all narrow vallies, where +rocks are discovered, we shall find the same beds of stone and marble on +both sides at the same height. In a country where I frequently reside, I +found a quarry of marble which extended more than 12 leagues in length, +and whose breadth was very considerable, although I have never been able +precisely to determine it. I have often observed that this bed of marble +is throughout of the same thickness, and in hills divided from this +quarry by a valley of 100 feet depth, and a quarter of a mile in +breadth, I found the same bed of marble at the same height. I am +persuaded <!-- Page 206 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206"></a>[206]</span>it is the same in every stone and marble quarry where shells +are found; but this observation does not hold good in quarries of +freestone. In the course of this work, we shall give reasons for this +difference, and describe why freestone is not dispersed, like other +matters, in horizontal beds, and why it is in irregular blocks, both in +form and position.</p> + +<p>We have likewise observed that the strata are the same on both sides the +straits of the sea. This observation, which is important, may lead us to +discover the lands and islands which have been separated from the +continent; it proves, for example, that England has been divided from +France; Spain from Africa; Sicily from Italy; and it is to be wished +that the same observation had been made in all the straits. I am +persuaded that we should find it almost every where true. We do not know +whether the same beds of stone are found at the same height on both +sides the straits of Magellan, which is the longest; but we see, by the +particular maps and exact charts, that the two high coasts which confine +it, form nearly, like the mountains of the earth, correspondent angles, +which also proves that the Terra del Fuega, must be regarded as part of +the continent of <!-- Page 207 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207"></a>[207]</span>America; it is the same with Forbisher's Strait and +the island of Friesland, which appear to have been divided from the +continent of Greenland.</p> + +<p>The Maldivian islands are only separated by small tracts of the sea, on +each side of which banks and rocks are found composed of the same +materials; and these islands, which, taken together, are near 200 miles +long, formed anciently only one land; they are now divided into 13 +provinces, called Clusters. Each cluster contains a great number of +small islands, most of which are sometimes overflowed and sometimes dry; +but what is remarkable, these thirteen clusters are each surrounded with +a chain of rocks of the same stone, and there are only three or four +dangerous inlets by which they can be entered. They are all placed one +after the other, and it evidently appears that these islands were +formerly a long mountain capped with rocks<a name="FNanchor_216:A_23" id="FNanchor_216:A_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_216:A_23" class="fnanchor">[216:A]</a>.</p> + +<p>Many authors, as Verstegan, Twine, Somner, and especially Campbell, in +his Description of England, in the chapter of Kent, gives very strong +reasons, to prove that England was formerly joined to France, and has +been separated from it by an effort of the sea, which <!-- Page 208 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208"></a>[208]</span>carried away the +neck of land that joined them, opened the channel, and left naked a +great quantity of low and marshy ground along the southern coasts of +England. Dr. Wallis, as a corroboration of this supposition, shews the +conformity of the ancient Gallic and British tongues, and adds many +observations, which we shall relate in the following articles.</p> + +<p>If we consider the form of lands, the position of mountains, and the +windings of rivers, we shall perceive that generally opposite hills are +not only composed of the same matters on the same level, but are nearly +of an equal height. This equality I have observed in my travels, and +have mostly found them the same on the two sides, especially in vallies +that were not more than a quarter or a third of a league broad, for in +vallies which are very broad, it is difficult to judge of the height and +equality of hills, because, by looking over a level plain of any great +extent, it appears to rise, and hills at a distance appear to lower; but +this is not the place to give a mathematical reason for this difference. +It is also very difficult to judge by the naked sight of the middle of a +great valley, at least if there is no river in it; whereas in confined +vallies our sight is less equivocal and our judgment <!-- Page 209 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209"></a>[209]</span>more certain. That +part of Burgundy comprehended between Auxerre, Dijon, Autun, and +Bar-sur-seine, a considerable extent of which is called <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">la Bailliage de +la Montagne</i>, is one of the highest parts of France; from one side of +most of these mountains, which are only of the second class, the water +flows towards the Ocean, and on the other side towards the +Mediterranean. This high country is divided with many small vallies, +very confined, and almost all watered with rivulets. I have a thousand +times observed the correspondence of the angles of these hills and their +equality of height, and I am certain that I have every where found the +saliant angles opposite to the returning angles, and the heights nearly +equal on both sides. The farther we advance into the higher country, +where the points of division are, the higher are the mountains; but this +height is always the same on both sides of the vallies, and the hills +are raised or lowered alike. I have frequently made the like +observations in many other parts of France. It is this equality in the +height of the hills which forms the plains in the mountains, and these +plains form lands higher than others. But high mountains do not appear +so equal in height, most of them terminate in <!-- Page 210 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210"></a>[210]</span>points and irregular +peaks; and I have seen, in crossing the Alps, and the Apennine +mountains, that the angles are, in fact, correspondent; but it is almost +impossible to judge by the eye of the equality or inequality in the +height of opposite mountains, because their summits are lost in mists +and clouds.</p> + +<p>The different strata of which the earth is composed are not disposed +according to their specific weight, for we often find strata of heavy +matters placed on those of lighter. To be assured of this, we have only +to examine the earth on which rocks are placed, and we shall find that +it is generally clay or sand, which is specifically lighter. In hills, +and other small elevations, we easily discover this to be the case; but +it is not so with large mountains, for not only their summits are rocks, +but those rocks are placed on others; there mountains are placed upon +mountains, and rocks upon rocks, to such a considerable height, and +through so great an extent of country, that we can scarcely be certain +whether there is earth at bottom, or of what nature it is. I have seen +cavities made in rocks to some hundred feet deep, without being able to +form an idea where they ended, for these rocks were supported by +others; <!-- Page 211 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211"></a>[211]</span>nevertheless, may we not compare great with small? and since +the rocks of little mountains, whose bases are to be seen, rest on the +earth less heavy and solid than stone, may we not suppose that earth is +also the base of high mountains? All that I have here to prove by these +arguments is, that, by the motion of the waters, it may naturally happen +that the more ponderous matters accumulated on the lighter; and that, if +this in fact is found to be so in most hills, it is probable that it +happened as explained by my theory; but should it be objected that I am +not grounded in supposing, that before the formation of mountains the +heaviest matters were below the lighter; I answer, that I assert nothing +general in this respect, because this effect may have been produced in +many manners, whether the heaviest matters were uppermost or undermost, +or placed indiscriminately. To conceive how the sea at first formed a +mountain of clay, and afterwards capt it with rocks, it is sufficient to +consider the sediments may successively come from different parts, and +that they might be of different materials. In some parts, the sea may at +first have deposited sediments of clay, and the waters afterwards +brought sediment of strong matter, either <!-- Page 212 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212"></a>[212]</span>because they had transported +all the clay from the bottom and sides, and then the waves attacked the +rocks, possibly because the first sediment came from one part, and the +second from another. This perfectly agrees with observation, by which we +perceive that beds of earth, stone, gravel, sand, &c. followed no rule +in their arrangement, but are placed indifferently one on the other as +it were by chance.</p> + +<p>But this chance must have some rules, which can be known only by +estimating the value of probabilities, and the truth of conjectures. +According to our hypothesis, on the formation of the globe, we have seen +that the interior part of the globe must have been a vitrified matter, +similar to vitrified sand, which is only the fragments of glass, and of +which the clays are perhaps the scoria; by this supposition, the centre +of the earth, and almost as far as the external circumference, must be +glass, or a vitrified matter; and above this we shall find sand, clay, +and other scoria. Thus the earth, in its first state, was a nucleus of +glass, or vitrified matter; either massive like glass, or divided like +sand, because that depends on the degree of heat it has undergone. Above +this matter was sand, and lastly clay. The soil of the <!-- Page 213 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213"></a>[213]</span>waters and air +produced the external crust, which is thicker or thinner, according to +the situation of the ground; more or less coloured, according to the +different mixtures of mud, sand, clay, and the decayed parts of animals +and vegetables; and more or less fertile, according to the abundance or +want of these parts. To shew that this supposition on the formation of +sand and clay is not chimerical, I shall add some particular remarks.</p> + +<p>I conceive, that the earth, in its first state, was a globe, or rather a +spheroid of compact glass, covered with a light crust of pumice stone +and other scoria of the matter in fusion. The motion and agitation of +the waters and air soon reduced this crust into powder or sand, which, +by uniting afterwards, produced flints, and owe their hardness, colour, +or transparency and variety, to the different degrees of purity of the +sand which entered into their composition.</p> + +<p>These sands, whose constituting parts unite by fire, assimilate, and +become very dense, compact, and the more transparent as the sand is more +pure; on the contrary, being exposed a long time to the air, they +disunite and exfoliate, descend in the form of earth, and it is +probable <!-- Page 214 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214"></a>[214]</span>the different clays are thus produced. This dust, sometimes of +a brightish yellow, and sometimes like silver, is nothing else but a +very pure sand somewhat perished, and almost reduced to an elementary +state. By time, particles will be so far attenuated and divided, that +they will no longer have power to reflect the light, and acquire all the +properties of clay.</p> + +<p>This theory is conformable to what every day is seen; let us immediately +wash sand upon its being dug, and the water will be loaded with a black +ductile and fat earth, which is genuine clay. In streets paved with +freestone, the dirt is always black and greasy, and when dried appears +to be an earth of the same nature as clay. Let us wash the earth taken +from a spot where there are neither freestone nor flints, and there will +always precipitate a great quantity of vitrifiable sand.</p> + +<p>But what perfectly proves that sand, and even flint and glass, exist in +clay, is, that the action of fire, by uniting the parts, restores it to +its original form. Clay, if heated to the degree of calcination, will +cover itself with a very hard enamel; if it is not vitrified internally, +it nevertheless will have acquired a very great hardness, so as to +resist the file; it will emit fire <!-- Page 215 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215"></a>[215]</span>under the hammer, and it has all the +properties of flint; a greater degree of heat causes it to flow, and +converts it into real glass.</p> + +<p>Clay and sand are therefore matters perfectly analogous, and of the same +class; if clay, by condensing, may become flint and glass, why may not +sand, by dissolution, become clay? Glass appears to be true elementary +earth, and all mixed substances disguised glass. Metals, minerals, +salts, &c. are only vitrifiable earth; common stone and other matters +analogous to it, and testaceous and crustaceous shells, &c. are the only +substances which cannot be vitrified, and which seem to form a separate +class. Fire, by uniting the divided parts of the first, forms an +homogeneous matter, hard and transparent, without any diminution of +weight, and to which it is not possible to cause any alteration; those, +on the contrary, in which a greater quantity of active and volatile +principles enter, and which calcine, lose more than one-third of their +weight in the fire, and retake the form of simple earth, without any +other alteration than a disunion of their different parts: these bodies +excepted, which are no great number, and whose combinations produce no +great varieties in nature, every other substance, and particularly +<!-- Page 216 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216"></a>[216]</span>clay, may be converted into glass, and are consequently only decomposed +glass. If the fire suddenly causes the form of these substances to +change, by vitrifying them, glass itself, whether pure, or in the form +of sand or flint, naturally, but by a slow and insensible progress, +changes into clay.</p> + +<p>Where flint is the predominant stone, the country is generally strewed +with parts of it, and if the place is uncultivated, and these stones +have been long exposed to the air, without having been stirred, their +upper superficies is always white, whereas the opposite side, which +touches the earth, is very brown, and preserves its natural colour. If +these flints are broken, we shall perceive that the whiteness is not +only external, but penetrates internally, and there forms a kind of +band, not very deep in some, but which in others occupies almost the +whole flint. This white part is somewhat grainy, entirely opaque, as +soft as freestone, and adheres to the tongue like the boles; whereas the +other part is smooth, has neither thread nor grain, and preserves its +natural colour, transparency, and hardness. If this flint is put into a +furnace, its white part becomes of a brick colour, and its brown part +<!-- Page 217 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217"></a>[217]</span>of a very fine white. Let us not say with one of our most celebrated +naturalists, that these stones are imperfect flints of different ages, +which have not acquired their perfection; for why should they be all +imperfect? Why should they be imperfect only on the side exposed to the +weather? It, on the contrary, appears to me more reasonable that they +are flints changed from their original state, gradually decomposed, and +assuming the form and property of clay or bole. If this is thought to be +only conjecture, let the hardest and blackest flint be exposed to the +weather, in less than a year its surface will change colour; and if we +have patience to pursue this experiment, we shall see it by degrees lose +its hardness, transparency, and other specific characters, and approach +every day nearer and nearer the nature of clay.</p> + +<p>What happens to flint happens to sand; each grain of sand may possibly +be considered as a small flint, and each flint as a mass of extremely +fine grains of sand. The first example of the decomposition of sand is +found in the brilliant opaque powder called Mica, in which clay and +slate are always diffused. The entirely transparent flints, the Quartz, +produce, by decomposition, fat and soft talks, such as those of <!-- Page 218 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218"></a>[218]</span>Venice +and Russia, which are as ductile and vitrifiable as clay: and it appears +to me, that talk is a mediate between glass, or transparent flint, and +clay; whereas coarse and impure flint, by decomposing, passes to clay +without any intermedium.</p> + +<p>Our factitious glass undergoes the same alterations: it decomposes and +perishes, as it were, in the air. At first, it assumes a variety of +colours, then exfoliates, and by working it, we perceive brilliant +scales fall off; but when its decomposition is more advanced, it +crumbles between the fingers, and is reduced into a very white fine +talky powder. Art has even imitated nature in the decomposition of glass +and flint. "<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Est etiam certa methodus solius aquæ communis ope, silices & +arenam in liquorem viscosum, eumdemque in sal viride convertendi, & hoc +in aleum rubicundum, &c. Solius ignis & aqua ope, speciali experimento, +durissimos quosque lapides in mucorem resolvo, qui distillan subtilem +spiritum exhibet & oleum nullus laudibus prÅ“dicabile</span><a name="FNanchor_218:A_24" id="FNanchor_218:A_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_218:A_24" class="fnanchor">[218:A]</a>."</p> + +<p>These matters more particularly belong to metals, and when we come to +them, shall be fully treated on, therefore we shall content <!-- Page 219 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219"></a>[219]</span>ourselves +here with adding, that the different strata which cover the terrestrial +globe, being materials to be considered as actual vitrifications or +analogous to glass, and possessing its most essential qualities; and as +it is evident, that from the decomposition of glass and flint, which is +every day made before our eyes, a genuine clay remains, it is not a +precarious supposition to advance, that clays and sands have been formed +by scoria, and vitrified drops of the terrestrial globe, especially when +we join the proofs <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">a priori</i>, which we have given to evince the earth +has been in a state of liquefaction caused by fire.</p> + + +<div> +<hr class="footnotes" /> +<p class="sectctrfn">FOOTNOTES:</p> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_198:A_20" id="Footnote_198:A_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_198:A_20"><span class="label">[198:A]</span></a> Essay on the Natural History of the Earth, pages 40, +41, 42, &c.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_199:A_21" id="Footnote_199:A_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_199:A_21"><span class="label">[199:A]</span></a> See Varennii, Geograph. General, page 46.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_205:A_22" id="Footnote_205:A_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_205:A_22"><span class="label">[205:A]</span></a> See the Mem. of the Acad. 1716, page 14.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_216:A_23" id="Footnote_216:A_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_216:A_23"><span class="label">[216:A]</span></a> See the Voyages of Francis Piriard, vol. 1, page 108.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_218:A_24" id="Footnote_218:A_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_218:A_24"><span class="label">[218:A]</span></a> See Becher. Phys. subter.</p> +</div> +</div> +</div> + + + + +<div> +<hr class="newchapter" /> +<h2><a name="ARTICLE_VIII" id="ARTICLE_VIII"></a>ARTICLE VIII.<br /> + +<small>ON SHELLS, AND OTHER MARINE PRODUCTIONS FOUND IN THE INTERIOR PARTS OF +THE EARTH.</small></h2> + + +<p>I have often examined quarries, the banks of which were filled with +shells; I have seen entire hills composed of them, and chains of rocks +which contained them throughout their <!-- Page 220 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220"></a>[220]</span>whole extent. The quantity of +these marine productions is astonishing, and the number in many places +so prodigious, that it appears scarcely possible that any should now +remain in the sea; it is by considering this innumerable multitude of +shells, that no doubt is left of our earth having been a long time under +the water of the ocean. The quantity found in a fossil, or petrified +state, is beyond conception, and it is only from the number of those +that have been discovered that we could possibly have formed an idea of +their multiplicity. We must imagine, like those who reason on matters +they never saw, that shells are only found at random, dispersed here and +there, or in small heaps, as oyster shells thrown before our doors; on +the contrary, they form mountains, are met with in shoals of 100 or 200 +miles length, nay, they may sometimes be traced through whole provinces +in masses of 50 or 60 feet thick. It is from these circumstances alone +that we can reason on the subject.</p> + +<p>We cannot give a more striking example on this subject than the shells +of Touraine. The following is the description given of them by the +historian of the Academy<a name="FNanchor_220:A_25" id="FNanchor_220:A_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_220:A_25" class="fnanchor">[220:A]</a>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 221 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221"></a>[221]</span>"The number of figured stones and fossil shells found in the bowels of +the earth were remarked in all ages and nations, but they were +considered merely as the sports of nature, and even by philosophers +themselves, as the productions of chance or accident; they regarded them +with a degree of surprise, but passed them over with a slight attention, +and all this phenomena perished without any fruit for the progress of +knowledge. A potter in Paris, who knew neither Latin nor Greek, towards +the end of the 16th century, was the first man who dared affirm, in +opposition to the learned, that the fossil shells were real shells +formerly deposited by the sea in those places where they were found; +that animals, and particularly fish, had given to stones all these +different figures, &c. and he desired the whole school of Aristotle to +contradict his proofs. This was Bernard Palissy, as great a natural +genius as nature could form: his system slept near 100 years, and even +his name was almost forgot. At length the ideas of Palissy were revived +in the mind of several philosophers; and science has profited by all the +shells and figured stones the earth furnishes us with; perhaps they are +at <!-- Page 222 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222"></a>[222]</span>present become only too common, and the consequences drawn from them +too incontestable.</p> + +<p>"Notwithstanding this, the observations presented by M. Reaumer must +appear wonderful. He discovered a mass of 130 million, 680 thousand +cubical fathoms of shells, either whole or in fragments, without any +mixture of stone, earth, sand, or other extraneous matter: hitherto +fossil shells have never appeared in such an enormous quantity, nor +without mixture. It is in Touraine this prodigious mass is found, more +than 36 leagues from the sea; this is perfectly known there, as the +farmers of that province make use of these shells, which they dig up, as +manure for their lands, to fertilize their plains, which otherwise would +be absolutely sterile.</p> + +<p>"What is dug from the earth, and which generally is no more than eight +or nine feet deep, are only small fragments of shells, very +distinguishable as fragments, for they retain their original channels +and hollows, having only lost their gloss and colour, as almost all +shells do which we find in the earth. The smallest pieces, which are +only dust, are still distinguishable because they are perfectly of the +same matter <!-- Page 223 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223"></a>[223]</span>as the rest, as well as of the whole shells which are +sometimes found. We discover the species as well in the whole shells as +in the larger fragments. Some of these species are known at Poictou, +others belong to more remote coasts. There are even fragments of +madrepores, coral, and other productions of the sea; all this matter in +the country is termed <em>Fallun</em>, and is found wherever the ground is dug +in that province for the space of nine leagues square. The peasants do +not dig above twenty feet deep, because they think it would not repay +them for their trouble, but they are certainly deeper. The calculation +of the quantity is however taken upon the supposition of only 18 feet +and 2200 fathoms to the league. This mass of shells of course exceeds +the calculation, and possibly contains double the quantity.</p> + +<p>"In physical points the smallest circumstances, which most people do not +think worthy of remarking, sometimes lead to consequences and afford +great lights. M. de Reaumer observed, that all these fragments of shells +lie horizontally, and hence he has concluded that this infinity of +fragments does not proceed from the heap being formed at one time, or of +whole shells, for the uppermost, by their weight, <!-- Page 224 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224"></a>[224]</span>would have crushed +the others, and of course their fallings would have given an infinity of +different positions. They must, therefore, have been brought there by +the sea, either whole or broken, and necessarily placed horizontal; and +although the extreme length of time was of itself sufficient to break, +and almost calcine the greatest part, it could not change their +position.</p> + +<p>"By this it appears, that they must have been brought gradually, and, in +fact, how was it possible that the sea could convey at once such an +immense quantity of shells, and at the same time preserve a position +perfectly horizontal? they must have collected in one spot, and +consequently this spot must have been the bottom of a gulph or basin.</p> + +<p>"All this proves, that although there must remain upon the earth many +vestiges of the universal deluge, as recorded in scripture, the mass of +shells at Touraine was not produced by that deluge; there is perhaps not +so great a mass in any part of the sea; but even had the deluge forced +them away, it would have been with an impetuosity and violence that +would not have permitted them to retain one uniform position. They must +have been brought and deposited <!-- Page 225 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225"></a>[225]</span>gently and slowly, and consequently +their accumulation required a space of time much longer than a year."</p> + +<p>The surface of the earth, it is evident, must have been before or after +the deluge very differently disposed to what it is at present, that the +sea and continent had another arrangement, and formerly there was a +great gulph in the middle of Touraine. The changes which are known from +history, or even ancient fable, are inconsiderable, but they give us +room to imagine those which a longer time might bring about. M. de +Reaumur supposes that Touraine was a gulph of the sea which communicated +with the ocean, and that the shells were carried there by a current; but +this is a simple conjecture laid down in room of the real unknown fact. +To speak with certainty on this matter, we should have geographical maps +of all the places where shells have been dug from the earth, to obtain +which would require almost an infinity of time and observation, yet it +is possible that hereafter science may accomplish it.</p> + +<p>This quantity of shells, considerable as it is, will astonish us less if +we consider the following circumstances: first, shell fish multiply +prodigiously, and are full grown in a very <!-- Page 226 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226"></a>[226]</span>short time; the abundance of +individuals in each kind proves to us their fertility. We have a strong +example of this increase in oysters, a mass of many fathoms of which are +frequently raised in a single day. In a very short time the rocks to +which they are attached are considerably diminished, and some banks +quite exhausted, nevertheless the ensuing year we find them as plentiful +as before, nor do they appear to be in the least diminished; indeed I +know not whether a natural bed of oysters was ever entirely exhausted. +Secondly, the substance of shells is analogous to stone; they are a long +time preserved in soft matters, and petrify readily in hard; these +shells and marine productions therefore found on the earth, being the +wrecks of many ages, must of course have formed very considerable +masses.</p> + +<p>There are a prodigious quantity of shells in marble, lime, stone, chalk, +marl, &c. we find them, as before observed, in hills and mountains, and +they often make more than one half of the bodies which contain them; for +the most part they appear well preserved, others are in fragments, but +large enough to distinguish to what kind of shells they belong. Here our +knowledge on this subject, from observation, <!-- Page 227 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227"></a>[227]</span>finds its limits; but I +shall go further and assert that shells are the intermedium which Nature +adopts for the formation of most kind of stones; that chalks, marls, and +lime-stone are composed only of the powder and pieces of shells; that +consequently the quantities of shells destroyed are infinitely more +considerable than those preserved. I shall here content myself with +indicating the point of view in which we ought to consider the strata of +which the globe is composed. The first stratum is composed of the dust +of the air, the sediment of the rain, dew, and vegetable or animal +parts, reduced to particles; the strata of chalk, marl, lime, stone, and +marble, are composed of the ruins of shells, and other marine +productions, mixed with fragments or whole shells; but the vitrifiable +sand or clay are the matters of which the internal parts of the globe +are composed. They were vitrified when the globe received its form, +which necessarily supposes that the matter was in fusion. The granate, +rock, flint, &c. owe their origin to sand and clay, and are likewise +disposed by strata; but tuffa<a name="FNanchor_227:A_26" id="FNanchor_227:A_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_227:A_26" class="fnanchor">[227:A]</a>, free-stone, and flints (not in +great masses), crystals, metals, pyrites, most minerals, sulphurs, &c. +<!-- Page 228 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228"></a>[228]</span>are matters whose formation is novel, in comparison with marbles, +calcinable stones, chalk, marl, and all other materials disposed in +horizontal strata, and which contain shells and other productions of the +sea.</p> + +<p>As the denominations I make use of may appear obscure or equivocal, it +is necessary to explain them. By the term <em>clay</em>, I mean not only the +white and yellow, but also blue, soft, hard, foliated, and other clays, +which I look on as the scoria of glass, or as decomposed glass. By the +word <em>sand</em> I always understand vitrifiable sand; and not only +comprehend under this denomination the fine sand which produces +freestone, and which I look upon as powdered glass, or rather pumice +stone, but also the sand which proceeds from the freestone destroyed by +friction, and also the larger sand, as small gravel, which proceeds from +the granate and rock-stone, and is sharp, angular, red, and commonly +found in the bed of rivers or rivulets that derive their waters +immediately from the higher mountains, or hills composed of stone or +granate. The river Armanson conveys a great quantity of this sand; it is +large and brittle, and in fact is only fragments of rock-stone, as +calcinable gravel is of freestone. <!-- Page 229 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229"></a>[229]</span><em>Rock-stone</em> and <em>granate</em> are one +and the same substance, but I have used both denominations, because +there are many persons who make two different species of them. It is the +same with respect to flints and free-stone in large pieces; I look on +them as kinds of granate, and I call them <em>large flints</em>, because they +are disposed like calcinable stone in strata, and to distinguish them +from the flints and free-stone in small masses, and the round flints +which have no regular quarries, and whose beds have a certain extent; +these are of a modern formation, and have not the same origin as the +flints and free-stone in large lumps, which are disposed in regular +strata.</p> + +<p>I understand by the term <em>slate</em>, not only the blue, which all the world +knows, but white, grey, and red slate: these bodies are generally met +with below laminated clay, and have every appearance of being nothing +more than clay hardened in this strata. Pit coal and jet are matters +which also belong to clay, and are commonly under slate. By the word +<em>tuffa</em>, I understood not only the common pumice which appears full of +holes, and, as I may say, organized, but all the beds of stone made by +the sediment of running waters, all the stalactites, <!-- Page 230 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230"></a>[230]</span>incrustations, and +all kinds of stone that dissolve by fire. It is no ways doubtful that +these matters are not modern, and that they every day grow. Tuffa is +only a mass of lapidific matter in which we perceive no distinct strata: +this matter is disposed generally in small hollow cylinders, irregularly +grouped and formed by waters dropt at the foot of mountains, or on the +slope of hills, which contain beds of marl or soft and calcareous earth; +these cylinders, which make one of the specific characters of this kind +of tuffa, is either oblique or vertical according to the direction of +the streams or water which form them. These sort of spurious quarries +have no continuation; their extent is very confined, and proportionate +to the height of the mountains which furnish them with the matter of +their growth. The tuffa every day receiving lapidific juices, those +small cylindrical columns, between which intervals are left, close at +last, and the whole becomes one compact body, but never acquires the +hardness of stone, and is what Agricola terms <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Marga tofocea fistulosa</i>. +In this tuffa are generally found impressions of leaves, trees, and +plants, like those which grow in the environs: terrestrial shells also +are often met with, but never any of the <!-- Page 231 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231"></a>[231]</span>marine kind. The tuffa is +certainly therefore a new matter, which must be ranked with stalactites, +incrustations, &c. all these new matters are kinds of spurious stones, +formed at the expence of the rest, but which never arrive at true +petrification.</p> + +<p>Crystal, precious stones, and all those which have a regular figure, +even small flints formed by concentrical beds, whether found in +perpendicular cavities of rocks, or elsewhere, are only exudations of +large flints, or concrete juices of the like matters, and are therefore +spurious stones, and real stalactites of flint or rock.</p> + +<p>Shells are never found either in rock, granate, or free-stone, although +they are often met with in vitrifiable sand, from which these matters +derive their origin; this seems to prove that sand cannot unite to form +free-stone or rock but when it is pure, and that if it is mixed with +shells or substances of other kinds, which are heterogeneous to it, its +union is prevented. I have observed the little pebbles which are often +found in beds of sand mixed with shells, but never found any shell +therein: these pebbles are real concretions of free-stone formed in the +sand in the places where it is not <!-- Page 232 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232"></a>[232]</span>mixed with heterogeneous matters +which oppose the formation of larger masses.</p> + +<p>We have before observed, that at Amsterdam, which is a very low country, +sea shells were found at 100 feet below the earth, and at +Marly-la-Ville, six miles from Paris, at 75 feet; we likewise meet with +the same at the bottom of mines, and in banks of rocks, beneath a height +of stone 50, 100, 200, and 1000 feet thick, as is apparent in the Alps +and Pyrennees, where, in the lower beds, shells and other marine +productions are constantly found. But to proceed in order, we find +shells on the mountains of Spain, France, and England; in all the marble +quarries of Flanders, in the mountains of Gueldres, in all hills around +Paris, Burgundy, and Champagne; in one word, in every place where the +basis of the soil is not free-stone or tuffa; and in most of these +places there are more shells than other matters in the substance of the +stones. By <em>shells</em>, I mean not only the wrecks of shell-fish, but those +of crustaceous animals, the bristles of sea hedge-hogs, and all +productions of the sea insects, as coral, madrepores, astroites, &c. We +may easily be convinced by inspection, that in most calculable stones +and marble, there is so <!-- Page 233 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233"></a>[233]</span>great a quantity of these marine productions +that they appear to surpass the matter which unites them.</p> + +<p>But let us proceed; we meet with these marine productions even on the +tops of the highest mountains; for example, on Mount Cenis, in the +mountains of Genes, in the Apennines, and in most of the stone and +marble quarries in Italy; also in the stones of the most ancient +edifices of the Romans; in the mountains of Tirol; in the centre of +Italy, on the summits of Mount Paterne, near Bologna; in the hills of +Calabria; in many parts of Germany and Hungary, and generally in all the +high parts of Europe<a name="FNanchor_233:A_27" id="FNanchor_233:A_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_233:A_27" class="fnanchor">[233:A]</a>.</p> + +<p>In Asia and Africa, travellers have remarked them in several parts; for +example, on the mountains of Castravan, above Barut, there is a bed of +white stone as thin as slate, each leaf of which contains a great number +and diversity of fishes; they lie for the most part very flat and +compressed, as does the fossil fearn-plants, but they are +notwithstanding so well preserved, that the smallest traces of the fins, +scales, and all the parts which distinguish each kind of fish, are +perfectly visible. So likewise we find many <!-- Page 234 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234"></a>[234]</span>sea muscles, and petrified +shells between Suez and Cairo, and on all the hills and eminences of +Barbary; the greatest part are conformable to the kinds at present +caught in the Red Sea<a name="FNanchor_234:A_28" id="FNanchor_234:A_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_234:A_28" class="fnanchor">[234:A]</a>. In Europe, we meet with petrified fish in +Sweden and Germany, and in the quarry of Oningen, &c.</p> + +<p>The long chain of mountains, says Bourguet, which extends from Portugal +to the most eastern parts of China, the mountains of Africa and America, +and the vallies of Europe, all inclose stones filled with shell-fish, +and from hence, he says, we may conclude the same of all the other parts +of the world unknown to us.</p> + +<p>The islands in Europe, Asia, and America, where men have had occasion to +dig, whether in mountains or plains, furnish examples of fossil shells, +which evince that they have that in common with the bordering +continents.</p> + +<p>Here then is sufficient facts to prove that sea shells, petrified fish, +and other marine productions are to be found in almost every place we +are disposed to seek them.</p> + +<p>"It is certain, says an English author (Tancred Robinson), that there +have been sea-shells dispersed on the earth by armies, and the +<!-- Page 235 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235"></a>[235]</span>inhabitants of towns and villages, and that Loubere relates in his +Voyage to Siam, that the monkies of the Cape of Good Hope, continually +amuse themselves with carrying shells from the sea shores to the tops of +the mountains; but that cannot resolve the question, why these shells +are dispersed over all the earth, and even in the interior parts of +mountains, where they are deposited in beds like those in the bottom of +the sea."</p> + +<p>On reading an Italian letter on the changes happened to the terrestrial +globe, printed at Paris in the year 1746, I was surprised to find these +sentiments of Loubere exactly corresponded. Petrified fish, according to +this writer, are only fish rejected from the Roman tables, because they +were not esteemed wholesome; and with respect to fossil-shells, he says +the pilgrims of Syria brought, during the times of the Crusades, those +of the Levant Sea, into France, Italy, and other Christian states; why +has he not added that it was the monkies who transported the shells to +the tops of these mountains, which were never inhabited by men? This +would not have spoiled but rendered his explanation still more +probable.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 236 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236"></a>[236]</span>How comes it that enlightened persons, who pique themselves on +philosophy, have such various ideas on this subject? But doing so, we +shall not content ourselves with having said that petrified shells are +found in almost every part of the earth which has been dug, nor with +having related the testimonies of authors of natural history; as it +might be suspected, that with a view of some system, they perceived +shells where there were none; but quote the authority of some authors, +who merely remarked them accidentally, and whose observations went no +farther than recognising those that were whole and in the best +preservation. Their testimony will perhaps be of a still greater +authority with people who have it not in their power to be assured of +the truth of these facts, and who know not the difference between shells +and petrifications.</p> + +<p>All the world may see the banks of shells in the hills in the environs +of Pans, especially in the quarries of stone, as at ChaussĂ©e, near SĂ©ve, +at Issy, Passy, and elsewhere. We find a great quantity of lenticular +stones at Villers-Cotterets; these rocks are entirely formed thereof, +and they are blended without any order with a kind of stony mortar, +which binds them <!-- Page 237 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237"></a>[237]</span>together. At Chaumont so great a quantity of petrified +shells are found that the hills appear to be composed of nothing else. +It is the same at Courtagnon, near Rheims, where there is a bank of +shells near four leagues broad, and whose length is considerably more. I +mention these places as being famous and striking the eye of every +beholder.</p> + +<p>With respect to foreign countries, here follows the observations of some +travellers:</p> + +<p>"In Syria and PhÅ“nicia, the rocks, particularly in the neighbourhood +of Latikea, are a kind of chalky substance, and it is perhaps from +thence that the city has taken the name of the white promontory. +Nakoura, anciently termed Scala Tyriorum, or the Tyrians Ladder, is +nearly of the same nature, and we still find there, by digging, +quantities of all sorts of shells, corals, and other remains of the +deluge<a name="FNanchor_237:A_29" id="FNanchor_237:A_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_237:A_29" class="fnanchor">[237:A]</a>."</p> + +<p>On mount Sinai, we find only a few fossil shells, and other marks of the +deluge, at least if we do not rank the fossil Tarmarin of the +neighbouring mountains of Siam among this number, perhaps the first +matter of which their <!-- Page 238 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238"></a>[238]</span>marble is formed, had a corrosive virtue not +proper to preserve them. But at Corondel, where the rocks approach +nearer our free-stone, I found many shells, as also a very singular sea +muscle, of the descoid kind, but closer and rounder. The ruins of the +little village Ain le Mousa, and many canals which conduct the water +thereto, furnish numbers of fossil shells. The ancient walls of Suez, +and what yet remains of its harbour, have been constructed of the same +materials, which seem to have been taken from the same quarry. Between, +as well as on all the mountains, eminences and hills of Lybia, near +Egypt, we meet with a great quantity of sea weed, as well as vivalvous +shells, and of these which terminate in a point, most of which are +exactly conformable to the kinds at present caught in the Red Sea.</p> + +<p>The moving sand in the neighbourhood of Ras Sem, in the kingdom of +Barca, covers many palm trees with petrifications. Ras Sem signifies the +head of a fish, and is what we term the petrified village, where it is +said men, women, and children are found, who with their cattle, +furniture, &c. have been converted into stone; but these, says Shaw, are +vain tales and fables, as I have not only learnt from M. le <!-- Page 239 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239"></a>[239]</span>Maire, who +at the time he was Consul at Tripoly, sent several persons thither to +take cognizance of it, but also from very respectable persons who had +been at those places.</p> + +<p>Near the pyramids certain pieces of stone worked by the sculptor, were +found by Mr. Shaw, and among these stones many rude ones of the figure +and size of lentils; some even resemble barley half-peeled; these, he +says, were reported to be the remains of what the workmen ate, but which +does not appear probable, &c. These lentils and barley are nothing but +petrified shells called by naturalists lentil stones.</p> + +<p>According to Misson, several sorts of these shell-fish are found in the +environs of Maestricht, especially towards the village of Zicken, or +Tichen, and at the little mountain called Huns. In the environs of +Sienna, near Ceraldo, are many mountains of sand crammed with divers +sorts of shells. Montemario, a mile from Rome, is entirely filled with +them; I have seen them in the Alps, France, and elsewhere. Olearius, +Steno, Cambden, Speed, and a number of other authors, as well ancient as +modern, relate the same phenomena.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 240 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240"></a>[240]</span>"The island of Cerigo, says Thevenot, was anciently called Porphyris, +from the quantity of Porphyry which was taken out of it<a name="FNanchor_240:A_30" id="FNanchor_240:A_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_240:A_30" class="fnanchor">[240:A]</a>.</p> + +<p>"Opposite the village of Inchene, and on the eastern shore of the Nile, +I found petrified plants, which grow naturally in a space about two +leagues long, by a very moderate breadth; this is one of the most +singular productions of nature. These plants resemble the white coral +found in the Red Sea<a name="FNanchor_240:B_31" id="FNanchor_240:B_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_240:B_31" class="fnanchor">[240:B]</a>."</p> + +<p>"There are petrifications of divers kinds on Mount Libanus, and among +others flat stones, where the skeletons of fish are found well preserved +and entire; red chesnuts and small branches of coral, the same as grow +in the Red Sea, are also found on this mountain."</p> + +<p>"On Mount Carmel we find a great quantity of hollow stones, which have +something of the figure of melons, peaches, and other fruits, which are +said to be so petrified: they are commonly sold to pilgrims, not only as +mere curiosities, but also as remedies against many disorders. The +olives which are the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lapides jadaici</i>, are to be met with at the +druggists, and <!-- Page 241 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241"></a>[241]</span>have always been looked upon, when dissolved in the +juice of lemon, as a specific for the stone and gravel."</p> + +<p>"M. la Roche, a physician, gave me some of these petrified olives, which +grew in great plenty in these mountains, where I am told are found other +stones, the inside of which perfectly resemble the natural parts of men +and women. These are Hysterolithes."</p> + +<p>"In going from Smyrna to Tauris, when we were at Tocat, says Tavernier, +the heat was so great, as obliged us to quit the common road, and go by +the mountains, where there is constantly shade and refreshing air. In +many places we found snow and a quantity of very fine sorrel, and on the +top of some of those mountains we found shells like those upon the sea +shores, which was very extraordinary."</p> + +<p>Here follows what Olearius says on the subject of petrified shells, +which he remarked in Persia, and in the rocks where the sepulchres are +cut out, near to the village of Pyrmaraus:</p> + +<p>"We were three in company that ascended to the top of the rock by the +most frightful precipices, mutually assisting each other; having gained +the summit, we found four large <!-- Page 242 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242"></a>[242]</span>chambers, and within many niches cut in +the rocks to serve for beds: but what the most surprised us was to find +in this vault, on the top of the mountain, muscle shells; and in some +places they were in such great quantities, that the whole rock appeared +to be composed only of sand and shells. Returning to Persia, we +perceived many of these shelly mountains along the coast of the Caspian +sea."</p> + +<p>To these I could subjoin many other authorities which I suppress, not +willing to tire those who have no need of superabundant proofs, and who +are convinced by their sight, as I have been, of the existence of shells +wherever we chuse to seek for them.</p> + +<p>In France, we not only find the shells of the French coast, but also +such as have never been seen in those seas. Some philosophers assert, +that the quantity of these foreign petrified shells is much greater than +those of our climate; but I think this opinion unfounded; for, +independent of the shell-fish which inhabit the bottom of the sea, and +are seldom brought up by the fishermen, and which consequently may be +looked on as foreigners, although they exist in our seas, I see, by +comparing the petrifactions with the living analagous animals, <!-- Page 243 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243"></a>[243]</span>there +are more of those of our coasts than of others: for example, most of the +cockles, muscles, oysters, ear-shells, limpets, nautili, stars, +tubulites, corals, madrepores, &c. found in so many places, are +certainly the productions of our seas; and though a great number appear +which are foreign or unknown, the cornu ammonis, the lapides juduica, +&c. yet I am convinced, from repeated observations, that the number of +these kinds is small in comparison with the shells of our own coasts: +besides, what composes the bottom of almost all our marble and +lime-stone but madrepores, astroites, and all those other productions +which are formed by sea insects, and formerly called marine plants? +Shells, however abundant, form only a small part of these productions, +many of which originate in our seas, and particularly in the +Mediterranean.</p> + +<p>The Red sea produces corals, madrepores, and marine plants in the +greatest abundance: no part furnishes a greater variety than the port of +Tor; in calm weather so great a quantity present themselves, that the +bottom of the sea resembles a forest; some of the branched madrepores +are eight or ten feet high. In the Mediterranean sea, at Marseilles, +near the <!-- Page 244 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244"></a>[244]</span>coasts of Italy and Sicily; in most of the gulphs of the +ocean, around islands, on banks, and in all temperate climates, where +the sea is but of a moderate depth, they are very common.</p> + +<p>M. Peyssonel was the first who discovered that corals, madrepores, &c. +owed their origin to animals, and were not plants as had been supposed. +The observation of M. Peyssonel was a long time doubted; some +naturalists, at first, rejected it with a kind of disdain, nevertheless +they have been obliged since to acknowledge its truth, and the whole +world is at length satisfied that these formerly supposed marine plants, +are nothing but hives or cells formed by insects, in which they live as +fish do in their shells. These bodies were, at first, placed in the +class of minerals, then passed into that of vegetables, and now remain +fixed in that of animals, the genuine operations of which they must ever +be considered.</p> + +<p>There are shell-fish which live at the bottom of the sea, and which are +never cast on the shore; authors call them Pelogiæ, to distinguish them +from the others which they call Litterales. It is to be supposed the +cornu ammonis, and some other kinds that are only found <!-- Page 245 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245"></a>[245]</span>in a petrified +state, belong to the former, and that they were filled with the stony +sediment in the very places they are found. There might also have been +certain animals, whose species are perished, and of which number this +shell-fish might be ranked. The extraordinary fossil bones found in +Siberia, Canada, Ireland, and many other places, seem to confirm this +conjecture, for no animal has hitherto been discovered to whom such +bones could belong, as they are, for the most part, of an enormous size.</p> + +<p>These shells, according to Woodward, are met with from the top to the +bottom of quarries, pits, and at the bottom of the deepest mines of +Hungary. And Mr. Ray assures us, they are found a thousand feet deep in +the rocks which border the isle of Calda, and in Pembrokeshire in +England.</p> + +<p>Shells are not only found in a petrified state, at great depths, and at +the tops of the highest mountains, but there are some met with in their +natural condition, and which have the gloss, colours, and lightness of +sea-shells; and to convince ourselves entirely of this matter, we have +only to compare them with those found on the sea shores. A slight +examination will prove <!-- Page 246 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246"></a>[246]</span>that these fossil and petrified shells are the +same as those of the sea; they are marked with the same articulations +and in the glossopetri, and other teeth of fishes, which are sometimes +found adhering to the jaw-bone, the teeth of the fish are remarked to be +smooth and worn at the extremities, and that they have been made use of +when the animals were alive.</p> + +<p>Almost every where on land we meet with fossil-shells, and of those of +the same kind, some are small, others large, some young, others old; +some imperfect, others extremely perfect and we likewise sometimes see +the young ones adhering to the old.</p> + +<p>The shell-fish called <i>purpura</i> has a long tongue, the extremity of +which is bony, and so sharp, that it pierces the shells of other fish; +by which means it draws nutriment from them. Shells pierced in this +manner are frequently found in the earth, which is an incontestible +proof that they formerly inclosed living fish, and existed in those +parts where there were the Purpura.</p> + +<p>The obelisks of St. Peter's at Rome, according to John of Latran, were +said to come from the pyramids of Egypt; they are of red granite, which +is a kind of rock-stone, and, as <!-- Page 247 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247"></a>[247]</span>we have observed, contains no shells; +but the African and Egyptian marble, and the porphyry said to have been +cut from the temple of Solomon, and the palaces of the kings of Egypt, +and used at Rome in different buildings, are filled with shells. Red +porphyry is composed of an infinite number of prickles of the species of +echinus, or sea chesnut; they are placed pretty near each other, and +form all the small white spots which are in the porphyry. Each of these +white spots has a black one in its centre, which is the section of the +longitudinal tube of the prickles of the echinus. At Fichen, three +leagues from Dijon, in Burgundy, is a red stone perfectly similar in its +composition to porphyry, and which differs from it only in hardness, not +being more so than marble; it appears almost formed of prickles of the +echini, and its beds are of a very great extent. Many beautiful pieces +of workmanship have been made of it in this province, and particularly +the steps of the pedestal of the equestrian statue of Louis le Grand, at +Dijon.</p> + +<p>This species of stone is also found at Montbard, in Burgundy, where +there is an extensive quarry; it is not so hard as marble, contains more +of the echini, and less of the red matter. <!-- Page 248 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248"></a>[248]</span>From this it appears that +the ancient porphyry of Egypt differs only from that of Burgundy in the +degree of hardness, and the number of the points of the echini.</p> + +<p>With respect to what the curious call green porphyry, I rather suppose +it to be a granite than a porphyry; it is not composed of spots like the +red porphyry, and its substance appears to be similar to that of a +common granite. In Tuscany, in the stone with which the ancient walls of +Volatera were built, there are a great quantity of shells, and this wall +was built 2500 years ago. Most marbles, porphyries, and other stones of +the most ancient buildings, contain shells and other wrecks of marine +productions, as well as the marble we at present take from the quarry; +therefore it cannot be doubted, independent even of the sacred testimony +of holy writ, that before the deluge the earth was composed of the same +materials at it is at present.</p> + +<p>From all these facts it is plain that petrified shells are found in +Europe, Asia, Africa, and in every place where the observations have +been made; they are also found in America, in the Brasils; for example, +in Tucumama, in Terra Magellinica, and in such a great quantity in the +<!-- Page 249 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249"></a>[249]</span>Antilles, that directly below the cultivable land, the bottom of which +the inhabitants call lime, is nothing but a composition of shells, +madrepores, astroites, and other productions of the sea. These facts +would have made me think that shells and other petrified marine +productions were to be found in the greatest part of the continent of +America, and especially in the mountains, as Woodward asserts; but M. +Condamine, who lived several years at Peru, has assured me he could not +discover any in the Cordeliers, although he had carefully sought for +them. This exception would be singular, and the consequences that might +be drawn from it would be still more so; but I own that, in spite of the +testimony of this celebrated naturalist, I am much inclined to suppose, +that in the mountains of Peru, as well as elsewhere, there are shells +and other marine petrifications, although they have not been discovered. +It is well known, that in matter of testimonies, two positive witnesses, +who assert to have seen a thing, is sufficient to make a complete proof; +whereas ten thousand negative witnesses, and who can only assert not to +have seen a thing, can only raise a slight doubt. This reason, united +with the strength of analogy, induces me to persist in <!-- Page 250 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250"></a>[250]</span>thinking the +shells will be found on the mountains of Peru, especially if we search +for them on the rise of the mountain, and not at the summit.</p> + +<p>The tops of the highest mountains are generally composed of rock, stone +granite, and other vitrifiable matters, which contain no shells.</p> + +<p>All these matters were formed out of the beds of the sand of the sea, +which covered the tops of these mountains. When the sea left them, the +sand and other light bodies were carried by the waters into the plains, +so that there remained only rocks on the tops of the mountains, which +had been formed under those beds of sand. At two, three, or four hundred +fathoms below the tops of these mountains, are often found marble and +other calcinable matter, which are disposed in parallel strata, and +contain shells and other marine productions; therefore it is not +surprising that M. de la Condamine did not find any shells on these +mountains, especially if he sought for them in the elevated parts of +those mountains which are composed of rock, free-stone, or vitrifiable +sand; but had he examined the lower parts of the Cordeliers, he would +undoubtedly have found strata of stone, marble, earth, &c. mixed with +shells; for in every country where observations have <!-- Page 251 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251"></a>[251]</span>been made, such +beds have always been met with.</p> + +<p>But suppose that in fact there are no marine productions in the +mountains of Peru, all that may be concluded from it will no ways affect +our theory; and it might be possible, that there are some parts of the +globe which never were covered with water, especially of such elevation +as the Cordeliers. But in this case there might be some curious +observations made on those mountains, for they would not be composed of +parallel strata, the materials also would be very different from those +we are acquainted with; they would not have perpendicular cracks; the +composition of the rocks and stones would not at all resemble those of +other countries; and lastly, in these mountains we should find the +ancient structure of the earth such as it originally was before it was +changed by the motion of the waters; we should see the first state of +the globe, the old matters of which it was composed, its form, and the +natural arrangement of its parts; but this is too much to expect, and on +too slight foundations; and it is more conformable to reason to conclude +that fossil-shells are to be found in those mountains, as well as in +every other place.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 252 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252"></a>[252]</span>With respect to the manner in which shells are placed in the strata of +earth or sand, Woodward says, "All shells that are met with in an +infinity of strata of earth, and banks of rocks, in the highest +mountains, and in the deepest quarries and mines, in flints, &c. &c. in +masses of sulphur, marcasites, and other metallic and mineral bodies, +are filled with similar substances to that which includes them, and +never any heterogeneous matter, &c.</p> + +<p>"In the sand stones of all countries (the specific weight of the +different kinds of which vary but little, being generally with respect +to water as 2-1/2 or 9/16 to 1), we find only the conchae, and other +shells which are nearly of the same weight, but they are usually found +in very great numbers, whereas it is very rare to meet with +oyster-shells (whose specific weight is but as 2-1/3 to 1), or sea +cockles (whose weight is but as 2 or 2-1/8 to 1), or other sorts of +lighter shells; but on the contrary in chalk, (which is lighter than +stone, being to water but as 2-1/10 to 1), we find only cockles and +other kinds of lighter shells, page 32, 33."</p> + +<p>It must be remarked, that what Woodward says in this place with respect +to specific gravity, must not be looked upon as a general <!-- Page 253 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253"></a>[253]</span>rule, for we +find lighter and heavier shells in the same matters; for example, shells +of cockles, of oysters, of echini, &c. are found in the same stones and +earth; and even in the royal cabinet may be seen a petrified cockle in a +cornelian, and echini petrified in an agate, &c. therefore the specific +weight of the shells has not influenced so much as Woodward supposes +their position in the earth. The reason why such light shells are found +more abundantly in chalk is, that chalk is only the ruinated part of +shells, and that those of the echini being lighter and thinner than +others, would have been most easily reduced into powder or chalk, so +that the strata of chalk are only met with in the places where formerly +a great abundance of these light shells were collected, the destruction +of which formed that chalk, in which we find those shells, which having +resisted the frictions, are preserved entire, or at least in parts large +enough to discover their species.</p> + +<p>But this subject is treated more fully in our discourse on minerals; we +shall here content ourselves with saying, that a modification must be +given to Woodward's expressions: he seems to say, that shells are found +in flints, cornelians, in ores, and sulphur, as often, and in as great +a <!-- Page 254 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254"></a>[254]</span>number as in other matters; whereas the truth is, that they are very +rare in all vitrifiable or purely inflammable substances; and, on the +contrary, are in prodigious abundance in chalk, marl, and marbles, +insomuch that we cannot absolutely pretend to say, that the lightest and +heaviest shells are found in corresponding strata, but only that in +general they are oftener found so than otherwise. They are all filled +with the substance which surrounds them, whether found in horizontal +strata or in perpendicular fissures, because both have been formed by +the waters, although at different times and in different manners. Those +found in horizontal strata of stone, marble, &c. have been deposited by +the motion of the waves of the sea, and those in flints, cornelians, and +all matters which are in the perpendicular fissures, have been produced +by the particular motion of a small quantity of water, loaded with +lapidific or metallic substances. In both cases these matters were +reduced into a fine and impalpable powder, which has filled the shells +so fully and absolutely, as not to have left the least vacuum.</p> + +<p>There is therefore in stone, marble, &c. a great multitude of shells +which are whole, beautiful, and so little changed, that they may <!-- Page 255 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255"></a>[255]</span>be +easily compared with the shells preserved in cabinets, or found on the +sea shores.</p> + +<p>Woodward, in pages 23 and 24, proceeds, "There are, besides these, great +multitudes of shells contained in stones, &c. which are entire and +absolutely free from any such mineral mixture; which may be compared +with those at this time seen on our shores, and which will be found not +to have any difference, being precisely of the same figure and size; of +the same substance and texture as the peculiar matter which composes +them is the same, and is disposed and arranged in the same manner; the +direction of their fibres and spiral lines are the same, the composition +of the small lama formed by their fibres is the same in the one as the +other; we see in the same part vestigia of tendons, by means of which +the animal was fastened and joined to its shell; we see the same +tubercles, stria and pipes; in short, the whole is alike, whether within +or without the shell, in its cavity or on its convexity, in its +substance or on its superficies. In other respects these fossil +shell-fish are subject to the same common accidents as those of the sea; +for example, they sometimes grow to one another, the least are adherent +to the large; they have vermicular <!-- Page 256 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256"></a>[256]</span>conduits; pearls are found therein, +and other similar matters which have been produced by the animal when it +inhabited its shell; and what is very considerable, their specific +gravity is exactly the same as that of their kind found actually in the +sea; in all chymical experiments they answer exactly with sea-shells; +when dissolved they have the same appearance, smell and taste; in a +word, their resemblance is perfectly exact."</p> + +<p>I have often observed with astonishment, as I have already said, whole +mountains, chains of rocks, enormous banks of quarries, so full of +shells and other wrecks of marine productions, that their bulk surpassed +that of the matter in which they were deposited.</p> + +<p>I have seen cultivated fields so full of petrified cockles that a man +might pick them up with his eyes shut, others covered with cornu +ammonis, and some with cardites; and the more we examine the earth, the +more we shall be convinced that the number of these petrifications is +infinite, and conclude, that it is impossible that all the animals which +inhabited these shells existed at one time.</p> + +<p>I have made an observation, that in all countries where we find a very +great number of <!-- Page 257 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257"></a>[257]</span>petrified shells in the cultivated lands which are +whole, well preserved, and totally apart, have been divided by the +action of the frost, which destroys the stone and suffers the petrified +shells to subsist a longer time.</p> + +<p>This immense quantity of marine fossils found in so many places, proves +that they could not have been transported thither by the deluge; for if +these shells had been brought on the earth by a deluge, the greatest +part would have remained on the surface of the earth, or at least would +not have entered to the depth of seven or eight hundred feet in the most +solid marble.</p> + +<p>In all quarries these shells form a share of the internal part of the +stone, sometimes externally covered with stalactites, which is much less +ancient matter than stone, which contains shells. Another proof this +happened not by a deluge is, that bones, horns, claws, &c. of land +animals, are found but very rarely, and not at all in marble and other +hard stone whereas if it was the effect of a deluge, where all must have +perished, we should meet with the remains of land animals as well as +those of the sea.</p> + +<p>It is a vain supposition to pretend that all the earth was dissolved at +the deluge, nor can <!-- Page 258 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258"></a>[258]</span>we give any foundation to such idea, but by +supposing a second miracle, to give the water the property of a +universal dissolvent. Besides, what annihilates the supposition, and +renders it even contradictory, is, that if all matters were dissolved by +that water, yet shells have not been so, since we find them entire and +well preserved in all the masses which are said to have been dissolved; +this evidently proves that there never was such dissolution, and that +the arrangement of the parallel strata was not made in an instant, but +by successive sediments: for it is evident to all who will take the +trouble of observing, that the arrangement of all the materials which +compose the globe, is the work of the waters. The question therefore is +only whether this arrangement was made at once, or in a length of time: +now we have shewn it could not be done all at once, because the +materials have not kept the order of specific weight, and there has not +been a general dissolution; therefore this arrangement must have been +produced by sediments deposited in succession of time; any other +revolution, motion, or cause, would have produced a very different +arrangement. Besides, particular revolutions, or accidental causes, +could not have produced a similar effect on the whole globe.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 259 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259"></a>[259]</span>Let us see what the historian of the Academy says on this subject anno +1718, p. 3. "The numerous remains of extensive inundations, and the +manner in which we must conceive mountains to have been formed, +sufficiently proves that great revolutions have happened to the surface +of the earth. As far as we have been able to penetrate we find little +else but ruins, wrecks, and vast bodies heaped up together and +incorporated into one mass, without the smallest appearance of order or +design. If there is some kind of regular organization in the terrestrial +globe it is deeper than we have been able to examine, and all our +researches must terminate in digging among the ruins of the external +coat, but which will still find sufficient employment for our +philosophers.</p> + +<p>"M. de Jussieu found in the environs of St. Chaumont a great quantity of +slaty or foliated stones, every foliage of which was marked with the +impression of a branch, a leaf, or the fragment of a leaf of some plant: +the representations of leaves were exactly extended, as if they had been +carefully spread on the stone by the hand; this proves they had been +brought thither by the water, which always keeps leaves in that state: +they were in different situations, <!-- Page 260 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260"></a>[260]</span>sometimes two or three together. It +may easily be supposed that a leaf deposited by water upon soft mud, and +afterwards covered with another layer of mud, imprints on the upper the +image of one of its two surfaces, and on the under the image of the +other; and on being hardened and petrified would appear to have taken +different impressions; but, however natural this supposition may be, the +fact is not so, for the two laminæ of stone bear impressions of the same +side of the leaf, the one in alto, the other in bas releaf. It was M. +Jussieu who made these observations on the figured stones of St. +Chaumont; to him we shall leave the explication, and pass to objects +which are more general and interesting.</p> + +<p>"All the impressions on the stones of St. Chaumont are of foreign +plants; they are not to be found in any part of France, but only in the +East Indies or the hot climates of America; they are for the most part +capillary plants, generally of the species of fern, whose hard and +compact coat renders them more able to imprint and preserve themselves. +Some leaves of Indian plants imprinted on the stones of Germany appeared +astonishing to M. Leibnitz, but here we find the same wonderful affair +infinitely <!-- Page 261 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261"></a>[261]</span>multiplied. There even seems in this respect to be an +unaccountable destination of nature, for in all the stones of St. +Chaumont not a single plant of the country has been found.</p> + +<p>"It is certain, by the number of fossil-shells in the quarries and +mountains, that this country, as well as many others, must have formerly +been covered with the sea. But how has the American or Indian sea +reached thither? To explain this, and many other wonderful phenomena, it +may be supposed, with much probability, that the sea originally covered +the whole terrestrial globe: but this supposition will not hold good, +because how were terrestrial plants to exist? It evidently, therefore, +must have been great inundations which have conveyed the plants of one +country into the others.</p> + +<p>"M. de Jussieu thinks, that as the bed of the sea is continually rising, +in consequence of the mud and sand which the rivers incessantly convey +there, the sea, at first confined between natural dykes, surmounted +them, and was dispersed over the land, and that the dykes were +themselves undermined by the waters and overthrown therein. In the +earliest time of the formation of the earth, when no one thing had taken +a regular form, prodigious and sudden <!-- Page 262 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262"></a>[262]</span>revolutions might then have been +made, of which we no longer have examples, because the whole is now in +such a permanent state, that the changes must be inconsiderable and by +degrees.</p> + +<p>"By some of these great revolutions the East and West Indian seas may +have been driven to Europe, and carried with them foreign plants +floating on its waters, which they tore up in their road, and deposited +gently in places where the water was but shallow and would soon +evaporate."</p> + + +<div> +<hr class="footnotes" /> +<p class="sectctrfn">FOOTNOTES:</p> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_220:A_25" id="Footnote_220:A_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_220:A_25"><span class="label">[220:A]</span></a> Anno 1720; page 5.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_227:A_26" id="Footnote_227:A_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_227:A_26"><span class="label">[227:A]</span></a> A kind of soft gravelly stone.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_233:A_27" id="Footnote_233:A_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_233:A_27"><span class="label">[233:A]</span></a> On this subject see Stenon, Ray, Woodward, and others.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_234:A_28" id="Footnote_234:A_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_234:A_28"><span class="label">[234:A]</span></a> See Shaw's Voyages, Vol. ii, pages 40 and 41.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_237:A_29" id="Footnote_237:A_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_237:A_29"><span class="label">[237:A]</span></a> See Shaw's Travels.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_240:A_30" id="Footnote_240:A_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_240:A_30"><span class="label">[240:A]</span></a> Thevenot, Vol. I, page 25.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_240:B_31" id="Footnote_240:B_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_240:B_31"><span class="label">[240:B]</span></a> Voyage of Paul Lucus, Vol. II, page 380.</p> +</div> +</div> +</div> + + + + +<div> +<hr class="newchapter" /> +<h2><a name="ARTICLE_IX" id="ARTICLE_IX"></a>ARTICLE IX.<br /> + +<small>ON THE INEQUALITIES OF THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH.</small></h2> + + +<p>The inequalities which are on the surface of the earth, and which might +be regarded as an imperfection to its figure, are necessary to preserve +vegetation and life on the terrestrial globe. To be assured of this, it +is only requisite to conceive what the earth would be if it was even and +regular. Instead of agreeable <!-- Page 263 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263"></a>[263]</span>hills, from whence pure streams of waters +flow, to support the verdure of the earth; instead of those rich and +flourishing meadows, where plants and animals find agreeable +subsistence; a dismal sea would cover the whole globe, and the earth, +deprived of all its valuable qualities, would only remain an obscure and +forsaken planet, at best only destined for the abode of fishes.</p> + +<p>But independent of moral considerations, which seldom form a proof in +philosophy, there is a physical necessity why the earth must be +irregular on its surface; for supposing it was perfectly regular in its +origin, the motion of the waters, the subterraneous fires, the wind, and +other external causes, would, in course of time, have necessarily +produced irregularities similar to those now seen.</p> + +<p>The greatest inequalities next to the elevations of mountains, are the +depths of the ocean; this depth is very different even at great +distances from land; it is said there are parts above a league deep, but +those are few, and the most general depths are from 60 to 150 fathoms. +The gulphs bordering on the coasts are much less deep, and the straits +are generally the most shallow.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 264 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264"></a>[264]</span>To sound the depths of the sea, a piece of lead of 30 or 40lb. is made +use of, fastened to a small cord; this is a good method for common +depths, but is not to be depended upon when the depth is considerable; +because the cord being specifically lighter than the water, after it has +descended to a certain degree, the weight of the lead and that of the +cord is no more than a like volume of water; then the lead descends no +longer, but moves in an oblique line, and floats at the same depth: to +sound great depths, therefore, an iron chain is requisite, or some +substance heavier than water. It is very probable that for want of +considering this circumstance, navigators tell us that the sea in many +places has no bottom.</p> + +<p>In general, the profundities in open seas increase or diminish in a +pretty uniform manner, and commonly the farther from shore the greater +the depth; yet this is not without exception, there are places in the +midst of the sea where shoals are found, as at Abrolhos in the Atlantic; +and others where there are banks of a very considerable extent, as are +daily experienced by the navigators to the East Indies.</p> + +<p>So likewise along shore the depths are very unequal, nevertheless we may +lay it down as a <!-- Page 265 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265"></a>[265]</span>certain rule, that the depth there is always +proportionate to the height of that shore. It is the same in great +rivers, where the high shores always announce a great depth.</p> + +<p>It is more easy to measure the heights of mountains, whether by means of +practical geometry, or by the barometer. This instrument gives the +height of a mountain very exactly, especially in a country where its +variation is not considerable, as at Peru, and under the other parts of +the equator. By one or other of these methods, the height of most +eminences has been measured; for example, it has been found that the +highest mountains of Switzerland are about 1600 fathoms higher than +Canigau, which is one of the most elevated of the Pyrennees; those +mountains appear to be the highest in Europe, since a great quantity of +rivers flow from them, which carry their water into very remote and +different seas, as the Po, which flows into the Adriatic; the Rhine, +which loses itself in the sands in Holland; the Rhone, which falls into +the Mediterranean; and the Danube, which goes to the Black Sea. These +four rivers, whose mouths are so remote from each other, all derive a +part of their waters from Mount Saint Godard and the neighbouring +mountain, which <!-- Page 266 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266"></a>[266]</span>proves that this place is the highest in all Europe. +The highest mountains in Asia are Mount Taurus, Mount Imaus, Caucasus, +and the mountains of Japan, all which are loftier than those of Europe; +the mountains in Africa, as the Great Atlas, and the mountains of the +Moon, are at least as high as those in Asia, and the highest of all are +in South America, particularly those of Peru, which are more than 3000 +fathoms above the level of the sea. In general the mountains between the +tropics are loftier than those of the temperate zones, and these more +than the frigid zones, so that the nearer we approach the equator, the +greater are the inequalities of the earth. These inequalities, although +very considerable with respect to us, are scarcely any thing when +considered with respect to the whole globe. Three thousand fathom +difference to 3000 leagues diameter, is but one fathom to a league, or +one foot to 2200 feet, which on a globe of 2-1/2 feet diameter, does not +make the 16th part of a French line. Thus the earth, which appears to us +crossed and intersected by the enormous height of mountains, and by a +frightful depth of sea, is nevertheless, relative to its size, but +slightly furrowed with irregularities, so very trifling, that they can +<!-- Page 267 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267"></a>[267]</span>cause no difference to the general figure of the globe. In continents +the mountains are continued and form chains. In islands, they are more +interrupted, and generally raised above the sea, in the forms of cones +or pyramids, and are called peaks. The peak of Teneriffe, in the island +of Fer, is one of the highest mountains on the earth; it is near a +league and a half perpendicular above the level of the sea; the peak of +St. George, in one of the Azores, and the peak of Adam, in the island of +Ceylon, are also very lofty. These peaks are composed of rocks, heaped +one upon the other, and they vomit from their summits fire, cinders, +bitumen, minerals, and stones. There are islands which are only tops of +mountains, as of St. Helena, Ascension, most of the Azores, and +Canaries. We must remark, that in most of the islands, promontories, and +other projecting lands in the sea, the middle is always the highest; and +they are generally separated by chains of mountains, which divide them +in their greatest length, as (Gransbain) the Grampian mountains in +Scotland, which extend from east to west, and divide Great Britain into +two parts. It is the same with the islands of Sumatra, Lucca, Borneo, +Celebes, <!-- Page 268 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268"></a>[268]</span>Cuba, St. Domingo, and the peninsula of Malaya, &c. and also +Italy, which is traversed through its whole length by the Apennine +mountains.</p> + +<p>Mountains, as we find, differ greatly in height; the hills are lowest, +after them come the mountains of a moderate height, which are followed +by a third rank still higher, which, like the preceding, are generally +loaded with trees and plants, but which furnish no springs except at +their bottoms. In the highest mountains we find only sand, stones, +flints, and rocks, whose summits often rise above the clouds. Exactly at +the foot of these rocks there are small spaces, plains, hollows, and +kinds of vallies, where the rain, snow, and ice remain, and form ponds, +morasses, and springs, from whence rivers derive their origin.</p> + +<p>The form of mountains is also very different: some form chains whose +height is nearly equal in a long extent of soil, others are divided by +deep vallies; some are regular, and others as irregular as possible; and +sometimes in the middle of a valley or plain, we find a little mountain. +There are also two sorts of plains, the one in the low lands, the other +in mountains. The first are generally divided by some <!-- Page 269 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269"></a>[269]</span>large river: the +others, though of a very considerable extent, are dry, and at farthest +have only a small rivulet. These plains on mountains are often very +high, and difficult of access; they form countries above other +countries, as in Auvergne, Savoy, and many other high places: the soil +is firm, and produces much grass, and odoriferous plants, which render +these plains the best pasture in the world.</p> + +<p>The summits of high mountains are composed of rocks of different +heights, which resemble from a distance the waves of the sea. It is not +on this observation alone we can rely that the mountains have been +formed by the waves, I only relate it because it accords with the rest: +but that which evidently proves that the sea once covered and formed +mountains, are the shells and other marine productions found throughout +in such great quantities, that it is not possible for them to have been +transported by the sea into such remote continents, and deposited to +such considerable depths; to this may be added, the horizontal and +parallel strata every where met with, and which can only have been +formed by the waters. The composition even of the hardest matters, as +stone and marble, prove they had been <!-- Page 270 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270"></a>[270]</span>reduced into fine powder before +their formation, and precipitated to the bottom of the water in form of +a sediment: it is also proved by the exactness with which fossil-shells +are moulded in those matters in which they are found; the inside of +these shells are absolutely filled with the same matters as that in +which they are enclosed; the corresponding angles of mountains and +hills, which no other cause than the currents of the sea could have been +able to form; the equality in the height of opposite hills, and beds of +different matters, formed at the same levels, and, in short, the +direction of mountains, whose chains extend in length in the same +direction as the waves of the sea extend, incontestibly demonstrate the +fact.</p> + +<p>With respect to the depths on the surface of the earth, the greatest, +without contradiction, are the depths of the sea; but as they do not +present themselves to our sight, and as we can only judge of them by the +plumb line, we shall only speak of those which appear on dry land, such +as the deep vallies between mountains, the precipices between rocks, the +abysses perceived from the tops of mountains, as the abyss of Mount +Ararat, the precipices of the Alps, the vallies of the Pyrennees, &c. +<!-- Page 271 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271"></a>[271]</span>These depths are a natural consequence of the elevation of mountains; +they receive the waters and the earth which flow from the mountains, and +the soil is generally very fertile, and are fully inhabited.</p> + +<p>The precipices which are between rocks are frequently formed by the +sinking of one side, the base of which sometimes gives way more on one +side than the other, by the action of the air and frost, which splits +and divides them, or by the impetuous violence of torrents. But these +abysses, or vast and enormous precipices, found at the summits of +mountains, and to the bottom of which it is not possible sometimes to +descend, although they are above a mile, or a mile and a half round, +have been formed by the fire. These were formerly the funnels of +volcanos, and all the matter which is there deficient has been ejected +by the action and explosion of these fires, which are since extinguished +through a defect of combustible matter. The abyss of Mount Ararat, of +which M. Tournefort gives a description in his voyage to the Levant, is +surrounded with black and burnt rocks, as one day the abysses of Etna, +Vesuvius, and other volcanos, will be, <!-- Page 272 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272"></a>[272]</span>when they have consumed all the +combustible matters they include.</p> + +<p>In Plots' Natural History of Staffordshire, in England, a kind of gulph +is spoken of which has been sounded to the depth of 2600 perpendicular +feet without meeting with any water, or the bottom being found, as the +rope was not of sufficient length to reach it.</p> + +<p>Greatest cavities and deepest mines are generally in mountains, and they +never descend to a level with the plains, therefore by these cavities we +are only acquainted with the inside of a mountain, and not with the +internal part of the globe itself.</p> + +<p>Besides, these depths are not very considerable. Ray asserts that the +deepest mines are not above half a mile deep. The mine of Cotteberg, +which in the time of Agricola passed for the deepest of all known mines, +was only 2500 feet perpendicular. It is evident there are holes in +certain places, as that in Staffordshire, or Pool's Hole, in Derbyshire, +the depth of which is perhaps greater; but all this is nothing in +comparison with the thickness of the globe.</p> + +<p>If the kings of Egypt, instead of having erected pyramids, and raised +such sumptuous <!-- Page 273 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273"></a>[273]</span>monuments of their riches and vanity, had been at the +same expence to sound the earth, and make a deep excavation to the depth +of a league, they, perhaps, might have found substances which would have +amply recompensed the trouble, labour, and expence, or at least we +should have received information on the matters of which the internal +part of the globe is composed, which might have been very useful, and +which we at present have not.</p> + +<p>But let us return to the mountains; the highest are in the southern +countries, and the nearer we approach the equator, the more inequalities +we find on the surface of the globe. This is easy to prove, by a short +enumeration of the mountains and islands.</p> + +<p>In America, the chain of the Cordeliers, the highest mountains of the +earth, is exactly under the equator, and extends on the two sides far +beyond the tropic circles.</p> + +<p>In Africa, the highest mountains of the Moon, and Monomotapa, the great +and the little Atlas, are under the equator, or not far from it.</p> + +<p>In Asia, Mount Caucasus, the chain of which extends under different +names as far as the mountains of China, is nearer the equator than the +poles.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 274 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274"></a>[274]</span>In Europe, the Pyrennees, the Alps, and mountains of Greece, which are +only the same chain, are still less distant from the equator than the +poles.</p> + +<p>Now these mountains which we have enumerated, are all higher, more +considerable and extended in length and breadth than the mountains of +the northern countries.</p> + +<p>With respect to their direction, the Alps form a chain which crosses the +whole continent from Spain to China. These mountains begin at the sea +coast of Galicia, reach to the Pyrennees, cross France, by Vivares, and +Auvergne, pass through Italy and extend into Germany, beyond Dalmatia, +as far as Macedonia; from thence they join with the mountains of +Armenia, Caucasus, Taurus, Imaus, and extend as far as the Tartarian +sea. So likewise Mount Atlas traverses the whole continent of Africa, +from west to east, from the kingdom of Fez to the Straits of the Red +Sea; and the mountains of the Moon have the same direction.</p> + +<p>But in America, the direction is quite contrary, and the chains of the +Cordeliers and other mountains extend from south to north more than from +east to west.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 275 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275"></a>[275]</span>What we have now said on the great eminences of the earth, may also be +observed on the greatest depths of the sea. The vast and highest seas +are nearer the equator than the poles; and there results from this +observation, that the greatest inequalities of the globe are in the +southern climate. These irregularities on the surface of the earth, are +the causes of an infinity of extraordinary effects: for example, between +the Indus and the Ganges, there is a large peninsula, which is divided +through its middle, by a chain of high mountains called the Gate, and +which extends from north to south, from the extremities of Mount +Caucasus to Cape Comorin; on one is the coast of Malabar, and the other +Coromandel; on the side of Malabar, between this chain of mountains and +the sea, the summer season lasts from September to April, during which +the sky is serene and dry; on the other side the Coromandel the above +period is their winter, and it rains every day plentifully and from the +month of April to the month of September is their summer, whereas it is +winter in Malabar; insomuch, that in many places, which are scarcely 20 +miles distant, we may, by crossing the mountains, change seasons. It is +said that the same <!-- Page 276 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276"></a>[276]</span>thing takes place at Razalgat in Arabia, and at +Jamaica, which is divided through its middle by a chain of mountains, +whose direction is from east to west, and that the plantations to the +south of these mountains feel the summer heat, at the time those to the +north endure the rigor of winter.</p> + +<p>Peru, which is situated under the line, and extends about a thousand +leagues to the south, is divided into three long and narrow parts; these +the natives call Lanos, Sierras, and Andes. The Lanos, which comprehends +the plains, extends along the coast of the South Sea: the Sierras are +hills with some vallies, and the Andes are the famous Cordeliers, the +highest mountains that are known. The Lanos is about ten leagues in +breadth; in many places the Sierras are twenty leagues broad, and the +Andes in some places more and in some less. The breadth is from east to +west, and the length from north to south. This part of the world is +remarkable for the following particulars: first, in the Lanos the wind +almost constantly blows from the south-west, which is contrary to what +happens in the torrid zone: secondly, it never rains nor thunders in the +Lanos, although there is plenty of dew: thirdly, it almost continually +<!-- Page 277 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277"></a>[277]</span>rains in the Andes: fourthly, in the Sierras, between the Lanos and the +Andes, it rains from September to April.</p> + +<p>It was for a long time supposed, that the chains of the high mountains +run from west to east, till the contrary was found in America. But no +person before M. Bourguet discovered the surprising regularity of the +structure of those great masses: he found (after having crossed the Alps +thirty times in fourteen different parts of it, twice over the Apennine +mountains, and made divers tours in the environs of these mountains, and +of Mount Jura) that all mountains are formed nearly after the manner of +works of a fortification. When the body of the mountain runs from east +to west, it forms prominences, which face the north and south; this +wonderful regularity is so striking in vallies, that we seem to walk in +a very regular covered way; if, for example, we travel in a valley from +north to south, we perceive that the mountain on the right forms +projections which front the east, and those of the mountain on the left +front the west, so that the saliant angles of one side reciprocally +answer the returning angles of the other, which are always alternatively +opposed to them. The angles <!-- Page 278 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278"></a>[278]</span>which mountains form in great vallies are +less acute, because the direction is less steep, and they are farther +distant from each other. In plains they are not so perceptible, except +by the banks of rivers, which are generally in the middle of them, and +whose natural windings answer the most advanced angles or striking +projections of the mountains. It is astonishing so visible a thing was +so long unobserved, for when in a valley the inclination of one of the +mountains which border it is less steep than that of the other, the +river takes its course much nearer the steepest mountain, and does not +flow through its middle.</p> + +<p>To these observations we may join other particular ones, which confirm +them; for example, the mountains of Switzerland are much more steep, and +their direction much greater on the south side than on the north, and on +the west side than on the east. This may be perceived in the mountains +of Gemmi, Brisa, and almost every other mountain in this country. The +highest are those which separate Valesia and the Grisons from Savoy, +Piedmont, and Tirol. These countries are only a continuation of these +mountains, the chain of which extends to the Mediterranean, and +continues <!-- Page 279 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279"></a>[279]</span>even pretty far under the sea. The Pyrennees are also only a +continuation of that vast mountain which begins in Upper Valesia, and +whose branches extend very far to the west and south, preserving +throughout the same great height; whereas on the side of the north and +of the east these mountains grow lower by degrees, till they become +plains; as we see by the large tract which the Rhine and Danube water +before they reach their mouths, whereas the Rhone descends with rapidity +towards the south into the Mediterranean. The same observation is found +to hold good in the mountains of England and Norway; but the part of the +world where this is most evidently seen is at Peru and Chili; the +Cordeliers are cut very sharply on the western side, the length of the +Pacific Ocean, whereas on the eastern side they lower by degrees into +large plains, watered by the greatest rivers of the world.<a name="FNanchor_279:A_32" id="FNanchor_279:A_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_279:A_32" class="fnanchor">[279:A]</a></p> + +<p>M. Bourguet, to whom we owe this great discovery of the correspondence +of the angles of mountains, terms it "<em>The Key of the Theory of the +Earth</em>;" nevertheless, it appears to me, that if he had conceived all +the importance of it, he would more successfully have made use of <!-- Page 280 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280"></a>[280]</span>it, +by connecting it with suitable facts, and would have given a more +probable theory of the earth; whereas in his treatise he presents only +the skeleton of an hypothetical system, most of the conclusions of which +are false or precarious. The theory we have given turns on four +principal facts, which cannot be doubted, after the proofs have been +examined on which they are founded. The first is, that the earth is +every where, and to considerable depths, composed of parallel strata, +and matters which have formerly been in a state of softness: the second, +that the sea has for ages covered the earth which we now inhabit; the +third, that the tides and other motions of the waters produce +inequalities at the bottom of the sea; and the fourth, that the +mountains have taken their form and the correspondent direction from the +currents of the sea.</p> + +<p>After having read the proofs which the following articles contain, it +may be determined, whether I was wrong to assert, that these +circumstances solidly established also ascertains the truth of the +theory of the earth. What I have said on the formation of mountains has +no need of a more ample explanation; but as it might be objected that I +do not assign a reason for the formation of the peaks or points of +<!-- Page 281 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281"></a>[281]</span>mountains, no more than for some other particular circumstances, shall +add the observations and reflections which I have made on this subject.</p> + +<p>I have endeavoured to form a clear and general idea of the manner in +which the different matters that compose the earth are arranged, and it +appears to me they may be reduced into two general classes; the first +includes all the matters we find placed in strata, or beds horizontally +or regularly inclined; and the second comprehends all matters formed in +masses, or in veins, either perpendicular or irregularly inclined. In +the first class are included sands, clays, granite, flints, free-stone, +coals, slates, marls, chalks, calcinable stones, marbles, &c. In the +second I rank metals, minerals, crystals, precious stones and small +flints: these two classes generally comprehend all the known materials +of the earth. The first owe their origin to the sediments carried away +and deposited by the sea, and should be distinguished into those which +being assayed in the fire, calcine and are reduced into lime, and those +which fuse and are convertible into glass. The materials of the second +class are all vitrifiable excepting those which the fire entirely +consumes by inflammation.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 282 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282"></a>[282]</span>In the first class we distinguish two kinds of sands; the one, which is +more abundant than any other matter of the globe, is vitrifiable, or +rather is only fragments of actual glass; the other, whose quantity is +much less, is calcinable, and must be looked upon as the powder of +stone, and which differs only from gravel by the size of the grains. The +vitrifiable sand is, in general, deposited in beds, which are often +interrupted by masses of free-stone, granite, and flint; and sometimes +these matters are also in banks of great extent.</p> + +<p>By examining these vitrifiable matters, we find only a few sea shells +there, and those not placed in beds, but dispersed about as if thrown +there by chance. For example, I have never seen them in free-stone; that +stone which is very plenty in certain places, is only composed of sandy +parts, which are re-united, and are only met with in sandy soils; and +the quarries of it are generally in peaked hills and in divided +eminences. We may work these quarries in all directions, and if they are +in large beds, they are much farther from each other than in quarries of +calcinable stone or marble. Blocks of free-stone may be cut of all +dimensions and in all directions, although it is difficult to work, <!-- Page 283 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283"></a>[283]</span>it +nevertheless has but a degree of hardness sufficient to resist powerful +strokes without splitting; for friction easily reduces it into sand, +excepting certain black pieces found therein, and which are so very +hard, that the best files cannot touch them. Rock is vitrifiable as +free-stone, and of the same nature, only it is harder and the parts more +connected. This also contains many hard pieces, as may easily be +remarked on the summits of high mountains, which cut and tear the shoes +of travellers. This rocky stone, which is found at the top of high +mountains, and which I look upon as a kind of granite, contains a great +quantity of talky leaves, and is so hard as not to be worked but by an +infinite deal of labour.</p> + +<p>I have narrowly examined these sharp pieces which are found in +free-stone and rock, and have discovered it to be a metallic matter, +melted and calcined by a very violent fire, and which perfectly +resembles certain substances thrown out by the volcanos, of which I saw +a great quantity when I was in Italy, where the people called them +Schiarri. They are very heavy black masses, on which neither water nor +the file can make any impression, and the matter <!-- Page 284 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284"></a>[284]</span>of which is different +from that of the lava; for this is a kind of glass, whereas the other +appears to be more metallic than vitreous. The sharp pieces in +free-stone, and rock, resemble greatly the first matter, which seems +still to prove that all these matters have been formerly liquified by +fire.</p> + +<p>We sometimes see on the upper parts of mountains, a prodigious quantity +of blocks of this mixed rock; their position is so irregular that they +appear to have been thrown there by chance, and it might be thought they +had fallen from some neighbouring height, if the places where they are +found were not raised above the other parts. But their vitrifiable +nature, and their angular and square figures, like those of free-stone, +discover them to be of one common origin. Thus in the great beds of +vitrifiable sand, blocks of free-stone and rock are formed, whose +figures and situations do not exactly follow the horizontal position of +these strata. The rain, by degrees, carried away from the summits of the +hills and mountains the sand which at first covered them, and then began +to furrow and cut those hills into the spaces which are found between +<!-- Page 285 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285"></a>[285]</span>the nucleus in free-stone, as the hills of Fontainbleau are intersected. +Each hilly point answers to a nucleus in a quarry of free-stone, and +each interval has been excavated and loosened by the rain, which has +caused the sand, they at first contained, to flow into the vallies; so +likewise the highest mountains, whose summits are composed of rocks, and +terminated by these angular blocks of granite, have formerly been +covered with vitrifiable sand, and the rain having carried away the sand +which covered them, they remained on the tops of the mountains in the +position they were formed. These blocks generally present points; they +increase in size in proportion as they descend; one block often rests +upon another, the second upon a third, and so on, leaving irregular +intervals between them: and as in time the rain washed away all the sand +which covered these different parts on the top of the high mountains, +they would remain naked, forming larger or lesser points; and this is +the origin of the peaks or horns of mountains.</p> + +<p>For supposing, as it is easy to prove by the marine productions we find +there, that the chain of the Alps was formerly covered by the sea, and +that above this chain there was a great <!-- Page 286 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286"></a>[286]</span>thickness of vitrifiable sand, +which rendered the whole mountains a flat and level country. In this +depth of sand, there would necessarily be formed granite, free-stone, +flint, and all matters which take their origin and figure in sand, +nearly in a similar manner to that of the crystallisation of salts. +These blocks once formed would support their original positions, after +the rains and torrents had carried away the sand which surrounded them, +and being left bare formed all those peaks or pointed eminences we see +in so many places. This is also the origin of those high and detached +rocks found in China and other countries, as in Ireland, where they are +called the Devil's stones, and whose formation as well as that of the +peaks of mountains, had hitherto appeared so difficult to explain; +nevertheless the explanation which I have given is so natural, that it +directly presents itself to the mind of those who examine these objects, +and I must here quote what Father Tatre says, "From Yanchu-in-yen, we +came to Hoytcheou, and on the road met with something particular, rocks +of an extraordinary height, of the shape of a large square tower, and +situate in the midst of vast plains: I cannot account for it, unless by +supposing <!-- Page 287 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287"></a>[287]</span>they were formerly mountains, from which the rain having +washed away the earth that surrounded them, thus left the rocks entirely +bare. What strengthens this conjecture is, that we saw some which, +towards the base, are still covered with earth to a considerable +height."</p> + +<p>The summits of the highest mountains are composed of rocks, of granite, +free-stone, and other hard and vitrifiable matters, and this often as +deep as two or three hundred fathoms; below which we often meet with +quarries of marble, or hard stone, filled with fossil-shells, and whose +matter is calcinable; as may be remarked at Great Chartreuse, in +Dauphiny, and on Mount Cenis, where the stone and marble, which contains +shells, are some hundred fathoms below the summits, points and peaks of +high mountains; although these stones are more than a thousand fathom +above the level of the sea. Thus mountains, whereon we see points or +peaks, are generally vitrifiable rock, and those whose summits are flat, +mostly contain marble and hard stones filled with marine productions. It +is the same with respect to hills, for those containing granite, or +free-stone, are mostly intersected with points, eminences, cavities, +depths, and small intermediate valleys; on <!-- Page 288 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288"></a>[288]</span>the contrary, those which +are composed of calcinable stone are nearly equal in height, and are +only interrupted by greater and more regular vallies, whose angles are +correspondent; and they are crowned with rocks whose position is regular +and level.</p> + +<p>Whatever difference may appear at first between these two species of +mountains, their forms proceed from the same cause, as we have already +observed; only it may be remarked, that the calcinable stones have not +undergone any alteration nor change since the formation of the +horizontal strata; whereas those of vitrifiable sand have been changed +and interrupted by the posterior production of rocks and angular blocks +formed within this sand. These two kinds of mountains have cracks which +are almost always perpendicular in those of calcinable stones; but those +of granite and free-stone appear to be a little more irregular in their +direction. It is in these cracks metal, minerals, crystals, sulphurs, +and all matters of the second class are found, and it is below these +cracks that the water collects to penetrate the earth, and form those +veins of water which are every where found below the surface.</p> + + +<div> +<hr class="footnotes" /> +<p class="sectctrfn">FOOTNOTES:</p> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_279:A_32" id="Footnote_279:A_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_279:A_32"><span class="label">[279:A]</span></a> See Phil. Trans. Abr. Vol. VI. part ii. p. 153.</p> +</div> +</div> +</div> + + + + +<div> +<hr class="newchapter" /> +<p><!-- Page 289 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289"></a>[289]</span></p> +<h2><a name="ARTICLE_X" id="ARTICLE_X"></a>ARTICLE X.<br /> + +<small>OF RIVERS.</small></h2> + + +<p>We have before said that, generally speaking, the greatest mountains are +in islands and in the projections in the sea. That in the old continent +the greatest chains of mountains are directed from west to east, and +that those which incline towards the north or south are only branches of +these principal chains; we shall likewise find that the greatest rivers +are directed as the greatest mountains, and that there are but few which +follow the course of the branches of those mountains. To be assured of +this, we have only to look on a common globe, and trace the old +continent from Spain to China. We shall find, by beginning at Spain, +that the Vigo, Douro, Tagos, and Guadiana run from east to west, and the +Ebro from west to east, and that there is not one remarkable river whose +course is directed from south to north, or from north to south, although +Spain is entirely surrounded by the sea on the <!-- Page 290 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290"></a>[290]</span>west side, and almost so +on the north. This observation on the directions of rivers in Spain not +only proves that the mountains in this country are directed from west to +east, but also that the southern lands, which border on the straits, are +higher than the coasts of Portugal; and on the northern coast, that the +mountains of Galicia, the Asturias, &c. are only a continuation of the +Pyrennees, and that it is this elevation of the country, as well north +as south, which does not permit the rivers to run into the sea that way.</p> + +<p>It will also be seen, by looking on the map of France, that there is +only the Rhone which runs from north to south, and nearly half its +course, from the mountains to Lyons, is directed from the east towards +the west; but that on the contrary all the other great rivers, as the +Loir, the Charantee, the Garonne, and even the Seine, have a direction +from east to west.</p> + +<p>It will be likewise perceived, that in Germany there is only the Rhine, +which like the Rhone shapes the greatest part of its course from north +to south, but that the others, as the Danube, the Drave, and all the +great rivers which fall into them, flow from the west to east into the +Black Sea.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 291 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291"></a>[291]</span>It will be perceived that this Black Sea, which should rather be +considered as a great lake, has almost three times more extent from east +to west than from north to south, and consequently its direction is +similar to the rivers in general. It is the same with the Mediterranean, +whose length from east to west is about six times greater than from +north to south.</p> + +<p>The Caspian Sea, according to the chart drawn by the order of Czar Peter +I. has more extent from the south to the north than from east to west; +whereas in the ancient charts it appears almost round, or rather more +broad from east to west than from south to north; but if we consider the +lake Aral as a part of the Caspian Sea, from which it is separated only +by plains of sand, we shall find the length is from the western coast of +the Caspian Sea as far as the greatest border of Lake Aral.</p> + +<p>So likewise the Euphrates, the Persian gulph, and almost all the rivers +in China run from west to east; all the rivers in Africa beyond Barbary +flow from east to west, or from west to east, and there are only the +rivers of Barbary and the Nile which flow from south to north. There +are, in fact, great rivers in <!-- Page 292 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292"></a>[292]</span>Asia which partly run from north to +south, as the Wolga, the Don, &c. but by taking the whole length of +their course, we find, that they only turn from the south to run into +the Black and Caspian seas, which are only inland lakes.</p> + +<p>It may therefore in general be said, that in Europe, Asia, and Africa, +the rivers, and other mediterranean waters, extend more from east to +west than from north to south, which proceeds from the chains of +mountains being for the most part so directed, and that the whole +continent of Europe and Asia is broader in this direction than the +other; for there are two modes of considering the direction of +mountains. In a long and narrow continent like South America, in which +there is only one principal chain of mountains which stretches from +south to north, the river not being confined by any parallel range, +necessarily runs perpendicular to the course of the mountains, that is +from east to west, or from west to east; in fact, it is in this +direction all the rivers of America flow. In the old as well as the new +continent most of the waters have their greatest extent from west to +east, and most of the rivers flow in this direction; but yet this +similar direction is produced by different causes; for instance, those +in <!-- Page 293 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293"></a>[293]</span>the old continent flow from east to west, because they are bounded +by mountains whose direction is from west to east; whereas those in +America preserve the same course from there being only one chain of +mountains that extends from north to south.</p> + +<p>In general, rivers run through the centre of vallies, or rather the +lowest ground betwixt two opposite hills or mountains; if the two hills +have nearly an equal inclination, the river will be nearly in the middle +of the intermediate valley, let the valley be broad or narrow. On the +contrary, if one of the hills has a more steep inclination than the +other, the river will not be in the middle of the valley, but much +nearer the hill whose inclination is greatest, and that too in +proportion to the superiority of its declivity: in this case, the lowest +ground is not in the middle of the valley, but inclines towards the +highest hill, and which the river must necessarily occupy. In all places +where there is any considerable difference in the height of the +mountains, the rivers flow at the foot of the steepest hills, and follow +them throughout all their directions, never quitting their course while +they maintain the superiority of height. In the length of time, however, +the steepest <!-- Page 294 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294"></a>[294]</span>hills are diminished by the rain acting upon them with a +greater degree of force, proportionate to their height, and consequently +carry away the sand and gravel in more considerable quantities, and with +greater violence; the river is then constrained to change its bed, and +seek the lowest part of the valley: to this may be added, that as all +rivers overflow at times, they transport and deposit mud and sand in +different places, and that sands often accumulate in their own beds, and +cause a swell of the water, which changes the direction of its course. +It is very common to meet in vallies with a great number of old channels +of the river, particularly if it is subject to frequent inundations, and +carries off much sand and mud.</p> + +<p>In plains and large vallies, where there are great rivers, the beds are +generally the lowest part of the valley, but the surface of the water is +very often higher than the ground adjacent. For example, when a river +begins to overflow, the plain will presently be inundated to a +considerable breadth, and it will be observed that the borders of the +river will be covered the last; which proves that they are higher than +the rest of the ground, and that from the banks to a <!-- Page 295 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295"></a>[295]</span>certain part of +the plain, there is an insensible inclination, so that the surface of +the water must be higher than the plain when the river is full. This +elevation on the banks of rivers proceeds from the deposit of the mud +and sand at the time of inundations. The water is commonly very muddy in +the great swellings of rivers; when it begins to overflow, it runs very +gently over the banks, and by depositing the mud and sand purifies +itself as it advances into the plain; so that all the soil which the +currents of the river does not carry along, is deposited on the banks, +which raises them by degrees above the rest of the plain.</p> + +<p>Rivers are always broadest at their mouths; in proportion as we advance +in the country, and are more remote from the sea, their breadth +diminishes; but what is more remarkable, in the inland parts they flow +in a direct line, and in proportion as they approach their mouths the +windings of their course increase. I have been informed by M. Fabry, a +sensible traveller, who went several times by land into the western part +of North America, that travellers, and even the savages, are seldom +deceived in the distance they are from the sea if they follow the bank +of a large river; when the direction of <!-- Page 296 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296"></a>[296]</span>the river is straight for 15 or +20 leagues, they know themselves to be a great distance from the coast; +but, on the contrary, if the river winds, and often changes its +direction, they are certain of not being far from the sea. M. Fabry +himself verified this remark in his travels over that unknown and almost +uninhabited country. In large rivers there is a considerable eddy along +the banks, which is so much the more considerable as the river is less +remote from the sea, which may also serve as a guide to judge whether we +are at a great or short distance from the mouth; and as the windings of +rivers increase in proportion as they approach the sea, it is not +surprising that some of them should give way to the water, and be one +reason why great rivers generally divide into many arms before they gain +the sea.</p> + +<p>The motion of the waters in rivers is quite different from that supposed +by authors who attempt to give mathematical theories on this subject; +the surface of a river in motion is not level when taken from one bank +to the other, but according to circumstances the current in the middle +is considerably higher or lower than the water close to the banks; when +a river swells by a sudden melting of snow, or when <!-- Page 297 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297"></a>[297]</span>by some other cause +its rapidity is augmented, if the direction of the river is straight, +the middle of the water where the current is rises, and the river forms +a convex curve, of a very sensible elevation. This elevation is +sometimes very considerable; M. Hupeau, an able engineer of bridges, +once measured the river Avieron, and found the middle was three feet +higher than near the bank. This, in fact, must happen every time the +water has a very great rapidity; the velocity with which it is carried, +diminishing the action of its weight in the middle of the current, so +that it has not time to sink to a level with that near shore, and +therefore remains higher. On the other hand, near the mouths, it often +happens that the water which is near the banks is higher than that of +the middle, although the current be ever so rapid. This happens wherever +the action of the tides is felt in a river, which in great ones often +sensibly extends as far as one or two hundred leagues from the sea; it +is also a well known fact that the current of a river preserves its +motion in the sea to a considerable distance; there is, in this case, +therefore, two contrary motions in a river; the middle, which forms the +current, precipitates itself towards the sea, <!-- Page 298 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298"></a>[298]</span>and the action of the +tide forms a counter-current, which causes the water near the banks to +ascend, while that in the middle descends, and as then all the water +must be carried down by the current in the middle, that of the banks +continually descends thereto, and descends so much the more as it is +higher, and counteracted with more force by the tide.</p> + +<p>There are two kinds of ebbings in rivers; the first above-mentioned is a +strong power occasioned by the tide, which not only opposes the natural +motion of the river, but even forces a contrary and opposite current. +The other arises from an inactive cause, such as a projection of land, +an island, &c. This does not commonly occasion a very sensible +counter-current, yet it is sufficient to impede the progress of boats +and craft, and necessarily produces what is called a dead water, which +does not flow like the rest of the river, but whirls about in such a +manner that when boats are drawn therein they require great strength to +get them out. These dead waters are very perceptible at the arches of +bridges in rapid rivers. The velocity of the water increases in +proportion as the diameter of the channel through which it passes +diminishes, the impelling force being the same; <!-- Page 299 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299"></a>[299]</span>the velocity of a +river, therefore, increases at the passage of a bridge, in an inverse +proportion of the breadth of the arches to the whole breadth of the +river; the rapidity being very considerable in coming through the arch, +it forces the water against the banks, from whence it is reflected with +such violence as to form dangerous eddies and whirlpools. In going +through the bridge St. Esprit, the men are forced to be careful not to +lose the stream, even after they are past the bridge, for if they suffer +the boat to go either to the right or left, it might be driven against +the shore, or forced into the whirling waters, which would be attended +with great danger. When this eddy is very considerable, it forms a kind +of small gulph, the middle of which appears hollow and to form a kind of +cylindrical cavity, around which the water whirls with rapidity: this +appearance of a cylindrical cavity is produced by the centrifugal force, +which causes the water to endeavour to remove itself from the centre of +the whirlpool. When a great swell of water happens, the watermen know it +by a particular motion; they then say the water at the bottom flows +quicker than common: this augmentation of rapidity at the bottom, +according to them, <!-- Page 300 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300"></a>[300]</span>always announces a sudden rise of the water. The +motion and weight of the upper water communicates this motion to them; +for in certain respects we must consider a river as a pillar of water +contained in a tube, and the whole channel as a very long canal where +every motion must be communicated from one end to the other. Now, +independent of the motion of the upper waters, their weight alone might +cause the rapidity of the river to increase, and perhaps move it at +bottom; for it is known, that by putting many boats at one time into the +water, at that instant we increase the rapidity of the under part of the +river, as well as retard that of the upper.</p> + +<p>The rapidity of running waters does not exactly, nor even nearly, follow +the proportion of the declivity of their channels. One river whose +inclination is uniform and double that of another, ought, according to +appearance, to flow only as rapid again, but in fact it flows much +faster. Its rapidity, instead of being doubled, is sometimes triple, +quadruple, &c. This rapidity depends much more on the quantity of water +and the weight of the upper waters than on the declivity. When we are +desirous to hollow the bed of a river, we need not equally <!-- Page 301 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301"></a>[301]</span>distribute +the inclination throughout its whole length, in order to give a greater +rapidity, as it is more easily effected by making the descent much +greater at the beginning, than at the mouth, where it may almost be +insensible, as we see it in natural rivers, and yet they preserve a +rapidity so much the greater as the river is fuller of water; in great +rivers, where the ground is level, the water does not cease flowing, and +even rapidly, not only with its original velocity, but also with the +addition of that which it has acquired by the action and weight of the +upper waters. To render this fact more conceivable, let us suppose the +Seine between the Pont-neuf and Pont-royal to be perfectly level, and +ten feet deep throughout: let us then suppose that the bed of the river +below Pont-royal and above Pont-neuf were left entirely dry, the water +would instantly run up and down the channel, and continue to do so until +it had recovered an equilibrium; for the weight of the water would keep +it in motion, nor would it cease flowing until its particles became +equally pressed and have sunk to a perfect level. The weight of water +therefore greatly contributes to its velocity, and this is the reason +that the greatest rapidity of the current is neither of the surface <!-- Page 302 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302"></a>[302]</span>nor +at the bottom of the water, but nearly in the middle of its depth, being +pressed by the action of its weight at its surface, and by the re-action +from the bottom. Still more, if a river has acquired a great rapidity, +it will not only preserve it in passing a level country, but even +surmount an eminence without spreading much on either side, or at least +without causing any great inundation.</p> + +<p>We might be inclined to think that bridges, locks, and other obstacles +raised on rivers, considerably diminishes the celerity of the water's +course; nevertheless that occasions but little difference. Water rises +on meeting with any obstacle, and having surmounted it, the elevation +causes it to act with more rapidity in its fall, so that in fact it +suffers little or no diminution in its celerity, by these seeming +retardments. Sinuosities, projections, and islands, also but very little +diminish the velocity of the course of rivers. A considerable diminution +is produced by the sinking of the water, and, on the contrary, its +augmentation increases its velocity; thus if a river is shallow the +stream passes slowly along, and if deep with a proportionate rapidity.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 303 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303"></a>[303]</span>If rivers were always nearly of an equal fulness, the best means of +diminishing their rapidity, and confining them within their banks, would +be to enlarge their channel; but as almost all rivers are subject to +increase and diminish, to confine them we must retrench the channel, +because in shallow waters, if the channel is very broad, the water which +passes in the middle hollows a winding bed, and when it begins to swell +follows the direction it took in this particular bed, and striking +forcibly against the banks of the channel destroys them and does great +injuries. These effects of the water's fury might be prevented by +making, at particular distances, small gulphs in the earth; that is, by +cutting through one of these banks to a certain distance in the land. In +order that these gulphs might be advantageously placed, they should be +made in the obtuse angle of the river, for then the current of the water +in turning would run into them, and of course its velocity would be +diminished. This mode might be proper to prevent the fall of bridges in +places where it is not possible to make bars near the bridge which +sustain the action of the weight of the water.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 304 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304"></a>[304]</span>The manner in which inundations are occasioned merits peculiar +attention. When a river swells, the rapidity of the water always +increases till it begins to overflow the banks; at that instant the +velocity diminishes, which causes inundations to continue for several +days; for when even a less quantity of water comes after the overflowing +than before, the inundation will still be made, because it depends much +more on the velocity of the water than on the quantity; if it was not so +rivers would overflow for an hour or two and then return to their beds, +which never occurs; the inundations always remaining for several days; +whether the rain ceases, or a less quantity of water is brought, because +the overflowing has diminished the velocity, and consequently, although +the like quantity of water is no longer carried in the same time as +before, yet the effects are the same as if the greater quantity had come +there. It might be remarked on the occasion of this diminution, that if +a constant wind blows against the current of the river, the inundation +will be much greater than it would have been without this accidental +cause, which diminishes the celerity of the <!-- Page 305 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305"></a>[305]</span>water; on the contrary, if +the wind blows in the same directions with the current, the inundation +will be much less, and will more speedily decline.</p> + +<p>"The swelling of the Nile, says M. Granger, and its inundations, has a +long time employed the learned; most of them have looked upon it as +marvellous, although nothing can be more natural, and is every day to be +seen in every country throughout the world. It is the rains which fall +in Abyssinia and Ethiopia which cause the swelling and inundation of +that river, though the north wind must be regarded as the principal +cause. 1. Because the north wind drives the clouds which contain this +rain into Abyssinia. 2. Because, blowing against the mouths of the Nile, +it causes the waters to return against the stream, and thus prevents +them from running out in any great quantity: this circumstance may be +every season observed, for when the wind, being at the north, suddenly +veers to the south, the Nile loses in one day more than it gathers in +four."</p> + +<p>Inundations are generally greatest in the upper part of rivers, because +the velocity of a river continues always increasing until it arrives at +the sea, for the reasons we have related. <!-- Page 306 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306"></a>[306]</span>Father Costelli, who has +written very sensibly on this subject, remarks, that the height of the +banks made to confine the Po from overflowing diminishes as they advance +towards the sea; so that at Ferrara, which is 50 or 60 miles from the +sea, they are near 20 feet high above the common surface of the Po, but +that at 10 or 12 miles from it they are not above 12 feet, although the +channel of the river is as narrow there as at Ferrara<a name="FNanchor_306:A_33" id="FNanchor_306:A_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_306:A_33" class="fnanchor">[306:A]</a>.</p> + +<p>On the whole, the theory of the motion of running waters is still +subject to many difficulties, nor is it easy to lay down rules which +might be applied to every particular case. Experience is here more +useful than speculation. We must not only know the general effects of +rivers, but we must also know in particular the river we have to do +with, if we would reason justly, make useful observations, and draw +stable conclusions. The remarks I have above given are mostly new; it is +to be wished that others may be collected, and then, possibly, in time, +we may obtain a sufficient knowledge of the subject to lay down certain +rules to confine and direct rivers, and prevent the ruin <!-- Page 307 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307"></a>[307]</span>of bridges, +banks, and other damages which the violent impetuosity of the water +occasions.</p> + +<p>The greatest rivers in Europe are the Wolga, which is about 650 leagues +in its course from Reschow to Astracan, on the Caspian Sea; the Danube, +whose course is about 450 leagues from the mountains of Switzerland to +the Black Sea; the Don, which is 400 leagues in its course from the +source of the Sosnia, which it receives, to its mouth in the Black Sea; +the Dnieper, whose course is about 350 leagues, and which also runs into +the Black Sea; the Duine is about 400 leagues in its course, and empties +itself into the White Sea, &c.</p> + +<p>The greatest rivers in Asia are the Hoanho of China, whose course is 850 +leagues, taking its source at Raja-Ribron, and falls into the sea of +China, in the middle of the gulph Changi: the Jenisca of Tartary, which +is about 800 leagues in extent, from the lake Seligna to the northern +sea of Tartary; the river Oby, which is about 600 leagues from Lake +Kila, to the Northern Sea, beyond the Strait of Waigats. The river +Amour, of eastern Tartary, which is about 575 leagues in its course, +reckoning it from the source of <!-- Page 308 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308"></a>[308]</span>the river Kerlon, to the sea of +Kamschatka. The river Menan, whose mouth is at Poulo Condor, may be +measured from the surface of the Longmu which falls into it; the Kian, +whose course is about 550 leagues from the source of the river Kinxa, +which it receives, to its mouth in the China Sea; the Ganges is also +about 550 leagues, and the Euphrates 500, taking it from the source of +Irma, which it receives. The Indus about 400 leagues, and which falls +into the Arabian Sea, on the east of Guzarat. The Sirderious, which is +about 400 leagues long, and falls into Lake Aral.</p> + +<p>The greatest rivers in Africa are Senegal, which is 1125 leagues long, +comprehending the Niger, which in fact is a continuation of it, and the +source of Gombarou, which falls into the Niger. The Nile 970 leagues +long, and which derives its source in Upper Ethiopia, where it makes +many windings. There are also the Zaira, the Coanza, and the Couma, +which are known as far as 400 leagues, but extend much farther; the +Quilmanci, whose course is 400 leagues, and which derives its source in +the kingdom of Gingiro.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 309 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309"></a>[309]</span>The greatest rivers of America, and which are also the greatest in the +world, are the river Amazons, whose course is 1200 leagues, if we go up +as far as the Lake near Guanuco, 30 leagues from Lima, where the +Maragnon takes its source; and even reckoning from the source of the +river Napo, some distance from Quito, the course of the river Amazons is +more than a thousand leagues.</p> + +<p>It might be said that the course of the river St. Lawrence, in Canada, +is more than 900 leagues from its mouth to the lake Ontaro, from thence +to lake Huron, afterwards to the lake Alemipigo, and to the lake +Assiniboils; the waters of these lakes falling one into another, and at +last into St. Lawrence.</p> + +<p>The river Mississippi more than 700 leagues long from its mouth to any +of its sources, which are not remote from the lake of the Assiniboils.</p> + +<p>The river de la Plata is more than 800 leagues long, from the source of +the river Parana, which it receives.</p> + +<p>The river Oroonoko runs more than 575 leagues, reckoning from the source +of the river Caketa, near Pasto, part of which falls into <!-- Page 310 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310"></a>[310]</span>the Oroonoko, +and part flows also towards the river Amazons.</p> + +<p>The river Madera, which falls into the Amazons, is more than 660 +leagues.</p> + +<p>To know nearly the quantity of water the sea receives by all the rivers +which fall into it, let us suppose that one half of the globe is covered +by the sea, and that the other half is land, which is nearly the fact; +let us suppose also, that the mediate depth of the sea is 230 fathom. +The surface of all the earth being 170,981,012 square miles; and that of +the sea 85,490,506 square miles, which being multiplied by 1/4, the +depth of the sea gives 21,372,626, cubical miles for the quantity of +water contained in the ocean. Now, to calculate the quantity of water +which the ocean receives from the rivers, let us take some great river, +whose rapidity and quantity of waters are known; for example, the Po, +which runs through Lombardy, and waters a tract of land 380 miles long; +according to Riccioli, its breadth, before it divides into many +trenches, is 100 perches of Boulogne, or 1000 feet, its depth 10 feet, +and it runs four miles an hour; therefore the Po supplies the sea with +200,000 cubical perches of water in an hour, or 4 <!-- Page 311 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311"></a>[311]</span>millions 800 thousand +in a day; but a cubical mile contains 125 millions cubical perches; +therefore 26 days is required to convey a cubical mile of water to the +sea: it remains therefore only to determine the proportion between the +river Po and all the rivers of the earth taken together, which is +impossible to do precisely. But to know it pretty exactly, let us +suppose that the quantity of water which the sea receives by the large +rivers in all countries is proportional to the extent and surface of +these countries, and that consequently the country watered by the Po, +and other rivers which fall therein, is in the same proportion on the +surface of the whole earth, as the Po is to all the rivers of the earth. +Now by the most correct charts, the Po, from its source to its mouth, +traverses a tract 380 miles long, and the rivers which fall therein, on +each side, proceed from the springs and rivers 60 miles distant from the +Po; therefore this great river, and the others it receives, waters a +tract 380 miles long, and 120 miles broad, which makes 450,600 square +miles, but the surface of all the dry land is 85,490,506 square miles; +consequently all the water which the rivers carry to the sea, will be +1974 times <!-- Page 312 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312"></a>[312]</span>greater than the quantity which the Po furnishes; but as 26 +rivers equal to the Po furnish a cubical mile of water to the sea in a +day, of course 1874 rivers like the Po would supply the sea with 26,308 +cubical miles of water in a year, and that in the space of 812 years all +the rivers would supply the sea with 21,372,626 cubical miles of water; +that is to say, as much as there is in the ocean, and therefore 812 +years is only required to fill it.<a name="FNanchor_312:A_34" id="FNanchor_312:A_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_312:A_34" class="fnanchor">[312:A]</a></p> + +<p>The result of this calculation is, that the quantity of water evaporated +from the sea, and which the winds convey on the earth, is about 245 +lines, or from 20 to 21 inches a year, or about two thirds of a line +each day: this is a very trifling evaporation even when trebled, in +order to estimate the water which refalls in the sea, and which is not +conveyed over the earth. Mr. Halley, in the Phil. Transactions, page +192, evidently shews, that the vapours which rise above the sea, and +which the winds convey over all the earth, are sufficient to supply all +the rivers in the world.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 313 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313"></a>[313]</span>Next to the Nile the river Jordan is the most considerable in the +Levant, or even in Barbary; it supplies the Dead Sea with about six +million tons of water every day; all this water, and more, is raised by +evaporation; for, according to Halley's calculation of 6914 tons +evaporated from each mile, the Dead Sea, which is 72 miles in length by +18 broad, must every day lose near nine million tons of water, that is, +not only all the water it receives from the river Jordan, but also that +of the small rivers which come into it from the mountains of Moab and +elsewhere; consequently there is no necessity for its communicating with +any other sea by subterraneous canals.<a name="FNanchor_313:A_35" id="FNanchor_313:A_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_313:A_35" class="fnanchor">[313:A]</a></p> + +<p>The most rapid rivers are the Tigris, the Indus, the Danube, the Yrtis, +in Siberia, the Malmistra, in Silesia, &c. but, as we have already +observed, the proportion of the rapidity of rivers depends upon the +declivity and upon the weight and quantity of water; by examining the +globe, we shall find that the Danube is much less inclined than the Po, +the Rhine, or the Rhone, for the Danube has a much longer course than +any of these other rivers, and falls into the Black Sea, which is higher +than the <!-- Page 314 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314"></a>[314]</span>Mediterranean, and perhaps more so than the ocean.</p> + +<p>All large rivers receive many others in the extent of their course; for +example, the Danube receives more than 200 rivulets and rivers; but by +reckoning only such as are considerable rivers, we shall find that the +Danube receives 31, the Wolga 32, the Don 5 or 6, the Nieper 19 or 20, +the Duine 11 or 12; so likewise in Asia the Hoanho receives 34 or 35, +the Jenisca 60, the Oby as many, the Amour about 40, the Kian, or river +Nankin about 30, the Ganges upwards of 20, the Euphrates 10 or 11, &c. +In Africa, the river Senegal receives upwards of 20 rivers: the Nile +does not receive any rivers for upwards of 500 miles from its mouth; the +last which falls therein is the Moraba, and from this place to its +source it receives about 12 or 13 rivers. In America, the river Amazons +receives more than 60, all of which are very considerable; the river St. +Lawrence about 40, by reckoning those which fall into the lakes; the +Mississippi more than 40, the Plata more than 50, &c.</p> + +<p>There are high countries on the earth, which seem to be points of +division marked by nature for the distribution of the waters. In +Europe, <!-- Page 315 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315"></a>[315]</span>the environs of Mount St. Goddard are one of these points; +another is situate between the provinces of Belozera and Wologda, in +Muscovy, from whence many rivers descend, some of which go to the White +Sea, others to the Black, and some to the Caspian. In Asia there are +several, in the country of Mogul Tartary, from whence rivers flow into +Nova Zembla, others to the Gulph Linchidolin, others to the sea of +Corea, others to that of China: and so likewise the Little Thibet, whose +waters flow towards the sea of China; the Gulph of Bengal, the Gulph of +Cambay, and the Lake Aral; in America, the province of Quito; whose +rivers run into the North and South Seas, and the Gulph of Mexico.</p> + +<p>In the old continent there are about 430 rivers, which fall directly +into the ocean, or into the Mediterranean and Black Seas; but in the new +continent not more than 145 rivers are known, which fall directly into +the sea: in this number I have comprehended only the great rivers, like +the Somme in Picardy.</p> + +<p>All these rivers carry to the sea a great quantity of mineral and saline +particles, which <!-- Page 316 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316"></a>[316]</span>they have washed from the different soils through +which they have passed. The particles of salt, which are easily +dissolved, are conveyed to the sea by the water. Some philosophers, and +among the rest Halley, have pretended that the saltness of the sea +proceeded only from the salts of the earth, which the rivers transport +therein. Others assert, that the saltness of the sea is as ancient as +the sea itself, and that this salt was created that the waters might not +corrupt; but we may justly suppose that the sea is preserved from +corruption by the agitations produced by the winds and tides, as much as +by the salt it contains; for when put in a barrel it corrupts in a few +days; and Boyle relates, that a mariner, who was becalmed for 13 days, +found, at the end of that time, the water so infected, that if the calm +had not ceased, the greatest part of his people would have perished. The +water of the sea is also mixed with a bituminous oil, which gives it a +disagreeable taste, and renders it very unhealthful. The quantity of +salt contained in sea water is about a fortieth part, and is nearly +equally saline throughout, at top as well as bottom, under the line, and +at the Cape of Good Hope; although there are <!-- Page 317 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317"></a>[317]</span>several places, as off the +Mosambique Coast, where it is salter than elsewhere.<a name="FNanchor_317:A_36" id="FNanchor_317:A_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_317:A_36" class="fnanchor">[317:A]</a> It is also +asserted not to be so saline under the Arctic Circle, which may proceed +from the amazing quantities of snow, and the great rivers which fall +into those seas, and because the heat of the sun produces but little +evaporation in hot climates.</p> + +<p>Be this as it may, I conceive that the saltness of the sea is not only +caused by the banks of salt at the bottom of the sea, and along the +coasts, but also by the salts of the earth, which the rivers continually +convey therein; and that Halley had some reason to presume that in the +beginning of the world the sea had but little or no saltness; that it is +become so by degrees, and in proportion as the rivers have brought salts +therein; that this saltness is every day increasing, and that +consequently, by computing the whole quantity of salt brought by all the +rivers, we might attain the knowledge of the age of the world by the +degrees of the saltness of the sea.</p> + +<p>Divers and pearl fishers assert, according to Boyle, that the deeper +they descend into the sea, the colder is the water; and that the cold is +so intense at considerable depths, that they cannot remain there so long +under water, but <!-- Page 318 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318"></a>[318]</span>are obliged to come up again much sooner than when +they descended to only a moderate one. It appeared to me that the weight +of the water might be as much the cause of compelling them to shorten +their usual time as the intenseness of the cold, when they descend to a +depth of 3 or 400 fathoms; but, in fact, divers scarcely ever descend +above an hundred feet. The same author relates, that in a voyage to the +East-Indies, beyond the line, at about 35 degrees south latitude, a +sounding lead of 30 or 35lb weight was sunk to the depth of 400 fathoms, +and that being pulled up again, it had become as cold as ice. It is also +a frequent practice with mariners to cool their wine at sea by sinking +their bottles to the depth of several fathoms, and they affirm the +deeper the bottles are sunk, the cooler is the wine.</p> + +<p>These circumstances might induce us to presume that the sea is salter at +the bottom than at the surface; but we have testimonies which prove the +contrary, founded on experiments made to fill vessels with sea water, +which were not opened till they were sunk to a certain depth, and the +water was found to be no salter than at the surface. There are even some +places where the water at the surface is salt, and that <!-- Page 319 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319"></a>[319]</span>at the bottom +fresh; and this must always be the case where there are springs at the +bottom of the sea, as near Goo, Ormus, and even in the sea of Naples, +where there are hot springs at the bottom.</p> + +<p>There are other places where sulphurous springs and beds of bitumen have +been discovered at the bottom of the sea, and on land there are many of +these springs of bitumen which run into it.</p> + +<p>At Barbadoes there is a pure bitumen spring, which flows from the rocks +into the sea: salt and bitumen, therefore, are predominant matters in +the sea water: but it is also mixed with many other matters; for the +taste of water is not the same in every part of the sea; besides, the +agitation and the heat of the sun alters the natural taste which the sea +should have; and the different colour of different seas, at different +times, prove that the waters of the sea contain several kinds of +matters, either which it loosens from its own bottom, or are brought +thither by rivers.</p> + +<p>Almost all countries watered by great rivers are subject to periodical +inundations, those which are low, and derive their sources from a great +distance, overflow the most regularly. <!-- Page 320 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320"></a>[320]</span>Every person almost has heard of +the inundations of the Nile, which preserves the sweetness and whiteness +of its waters, though extended over a vast tract of country, and into +the sea. Strabo and other ancient authors have written that it had seven +mouths, but there now remain only two which are navigable; there is a +third canal which descends to Alexandria, and fills the cisterns there, +and a fourth which is still smaller; but as they have for a long time +neglected to clean their canals, they are nearly choaked up. The +ancients employed a great number of workmen and soldiers, and every +year, after the inundation, they carried away the mud and sand which was +in these canals. The cause of the overflowing of the Nile proceeds from +the rains which fall in Ethiopia. They begin in April and do not cease +till September; during the first three months, the days are serene and +fair, but as soon as the sun goes down the rains begin, nor stop till it +rises again, and are generally accompanied with thunder and lightning. +The inundation begins in Egypt about the 17th of June; it generally +increases during 40 days, and diminishes in about the same time; all the +flat country of Egypt is overflowed; but this inundation is much less +<!-- Page 321 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321"></a>[321]</span>now than it was formerly, for Herodotus tells us, that the Nile was 100 +days in swelling, and as many in abating: if this is true, we can only +attribute the cause thereof to the elevation of the land, which the mud +of the waters has heightened by degrees, and to the diminution of the +mountains in Africa, from whence it derives its source. It is very +natural to believe that these mountains have diminished, because the +abundant rains which fall in these climates during half the year sweep +away great quantities of sand and earth from the mountains into the +valleys, from whence the torrents wash them into the Nile, which carries +great part into Egypt, where it deposits them in its overflowings.</p> + +<p>The Nile is not the only river whose inundations are regular; the river +Pegu is called the <i>Indian Nile</i>, because it overflows regularly every +year; it inundates the country for more than 30 leagues from its banks; +and, like the Nile, leaves an abundance of mud, which so greatly +fertilizes the earth, that the pasturage is excellent for cattle, and +rice grows in such great abundance, that every year a number of vessels +are laden with it, without leaving a scarcity in the country.<a name="FNanchor_321:A_37" id="FNanchor_321:A_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_321:A_37" class="fnanchor">[321:A]</a> The +Niger, or what <!-- Page 322 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322"></a>[322]</span>amounts to the same, the upper part of the Senegal, +likewise overflows and covers all the flat country of Nigritia; it +begins nearly at the same time as the Nile, and increases also for 40 +days: the river de la Plata, in Brasil, also overflows every year, and +at the same time as the Nile. The Ganges, the Indus, the Euphrates, and +some others, overflow annually; but all rivers have not periodical +overflowings, and when inundations happen it is the effect of many +causes, which combine to supply a greater quantity of water than common, +and, at the same time, to retard its velocity. We have before observed, +that in almost all rivers the inclination of their beds diminishes +towards their mouths in an almost insensible manner; but there are some +whose declivity is very sudden in some places, and forms what is termed +a <em>cataract</em>, which is nothing more than a fall of water, quicker than +the common current of the river. The Rhine, for example, has two +cataracts, the one at Bilefield, and the other near Schafhouse: the Nile +has many, and among the rest two which are very violent, and fall from a +great height between two mountains; the river Wologda, in Muscovy, has +also two near Ladoga; the Zaire, a river of Congo, begins by a <!-- Page 323 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323"></a>[323]</span>very +large cataract, which falls from the top of a mountain; but the most +famous is that of Niagara, in Canada, that falls from a perpendicular +height of 156 feet, like a prodigious torrent, and is more than a +quarter of a mile broad: the fog, or mist, which the water makes in +falling, is perceived at five miles distance, and rises as high as the +clouds, forming a very beautiful rainbow when the sun shines thereon. +Below this cataract there are such terrible whirlpools, that nothing can +be navigated thereon for six miles distance, and above the cataract the +river is much narrower than it is in the upper lands<a name="FNanchor_323:A_38" id="FNanchor_323:A_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_323:A_38" class="fnanchor">[323:A]</a>. The +description given of it by <i>Father Charlevoix</i> is as follows:</p> + +<p>"My first care, when I arrived, was to visit the most beautiful cascade +that is, perhaps, in nature; but I immediately discovered that Baron la +Hontain was deceived so greatly, both in its height and figure, that one +might reasonably imagine he had never seen it.</p> + +<p>"It is true, that if we measure its height by the three mountains you +are obliged to ascend in going to it, there is not much abatement to be +made of the 600 feet, which the map of M. <!-- Page 324 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324"></a>[324]</span>Delisse gives it, who +doubtless advanced this paradox only on the credit of the Baron la +Hontain, and Father Honnepin; but after I arrived at the top of the +third mountain, I observed that in the space of three leagues, which I +afterwards had to go to this fall of water, although you are forced +sometimes to ascend, you must nevertheless descend still more, and this +is what travellers do not appear to have paid proper attention to. As we +can only approach the cascade on one side, nor see it but in the +profile, it is not easy to measure its height by instruments: +experiments have been made to do it by a long cord, tied to a pole, and +after having often attempted this manner, it was found to be only 115 or +120 feet high; but it is impossible to ascertain whether the pole was +not stopped by some projection of the rock; for although when drawn up +again the end of the cord was always wet, yet that is no proof, since +the water which precipitates from the mountain, flies up again in foam +to a very great height: for my own part, after having considered it on +every side that I could examine it to advantage, I think that we cannot +allow it to be less than 140 or 150 feet.</p> + +<p>"Its figure is that of a horse-shoe, and its circumference is about 400 +paces; but exactly <!-- Page 325 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325"></a>[325]</span>in its middle, it is divided by a very narrow +island, about half a quarter of a league long. It is true these two +parts join again; that which was on my side, and of which I could only +have a side view, has several projecting points, but that which I beheld +in front, appeared to be perfectly even." The Baron has also mentioned a +torrent, which, if not the offspring of his own invention, must fall +into some channel upon the melting of the snow.</p> + +<p>There is another cataract three miles from Albany, in the province of +New-York, whose height is 50 feet perpendicular, and from which there +arises a mist that occasions a faint rainbow.<a name="FNanchor_325:A_39" id="FNanchor_325:A_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_325:A_39" class="fnanchor">[325:A]</a></p> + +<p>In all countries where mankind are not sufficiently numerous to form +polished societies, the ground is more irregular, and the beds of rivers +more extended, less equal, and often abound with cataracts. Many ages +were required to render the Rhone and the Loire navigable. It is by +confining waters, by directing their course, and by cleansing the bottom +of rivers, that they obtain a fixed and regular course; in all countries +thinly inhabited Nature is rude, and often deformed.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 326 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326"></a>[326]</span>There are rivers which lose themselves in the sands, and others which +seem to precipitate into the bowels of the earth: the Guadalquiver in +Spain, the river Gottenburg in Sweden, and the Rhine itself, lose +themselves in the earth. It is asserted, that in the west part of the +island of St. Domingo there is a mountain of a considerable height, at +the foot of which are many caverns, into which the rivers and rivulets +fall with so much noise, as to be heard at the distance of seven or +eight leagues.<a name="FNanchor_326:A_40" id="FNanchor_326:A_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_326:A_40" class="fnanchor">[326:A]</a></p> + +<p>The number of rivers which lose themselves in the earth is very few, and +there is no appearance that they descend very low; it is more probable +that they lose themselves, like the Rhine, by dividing among the +quantity of sand; this is very common to small rivers that run through +dry and sandy soils, of which we have several examples in Africa, +Persia, Arabia, &c.</p> + +<p>The rivers of the north transport into the sea prodigious quantities of +ice, which accumulating, form those enormous masses so destructive to +mariners. These masses are the most abundant in the Strait of Waigat, +which is entirely frozen over the greatest part of the year, <!-- Page 327 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327"></a>[327]</span>and are +formed by the great flakes which the river Oby almost continually brings +there; they attach themselves along the coasts, and heap up to a +considerable height on both sides, but the middle of the strait is the +last part which freezes, and where the ice is the lowest. When the wind +ceases to blow from the North, and comes in the direction of the Strait, +the ice begins to thaw and break in the middle; afterwards it loosens +from the sides in great masses, which are carried into the high sea. The +wind, which all winter blows from the north over the frozen countries of +Nova Zembla, renders the country watered by the Oby, and all Siberia, so +cold, that even at Tobolski, which is in the 57th degree, there are no +fruit trees, while at Sweden, Stockholm, and even in higher latitudes, +there are both fruit trees and pulse. This difference does not proceed, +as it has been thought, from the sea of Lapland being warmer than the +Straits; nor from the land of Nova Zembla being colder than Lapland; but +solely from the Baltic, and the Gulph of Bothnia, tempering the rigour +of the north winds, whereas in Siberia there is nothing that can +temperate the cold. It is a fact founded on experience, that it is never +so cold on the sea coasts as in the <!-- Page 328 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328"></a>[328]</span>inland parts of a country. There +are plants which stand the winter in London exposed to the open air, +that cannot be preserved at Paris; and Siberia, which is a vast +continent, is for this reason colder than Sweden, which is surrounded on +all sides by the sea.</p> + +<p>The coldest country in the world is Spitzbergen: it lies in the 78th +degree of north latitude, and is entirely formed of small peaked +mountains; these mountains are composed of gravel, and flat stones +somewhat like slate, heaped one on the other; which, it is affirmed by +navigators, are raised by the wind, and increase so quick, that new ones +are discovered every year. The rein-deer is the only animal seen here, +which feeds on a short grass and moss. On the top of these little +mountains, and at more than a mile from the sea, the mast of a ship was +found with a pully fastened to one of its ends, which gives room to +suppose that the sea once covered the tops of these mountains, and that +this country is but of modern date; it is uninhabited, and +uninhabitable; the soil of these small mountains has no consistence, but +is loose, and so cold and penetrating a vapour strikes from it, that it +is impossible to remain any length of time thereon.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 329 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329"></a>[329]</span>The vessels which go to Spitzbergen for the whale fishery, arrive there +early in the month of July, and take their departure from it about the +15th of August, the ice preventing them from entering the sea earlier, +or quiting it after. Prodigious pieces of ice, 60, 70, and 80 fathoms +thick are seen there, and there are some parts of it where the sea +appears frozen to the very bottom<a name="FNanchor_329:A_41" id="FNanchor_329:A_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_329:A_41" class="fnanchor">[329:A]</a>: this ice, which is so high +above the level of the sea, is as clear and transparent as glass.</p> + +<p>There is also much ice in the seas of North America, as in Ascension +Bay, in the Straits of Hudson, Cumberland, Davis, Forbishers, &c. Robert +Lade asserts that the mountains of Friezeland are entirely covered with +snow, and its coasts with ice, like a bulwark, which prevents any +approaching them. "It is, says he, very remarkable, that in this sea we +meet with islands of ice more than half a mile round, extremely high, +and 70 or 80 fathoms deep; this ice, which is sweet, is perhaps formed +in the rivers or straits of the neighbouring lands, <!-- Page 330 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330"></a>[330]</span>&c. These islands +or mountains of ice are so moveable, that in stormy weather they follow +the track of a ship, as if they were drawn along in the same furrow by a +rope. There are some of them tower so high above the water, as to +surpass the tops of the masts of the largest vessels."<a name="FNanchor_330:A_42" id="FNanchor_330:A_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_330:A_42" class="fnanchor">[330:A]</a></p> + +<p>In the collection of voyages made for the service of the Dutch East +India Company, we meet with the following account of the ice at Nova +Zembla:—"At Cape Troost the weather was so foggy as to oblige us to +moor the vessel to a mountain of ice, which was 36 fathoms deep in the +water, and about 16 fathoms out of it.</p> + +<p>"On the 10th of August the ice dividing, it began to float, and then we +observed that the large piece of ice, to which the ship had been moored, +touched the bottom, as all the others passing by struck against without +moving it. We then began to fear being inclosed between the ice, that we +should either be frozen in or crushed to pieces, and therefore +endeavoured to avoid the danger by attempting to get into another +latitude, in doing of which the vessel was forced through the floating +ice, which made a <!-- Page 331 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331"></a>[331]</span>tremendous noise, and seemingly to a great distance; +at length we moored to another mountain, for the purpose of remaining +there that night.</p> + +<p>"During the first watch the ice began to split with an inexpressible +noise, and the ship keeping to the current, in which the ice was now +floating, we were obliged to cut the cable to avoid it; we reckoned more +than 400 large mountains of ice, which were 10 fathoms under and +appeared more than 2 fathoms above water.</p> + +<p>"We afterwards moored the vessel to another mountain of ice, which +reached above 6 fathoms under water. As soon as we were fixed we +perceived another piece beyond us, which terminated in a point, and went +to the bottom of the sea; we advanced towards it, and found it 20 +fathoms under water, and 12 above the surface.</p> + +<p>"The 11th we reached another large shelve of ice, 18 fathoms under +water, and 10 above it.</p> + +<p>"The 21st the Dutch got pretty far in among the ice, and remained there +the whole night; the next morning they moored their vessel to a large +bank of ice, which they ascended, <!-- Page 332 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332"></a>[332]</span>and considered as a very singular +phenomenon, that its top was covered with earth, and they found near 40 +eggs thereon. The colour was not the common colour of ice, but a fine +sky blue. Those who were on it had various conjectures from this +circumstance, some contending it was an effect of the ice, while others +maintained it to be a mass of frozen earth. It was about eighteen +fathoms under water, and ten above."<a name="FNanchor_332:A_43" id="FNanchor_332:A_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_332:A_43" class="fnanchor">[332:A]</a></p> + +<p>Wafer relates, that near Terra del Fuega he met with many high floating +pieces of ice, which he at first mistook for islands. Some appeared a +mile or two in length, and the largest not less than 4 or 500 feet above +the water.</p> + +<p>All this ice, as I have observed in the sixth article, was brought +thither by the rivers; the ice in the sea of Nova Zembla, and the +Straits of Waigat come from the Oby, and perhaps from Jenisca, and other +great rivers of Siberia and Tartary; that in Hudson's Straits, from +Ascension Bay, into which many of the North American rivers fall; that +of Terra del Fuega, from the southern continent. If there are less on +the North coasts of Lapland, than on those of Siberia, and the Straits +of Waigat, it is because <!-- Page 333 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333"></a>[333]</span>all the rivers of Lapland fall into the Gulph +of Bothnia, and none go into the northern sea. The ice may also be +formed in the straits, where the tides swell much higher than in the +open sea, and where, consequently, the ice that is at the surface may +heap up and form those mountains, which are several fathoms high; but +with respect to those which are 4 or 500 feet high, they appear to be +formed on high coasts; and I imagine that when the snow which covers the +tops of these coasts melts, the water flows on the flakes of ice, and +being frozen thereon, thus increases the size of the first until it +comes to that amazing height. That afterwards, in a warm summer, these +hills of ice loosen from the coasts by the action of the wind and motion +of the sea, or perhaps even by their own weight, and are driven as the +wind directs, so that they at length may arrive into temperate climates +before they are entirely melted.</p> + + +<div> +<hr class="footnotes" /> +<p class="sectctrfn">FOOTNOTES:</p> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_306:A_33" id="Footnote_306:A_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_306:A_33"><span class="label">[306:A]</span></a> See <span lang="it" xml:lang="it">Racolta d'autori che trattano del motto dell' +acque</span>, vol. 1, page 123.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_312:A_34" id="Footnote_312:A_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_312:A_34"><span class="label">[312:A]</span></a> See Keil's Examination of Burnet's Theory, page 126.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_313:A_35" id="Footnote_313:A_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_313:A_35"><span class="label">[313:A]</span></a> See Shaw's Travels, vol. ii, page 71.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_317:A_36" id="Footnote_317:A_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_317:A_36"><span class="label">[317:A]</span></a> See Boyle, vol. iii. page 217.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_321:A_37" id="Footnote_321:A_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_321:A_37"><span class="label">[321:A]</span></a> See Ovington's Travels, vol. ii. page 290.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_323:A_38" id="Footnote_323:A_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_323:A_38"><span class="label">[323:A]</span></a> See Phil. Trans. Abr. vol. vi. part ii. page 119.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_325:A_39" id="Footnote_325:A_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_325:A_39"><span class="label">[325:A]</span></a> Phil. Trans. vol. vi. part ii. page 19.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_326:A_40" id="Footnote_326:A_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_326:A_40"><span class="label">[326:A]</span></a> See Varenii Geograph. gen. page 48.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_329:A_41" id="Footnote_329:A_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_329:A_41"><span class="label">[329:A]</span></a> In contradiction to this idea it is now a generally +received opinion, that the mountains of ice in the North and South Seas +are exactly the same depth under as they are height above the surface of +the water.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_330:A_42" id="Footnote_330:A_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_330:A_42"><span class="label">[330:A]</span></a> See the Voyages of Lade, vol. ii, page 305, &.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_332:A_43" id="Footnote_332:A_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_332:A_43"><span class="label">[332:A]</span></a> Voyage of the Dutch to the North, vol. 1, 3. Page 49.</p> +</div> +</div> + + +<p class="theend"><i>END OF THE FIRST VOLUME.</i></p> +</div> + + + + +<div> +<hr class="newchapter" /> +<div class="notebox"> +<p class="tnhead">TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES</p> + + +<p>On page 78, there is one character that may not be visible. It is a +superscripted "5".</p> + +<p>Page ii is blank in the original.</p> + +<p>Variations in spelling and hyphenation have been left as in the +original.</p> + +<p>The following changes have been made to the original text:</p> + +<div class="tnblock"> +<p>Page vi: It would have been singular[original has "singuar"]</p> + +<p>Page 9: moon, which are the causes of["of" missing in +original] it</p> + +<p>Page 23: these particles[original has "particels"] of earth +and stone</p> + +<p>Page 31: In a word, the materials[original has "mateterials"] +of the globe</p> + +<p>Page 37: has occurred, and in my opinion[original has +"oppinion"] very naturally</p> + +<p>Page 51: These[original has "these"] could not have been +occasioned</p> + +<p>Page 74: in the regions of the sky [original has "fky"]</p> + +<p>Page 94: that fire cannot[original has "connot"] subsist</p> + +<p>Page 94: planets at[original has "as"] the time of their +quitting the sun</p> + +<p>Page 97: there will be detached[original has "detatched"] from +its equator</p> + +<p>Page 104: which are as 229 to 230.[period missing in original]</p> + +<p>Page 155: ARTICLE VI.[original has "VII."]</p> + +<p>Page 182: conjecture is so much the better[original has +"bettter"] founded</p> + +<p>Page 189: where the pits are very deep[original has "deeep"]</p> + +<p>Page 192: 23. Sand streaked red[original has "read"] and white</p> + +<p>Page 194: In plains surrounded[original has "surounded"] with +hills</p> + +<p>Page 198: in France, Flanders, Holland, Spain,[comma missing +in original] Italy</p> + +<p>Page 199: 10 of sand, then 2 feet of["of" missing in original] +clay</p> + +<p>Page 203: either birds or terrestrial animals."[quotation mark +missing in original]</p> + +<p>Page 210: the Alps, and the Apennine[original has "Appenine"] +mountains</p> + +<p>Page 225: time much longer than a year."[quotation mark +missing in original]</p> + +<p>Page 228: formation is novel, in[original has "n"] comparison</p> + +<p>Page 256: resemblance is perfectly exact."[quotation mark +missing in original]</p> + +<p>[78:A] Vide Newton, 2d edit. page 525.[period missing in +original]</p> + +<p>[177:A] Footnote letter missing in original.</p> + +<p>[178:A] See the Hist. of New France, by the Pere +Charlevoix.[Footnote letter and period missing in original.]</p> + +<p>[234:A] See Shaw's Voyages, Vol. ii[original has "11"], pages +40 and 41.</p> + +<p>[240:B] Voyage of Paul Lucus, Vol. II[original has "11"], page +380.</p> + +<p>[329:A] above the surface of the water.[original has a comma]</p> + +<p>[330:A] See the Voyages of Lade, vol. ii.[original has "11"] +page 305, &.</p> + +<p>[332:A] Voyage of the Dutch to the North, vol. 1, 3.[original +has a comma] Page 49.</p> +</div> +</div> +</div> + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Buffon's Natural History, Volume I (of +II), by Georges Louis Leclerc de Buffon + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BUFFON'S NATURAL HISTORY *** + +***** This file should be named 44792-h.htm or 44792-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/4/4/7/9/44792/ + +Produced by Chris Curnow, Lisa Reigel, and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Buffon's Natural History, Volume I (of II) + Containing a Therory of ther Earth, a General History of + Man, of the Brute Creation, and of Vegetables, Mineral, + &c. &c + +Author: Georges Louis Leclerc de Buffon + +Translator: James Smith Barr + +Release Date: January 29, 2014 [EBook #44792] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BUFFON'S NATURAL HISTORY *** + + + + +Produced by Chris Curnow, Lisa Reigel, and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive) + + + + + + + +Transcriber's Notes: Words in italics in the original are surrounded by +_underscores_. Characters superscripted in the original are surrounded +by {braces}. Other notes follow the text. + + + + + _Barr's Buffon._ + + + Buffon's Natural History. + + CONTAINING + + A THEORY OF THE EARTH, + + A GENERAL + + _HISTORY OF MAN_, + + OF THE BRUTE CREATION, AND OF + VEGETABLES, MINERALS, + _&c. &c._ + + FROM THE FRENCH. + + WITH NOTES BY THE TRANSLATOR. + + IN TEN VOLUMES. + + VOL. I. + + + London: + PRINTED FOR THE PROPRIETOR, + AND SOLD BY H. D. SYMONDS, PATERNOSTER-ROW. + + 1797. + + + + +CONTENTS + +OF + +THE FIRST VOLUME. + + + _Page_ + _THE Theory of the Earth_ 1 + + Proof of the Theory of the Earth. + + Article I. _On the Formation of the Planets_ 69 + + Article II. _From the System of Whiston_ 115 + + Article III. _From the System of Burnet_ 128 + + Article IV. _From the System of Woodward_ 131 + + Article V. _Exposition of some other Systems_ 137 + + Article VI. _Geography_ 155 + + Article VII. _On the Production of the Strata, or Beds of + the Earth_ 183 + + Article VIII. _On Shells and other Marine Productions found + in the interior Parts of the Earth_ 219 + + Article IX. _On the Inequalities of the Surface + of the Earth_ 262 + + Article X. _Of Rivers_ 298 + + + + +PREFACE. + + +We should certainly be guilty of a gross absurdity if, in an age like +the present, we were to enter into an elaborate discussion on the +advantages to be derived from the study of NATURAL HISTORY; the ancients +recommended it as useful, instructive, and entertaining; and the moderns +have so far pursued and cultivated this first of sciences, that it is +now admitted to be the source of universal instruction and knowledge; +where every active mind may find subjects to amuse and delight, and the +artist a never failing field to enrich his glowing imagination. + +It would have been singular if, on such a subject, a number of authors +had not submitted the produce of their observations and labour; many +have written upon Natural Philosophy, but the Comte de BUFFON stands +eminently distinguished among them; he has entered into a minute +investigation, and drawn numberless facts from unwearied observations +far beyond any other, and this he has accomplished in a style fully +accordant with the importance of his subject. Ray, Linnaeus, Rheaumur, +and other of his cotemporaries, deserve much credit for their classing +of animals, vegetables, &c. but it was BUFFON alone who entered into a +description of their nature, habits, uses, and properties. In his Theory +of the Earth he has displayed a wonderful ingenuity, and shewn the +general order of Nature with a masterly hand, although he may be subject +to some objections for preferring physical reasonings on general +causes, rather than allowing aught to have arisen from supernatural +agency, or the will of the Almighty. In this he has followed the example +of all great philosophers, who seem unwilling to admit that the +formation of any part of the Universe is beyond their comprehension. + +As the works of this Author will best speak for themselves, we shall +avoid unnecessary panegyric, hoping they will have received no material +injury in the following translation; we shall therefore content +ourselves with observing, that in our plan we have followed that adopted +by the Comte himself in a latter edition, from which he exploded his +long and minute treatises on anatomy and mensuration; though elegant and +highly finished in themselves, they appeared to us of too abstruse and +confined a nature for general estimation, and which we could not have +gone into without almost doubling the expence; a circumstance we had to +guard against, for the advantage of those of our readers to whom that +part would have been totally uninteresting. + +As to this edition, we presume it is no vain boast, that every exertion +has been made to do justice to a work of such acknowledged merit. In the +literary part, it has been the Proprietor's chief endeavour to preserve +the spirit and accuracy of the Author, as far as could be done in +translating from one language into another; and it is with gratitude he +acknowledges, that those endeavours have been amply supported by the +engraver; for the decorative executions of MILTON will remain a lasting +monument of his abilities, as long as delicacy in the arts is held in +estimation. + + + + +BUFFON's + +NATURAL HISTORY. + + + + +_THE THEORY OF THE EARTH._ + + +Neither the figure of the earth, its motion, nor its external +connections with the rest of the universe, pertain to our present +investigation. It is the internal structure of the globe, its +composition, form, and manner of existence which we purpose to examine. +The general history of the earth should doubtless precede that of its +productions, as a necessary study for those who wish to be acquainted +with Nature in her variety of shapes, and the detail of facts relative +to the life and manners of animals, or to the culture and vegetation of +plants, belong not, perhaps, so much to Natural History, as to the +general deductions drawn from the observations that have been made upon +the different materials which compose the terrestrial globe: as the +heights, depths, and inequalities of its form; the motion of the sea, +the direction of mountains, the situation of rocks and quarries, the +rapidity and effects of currents in the ocean, &c. This is the history +of nature in its most ample extent, and these are the operations by +which every other effect is influenced and produced. The theory of these +effects constitutes what may be termed a primary science, upon which the +exact knowledge of particular appearances as well as terrestrial +substances entirely depends. This description of science may fairly be +considered as appertaining to physics; but does not all physical +knowledge, in which no system is admitted, form part of the History of +Nature? + +In a subject of great magnitude, whose relative connections are +difficult to trace, and where some facts are but partially known, and +others uncertain and obscure, it is more easy to form a visionary +system, than to establish a rational theory; thus it is that the Theory +of the Earth has only hitherto been treated in a vague and hypothetical +manner; I shall therefore but slightly mention the singular notions of +some authors who have written upon the subject. + +The first hypothesis I shall allude to, deserves to be mentioned more +for its ingenuity than its reasonable solidity; it is that of an English +astronomer, (WHISTON) versed in the system of NEWTON, and an +enthusiastic admirer of his philosophy; convinced that every event which +happens on the terrestrial globe, depends upon the motions of the stars, +he endeavours to prove, by the assistance of mathematical calculations, +that the tail of a comet has produced every alteration the earth has +ever undergone. + +The next is the formation of an heterodox theologician, (BURNET) whose +brain was so heated with poetical visions, that he imagined he had seen +the creation of the universe. After explaining what the earth was in its +primary state, when it sprung from nothing; what changes were occasioned +by the deluge; what it has been and what it is, he then assumes a +prophetic style, and predicts what will be its state after the +destruction of the human race. + +The third comes from a writer (WOODWARD) certainly a better and more +extensive observer of nature than the two former, though little less +irregular and confused in his ideas; he explains the principal +appearances of the globe, by an immense abyss in the bowels of the +earth, which in his opinion is nothing more than a thin crust that +serves as a covering to the fluid it incloses. + +The whole of these hypotheses are raised on unstable foundations; have +given no light upon the subject, the ideas being unconnected, the facts +confused, and the whole confounded with a mixture of physic and fable; +and consequently have been adopted only by those who implicitly believe +opinions without investigation, and who, incapable of distinguishing +probability, are more impressed with the wonders of the marvellous than +the relation of truth. + +What we shall say on this subject will doubtless be less extraordinary, +and appear unimportant, if put in comparison with the grand systems just +mentioned, but it should be remembered that it is an historian's +business to describe, not invent; that no suppositions should be +admitted upon subjects that depend upon facts and observation; that his +imagination ought only to be exercised for the purpose of combining +observations, rendering facts more general, and forming one connected +whole, so as to present to the mind a distinct arrangement of clear +ideas and probable conjectures; I say probable, because we must not +expect to give exact demonstration on this subject, that being confined +to mathematical sciences, while our knowledge in physics and natural +history depends solely upon experience, and is confined to reasoning +upon inductions. + +In the history of the Earth, we shall therefore begin with those facts +that have been obtained from the experience of time, together with what +we have collected by our own observations. + +This immense globe exhibits upon its surface heights, depths, plains, +seas, lakes, marshes, rivers, caverns, gulphs, and volcanos; and upon +the first view of these objects we cannot discover in their dispositions +either order or regularity. If we penetrate into its internal part, we +shall there find metals, minerals, stones, bitumens, sands, earths, +waters, and matters of every kind, placed as it were by chance, and +without the smallest apparent design. Examining with a more strict +attention, we discover sunk mountains, caverns filled, rocks split and +broken, countries swallowed up, and new islands rising from the ocean; +we shall also perceive heavy substances placed above light ones, hard +bodies surrounded with soft; in short, we shall there find matter in +every form, wet and dry, hot and cold, solid and brittle, mixed in such +a sort of confusion as to leave room to compare them only to a mass of +rubbish and the ruins of a wrecked world. + +We inhabit these ruins however with a perfect security. The various +generations of men, animals, and plants, succeed each other without +interruption; the earth produces fully sufficient for their subsistence; +the sea has its limits; its motions and the currents of air are +regulated by fixed laws: the returns of the seasons are certain and +regular; the severity of the winter being constantly succeeded by the +beauties of the spring: every thing appears in order, and the earth, +formerly a CHAOS, is now a tranquil and delightful abode, where all is +animated, and regulated by such an amazing display of power and +intelligence as fills us with admiration, and elevates our minds with +the most sublime ideas of an all-potent and wonderful Creator. + +Let us not then draw any hasty conclusions upon the irregularities of +the surface of the earth, nor the apparent disorders in the interior +parts, for we shall soon discover the utility, and even the necessity of +them; and, by considering them with a little attention, we shall, +perhaps, find an order of which we had no conception, and a general +connection that we could neither perceive nor comprehend, by a slight +examination: but in fact, our knowledge on this subject must always be +confined. There are many parts of the surface of the globe with which we +are entirely unacquainted, and have but partial ideas of the bottom of +the sea, which in many places we have not been able to fathom. We can +only penetrate into the coat of the earth; the greatest caverns and the +deepest mines do not descend above the eight thousandth part of its +diameter, we can therefore judge only of the external and mere +superficial part; we know, indeed, that bulk for bulk the earth weighs +four times heavier than the sun, and we also know the proportion its +weight bears with other planets; but this is merely a relative +estimation; we have no certain standard nor proportion; we are so +entirely ignorant of the real weight of the materials, that the internal +part of the globe may be a void space, or composed of matter a thousand +times heavier than gold; nor is there any method to make further +discoveries on this subject; and it is with the greatest difficulty any +rational conjectures can be formed thereon. + +We must therefore confine ourselves to a correct examination and +description of the surface of the earth, and to those trifling depths to +which we have been enabled to penetrate. The first object which presents +itself is that immense quantity of water which covers the greatest part +of the globe; this water always occupies the lowest ground, its surface +always level, and constantly tending to equilibrium and rest; +nevertheless it is kept in perpetual agitation by a powerful agent, +which opposing its natural tranquillity, impresses it with a regular +periodical motion, alternately raising and depressing its waves, +producing a vibration in the total mass, by disturbing the whole body to +the greatest depths. This motion we know has existed from the +commencement of time, and will continue as long as the sun and moon, +which are the causes of it. + +By an examination of the bottom of the sea, we discover that to be fully +as irregular as the surface of the earth; we there find hills and +vallies, plains and cavities, rocks and soils of every kind: we there +perceive that islands are only the summits of vast mountains, whose +foundations are at the bottom of the Ocean; we also find other mountains +whose tops are nearly on a level with the surface of the water, and +rapid currents which run contrary to the general movement: they +sometimes run in the same direction, at others, their motions are +retrograde, but never exceeding their bounds, which appear to be as +fixed and invariable as those which confine the rivers of the earth. In +one part we meet with tempestuous regions, where the winds blow with +irresistible fury, where the sea and the heavens equally agitated, join +in contact with each other, are mixed and confounded in the general +shock: in others, violent intestine motions, tumultuous swellings, +water-spouts, and extraordinary agitations, caused by volcanos, whose +mouths though a considerable depth under water, yet vomit fire from the +midst of the waves, and send up to the clouds a thick vapour, composed +of water, sulphur, and bitumen. Further we perceive dreadful gulphs or +whirlpools, which seem to attract vessels, merely to swallow them up. On +the other hand, we discover immense regions, totally opposite in their +natures, always calm and tranquil, yet equally dangerous; where the +winds never exert their power, where the art of the mariner becomes +useless, and where the becalmed voyager must remain until death relieves +him from the horrors of despair. In conclusion, if we turn our eyes +towards the northern or southern extremities of the globe, we there +perceive enormous flakes of ice separating themselves from the polar +regions, advancing like huge mountains into the more temperate climes, +where they dissolve and are lost to the sight. + +Exclusive of these principal objects the vast empire of the sea abounds +with animated beings, almost innumerable in numbers and variety. Some of +them, covered with light scales, move with astonishing celerity; others, +loaded with thick shells, drag heavily along, leaving their track in the +sand; on others Nature has bestowed fins, resembling wings, with which +they raise and support themselves in the air, and fly to considerable +distances; while there are those to whom all motion has been denied, who +live and die immoveably fixed to the same rock: every species, however, +find abundance of food in this their native element. The bottom of the +sea, and the shelving sides of the various rocks, produce great +abundance of plants and mosses of different kinds; its soil is composed +of sand, gravel, rocks, and shells; in some parts a fine clay, in others +a solid earth, and in general it has a complete resemblance to the land +which we inhabit. + +Let us now take a view of the earth. What prodigious differences do we +find in different climates? What a variety of soils? What inequalities +in the surface? but upon a minute and attentive observation we shall +find the greatest chain of mountains are nearer the equator than the +poles; that in the Old Continent their direction is more from the east +to west than from the north to south; and that, on the contrary, in the +New World they extend more from north to south than from east to west; +but what is still more remarkable, the form and direction of those +mountains, whose appearance is so very irregular, correspond so +precisely, that the prominent angles of one mountain are always +opposite to the concave angles of the neighbouring mountain, and are of +equal dimensions, whether they are separated by a small valley or an +extensive plain. I have also observed that opposite hills are nearly of +the same height, and that, in general, mountains occupy the middle of +continents, islands, and promontories, which they divide by the greatest +lengths. + +In following the courses of the principal rivers, I have likewise found +that they are almost always perpendicular with those of the sea into +which they empty themselves; and that in the greatest part of their +courses they proceed nearly in the direction of the mountains from which +they derive their source. + +The sea shores are generally bounded with rocks, marble, and other hard +stones, or by earth and sand which has accumulated by the waters from +the sea, or been brought down by the rivers; and I observe that opposite +coasts, separated only by an arm of the sea, are composed of similar +materials, and the beds of the earth are exactly the same. Volcanos I +find exist only in the highest mountains; that many of them are entirely +extinct; that some are connected with others by subterraneous passages, +and that their explosions frequently happen at one and the same time. +There are similar correspondences between certain lakes and neighbouring +seas; some rivers suddenly disappear, and seem to precipitate themselves +into the earth. We also find internal, or mediterranean seas, constantly +receiving an enormous quantity of water from a number of rivers without +ever extending their bounds, most probably discharging by subterraneous +passages all their superfluous supplies. Lands which have been long +inhabited are easily distinguished from those new countries where the +soil appears in a rude state, where the rivers are full of cataracts, +where the earth is either overflowed with water, or parched up with +drought, and where every spot upon which a tree will grow is covered +with uncultivated woods. + +Pursuing our examination in a more extensive view, we find that the +upper strata that surrounds the globe, is universally the same. That +this substance which serves for the growth and nourishment of animals +and vegetables, is nothing but a composition of decayed animal and +vegetable bodies reduced into such small particles, that their former +organization is not distinguishable; or penetrating a little further, +we find the real earth, beds of sand, lime-stone, argol, shells, marble, +gravel, chalk, &c. These beds are always parallel to each other and of +the same thickness throughout their whole extent. In neighbouring hills +beds of the same materials are invariably found upon the same levels, +though the hills are separated by deep and extensive intervals. All beds +of earth, even the most solid strata, as rocks, quarries of marble, &c. +are uniformly divided by perpendicular fissures; it is the same in the +largest as well as smallest depths, and appears a rule which nature +invariably pursues. + +In the very bowels of the earth, on the tops of mountains, and even the +most remote parts from the sea, shells, skeletons of fish, marine +plants, &c. are frequently found, and these shells, fish, and plants, +are exactly similar to those which exist in the Ocean. There are a +prodigious quantity of petrified shells to be met with in an infinity of +places, not only inclosed in rocks, masses of marble, lime-stone, as +well as in earth and clays, but are actually incorporated and filled +with the very substance which surrounds them. In short, I find myself +convinced, by repeated observations, that marbles, stones, chalks, +marls, clay, sand, and almost all terrestrial substances, wherever they +may be placed, are filled with shells and other substances, the +productions of the sea. + +These facts being enumerated, let us now see what reasonable conclusions +are to be drawn from them. + +The changes and alterations which have happened to the earth, in the +space of the last two or three thousand years, are very inconsiderable +indeed, when compared with those important revolutions which must have +taken place in those ages which immediately followed the creation; for +as all terrestrial substances could only acquire solidity by the +continued action of gravity, it would be easy to demonstrate that the +surface of the earth was much softer at first than it is at present, and +consequently the same causes which now produce but slight and almost +imperceptible changes during many ages, would then effect great +revolutions in a very short space. It appears to be a certain fact, that +the earth which we now inhabit, and even the tops of the highest +mountains, were formerly covered with the sea, for shells and other +marine productions are frequently found in almost every part; it appears +also that the water remained a considerable time on the surface of the +earth, since in many places there have been discovered such prodigious +banks of shells, that it is impossible so great a multitude of animals +could exist at the same time: this fact seems likewise to prove, that +although the materials which composed the surface of the earth were then +in a state of softness, that rendered them easy to be disunited, moved +and transported by the waters, yet that these removals were not made at +once; they must indeed have been successive, gradual, and by degrees, +because these kind of sea productions are frequently met with more than +a thousand feet below the surface, and such a considerable thickness of +earth and stone could not have accumulated but by the length of time. If +we were to suppose that at the Deluge all the shell-fish were raised +from the bottom of the sea, and transported over all the earth; besides +the difficulty of establishing this supposition, it is evident, that as +we find shells incorporated in marble and in the rocks of the highest +mountains, we must likewise suppose that all these marbles and rocks +were formed at the same time, and that too at the very instant of the +Deluge; and besides, that previous to this great revolution there were +neither mountains, marble, nor rocks, nor clays, nor matters of any kind +similar to those we are at present acquainted with, as they almost all +contain shells and other productions of the sea. Besides, at the time of +the Deluge, the earth must have acquired a considerable degree of +solidity, from the action of gravity for more than sixteen centuries, +and consequently it does not appear possible that the waters, during the +short time the Deluge lasted, should have overturned and dissolved its +surface to the greatest depths we have since been enabled to penetrate. + +But without dwelling longer on this point, which shall hereafter be more +amply discussed, I shall confine myself to well-known observations and +established facts. There is no doubt but that the waters of the sea at +some period covered and remained for ages upon that part of the globe +which is now known to be dry land; and consequently the whole continents +of Asia, Europe, Africa, and America, were then the bottom of an ocean +abounding with similar productions to those which the sea at present +contains: it is equally certain that the different strata which compose +the earth are parallel and horizontal, and it is evident their being in +this situation is the operation of the waters which have collected and +accumulated by degrees the different materials, and given them the same +position as the water itself always assumes. We observe that the +position of strata is almost universally horizontal: in plains it is +exactly so, and it is only in the mountains that they are inclined to +the horizon, from their having been originally formed by a sediment +deposited upon an inclined base. Now I insist that these strata must +have been formed by degrees, and not all at once, by any revolution +whatever, because strata, composed of heavy materials, are very +frequently found placed above light ones, which could not be, if, as +some authors assert, the whole had been mixed with the waters at the +time of the Deluge, and afterwards precipitated; in that case every +thing must have had a very different appearance to that which now +exists. The heaviest bodies would have descended first, and each +particular stratum would have been arranged according to its weight and +specific gravity, and we should not see solid rocks or metals placed +above light sand any more than clay under coal. + +We should also pay attention to another circumstance; it confirms what +we have said on the formation of the strata; no other cause than the +motions and sediments of water could possibly produce so regular a +position of it, for the highest mountains are composed of parallel +strata as well as the lowest plains, and therefore we cannot attribute +the origin and formation of mountains to the shocks of earthquakes, or +eruptions of volcanos. The small eminences which are sometimes raised by +volcanos, or convulsive motions of the earth, are not by any means +composed of parallel strata, they are a mere disordered heap of matters +thrown confusedly together; but the horizontal and parallel position of +the strata must necessarily proceed from the operations of a constant +cause and motion, always regulated and directed in the same uniform +manner. + +From repeated observations, and these incontrovertible facts, we are +convinced that the dry part of the globe, which is now habitable, has +remained for a long time under the waters of the sea, and consequently +this earth underwent the same fluctuations and changes which the bottom +of the ocean is at present actually undergoing. To discover therefore +what formerly passed on the earth, let us examine what now passes at +the bottom of the sea, and from thence we shall soon be enabled to draw +rational conclusions with regard to the external form and internal +composition of that which we inhabit. + +From the Creation the sea has constantly been subject to a regular flux +and reflux: this motion, which raises and falls the waters twice in +every twenty-four hours, is principally occasioned by the action of the +moon, and is much greater under the equator than in any other climates. +The earth performs a rapid motion on its axis, and consequently has a +centrifugal force, which is also the greatest at the equator; this +latter, independent of actual observation, proves that the earth is not +perfectly spherical, but that it must be more elevated under the equator +then at the poles. + +From these combined causes, the ebbing and flowing of the tides, and the +motion of the earth, we may fairly conclude, that although the earth was +a perfect sphere in its original form, yet its diurnal motion, together +with the constant flux and reflux of the sea, must, by degrees, in the +course of time, have raised the equatorial parts, by carrying mud, +earth, sand, shells, &c. from other climes, and there depositing of +them. Agreeable to this idea the greatest irregularities must be found, +and, in fact, are found near the equator. Besides, as this motion of the +tides is made by diurnal alternatives, and been repeated, without +interruption, from the commencement of time, is it not natural to +imagine, that each time the tide flows the water carries a small +quantity of matter from one place to another, which may fall to the +bottom like a sediment, and form those parallel and horizontal strata +which are every where to be met with? for the whole motion of the water, +in the flux and reflux, being horizontal, the matters carried away with +them will naturally be deposited in the same parallel direction. + +But to this it may be said, that as the flux and reflux of the waters +are equal and regularly succeed, two motions would counterpoise each +other, and the matters brought by the flux would be returned by the +reflux, and of course this cause for the formation of the strata must be +chimerical; that the bottom of the sea could not experience any material +alteration by two uniform motions, wherein the effects of the one would +be regularly destroyed by the other; much less could they change the +original form by the production of heights and inequalities. + +To which it may be answered, that the alternate motions of the waters +are not equal, the sea having a constant motion from the east to the +west, besides, the agitation, caused by the winds, opposes and prevents +the equality of the tides. It will also be admitted, that by every +motion of which the sea is susceptible, particles of earth and other +matters will be carried from one place and deposited in another; and +these collections will necessarily assume the form of horizontal and +parallel strata, from the various combinations of the motions of the sea +always tending to move the earth, and to level these materials wherever +they fall, in the form of a sediment. But this objection is easily +obviated by the well-known fact, that upon all coasts, bordering the +sea, where the ebbing and flowing of the tide is observed, the flux +constantly brings in a number of things which the reflux does not carry +back. There are many places upon which the sea insensibly gains and +gradually covers over, while there are others from which it recedes, +narrowing as it were its limits, by depositing earth, sands, shells, +&c. which naturally take an horizontal position; these matters +accumulate by degrees in the course of time, and being raised to a +certain point gradually exclude the water, and so become part of the dry +land for ever after. + +But not to leave any doubt upon this important point, let us strictly +examine into the possibility of a mountain's being formed at the bottom +of the sea by the motions and sediments of the waters. It is certain +that on a coast which the sea beats with violence during the agitation +of its flow, that every wave must carry off some part of the earth; for +wherever the sea is bounded by rocks, it is a plain fact that the water +by degrees wears away those rocks, and consequently carries away small +particles every time the waves retire; these particles of earth and +stone will necessarily be transported to some distance, and being +arrived where the agitation of the water is abated, and left to their +own weight, they precipitate to the bottom in form of a sediment, and +there form a first stratum, either horizontal or inclined, according to +the position of the surface upon which they fall; this will shortly be +covered by a similar stratum produced by the same cause, and thus will a +considerable quantity of matter be almost insensibly collected +together, and the strata of which will be placed, parallel to each +other. + +This mass will continue to increase by new sediments, and by gradually +accumulating, in the course of time become a mountain at the bottom of +the sea, exactly similar to those we see on dry land, both as to outward +form and internal composition. If there happen to be shells in this part +of the sea, where we have supposed this deposit to be made, they will be +filled and covered with the sediment, and incorporated in the deposited +matter, making a part of the whole mass, and they will be found situated +in the parts of the mountain according to the time they had been there +deposited; those that lay at the bottom, previous to the formation of +the first stratum, will be found in the lowest, and so according to the +time of their being deposited, the latest in the most elevated parts. + +So likewise, when the bottom of the sea, at particular places, is +troubled by the agitation of the water, there will necessarily ensue, in +the same manner, a removal of earth, shells, and other matters, from the +troubled to other parts; for we are assumed by all divers, that at the +greatest depths they descend, i. e. twenty fathoms, the bottom of the +sea is so troubled by the agitation of the waters, that the mud and +shells are carried to considerable distances, consequently +transportations of this kind are made in every part of the sea, and this +matter falling must form eminences, composed like our mountains, and in +every respect similar; therefore the flux and reflux, by the winds, the +currents, and all the motions of the water, must inevitably create +inequalities at the bottom of the sea. + +Nor must we imagine that these matters cannot be transported to great +distances, because we daily see grain, and other productions of the East +and West Indies, arriving on our own coasts.[25:A] It is true these +bodies are specifically lighter than water, whereas the substances of +which we have been speaking are specifically heavier; but, however, +being reduced to an impalpable powder, they may be sustained a long time +in the water so as to be conveyed to considerable distances. + +It has been supposed that the sea is not troubled at the bottom, +especially if it is very deep, by the agitations produced by the winds +and tides; but it should be recollected that the whole mass, however +deep, is put in motion by the tides, and that in a liquid globe this +motion would be communicated to the very centre; that the power which +produces the flux and reflux is a penetrating force, which acts +proportionably upon every particle of its mass, so that we can determine +by calculation the quantity of its force at different depths; but, in +short, this point is so certain, that it cannot be contested but by +refusing the evidence of reason. + +Therefore, we cannot possibly have the least doubt that the tides, the +winds, and every other cause which agitates the sea, must produce +eminences and inequalities at the bottom, and those heights must ever be +composed of horizontal or equally inclined strata. These eminences will +gradually encrease until they become hills, which will rise in +situations similar to the waves that produce them; and if there is a +long extent of soil, they will continue to augment by degrees; so that +in course of time they will form a vast chain of mountains. Being formed +into mountains, they become an obstacle to and interrupt the common +motion of the sea, producing at the same time other motions, which are +generally called currents. Between two neighbouring heights at the +bottom of the sea a current will necessarily be formed, which will +follow their common direction, and, like a river, form a channel, whose +angles will be alternately opposite during the whole extent of its +course. These heights will be continually increasing, being subject only +to the motion of the flux, for the waters during the flow will leave the +common sediment upon their ridges; and those waters which are impelled +by the current will force along with them, to great distances, those +matters which would be deposited between both, at the same time +hollowing out a valley with corresponding angles at their foundation. By +the effects of these motions and sediments the bottom of the sea, +although originally smooth, must become unequal, and abounding with +hills and chains of mountains, as we find it at present. The soft +materials of which the eminences are originally composed will harden by +degrees with their own weight; some forming parts, purely angular, +produce hills of clay; others, consisting of sandy and crystalline +particles, compose those enormous masses of rock and flint from whence +crystal and other precious stones are extracted; those formed with stony +particles, mixed with shells, form those of lime-stone and marble, +wherein we daily meet with shells incorporated; and others, compounded +of matter more shelly, united with pure earth, compose all our beds of +marle and chalk. All these substances are placed in regular beds, and +all contain heterogeneous matter; marine productions are found among +them in abundance, and nearly according to the relation of their +specific weights; the lightest shells in chalk, and the heaviest in clay +and lime-stone; these shells are invariably filled with the matter in +which they have been inclosed, whether stones or earth; an incontestible +proof that they have been transported with the matter that fills and +surrounds them, and that this matter was at that time in an impalpable +powder. In short, all those substances whose horizontal situations have +been established by the level of the waters of the sea, will constantly +preserve their original position. + +But here it may be observed, that most hills, whose summits consist of +solid rocks, stone, or marble, are formed upon small eminences of much +lighter materials, such for instance as clay, or strata of sand, which +we commonly find extended over the neighbouring plains, upon which it +may be asked, how, if the foregoing theory be just, this seemingly +contradictory arrangement happens? To me this phenomenon appears to be +very easy and naturally explained. The water at first acts upon the +upper stratum of coasts, or bottom of the sea, which commonly consists +of clay or sand, and having transported this, and deposited the +sediment, it of course composes small eminences, which form a base for +the more heavy particles to rest upon. Having removed the lighter +substances, it operates upon the more heavy, and by constant attrition +reduces them to an impalpable powder; which it conveys to the same spot, +and where, being deposited, these stony particles, in the course of +time, form those solid rocks and quarries which we now find upon the +tops of hills and mountains. It is not unlikely that as these particles +are much heavier than sand or clay, that they were formerly a +considerable depth under a strata of that kind, and now owe their high +situations to having been last raised up and transported by the motion +of the water. + +To confirm what we here assert, let us more closely investigate the +situation of those materials which compose the superficial outer part of +the globe, indeed the only part with which we have any knowledge. The +different beds of strata in stone quarries are almost all horizontal, or +regularly inclined; those whose foundations are on clays or other solid +matters are clearly horizontal, especially in plains. The quarries +wherein we find flint, or brownish grey free-stone, in detached +portions, have a less regular position, but even in those the uniformity +of nature plainly appears, for the horizontal or regularly inclined +strata are apparent in quarries where these stones are found in great +masses. This position is universal, except in quarries where flint and +brown free-stone are found in small detached portions, the formation of +which we shall prove to have been posterior to those we have just been +treating of; for granite, vitrifiable sand, argol, marble, calcareous +stone, chalk, and marles, are always deposited in parallel strata, +horizontally or equally inclined; the original formation of these are +easily discovered, for the strata are exactly horizontal and very thin, +and are arranged above each other like the leaves of a book. Beds of +sand, soft and hard clay, chalk, and shells, are also either horizontal +or regularly inclined. Strata of every kind preserves the same thickness +throughout its whole extent, which often occupies the space of many +miles, and may be traced still farther by close and exact observations. +In a word, the materials of the globe, as far as mankind have been +enabled to penetrate, are arranged in an uniform position, and are +exactly similar. + +The strata of sand and gravel which have been washed down from mountains +must in some measure be excepted; in vallies they are sometimes of a +considerable extent, and are generally placed under the first strata of +the earth; in plains, they are as even as the most ancient and interior +strata, but near the bottom and upon the ridges of hills they are +inclined, and follow the inclination of the ground upon which they have +flowed. These being formed by rivers and rivulets, which are constantly +in vallies changing their beds, and dragging these sands and gravel with +them, they are of course very numerous. A small rivulet flowing from the +neighbouring heights, in the course of time will be sufficient to cover +a very spacious valley with a strata of sand and gravel, and I have +often observed in hilly countries, whose base, as well as the upper +stratum, was hard clay, that above the source of the rivulet the clay is +found immediately under the vegetable soil, and below it there is the +thickness of a foot of sand upon the clay, and which extends itself to a +considerable distance. These strata formed by rivers are not very +ancient, and are easily discovered by the inequality of their thickness, +which is constantly varying, while the ancient strata preserves the same +dimensions throughout; they are also to be known by the matter itself, +which bears evident marks of having been smoothed and rounded by the +motions of the water. The same may be said of the turf and perished +vegetables which are found below the first stratum of earth in marshy +grounds; they cannot be considered as ancient, but entirely produced by +successive heaps of decayed trees and other plants. Nor are the strata +of slime and mud, which are found in many countries, to be considered as +ancient productions, having been formed by stagnated waters or +inundations of rivers, and are neither so horizontal, nor equally +inclined, as the strata anciently produced by the regular motions of the +sea. In the strata formed by rivers we constantly meet with river, but +scarcely ever sea shells, and the few that are found are broken and +irregularly placed; whereas in the ancient strata there are no river +shells; the sea shells are in great quantities, well preserved, and all +placed in the same manner, having been transported at the same time and +by the same cause. How are we to account for this astonishing +regularity? Instead of regular strata, why do we not meet with the +matters that compose the earth jumbled together, without any kind of +order? Why are not rocks, marbles, clays, marles, &c. variously +dispersed, or joined by irregular or vertical strata? Why are not the +heaviest bodies uniformly found placed beneath the lightest? It is easy +to perceive that this uniformity of nature, this organization of earth, +this connection of different materials, by parallel strata, without +respect to their weights, could only be produced by a cause as powerful +and constant as the motion of the sea, whether occasioned by the regular +winds or by that of the flux and reflux, &c. + +These causes act with greater force under the equator than in other +climates, for there the winds are more regular and the tides run +higher; the most extensive chains of mountains are also near the +equator. The mountains of Africa and Peru are the highest known, they +frequently extend themselves through whole provinces, and stretch, to +considerable distances under the ocean. The mountains of Europe and +Asia, which extend from Spain to China, are not so high as those of +South America and Africa. The mountains of the North, according to the +relation of travellers, are only hills in comparison with those of the +Southern countries. Besides, there are very few islands in the Northern +Seas, whereas in the torrid zone they are almost innumerable, and as +islands are only the summits of mountains, it is evident that the +surface of the earth has many more inequalities towards the equator than +in the northerly climes. + +It is therefore evident that the prodigious chain of mountains which run +from the West to the East in the old continent, and from the North to +the South in the new, must have been produced by the general motion of +the tides; but the origin of all the inferior mountains must be +attributed to the particular motions of currents, occasioned by the +winds and other irregular agitations of the sea: they may probably have +been produced by a combination of all those motions, which must be +capable of infinite variations, since the winds and different positions +of islands and coasts change the regular course of the tides, and compel +them to flow in every possible direction: it is, therefore, not in the +least astonishing that we should see considerable eminences, whose +courses have no determined direction. But it is sufficient for our +present purpose to have demonstrated that mountains are not the produce +of earthquakes, or other accidental causes, but that they are the +effects resulting from the general order of nature, both as to their +organization and the position of the materials of which they are +composed. + +But how has it happened that this earth which we and our ancestors have +inhabited for ages, which, from time immemorial, has been an immense +continent, dry and removed from the reach of the waters, should, if +formerly the bottom of the ocean, be actually larger than all the +waters, and raised to such a height as to be distinctly separated from +them? Having remained so long on the earth, why have the waters now +abandoned it? What accident, what cause could produce so great a +change? Is it possible to conceive one possessed of sufficient power to +produce such an amazing effect? + +These questions are difficult to be resolved, but as the facts are +certain and incontrovertible, the exact manner in which they happened +may remain unknown, without prejudicing the conclusions that may be +drawn from them; nevertheless, by a little reflection, we shall find at +least plausible reasons for these changes. We daily observe the sea +gaining ground on some coasts and losing it on others; we know that the +ocean has a continued regular motion from East to West; that it makes +loud and violent efforts against the low lands and rocks which confine +it; that there are whole provinces which human industry can hardly +secure from the rage of the sea; that there are instances of islands +rising above, and others being sunk under the waters. History speaks of +much greater deluges and inundations. Ought not this to incline us to +believe that the surface of the earth has undergone great revolutions, +and that the sea may have quitted the greatest part of the earth which +it formerly covered? Let us but suppose that the old and new worlds were +formerly but one continent, and that the Atlantis of Plato was sunk by +a violent earthquake; the natural consequence would be, that the sea +would necessarily have flowed in from all sides, and formed what is now +called the Atlantic Ocean, leaving vast continents dry, and possibly +those which we now inhabit. This revolution, therefore, might be made of +a sudden by the opening of some vast cavern in the interior part of the +globe, which an universal deluge must inevitably succeed; or possibly +this change was not effected at once, but required a length of time, +which I am rather inclined to think; however these conjectures may be, +it is certain the revolution has occurred, and in my opinion very +naturally; for to judge of the future, as well as the past, we must +carefully attend to what daily happens before our eyes. It is a fact +clearly established by repeated observations of travellers, that the +ocean has a constant motion from the East to West; this motion, like the +trade winds, is not only felt between the tropics, but also throughout +the temperate climates, and as near the poles as navigators have gone; +of course the Pacific Ocean makes a continual effort against the coasts +of Tartary, China, and India; the Indian Ocean acts against the east +coast of Africa; and the Atlantic in like manner against all the eastern +coasts of America; therefore the sea must have always and still +continues to gain land on the east and lose it on the west; and this +alone is sufficient to prove the possibility of the change Of earth into +sea, and sea into land. If, in fact, such are the effects of the sea's +motion from east to west, may we not very reasonably suppose that Asia +and the eastern continent is the oldest country in the world, and that +Europe and part of Africa, especially the western coasts of these +continents, as Great Britain, France, Spain, Muratania, &c. are of a +more modern date? Both history and physics agree in confirming this +conjecture. + +There are, however, many other causes which concur with the continual +motion of the sea from east to west, in producing these effects. + +In many places there are lands lower than the level of the sea, and +which are only defended from it by an isthmus of rocks, or by banks and +dykes of still weaker materials; these barriers must gradually be +destroyed by the constant action of the sea, when the lands will be +overflowed, and constantly make part of the ocean. Besides, are not +mountains daily decreasing by the rains, which loosen the earth, and +carry it down into the vallies? It is also well known that floods wash +the earth from the plains and high grounds into the small brooks and +rivers, which in their turn convey it into the sea. By these means the +bottom of the sea is filling up by degrees, the surface of the earth +lowering to a level, and nothing but time is necessary for the sea's +successively changing places with the earth. + +I speak not here of those remote causes which stand above our +comprehension; of those convulsions of nature, whose least effects would +be fatal to the world; the near approach of a comet, the absence of the +moon, the introduction of a new planet, &c. are suppositions on which it +is easy to give scope to the imagination. Such causes would produce any +effects we chose, and from a single hypothesis of this nature, a +thousand physical romances might be drawn, and which the authors might +term, THE THEORY OF THE EARTH. As historians we reject these vain +speculations; they are mere possibilities which suppose the destruction +of the universe, in which our globe, like a particle of forsaken matter, +escapes our observation, and is no longer an object worthy regard; but +to preserve consistency, we must take the earth as it is, closely +observing every part, and by inductions judge of the future from what +exists at present; in other respects we ought not to be affected by +causes which seldom happen, and whose effects are always sudden and +violent; they do not occur in the common course of nature; but effects +which are daily repeated, motions which succeed each other without +interruption, and operations that are constant, ought alone to be the +ground of our reasoning. + +We will add some examples thereto; we will combine particular effects +with general causes, and give a detail of facts which will render +apparent, and explain the different changes that the earth has +undergone, whether by the eruption of the sea upon the land, or by +retiring from that which it had formerly covered. + +The greatest eruption was certainly that which gave rise to the +Mediterranean sea. The ocean flows through a narrow channel between two +promontories with great rapidity, and then forms a vast sea, which, +without including the Black sea, is about seven times larger than the +kingdom of France. Its motion through the straits of Gibraltar is +contrary to all other straits, for the general motion of the sea is from +east to west, but in that alone it is from the west to the east, which +proves that the Mediterranean sea is not an ancient gulph, but that it +has been formed by an eruption, produced by some accidental cause; as an +earthquake which might swallow up the earth in the strait, or by a +violent effort of the ocean, caused by the wind, which might have forced +its way through the banks between the promontories of Gibraltar and +Ceuta. This opinion is authorised by the testimony of the ancients, who +declare in their writings, that the Mediterranean sea did not formerly +exist; and confirmed by natural history and observations made on the +opposite coasts of Spain, where similar beds of stones and earth are +found upon the same levels, in like manner as they are in two mountains, +separated by a small valley. + +The ocean having forced this passage, it ran at first through the +straits with much greater rapidity than at present, and overflowed the +continent that joined Europe to Africa. The waters covered all the low +countries, of which we can only now perceive the tops of some of the +considerable mountains, such as parts of Italy, the islands of Sicily, +Malta, Corsica, Sardinia, Cyprus, Rhodes, and those of the Archipelago. + +In this eruption I have not included the Black sea, because the quantity +of water it receives from the Danube, Nieper, Don, and various other +rivers, is fully sufficient to form and support it; and besides, it +flows with great rapidity through the Bosphorus into the Mediterranean. +It might also be presumed that the Black and Caspian seas were formerly +only two large lakes, joined by a narrow communication, or by a morass, +or small lake, which united the Don and the Wolga near Tria, where these +two rivers flow near each other; nor is it improbable that these two +seas or lakes were then of much greater extent, for the immense rivers +which fall into the Black and Caspian seas may have brought down a +sufficient quantity of earth to shut up the communication, and form that +neck of land by which they are now separated; for we know great rivers, +in the course of time, fill up seas and form new land, as the province +at the mouth of the Yellow river in China; Louisania at the mouth of the +Mississippi, and the northern part of Egypt, which owes its existence to +the inundations of the Nile; the rapidity of which brings down such +quantities of earth from the internal parts of Africa, as to deposit on +the shores, during the inundations, a body of slime and mud of more than +fifty feet in depth. The province of the Yellow river and Louisania +have, in like manner, been formed by the soil from the rivers. + +The Caspian sea is actually a real lake; having no communication with +other seas, not even with the lake Aral, which seems to have been a part +of it, being only separated from it by a large track of sand, in which +neither rivers nor canals for communication the waters have as yet been +found. This sea, therefore, has no external communication with any +other; and I do not know that we are authorised to suspect that it has +an internal one with the Black sea, or with the Gulph of Persia. It is +true the Caspian sea receives the Wolga and many other rivers, which +seem to furnish it with more water than is lost by evaporation; but +independent of the difficulty of such calculation, if it had a +communication with any other sea, a constant and rapid current towards +the opening would have marked its course, and I never heard of any such +discovery being made; travellers of the best credit affirm to the +contrary, and consequently the Caspian sea must lose by evaporation just +as much water as it receives from the Wolga and other rivers. + +Nor is it any improbable conjecture that the Black sea will at some +period be separated from the Mediterranean; and that the Bosphorus will +be shut up, whenever the great rivers shall have accumulated a +sufficient quantity of earth to answer that effect; this may be the case +in the course of time by the successive diminution of waters in rivers, +in proportion as the mountains from whence they draw their sources are +lowered by the rains, and those other causes we have just alluded to. + +The Caspian and Black seas must therefore be looked upon rather as lakes +than gulphs of the ocean, for they resemble other lakes which receive a +number of rivers without any apparent outlet, such as the Dead sea, +many lakes in Africa and other places. These two seas are not near so +salt as the Mediterranean or the ocean; and all voyagers affirm that the +navigation in the Black and Caspian seas, upon account of its +shallowness and quantity of rocks and quicksands, is so extremely +dangerous, that only small vessels can be used with safety which farther +proves they must not be looked upon as gulphs of the ocean, but as +immense bodies of water collected from great rivers. + +A considerable eruption of the sea would doubtless take place upon the +earth, if the isthmus which separates Africa from Asia was divided, as +the Kings of Egypt, and afterwards the Caliphs projected; and I do not +know that the communication between the Red sea and Mediterranean is +sufficiently established, as the former must be higher than the latter. +The Red sea is a narrow branch of the ocean, and does not receive into +it a single river on the side of Egypt, and very few on the opposite +coast; it will not therefore be subject to diminution, like those seas +and lakes which are constantly receiving slime and sand from those +rivers that flow into them. The ocean supplies the Red sea with all its +water, and the motion of the tides is very evident in it, of course it +must be affected by every movement of the ocean. But the Mediterranean +must be lower than the ocean, because the current passes with great +rapidity through the straits; besides, it receives the Nile, which flows +parallel to the west coast of the Red sea, and which divides Egypt, a +very low country; from all which it appears probable, that the Red sea +is higher than the Mediterranean, and that if the isthmus of Suez was +cut through, there Would be a great inundation, and a considerable +augmentation of the Mediterranean would ensue; at least if the waters +were not restrained by dykes and sluices placed at proper distances, and +which was most likely the case if the ancient canal of communication +ever had existence. + +Without dwelling longer upon conjectures, which, although well founded, +may appear hazardous and rash, we shall give some recent and certain +examples of the change of the sea into land, and the land into sea. At +Venice the bottom of the Adriatic is daily rising, and if great care had +not been taken to clean and empty the canals, the whole would long +since have formed part of the continent; the same may be said of most +ports, bays, and mouths of rivers. In Holland the bottom of the sea has +risen in many places; the gulph of Zuyderzee and the strait of the Texel +cannot receive such large vessels as formerly. At the mouth of all +rivers we find small islands, and banks of sand and earth brought down +by the waters, and it is certain the sea will be filled up in every part +where great rivers empty themselves. The Rhine is lost in the sands +which itself accumulated. The Danube and the Nile, and all great rivers, +after bringing down much sand and earth, no longer come to the sea by a +single channel; they divide into different branches, and the intervals +are filled up by the materials they have themselves brought thither. +Morasses daily dry up; lands forsaken by the sea are cultivated; we +navigate countries now covered by waters; in short, we see so many +instances of land changing into water, and water into land, that we must +be convinced of these alterations having, and will continue to take +place; so that in time gulphs will become continents; isthmusses, +straits; morasses, dry lands; and the tops of our mountains, the shoals +of the sea. + +Since then the waters have covered, and may successively cover, every +part of the present dry land, our surprise must cease at finding every +where marine productions and compositions, which could only be the works +of the waters. We have already explained how the horizontal strata of +the earth were formed, but the perpendicular divisions that are commonly +found in rocks, clays, and all matters of which the globe is composed, +still remain to be considered. These perpendicular stratas are, in fact, +placed much farther from each other than the horizontal, and the softer +the matter the greater the distance; in marble and hard earths they are +frequently found only a few feet; but if the mass of rock be very +extensive, then these fissures are at some fathoms distant; sometimes +they descend from the top of the rock to the bottom, and sometimes +terminate at an horizontal fissure. They are always perpendicular in the +strata of calcinable matters, as chalk, marle, marble, &c. but are more +oblique and irregularly placed in vitrifiable substances, brown +freestone, and rocks of flint, where they are frequently adorned with +chrystals, and other minerals. In quarries of marble or calcinable +stone, the divisions are filled with spar, gypsum, gravel, and an earthy +sand, which contains a great quantity of chalk. In clay, marls, and +every other kind of earth, excepting turf, these perpendicular divisions +are either empty or filled with such matters as the water has +transported thither. + +We need seek very little farther for the cause and origin of those +perpendicular cracks. The materials by which the different strata are +composed being carried by the water, and deposited as a kind of +sediment, must necessarily, at first, contain a considerable share of +water, the which, as they began to harden, they would part with by +degrees, and, as they must necessarily lessen in the course of drying, +that decrease would occasion them to split at irregular distances. They +naturally split in a perpendicular direction, because in that direction +the action of gravity of one particle upon another has no actual effect, +while, on the contrary, it is directly opposite in a horizontal +situation; the diminution of bulk therefore could have no sensible +effect but in a vertical line. I say it is the diminution of drying, and +not the contained water forcing a place to issue, is the cause of these +perpendicular fissures, for I have often observed that the two sides of +those fissures answer throughout their whole height, as exactly as two +sides of a split piece of wood; their insides are rough and irregular, +whereas if they had been made by the motion of the water, they would +have been smooth and polished; therefore these cracks must be produced +suddenly and at once or by degrees in drying, like the flaws in wood, +and the greatest part of the water they contained evaporated through the +pores. The divisions of these perpendicular cracks vary greatly as to +the extent of their openings; some of them being not more than half an +inch, others increasing to one or two feet; there are some many fathoms, +and which form those precipices so often met with in the Alps and other +high mountains. The small ones are produced by drying alone, but those +which extend to several feet are the effects of other causes; for +instance, the sinking of the foundation on one side while the other +remains unmoved; if the base sinks but a line or two, it is sufficient +to produce openings of many feet in a rock of considerable height. +Sometimes rocks, which are founded on clay or sand, incline to one +side, by which motion the perpendicular cracks become extended. + +I have not yet mentioned those large openings which are found in rocks +and mountains; they must have been produced by great sinkings, as of +immense caverns, unable longer to support the weight with which they +were encumbered, but these intervals are very different from +perpendicular fissures; they appear to be vacancies opened by the hand +of Nature for the communication of nations. In this manner all vacancies +in large mountains and divisions, by straits in the sea, seem to present +themselves; such as the straits of Thermopylae, the ports of Caucasus, +the Cordeliers, the extremity of the straits of Gibraltar, the entrance +of the Hellespont, &c. These could not have been occasioned by the +simple separation by drying of matter, but by considerable parts of the +lands themselves being sunk, swallowed up, or overturned. + +These great sinkings, though produced by accidental causes, hold a first +place in the principal circumstances in the History of the Earth, and +not a little contributed to change the face of the Globe; the greatest +part of them have been produced by subterraneous fires, whose +explosions cause earthquakes and volcanos; the force of these inflamed +and confined matters in the bowels of the earth is beyond compare; by it +cities have been swallowed up, provinces overturned, and mountains +overthrown. But however great this force may be, and prodigious as the +effects appear, we cannot assent to the opinion of those authors who +suppose these subterraneous fires proceed from an immense abyss of flame +in the centre of the earth, neither give we credit to the common notion +that they proceed from a great depth below the surface of the earth, air +being absolutely necessary for the support of inflammation. In examining +the materials which issue from volcanos, even in the most violent +eruptions, it appears very plain, that the furnace of the inflamed +matters is not at any great depth, as they are similar to those found in +mountains, disfigured only by the calcination, and the melting of the +metallic parts which they contain; and to be convinced that the matters +cast out by volcanos do not come from any great depth, we have only to +consider of the height of the mountain, and judge of the immense force +that would be necessary to cast up stones and minerals to the height of +half a league; for AEtna, Hecla, and many other volcanos have at least +that elevation from the plains. Now it is perfectly well known that the +action of fire is equal in every direction; it cannot therefore act +upwards, with a force capable of throwing large stones half a league +high, without an equal re-action downwards, and on the sides, and which +re-action must very soon pierce and destroy the mountain on every side, +because the materials which compose it are not more dense and firm than +those thrown out; how then can it be imagined that the cavity, which +must be considered as the type or cannon, could resist so great a force +as would be necessary to raise those bodies to the mouth of the volcano? +Besides, if this cavity was deeper, as the external orifice is not +great, it would be impossible for so large a quantity of inflamed and +liquid matter to issue out at once, without clashing against each other, +and against the sides of the tube, and by passing through so long a +space they would run the chance of being extinguished and hardened. We +often see rivers of bitumen and melted sulphur, thrown out of the +volcanos with stones and minerals, flow from the tops of the mountains +into the plains; is it natural to imagine that matters so fluid, and so +little able to resist violent action, should be elevated from any great +depth? All the observations that can be made on this subject will prove +that the fire of the volcano is not far from the summit of the mountain, +and that it never descends to the level of the plain. + +This idea of volcanos does not, however, render it inconsistent that +they are the cause of earthquakes, and that their shocks may be felt on +the plains to very considerable distances; nor that one volcano may not +communicate with another by means of subterraneous passages; but it is +of the depth of the fire's confinement that we now speak, and which can +only be at a small distance from the mouth of the volcano. It is not +necessary to produce an earthquake on a plain, that the bottom of the +volcano should be below the level of that plain; nor that there should +be internal cavities filled with the same combustible matter, for a +violent explosion, such as generally attends an eruption, may, like that +of a powder magazine give so great a shock by its re-action, as to +produce an earthquake that might be felt at a considerable distance. + +I do not mean to say that there are no earthquakes produced by +subterraneous fires, but merely that there are some which proceed only +from the explosion of volcanos. In confirmation of what has been +advanced on this subject, it is certain that volcanos are seldom met +with on plains; on the contrary, they are constantly found in the +highest mountains, and their mouths at the very summit of them. If the +internal fires of the volcanos extended below the plains, would not +passages be opened in them during violent eruptions? In the first +eruption would not these fires rather have pierced the plains, where, by +comparison, the resistance must be infinitely weaker, than force their +way through a mountain more than half a league in height. + +The reason why volcanos appear alone in mountains, is, because much +greater quantities of minerals, sulphur, and pyrites, are contained in +mountains, and more exposed than in the plains; besides which, those +high places are more subject to the impressions of air, and receive +greater quantities of rain and damps, by which mineral substances are +capable of being heated and fermented into an absolute state of +inflammation. + +In short, it has often been observed, that, after violent eruptions, the +mountains have shrunk and diminished in proportion to the quantity of +matter which has been thrown out; another proof that the volcanos are +not situated at the bottom of the mountain, but rather at no great +distance from the summit itself. + +In many places earthquakes have formed considerable hollows, and even +separations in mountains; all other inequalities have been produced at +the same time with the mountains themselves by the currents of the sea, +for in every place where there has not been a violent convulsion, the +strata of the mountains are parallel, and their angles exactly +correspond. Those subterraneous caverns which have been produced by +volcanos are easily to be distinguished from those formed by water; for +the water, having washed away the sand and clay with which they are +filled, leaves only the stones and rocks, and this is the origin of +caverns upon hills; while those found upon the plains are commonly +nothing but ancient pits and quarries, such as the salt quarries of +Maestricht, the mines of Poland, &c. But natural caverns belong to +mountains: they receive the water from the summit and its environs, from +whence it issues over the surface wherever it can obtain a passage; and +these are the sources of springs and rivers, and whenever a cavern is +filled by any part falling in, an inundation generally ensues. + +From what we have related, it is easy to be seen how much subterraneous +fires contribute to change the surface and internal part of the globe. +This cause is sufficiently powerful to produce very great effects: but +it is difficult to conceive how the winds should occasion any sensible +alterations upon the earth. The sea appears to be their empire, and +indeed, excepting the tides, nothing has so powerful an influence upon +the ocean; even the flux and reflux move in an uniform manner, and their +effects are regularly the same; but the action of the winds is +capricious and violent; they sometimes rush on with such impetuosity, +and agitate the sea with such violence, that from a calm, smooth, and +tranquil plain, it becomes furrowed with waves rolling mountains high, +and dashing themselves to pieces against the rocks and shores. The winds +cause constant alterations on the surface of the sea, but the surface of +the land, which has so solid an appearance, we should suppose would not +be subject to similar effects; by experience, however, it is known that +the winds raise mountains of sand in Arabia and Africa; and that they +cover plains with it; they frequently transport sand to great distances, +and many miles into the sea, where they accumulate in such quantities as +to form banks, downs, and even islands. It is also known that hurricanes +are the scourge of the Antilles, Madagascar, and other countries, where +they act with such fury, as to sweep away trees, plants, and animals, +together with the soil which gave them subsistence: they cause rivers to +ascend and descend, and produce new ones; they overthrow rocks and +mountains; they make holes and gulphs on the earth, and entirely change +the face of those unfortunate countries where they exist. Happily there +are but few climates exposed to the impetuosity of those dreadful +agitations of the air. + +But the greatest and most general changes in the surface of the earth +are produced by rains, floods, and torrents from the high lands. Their +origins proceed from the vapours which the sun raises above the surface +of the ocean, and which the wind transports through every climate. These +vapours, which are sustained in the air, and conveyed at the will of the +winds, are stopped in their progress by the tops of the hills which they +encounter, where they accumulate until they become clouds and fall in +the form of rain, dew, or snow. These waters at first descend upon the +plains without any fixed course, but by degrees hollow out a bed for +themselves; by their natural bent they run to the bottom of mountains, +and penetrating or dissolving the land easiest to divide, they carry +earth and sand away with them, cut deep channels in the plains, form +themselves into rivers, and open a passage into the sea, which +constantly receives as much water from the land rivers as it loses by +evaporation. The windings in the channels of rivers have sinuosities, +whose angles are correspondent to each other, so that where the waves +form a saliant angle on one side, the other has an exactly opposite one; +and as hills and mountains, which may be considered as the banks of the +vallies which separate them, have also sinuosities in corresponding +angles, it seems to demonstrate that the vallies have been formed, by +degrees, by the currents of the sea, in the same manner as the rivers +have hollowed out their beds on the earth. + +The waters which run on the surface of the earth, and support its +verdure and fertility, are not perhaps one half of those which the +vapours produce; for there are many veins of water which sink to great +depths in the internal part of the earth. In some places we are certain +to meet with water by digging; in others, not any can be found. In +almost all vallies and low grounds water is certain to be met with at +moderate depths; but, on the contrary, in all high places it cannot be +extracted from the bowels of the earth, but must be collected from the +heavens. There are countries of great extent where a spring cannot be +found, and where all the water which supplies the inhabitants and +animals with drink is contained in pools and cisterns. In the east, +especially in Arabia, Egypt, and Persia, wells are extremely scarce, and +the people have been obliged to make reservoirs of a considerable extent +to collect the waters as it falls from the heavens. These works, +projected and executed from public necessity, are the most beautiful and +magnificent monuments of the eastern nations; some of the reservoirs +occupy a space of two square miles, and serve to fertilize whole +provinces, by means of baths and small rivulets that let it out on every +side. But in low countries, where the greatest rivers flow, we cannot +dig far from the surface, without meeting with water, and in fields +situate in the environs of rivers it is often obtained by a few strokes +with a pick-axe. + +The water, found in such quantities in low grounds, comes principally +from the neighbouring hills and eminences; at the time of great rains or +sudden melting of snow, a part of the water flows on the surface, but +most of it penetrates through the small cracks and crevices it finds in +the earth and rocks. This water springs up again to the surface wherever +it can find vent; but it often filters through the sand until it comes +to a bottom of clay or solid earth, where it forms subterraneous lakes, +rivulets, and perhaps rivers, whose courses are entirely unknown; they +must, however, follow the general laws of nature, and constantly flow +from the higher grounds to the lower, and consequently these +subterraneous waters must, in the end, fall into the sea, or collect in +some low place, either on the surface or in the interior part of the +earth; for there are several lakes into which no rivers enter, nor from +which there are not any issue; and a much greater number, which do not +receive any considerable river, that are the sources of the greatest +rivers on earth; such as the lake of St. Laurence; the lake Chiame, +from whence spring two great rivers that water the kingdoms of Asam and +Pegu; the lake of Assiniboil in America; those of Ozera in Muscovy, that +give rise to the river Irtis, and a great number of others. These lakes, +it is evident, must be produced by the waters from the high lands +passing through subterraneous passages, and collecting in the lowest +places. Some indeed have asserted that lakes are to be found on the +summit of the highest mountains; but to this no credit can be given, for +those found on the Alps, and other elevated places, are all surrounded +by much more lofty mountains, and derive their origin from the waters +which run down the sides, or are filtered through those eminences in the +same manner as the lakes in the plains obtain their sources from the +neighbouring hills which overtop them. + +It is apparent, therefore, that lakes have existence in the bowels of +the earth, especially under large plains and extensive vallies. +Mountains, hills, and all eminences have either a perpendicular or +inclined situation, and are exposed on all sides; the waters which fall +on their summits, after having penetrated into the earth, cannot fail, +from the declivity of the ground, of finding issue in many places, and +breaking in forms out of springs and fountains, and consequently there +will be little, if any water, remain in the mountains. On the contrary, +in plains, as the water which filters through the earth can find no +vent, it must collect in subterraneous caverns, or be dispersed and +divided among sand and gravel. It is these waters which are so +universally diffused through low grounds. The bottom of a pit or well is +nothing else but a kind of bason into which the waters that issue from +the adjoining lands insinuate themselves, at first falling drop by drop, +but afterwards, as the passages are opened, it receives supplies from +greater distances, and then continually runs in little streams or rills; +from which circumstance, although we can find water in any part of a +plain, yet we can obtain a supply but for a certain number of wells, +proportionate to the quantity of water dispersed, or rather to the +extent of the higher lands from whence they come. + +It is unnecessary to dig below the level of the river to find water; it +is generally met with at much less depths, and there is no appearance +that waters of rivers filter far through the earth. The origin of waters +found in the earth below the level of rivers is not to be attributed to +them; for in rivers or torrents which are dried up, or whose courses +have been turned, we find no greater quantity of water by digging in +their beds than in the neighbouring lands at an equal depth. + +A piece of land of five or six feet in thickness is sufficient to +contain water, and prevent it from escaping; and I have often observed +that the banks of brooks and pools are not sensibly wet at six inches +distance from the water. + +It is true that the extent of the filtration is in proportion as the +soil is more or less penetrable; but if we examine the standing pools +with sandy bottoms, we shall perceive the water confined in the small +compass it had hollowed itself, and the moisture spread but a very few +inches; even in vegetable earth it has no great extent, which must be +more porous than sand or hard soil. It is a certain fact, that in a +garden we may almost inundate one bed without those nearly adjoining +feeling any moisture from it[65:A]. I have examined pieces of garden +ground, eight or ten feet thick, which had not been stirred for many +years, and whose surface was nearly level, and found that the rain water +never penetrated deeper than three or four feet; and on turning it up in +the spring, after a wet winter, I found it as dry as when first heaped +together. + +I made the same observation on earth which had laid in ridges two +hundred years; below three or four feet it was as dry as dust; from +which it is plain that water does not extend so far by filtration as has +been generally imagined. + +By this means, therefore, the internal part of the earth can be supplied +with a very small part; but water by its own weight descends from the +surface to the greatest depths; it sinks through natural conduits, or +penetrates small passages for itself; it follows the roots of trees, the +cracks in rocks, the interstices in the earth, and divides and extends +on all sides into an infinity of small branches and rills, always +descending until its passage is opposed by clay or some solid body, +where it continues collecting, and at length breaks out in form of +springs upon the surface. + +It would be very difficult to make an exact calculation of the quantity +of subterraneous waters which have no apparent vent. Many have pretended +that it greatly surpasses all the waters that are on the surface of the +earth. + +Without mentioning those who have advanced that the interior part of the +globe is entirely filled with water, there are some who believe there +are an infinity of floods, rivulets, and lakes in the bowels of the +earth. But this opinion does not seem to be properly founded, and it is +more probable that the quantity of subterraneous water, which never +appears on the surface, is not very considerable; for if these +subterraneous rivers are so very numerous, why do we never see any of +their mouths forcing their way through the surface? Besides, rivers, and +all running waters, produce great alterations on the surface of the +earth; they transport the soil, wear away the most solid rocks, and +displace all matters which oppose their passage. It would certainly be +the same in subterraneous rivers; the same effects would be produced; +but no such alterations have ever as yet been observed; the different +strata remains parallel, and every where preserves its original +position; and it is but in a very few places that any considerable +subterraneous veins of water have been discovered. Thus water in the +internal part of the earth, though great, acts but in a small degree, as +it is divided in an infinity of little streams, and retained by a number +of obstacles; and being so generally dispersed, it gives rise to many +substances totally different from primitive matters, both in form and +organization. + +From all these observations we may fairly conclude, that it is the +continual motion of the flux and reflux of the sea which has produced +mountains, vallies, and other inequalities on the surface of the earth; +that it is the currents of the ocean which have hollowed vallies, raised +hills, and given them corresponding directions; that it is those waters +of the sea which, by transporting earth, &c. and depositing them in +horizontal layers, have formed the parallel strata; that it is the +waters from heaven, which by degrees destroy the effects of the sea, by +continually lowering the summit of mountains, filling up vallies, and +stopping the mouths of gulphs and rivers, and which, by bringing all to +a level, will, in the course of time, return this earth to the sea, +which, by its natural operations, will again form new continents, +containing vallies and mountains exactly similar to those which we at +present inhabit. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[25:A] Particularly Scotland and Ireland. + +[65:A] These facts are so easily demonstrated, that the smallest +observation will prove their veracity. + + + + +PROOF + +OF + +_THE THEORY OF THE EARTH_. + + + + +ARTICLE I. + +ON THE FORMATION OF THE PLANETS. + + +Our subject being Natural History, we would willingly dispense with +astronomical observations; but as the nature of the earth is so closely +connected with the heavenly bodies, and such observations being +calculated to illustrate more fully what has been said, it is necessary +to give some general ideas of the formation, motion, figure of the earth +and other planets. + +The earth is a globe of about three thousand leagues diameter; it is +situate one thousand millions of leagues from the sun, around which it +makes its revolution in three hundred and sixty-five days. This +revolution is the result of two forces; the one may be considered as an +impulse from right to left, or from left to right, and the other an +attraction from above downwards, or beneath upwards, to a common centre. +The direction of these two forces, and their quantities, are so nicely +combined and proportioned, that they produce an almost uniform motion in +an ellipse, very near to a circle. Like the other planets the earth is +opaque, it throws out a shadow; it receives and reflects the light of +the sun, round which it revolves in a space of time proportioned to its +relative distance and density. It also turns round its own axis once in +twenty-four hours, and its axis is inclined 66-1/4 degrees on the plane +of the orbit. Its figure is spheroidical, the two axes of which differ +about 160th part from each other, and the smallest axis is that round +which the revolution is made. + +These are the principal phenomena of the earth, the result of +discoveries made by means of geometry, astronomy, and navigation. We +shall not here enter into the detail of the proofs and observations by +which those facts have been ascertained, but only make a few remarks to +clear up what is still doubtful, and at the same time give our ideas +respecting the formation of the planets, and the different changes thro' +which it is possible they have passed before they arrived at the state +we at present see them. + +There have been so many systems and hypotheses framed upon the formation +of the terrestrial globe, and the changes which it has undergone, that +we may presume to add our conjectures to those who have written upon the +subject, especially as we mean to support them with a greater degree of +probability than has hitherto been done: and we are the more inclined to +deliver our opinion upon this subject, from the hope that we shall +enable the reader to pronounce on the difference between an hypothesis +drawn from possibilities, and a theory founded in facts; between a +system, such as we are here about to present, on the formation and +original state of the earth, and a physical history of its real +condition, which has been given in the preceding discourse. + +Galileo having found the laws of falling bodies, and Kepler having +observed that the area described by the principal planets in moving +round the sun, and those of the satellites round the planets to which +they belong, are proportionable to the time of their revolutions, and +that such periods were also in proportion to the square roots of the +cubes of their distances from the sun, or principal planets. Newton +found that the force which caused heavy bodies to fall on the surface of +the earth, extended to the moon, and retained it in its orbit; that this +force diminished in the same proportion as the square of the distance +increased, and consequently that the moon is attracted by the earth; +that the earth and planets are attracted by the sun; and that in general +all bodies which revolve round a centre, and describe areas proportioned +to the times of their revolution, are attracted towards that point. This +power, known by the name of GRAVITY, is therefore diffused throughout +all matter; planets, comets, the sun, the earth, and all nature, is +subject to its laws, and it serves as a basis to the general harmony +which reigns in the universe. Nothing is better proved in physics than +the actual existence of this power in every material substance. +Observation has confirmed the effects of this power, and geometrical +calculations have determined the quantity and relations of it. + +This general cause being known, the effects would easily be deduced from +it, if the action of the powers which produce it were not too +complicated. A single moment's reflection upon the solar system will +fully demonstrate the difficulties that have attended this subject; the +principal planets are attracted by the sun, and the sun by the planets; +the satellites are also attracted by their principal planets, and each +planet attracts all the rest, and is attracted by them. All these +actions and reactions vary according to the quantities of matter and the +distances, and produce great inequalities and irregularities. How is so +great a number of connections to be combined and estimated? It appears +almost impossible in such a crowd of objects to follow any particular +one; nevertheless those difficulties have been surmounted, and +calculation has confirmed the suppositions of them, each observation is +become a new demonstration, and the systematic order of the universe is +laid open to the eyes of all those who can distinguish truth from error. + +We feel some little stop, by the force of impulsion remaining unknown; +but this, however, does not by any means affect the general theory. We +evidently see the force of attraction always draws the planets towards +the sun, they would fall in a perpendicular line, on that planet, if +they were not repelled by some other power that obliges them to move in +a straight line, and which impulsive force would compel them to fly off +the tangents of their respective orbits, if the force of attraction +ceased one moment. The force of impulsion was certainly communicated to +the planets by the hand of the Almighty, when he gave motion to the +universe; but we ought as much as possible to abstain in physics from +having recourse to supernatural causes; and it appears that a probable +reason may be given for this impulsive force, perfectly accordant with +the law of mechanics, and not by any means more astonishing than the +changes and revolutions which may and must happen in the universe. + +The sphere of the sun's attraction does not confine itself to the orbs +of the planets, but extends to a remote distance, always decreasing in +the same ratio as the square of the distance increases; it is +demonstrated that the comets which are lost to our sight, in the regions +of the sky, obey this power, and by it their motions, like that of the +planets, are regulated. All these stars, whose tracts are so different, +move round the sun, and describe areas proportioned to the time; the +planets in ellipses more or less approaching a circle, and the comets in +narrow ellipses of a great extent. Comets and planets move, therefore, +by virtue of the force of attraction and impulsion, which continually +acting at one time obliges them to describe these courses; but it must +be remarked that comets pass over the solar system in all directions, +and that the inclinations of their orbits are very different, insomuch +that, although subject like the planets to the force of attraction, they +have nothing in common with respect to their progressive or impulsive +motions, but appear in this respect independent of each other: the +planets, on the contrary, move round the sun in the same direction, and +almost in the same plane, never exceeding 7-1/2 degrees of inclination +in their planes, the most distant from their orbits. This conformity of +position and direction in the motion of the planets, necessarily implies +that their impulsive force has been communicated to them by one and the +same cause. + +May it not be imagined, with some degree of probability, that a comet +falling into the body of the sun, will displace and separate some parts +from the surface, and communicate to them a motion of impulsion, +insomuch that the planets may formerly have belonged to the body of the +sun, and been detached therefrom by an impulsive force, and which they +still preserve. + +This supposition appears to be at least as well founded as the opinion +of Leibnitz, who supposes that the earth and planets had formerly been +suns; and his system, of which an account will be given in the fifth +article, would have been more comprehensive and more agreeable to +probability, if he had raised himself to this idea. We agree with him in +thinking that this effect was produced at the time when Moses said that +God divided light from darkness; for, according to Leibnitz, light was +divided from darkness when the planets were extinguished; but in our +supposition there was a real physical separation, since the opaque +bodies of the planets were divided from the luminous matter which +composes the sun. + +This idea of the cause of the impulsive force of the planets will be +found much less objectionable, when an estimation is made of the +analogies and degrees of probability, by which it may be supported. In +the first place, the motion of the planets are in the same direction, +from West to East, and therefore, according to calculation, it is +sixty-four to one that such would not have been the case, if they had +not been indebted to the same cause for their impulsive forces. + +This, probably, will be considerably augmented by the second analogy, +viz. that the inclination of the planes of the orbits do not exceed +7-1/2 degrees; for, by comparing the spaces, we shall find there is +twenty-four to one, that two planets are found in their most distant +places at the same time, and consequently {5}, or 7,692,624 to one, +that all six would by chance be thus placed; or, what amounts to the +same, there is a great degree of probability that the planets have been +impressed with one common moving force, and which has given them this +position. But what can have bestowed this common impulsive motion, but +the force and direction of the bodies by which it was originally +communicated? It may therefore be concluded, with great probability, +that the planets received their impulsive motion by one single stroke. +This likelihood, which is almost equivalent to a certainty, being +established, I seek to know what moving bodies could produce this +effect, and I find nothing but comets capable of communicating a motion +to such vast bodies. + +By examining the course of comets, we shall be easily persuaded, that it +is almost necessary for some of them occasionally to fall into the sun. +That of 1680 approached so near, that at its perihelium it was not more +distant from the sun than a sixteenth part of its diameter, and if it +returns, as there is every appearance it will, in 2255, it may then +possibly fall into the sun; that must depend on the rencounters it will +meet with in its road, and of the retardment it suffers in passing +through the atmosphere of the sun[78:A]. + +We may, therefore, presume with the great Newton, that comets sometimes +fall into the sun; but this fall may be made in different directions. If +they fall perpendicular, or in a direction not very oblique, they will +remain in the sun, and serve for food to the fire which that luminary +consumes, and the motion of impulsion which they will have communicated +to the sun, will produce no other effect than that of removing it more +or less, according as the mass of the comet will be more or less +considerable; but if the fall of the comet is in a very oblique +direction, which will most frequently happen, then the comet will only +graze the surface of the sun, or slightly furrow it; and in this case it +may drive out some parts of matter to which it will communicate a common +motion of impulsion, and these parts so forced out of the body of the +sun, and even the comet itself, may then become planets, and turn round +this luminary in the same direction, and in almost the same plane. We +might perhaps calculate what quantity of matter, velocity, and direction +a comet should have, to impel from the sun an equal quantity of matter +to that which the six planets and their satellites contain; but it will +be sufficient to observe here, that all the planets, with their +satellites, do not make the 650th part of the mass of the sun,[79:A] +because the density of the large planets, Saturn and Jupiter, is less +than that of the sun; and although the earth be four times, and the moon +near five times more dense than the sun, they are nevertheless but as +atoms in comparison with his extensive body. + +However inconsiderable the 650th part may be, yet it certainly at first +appears to require a very powerful comet to separate even that much +from the body of the sun; but if we reflect on the prodigious velocity +of comets in their perihelion, a velocity so much the greater as they +approach nearer the sun; if, besides, we pay attention to the density +and solidity of the matter of which they must be composed, to suffer, +without being destroyed, the inconceivable heat they endure; and +consider the bright and solid light which shines through their dark and +immense atmospheres, which surround, and must obscure them, it cannot be +doubted that the comets are composed of extremely solid and dense +matters, and that they contain a greater quantity of matter in a small +compass; that consequently a comet of no extraordinary bulk may have +sufficient weight and velocity to displace the sun, and give a +projectile motion to a quantity of matter, equal to the 650th part of +the mass of this luminary. This perfectly agrees with what is known +concerning the density of planets, which always decreases as their +distance from the sun is increased, they having less heat to support; so +that Saturn is less dense than Jupiter, and Jupiter much less than the +earth; therefore if the density of the planets be, as Newton asserts, +proportionable to the quantity of heat which they have to support, +Mercury will be seven times more dense than the earth, and twenty-eight +times denser than the sun; and the comet of 1680 would be 28,000 times +denser than the earth, or 112,000 times denser than the sun, and by +supposing it as large as the earth, it would contain nearly an equal +quantity of matter to the ninth part of the sun, or by giving it only +the 100th part of the size of the earth, its mass would still be equal +to the 900th part of the sun. From whence it is easy to conclude, that +such a body, though it would be but a small comet, might separate and +drive off from the sun a 900th or a 650th part, particularly if we +attend to the immense velocity with which comets move when they pass in +the vicinity of the sun. + +Besides this, the conformity between the density of the matter of the +planets, that of the sun deserves some attention. It is well known, +that, both on and near the surface of the earth, there are some matters +14 or 1500 times denser than others. The densities of gold and air are +nearly in this relation. But the internal parts of the earth and planets +are composed of a more uniform matter, whose comparative density varies +much less; and the conformity in the density of the planets and that of +the sun is such, that of 650 parts which compose the whole of the matter +of the planets, there are more than 640 of the same density as the +matter of the sun, and only ten parts out of these 650 which are of a +greater density, for Saturn and Jupiter are nearly of the same density +as the sun, and the quantity of matter which these planets contain, is +at least 64 times greater than that of the four inferior planets, Mars, +the Earth, Venus, and Mercury. We must therefore admit, that the matter +of which the planets are generally composed is nearly the same as that +of the sun, and that consequently the one may have been separated from +the other. + +But it may be said, if the comet, by falling obliquely on the sun, drove +off the matter which compose the planets, they, instead of describing +circles of which the sun is the centre, would, on the contrary, at each +revolution, have returned to the same point from whence they departed, +as every projectile would which might be thrown off with sufficient +force from the surface of the earth, to oblige it to turn perpetually: +for it is easy to demonstrate that such, in that instance, would be the +case, and therefore that the projection of the planets from the sun +cannot be attributed to the impulsion of a comet. + +To this I reply, that the matter which composes the planets did not come +from the sun, in ready formed globes, but in the form of torrents, the +motion of the anterior parts of which were accelerated by that of the +posterior; and that the attraction of the anterior parts also +accelerated the motion of the posterior, and that this acceleration +produced by one or other of these causes, or perhaps by both, might be +so great as to change the original direction of the motion occasioned by +the impulse of the comet, from which cause a motion has resulted, such +as we at present observe in the planets; especially when it is +considered the sun is displaced from its station by the shock of the +comet. An example will render this more reasonable; let us suppose, that +from the top of a mountain a musket ball is discharged, and that the +strength of the powder was sufficient to send it beyond the +semi-diameter of the earth, it is certain that this ball would pass +round the earth, and at each revolution return to the spot from whence +it had been discharged: but, if instead of a musket-ball, we suppose a +rocket had been discharged, wherein the action of the fire being +durable, would greatly accelerate the motion of impulsion; this rocket, +or rather the cartouch which contained it, would not return to the same +place like the musket-ball, but would describe an orbit, whose perigee +would be much farther distant from the earth, as the force of +acceleration would be greater, and have changed the first direction. + +Thus, provided there had been any acceleration in the motion of +impulsion communicated to the torrent of matter by the fall of the +comet, it is probable that the planets formed in this torrent, acquired +the motion which we know they have in the circles and ellipsis of which +the sun is the centre and focus. + +The manner in which the great eruptions of volcanos are made, may afford +us an idea of this acceleration of motion. It has been remarked that +when Vesuvius begins to roar and eject the inflamed matter it contains, +the first cloud has but a small degree of velocity, but which is soon +accelerated by the impulse of the second; the second by the action of a +third, and so on, until the heavy mass of bitumen, sulphur, cinders, +melted metal, and huge stones, appear like massive clouds, and although +they succeed each other nearly in the same directions, yet they greatly +change that of the first, and drive it far beyond what it would have +reached of itself. + +In answer to this objection, it may be further observed, that the sun +having been struck by the comet, received a degree of motion by the +impulse, which displaced it from its former situation; and that although +this motion of the sun is at present too little sensible for the notice +of astronomers, nevertheless it may still exist, and the sun describe a +curve round the centre of gravity of the whole system and if this is so, +as I presume it is, we see perfectly that the planets, instead of +returning near the sun at each revolution, will, on the contrary, have +described orbits, the points of the perihelion of which will be as far +distant from the sun, as it is itself from the place it originally +occupied. + +It may also be said, that if this acceleration of motion is made in the +same direction, no change in the perihelion will be produced: but can it +be thought that in a torrent, the particles of which succeed each other, +there has been no change of direction; it is, on the contrary, very +probable that a considerable change did take place, sufficient to cause +the planets to move in the course they at present occupy. + +It may be further urged, that if the sun had been displaced by the shock +of a comet, it would move uniformly, and that hence this motion being +common to the whole system, no alteration was necessary; but might not +the sun before the shock have had a motion round the centre of the +cometry system, to which primitive motion the stroke of the comet may +have added or diminished? and would not that fully account for the +actual motion of the planets? + +If these suppositions are not admitted, may it not be presumed, that in +the stroke of the comet against the sun, there was an elastic force +which raised the torrent above the surface of the sun, instead of +directly impelling it? which alone would be sufficient to remove the +perihelion, and give the planets the motion they have retained. This +supposition is not without probability, for the matter of the sun may +possibly be very elastic, since light, the only part of it we are +acquainted with, seems, by its effects, to be perfectly so. I own that +I cannot say whether it is by the one or the other of these reasons, +that the direction of the first motion of the impulse of the planets has +changed, but they suffice to shew that such an alteration is not only +possible but even probable, and that is sufficient for my purpose. + +But, without dwelling any longer on the objections which might be made, +I shall pursue the subject, and draw the fair conclusions on the proofs +which analogies might furnish in favour of my hypothesis: let us, +therefore, first see what might happen when these planets, and +particularly the earth, received their impulsive motion, and in what +state they were after having been separated from the sun. The comet +having, by a single stroke, communicated a projectile motion to a +quantity of matter equal to the 650th part of the sun's mass, the light +particles would of course separate from the dense, and form, by their +mutual attraction, globes of different densities: Saturn being composed +of the most gross and light parts, would be the most remote from the +sun: Jupiter being more dense than Saturn, would be less distant, and so +on. The larger and least solid planets are the most remote, because +they received an impulsive motion stronger than the smallest, and more +dense: for, the force of impulsion communicating itself according to the +surface, the same stroke would have moved the grosser and lighter parts +of the matter of the sun with more velocity than the smallest and more +weighty; a separation therefore will be made of the dense parts of +different degrees, so that the density of the sun being equal to 100, +that of Saturn will be equal to 67, that of Jupiter to 94-1/2, that of +Mars to 200, that of the Earth to 400, that of Venus to 800, and that of +Mercury to 2800. But the force of attraction not communicating like that +of impulsion, according to the surface, but acting on the contrary on +all parts of the mass, it will have checked the densest portions of +matter; and it is for this reason that the densest planets are the +nighest the sun, and turn round that planet with greater rapidity than +the less dense planets, which are also the most remote. + +Jupiter and Saturn, which are the largest and principal planets of the +solar system, have retained the relation between their density and +impulsive motions, in the most exact proportions; the density of Saturn +is to that of Jupiter as 67 to 94-1/2 and their velocities are nearly +as 88-2/3 to 120-1/72, or as 67 to 90-11/16; it is seldom that pure +conjectures can draw such exact relations. It is true, that by following +this relation between the velocity and density of planets, the density +of the earth ought to be only as 206-7/18, and not 400, which is its +real density; from hence it may be conceived, that our globe was +formerly less dense than it is at present. With respect to the other +planets, Mars, Venus, and Mercury, as their densities are known only by +conjecture, we cannot be certain whether this circumstance will destroy +or confirm our hypothesis. The opinion of Newton is, that density is so +much the greater, as the heat to which the planet is exposed is the +stronger; and it is on this idea that we have just said that Mars is one +time less dense than the Earth, Venus one time, Mercury seven times, and +the comet in 1680, 28,000 times denser than the earth: but this +proportion between the density of the planets and the heat which they +sustain, seems not well founded, when we consider Saturn and Jupiter, +which are the principal objects; for, according to this relation between +the density and heat, the density of Saturn would be about 4-7/18, and +that of Jupiter as 14-17/22, instead of 67 and 94-1/2, a difference too +great to be admitted, and must destroy the principles upon which it was +founded. Thus, notwithstanding the confidence which the conjectures of +Newton merit, I can but think that the density of the planets has more +relation with their velocity than with the degree of heat to which they +are exposed. This is only a final cause, and the other a physical +relation, the preciseness of which is remarkable in Jupiter and Saturn: +it is nevertheless true, that the density of the earth, instead of being +206-7/8, is found to be 400, and that consequently the terrestrial globe +must be condensed in this ratio of 206-7/8 to 400. + +But have not the condensations of the planets some relation with the +quantity of the heat of the sun which they sustain? If so, Saturn, which +is the most distant from that luminary, will have suffered little or no +condensation; and Jupiter will be condensed from 90-11/16 to 94-1/2. Now +the heat of the sun in Jupiter being to that of the sun upon the earth +as 14-17/22 are to 400, the condensations ought to be in the same +proportion. For instance, if Jupiter be condensed, as 90-11/16 to +94-1/2, and the earth had been placed in his orbit, it would have been +condensed from 206-7/8 to 215-990/1451, but the earth being nearer the +sun, and receiving a heat, whose relation to that which Jupiter receives +is from 400 to 14-17/22, the quantity of condensation it would have +experienced on the orbit of Jupiter by the proportion of 400 to +14-17/22, which gives nearly 234-1/3 for the quantity which the earth +would be condensed. Its density was 206-7/8, by adding the quantity of +its acquired condensation, we find 400-7/8 for its actual density, which +nearly approaches the real density 400, determined to be so by the +parallax of the moon. As to other planets, I do not here pretend to give +exact proportions, but only approximations, to point out that their +densities have a strong relation to their velocity in their respective +orbits. + +The comet, therefore, by its oblique fall upon the surface of the sun, +having driven therefrom a quantity of matter equal to the 650th part of +its whole mass; this matter, which must be considered in a liquid state, +will at first have formed a torrent, the grosser and less dense parts of +which will have been driven the farthest, and the smaller and more +dense, having received only the like impulsion, will remain nearest its +source; the force of the sun's attraction would inevitably act upon all +the parts detached from him, and constrain them to circulate around his +body, and at the same time the mutual attraction of the particles of +matter would form themselves into globes at different distances from the +sun, the nearest of which necessarily moving with greater rapidity in +their orbits than those at a distance. + +But another objection may be started, and it may be said, if the matter +which composes the planets had been separated from the sun, they, like +him, would have been burning and luminous bodies, not cold and opaque, +for nothing resembles a globe of fire less than a globe of earth and +water; and by comparison, the matter of the earth and planets is +perfectly different from that of the sun? + +To this it may be answered, that in the separation the matter changed +its form, and the light or fire was extinguished by the stroke which +caused this motion of impulsion. Besides, may it not be supposed that if +the sun, or a burning star, moved with such velocity as the planet, that +the fire would soon be extinguished; and that is the reason why all +luminous stars are fixed, and that those stars which are called new, and +which have probably changed places, are frequently extinguished and +lost? This remark is somewhat confirmed by what has been observed in +comets; they must burn to the centre when they pass to their perihelium: +nevertheless they do not become luminous themselves, they only exhale +burning vapours, of which they leave a considerable part behind them in +their course. + +I own, that in a medium where there is very little or no resistance, +fire may subsist and suffer a very great motion without being +extinguished: I also own, that what I have just said extends only to the +stars which totally disappear, and not to those which have periodical +returns, and appear and disappear alternately without changing place in +the heavens. The phenomena of these stars has been explained in a very +satisfactory manner by M. de Maupertuis, in his discourse on the figures +of the planets. But the stars which appear and afterwards disappear +entirely, must certainly have been extinguished, either by the velocity +of their motion, or some other cause. We have not a single example of +one luminous star revolving round another; and among the number of +planets which compose our system, and which move round the sun with +more or less rapidity, there is not one luminous of itself. + +It may also be added, that fire cannot subsist so long in the small as +in large masses, and that the planets must have burnt for some time +after they were separated from the sun, but were at length extinguished +for want of combustible matter, as probably would be the sun itself, and +for the same reason; but in a length of time as far beyond that which +extinguished the planets, as it exceeds in quantity of matter. Be this +as it may, the matter of which the planets are formed being separated +from the sun, by the stroke of a comet, that appears a sufficient reason +for the extinction of their fires. + +The earth and planets at the time of their quitting the sun, were in a +state of total liquid fire; in this state they remained only as long as +the violence of the heat which had produced it; and which heat +necessarily underwent a gradual decay: it was in this state of fluidity +that they took their circular forms, and that their regular motions +raised the parts of their equators, and lowered their poles. This +figure, which agrees so perfectly with the laws of hydrostatics, I am of +opinion with Leibnitz, necessarily supposes that the earth and planets +have been in a state of fluidity, caused by fire, and that the internal +part of the earth must be a vitrifiable matter, of which sand, granite, +&c. are the fragments and scoria. + +It may, therefore, with some probability, be thought that the planets +appertained to the sun, that they were separated by a single stroke, +which gave to them a motion of impulsion, and that their position at +different distances from the sun proceeds only from their different +densities. It now only remains, to complete this theory, to explain the +diurnal motion of the planets, and the formation or the satellites; but +this, far from adding difficulties to my hypothesis, seems, on the +contrary, to confirm it. + +For the diurnal motion, or rotation, depends solely on the obliquity of +the stroke, an oblique impulse therefore on the surface of a body will +necessarily give it a rotative motion; this motion will be equal and +always the same, if the body which receives it is homogeneous, and it +will be unequal if the body is composed of heterogeneous parts, or of +different densities; hence we may conclude that in all the planets the +matter is homogeneous, since their diurnal motions are equal, and +regularly performed in the same period of time. Another proof that the +separation of the dense or less dense parts were originally from the +sun. + +But the obliquity of the stroke might be such, as to separate from the +body of the principal planet a small part of matter, which would of +course continue to move in the same direction; these parts would be +united, according to their densities, at different distances from the +planet, by the force of their mutual attraction, and at the same time +follow its course round the sun, by revolving about the body of the +planet, nearly in the plane of its orbit. It is plain, that those small +parts so separated are the satellites: thus the formation, position, and +direction of the motions of the satellites perfectly agree with our +theory; for they have all the same motion in concentrical circles round +their principal planet; their motion is in the same direction, and that +nearly in the plane of their orbits. All these effects, which are common +to them, and which depend on an impulsive force, can proceed only from +one common cause, which is, impulsive motion, communicated to them by +one and the same oblique stroke. + +What we have just said on the cause of the motion and formation of the +satellites, will acquire more probability, if we consider all the +circumstances of the phenomena. The planets which turn the swiftest on +their axis, are those which have satellites. The earth turns quicker +than Mars in the relation of about 24 to 15; the earth has a satellite, +but Mars has none. Jupiter, whose rapidity round its axis is five to six +hundred times greater than that of the earth, has four satellites, and +there is a great appearance that Saturn, which has five, and a ring, +turns still more quickly than Jupiter. + +It may even be conjectured with some foundation, that the ring of Saturn +is parallel to the equator of the planet, so that the plane of the +equator of the ring, and that of Saturn, are nearly the same; for by +supposing, according to the preceding theory, that the obliquity of the +stroke by which Saturn has been set in motion was very great, the +velocity around the axis will, at first, have been in proportion as the +centrifugal force exceeds that of gravity, and there will be detached +from its equator and neighbouring parts, a considerable quantity of +matter, which will necessarily have taken the figure of a ring, whose +plane must be nearly the same as that of the equator of the planet; and +this quantity of matter having been detached from the vicinity of the +equator of Saturn, must have lowered the equator of that planet, which +causes that, notwithstanding its rapidity, the diameters of Saturn +cannot be so unequal as those of Jupiter, which differ from each other +more than an eleventh part. + +However great the probability of what I have advanced on the formation +of the planets and their satellites may appear to me, yet, every man has +his particular measurement, to estimate probabilities of this nature; +and as this measurement depends on the strength of the understanding to +combine more or less distant relations, I do not pretend to convince the +incredulous. I have not only thought it my duty to offer these ideas, +because they appear to me reasonable, and calculated to clear up a +subject, on which, however important, nothing has hitherto been written, +but because the impulsive motion in the planets enter at least as one +half of the composition of the universe, which gravity alone cannot +unfold. I shall only add the following questions to those who are +inclined to deny the possibility of my system. + +1. Is it not natural to imagine, that a body in motion has received that +motion by the stroke of another body? + +2. Is it not very probable, that when many bodies move in the same +direction, that they have received this direction by one single stroke, +or by many strokes directed in the same manner? + +3. Is it not more probable that when many bodies have the same direction +in their motion, and are placed in the same plane, that they received +this direction and this position by one and the same stroke, rather than +by a number? + +4. At the time a body is put in motion by the force of impulsion, is it +not probable that it receives it obliquely, and, consequently, is +obliged to turn on its axis so much the quicker, as the obliquity of the +stroke will have been greater? If these questions should not appear +unreasonable, the theory, of which we have presented the outlines, will +cease to appear an absurdity. + +Let us now pass on to something which more nearly concerns us, and +examine the figure of the earth, on which so many researches and such +great observations have been made. The earth being, as it appears by the +equality of its diurnal motion and the constancy of the inclination of +its axis, composed of homogeneous parts, which attract each other in +proportion to their quantity of matter, it would necessarily have taken +the figure of a globe perfectly spherical, if the motion of impulsation +had been given it in a perpendicular direction to the surface; but this +stroke having been obliquely given, the earth turned on its axis at the +moment it took its form; and from the combination of this impulsive +force, the attraction of the parts, there has resulted a spheroid +figure, more elevated under the great circle of rotation, and lower at +the two extremities of the axis, and this because the action of the +centrifugal force proceeding from the diurnal rotation must diminish the +action of gravity. Thus, the earth being homogeneous, and having +received a rotative motion, necessarily took a spheroidical figure, the +two axes of which differ a 230th part from each other. This may be +clearly demonstrated, and does not depend on any hypothesis whatever. +The laws of gravity are perfectly known, and we cannot doubt that +bodies attract each other in a direct ratio of their masses, and in an +inverted ratio, at the squares of their distances; so likewise we cannot +doubt, that the general action of any body is not composed of all the +particular actions of its parts. Thus each part of matter mutually +attracts in a direct ratio of its mass and an inverted ratio of its +distance, and from all these attractions there results a sphere when +there is no rotatory motion, and a spheroid when there is one. This +spheroid is longer or shorter at the two extremities of the axis of +rotation, in proportion to the velocity of its diurnal motion, and the +earth has then, by virtue of its rotative velocity, and of the mutual +attraction of all its parts, the figure of a spheroid, the two axes of +which are as 229 to 230 to one another. + +Thus, by its original constituent, by its homogeneousness, and +independent of every hypothesis from the direction of gravity, the earth +has taken this figure of a spheroid at its formation, and agreeable to +mechanical laws: its equatorial diameter was raised about 6-1/2 leagues +higher than under the poles. + +I shall dwell on this article, because there are still geometricians who +think that the figure of the earth depends upon theory, and this from a +system of philosophy they have embraced, and from a supposed direction +of gravity. The first thing we have to demonstrate is, the mutual +attraction of every part of matter, and the second the homogeneousness +of the terrestrial globe; if we clearly prove, that these two +circumstances are really so, there will no longer be any hypothesis to +be made on the direction of gravity: the earth will necessarily have the +figure Newton decided in favour of, and every other figure given to it +by virtue of vortexes or other hypotheses, will not be able to subsist. + +It cannot be doubted, that it is the force of gravity which retains the +planets in their orbits; the satellites of Saturn gravitate towards +Saturn, those of Jupiter towards Jupiter, the Moon gravitates towards +the Earth: and Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, the Earth, Venus, and Mercury, +gravitate towards the Sun: so likewise Saturn and Jupiter gravitate +towards their satellites, the Earth gravitates towards the Moon, and the +Sun towards the whole of the planets. Gravitation is therefore general +and mutual in all the planetary system, for action cannot be exercised +without a re-action; all the planets, therefore, act mutually one on the +other. This mutual attraction serves as a foundation to the laws of +their motion, and is demonstrated to exist by its effects. When Saturn +and Jupiter are in conjunction, they act one on the other, and this +attraction produces an irregularity in their motion round the Sun. It is +the same with the Earth and the Moon, they also mutually attract each +other; but the irregularities of the motion of the Moon, proceeds from +the attraction of the Sun, so that the Earth, the Sun, and the Moon, +mutually act one on the other. Now this mutual attraction of the +planets, when the distances are equal, is proportional to their quantity +of matter, and the same force of gravity which causes heavy matter to +fall on the surface of the Earth, and which extends to the Moon, is also +proportional to the quantity of matter; therefore the total gravity of a +planet is composed of the gravity of each of its parts; from whence all +the parts of the matter, either in the Earth or in the planets, mutually +attract each other and the Earth, by its rotation round its own axis, +has necessarily taken the figure of a spheroid, the axes of which are as +229 to 230. The direction of the weight must be perpendicular to the +Earth's surface; consequently no hypothesis, drawn from the direction of +gravity, can be sustained, unless the general attraction of the parts of +matter be denied; but the existence of this mutual attraction is +demonstrated by observations, and the experiment of pendulums prove, +that its extension is general; therefore we cannot support an hypothesis +on the direction of gravity without going against experience and reason. + +Let us now proceed to examine whether the matter of which the +terrestrial globe is composed be homogeneous. I admit, that if it is +supposed the globe is more dense in some parts than in others, the +direction of gravity must be different from what we have just assigned, +and that the figure of the Earth would also differ agreeable to those +suppositions. But what reason have we to make these suppositions? Why, +for example, should we suppose that the parts near the centre are denser +than those which are more remote? Are not all the particles which +compose the globe collected together by their mutual attraction? hence, +each particle is a centre, and there is no reason to believe, that the +parts which surround the centre are denser than those which are about +any other point. Besides, if one considerable part of the globe was +denser than another, the axis of rotation would be found near the dense +parts, and an inequality would ensue in the diurnal revolution; we +should remark an inequality in the apparent motion of the fixed stars; +they would appear to move more quick or slow in the zenith, or horizon, +according as we should be placed on the denser or lighter parts of the +earth; and the axis of the globe no longer passing through the centre of +gravity, would also very sensibly change its position: but nothing like +this ever happens; on the contrary, the diurnal motion of the earth is +equal and uniform. At all parts of the Earth's surface, the stars appear +to move with the same velocity at all heights, and if there be any +rotation in its axis, it is so trifling as to have escaped observation: +it must therefore be concluded, that the globe is homogeneous, or nearly +so in all its parts. + +If the earth was a hollow and void globe, and the crust of which, for +example, not more than two or three miles thick; it would produce these +effects. 1. The mountains would be such considerable parts of the whole +thickness of the crust, that great irregularities in the motions of the +Earth would be occasioned by the attraction of the Moon and Sun: for +when the highest parts of the globe, as the Cordeliers, should have the +Moon at noon, the attraction would be much stronger on the whole globe +than when she was in the meridian of the lowest parts. 2. The attraction +of mountains would be much more considerable than it is in comparison +with the attraction of the whole globe, and experiments made at the +mountain of Chimboraco, in Peru, would in this case give more degrees +than they have given seconds for the deviation of the plumb line. 3. The +weight of bodies would be greater on the tops of high mountains than on +the planes; so that we should feel ourselves considerably heavier, and +should walk with more difficulty in high than in low places. These +observations, with many others that might be added, must convince us, +that the inner parts of the globe is not void, but filled with a dense +matter. + +On the other hand, if below the depth of two or three miles, the earth +was filled with a matter much more dense than any known, it would +necessarily occur, that every time we descended to moderate depths, we +should weigh much more, and the motion of pendulums would be more +accelerated than in fact they are when carried from an eminence into a +plain: thus, we may presume that the internal part of the Earth is +filled with a matter nearly similar to that which composes its surface. +What may complete our determination in favour of this opinion is, that +in the first formation of the globe, when it took its present +spheroidical figure, the matter which composed it was in fusion, and, +consequently, all its parts were homogeneous, and nearly equally dense. +From that time the matter on the surface, although originally the same +with the interior, has undergone a variety of changes by external +causes, which has produced materials of such different densities; but it +must be remarked, that the densest matters, as gold and metals, are also +those the most seldom to be met with, and consequently the greatest part +of the matter at the surface of the globe has not undergone any very +great changes with relation to its density; the most common materials, +as sand and clay, differ very little, insomuch, that we may conjecture, +with great probability, that the internal part of the earth is composed +of a vitrified matter, the density of which is nearly the same as that +of sand, and that consequently the terrestrial globe in general may be +regarded as homogeneous. + +Notwithstanding this, it may be urged, that although the globe was +composed of concentrical strata of different densities, the diurnal +motion might be equally certain, and the uniform inclination of the axis +as constant and undisturbed as it could be, on the supposition of its +being composed of homogeneous matter. I acknowledge it, but I ask at the +same time, if there is any reason to believe that strata of different +densities do exist? If these conclusions be not rather a desire to +adjust the works of Nature to our own ideas? And whether in physics we +ought to admit suppositions which are not founded on observations or +analogy? + +It appears, therefore, that the earth, by virtue of the mutual +attraction of its parts and its diurnal motion, assumed the figure of a +spheroid; that it necessarily took that form from being in a state of +fluidity; that, agreeable to the laws of gravity and of a centrifugal +force, it could have no other figure: that in the moment of its +formation as at present, there was a difference between the two +diameters equal to a 230th part, and that, consequently, every +hypothesis in which we find greater or less difference are fictions +which merit no attention. + +But it may be said, if this theory is true, and if 229 to 230 is the +just relation of the axis, why did the mathematicians, sent to Lapland +and Peru, agree to the relation of 174 to 175? From whence does this +difference arise between theory and practice? And is it not more +reasonable to give the preference to practice and measures, especially +when we have been taken by the most able mathematicians of +Europe[109:A], and with all necessary apparatus to establish the result. + +To this I answer, that I have paid attention to the observations made at +the equator and near the polar circle; that I have no doubt of their +being exact, and that the earth may possibly be elevated an 175th part +more at the equator than at the poles. But, at the same time, I maintain +my theory, and I see clearly how the two conclusions may be reconciled. +This difference is about four leagues in the two axes, so that the parts +at the equator are raised two leagues more than they ought to be, +according to my theory; this height answers exactly to the greatest +inequalities on the surface of the globe, produced by the motion of the +sea, and the action of the fluids. I will explain; it appears that when +the earth was formed, it must necessarily have taken, by virtue of the +mutual attraction of its parts, and the action of the centrifugal force, +a spheroidical figure, the axes of which differ a 230th part: the +original earth must have had this figure, which it took when it was +fluid, or rather liquified by the fire; but after its formation the +vapours which were extended and rarefied, as in the atmosphere and tail +of a comet, became condensed, and fell on the surface in form of air and +water: and when these waters became agitated by the flux and reflux, the +matters were, by degrees, carried from the poles towards the equatorial +parts; so that the poles were lowered about a league, and those of the +equator raised in the same proportion; this was not suddenly done, but +by degrees in succession of time; the earth being also exposed to the +action of the winds, air, and sun; all these irregular causes concurred +with the flux and reflux to furrow its surface, hollow it into valleys, +and raise it into mountains; and producing other inequalities and +irregularities, of which, nevertheless, the greatest thickness does not +exceed one league at the equator; this inequality of two leagues, is, +perhaps, the greatest which can be on the surface of the earth, for the +highest mountains are scarce above one league in height, and there is +much probability of the sea's not being more at its greatest depth. The +theory is therefore true, and practice may be so likewise; the earth at +first could not be raised above 6-1/2 leagues more at the equator than +the poles, but the changes which have happened to its surface might +afterwards raise it still more. Natural History wonderfully confirms +this opinion, for we have proved in the preceding discourse that the +flux and reflux, and other motions of the water, have produced mountains +and all the inequalities on the surface of the globe, that this surface +has undergone considerable changes, and that at the greatest depths, as +well as on the greatest heights, bones, shells and other wrecks of +animals, which inhabit the sea and earth, are met with. + +It may be conjectured, from what has been said, that to find ancient +earth, and matters which have never been removed from the spot in which +they were first placed, we must dig near the poles, where the bed of the +earth must be thinner than in the Southern climates. + +On the whole, if we strictly examine the measures by which the figure of +the earth is determined, we shall perceive this hypothesis enters into +such determination; for it supposes the earth to have the figure of a +regular curve, whereas from the constant changes the earth is +continually undergoing from a variety and combination of causes, it is +almost impossible that it should have retained any regular figure, and +hence the poles might, originally, only be flattened a 230th part, as +Newton says, and as my theory requires. Besides, although we had exactly +the length of the degree at the polar circle and equator, have we not +also the length of the degree as exactly in France? And the measure of +M. Picard, has it not been verified? Add to this that the augmentation +and diminution in the motion of the pendulum, do not agree with the +result drawn from measurement, and that, on the contrary, they differ +very little from the theory of Newton. This is surely more than is +requisite to convince us that the poles are not flattened more than a +230th part, and that if there is any difference, it can proceed only +from the inequalities, which the water and other external causes have +produced on its surface; but these inequalities being more irregular +than regular, we must not form any hypothesis thereon, nor suppose, that +the meridians are ellipses, or any other regular curves. From whence we +perceive, that if we should successively measure many degrees of the +earth in all directions, we still should not be certain by that alone, +of the exact situation of the poles, nor whether they were depressed +more or less than the 230th part. + +May it not also be conjectured, that if the inclination of the axis of +the earth has changed, it can only be produced by the changes which have +happened to the surface, since all the rest of the globe is homogeneous; +that consequently this variation is too little sensible to be perceived +by astronomers, and that if the earth is not encountered with a comet, +or deranged, by any other external cause, its axis will remain +perpetually inclined as it is at present, and as it has always been? + +In order not to omit any conjecture which appears reasonable, may it not +be said, that as the mountains and inequalities which are on the +surface of the earth have been formed by the flux and reflux of the sea, +the mountains and inequalities which we remark on the surface of the +moon, have been produced by a similar cause? they certainly are much +higher than those of the earth, but then her tides are also much +stronger, occasioned by the earth's being considerably larger than the +moon, and consequently producing her tides with a superior force; and +this effect would be much greater if the moon had, like the earth, a +rapid rotation; but as the moon presents always the same surface to the +earth, the tides cannot operate but in proportion to the motion arising +from her libration, by which it alternatively discovers to us a segment +of its other hemisphere; this, however, must produce a kind of flux and +reflux, quite different from that of our sea, and the effects of which +will be much less considerable than if the moon had from its course a +revolution round its axis, as quick as the rotation of the terrestrial +globe. + +I should furnish a volume as large as that of Burnet or Whiston's, if I +were to enlarge on the ideas which arise in support of the above; by +giving them a geometrical air, in imitation of the last author, I might +add considerably to their weight; but, in my opinion, hypothesis, +however probable, ought not to be treated with such pomposity; it being +a dress which borders so much on quackery. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[78:A] Vide Newton, 2d edit. page 525. + +[79:A] Vid. Newton, page 405. + +[109:A] M. de Maupertuis' Figure of the Earth. + + + + +ARTICLE II. + +FROM THE SYSTEM OF WHISTON[115:A]. + + +This Author commences his treatise by a dissertation on the creation of +the world; he says that the account of it given by Moses in the text of +Genesis has not been rightly understood; that the translators have +confined themselves too much to the letter and superficial views, +without attending to nature, reason, and philosophy. The common notion +of the world being made in six days, he says is absolutely false, and +that the description given by Moses, is not an exact and philosophical +narration of the creation and origin of the universe, but only an +historical representation of the terrestrial globe. The earth, +according to him, existed in the chaos; and, at the time mentioned by +Moses, received the form, situation and consistency necessary to be +inhabited by the human race. I shall not enter into a detail of his +proofs, nor undertake their refutation. The exposition we have just +made, is sufficient to demonstrate the difference of his opinion with +public facts, its contrariety with scripture, and consequently the +insufficiency of his proofs. On the whole, he treats this matter as a +theological controvertist, rather than as an enlightened philosopher. + +Leaving these erroneous principles, he flies to ingenious suppositions, +which, although extraordinary, yet have a degree of probability to those +who, like him, incline to the enthusiasm of system. He says, that the +ancient chaos, the origin of our earth, was the atmosphere of a comet: +that the annual motion of the earth began at the time it took its new +form, but that its diurnal motion began only when the first man fell. +That the ecliptic cut the tropic of cancer, opposite to the terrestrial +paradise, which was situated on the north-west side of the frontiers of +Assyria: that before the deluge, the year began at the autumnal +equinox: that the orbits of the planets, and the earth were then +perfect circles. That the deluge began the 18th of November, 2365 of the +Julian period, or 2349 years before Christ. That the solar and lunar +year were then the same, and that they exactly contained 360 days. That +a comet descending in the plane of the ecliptic towards its perihelion, +passed near the globe of the earth the same day as the deluge began: +that there is a great heat in the internal part of the terrestrial +globe, which constantly diffuses itself from the centre to the +circumference; that the form of the earth is like that of an egg, the +ancient emblem of the globe; that mountains are the lightest part of the +earth, &c. He afterwards attributes all the alterations and changes +which have happened to the earth, to the universal deluge; then blindly +adopts the theory of Woodward, and indiscriminately makes use of all the +observations of that author on the present state of the globe; but +assumes originality when he speaks of its future state: according to him +it will be consumed by fire, and its destruction will be preceded by +terrible earthquakes, thunder, and frightful meteors; the Sun and Moon +will have an hideous aspect, the heavens will appear to fall, and the +flames will be general over all the earth; but when the fire shall have +devoured all the impurities it contains; when it shall be vitrified and +rendered transparent as crystal, the saints and the blessed spirits will +return and take possession of it, and there remain till the day of +judgment. + +These hypotheses, at the first glance, appear to be rash and extravagant +assertions; nevertheless the author has managed them with such address, +and treated them with such strength, that they cease to appear +absolutely chimerical. He supports his subjects with much science, and +it is surprising that, from a mixture of ideas so very absurd, a system +could be formed with an air of probability. It has not affected vulgar +minds so much as it has dazzled the eyes of the learned, because they +are more easily deceived by the glare of erudition, and the power of +novel ideas. Mr. Whiston was a celebrated astronomer, in the constant +habit of considering the heavens, observing the stars, and contemplating +the wonderful course of nature; he could never persuade himself that +this small grain of sand, this Earth which we inhabit, occupied more the +attention of the Creator than the universe, the vast extent of which +contains millions of other Suns and Earths. He pretends, that Moses has +not given us the history of the first creation of this globe, but only a +detail of the new form that it took when the Almighty turned it from the +mass of a comet into a planet, and formed it into a proper habitation +for men. Comets are, in fact, subjected to terrible vicissitudes by +reason of the eccentricity of their orbits. Sometimes, like that in +1680, it is a thousand times hotter there than red-hot iron; and +sometimes a thousand times colder than ice; if they are, therefore, +inhabited it must be by strange creatures, of which we can have no +conception. + +The planets, on the contrary, are places of rest, where the distance of +the sun not varying much, the temperature remains nearly the same, and +permits different kinds of plants and animals to grow and multiply. + +In the beginning God created the world; but, observes our author, the +earth was then an uninhabitable comet, suffering alternatively the +excess of heat and cold, its liquifying and freezing by turns formed a +chaos, or an abyss, surrounded with thick darkness: "and darkness +covered the face of the deep," _& tenebrae erant superfaciam abissi_. +This chaos was the atmosphere of the comet, a body composed of +heterogeneous matters, the centre occupied by spherical, solid, and hot +substances, of about two thousand leagues in diameter, round which a +very great surface of a thick fluid extended, mixed with an unshapen and +confused matter, like the chaos of the ancient _rudis & indigestaque +moles_. + +This vast atmosphere contained but very few dry, solid, or terrestrial +particles, still less aqueous or aerial, but a great quantity of fluid, +dense and heavy matters, mixed, agitated and jumbled together in the +greatest disorder and confusion. Such was the earth before the six days, +but on the first day of the creation, when the eccentrical orbit of the +comet had been changed, every thing took its place, and bodies arranged +themselves according to the law of gravity, the heavy fluid descended to +the lowest places, and left the upper regions to the terrestrial, +aqueous and aerial parts; those likewise descended according to their +order of gravity; first the earth, then the water, and last of all the +air. The immense volume of chaos was thus reduced to a globe of a +moderate size, in the centre of which is the solid body that still +retains the heat which the sun formerly communicated to it, when it +belonged to a comet. This heat may possibly endure six thousand years, +since the comet of 1680 required fifty thousand years to cool. Around +this solid and burning matter, which occupies the centre of the earth, +the dense and heavy fluid which descended the first is to be found, and +this is the fluid which forms the great abyss on which the earth is +borne, like cork on quicksilver; but as the terrestrial parts were +originally mixed with a large quantity of water, in descending they have +dragged with them a part of this water, which, not being able to +re-ascend after the earth was consolidated, formed a concentrical bed +with the heavy fluid which surrounds this hot substance, insomuch that +the great abyss is composed of two concentrical orbs, the most internal +of which is a heavy fluid, and the other water; the last of which serves +for a foundation to the earth. It is from this admirable arrangement, +produced by the atmosphere of a comet, that the Theory of the Earth, and +the explanation of all its phenomena are to depend. + +When the atmosphere of the comet was once disembarrassed from all the +solid and terrestrial matters, there remained only the lighter air, +through which the rays of the sun freely passed and instantly produced +light: "Let there be light, and there was light." The columns which +composed the orb of the Earth being formed with such great precipitation +is the cause of their different densities: consequently the heaviest +sunk deeper into this subterraneous fluid than the lightest; and it is +this which has produced the vallies and mountains on the surface of the +earth. These inequalities were, before the deluge, dispersed and +situated otherwise than they are at present. Instead of the vast valley, +which contains the ocean, there were many small divided cavities on the +surface of the globe, each of which contained a part of this water; the +mountains were also more divided, and did not form chains as at present: +nevertheless, the earth contained a thousand times more people, and was +a thousand times more fertile; and the life of man and other animals +were ten times longer, all which was affected by the internal heat of +the earth that proceeded from the centre, and gave birth to a great +number of plants and animals, bestowing on them a degree of vigour +necessary for them to subsist a long time, and multiply in great +abundance. But this heat, by increasing the strength of bodies, +unfortunately extended to the heads of men and animals; it augmented +their passions; it deprived man of his innocence, and the brute creation +of part of their intelligence; all creatures, excepting fish, who +inhabited a colder element, felt the effects of this heat, became +criminal and merited death. It therefore came, and this universal death +happened on Wednesday the 28th of November, by a terrible deluge of +forty days and forty nights, and was caused by the tail of another comet +which encountered the earth in returning from its perihelion. + +The tail of a comet is the lightest part of its atmosphere; it is a +transparent mist, a subtile vapour, which the heat of the sun exhales +from the body of the comet: this vapour composed of extremely rarefied +aqueous and aerial particles, follows the comet when it descends to its +perihelion, and precedes when it re-ascends, so that it is always +situate opposite to the sun, as if it sought to be in the shade, and +avoid the too great heat of that luminary. The column which this vapour +forms is often of an immense length, and the more a comet approaches the +sun, the longer and more extended is its tail, and as many comets +descend below the annual orb of the earth, it is not surprising that +the earth is sometimes found surrounded with the vapour of this tail; +this is precisely what happened at the time of the deluge. In two hours +the tail of a comet will evacuate a quantity of water equal to what is +contained in the whole ocean. In short, this tail was what Moses calls +the cataracts of Heaven, "and the cataracts of Heaven were opened." The +terrestrial globe meeting with the tail of a comet, must, in going its +course through this vapour, appropriate to itself a part of the matter +which it contains; all which, coming within the sphere of the earth's +attraction, must fall on it, and fall in the form of rain, since this +tail is partly composed of aqueous vapours. Thus rain may come down in +such abundance as to produce an universal deluge the waters of which +might easily surmount the tops of the highest mountains. Nevertheless, +our author, cautious of not going directly against the letter of holy +writ, does not say that this rain was the sole cause of the universal +deluge, but takes the water from every place he can find it. The great +abyss as we see contains a considerable quantity. The earth, at the +approach of the comet, would prove the force of its attraction; and the +waters contained in the great abyss would be agitated by so violent a +kind of flux and reflux, that the superficial crust would not resist, +but split in several places, and the internal waters be dispersed over +the surface, "And the fountains of the abyss were opened." + +But what became of these waters, which the tail of the comet and great +abyss furnished so liberally? our author is not the least embarrassed +thereon. As soon as the earth, continuing its course, removed from the +comet, the effects of its attraction, the flux and reflux in the great +abyss ceased of course, and immediately the upper waters precipitated +back with violence by the same roads as they had been forced upon the +surface. The great abyss absorbed all the superfluous waters, and was of +a sufficient capacity not only to receive its own waters, but also all +those which the tail of the comet had left, because during its +agitation, and the rupture of its crust, it had enlarged the space by +driving out on all sides the earth that surrounded it. It was at this +time also the figure of the earth, which till then was spherical, became +elliptic. This effect was occasioned by the centrifugal force caused by +its diurnal motion, and by the attraction of the comet, for the earth, +in passing through the tail of the comet, found itself so placed that it +presented the parts of the equator to that planet; and the power of the +attraction of the comet, concurring with the centrifugal force of the +earth, caused the parts of the equator to be elevated, and that with the +more facility as the crust was broken and divided in an infinity of +places, and because the flux and reflux of the abyss drove against the +equator more violently than elsewhere. + +Here then is Mr. Whiston's history of the creation; the causes of the +universal deluge; the length of the life of the first men; and the +figure of the Earth; all which seem to have cost our author little or no +labour; but Noah's ark appears to have greatly disquieted him. In the +midst of so terrible a disorder occasioned by the conjunction of the +tail of a comet with the waters of the great abyss, in the terrible +moments wherein not only the elements of the earth were confused, but +when new elements still concurred to augment the chaos, how can it be +imagined that the ark floated quietly with its numerous cargo on the top +of the waves? Here our author makes great efforts to arrive at and give +a physical reason for the preservation of the ark, but which has always +appeared to me insufficient, poorly imagined, and but little +orthodoxical: I will not here relate it, but only observe how hard it is +for a man who has explained objects so great and wonderful, without +having recourse to a supernatural power, to be stopt by one particular +circumstance; our author, however, chose rather to risk drowning with +the ark, than to attribute to the immediate bounty of the Almighty the +preservation of this precious vessel. + +I shall only make one remark on this system, of which I have made a +faithful abridgement: which is, whenever we are rash enough to attempt +to explain theological truths by physical reasons, or interpret purely +by human views, the divine text of holy writ, or that we endeavour to +reason on the will of the Most High, and on the execution of his +decrees, we consequently shall involve ourselves in the darkness and +chaos of obscurity and confusion, like the author of this system, which, +in defiance of its absurdities, has been received with great applause. +He neither doubts the truth of the deluge, nor the authenticity of the +sacred writ; but as he was less employed with it than with physic and +astronomy, he has taken passages of the scripture for physical facts, +and the results of astronomical observations; and has so strangely +blended the divine knowledge with human science as to give birth to the +most extraordinary system that possibly ever was or will be conceived. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[115:A] A New Theory of the Earth by William Whiston, 1708. + + + + +ARTICLE III. + +FROM THE SYSTEM OF BURNET.[128:A] + + +This author is the first who has treated this subject generally and in a +systematical matter. He was possessed of much understanding, and was a +person well acquainted with the _belles lettres_. His work acquired +great reputation, and was criticised by many of the learned, among the +rest by Mr. Keil, who has geometrically demonstrated the errors of Mr. +Burnet, in a treatise called "Examination of the Theory of the Earth." +Mr. Keil also refuted Whiston's system; but he treats the last author +very different from the first, and seems even to be of his opinion in +several cases, and looks upon the tail of a comet to be a very probable +cause for the deluge. But, to return to Burnet, his book is elegantly +written; he knew how to paint noble images and magnificent scenes. His +plan is great, but the execution is deficient for want of proper +materials: his reasoning is good, but his proofs are weak; yet his +confidence in his writings is so great, that he frequently causes his +readers to pass over his errors. + +He begins by telling us, that before the deluge the earth had a very +different form from that which it has at present; it was at first, he +says, a fluid mass, compounded of matters of all kinds, and all sorts of +figures, the heaviest descended towards the centre, and formed a hard +and solid body; round which the waters collected, and the air, and all +the liquors lighter than water, surmounted them. Between the orb of air +and that of water, was an orb of oily matter, but as the air was still +very impure, and contained a great quantity of small particles of +terrestrial matter, they by degrees descended on the coat of oil, and +formed a terrestrial orb blended with earth and oil; and this was the +first habitable earth, and the first abode of man. This was an excellent +soil, light, and calculated to yield to the tenderness of the first +germs. The surface of the terrestrial globe was at first equal, uniform, +without mountains, without seas, and without inequalities; but it +remained only about sixteen centuries in this state, for the heat of the +sun by degrees drying the crust, split it at first on the surface, soon +after these cracks penetrated farther and increased so considerably by +time, that at length they entirely opened the crust; in an instant the +whole earth fell into pieces in the abyss of water it surrounded; and +this was the cause of the deluge. + +But all these masses of earth, by falling into the abyss, dragged along +with them a great quantity of air; these struck against each other, +divided, and accumulated so irregularly, that great cavities filled with +air were left between them. The waters by degrees opened these cavities, +and in proportion as they filled them, the surface of the earth +discovered itself in the highest parts; at length water alone remained +in the lowest parts; that is to say, the vast vallies which contain the +sea. Thus our ocean is a part of the ancient abyss, the rest is entered +into the internal cavities with which the ocean communicates. The +islands and sea rocks are the small fragments, and continents are the +great masses of the old crust. As the rupture and the fall of this crust +are made of a sudden, and with confusion, it was not surprising to find +eminences, depths, plains, and inequalities of all kinds on the surface +of the earth. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[128:A] Thomas Burnet. Telluris theoria sacra, orbis nostri originem & +mutationes generales, quas aut jam subut, aut olim Subiturus est +complectens. Londina, 1681. + + + + +ARTICLE IV. + +FROM THE SYSTEM OF WOODWARD. + + +It may be said of this author, that he attempted to raise an immense +monument on a less solid base than the moving sand, and to construct a +world with dust; for he pretends, that at the time of the deluge a total +dissolution of the earth was made. The first idea which presents, after +having gone through his book,[132:A] is, that this dissolution was made +by the waters of the great abyss. He asserts, that the abyss where the +water was included opened all at once at the command of God, and +dispersed over the surface an enormous quantity of water necessary to +cover the tops of the highest mountains, and that God suspended the +cause of cohesion which reduced all solid bodies into dust, &c. He did +not consider that by these suppositions he added other miracles to that +of the universal deluge, or at least physical impossibilities, which +agree neither with the letter of the holy writ, nor with the +mathematical principles of natural philosophy. But as this author has +the merit of having collected many important observations, and as he was +better acquainted with the materials of which the globe is composed than +those who preceded him, his system, although badly conceived, and worse +digested, has nevertheless dazzled many people, who, seduced by the +truth of some particular circumstances, put confidence in his general +conclusions; we shall, therefore, give a short view of his theory, in +which, by doing justice to the author's merit, and the exactness of his +observations, we shall put the reader in a state of judging of the +insufficiency of his system, and of the falsity of some of his remarks. +Mr. Woodward speaks of having discovered by his sight that all matters +which compose the English earth, from the surface to the deepest places +which had been dug, were disposed by beds of strata, and that in a great +number of these there were shells and other marine productions; he +afterwards adds, that by his correspondents and friends he was assured, +that in other countries the earth is composed of the same materials, and +that shells are found there, not only in the plains but on the highest +mountains, in the deepest quarries, and in an infinity of different +places. He perceived their strata to be horizontal and disposed one over +the other, as matters are which are transported by the waters, and +deposited in form of sediment. These general remarks, which are true, +are followed by particular observations, by which he evidently shews, +that fossils found incorporated in the strata are real shells and marine +productions, not minerals and singular bodies, the sport of nature, &c. + +To these observations, though partly made before him, which he has +collected and proved, he adds others less exact. He asserts, that all +matters of different strata are placed one on the other in the order of +their specific gravity. + +This general assertion is not true, for we daily see rocks placed above +clay, sand, coal, and bitumen, and which certainly are specifically +heavier than either of these latter materials. If, in fact, we found +throughout the earth that the first strata was bitumen, then chalk, then +marl, clay, sand, stone, marble, and at last metals, so that the +composition of the earth exactly followed the law of gravity, there +would be an appearance that they might have been precipitated at the +same time, which our author asserts with confidence, in spite of the +evidence to the contrary; for, without being a naturalist, we need only +have our eye-sight to be convinced that heavy strata are often found +above lighter, and that consequently these sediments were not +precipitated all at one time, but have been brought and deposited +successively by the water. As this is the foundation of his system, and +is manifestly false, we shall follow it no farther than to show how far +an erroneous principle may produce false combinations and erroneous +conclusions. + +All the matters, says our author, which compose the earth, from the +summits of the highest mountains, to the greatest depths of mines, are +disposed by strata, according to their specific weights; therefore he +concludes the whole has been dissolved and precipitated at one time. But +in what manner, and at what time was it dissolved? In water, replies he, +and at the time of the deluge. But there is not a sufficient quantity of +water on the globe for this to be effected, since there is more land +than water, and the bottom of the sea itself is earth. This he admits, +but says, there is more water than is requisite at the centre of the +earth, that it was only necessary for it to ascend, and possess a power +of dissolving every substance but shells, afterwards to find the means +for this water to re-enter the abyss, and to make all this agree with +the history of the deluge. This then is the system, of which the author +does not entertain the least doubt; for when it is opposed to him that +water cannot dissolve marble, stone, and metals, especially in forty +days, the duration of the deluge, he answers simply, that nevertheless +it did happen so. When he is asked, what the virtue of this water of +the abyss was, to dissolve all the earth, and at the same time preserve +the shells? he says, that he never pretended that this water was a +dissolvent; but that it is clear, by facts, that the earth has been +dissolved and the shells preserved. When he was evidently shown that if +he had no reason to give, or facts to support, for these phenomena, his +system was useless, he said, we have only to imagine that, during the +deluge, the force of gravity and the coherency of matter ceased on a +sudden, and by this supposition the dissolution of the old world would +be explained in a very easy and satisfactory manner. But, it was said to +him, if the power which holds the parts of matter united was suspended, +why were not the shells dissolved as well as all the rest? Here he makes +a discourse on the organization of shells and bones of animals, by which +he pretends to prove that their texture being fibrous, and different +from that of minerals, their power of cohesion was different also; after +all, we have, says he, only to suppose that the power of gravity and +cohesion did not entirely cease, but that it was only diminished +sufficient to disunite all the parts of minerals, and not those of +animals. To all this we cannot be prevented from discovering, that our +author's philosophy was not equal to his talents for observation; and I +do not think it necessary seriously to refute opinions which have no +foundation, especially when they have been imagined against the rules of +probability, and drawn from consequences contrary to mechanical laws. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[132:A] An Essay towards the Natural History of the Earth, &c. by John +Woodward. + + + + +ARTICLE V. + +EXPOSITION OF SOME OTHER SYSTEMS. + + +It is plain that the three forementioned hypotheses have much in common +with each other. They all agree in this point, that during the deluge +the earth changed its form, as well externally as internally; but these +speculators have not considered that the earth before the deluge was +inhabited by the same species of men and animals, and must necessarily +have been nearly such as it is at present. The sacred writings teach us, +that before the deluge there were rivers, seas, mountains, and forests. +That these rivers and mountains were, for the most part, retained in the +same situations; the Tigris and Euphrates were the rivers of the ancient +paradise; that the mountain of Armenia, on which the ark rested, was one +of the highest mountains in the world at the deluge, as it is at +present: that the same plants and animals which exist now, existed then; +for we read of the serpent, of the raven, of the crow, and of the dove, +which brought the olive branch into the ark. Although Tournefort asserts +there are no olive trees for more than 400 miles from Mount Ararat, and +passes some absurd jokes thereon[138:A], it is nevertheless certain +there were olives in this neighbourhood at the time of the deluge, since +holy writ assures us of it in the most express terms; but it is by no +means astonishing that in the space of 4000 years the olive trees should +have been destroyed in those quarters, and multiplied in others; it is +therefore contrary to scripture and reason, that those authors have +supposed the earth was quite different from its present state before the +deluge; and this contradiction between their hypothesis and the sacred +text, as well as physical truths, must cause their systems to be +rejected, if even they should agree with some phenomena. Burnet gives +neither observations, nor any real facts, for the support of his system. +Woodward has only given us an essay, in which he promised much more than +he could perform: his book is a project, the execution of which has not +been seen. He has made use of two general observations; the first, that +the earth is every where composed of matters which formerly were in a +state of fluidity, transported by the waters, and deposited in +horizontal strata. The second, that there are abundance of marine +productions in most parts of the bowels of the earth. To give a reason +for these facts, he has recourse to the universal deluge, or rather it +appears that he gives them as proofs of the deluge; but, like Burnet, he +falls into evident contradictions, for it is not to be supposed with +them that there were no mountains prior to the deluge, since it is +expressly stated, that the waters rose fifteen cubits above the tops of +the highest mountains. On the other hand, it is not said that these +waters destroyed or dissolved these mountains; but, on the contrary, +these mountains remained in their places, and the ark rested on that +which the water first deserted. Besides how can it be imagined that, +during the short duration of the deluge, the waters were able to +dissolve the mountains and the whole body of the earth? Is it not an +absurdity to suppose that in forty days all marble, rocks, stones, and +minerals, were dissolved by water? Is it not a manifest contradiction to +admit this total dissolution, and at the same time maintain that shells, +bones, and marine productions were preserved entire, and resisted that +which had dissolved the most solid substances? I shall not therefore +hesitate to say, that Woodward, with excellent facts and observations, +has formed but a poor and inconsistent system. + +Whiston, who came last, greatly enriched the other two, and +notwithstanding he gave a vast scope to his imagination has not fallen +into contradiction; he speaks of matters not very credible, but they are +neither absolutely nor evidently impossible. As we are ignorant of the +centre of the earth, he thought he might suppose it was a solid matter, +surrounded with a ring of heavy fluid, and afterwards with a ring of +water, on which the external crust was sustained; in the latter the +different parts of this crust were more or less sunk, in proportion to +their relative weights, which produced mountains and inequalities on the +surface of the earth. Here, however, this astronomer has committed a +mechanical blunder; he did not recollect that the earth, according to +this hypothesis, must be an uniform arch, and that consequently it could +not be borne on the water it contains, and much less sunk therein. I do +not know that there are any other physical errors; but he has made a +great number of errors, both in metaphysics and theology. On the whole +it cannot be denied absolutely that the earth meeting with the tail of a +comet might not be inundated, especially allowing the author that the +tail of a comet may contain aqueous vapours; nor can it be denied as an +absolute impossibility that the tail of a comet, in returning from its +perihelium, might not burn the earth, if we suppose, with Mr. Whiston, +that the comet passed very near the sun; it is the same with the rest of +the system. But though his ideas are not absolutely impossibilities, +there is so little probability to each thing, when taken separately, +that the result upon the whole taken together puts it beyond +credibility. + +The three systems we have spoken of are not the only works which have +been composed on the theory of the earth; a Memoir of M. Bourguet +appeared in 1729, printed at Amsterdam, with his "Philosophical Letters +on the Formation of Salts, &c." in which he gives a specimen of the +system he meditated, but which was prevented completion by the death of +the author. It is but justice to admit, that no person was more +industrious in making observations or collecting facts. To him we owe +that great and beautiful observation, the correspondence between the +angles of mountains. He presents every thing which he had collected in +great order; but with all those advantages, it appears that he has +succeeded no better than the rest in making a physical and reasonable +history of the changes which had happened to the globe, and that he was +very wide from having found the real cause of those effects which he +relates. To be convinced of this we need only cast our eyes on the +propositions which he deduces from the phenomena, and which ought to +serve for the basis of his theory. He says, that the whole globe took +its form at one time, and not successively; that its form and +disposition prove that it has been in a state of fluidity; that the +present state of the earth is very different from that in which it was +for many ages after its first formation; that the matter of the globe +was at the beginning less dense than since it altered its appearance; +that the condensation of its solid parts diminished by degrees with its +velocity, so that after having made a number of revolutions on its axis, +and round the sun, it found itself on a sudden in a state of +dissolution, which destroyed its first structure. This happened about +the vernal equinox. That the sea-shells introduced themselves into the +dissolved matters; that after this dissolution the earth took the form +it now has, and that the fire which directly infused itself therein +consumed it by degrees, and it will be one day destroyed by a terrible +explosion, accompanied with a general conflagration, which will augment +the atmosphere of the globe, and diminish its diameter, and that then +the earth, instead of beds of sand or earth, will have only strata of +calcined metal and mountains composed of amalgamas of different metals. + +This is sufficient to shew the system M. Bourguet meditated; to divine +in this manner the past, and predict the future, nearly as others have +predicted, does not appear to me to be an effort of judgment: this +author had more erudition than sound and general views: he appears to be +deficient in that capaciousness of ideas necessary to follow the extent +of the subject, and enable him to comprehend the chain of causes and +effects. + +In the acts of Leipsic, the famous Leibnitz published a scheme of quite +a different system, under the title of _Protogaea_. The earth, according +to Bourguet and others, must end by fire; according to Leibnitz it began +by it, and has suffered many more changes and revolutions than is +imagined. The greatest part of the terrestrial matter was surrounded by +violent flames at the time when Moses says light was divided from +darkness. The planets, as well as the earth, were fixed stars, luminous +of themselves. After having burnt a long time, he pretends that they +were extinguished for want of combustible matter, and are become opaque +bodies. The fire, by melting the matter, produced a vitrified crust, +and the basis of all the matter which composes the globe is glass, of +which sand and gravel are only fragments. The other kinds of earth are +formed from a mixture of this sand, with fixed salts and water, and when +the crust cooled, the humid particles, which were raised in form of +vapours, refel, and formed the sea. They at first covered the whole +surface, and even surmounted the highest mountains. According to this +author, the shells, and other wrecks of the sea, which are every where +to be found, positively prove that the sea has covered the whole earth; +and the great quantity of fixed salts, sand, and other melted and +calcined matters, which are included in the bowels of the earth, prove +that the conflagration had been general, and that it preceded the +existence of the sea. Although these thoughts are void of proofs, they +are capital. The ideas have connection, the hypotheses are not +impossible, and the consequences that may be drawn therefrom are not +contradictory: but the grand defect of this theory is, that it is not +applicable to the present state of the earth; it is the past which it +explains, and this past is so far back, and has left us so few remains, +that we may say what we please of it, and the probability will be in +proportion as a man has talents to elucidate what he asserts. To affirm +as Whiston has done, that the earth was originally a comet, or, with +Leibnitz, that it has been a sun, is saying things equally possible or +impossible, and to which it would be ridiculous to apply the rules of +probability. To say that the sea formerly covered all the earth, that it +surrounded the whole globe, and that it is for this reason shells are +every where found, is not paying attention to a very essential point, +the unity of the time of the creation; for if that was so, it must +necessarily be admitted, that shell-fish, and other inhabitants of the +sea, of which we find the remains in the internal part of the earth, +existed long before man, and all terrestrial animals. Now, independent +of the testimony of holy writ, is it not reasonable to think, that all +animals and vegetables are nearly as ancient as each other? + +M. Scheutzer, in a Dissertation, addressed to the Academy of Sciences in +1728, attributes, like Woodward, the change, or rather the second +formation of the globe, to the universal deluge; to explain that of +mountains, he says, that after the deluge, God chusing to return the +waters into subterraneous reservoirs, broke and displaced with his +all-powerful hand a number of beds, before horizontal, and raised them +above the surface of the globe, which was originally level. The whole +Dissertation is composed to imply this opinion. As it was requisite +these eminences should be of a solid consistence, M. Scheutzer remarks, +that God only drew them from places where there were many stones; from +hence, says he, it proceeds that those countries, like Switzerland, +which are very stony, are also mountainous; and on the contrary, those, +as Holland, Flanders, Hungary and Poland, have only sand or clay, even +to a very great depth, and are almost entirely without mountains.[147:A] + +This author, more than any other, is desirous of blending Physic with +Theology, and though he has given some good observations, the +systematical part of his works is still weaker than those who preceded +him. On this subject he has even made declamations and ridiculous +witticisms, as may be seen in his _Visciam quaerelae_, &c. without +speaking of his large work in many folio volumes, _Physica Sacra_, a +puerile work, which appears to be composed less for the instruction of +men than for the amusement of children. + +Steno, and some others, have attributed the cause of the inequalities of +the earth to particular inundations, earthquakes, &c. but the effects of +these secondary causes have been only able to produce some slight +changes. We admit of these causes after the first cause, the motion of +the flux and reflux, and of the sea from east to west. Neither Steno, +nor the rest, have given theory, nor even any general facts on this +matter.[148:A] + +Ray pretends that all mountains have been produced by earthquakes, and +he has composed a treatise to prove it; we shall shew under the article +of Volcanos what little foundation his opinion is built upon. + +We cannot dispense with observing that Burnet, Woodward, Whiston, and +most of these other authors, have committed an error which deserves to +be cleared up; which is, to have looked upon the deluge as possible by +the action of natural causes, whereas scripture presents it to us as +produced by the immediate will of God; there is no natural cause which +can produce on the whole surface of the earth, the quantity of water +required to cover the highest mountains; and if even we could imagine a +cause proportionate to this effect, it would still be impossible to find +another cause capable of causing the water to disappear: allowing +Whiston, that these waters proceeded from the tail of a comet, we deny +that any could proceed from the great abyss, or that they all returned +into it, since the great abyss, according to him, being surrounded on +every side by the crust, or terrestrial orb, it is impossible that the +attraction of the comet could cause any motion to the fluids it +contained; much less, as he says, a violent flux and reflux; hence there +could not be issued from, nor entered into, the great abyss, a single +drop of water; and unless it is supposed that the waters which fell from +the comet have been destroyed by a miracle, they would still be on the +surface of the earth, covering the summits of the highest mountains. +Nothing better characterises a miracle, than the impossibility of +explaining the effect of it by natural causes. Our authors have made +vain efforts to give a reason for the deluge; their physical efforts, +and the secondary causes, which they made use of, prove the truth of the +fact as reported in the scriptures, and demonstrate that it could only +have been performed by the first cause, the will of the Almighty. + +Besides, it is certain that it was neither at one time, nor by the +effect of the deluge, that the sea left dry these continents we inhabit: +for it is certain by the testimony of holy writ, that the terrestrial +paradise was in Asia, and that Asia was inhabited before the deluge; +consequently the sea, at that time, did not cover this considerable part +of the globe. The earth, before the deluge, was nearly as it is at +present, and this enormous quantity of water, which divine justice +caused to fall on the earth to punish guilty men, in fact, brought death +on every creature; but it produced no change on the surface of the +earth, it did not even destroy plants which grew upon it, since the dove +brought an olive branch to the ark in her beak. + +Why, therefore, imagine, as many of our naturalists have done, that this +water totally changed the surface of the globe even to a depth of two +thousand feet? Why do they desire it to be the deluge which has brought +the shells on the earth which we meet with at 7 or 800 feet depth in +rocks and marble? Why say, that the hills and mountains were formed at +that time? And how can we figure to ourselves, that it is possible for +these waters to have brought masses and banks of shells 100 miles long? +I see not how they can persist in this opinion, at least, without +admitting a double miracle in the deluge; the first, for the +augmentation of the waters; and the second, for the transportation of +the shells; but as there is only the first which is related in the +Bible, I do not see it necessary to make the second an article of our +creed. + +On the other hand, if the waters of the deluge had retired all at once, +they would have carried so great a quantity of mud and other impurities, +that the Earth would not have been capable of culture till many ages +after this inundation; as is known, by the deluge which happened in +Greece, where the overflowed country was totally forsaken, and could not +receive any cultivation for more than three centuries.[151:A] We ought +also to look on the universal deluge as a supernatural means of which +the Almighty made use for the chastisement of mankind, and not as an +effect of a natural cause. The universal deluge is a miracle both in its +cause and effects; we see clearly by the scripture that it was designed +for the destruction of men and animals, and that it did not in any mode +change the earth, since after the retreat of the waters, the mountains, +and even the trees, were in their places, and the surface of the earth +was proper to receive culture and produce vines and fruits. How could +all the race of fish, which did not enter the ark, be preserved, if the +earth had been dissolved in the water, or only if the waters had been +sufficiently agitated to transport shells from India to Europe, &c.? + +Nevertheless, this supposition, that it was the deluge which transported +the shells of the sea into every climate, is the opinion, or rather the +superstition, of naturalists. Woodward, Scheutzer, and some more, call +these petrified shells the remains of the deluge; they look on them as +the medals and monuments which God has left us of this terrible event, +in order that it never should be effaced from the human race. In short, +they have adopted this hypothesis with so much enthusiasm, that they +appear only desirous to reconcile holy scripture with their opinion; and +instead of making use of their observations, and deriving light +therefrom, they envelope themselves in the clouds of a physical +theology, the obscurity of which is derogatory to the simplicity and +dignity of religion, and only leaves the absurd to perceive a ridiculous +mixture of human ideas and divine truths. To pretend to explain the +universal Deluge, and its physical causes; to attempt to teach what +passed in the time of that great revolution; to divine what were the +effects of it; to add facts to those of Holy Writ, to draw consequences +from such facts, is only a presumptuous attempt to measure the power of +the Most High. The natural wonders which his benevolent hand performs in +an uniform and regular manner, are incomprehensible; and by the +strongest reason, these wonderful operations and miracles ought to hold +us in awful wonder, and in silent adoration. + +But they will say, the universal Deluge being a certain fact, is it not +permitted to reason on its consequences? It may be so; but it is +requisite that you should begin by allowing that the Deluge could not be +performed by physical causes; you ought to consider it is an immediate +effect of the will of the Almighty; you ought to confine yourselves to +know only what the Holy Writ teaches, and particularly not to blend bad +philosophy with the purity of divine truth. These precautions, which the +respect we owe to the Almighty exacts, being taken, what remains for +examination on the subject of the Deluge? Does the Scripture say +mountains were formed by the Deluge? No, it says the contrary. Is it +said that the agitation of the waters was so great as to raise up shells +from the bottom of the sea, and transport them all over the earth? No; +the ark floated quietly on the surface of the waters. Is it said, that +the earth suffered a total dissolution? None at all: the recital of the +sacred historian is simple and true, that of these naturalists complex +and fabulous. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[138:A] Voyage du Levant, vol. 2, page 336. + +[147:A] See the Hist. of the Acad. 1708, page 32. + +[148:A] See the Diss. de Solido intra Solidum, &c. + +[151:A] See Acta erudit, Lepiss, Ann. 1691, page 100. + + + + +ARTICLE VI. + +GEOGRAPHY. + + +The surface of the Earth, like that of Jupiter, is not divided by bands +alternative and parallel to the equator; on the contrary, it is divided +from one pole to the other, by two bands of earth, and two of sea; the +first and principal is the ancient continent, the greatest length of +which is found to be in a line, beginning on the east point of the +northern part of Tartary, and extending from thence to the land which +borders on the gulph of Linchidolkin, where the Muscovites fish for +whales; from thence to Tobolski, from Tobolski to the Caspian sea, from +the Caspian sea to Mecca, and from Mecca to the western part of the +country inhabited by the Galli, in Africa; afterwards to Monoemuci or +Monomotapa, and at last to the Cape of Good Hope; this line, which is +the greatest length of the old continent, is about 3600 leagues, Paris +measure; it is only interrupted by the Caspian and Red seas, the +breadths of which are not very considerable, and we must not pay any +regard to these interruptions, when it is considered, the surface of the +globe is divided only in four parts. + +This greatest length is found by measuring the old continent diagonally; +for if measured according to the meridians, we shall find that there are +only 2500 leagues from the northernmost Cape of Lapland to the Cape of +Good Hope; and that the Baltic and Mediterranean cause a much greater +interruption than is met with in the other way. With respect to all the +other distances that might be measured in the old continent under the +same meridian, we shall find them to be much smaller than this; having, +for example, only 1800 leagues from the most southern point of the +island of Ceylon to the northernmost coast of Nova Zembla. Likewise, if +we measure the continent parallel to the equator, we find that the +greatest uninterrupted length is found from Trefna, on the western coast +of Africa, to Ninpo, on the eastern coast of China, and that it is about +2800 leagues. Another course may be measured from the point of Brittany +near Brest, extending to the Chinese Tartary; about 2300 leagues. From +Bergen, in Norway, to the coast of Kamschatka, is no more than 1800 +leagues. All these lines have much less length than the first, therefore +the greatest extent of the old continent, is, in fact, from the eastern +point of Tartary to the Cape of Good Hope, that is about 3600 leagues. + +There is so great an equality of surface on each side of this line, +which is also the longest, that there is every probability to suppose it +really divides the contents of the ancient continent; for in measuring +on one side is found 2,471,092-3/4 square leagues, and on the other +2,469,687. + +Agreeable to this, the old continent consists of about 4,940,780 square +leagues, which is nearly one-fifth of the whole surface of the globe, +and has an inclination towards the equator of about 30 degrees. + +The greatest length of the new continent may be taken in a line from the +mouth of the river Plata to the lake of Assiniboils. From the former it +passes to the lake Caracara; from thence to Mataguais, Pocona, Zongo, +Mariana, Morua, St. Fe, and Carthagena; it then proceeds through the +gulph of Mexico, Jamaica, and Cuba, passes along the peninsula of +Florida, through Apolache, Chicachas, and from thence to St. Louis, Fort +le Suer, and ends on the borders of lake Assiniboils; the whole extent +of which is still unknown. + +This line, which is interrupted only by the Mexican gulph (which must be +looked upon as a mediterranean sea) may be about 2500 leagues long, and +divides the new continent into nearly two equal parts, the left of which +contains about 1,069,286-5/6 leagues square, and that on the right about +1,070,926-1/12; this line, which forms the middle of the band of the new +continent, is inclined to the equator about 30 degrees, but in an +opposite direction, for that of the old continent extends from the +north-east to the south-west, and that of the new continent from the +north-west to the south-east. All those lands together of the old and +new continent, make about 7,080,993 leagues square, which is not near +the third of the whole surface, which contains 25 millions of square +leagues. + +It must be remarked, that these two lines, which divide the continents +into two equal parts, both terminate at the same degree of southern and +northern latitude, and that the two continents make opposite +projections, which exactly face each other; to wit, the coasts of +Africa, from the Canary islands to the coasts of Guinea, and those of +America from Guiana to the mouth of Rio Janeiro. + +It appears, therefore, that the most ancient land of the globe, is on +the two sides of these lines, at the distance of from 2 to 250 leagues +on each side. By following this idea, which is founded on the +observations before related, we shall find in the old continent that the +most ancient lands of Africa are those which extend from the Cape of +Good Hope to the Red Sea, as far as Egypt, about 500 leagues broad, and +that, consequently, all the western coasts of Africa, from Guinea to the +straits of Gibraltar, are the newest lands. So likewise we shall +discover that in Asia, if we follow the line on the same breadth, the +most ancient lands are Arabia Felix and Deserta, Persia, Georgia, +Turcomania, part of Tartary, Circassia, part of Muscovy, &c. that +consequently Europe, and perhaps also China, and the eastern part of +Tartary, are more modern. In the new continent we shall find the Terra +Magellanica, the eastern part of Brasil, the country of the Amazons, +Guiana, and Canada, to be the new lands, in comparison with Peru, Terra +Firma, the islands in the gulph of Mexico, Florida, the Mississippi, and +Mexico. + +To these observations we may add two very remarkable facts, the old and +new continent are almost opposite each other; the old is more extensive +to the north of the equator than the south; the new is more to the south +than the north. The centre of the old continent is in the 16th or 18th +degree of north latitude, and the centre of the new is in the 16th or +18th degree south latitude, so that they seem to be made to +counterbalance each other. There is also a singular connexion between +the two continents, although it appears to be more accidental than those +which I have spoken of, which is, that if the two continents were +divided into two parts, all four would be surrounded by the sea, if it +were not for the two small isthmuses, Suez and Panama. + +This is the most general idea which an attentive inspection of the globe +furnishes us with, on the division of the earth. We shall abstain from +forming hypotheses thereon, and hazarding reasonings which might lead +into false conclusions; but no one as yet having considered the +division of the globe under this point of view, I shall submit a few +remarks. It is very singular that the line which forms the greatest +length of the terrestrial continents divides them also into two equal +parts; it is no less so that these two lines commence and end at the +same degrees of latitude, and are both alike inclined to the equator. +These relations may belong to some general conclusions, but of which we +are ignorant. The inequalities in the figure of the two continents we +shall hereafter examine more fully: it is sufficient here to observe, +that the most ancient countries are the nearest to these lines, and are +the highest; that the more modern lands are the farthest, and also the +lowest. Thus in America, the country of the Amazons, Guiana and Canada +will be the most modern parts; by casting our eyes on the map of this +country we see the waters on every side, and that they are divided by +numberless lakes and rivers, which also indicates that these lands are +of a late formation; while on the other hand Peru and Mexico are high +mountains, and situate at no great distance from the line that divides +the continent, which are circumstances that seem to prove their +antiquity. Africa is very mountainous, and that part of the world is +also very ancient. There are only Egypt, Barbary, and the western coasts +of Africa, as far as Senegal, in this part of the globe, which can be +looked upon as modern countries. Asia is an old land, and perhaps the +most ancient of all, particularly Arabia, Persia, and Tartary; but the +inequalities of this vast part of the globe, as well as those of Europe, +we will consider in a separate article. It might be said in general, +that Europe is a new country, and such position would be supported both +by the universal traditions relative to the emigrations of different +people, and the origin of arts and sciences. It is not long since it was +filled with morasses, and covered with forests, whereas in the land +anciently inhabited, there are but few woods, little water, no morasses, +much land, and a number of mountains, whose summits are dry and barren; +for men destroy the woods, drain the waters, confine rivers, dry up +morasses, and in time give a different appearance to the face of the +earth, from that, of uninhabited or newly-peopled countries. + +The ancients were acquainted with but a small part of the globe. All +America, the Magellanic, and a great part of the interior of Africa, +was entirely unknown to them. They knew not that the torrid zone was +inhabited, although they had navigated around Africa, for it is 2200 +years since Neco, king of Egypt, gave vessels to the Phenicians, who +sailed along the Red Sea, coasted round Africa, doubled the Cape of Good +Hope, and having employed two years in this voyage, the third year they +entered the straits of Gibraltar.[163:A] The ancients were unacquainted +with the property of the loadstone, if turned towards the poles, +although they knew that it attracted iron. They were ignorant of the +general cause of the flux and reflux of the sea, nor were they certain +the ocean surrounded the globe; some indeed suspected it might be so, +but with so little foundation, that no one dared to say, or even +conjecture, it was possible to make a voyage round the world. Magellan +was the first who attempted it in the year 1519, and accomplished the +great voyage in 1124 days. Sir Francis Drake was the second in 1577, and +he performed it in 1056 days; afterwards Thomas Cavendish made this +great voyage in 777 days, in the year 1586. These celebrated navigators +were the first who demonstrated physically the sphericity and the +extent of the earth's circumference; for the ancients had no conception +of the extent of this circumference, although they had travelled a great +deal. The trade winds, so useful in long voyages, were also unknown to +them; therefore we must not be surprised at the little progress they +made in geography. Notwithstanding the knowledge we have acquired by the +aid of mathematical sciences, and the discovery of navigators, many +things remain still unsettled, and vast countries undiscovered. Almost +all the land on the side of the Atlantic pole is unknown to us; we only +know that there is some, and that it is separated from all the other +continents by the ocean. Much land also remains to be discovered on the +side of the Arctic pole, and it is to be regretted that for more than a +century the ardour of discovering new countries is extremely abated. +European governments seem to prefer, and possibly with reason, +increasing the value of those countries we are acquainted with to the +glory of conquering new ones. + +Nevertheless, the discovery of the southern continent would be a great +object of curiosity, and might be useful. We have discovered only some +few of its coasts; those navigators who have attempted this discovery, +have always been stopt by the ice. The thick fogs, which are in those +latitudes, is another obstacle; yet, in defiance of these +inconveniencies, it is probable that by sailing from the Cape of Good +Hope at different seasons, we might at last discover a part of these +lands, which hitherto make a separate world. + +There is another method, which possibly might succeed better. The ice +and fogs having hitherto prevented the discovery, might it not be +attempted by the Pacific Sea; sailing from Baldivia, or any other port +on the coast of Chili, and traversing this sea under the 50th degree +south latitude? There is not the least appearance that this navigation +is perilous, and it is probable would be attended with the discovery of +new countries; for what remains for us to know on the coast of the +southern pole, is so considerable, that we may estimate it at a fourth +part of the globe, and of course may contain a continent, as large as +Europe, Asia, and Africa, all together. + +As we are not at all acquainted with this part of the globe, we cannot +justly know the proportion between the surface of the earth and that of +the sea; only as much as may be judged by inspection of what is known, +there is more sea than land. + +If we would have an idea of the enormous quantity of water which the sea +contains, we must suppose a medium depth, and by computing it only at +200 fathom, or the sixth part of a league, we shall find that there is +sufficient to cover the whole globe to the height of 600 feet of water, +and if we would reduce this water into one mass, it would form a globe +of more than 60 miles diameter. + +Navigators pretend, that the latitudes near the south pole are much +colder than those of the north, but there is no appearance that this +opinion is founded on truth, and probably has been adopted, because ice +is found in latitudes where it is scarcely ever seen in the southern +seas; but that may proceed from some particular cause. We find no ice in +April on this side 67 and 68 degrees northern latitude: and the savages +of Arcadia and Canada say, when it is not all melted in that month, it +is a sign the rest of the year will be cold and rainy. In 1725 there may +be said to have been no summer, it rained almost continually; and the +ice of the northern sea was not only not melted in April in the 67th +degree, but even it was found the 15th of June towards the 41st and 42d +degree[167:A]. + +A great quantity of floating ice appears in the northern sea, especially +at some distance from land. It comes from the Tartarian sea into that of +Nova Zembla, and other parts of the Frozen Ocean. I have been assured by +people of credit, that an English Captain, named Monson, instead of +seeking a passage between the northern land to go to China, directed his +course strait to the pole, and had approached it within two degrees; +that in this course he had found an open sea, without any ice, which +proves that the ice is formed near land, and never in open sea; for if +we should suppose, against all probability, that it might be cold enough +at the pole to freeze over the surface of the sea, it is still not +conceivable how these enormous floating mountains of ice could be +formed, if they did not find a fixed point against land, from whence +afterwards they were loosened by the heat of the sun. The two vessels +which the East India Company sent, in 1739, to discover land in the +South Seas, found ice in the latitude of 47 and 48 degrees, but this +ice was not far from shore, that being in sight although they were +unable to land. This must have been separated from the adjoining lands +of the south pole, and it may be conjectured that they follow the course +of some great rivers, which water the unknown land, the same as the Oby, +Jenisca, and other great floods, which fall into the North Seas, carry +with them the ice, which, during the greatest part of the year, stops up +the straits of Waigat, and renders the Tartarian sea unnavigable by this +course; whereas beyond Nova Zembla, and nearer the poles, where there +are few rivers, and but little land, ice is not so frequently met with, +and the sea is more navigable; so that if they would still attempt the +voyage to China and Japan by the North Seas, we should possibly, to keep +clear from the land and ice, shape our course to the pole, and seek the +open seas, where certainly there is but little or no ice; for it is +known that salt water can, without freezing, become colder than fresh +water when frozen, and consequently the excessive cold of the pole may +possibly render the sea colder than the ice, without the surface being +frozen: so much the more as at 80 or 82 degrees, the surface of the +sea, although mixed with much snow and fresh water, is only frozen near +the shore. By collecting the testimonies of travellers, on the passage +from Europe to China, it appears that one does exist by the north sea; +and the reason it has been so often attempted in vain is, because they +have always feared to go sufficiently far from land, and approach the +pole. + +Captain William Barents, who, as well as others, run aground in his +voyage, yet did not doubt but there was a passage, and that if he had +gone farther from shore, he should have found an open sea free from ice. +The Russian navigators, sent by the Czar to survey the north seas, +relate that Nova Zembla is not an island, but belonging to the continent +of Tartary, and that to the north of it is a free and open sea. A Dutch +navigator asserts, that the sea throws up whales on the coasts of Corea +and Japan, which have English and Dutch harpoons on their backs. Another +Dutchman has pretended to have been at the pole, and asserts it is as +warm there as it is at Amsterdam in the middle of the summer. An +Englishman, named Golding, who made more than thirty voyages to +Greenland, related to King Charles II. that two Dutch vessels with which +he had sailed, having found no whales on the coast of the island of +Edges, resolved to proceed farther north, and that upon their return at +the expiration of fifteen days, they told him that they had been as far +as 89 degrees latitude (within one degree of the pole), and that they +found no ice there, but an open deep sea like that of the Bay of Biscay, +and that they shewed him the journals of the two vessels, as a proof of +what they affirmed. In short, it is related in the Philosophical +Transactions that two navigators, who had undertaken the discovery of +this passage, shaped a course 300 leagues to the east of Nova Zembla, +but that the East India Company, who thought it their interest this +passage should not be discovered, hindered them from returning[170:A]. +But the Dutch East India Company thought, on the contrary, that it was +their interest to find this passage; having attempted it in vain on the +side of Europe, they sought it by that of Japan, and they would probably +have succeeded, if the Emperor of Japan had not forbidden all strangers +from navigating on the side of the land of Jesso. This passage, +therefore, cannot be found but by sailing to the pole, beyond +Spitzbergen, or by keeping the open sea between Nova Zembla and +Spitzbergen under the 79th degree of latitude. We need not fear to find +it frozen even under the pole itself, for reasons we have alledged; in +fact, there is no example of the sea being frozen at a considerable +distance from the shore; the only example of a sea being frozen entirely +over, is that of the Black Sea, which is narrow, contains but little +salt, and receives a number of rivers from the northern countries, and +which bring ice with them: and if we may credit historians, it was +frozen in the time of the Emperor Copronymus, thirty cubits deep, +without reckoning twenty cubits of snow above the ice. This appears to +be exaggerated, but it is certain that it freezes almost every winter; +whereas the open seas, a thousand leagues nearer the pole, do not freeze +at all: this can only proceed from the saltness, and the little ice +which they receive, in comparison with that transported into the Black +Sea. + +This ice, which is looked upon as a barrier that opposes the navigation +near the poles, and the discovery of the southern continent, proves only +that there are large rivers adjacent to the places where it is met +with; and indicates also there are vast continents from whence these +rivers flow; nor ought we to be discouraged at the sight of these +obstacles; for if we consider, we shall easily perceive, this ice must +be confined to some particular places; that it is almost impossible that +it should occupy the whole circle which encompasses, as we suppose, the +southern continent, and therefore we should probably succeed if we were +to direct our course towards some other point of this circle. The +description which Dampier and some others have given of New Holland, +leads us to suspect that this part of the globe is perhaps a part of the +southern lands, and is a country less ancient than the rest of this +unknown continent. New Holland is a low country, without water or +mountains, but thinly inhabited, and the natives without industry; all +this concurs to make us think that they are in this continent nearly +what the savages of Amaconia or Paraguais are in America. We have found +polished men, empires, and kings, at Peru and Mexico, which are the +highest, and consequently the most ancient countries of America. +Savages, on the contrary, are found in the lowest and most modern +countries; therefore we may presume that we should also find men united +by the bands of society in the upper countries, from whence these great +rivers, which bring this prodigious ice to the sea, derive their +sources. + +The interior parts of Africa are unknown to us, almost as much as they +were to the ancients: they had, like us, made the tour of that vast +peninsula, but they have left us neither charts, nor descriptions of the +coasts. Pliny informs us, that the tour of Africa was made in the time +of Alexander the Great, that the wrecks of some Spanish vessels had been +discovered in the Arabian sea, and that Hanno, a Carthaginian general, +had made a voyage from Gades to the Arabian sea, and that he had written +a relation of it. Besides that, he says Cornelius Nepos tells us that in +his time one Eudoxus, persecuted by the king Lathurus, was obliged to +fly from his country; that departing from the Arabian gulph, he arrived +at Gades, and that before this time they traded from Spain to Ethiopia +by sea[173:A]. Notwithstanding these testimonies of the ancients, we are +persuaded that they never doubled the Cape of Good Hope, and the course +which the Portuguese took the first to go to the East-Indies, was +looked upon as a new discovery; it will not perhaps, therefore, be +deemed amiss to give the belief of the 9th century on this subject. + +"In our time an entire new discovery has been made, which was wholly +unknown to those who lived before us. No one thought, or even suspected, +that the sea, which extends from India to China, had a communication +with the Syrian sea. We have found, according to what I have learnt, in +the sea Roum, or Mediterranean, the wreck of an Arabian vessel, +shattered to pieces by the tempest, some of which were carried by the +wind and waves to the Cozar sea, and from thence to the Mediterranean, +and was at length thrown on the coast of Syria. This proves that the sea +surrounds China and Cila, the extremity of Turqueston and the country of +the Cozars; that it afterwards flows by the strait till it has washed +the coast of Syria. The proof is drawn from the construction of the +vessel; for no other vessels but those of Siraf are built without nails, +which, as was the wreck we speak of, are joined together in a particular +manner, as if they were sewed. Those, of all the vessels of the +Mediterranean and of the coast of Syria, are nailed and not joined in +this manner[175:A]." + +To this the translator of this ancient relation adds.-- + +"Abuziel remarks, as a new and very extraordinary thing, that a vessel +was carried from the Indian sea, and cast on the coasts of Syria. To +find a passage into the Mediterranean, he supposes there is a great +extent above China, which has a communication with the Cozar sea, that +is, with Muscovia. The sea which is below Cape Current, was entirely +unknown to the Arabs, by reason of the extreme danger of the navigation, +and from the continent being inhabited by such a barbarous people, that +it was not easy to subject them, nor even to civilize them by commerce. +From the Cape of Good Hope to Soffala, the Portuguese found no +established settlement of Moors, like those in all the maritime towns as +far as China, which was the farthest place known to geographers; but +they could not tell whether the Chinese sea, by the extremity of Africa, +had a communication with the sea of Barbary, and they contented +themselves with describing it as far as the coast of Zing, or +Caffraria. This is the reason why we cannot doubt but that the first +discovery of the passage of this sea, by the Cape of Good Hope, was made +by the Europeans, under the conduct of Vasco de Gama, or at least some +years before he doubled the Cape, if it is true there are marine charts +of an older date, where the Cape is called by the name of Frontiera du +Africa. Antonio Galvin testifies, from the relation of Francisco de +Sousa Tavares, that, in 1528, the Infant Don Ferdinand shewed him such a +chart, which he found in the monastery of Acoboca, dated 120 years +before, copied perhaps from that said to be in the treasury of St. Mark, +at Venice, which also marks the point of Africa, according to the +testimony of Ramusio, &c." + +The ignorance of those ages, on the subject of the navigation around +Africa, will appear perhaps less singular than the silence of the editor +of this ancient relation on the subject of the passages of Herodotus, +Pliny, &c. which we have quoted, and which proves the ancients had made +the tour of Africa. + +Be it as it may, the African coasts are now well known; but whatever +attempts have been made to penetrate into the inner parts of the +country, we have not been able to attain sufficient knowledge of it to +give exact relations[177:A]. It might, nevertheless, be of great +advantage, if we were, by Senegal, or some other river, to get farther +up the country and establish settlements, as we should find, according +to all appearances, a country as rich in precious mines as Peru or the +Brazils. It is perfectly known that the African rivers abound with gold, +and as this country is very mountainous, and situated under the equator, +it is not to be doubted but it contains, as well as America, mines of +heavy metals, and of the most compact and hard stones. + +The vast extent of north and east Tartary has only been discovered in +these latter times. If the Muscovite maps are just, we are at present +acquainted with the coasts of all this part of Asia; and it appears that +from the point of eastern Tartary to North America, it is not more than +four or five hundred leagues: it has even been pretended that this tract +was much shorter, for in the Amsterdam Gazette, of the 24th of January, +1747, it is said, under the article of Petersburgh, that Mr. +Stalleravoit had discovered one of these American islands beyond +Kamschatca, and demonstrated that we might go thither from Russia by a +shorter tract. The Jesuits, and other missionaries, have also pretended +to have discovered savages in Tartary, whom they had catechised in +America, which should in fact suppose that passage to be still +shorter[178:A]. This author even pretends, that the two continents of +the old and new world join by the north, and says, that the last +navigations of the Japanese afford room to judge, that the tract of +which we have spoken is only a bay, above which we may pass by land from +Asia to America. But this requires confirmation, for hitherto it has +been thought that the continent of the north pole is separated from the +other continents, as well as that of the south pole. + +Astronomy and Navigation are carried to so high a pitch of perfection, +that it may reasonably be expected we shall soon have an exact +knowledge of the whole surface of the globe. The ancients knew only a +small part of it, because they had not the mariner's compass. Some +people have pretended that the Arabs invented the compass, and used it a +long time before we did, to trade on the Indian sea, as far as China; +but this opinion has always appeared destitute of all probability; for +there is no word in the Arab, Turkish, or Persian languages, which +signifies the compass; they make use of the Italian word Bossola; they +do not even at present know how to make a compass, nor give the +magnetical quality to the needle, but purchase them from the Europeans. +Father Maritini says, that the Chinese have been acquainted with the +compass for upwards of 3000 years; but if that was the case, how comes +it that they have made so little use of it? Why did they, in their +voyages to Cochinchina, take a course much longer than was necessary? +And why did they always confine themselves to the same voyages, the +greatest of which were to Java and Sumatra? And why did not they +discover, before the Europeans, an infinity of fertile islands, +bordering on their own country, if they had possessed the art of +navigating in the open seas? For a few years after the discovery of +this wonderful property of the loadstone, the Portuguese doubled the +Cape of Good Hope, traversed the African and Indian seas, and +Christopher Columbus made his voyage to America. + +By a little consideration, it was easy to divine there were immense +spaces towards the west; for, by comparing the known part of the globe, +as for example, the distance of Spain to China, and attending to the +revolution of the Earth and Heavens, it was easy to see that there +remained a much greater extent towards the west to be discovered, than +what they were acquainted with towards the east. It, therefore, was not +from the defect of astronomical knowledge that the ancients did not find +the new world, but only for want of the compass. The passages of Plato +and Aristotle, where they speak of countries far distant from the +Pillars of Hercules, seem to indicate that some navigators had been +driven by tempest as far as America, from whence they returned with much +difficulty; and it may be conjectured, that if even the ancients had +been persuaded of the existence of this continent, they would not have +even thought it possible to strike out the road, having no guide nor +any knowledge of the compass. + +I own, that it is not impossible to traverse the high seas without a +compass, and that very resolute people might have undertaken to seek +after the new world by conducting themselves simply by the stars. The +Astrolabe being known to the ancients, it might strike them they could +leave France or Spain, and sail to the west, by keeping the polar star +always to the right, and by frequent soundings might have kept nearly in +the same latitude; without doubt the Carthaginians, of whom Aristotle +makes mention, found the means of returning from these remote countries +by keeping the polar star to the left; but it must be allowed that a +like voyage would be looked upon as a rash enterprize, and that +consequently we must not be astonished that the ancients had not even +conceived the project. + +Previous to Christopher Columbus's expedition, the Azores, the Canaries, +and Madeira were discovered. It was remarked, that when the west winds +lasted a long time, the sea brought pieces of foreign wood on the coast +of these islands, canes of unknown species, and even dead bodies, which +by many marks were discovered to be neither European nor African. +Columbus himself remarked, that on the side of the west certain winds +blew only a few days, and which he was persuaded were land winds; but +although he had all these advantages over the ancients, and the +knowledge of the compass, the difficulties still to conquer were so +great, that there was only the success he met with which could justify +the enterprise. Suppose, for a moment, that the continent of the new +world had been 1000 or 1500 miles farther than it in fact is, a thing +with Columbus could neither know nor foresee, he would not have arrived +there, and perhaps this great country might still have remained unknown. +This conjecture is so much the better founded, as Columbus, although the +most able navigator of his time, was seized with fear and astonishment +in his second voyage to the new world; for as in his first, he only +found some islands, he directed his course more to the south to discover +a continent, and was stopt by currents, the considerable extent and +direction of which always opposed his course, and obliged him to direct +his search to the west; he imagined that what had hindered him from +advancing on the southern side was not currents, but that the sea flowed +by raising itself towards the heavens, and that perhaps both one and the +other touched on the southern side. True it is, that in great +enterprises the least unfortunate circumstance may turn a man's brain, +and abate his courage. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[163:A] Vide Herodotus, lib. iv. + +[167:A] See the Hist. of the Acad. Ann. 1725. + +[170:A] See the collection of Northern Voyages, page 200. + +[173:A] Vide Pliny, Hist. Nat. Vol. I. lib. 2. + +[175:A] See the ancient relations of travels by land to China, page 53 +and 54. + +[177:A] Since this time, however, great discoveries, have been made; +Mons. Vaillant has given a particular description of the country from +the Cape to the borders of Caffraria; and much information has also been +acquired by the Society for Asiatic Researches. + +[178:A] See the Hist. of New France, by the Pere Charlevoix. Vol. III. +page 30 and 31. + + + + +ARTICLE VII. + +ON THE PRODUCTION OF THE STRATA, OR BEDS OF EARTH. + + +We have shewn, in the first article, that by virtue of the mutual +attraction between the parts of matter, and of the centrifugal force, +which results from its diurnal rotation, the earth has necessarily taken +the form of a spheroid, the diameters of which differ about a 230th +part, and that it could only proceed from the changes on the surface, +caused by the motion of the air and water, that this difference could +become greater, as is pretended to be the case from the measures taken +under the equator, and within the polar circle. This figure of the +earth, which so well agrees with hydrostatical laws, and with our +theory, supposes the globe to have been in a state of liquefaction when +it assumed its form, and we have proved that the motions of projection +and rotation were imprinted at the same time by a like impulsion. We +shall the more easily believe that the earth has been in a state of +liquefaction produced by fire, when we consider the nature of the +matters which the globe incloses, the greatest part of which are +vitrified or vitrifiable; especially when we reflect on the +impossibility there is that the earth should ever have been in a state +of fluidity, produced by the waters; since there is infinitely more +earth than water, and that water has not the power of dissolving stone, +sand, and other matters of which the earth is composed. + +It is plain then that the earth took its figure at the time when it was +liquefied by fire: by pursuing our hypothesis it appears, that when the +sun quitted it, the earth had no other form than that of a torrent of +melted and inflamed vapour matter; that this torrent collected itself by +the mutual attraction of its parts, and became a globe, to which the +rotative motion gave the figure of a spheroid; and when the earth was +cooled, the vapours, which were first extended like the tails of comets, +by degrees condensed and fell upon the surface, depositing, at the same +time, a slimy substance mixed with sulphurous and saline matters, a part +of which, by the motion of the waters, was swept into the perpendicular +cracks, where it produced metals, while the rest remained on the +surface, and produced that reddish earth which forms the first strata; +and which, according to different places, is more or less blended with +animal and vegetable particles, so reduced that the organization is no +longer perceptible. + +Therefore, in the first state of the earth, the globe was internally +composed of vitrified matter, as I believe it is at present, above which +were placed those bodies the fire had most divided, as sand, which are +only fragments of glass; and above these, pumice stones and the scoria +of the vitrified matter, which formed the various clays; the whole was +covered with water 5 or 600 feet deep, produced by the condensation of +the vapours, when the globe began to cool. This water every where +deposited a muddy bed, mixed with waters which sublime and exhale by the +fire; and the air was formed of the most subtile vapours, which, by +their lightness, disengaged themselves from the waters, and surmounted +them. + +Such was the state of the globe when the action of the tides, the winds, +and the heat of the sun, began to change the surface of the earth. The +diurnal motion, and the flux and reflux, at first raised the waters +under the southern climate, which carried with them mud, clay, and sand, +and by raising the parts of the equator, they by degrees perhaps lowered +those of the poles about two leagues, as we before mentioned; for the +waters soon reduced into powder the pumice stones and other spongeous +parts of the vitrified matter that were at the surface, they hollowed +some places, and raised others, which in course of time became +continents, and produced all the inequalities, and which are more +considerable towards the equator than the poles; for the highest +mountains are between the tropics and the middle of the temperate zones, +and the lowest are from the polar circle to the poles; between the +tropics are the Cordeliers, and almost all the mountains of Mexico and +Brazil, the great and little Atlas, the Moon, &c. Beside the land which +is between the tropics, from the superior number of islands found in +those parts, is the most unequal of all the globe, as evidently is the +sea. + +However independent my theory may be of that hypothesis of what passed +at the time of the first state of the globe, I refer to it in this +article, in order to shew the connection and possibility of the system +which I endeavoured to maintain in the first article. It must only be +remarked, that my theory does not stray far from it, as I take the earth +in a state nearly similar to what it appears at present, and as I do not +make use of any of the suppositions which are used on reasoning on the +past state of the terrestrial globe. But as I here present a new idea on +the subject of the sediment deposited by the water, which, in my +opinion, has perforated the upper bed of earth, it appears to me also +necessary to give the reason on which I found this opinion. + +The vapours which rise in the air produce rain, dew, aerial fires, +thunder, and other meteors. These vapours are therefore blended with +aqueous, aerial, sulphurous and terrestrial particles, &c. and it is the +solid and earthy particles which form the mud or slime we are now +speaking of. When rain water is suffered to rest, a sediment is formed +at bottom; and having collected a quantity, if it is suffered to stand +and corrupt, it produces a kind of mud which falls to the bottom of the +vessel. Dew produces much more of this mud than rain water, which is +greasy, unctuous, and of a reddish colour. + +The first strata of the earth is composed of this mud, mixed with +perished vegetable or animal parts, or rather stony and sandy particles. +We may remark that almost all land proper for cultivation is reddish, +and more or less mixed with these different matters; the particles of +sand or stone found there are of two kinds, the one coarse and heavy, +the other fine and sometimes impalpable. The largest comes from the +lower strata loosened in cultivating the earth, or rather the upper +mould, by penetrating into the lower, which is of sand and other divided +matters, and forms those earths we call fat and fertile. The finer sort +proceeds from the air, and falls with dew and rain, and mixes intimately +with the soil. This is properly the residue of the powder, which the +wind continually raises from the surface of the earth, and which falls +again after having imbibed the humidity of the air. When the earth +predominates, and the stony and sandy parts are but few, the earth is +then reddish and fertile: if it is mixed with a considerable quantity of +perished animal or vegetable substances, it is blackish, and often more +fertile than the first; but if the mould is only in a small quantity, as +well as the animal or vegetable parts, the earth is white and sterile, +and when the sandy, stony, or cretaceous parts which compose these +sterile lands, are mixed with a sufficient quantity of perished animal +or vegetable substances, they form the black and lighter earths, but +have little fertility; so that according to the different combinations +of these three different matters, the land is more or less fecund and +differently coloured. + +To fix some ideas relative to these stratas; let us take, for example, +the earth of Marly-la-ville, where the pits are very deep: it is a high +country, but flat and fertile, and its strata lie arranged horizontally. +I had samples brought me of all these strata which M. Dalibard, an able +botanist, versed in different sciences, had dug under his inspection; +and after having proved the matters of which they consisted in +aquafortis, I formed the following table of them. + + + The state of the different beds of earth, found at Marly-la-ville, + to the depth of 100 feet. + + Feet. In. + + 1. A free reddish earth, mixed with + much mud, a very small quantity of + vitrifiable sand, and somewhat more of + calcinable sand 13 0 + + 2. A free earth mixed with gravel, + and a little more vitrifiable sand 2 6 + + 3. Mud mixed with vitrifiable sand + in a great quantity, and which made + but very little effervescence with + aquafortis 3 0 + + 4. Hard marl, which made a very + great effervescence with aquafortis 2 0 + + 5. Pretty hard marl stone 4 0 + + 6. Marl in powder, mixed with vitrifiable + sand 5 0 + + 7. Very fine vitrified sand 1 6 + + 8. Marl very like earth mixed with + a very little vitrifiable sand 3 6 + + 9. Hard marl, in which was real flint 3 6 + + 10. Gravel, or powdered marl 1 0 + + 11. Eglantine, a stone of the grain + and hardness of marble, and sonorous 1 6 + + 12. Marly gravel 1 6 + + 13. Marl in hard stone, whose grain + was very fine 1 6 + + 14. Marl in stone, whose grain was + not so fine 1 6 + + 15. More grained and thicker marl 2 6 + + 16. Very fine vitrifiable sand, mixed + with fossil sea-shells, which had no + adherence with the sand, and whose + colours were perfect 1 6 + + 17. Very small gravel, or fine marl + powder 2 0 + + 18. Marl in hard stone 3 6 + + 19. Very coarse powdered marl 1 6 + + 20. Hard and calcinable stone, like + marble 1 0 + + 21. Grey vitrifiable sand mixed with + fossil shells, particularly oysters and + muscles which have no adherence + with the sand, and which were not + petrified 3 0 + + 22. White vitrifiable sand mixed with + similar shells 2 0 + + 23. Sand streaked red and white, + vitrifiable and mixed with the like + shells 1 0 + + 24. Larger sand, but still vitrifiable + and mixed with the like shells 1 0 + + 25. Fine and vitrifiable grey sand + mixed with the like shells 8 6 + + 26. Very fine fat sand, with only a + few shells 3 0 + + 27. Brown free stone 3 0 + + 28. Vitrifiable sand, streaked red and + white 4 0 + + 29. White vitrifiable sand 3 6 + + 30. Reddish vitrifiable sand 15 0 + -------- + Total depth 101 0 + -------- + +I have before said that I tried all these matters in aquafortis, because +where the inspection and comparison of matters with others that we are +acquainted with is not sufficient to permit us to denominate and range +them in the class which they belong, there is no means more ready, nor +perhaps more sure, than to try by aquafortis the terrestrial or +lapidific matter: those which acid spirits dissolve immediately with +heat and ebullition, are generally calcinable, and those on which they +make no impression are vitrifiable. + +By this enumeration we perceive, that the soil of Marly-la-ville was +formerly the bottom of the sea, which has been raised above 75 feet, +since we find shells at that depth below the surface. Those shells have +been transported by the motion of the water, at the same time as the +sand in which they are met with, and the whole of the upper strata, even +to the first, have been transported after the same manner by the motion +of the water, and deposited in form of a sediment; which we cannot +doubt, as well by reason of their horizontal position, as of the +different beds of sand mixed with shells and marl, the last of which are +only the fragments of the shells. The last stratum itself has been +formed almost entirely by the mould we have spoken of, mixed with a +small part of the marl which was at the surface. + +I have chosen this example, as the most disadvantageous to my theory, +because it at first appears very difficult to conceive that the dust of +the air, rain and dew, could produce strata of free earth thirteen feet +thick; but it ought to be observed, that it is very rare to find, +especially in high lands, so considerable a thickness of cultivateable +earth; it is generally about three or four feet, and often not more than +one. In plains surrounded with hills, this thickness of good earth is +the greatest, because the rain loosens the earth of the hills, and +carries it into the vallies; but without supposing any thing of that +kind, I find that the last strata formed by the waters are thick beds of +marl. It is natural to imagine that the upper stratum had, at the +beginning, a still greater thickness, besides the thirteen feet of marl, +when the sea quitted the land and left it naked. This marl, exposed to +the air, melted with the rain; the action of the air and heat of the sun +produced flaws, and reduced it into powder on the surface; the sea would +not quit this land precipitately, but sometimes cover it, either by the +alternative motion of the tides, or by the extraordinary elevation of +the waters in foul weather, when it mixed with this bed of marl, mud, +clay, and other matters. When the land was raised above the waters, +plants would begin to grow, and it was then that the dust in the rain or +dew by degrees added to its substance and gave it a reddish colour; this +thickness and fertility was soon augmented by culture; by digging and +dividing its surface, and thus giving to the dust, in the dew or rain, +the facility of more deeply penetrating it, which at last produced that +bed of free earth thirteen feet thick. + +I shall not here examine whether the reddish colour of vegetable earth +proceeds from the iron which is contained in the earths that are +deposited by the rains and dews, but being of importance, shall take +notice of it when we come to treat of minerals; it is sufficient to have +explained our conception of the formation of the superficial strata of +the earth, and by other examples we shall prove, that the formation of +the interior strata, can only be the work of the waters. + +The surface of the globe, says Woodward, this external stratum on which +men and animals walk, which serves as a magazine for the formation of +vegetables and animals, is, for the greatest part, composed of vegetable +or animal matter, and is in continual motion and variation. All animals +and vegetables which have existed from the creation of the world, have +successively extracted from this stratum the matter which composes it, +and have, after their deaths, restored to it this borrowed matter: it +remains there always ready to be retaken, and to serve for the formation +of other bodies of the same species successively, for the matter which +composes one body is proper and natural to form another body of the same +kind. In uninhabited countries, where the woods are never cut, where +animals do not brouze on the plants, this stratum of vegetable earth +increases considerably. In all woods, even in those which are sometimes +cut, there is a bed of mould, of six or eight inches thick, formed +entirely by the leaves, small branches, and barks which have perished. I +have often observed on the ancient Roman way, which crosses Burgundy in +a long extent of soil, that there is formed a bed of black earth more +than a foot thick upon the stones, which nourishes very high trees; and +this stratum could be composed only of a black mould formed by the +leaves, bark, and perished wood. As vegetables inhale for their +nutriment much more from the air and water than the earth, it happens +that when they perish, they return to the earth more than they have +taken from it. Besides, forests collect the rain water, and by stopping +the vapours increase their moisture; so in a wood which is preserved a +long time, the stratum of earth which serves for vegetation increases +considerably. But animals restoring less to the earth than they take +from it, and men making enormous consumption of wood and plants for +fire, and other uses, it follows that the vegetable soil of inhabited +countries must diminish, and become, in time, like the soil of Arabia +Petrea, and other eastern provinces, which, in fact, are the most +ancient inhabited countries, where only sand and salt are now to be met +with; for the fixed salts of plants and animals remain, whereas all the +other parts volatilise, and are transported by the air. + +Let us now examine the position and formation of the interior strata: +the earth, says Woodward, appears in places that have been dug, composed +of strata placed one on the other, as so many sediments which +necessarily fell to the bottom of the water; the deepest strata are +generally the thickest, and those above the thinnest, and so gradually +lessening to the surface. We find sea shells, teeth, and bones of fish +in these different beds, and not only in those that are soft, as chalk +and clay, but even in those of hard stone, marble, &c. These marine +productions are incorporated with the stone, and when separated from +them, leave the impressions of the shells with the greatest exactness. +"I have been most clearly and positively assured," says this author, +"that in France, Flanders, Holland, Spain, Italy, Germany, Denmark, +Norway, and Sweden, stone, and other terrestrial substances are disposed +in strata, precisely the same as they are in England; that these strata +are divided by parallel fissures; that there are inclosed within stones +and other terrestrial and compact substances, a great quantity of shells +and other productions of the sea, disposed in the same manner as in this +island. I am also informed that these strata are found the same in +Barbary, Egypt, Guinea, and in other parts of Africa; in Arabia, Syria, +Persia, Malabar, China, and the rest of the provinces of Asia; in +Jamaica, Barbadoes, Virginia, New-England, Brazil, and other parts of +America[198:A]." + +This author does not say how he learnt, or by whom he was told, that the +strata of Peru contained shells; yet as in general his observations are +exact, I do not doubt but he was well informed; and am persuaded that +shells may be found in the earth of Peru, as well as elsewhere. This +remark is made from a doubt having been formed some time since on the +subject, and which I shall hereafter consider. + +In a trench made at Amsterdam, to the depth of 230 feet, the strata were +found as follows: 7 feet of vegetable earth, 9 of turf, 9 of soft clay, +8 of sand, 4 of earth, 10 of clay, 4 of earth, 10 of sand, then 2 feet +of clay, 4 of white sand, 5 of dry earth, 1 of soft earth, 14 of sand, 8 +of argil, mixed with earth; 4 of sand, mixed with shells; then clay 102 +feet thick, and at last 31 feet of sand, at which depth they ceased +digging[199:A]. + +It is very singular to dig so deep without meeting with water: and this +circumstance is remarkable in many particulars. 1. It shews, that the +water of the sea does not communicate with the interior part of the +earth, by means of filtration. 2. That shells are found at the depth of +100 feet below the surface, and that consequently the soil of Holland +has been raised 100 feet by the sediment of the sea. 3. We may draw an +induction, that this strata of thick clay of 102 feet, and the bed of +sand below it, in which they dug to 31 feet, and whose entire thickness +is unknown, are perhaps not very far distant from the first strata of +the original earth, such as it was before the motion of the water had +changed its surface. We have said in the first article, that if we +desired to find the ancient earth, we should dig in the northern +countries, rather than towards the south; in plains rather than in +mountainous regions. The circumstances in this instance, appear to be +nearly so, only it is to be wished they had continued the digging to a +greater depth, and that the author had informed us, whether there were +not shells and other marine productions, in the last bed of clay, and in +that of sand below it. The experiment confirms what we have already +said; and the more we dig, the greater thickness we shall find the +strata. + +The earth is composed of parallel and horizontal beds, not only in +plains, but hills and mountains are in general composed after the same +manner: it may be said, that the strata in hills and mountains are more +apparent there than in the plains, because the plains are generally +covered with a very considerable quantity of sand and earth, which the +water has brought from the higher grounds, and therefore, to find the +ancient strata, must dig deeper in the plains than in the mountains. + +I have often observed, that when a mountain is level at its summit, the +strata which compose it are also level; but if the summit is not placed +horizontally, the strata inclines also in the same direction. I have +heard that, in general, the beds of quarries inclined a little to the +east; but having myself observed all the chains of rocks which offered, +I discovered this opinion to be erroneous, and that the strata inclines +to the same side as the hill, whether it be east, west, north, or south. +When we dig stone and marble from the quarry, we take great care to +separate them according to their natural position, and we cannot even +get them of a large size, if we cut them in any other direction. Where +they are made use of for good masonry, the workmen are particular in +placing them as they stood in the quarry, for if they were placed in any +other direction, they would split, and would not resist the weight with +which they are loaded. This perfectly confirms that stones, are found +in parallel and horizontal strata, which have been successively heaped +one on the other, and that these strata composed masses where resistance +is greater in that direction than in any other. + +Every strata, whether horizontal or inclined, has an equal thickness +throughout its whole extent. In the quarries about Paris the bed of good +stone is not thick, scarcely more than 18 or 20 feet: in those of +Burgundy the stone is much thicker. It is the same with marble; the +black and white marble have a thicker bed than the coloured; and I know +beds of very hard stone, which the farmers in Burgundy make use of to +cover their houses, that are not above an inch thick. The different +strata vary much in thickness, but each bed preserves the same thickness +throughout its extent. The thickness of strata is so greatly varied, +that it is found from less than a line to 1, 10, 20, 30, or 100 feet +thick. The ancient and modern quarries, which are horizontally dug, the +perpendicular and other divisions of mines, prove that there are +extensive strata in all directions. "It is thoroughly proved," says the +historian of the academy, "that all stones have formerly been a soft +paste, and as there are quarries almost in every part, the surface of +the earth has therefore consisted, in all these places, of mud and +slime, at least to certain depths. The shells found in most quarries +prove that this mud was an earth diluted by the water of the sea, and +consequently that the sea covered all these places; and it could not +cover them without also covering all that was level with or lower than +it: and it is plain that it could not cover every place where there were +quarries, without covering the whole face of the terrestrial globe. We +do not here consider the mountains which the sea must also at one time +have covered, since quarries and shells are often found in them. + +"The sea," continues he, "therefore, covered the whole earth, and from +thence it proceeds that all the beds of stone in the plains are +horizontal and parallel; fish must have also been the most ancient +inhabitants of the globe, as there was no sustenance for either birds or +terrestrial animals." But how did the sea retire into these vast basins +which it at present occupies? What presents itself the most natural to +the mind is, that the earth, at least at a certain depth, was not +entirely solid, but intermixed with some great vacuums, whose vaults +were supported for a time, but at length, sunk in suddenly: then the +waters must have fallen into these vacancies, filled them, and left +naked a part of the earth's surface, which became an agreeable abode to +terrestrial animals and birds. The shells found in quarries perfectly +agree with this idea, for only the bony parts of fish could be preserved +till now. In general, shells are heaped up in great abundance in certain +parts of the sea, where they are immovable, and form a kind of rock, and +could not follow the water, which suddenly forsook them: this is the +reason that we find more shells than bones of the fish, and this even +proves a sudden fall of the sea into its present basins. At the same +time as our supposed vaults gave way, it is very possible that other +parts of the globe were raised by the same cause, and that mountains +were placed on this surface with quarries already formed, but the beds +of these quarries could not preserve the horizontal direction they +before had, unless the mountains were raised precisely perpendicular to +the surface of the earth, which could happen but very seldom: so also, +as we have already observed, in 1705, the beds of stone in mountains are +always inclined to the horizon, though parallel with each other; for +they have not changed their position with respect to each other, but +only with respect to the surface of the earth[205:A]. + +These parallel strata, these beds of earth and stone, which have been +formed by the sediment of the sea, often extend to considerable +distances, and we often find in hills, separated by a valley, the same +beds and the same matters at the same level. This observation agrees +perfectly with that of the height of the opposite hills. We may easily +be assured of the truth of these facts, for in all narrow vallies, where +rocks are discovered, we shall find the same beds of stone and marble on +both sides at the same height. In a country where I frequently reside, I +found a quarry of marble which extended more than 12 leagues in length, +and whose breadth was very considerable, although I have never been able +precisely to determine it. I have often observed that this bed of marble +is throughout of the same thickness, and in hills divided from this +quarry by a valley of 100 feet depth, and a quarter of a mile in +breadth, I found the same bed of marble at the same height. I am +persuaded it is the same in every stone and marble quarry where shells +are found; but this observation does not hold good in quarries of +freestone. In the course of this work, we shall give reasons for this +difference, and describe why freestone is not dispersed, like other +matters, in horizontal beds, and why it is in irregular blocks, both in +form and position. + +We have likewise observed that the strata are the same on both sides the +straits of the sea. This observation, which is important, may lead us to +discover the lands and islands which have been separated from the +continent; it proves, for example, that England has been divided from +France; Spain from Africa; Sicily from Italy; and it is to be wished +that the same observation had been made in all the straits. I am +persuaded that we should find it almost every where true. We do not know +whether the same beds of stone are found at the same height on both +sides the straits of Magellan, which is the longest; but we see, by the +particular maps and exact charts, that the two high coasts which confine +it, form nearly, like the mountains of the earth, correspondent angles, +which also proves that the Terra del Fuega, must be regarded as part of +the continent of America; it is the same with Forbisher's Strait and +the island of Friesland, which appear to have been divided from the +continent of Greenland. + +The Maldivian islands are only separated by small tracts of the sea, on +each side of which banks and rocks are found composed of the same +materials; and these islands, which, taken together, are near 200 miles +long, formed anciently only one land; they are now divided into 13 +provinces, called Clusters. Each cluster contains a great number of +small islands, most of which are sometimes overflowed and sometimes dry; +but what is remarkable, these thirteen clusters are each surrounded with +a chain of rocks of the same stone, and there are only three or four +dangerous inlets by which they can be entered. They are all placed one +after the other, and it evidently appears that these islands were +formerly a long mountain capped with rocks[216:A]. + +Many authors, as Verstegan, Twine, Somner, and especially Campbell, in +his Description of England, in the chapter of Kent, gives very strong +reasons, to prove that England was formerly joined to France, and has +been separated from it by an effort of the sea, which carried away the +neck of land that joined them, opened the channel, and left naked a +great quantity of low and marshy ground along the southern coasts of +England. Dr. Wallis, as a corroboration of this supposition, shews the +conformity of the ancient Gallic and British tongues, and adds many +observations, which we shall relate in the following articles. + +If we consider the form of lands, the position of mountains, and the +windings of rivers, we shall perceive that generally opposite hills are +not only composed of the same matters on the same level, but are nearly +of an equal height. This equality I have observed in my travels, and +have mostly found them the same on the two sides, especially in vallies +that were not more than a quarter or a third of a league broad, for in +vallies which are very broad, it is difficult to judge of the height and +equality of hills, because, by looking over a level plain of any great +extent, it appears to rise, and hills at a distance appear to lower; but +this is not the place to give a mathematical reason for this difference. +It is also very difficult to judge by the naked sight of the middle of a +great valley, at least if there is no river in it; whereas in confined +vallies our sight is less equivocal and our judgment more certain. That +part of Burgundy comprehended between Auxerre, Dijon, Autun, and +Bar-sur-seine, a considerable extent of which is called _la Bailliage de +la Montagne_, is one of the highest parts of France; from one side of +most of these mountains, which are only of the second class, the water +flows towards the Ocean, and on the other side towards the +Mediterranean. This high country is divided with many small vallies, +very confined, and almost all watered with rivulets. I have a thousand +times observed the correspondence of the angles of these hills and their +equality of height, and I am certain that I have every where found the +saliant angles opposite to the returning angles, and the heights nearly +equal on both sides. The farther we advance into the higher country, +where the points of division are, the higher are the mountains; but this +height is always the same on both sides of the vallies, and the hills +are raised or lowered alike. I have frequently made the like +observations in many other parts of France. It is this equality in the +height of the hills which forms the plains in the mountains, and these +plains form lands higher than others. But high mountains do not appear +so equal in height, most of them terminate in points and irregular +peaks; and I have seen, in crossing the Alps, and the Apennine +mountains, that the angles are, in fact, correspondent; but it is almost +impossible to judge by the eye of the equality or inequality in the +height of opposite mountains, because their summits are lost in mists +and clouds. + +The different strata of which the earth is composed are not disposed +according to their specific weight, for we often find strata of heavy +matters placed on those of lighter. To be assured of this, we have only +to examine the earth on which rocks are placed, and we shall find that +it is generally clay or sand, which is specifically lighter. In hills, +and other small elevations, we easily discover this to be the case; but +it is not so with large mountains, for not only their summits are rocks, +but those rocks are placed on others; there mountains are placed upon +mountains, and rocks upon rocks, to such a considerable height, and +through so great an extent of country, that we can scarcely be certain +whether there is earth at bottom, or of what nature it is. I have seen +cavities made in rocks to some hundred feet deep, without being able to +form an idea where they ended, for these rocks were supported by +others; nevertheless, may we not compare great with small? and since +the rocks of little mountains, whose bases are to be seen, rest on the +earth less heavy and solid than stone, may we not suppose that earth is +also the base of high mountains? All that I have here to prove by these +arguments is, that, by the motion of the waters, it may naturally happen +that the more ponderous matters accumulated on the lighter; and that, if +this in fact is found to be so in most hills, it is probable that it +happened as explained by my theory; but should it be objected that I am +not grounded in supposing, that before the formation of mountains the +heaviest matters were below the lighter; I answer, that I assert nothing +general in this respect, because this effect may have been produced in +many manners, whether the heaviest matters were uppermost or undermost, +or placed indiscriminately. To conceive how the sea at first formed a +mountain of clay, and afterwards capt it with rocks, it is sufficient to +consider the sediments may successively come from different parts, and +that they might be of different materials. In some parts, the sea may at +first have deposited sediments of clay, and the waters afterwards +brought sediment of strong matter, either because they had transported +all the clay from the bottom and sides, and then the waves attacked the +rocks, possibly because the first sediment came from one part, and the +second from another. This perfectly agrees with observation, by which we +perceive that beds of earth, stone, gravel, sand, &c. followed no rule +in their arrangement, but are placed indifferently one on the other as +it were by chance. + +But this chance must have some rules, which can be known only by +estimating the value of probabilities, and the truth of conjectures. +According to our hypothesis, on the formation of the globe, we have seen +that the interior part of the globe must have been a vitrified matter, +similar to vitrified sand, which is only the fragments of glass, and of +which the clays are perhaps the scoria; by this supposition, the centre +of the earth, and almost as far as the external circumference, must be +glass, or a vitrified matter; and above this we shall find sand, clay, +and other scoria. Thus the earth, in its first state, was a nucleus of +glass, or vitrified matter; either massive like glass, or divided like +sand, because that depends on the degree of heat it has undergone. Above +this matter was sand, and lastly clay. The soil of the waters and air +produced the external crust, which is thicker or thinner, according to +the situation of the ground; more or less coloured, according to the +different mixtures of mud, sand, clay, and the decayed parts of animals +and vegetables; and more or less fertile, according to the abundance or +want of these parts. To shew that this supposition on the formation of +sand and clay is not chimerical, I shall add some particular remarks. + +I conceive, that the earth, in its first state, was a globe, or rather a +spheroid of compact glass, covered with a light crust of pumice stone +and other scoria of the matter in fusion. The motion and agitation of +the waters and air soon reduced this crust into powder or sand, which, +by uniting afterwards, produced flints, and owe their hardness, colour, +or transparency and variety, to the different degrees of purity of the +sand which entered into their composition. + +These sands, whose constituting parts unite by fire, assimilate, and +become very dense, compact, and the more transparent as the sand is more +pure; on the contrary, being exposed a long time to the air, they +disunite and exfoliate, descend in the form of earth, and it is +probable the different clays are thus produced. This dust, sometimes of +a brightish yellow, and sometimes like silver, is nothing else but a +very pure sand somewhat perished, and almost reduced to an elementary +state. By time, particles will be so far attenuated and divided, that +they will no longer have power to reflect the light, and acquire all the +properties of clay. + +This theory is conformable to what every day is seen; let us immediately +wash sand upon its being dug, and the water will be loaded with a black +ductile and fat earth, which is genuine clay. In streets paved with +freestone, the dirt is always black and greasy, and when dried appears +to be an earth of the same nature as clay. Let us wash the earth taken +from a spot where there are neither freestone nor flints, and there will +always precipitate a great quantity of vitrifiable sand. + +But what perfectly proves that sand, and even flint and glass, exist in +clay, is, that the action of fire, by uniting the parts, restores it to +its original form. Clay, if heated to the degree of calcination, will +cover itself with a very hard enamel; if it is not vitrified internally, +it nevertheless will have acquired a very great hardness, so as to +resist the file; it will emit fire under the hammer, and it has all the +properties of flint; a greater degree of heat causes it to flow, and +converts it into real glass. + +Clay and sand are therefore matters perfectly analogous, and of the same +class; if clay, by condensing, may become flint and glass, why may not +sand, by dissolution, become clay? Glass appears to be true elementary +earth, and all mixed substances disguised glass. Metals, minerals, +salts, &c. are only vitrifiable earth; common stone and other matters +analogous to it, and testaceous and crustaceous shells, &c. are the only +substances which cannot be vitrified, and which seem to form a separate +class. Fire, by uniting the divided parts of the first, forms an +homogeneous matter, hard and transparent, without any diminution of +weight, and to which it is not possible to cause any alteration; those, +on the contrary, in which a greater quantity of active and volatile +principles enter, and which calcine, lose more than one-third of their +weight in the fire, and retake the form of simple earth, without any +other alteration than a disunion of their different parts: these bodies +excepted, which are no great number, and whose combinations produce no +great varieties in nature, every other substance, and particularly +clay, may be converted into glass, and are consequently only decomposed +glass. If the fire suddenly causes the form of these substances to +change, by vitrifying them, glass itself, whether pure, or in the form +of sand or flint, naturally, but by a slow and insensible progress, +changes into clay. + +Where flint is the predominant stone, the country is generally strewed +with parts of it, and if the place is uncultivated, and these stones +have been long exposed to the air, without having been stirred, their +upper superficies is always white, whereas the opposite side, which +touches the earth, is very brown, and preserves its natural colour. If +these flints are broken, we shall perceive that the whiteness is not +only external, but penetrates internally, and there forms a kind of +band, not very deep in some, but which in others occupies almost the +whole flint. This white part is somewhat grainy, entirely opaque, as +soft as freestone, and adheres to the tongue like the boles; whereas the +other part is smooth, has neither thread nor grain, and preserves its +natural colour, transparency, and hardness. If this flint is put into a +furnace, its white part becomes of a brick colour, and its brown part +of a very fine white. Let us not say with one of our most celebrated +naturalists, that these stones are imperfect flints of different ages, +which have not acquired their perfection; for why should they be all +imperfect? Why should they be imperfect only on the side exposed to the +weather? It, on the contrary, appears to me more reasonable that they +are flints changed from their original state, gradually decomposed, and +assuming the form and property of clay or bole. If this is thought to be +only conjecture, let the hardest and blackest flint be exposed to the +weather, in less than a year its surface will change colour; and if we +have patience to pursue this experiment, we shall see it by degrees lose +its hardness, transparency, and other specific characters, and approach +every day nearer and nearer the nature of clay. + +What happens to flint happens to sand; each grain of sand may possibly +be considered as a small flint, and each flint as a mass of extremely +fine grains of sand. The first example of the decomposition of sand is +found in the brilliant opaque powder called Mica, in which clay and +slate are always diffused. The entirely transparent flints, the Quartz, +produce, by decomposition, fat and soft talks, such as those of Venice +and Russia, which are as ductile and vitrifiable as clay: and it appears +to me, that talk is a mediate between glass, or transparent flint, and +clay; whereas coarse and impure flint, by decomposing, passes to clay +without any intermedium. + +Our factitious glass undergoes the same alterations: it decomposes and +perishes, as it were, in the air. At first, it assumes a variety of +colours, then exfoliates, and by working it, we perceive brilliant +scales fall off; but when its decomposition is more advanced, it +crumbles between the fingers, and is reduced into a very white fine +talky powder. Art has even imitated nature in the decomposition of glass +and flint. "Est etiam certa methodus solius aquae communis ope, silices & +arenam in liquorem viscosum, eumdemque in sal viride convertendi, & hoc +in aleum rubicundum, &c. Solius ignis & aqua ope, speciali experimento, +durissimos quosque lapides in mucorem resolvo, qui distillan subtilem +spiritum exhibet & oleum nullus laudibus proedicabile[218:A]." + +These matters more particularly belong to metals, and when we come to +them, shall be fully treated on, therefore we shall content ourselves +here with adding, that the different strata which cover the terrestrial +globe, being materials to be considered as actual vitrifications or +analogous to glass, and possessing its most essential qualities; and as +it is evident, that from the decomposition of glass and flint, which is +every day made before our eyes, a genuine clay remains, it is not a +precarious supposition to advance, that clays and sands have been formed +by scoria, and vitrified drops of the terrestrial globe, especially when +we join the proofs _a priori_, which we have given to evince the earth +has been in a state of liquefaction caused by fire. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[198:A] Essay on the Natural History of the Earth, pages 40, 41, 42, &c. + +[199:A] See Varennii, Geograph. General, page 46. + +[205:A] See the Mem. of the Acad. 1716, page 14. + +[216:A] See the Voyages of Francis Piriard, vol. 1, page 108. + +[218:A] See Becher. Phys. subter. + + + + +ARTICLE VIII. + +ON SHELLS, AND OTHER MARINE PRODUCTIONS FOUND IN THE INTERIOR PARTS OF +THE EARTH. + + +I have often examined quarries, the banks of which were filled with +shells; I have seen entire hills composed of them, and chains of rocks +which contained them throughout their whole extent. The quantity of +these marine productions is astonishing, and the number in many places +so prodigious, that it appears scarcely possible that any should now +remain in the sea; it is by considering this innumerable multitude of +shells, that no doubt is left of our earth having been a long time under +the water of the ocean. The quantity found in a fossil, or petrified +state, is beyond conception, and it is only from the number of those +that have been discovered that we could possibly have formed an idea of +their multiplicity. We must imagine, like those who reason on matters +they never saw, that shells are only found at random, dispersed here and +there, or in small heaps, as oyster shells thrown before our doors; on +the contrary, they form mountains, are met with in shoals of 100 or 200 +miles length, nay, they may sometimes be traced through whole provinces +in masses of 50 or 60 feet thick. It is from these circumstances alone +that we can reason on the subject. + +We cannot give a more striking example on this subject than the shells +of Touraine. The following is the description given of them by the +historian of the Academy[220:A]. + +"The number of figured stones and fossil shells found in the bowels of +the earth were remarked in all ages and nations, but they were +considered merely as the sports of nature, and even by philosophers +themselves, as the productions of chance or accident; they regarded them +with a degree of surprise, but passed them over with a slight attention, +and all this phenomena perished without any fruit for the progress of +knowledge. A potter in Paris, who knew neither Latin nor Greek, towards +the end of the 16th century, was the first man who dared affirm, in +opposition to the learned, that the fossil shells were real shells +formerly deposited by the sea in those places where they were found; +that animals, and particularly fish, had given to stones all these +different figures, &c. and he desired the whole school of Aristotle to +contradict his proofs. This was Bernard Palissy, as great a natural +genius as nature could form: his system slept near 100 years, and even +his name was almost forgot. At length the ideas of Palissy were revived +in the mind of several philosophers; and science has profited by all the +shells and figured stones the earth furnishes us with; perhaps they are +at present become only too common, and the consequences drawn from them +too incontestable. + +"Notwithstanding this, the observations presented by M. Reaumer must +appear wonderful. He discovered a mass of 130 million, 680 thousand +cubical fathoms of shells, either whole or in fragments, without any +mixture of stone, earth, sand, or other extraneous matter: hitherto +fossil shells have never appeared in such an enormous quantity, nor +without mixture. It is in Touraine this prodigious mass is found, more +than 36 leagues from the sea; this is perfectly known there, as the +farmers of that province make use of these shells, which they dig up, as +manure for their lands, to fertilize their plains, which otherwise would +be absolutely sterile. + +"What is dug from the earth, and which generally is no more than eight +or nine feet deep, are only small fragments of shells, very +distinguishable as fragments, for they retain their original channels +and hollows, having only lost their gloss and colour, as almost all +shells do which we find in the earth. The smallest pieces, which are +only dust, are still distinguishable because they are perfectly of the +same matter as the rest, as well as of the whole shells which are +sometimes found. We discover the species as well in the whole shells as +in the larger fragments. Some of these species are known at Poictou, +others belong to more remote coasts. There are even fragments of +madrepores, coral, and other productions of the sea; all this matter in +the country is termed _Fallun_, and is found wherever the ground is dug +in that province for the space of nine leagues square. The peasants do +not dig above twenty feet deep, because they think it would not repay +them for their trouble, but they are certainly deeper. The calculation +of the quantity is however taken upon the supposition of only 18 feet +and 2200 fathoms to the league. This mass of shells of course exceeds +the calculation, and possibly contains double the quantity. + +"In physical points the smallest circumstances, which most people do not +think worthy of remarking, sometimes lead to consequences and afford +great lights. M. de Reaumer observed, that all these fragments of shells +lie horizontally, and hence he has concluded that this infinity of +fragments does not proceed from the heap being formed at one time, or of +whole shells, for the uppermost, by their weight, would have crushed +the others, and of course their fallings would have given an infinity of +different positions. They must, therefore, have been brought there by +the sea, either whole or broken, and necessarily placed horizontal; and +although the extreme length of time was of itself sufficient to break, +and almost calcine the greatest part, it could not change their +position. + +"By this it appears, that they must have been brought gradually, and, in +fact, how was it possible that the sea could convey at once such an +immense quantity of shells, and at the same time preserve a position +perfectly horizontal? they must have collected in one spot, and +consequently this spot must have been the bottom of a gulph or basin. + +"All this proves, that although there must remain upon the earth many +vestiges of the universal deluge, as recorded in scripture, the mass of +shells at Touraine was not produced by that deluge; there is perhaps not +so great a mass in any part of the sea; but even had the deluge forced +them away, it would have been with an impetuosity and violence that +would not have permitted them to retain one uniform position. They must +have been brought and deposited gently and slowly, and consequently +their accumulation required a space of time much longer than a year." + +The surface of the earth, it is evident, must have been before or after +the deluge very differently disposed to what it is at present, that the +sea and continent had another arrangement, and formerly there was a +great gulph in the middle of Touraine. The changes which are known from +history, or even ancient fable, are inconsiderable, but they give us +room to imagine those which a longer time might bring about. M. de +Reaumur supposes that Touraine was a gulph of the sea which communicated +with the ocean, and that the shells were carried there by a current; but +this is a simple conjecture laid down in room of the real unknown fact. +To speak with certainty on this matter, we should have geographical maps +of all the places where shells have been dug from the earth, to obtain +which would require almost an infinity of time and observation, yet it +is possible that hereafter science may accomplish it. + +This quantity of shells, considerable as it is, will astonish us less if +we consider the following circumstances: first, shell fish multiply +prodigiously, and are full grown in a very short time; the abundance of +individuals in each kind proves to us their fertility. We have a strong +example of this increase in oysters, a mass of many fathoms of which are +frequently raised in a single day. In a very short time the rocks to +which they are attached are considerably diminished, and some banks +quite exhausted, nevertheless the ensuing year we find them as plentiful +as before, nor do they appear to be in the least diminished; indeed I +know not whether a natural bed of oysters was ever entirely exhausted. +Secondly, the substance of shells is analogous to stone; they are a long +time preserved in soft matters, and petrify readily in hard; these +shells and marine productions therefore found on the earth, being the +wrecks of many ages, must of course have formed very considerable +masses. + +There are a prodigious quantity of shells in marble, lime, stone, chalk, +marl, &c. we find them, as before observed, in hills and mountains, and +they often make more than one half of the bodies which contain them; for +the most part they appear well preserved, others are in fragments, but +large enough to distinguish to what kind of shells they belong. Here our +knowledge on this subject, from observation, finds its limits; but I +shall go further and assert that shells are the intermedium which Nature +adopts for the formation of most kind of stones; that chalks, marls, and +lime-stone are composed only of the powder and pieces of shells; that +consequently the quantities of shells destroyed are infinitely more +considerable than those preserved. I shall here content myself with +indicating the point of view in which we ought to consider the strata of +which the globe is composed. The first stratum is composed of the dust +of the air, the sediment of the rain, dew, and vegetable or animal +parts, reduced to particles; the strata of chalk, marl, lime, stone, and +marble, are composed of the ruins of shells, and other marine +productions, mixed with fragments or whole shells; but the vitrifiable +sand or clay are the matters of which the internal parts of the globe +are composed. They were vitrified when the globe received its form, +which necessarily supposes that the matter was in fusion. The granate, +rock, flint, &c. owe their origin to sand and clay, and are likewise +disposed by strata; but tuffa[227:A], free-stone, and flints (not in +great masses), crystals, metals, pyrites, most minerals, sulphurs, &c. +are matters whose formation is novel, in comparison with marbles, +calcinable stones, chalk, marl, and all other materials disposed in +horizontal strata, and which contain shells and other productions of the +sea. + +As the denominations I make use of may appear obscure or equivocal, it +is necessary to explain them. By the term _clay_, I mean not only the +white and yellow, but also blue, soft, hard, foliated, and other clays, +which I look on as the scoria of glass, or as decomposed glass. By the +word _sand_ I always understand vitrifiable sand; and not only +comprehend under this denomination the fine sand which produces +freestone, and which I look upon as powdered glass, or rather pumice +stone, but also the sand which proceeds from the freestone destroyed by +friction, and also the larger sand, as small gravel, which proceeds from +the granate and rock-stone, and is sharp, angular, red, and commonly +found in the bed of rivers or rivulets that derive their waters +immediately from the higher mountains, or hills composed of stone or +granate. The river Armanson conveys a great quantity of this sand; it is +large and brittle, and in fact is only fragments of rock-stone, as +calcinable gravel is of freestone. _Rock-stone_ and _granate_ are one +and the same substance, but I have used both denominations, because +there are many persons who make two different species of them. It is the +same with respect to flints and free-stone in large pieces; I look on +them as kinds of granate, and I call them _large flints_, because they +are disposed like calcinable stone in strata, and to distinguish them +from the flints and free-stone in small masses, and the round flints +which have no regular quarries, and whose beds have a certain extent; +these are of a modern formation, and have not the same origin as the +flints and free-stone in large lumps, which are disposed in regular +strata. + +I understand by the term _slate_, not only the blue, which all the world +knows, but white, grey, and red slate: these bodies are generally met +with below laminated clay, and have every appearance of being nothing +more than clay hardened in this strata. Pit coal and jet are matters +which also belong to clay, and are commonly under slate. By the word +_tuffa_, I understood not only the common pumice which appears full of +holes, and, as I may say, organized, but all the beds of stone made by +the sediment of running waters, all the stalactites, incrustations, and +all kinds of stone that dissolve by fire. It is no ways doubtful that +these matters are not modern, and that they every day grow. Tuffa is +only a mass of lapidific matter in which we perceive no distinct strata: +this matter is disposed generally in small hollow cylinders, irregularly +grouped and formed by waters dropt at the foot of mountains, or on the +slope of hills, which contain beds of marl or soft and calcareous earth; +these cylinders, which make one of the specific characters of this kind +of tuffa, is either oblique or vertical according to the direction of +the streams or water which form them. These sort of spurious quarries +have no continuation; their extent is very confined, and proportionate +to the height of the mountains which furnish them with the matter of +their growth. The tuffa every day receiving lapidific juices, those +small cylindrical columns, between which intervals are left, close at +last, and the whole becomes one compact body, but never acquires the +hardness of stone, and is what Agricola terms _Marga tofocea fistulosa_. +In this tuffa are generally found impressions of leaves, trees, and +plants, like those which grow in the environs: terrestrial shells also +are often met with, but never any of the marine kind. The tuffa is +certainly therefore a new matter, which must be ranked with stalactites, +incrustations, &c. all these new matters are kinds of spurious stones, +formed at the expence of the rest, but which never arrive at true +petrification. + +Crystal, precious stones, and all those which have a regular figure, +even small flints formed by concentrical beds, whether found in +perpendicular cavities of rocks, or elsewhere, are only exudations of +large flints, or concrete juices of the like matters, and are therefore +spurious stones, and real stalactites of flint or rock. + +Shells are never found either in rock, granate, or free-stone, although +they are often met with in vitrifiable sand, from which these matters +derive their origin; this seems to prove that sand cannot unite to form +free-stone or rock but when it is pure, and that if it is mixed with +shells or substances of other kinds, which are heterogeneous to it, its +union is prevented. I have observed the little pebbles which are often +found in beds of sand mixed with shells, but never found any shell +therein: these pebbles are real concretions of free-stone formed in the +sand in the places where it is not mixed with heterogeneous matters +which oppose the formation of larger masses. + +We have before observed, that at Amsterdam, which is a very low country, +sea shells were found at 100 feet below the earth, and at +Marly-la-Ville, six miles from Paris, at 75 feet; we likewise meet with +the same at the bottom of mines, and in banks of rocks, beneath a height +of stone 50, 100, 200, and 1000 feet thick, as is apparent in the Alps +and Pyrennees, where, in the lower beds, shells and other marine +productions are constantly found. But to proceed in order, we find +shells on the mountains of Spain, France, and England; in all the marble +quarries of Flanders, in the mountains of Gueldres, in all hills around +Paris, Burgundy, and Champagne; in one word, in every place where the +basis of the soil is not free-stone or tuffa; and in most of these +places there are more shells than other matters in the substance of the +stones. By _shells_, I mean not only the wrecks of shell-fish, but those +of crustaceous animals, the bristles of sea hedge-hogs, and all +productions of the sea insects, as coral, madrepores, astroites, &c. We +may easily be convinced by inspection, that in most calculable stones +and marble, there is so great a quantity of these marine productions +that they appear to surpass the matter which unites them. + +But let us proceed; we meet with these marine productions even on the +tops of the highest mountains; for example, on Mount Cenis, in the +mountains of Genes, in the Apennines, and in most of the stone and +marble quarries in Italy; also in the stones of the most ancient +edifices of the Romans; in the mountains of Tirol; in the centre of +Italy, on the summits of Mount Paterne, near Bologna; in the hills of +Calabria; in many parts of Germany and Hungary, and generally in all the +high parts of Europe[233:A]. + +In Asia and Africa, travellers have remarked them in several parts; for +example, on the mountains of Castravan, above Barut, there is a bed of +white stone as thin as slate, each leaf of which contains a great number +and diversity of fishes; they lie for the most part very flat and +compressed, as does the fossil fearn-plants, but they are +notwithstanding so well preserved, that the smallest traces of the fins, +scales, and all the parts which distinguish each kind of fish, are +perfectly visible. So likewise we find many sea muscles, and petrified +shells between Suez and Cairo, and on all the hills and eminences of +Barbary; the greatest part are conformable to the kinds at present +caught in the Red Sea[234:A]. In Europe, we meet with petrified fish in +Sweden and Germany, and in the quarry of Oningen, &c. + +The long chain of mountains, says Bourguet, which extends from Portugal +to the most eastern parts of China, the mountains of Africa and America, +and the vallies of Europe, all inclose stones filled with shell-fish, +and from hence, he says, we may conclude the same of all the other parts +of the world unknown to us. + +The islands in Europe, Asia, and America, where men have had occasion to +dig, whether in mountains or plains, furnish examples of fossil shells, +which evince that they have that in common with the bordering +continents. + +Here then is sufficient facts to prove that sea shells, petrified fish, +and other marine productions are to be found in almost every place we +are disposed to seek them. + +"It is certain, says an English author (Tancred Robinson), that there +have been sea-shells dispersed on the earth by armies, and the +inhabitants of towns and villages, and that Loubere relates in his +Voyage to Siam, that the monkies of the Cape of Good Hope, continually +amuse themselves with carrying shells from the sea shores to the tops of +the mountains; but that cannot resolve the question, why these shells +are dispersed over all the earth, and even in the interior parts of +mountains, where they are deposited in beds like those in the bottom of +the sea." + +On reading an Italian letter on the changes happened to the terrestrial +globe, printed at Paris in the year 1746, I was surprised to find these +sentiments of Loubere exactly corresponded. Petrified fish, according to +this writer, are only fish rejected from the Roman tables, because they +were not esteemed wholesome; and with respect to fossil-shells, he says +the pilgrims of Syria brought, during the times of the Crusades, those +of the Levant Sea, into France, Italy, and other Christian states; why +has he not added that it was the monkies who transported the shells to +the tops of these mountains, which were never inhabited by men? This +would not have spoiled but rendered his explanation still more +probable. + +How comes it that enlightened persons, who pique themselves on +philosophy, have such various ideas on this subject? But doing so, we +shall not content ourselves with having said that petrified shells are +found in almost every part of the earth which has been dug, nor with +having related the testimonies of authors of natural history; as it +might be suspected, that with a view of some system, they perceived +shells where there were none; but quote the authority of some authors, +who merely remarked them accidentally, and whose observations went no +farther than recognising those that were whole and in the best +preservation. Their testimony will perhaps be of a still greater +authority with people who have it not in their power to be assured of +the truth of these facts, and who know not the difference between shells +and petrifications. + +All the world may see the banks of shells in the hills in the environs +of Pans, especially in the quarries of stone, as at Chaussee, near Seve, +at Issy, Passy, and elsewhere. We find a great quantity of lenticular +stones at Villers-Cotterets; these rocks are entirely formed thereof, +and they are blended without any order with a kind of stony mortar, +which binds them together. At Chaumont so great a quantity of petrified +shells are found that the hills appear to be composed of nothing else. +It is the same at Courtagnon, near Rheims, where there is a bank of +shells near four leagues broad, and whose length is considerably more. I +mention these places as being famous and striking the eye of every +beholder. + +With respect to foreign countries, here follows the observations of some +travellers: + +"In Syria and Phoenicia, the rocks, particularly in the neighbourhood +of Latikea, are a kind of chalky substance, and it is perhaps from +thence that the city has taken the name of the white promontory. +Nakoura, anciently termed Scala Tyriorum, or the Tyrians Ladder, is +nearly of the same nature, and we still find there, by digging, +quantities of all sorts of shells, corals, and other remains of the +deluge[237:A]." + +On mount Sinai, we find only a few fossil shells, and other marks of the +deluge, at least if we do not rank the fossil Tarmarin of the +neighbouring mountains of Siam among this number, perhaps the first +matter of which their marble is formed, had a corrosive virtue not +proper to preserve them. But at Corondel, where the rocks approach +nearer our free-stone, I found many shells, as also a very singular sea +muscle, of the descoid kind, but closer and rounder. The ruins of the +little village Ain le Mousa, and many canals which conduct the water +thereto, furnish numbers of fossil shells. The ancient walls of Suez, +and what yet remains of its harbour, have been constructed of the same +materials, which seem to have been taken from the same quarry. Between, +as well as on all the mountains, eminences and hills of Lybia, near +Egypt, we meet with a great quantity of sea weed, as well as vivalvous +shells, and of these which terminate in a point, most of which are +exactly conformable to the kinds at present caught in the Red Sea. + +The moving sand in the neighbourhood of Ras Sem, in the kingdom of +Barca, covers many palm trees with petrifications. Ras Sem signifies the +head of a fish, and is what we term the petrified village, where it is +said men, women, and children are found, who with their cattle, +furniture, &c. have been converted into stone; but these, says Shaw, are +vain tales and fables, as I have not only learnt from M. le Maire, who +at the time he was Consul at Tripoly, sent several persons thither to +take cognizance of it, but also from very respectable persons who had +been at those places. + +Near the pyramids certain pieces of stone worked by the sculptor, were +found by Mr. Shaw, and among these stones many rude ones of the figure +and size of lentils; some even resemble barley half-peeled; these, he +says, were reported to be the remains of what the workmen ate, but which +does not appear probable, &c. These lentils and barley are nothing but +petrified shells called by naturalists lentil stones. + +According to Misson, several sorts of these shell-fish are found in the +environs of Maestricht, especially towards the village of Zicken, or +Tichen, and at the little mountain called Huns. In the environs of +Sienna, near Ceraldo, are many mountains of sand crammed with divers +sorts of shells. Montemario, a mile from Rome, is entirely filled with +them; I have seen them in the Alps, France, and elsewhere. Olearius, +Steno, Cambden, Speed, and a number of other authors, as well ancient as +modern, relate the same phenomena. + +"The island of Cerigo, says Thevenot, was anciently called Porphyris, +from the quantity of Porphyry which was taken out of it[240:A]. + +"Opposite the village of Inchene, and on the eastern shore of the Nile, +I found petrified plants, which grow naturally in a space about two +leagues long, by a very moderate breadth; this is one of the most +singular productions of nature. These plants resemble the white coral +found in the Red Sea[240:B]." + +"There are petrifications of divers kinds on Mount Libanus, and among +others flat stones, where the skeletons of fish are found well preserved +and entire; red chesnuts and small branches of coral, the same as grow +in the Red Sea, are also found on this mountain." + +"On Mount Carmel we find a great quantity of hollow stones, which have +something of the figure of melons, peaches, and other fruits, which are +said to be so petrified: they are commonly sold to pilgrims, not only as +mere curiosities, but also as remedies against many disorders. The +olives which are the _lapides jadaici_, are to be met with at the +druggists, and have always been looked upon, when dissolved in the +juice of lemon, as a specific for the stone and gravel." + +"M. la Roche, a physician, gave me some of these petrified olives, which +grew in great plenty in these mountains, where I am told are found other +stones, the inside of which perfectly resemble the natural parts of men +and women. These are Hysterolithes." + +"In going from Smyrna to Tauris, when we were at Tocat, says Tavernier, +the heat was so great, as obliged us to quit the common road, and go by +the mountains, where there is constantly shade and refreshing air. In +many places we found snow and a quantity of very fine sorrel, and on the +top of some of those mountains we found shells like those upon the sea +shores, which was very extraordinary." + +Here follows what Olearius says on the subject of petrified shells, +which he remarked in Persia, and in the rocks where the sepulchres are +cut out, near to the village of Pyrmaraus: + +"We were three in company that ascended to the top of the rock by the +most frightful precipices, mutually assisting each other; having gained +the summit, we found four large chambers, and within many niches cut in +the rocks to serve for beds: but what the most surprised us was to find +in this vault, on the top of the mountain, muscle shells; and in some +places they were in such great quantities, that the whole rock appeared +to be composed only of sand and shells. Returning to Persia, we +perceived many of these shelly mountains along the coast of the Caspian +sea." + +To these I could subjoin many other authorities which I suppress, not +willing to tire those who have no need of superabundant proofs, and who +are convinced by their sight, as I have been, of the existence of shells +wherever we chuse to seek for them. + +In France, we not only find the shells of the French coast, but also +such as have never been seen in those seas. Some philosophers assert, +that the quantity of these foreign petrified shells is much greater than +those of our climate; but I think this opinion unfounded; for, +independent of the shell-fish which inhabit the bottom of the sea, and +are seldom brought up by the fishermen, and which consequently may be +looked on as foreigners, although they exist in our seas, I see, by +comparing the petrifactions with the living analagous animals, there +are more of those of our coasts than of others: for example, most of the +cockles, muscles, oysters, ear-shells, limpets, nautili, stars, +tubulites, corals, madrepores, &c. found in so many places, are +certainly the productions of our seas; and though a great number appear +which are foreign or unknown, the cornu ammonis, the lapides juduica, +&c. yet I am convinced, from repeated observations, that the number of +these kinds is small in comparison with the shells of our own coasts: +besides, what composes the bottom of almost all our marble and +lime-stone but madrepores, astroites, and all those other productions +which are formed by sea insects, and formerly called marine plants? +Shells, however abundant, form only a small part of these productions, +many of which originate in our seas, and particularly in the +Mediterranean. + +The Red sea produces corals, madrepores, and marine plants in the +greatest abundance: no part furnishes a greater variety than the port of +Tor; in calm weather so great a quantity present themselves, that the +bottom of the sea resembles a forest; some of the branched madrepores +are eight or ten feet high. In the Mediterranean sea, at Marseilles, +near the coasts of Italy and Sicily; in most of the gulphs of the +ocean, around islands, on banks, and in all temperate climates, where +the sea is but of a moderate depth, they are very common. + +M. Peyssonel was the first who discovered that corals, madrepores, &c. +owed their origin to animals, and were not plants as had been supposed. +The observation of M. Peyssonel was a long time doubted; some +naturalists, at first, rejected it with a kind of disdain, nevertheless +they have been obliged since to acknowledge its truth, and the whole +world is at length satisfied that these formerly supposed marine plants, +are nothing but hives or cells formed by insects, in which they live as +fish do in their shells. These bodies were, at first, placed in the +class of minerals, then passed into that of vegetables, and now remain +fixed in that of animals, the genuine operations of which they must ever +be considered. + +There are shell-fish which live at the bottom of the sea, and which are +never cast on the shore; authors call them Pelogiae, to distinguish them +from the others which they call Litterales. It is to be supposed the +cornu ammonis, and some other kinds that are only found in a petrified +state, belong to the former, and that they were filled with the stony +sediment in the very places they are found. There might also have been +certain animals, whose species are perished, and of which number this +shell-fish might be ranked. The extraordinary fossil bones found in +Siberia, Canada, Ireland, and many other places, seem to confirm this +conjecture, for no animal has hitherto been discovered to whom such +bones could belong, as they are, for the most part, of an enormous size. + +These shells, according to Woodward, are met with from the top to the +bottom of quarries, pits, and at the bottom of the deepest mines of +Hungary. And Mr. Ray assures us, they are found a thousand feet deep in +the rocks which border the isle of Calda, and in Pembrokeshire in +England. + +Shells are not only found in a petrified state, at great depths, and at +the tops of the highest mountains, but there are some met with in their +natural condition, and which have the gloss, colours, and lightness of +sea-shells; and to convince ourselves entirely of this matter, we have +only to compare them with those found on the sea shores. A slight +examination will prove that these fossil and petrified shells are the +same as those of the sea; they are marked with the same articulations +and in the glossopetri, and other teeth of fishes, which are sometimes +found adhering to the jaw-bone, the teeth of the fish are remarked to be +smooth and worn at the extremities, and that they have been made use of +when the animals were alive. + +Almost every where on land we meet with fossil-shells, and of those of +the same kind, some are small, others large, some young, others old; +some imperfect, others extremely perfect and we likewise sometimes see +the young ones adhering to the old. + +The shell-fish called _purpura_ has a long tongue, the extremity of +which is bony, and so sharp, that it pierces the shells of other fish; +by which means it draws nutriment from them. Shells pierced in this +manner are frequently found in the earth, which is an incontestible +proof that they formerly inclosed living fish, and existed in those +parts where there were the Purpura. + +The obelisks of St. Peter's at Rome, according to John of Latran, were +said to come from the pyramids of Egypt; they are of red granite, which +is a kind of rock-stone, and, as we have observed, contains no shells; +but the African and Egyptian marble, and the porphyry said to have been +cut from the temple of Solomon, and the palaces of the kings of Egypt, +and used at Rome in different buildings, are filled with shells. Red +porphyry is composed of an infinite number of prickles of the species of +echinus, or sea chesnut; they are placed pretty near each other, and +form all the small white spots which are in the porphyry. Each of these +white spots has a black one in its centre, which is the section of the +longitudinal tube of the prickles of the echinus. At Fichen, three +leagues from Dijon, in Burgundy, is a red stone perfectly similar in its +composition to porphyry, and which differs from it only in hardness, not +being more so than marble; it appears almost formed of prickles of the +echini, and its beds are of a very great extent. Many beautiful pieces +of workmanship have been made of it in this province, and particularly +the steps of the pedestal of the equestrian statue of Louis le Grand, at +Dijon. + +This species of stone is also found at Montbard, in Burgundy, where +there is an extensive quarry; it is not so hard as marble, contains more +of the echini, and less of the red matter. From this it appears that +the ancient porphyry of Egypt differs only from that of Burgundy in the +degree of hardness, and the number of the points of the echini. + +With respect to what the curious call green porphyry, I rather suppose +it to be a granite than a porphyry; it is not composed of spots like the +red porphyry, and its substance appears to be similar to that of a +common granite. In Tuscany, in the stone with which the ancient walls of +Volatera were built, there are a great quantity of shells, and this wall +was built 2500 years ago. Most marbles, porphyries, and other stones of +the most ancient buildings, contain shells and other wrecks of marine +productions, as well as the marble we at present take from the quarry; +therefore it cannot be doubted, independent even of the sacred testimony +of holy writ, that before the deluge the earth was composed of the same +materials at it is at present. + +From all these facts it is plain that petrified shells are found in +Europe, Asia, Africa, and in every place where the observations have +been made; they are also found in America, in the Brasils; for example, +in Tucumama, in Terra Magellinica, and in such a great quantity in the +Antilles, that directly below the cultivable land, the bottom of which +the inhabitants call lime, is nothing but a composition of shells, +madrepores, astroites, and other productions of the sea. These facts +would have made me think that shells and other petrified marine +productions were to be found in the greatest part of the continent of +America, and especially in the mountains, as Woodward asserts; but M. +Condamine, who lived several years at Peru, has assured me he could not +discover any in the Cordeliers, although he had carefully sought for +them. This exception would be singular, and the consequences that might +be drawn from it would be still more so; but I own that, in spite of the +testimony of this celebrated naturalist, I am much inclined to suppose, +that in the mountains of Peru, as well as elsewhere, there are shells +and other marine petrifications, although they have not been discovered. +It is well known, that in matter of testimonies, two positive witnesses, +who assert to have seen a thing, is sufficient to make a complete proof; +whereas ten thousand negative witnesses, and who can only assert not to +have seen a thing, can only raise a slight doubt. This reason, united +with the strength of analogy, induces me to persist in thinking the +shells will be found on the mountains of Peru, especially if we search +for them on the rise of the mountain, and not at the summit. + +The tops of the highest mountains are generally composed of rock, stone +granite, and other vitrifiable matters, which contain no shells. + +All these matters were formed out of the beds of the sand of the sea, +which covered the tops of these mountains. When the sea left them, the +sand and other light bodies were carried by the waters into the plains, +so that there remained only rocks on the tops of the mountains, which +had been formed under those beds of sand. At two, three, or four hundred +fathoms below the tops of these mountains, are often found marble and +other calcinable matter, which are disposed in parallel strata, and +contain shells and other marine productions; therefore it is not +surprising that M. de la Condamine did not find any shells on these +mountains, especially if he sought for them in the elevated parts of +those mountains which are composed of rock, free-stone, or vitrifiable +sand; but had he examined the lower parts of the Cordeliers, he would +undoubtedly have found strata of stone, marble, earth, &c. mixed with +shells; for in every country where observations have been made, such +beds have always been met with. + +But suppose that in fact there are no marine productions in the +mountains of Peru, all that may be concluded from it will no ways affect +our theory; and it might be possible, that there are some parts of the +globe which never were covered with water, especially of such elevation +as the Cordeliers. But in this case there might be some curious +observations made on those mountains, for they would not be composed of +parallel strata, the materials also would be very different from those +we are acquainted with; they would not have perpendicular cracks; the +composition of the rocks and stones would not at all resemble those of +other countries; and lastly, in these mountains we should find the +ancient structure of the earth such as it originally was before it was +changed by the motion of the waters; we should see the first state of +the globe, the old matters of which it was composed, its form, and the +natural arrangement of its parts; but this is too much to expect, and on +too slight foundations; and it is more conformable to reason to conclude +that fossil-shells are to be found in those mountains, as well as in +every other place. + +With respect to the manner in which shells are placed in the strata of +earth or sand, Woodward says, "All shells that are met with in an +infinity of strata of earth, and banks of rocks, in the highest +mountains, and in the deepest quarries and mines, in flints, &c. &c. in +masses of sulphur, marcasites, and other metallic and mineral bodies, +are filled with similar substances to that which includes them, and +never any heterogeneous matter, &c. + +"In the sand stones of all countries (the specific weight of the +different kinds of which vary but little, being generally with respect +to water as 2-1/2 or 9/16 to 1), we find only the conchae, and other +shells which are nearly of the same weight, but they are usually found +in very great numbers, whereas it is very rare to meet with +oyster-shells (whose specific weight is but as 2-1/3 to 1), or sea +cockles (whose weight is but as 2 or 2-1/8 to 1), or other sorts of +lighter shells; but on the contrary in chalk, (which is lighter than +stone, being to water but as 2-1/10 to 1), we find only cockles and +other kinds of lighter shells, page 32, 33." + +It must be remarked, that what Woodward says in this place with respect +to specific gravity, must not be looked upon as a general rule, for we +find lighter and heavier shells in the same matters; for example, shells +of cockles, of oysters, of echini, &c. are found in the same stones and +earth; and even in the royal cabinet may be seen a petrified cockle in a +cornelian, and echini petrified in an agate, &c. therefore the specific +weight of the shells has not influenced so much as Woodward supposes +their position in the earth. The reason why such light shells are found +more abundantly in chalk is, that chalk is only the ruinated part of +shells, and that those of the echini being lighter and thinner than +others, would have been most easily reduced into powder or chalk, so +that the strata of chalk are only met with in the places where formerly +a great abundance of these light shells were collected, the destruction +of which formed that chalk, in which we find those shells, which having +resisted the frictions, are preserved entire, or at least in parts large +enough to discover their species. + +But this subject is treated more fully in our discourse on minerals; we +shall here content ourselves with saying, that a modification must be +given to Woodward's expressions: he seems to say, that shells are found +in flints, cornelians, in ores, and sulphur, as often, and in as great +a number as in other matters; whereas the truth is, that they are very +rare in all vitrifiable or purely inflammable substances; and, on the +contrary, are in prodigious abundance in chalk, marl, and marbles, +insomuch that we cannot absolutely pretend to say, that the lightest and +heaviest shells are found in corresponding strata, but only that in +general they are oftener found so than otherwise. They are all filled +with the substance which surrounds them, whether found in horizontal +strata or in perpendicular fissures, because both have been formed by +the waters, although at different times and in different manners. Those +found in horizontal strata of stone, marble, &c. have been deposited by +the motion of the waves of the sea, and those in flints, cornelians, and +all matters which are in the perpendicular fissures, have been produced +by the particular motion of a small quantity of water, loaded with +lapidific or metallic substances. In both cases these matters were +reduced into a fine and impalpable powder, which has filled the shells +so fully and absolutely, as not to have left the least vacuum. + +There is therefore in stone, marble, &c. a great multitude of shells +which are whole, beautiful, and so little changed, that they may be +easily compared with the shells preserved in cabinets, or found on the +sea shores. + +Woodward, in pages 23 and 24, proceeds, "There are, besides these, great +multitudes of shells contained in stones, &c. which are entire and +absolutely free from any such mineral mixture; which may be compared +with those at this time seen on our shores, and which will be found not +to have any difference, being precisely of the same figure and size; of +the same substance and texture as the peculiar matter which composes +them is the same, and is disposed and arranged in the same manner; the +direction of their fibres and spiral lines are the same, the composition +of the small lama formed by their fibres is the same in the one as the +other; we see in the same part vestigia of tendons, by means of which +the animal was fastened and joined to its shell; we see the same +tubercles, stria and pipes; in short, the whole is alike, whether within +or without the shell, in its cavity or on its convexity, in its +substance or on its superficies. In other respects these fossil +shell-fish are subject to the same common accidents as those of the sea; +for example, they sometimes grow to one another, the least are adherent +to the large; they have vermicular conduits; pearls are found therein, +and other similar matters which have been produced by the animal when it +inhabited its shell; and what is very considerable, their specific +gravity is exactly the same as that of their kind found actually in the +sea; in all chymical experiments they answer exactly with sea-shells; +when dissolved they have the same appearance, smell and taste; in a +word, their resemblance is perfectly exact." + +I have often observed with astonishment, as I have already said, whole +mountains, chains of rocks, enormous banks of quarries, so full of +shells and other wrecks of marine productions, that their bulk surpassed +that of the matter in which they were deposited. + +I have seen cultivated fields so full of petrified cockles that a man +might pick them up with his eyes shut, others covered with cornu +ammonis, and some with cardites; and the more we examine the earth, the +more we shall be convinced that the number of these petrifications is +infinite, and conclude, that it is impossible that all the animals which +inhabited these shells existed at one time. + +I have made an observation, that in all countries where we find a very +great number of petrified shells in the cultivated lands which are +whole, well preserved, and totally apart, have been divided by the +action of the frost, which destroys the stone and suffers the petrified +shells to subsist a longer time. + +This immense quantity of marine fossils found in so many places, proves +that they could not have been transported thither by the deluge; for if +these shells had been brought on the earth by a deluge, the greatest +part would have remained on the surface of the earth, or at least would +not have entered to the depth of seven or eight hundred feet in the most +solid marble. + +In all quarries these shells form a share of the internal part of the +stone, sometimes externally covered with stalactites, which is much less +ancient matter than stone, which contains shells. Another proof this +happened not by a deluge is, that bones, horns, claws, &c. of land +animals, are found but very rarely, and not at all in marble and other +hard stone whereas if it was the effect of a deluge, where all must have +perished, we should meet with the remains of land animals as well as +those of the sea. + +It is a vain supposition to pretend that all the earth was dissolved at +the deluge, nor can we give any foundation to such idea, but by +supposing a second miracle, to give the water the property of a +universal dissolvent. Besides, what annihilates the supposition, and +renders it even contradictory, is, that if all matters were dissolved by +that water, yet shells have not been so, since we find them entire and +well preserved in all the masses which are said to have been dissolved; +this evidently proves that there never was such dissolution, and that +the arrangement of the parallel strata was not made in an instant, but +by successive sediments: for it is evident to all who will take the +trouble of observing, that the arrangement of all the materials which +compose the globe, is the work of the waters. The question therefore is +only whether this arrangement was made at once, or in a length of time: +now we have shewn it could not be done all at once, because the +materials have not kept the order of specific weight, and there has not +been a general dissolution; therefore this arrangement must have been +produced by sediments deposited in succession of time; any other +revolution, motion, or cause, would have produced a very different +arrangement. Besides, particular revolutions, or accidental causes, +could not have produced a similar effect on the whole globe. + +Let us see what the historian of the Academy says on this subject anno +1718, p. 3. "The numerous remains of extensive inundations, and the +manner in which we must conceive mountains to have been formed, +sufficiently proves that great revolutions have happened to the surface +of the earth. As far as we have been able to penetrate we find little +else but ruins, wrecks, and vast bodies heaped up together and +incorporated into one mass, without the smallest appearance of order or +design. If there is some kind of regular organization in the terrestrial +globe it is deeper than we have been able to examine, and all our +researches must terminate in digging among the ruins of the external +coat, but which will still find sufficient employment for our +philosophers. + +"M. de Jussieu found in the environs of St. Chaumont a great quantity of +slaty or foliated stones, every foliage of which was marked with the +impression of a branch, a leaf, or the fragment of a leaf of some plant: +the representations of leaves were exactly extended, as if they had been +carefully spread on the stone by the hand; this proves they had been +brought thither by the water, which always keeps leaves in that state: +they were in different situations, sometimes two or three together. It +may easily be supposed that a leaf deposited by water upon soft mud, and +afterwards covered with another layer of mud, imprints on the upper the +image of one of its two surfaces, and on the under the image of the +other; and on being hardened and petrified would appear to have taken +different impressions; but, however natural this supposition may be, the +fact is not so, for the two laminae of stone bear impressions of the same +side of the leaf, the one in alto, the other in bas releaf. It was M. +Jussieu who made these observations on the figured stones of St. +Chaumont; to him we shall leave the explication, and pass to objects +which are more general and interesting. + +"All the impressions on the stones of St. Chaumont are of foreign +plants; they are not to be found in any part of France, but only in the +East Indies or the hot climates of America; they are for the most part +capillary plants, generally of the species of fern, whose hard and +compact coat renders them more able to imprint and preserve themselves. +Some leaves of Indian plants imprinted on the stones of Germany appeared +astonishing to M. Leibnitz, but here we find the same wonderful affair +infinitely multiplied. There even seems in this respect to be an +unaccountable destination of nature, for in all the stones of St. +Chaumont not a single plant of the country has been found. + +"It is certain, by the number of fossil-shells in the quarries and +mountains, that this country, as well as many others, must have formerly +been covered with the sea. But how has the American or Indian sea +reached thither? To explain this, and many other wonderful phenomena, it +may be supposed, with much probability, that the sea originally covered +the whole terrestrial globe: but this supposition will not hold good, +because how were terrestrial plants to exist? It evidently, therefore, +must have been great inundations which have conveyed the plants of one +country into the others. + +"M. de Jussieu thinks, that as the bed of the sea is continually rising, +in consequence of the mud and sand which the rivers incessantly convey +there, the sea, at first confined between natural dykes, surmounted +them, and was dispersed over the land, and that the dykes were +themselves undermined by the waters and overthrown therein. In the +earliest time of the formation of the earth, when no one thing had taken +a regular form, prodigious and sudden revolutions might then have been +made, of which we no longer have examples, because the whole is now in +such a permanent state, that the changes must be inconsiderable and by +degrees. + +"By some of these great revolutions the East and West Indian seas may +have been driven to Europe, and carried with them foreign plants +floating on its waters, which they tore up in their road, and deposited +gently in places where the water was but shallow and would soon +evaporate." + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[220:A] Anno 1720; page 5. + +[227:A] A kind of soft gravelly stone. + +[233:A] On this subject see Stenon, Ray, Woodward, and others. + +[234:A] See Shaw's Voyages, Vol. ii, pages 40 and 41. + +[237:A] See Shaw's Travels. + +[240:A] Thevenot, Vol. I, page 25. + +[240:B] Voyage of Paul Lucus, Vol. II, page 380. + + + + +ARTICLE IX. + +ON THE INEQUALITIES OF THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH. + + +The inequalities which are on the surface of the earth, and which might +be regarded as an imperfection to its figure, are necessary to preserve +vegetation and life on the terrestrial globe. To be assured of this, it +is only requisite to conceive what the earth would be if it was even and +regular. Instead of agreeable hills, from whence pure streams of waters +flow, to support the verdure of the earth; instead of those rich and +flourishing meadows, where plants and animals find agreeable +subsistence; a dismal sea would cover the whole globe, and the earth, +deprived of all its valuable qualities, would only remain an obscure and +forsaken planet, at best only destined for the abode of fishes. + +But independent of moral considerations, which seldom form a proof in +philosophy, there is a physical necessity why the earth must be +irregular on its surface; for supposing it was perfectly regular in its +origin, the motion of the waters, the subterraneous fires, the wind, and +other external causes, would, in course of time, have necessarily +produced irregularities similar to those now seen. + +The greatest inequalities next to the elevations of mountains, are the +depths of the ocean; this depth is very different even at great +distances from land; it is said there are parts above a league deep, but +those are few, and the most general depths are from 60 to 150 fathoms. +The gulphs bordering on the coasts are much less deep, and the straits +are generally the most shallow. + +To sound the depths of the sea, a piece of lead of 30 or 40lb. is made +use of, fastened to a small cord; this is a good method for common +depths, but is not to be depended upon when the depth is considerable; +because the cord being specifically lighter than the water, after it has +descended to a certain degree, the weight of the lead and that of the +cord is no more than a like volume of water; then the lead descends no +longer, but moves in an oblique line, and floats at the same depth: to +sound great depths, therefore, an iron chain is requisite, or some +substance heavier than water. It is very probable that for want of +considering this circumstance, navigators tell us that the sea in many +places has no bottom. + +In general, the profundities in open seas increase or diminish in a +pretty uniform manner, and commonly the farther from shore the greater +the depth; yet this is not without exception, there are places in the +midst of the sea where shoals are found, as at Abrolhos in the Atlantic; +and others where there are banks of a very considerable extent, as are +daily experienced by the navigators to the East Indies. + +So likewise along shore the depths are very unequal, nevertheless we may +lay it down as a certain rule, that the depth there is always +proportionate to the height of that shore. It is the same in great +rivers, where the high shores always announce a great depth. + +It is more easy to measure the heights of mountains, whether by means of +practical geometry, or by the barometer. This instrument gives the +height of a mountain very exactly, especially in a country where its +variation is not considerable, as at Peru, and under the other parts of +the equator. By one or other of these methods, the height of most +eminences has been measured; for example, it has been found that the +highest mountains of Switzerland are about 1600 fathoms higher than +Canigau, which is one of the most elevated of the Pyrennees; those +mountains appear to be the highest in Europe, since a great quantity of +rivers flow from them, which carry their water into very remote and +different seas, as the Po, which flows into the Adriatic; the Rhine, +which loses itself in the sands in Holland; the Rhone, which falls into +the Mediterranean; and the Danube, which goes to the Black Sea. These +four rivers, whose mouths are so remote from each other, all derive a +part of their waters from Mount Saint Godard and the neighbouring +mountain, which proves that this place is the highest in all Europe. +The highest mountains in Asia are Mount Taurus, Mount Imaus, Caucasus, +and the mountains of Japan, all which are loftier than those of Europe; +the mountains in Africa, as the Great Atlas, and the mountains of the +Moon, are at least as high as those in Asia, and the highest of all are +in South America, particularly those of Peru, which are more than 3000 +fathoms above the level of the sea. In general the mountains between the +tropics are loftier than those of the temperate zones, and these more +than the frigid zones, so that the nearer we approach the equator, the +greater are the inequalities of the earth. These inequalities, although +very considerable with respect to us, are scarcely any thing when +considered with respect to the whole globe. Three thousand fathom +difference to 3000 leagues diameter, is but one fathom to a league, or +one foot to 2200 feet, which on a globe of 2-1/2 feet diameter, does not +make the 16th part of a French line. Thus the earth, which appears to us +crossed and intersected by the enormous height of mountains, and by a +frightful depth of sea, is nevertheless, relative to its size, but +slightly furrowed with irregularities, so very trifling, that they can +cause no difference to the general figure of the globe. In continents +the mountains are continued and form chains. In islands, they are more +interrupted, and generally raised above the sea, in the forms of cones +or pyramids, and are called peaks. The peak of Teneriffe, in the island +of Fer, is one of the highest mountains on the earth; it is near a +league and a half perpendicular above the level of the sea; the peak of +St. George, in one of the Azores, and the peak of Adam, in the island of +Ceylon, are also very lofty. These peaks are composed of rocks, heaped +one upon the other, and they vomit from their summits fire, cinders, +bitumen, minerals, and stones. There are islands which are only tops of +mountains, as of St. Helena, Ascension, most of the Azores, and +Canaries. We must remark, that in most of the islands, promontories, and +other projecting lands in the sea, the middle is always the highest; and +they are generally separated by chains of mountains, which divide them +in their greatest length, as (Gransbain) the Grampian mountains in +Scotland, which extend from east to west, and divide Great Britain into +two parts. It is the same with the islands of Sumatra, Lucca, Borneo, +Celebes, Cuba, St. Domingo, and the peninsula of Malaya, &c. and also +Italy, which is traversed through its whole length by the Apennine +mountains. + +Mountains, as we find, differ greatly in height; the hills are lowest, +after them come the mountains of a moderate height, which are followed +by a third rank still higher, which, like the preceding, are generally +loaded with trees and plants, but which furnish no springs except at +their bottoms. In the highest mountains we find only sand, stones, +flints, and rocks, whose summits often rise above the clouds. Exactly at +the foot of these rocks there are small spaces, plains, hollows, and +kinds of vallies, where the rain, snow, and ice remain, and form ponds, +morasses, and springs, from whence rivers derive their origin. + +The form of mountains is also very different: some form chains whose +height is nearly equal in a long extent of soil, others are divided by +deep vallies; some are regular, and others as irregular as possible; and +sometimes in the middle of a valley or plain, we find a little mountain. +There are also two sorts of plains, the one in the low lands, the other +in mountains. The first are generally divided by some large river: the +others, though of a very considerable extent, are dry, and at farthest +have only a small rivulet. These plains on mountains are often very +high, and difficult of access; they form countries above other +countries, as in Auvergne, Savoy, and many other high places: the soil +is firm, and produces much grass, and odoriferous plants, which render +these plains the best pasture in the world. + +The summits of high mountains are composed of rocks of different +heights, which resemble from a distance the waves of the sea. It is not +on this observation alone we can rely that the mountains have been +formed by the waves, I only relate it because it accords with the rest: +but that which evidently proves that the sea once covered and formed +mountains, are the shells and other marine productions found throughout +in such great quantities, that it is not possible for them to have been +transported by the sea into such remote continents, and deposited to +such considerable depths; to this may be added, the horizontal and +parallel strata every where met with, and which can only have been +formed by the waters. The composition even of the hardest matters, as +stone and marble, prove they had been reduced into fine powder before +their formation, and precipitated to the bottom of the water in form of +a sediment: it is also proved by the exactness with which fossil-shells +are moulded in those matters in which they are found; the inside of +these shells are absolutely filled with the same matters as that in +which they are enclosed; the corresponding angles of mountains and +hills, which no other cause than the currents of the sea could have been +able to form; the equality in the height of opposite hills, and beds of +different matters, formed at the same levels, and, in short, the +direction of mountains, whose chains extend in length in the same +direction as the waves of the sea extend, incontestibly demonstrate the +fact. + +With respect to the depths on the surface of the earth, the greatest, +without contradiction, are the depths of the sea; but as they do not +present themselves to our sight, and as we can only judge of them by the +plumb line, we shall only speak of those which appear on dry land, such +as the deep vallies between mountains, the precipices between rocks, the +abysses perceived from the tops of mountains, as the abyss of Mount +Ararat, the precipices of the Alps, the vallies of the Pyrennees, &c. +These depths are a natural consequence of the elevation of mountains; +they receive the waters and the earth which flow from the mountains, and +the soil is generally very fertile, and are fully inhabited. + +The precipices which are between rocks are frequently formed by the +sinking of one side, the base of which sometimes gives way more on one +side than the other, by the action of the air and frost, which splits +and divides them, or by the impetuous violence of torrents. But these +abysses, or vast and enormous precipices, found at the summits of +mountains, and to the bottom of which it is not possible sometimes to +descend, although they are above a mile, or a mile and a half round, +have been formed by the fire. These were formerly the funnels of +volcanos, and all the matter which is there deficient has been ejected +by the action and explosion of these fires, which are since extinguished +through a defect of combustible matter. The abyss of Mount Ararat, of +which M. Tournefort gives a description in his voyage to the Levant, is +surrounded with black and burnt rocks, as one day the abysses of Etna, +Vesuvius, and other volcanos, will be, when they have consumed all the +combustible matters they include. + +In Plots' Natural History of Staffordshire, in England, a kind of gulph +is spoken of which has been sounded to the depth of 2600 perpendicular +feet without meeting with any water, or the bottom being found, as the +rope was not of sufficient length to reach it. + +Greatest cavities and deepest mines are generally in mountains, and they +never descend to a level with the plains, therefore by these cavities we +are only acquainted with the inside of a mountain, and not with the +internal part of the globe itself. + +Besides, these depths are not very considerable. Ray asserts that the +deepest mines are not above half a mile deep. The mine of Cotteberg, +which in the time of Agricola passed for the deepest of all known mines, +was only 2500 feet perpendicular. It is evident there are holes in +certain places, as that in Staffordshire, or Pool's Hole, in Derbyshire, +the depth of which is perhaps greater; but all this is nothing in +comparison with the thickness of the globe. + +If the kings of Egypt, instead of having erected pyramids, and raised +such sumptuous monuments of their riches and vanity, had been at the +same expence to sound the earth, and make a deep excavation to the depth +of a league, they, perhaps, might have found substances which would have +amply recompensed the trouble, labour, and expence, or at least we +should have received information on the matters of which the internal +part of the globe is composed, which might have been very useful, and +which we at present have not. + +But let us return to the mountains; the highest are in the southern +countries, and the nearer we approach the equator, the more inequalities +we find on the surface of the globe. This is easy to prove, by a short +enumeration of the mountains and islands. + +In America, the chain of the Cordeliers, the highest mountains of the +earth, is exactly under the equator, and extends on the two sides far +beyond the tropic circles. + +In Africa, the highest mountains of the Moon, and Monomotapa, the great +and the little Atlas, are under the equator, or not far from it. + +In Asia, Mount Caucasus, the chain of which extends under different +names as far as the mountains of China, is nearer the equator than the +poles. + +In Europe, the Pyrennees, the Alps, and mountains of Greece, which are +only the same chain, are still less distant from the equator than the +poles. + +Now these mountains which we have enumerated, are all higher, more +considerable and extended in length and breadth than the mountains of +the northern countries. + +With respect to their direction, the Alps form a chain which crosses the +whole continent from Spain to China. These mountains begin at the sea +coast of Galicia, reach to the Pyrennees, cross France, by Vivares, and +Auvergne, pass through Italy and extend into Germany, beyond Dalmatia, +as far as Macedonia; from thence they join with the mountains of +Armenia, Caucasus, Taurus, Imaus, and extend as far as the Tartarian +sea. So likewise Mount Atlas traverses the whole continent of Africa, +from west to east, from the kingdom of Fez to the Straits of the Red +Sea; and the mountains of the Moon have the same direction. + +But in America, the direction is quite contrary, and the chains of the +Cordeliers and other mountains extend from south to north more than from +east to west. + +What we have now said on the great eminences of the earth, may also be +observed on the greatest depths of the sea. The vast and highest seas +are nearer the equator than the poles; and there results from this +observation, that the greatest inequalities of the globe are in the +southern climate. These irregularities on the surface of the earth, are +the causes of an infinity of extraordinary effects: for example, between +the Indus and the Ganges, there is a large peninsula, which is divided +through its middle, by a chain of high mountains called the Gate, and +which extends from north to south, from the extremities of Mount +Caucasus to Cape Comorin; on one is the coast of Malabar, and the other +Coromandel; on the side of Malabar, between this chain of mountains and +the sea, the summer season lasts from September to April, during which +the sky is serene and dry; on the other side the Coromandel the above +period is their winter, and it rains every day plentifully and from the +month of April to the month of September is their summer, whereas it is +winter in Malabar; insomuch, that in many places, which are scarcely 20 +miles distant, we may, by crossing the mountains, change seasons. It is +said that the same thing takes place at Razalgat in Arabia, and at +Jamaica, which is divided through its middle by a chain of mountains, +whose direction is from east to west, and that the plantations to the +south of these mountains feel the summer heat, at the time those to the +north endure the rigor of winter. + +Peru, which is situated under the line, and extends about a thousand +leagues to the south, is divided into three long and narrow parts; these +the natives call Lanos, Sierras, and Andes. The Lanos, which comprehends +the plains, extends along the coast of the South Sea: the Sierras are +hills with some vallies, and the Andes are the famous Cordeliers, the +highest mountains that are known. The Lanos is about ten leagues in +breadth; in many places the Sierras are twenty leagues broad, and the +Andes in some places more and in some less. The breadth is from east to +west, and the length from north to south. This part of the world is +remarkable for the following particulars: first, in the Lanos the wind +almost constantly blows from the south-west, which is contrary to what +happens in the torrid zone: secondly, it never rains nor thunders in the +Lanos, although there is plenty of dew: thirdly, it almost continually +rains in the Andes: fourthly, in the Sierras, between the Lanos and the +Andes, it rains from September to April. + +It was for a long time supposed, that the chains of the high mountains +run from west to east, till the contrary was found in America. But no +person before M. Bourguet discovered the surprising regularity of the +structure of those great masses: he found (after having crossed the Alps +thirty times in fourteen different parts of it, twice over the Apennine +mountains, and made divers tours in the environs of these mountains, and +of Mount Jura) that all mountains are formed nearly after the manner of +works of a fortification. When the body of the mountain runs from east +to west, it forms prominences, which face the north and south; this +wonderful regularity is so striking in vallies, that we seem to walk in +a very regular covered way; if, for example, we travel in a valley from +north to south, we perceive that the mountain on the right forms +projections which front the east, and those of the mountain on the left +front the west, so that the saliant angles of one side reciprocally +answer the returning angles of the other, which are always alternatively +opposed to them. The angles which mountains form in great vallies are +less acute, because the direction is less steep, and they are farther +distant from each other. In plains they are not so perceptible, except +by the banks of rivers, which are generally in the middle of them, and +whose natural windings answer the most advanced angles or striking +projections of the mountains. It is astonishing so visible a thing was +so long unobserved, for when in a valley the inclination of one of the +mountains which border it is less steep than that of the other, the +river takes its course much nearer the steepest mountain, and does not +flow through its middle. + +To these observations we may join other particular ones, which confirm +them; for example, the mountains of Switzerland are much more steep, and +their direction much greater on the south side than on the north, and on +the west side than on the east. This may be perceived in the mountains +of Gemmi, Brisa, and almost every other mountain in this country. The +highest are those which separate Valesia and the Grisons from Savoy, +Piedmont, and Tirol. These countries are only a continuation of these +mountains, the chain of which extends to the Mediterranean, and +continues even pretty far under the sea. The Pyrennees are also only a +continuation of that vast mountain which begins in Upper Valesia, and +whose branches extend very far to the west and south, preserving +throughout the same great height; whereas on the side of the north and +of the east these mountains grow lower by degrees, till they become +plains; as we see by the large tract which the Rhine and Danube water +before they reach their mouths, whereas the Rhone descends with rapidity +towards the south into the Mediterranean. The same observation is found +to hold good in the mountains of England and Norway; but the part of the +world where this is most evidently seen is at Peru and Chili; the +Cordeliers are cut very sharply on the western side, the length of the +Pacific Ocean, whereas on the eastern side they lower by degrees into +large plains, watered by the greatest rivers of the world.[279:A] + +M. Bourguet, to whom we owe this great discovery of the correspondence +of the angles of mountains, terms it "_The Key of the Theory of the +Earth_;" nevertheless, it appears to me, that if he had conceived all +the importance of it, he would more successfully have made use of it, +by connecting it with suitable facts, and would have given a more +probable theory of the earth; whereas in his treatise he presents only +the skeleton of an hypothetical system, most of the conclusions of which +are false or precarious. The theory we have given turns on four +principal facts, which cannot be doubted, after the proofs have been +examined on which they are founded. The first is, that the earth is +every where, and to considerable depths, composed of parallel strata, +and matters which have formerly been in a state of softness: the second, +that the sea has for ages covered the earth which we now inhabit; the +third, that the tides and other motions of the waters produce +inequalities at the bottom of the sea; and the fourth, that the +mountains have taken their form and the correspondent direction from the +currents of the sea. + +After having read the proofs which the following articles contain, it +may be determined, whether I was wrong to assert, that these +circumstances solidly established also ascertains the truth of the +theory of the earth. What I have said on the formation of mountains has +no need of a more ample explanation; but as it might be objected that I +do not assign a reason for the formation of the peaks or points of +mountains, no more than for some other particular circumstances, shall +add the observations and reflections which I have made on this subject. + +I have endeavoured to form a clear and general idea of the manner in +which the different matters that compose the earth are arranged, and it +appears to me they may be reduced into two general classes; the first +includes all the matters we find placed in strata, or beds horizontally +or regularly inclined; and the second comprehends all matters formed in +masses, or in veins, either perpendicular or irregularly inclined. In +the first class are included sands, clays, granite, flints, free-stone, +coals, slates, marls, chalks, calcinable stones, marbles, &c. In the +second I rank metals, minerals, crystals, precious stones and small +flints: these two classes generally comprehend all the known materials +of the earth. The first owe their origin to the sediments carried away +and deposited by the sea, and should be distinguished into those which +being assayed in the fire, calcine and are reduced into lime, and those +which fuse and are convertible into glass. The materials of the second +class are all vitrifiable excepting those which the fire entirely +consumes by inflammation. + +In the first class we distinguish two kinds of sands; the one, which is +more abundant than any other matter of the globe, is vitrifiable, or +rather is only fragments of actual glass; the other, whose quantity is +much less, is calcinable, and must be looked upon as the powder of +stone, and which differs only from gravel by the size of the grains. The +vitrifiable sand is, in general, deposited in beds, which are often +interrupted by masses of free-stone, granite, and flint; and sometimes +these matters are also in banks of great extent. + +By examining these vitrifiable matters, we find only a few sea shells +there, and those not placed in beds, but dispersed about as if thrown +there by chance. For example, I have never seen them in free-stone; that +stone which is very plenty in certain places, is only composed of sandy +parts, which are re-united, and are only met with in sandy soils; and +the quarries of it are generally in peaked hills and in divided +eminences. We may work these quarries in all directions, and if they are +in large beds, they are much farther from each other than in quarries of +calcinable stone or marble. Blocks of free-stone may be cut of all +dimensions and in all directions, although it is difficult to work, it +nevertheless has but a degree of hardness sufficient to resist powerful +strokes without splitting; for friction easily reduces it into sand, +excepting certain black pieces found therein, and which are so very +hard, that the best files cannot touch them. Rock is vitrifiable as +free-stone, and of the same nature, only it is harder and the parts more +connected. This also contains many hard pieces, as may easily be +remarked on the summits of high mountains, which cut and tear the shoes +of travellers. This rocky stone, which is found at the top of high +mountains, and which I look upon as a kind of granite, contains a great +quantity of talky leaves, and is so hard as not to be worked but by an +infinite deal of labour. + +I have narrowly examined these sharp pieces which are found in +free-stone and rock, and have discovered it to be a metallic matter, +melted and calcined by a very violent fire, and which perfectly +resembles certain substances thrown out by the volcanos, of which I saw +a great quantity when I was in Italy, where the people called them +Schiarri. They are very heavy black masses, on which neither water nor +the file can make any impression, and the matter of which is different +from that of the lava; for this is a kind of glass, whereas the other +appears to be more metallic than vitreous. The sharp pieces in +free-stone, and rock, resemble greatly the first matter, which seems +still to prove that all these matters have been formerly liquified by +fire. + +We sometimes see on the upper parts of mountains, a prodigious quantity +of blocks of this mixed rock; their position is so irregular that they +appear to have been thrown there by chance, and it might be thought they +had fallen from some neighbouring height, if the places where they are +found were not raised above the other parts. But their vitrifiable +nature, and their angular and square figures, like those of free-stone, +discover them to be of one common origin. Thus in the great beds of +vitrifiable sand, blocks of free-stone and rock are formed, whose +figures and situations do not exactly follow the horizontal position of +these strata. The rain, by degrees, carried away from the summits of the +hills and mountains the sand which at first covered them, and then began +to furrow and cut those hills into the spaces which are found between +the nucleus in free-stone, as the hills of Fontainbleau are intersected. +Each hilly point answers to a nucleus in a quarry of free-stone, and +each interval has been excavated and loosened by the rain, which has +caused the sand, they at first contained, to flow into the vallies; so +likewise the highest mountains, whose summits are composed of rocks, and +terminated by these angular blocks of granite, have formerly been +covered with vitrifiable sand, and the rain having carried away the sand +which covered them, they remained on the tops of the mountains in the +position they were formed. These blocks generally present points; they +increase in size in proportion as they descend; one block often rests +upon another, the second upon a third, and so on, leaving irregular +intervals between them: and as in time the rain washed away all the sand +which covered these different parts on the top of the high mountains, +they would remain naked, forming larger or lesser points; and this is +the origin of the peaks or horns of mountains. + +For supposing, as it is easy to prove by the marine productions we find +there, that the chain of the Alps was formerly covered by the sea, and +that above this chain there was a great thickness of vitrifiable sand, +which rendered the whole mountains a flat and level country. In this +depth of sand, there would necessarily be formed granite, free-stone, +flint, and all matters which take their origin and figure in sand, +nearly in a similar manner to that of the crystallisation of salts. +These blocks once formed would support their original positions, after +the rains and torrents had carried away the sand which surrounded them, +and being left bare formed all those peaks or pointed eminences we see +in so many places. This is also the origin of those high and detached +rocks found in China and other countries, as in Ireland, where they are +called the Devil's stones, and whose formation as well as that of the +peaks of mountains, had hitherto appeared so difficult to explain; +nevertheless the explanation which I have given is so natural, that it +directly presents itself to the mind of those who examine these objects, +and I must here quote what Father Tatre says, "From Yanchu-in-yen, we +came to Hoytcheou, and on the road met with something particular, rocks +of an extraordinary height, of the shape of a large square tower, and +situate in the midst of vast plains: I cannot account for it, unless by +supposing they were formerly mountains, from which the rain having +washed away the earth that surrounded them, thus left the rocks entirely +bare. What strengthens this conjecture is, that we saw some which, +towards the base, are still covered with earth to a considerable +height." + +The summits of the highest mountains are composed of rocks, of granite, +free-stone, and other hard and vitrifiable matters, and this often as +deep as two or three hundred fathoms; below which we often meet with +quarries of marble, or hard stone, filled with fossil-shells, and whose +matter is calcinable; as may be remarked at Great Chartreuse, in +Dauphiny, and on Mount Cenis, where the stone and marble, which contains +shells, are some hundred fathoms below the summits, points and peaks of +high mountains; although these stones are more than a thousand fathom +above the level of the sea. Thus mountains, whereon we see points or +peaks, are generally vitrifiable rock, and those whose summits are flat, +mostly contain marble and hard stones filled with marine productions. It +is the same with respect to hills, for those containing granite, or +free-stone, are mostly intersected with points, eminences, cavities, +depths, and small intermediate valleys; on the contrary, those which +are composed of calcinable stone are nearly equal in height, and are +only interrupted by greater and more regular vallies, whose angles are +correspondent; and they are crowned with rocks whose position is regular +and level. + +Whatever difference may appear at first between these two species of +mountains, their forms proceed from the same cause, as we have already +observed; only it may be remarked, that the calcinable stones have not +undergone any alteration nor change since the formation of the +horizontal strata; whereas those of vitrifiable sand have been changed +and interrupted by the posterior production of rocks and angular blocks +formed within this sand. These two kinds of mountains have cracks which +are almost always perpendicular in those of calcinable stones; but those +of granite and free-stone appear to be a little more irregular in their +direction. It is in these cracks metal, minerals, crystals, sulphurs, +and all matters of the second class are found, and it is below these +cracks that the water collects to penetrate the earth, and form those +veins of water which are every where found below the surface. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[279:A] See Phil. Trans. Abr. Vol. VI. part ii. p. 153. + + + + +ARTICLE X. + +OF RIVERS. + + +We have before said that, generally speaking, the greatest mountains are +in islands and in the projections in the sea. That in the old continent +the greatest chains of mountains are directed from west to east, and +that those which incline towards the north or south are only branches of +these principal chains; we shall likewise find that the greatest rivers +are directed as the greatest mountains, and that there are but few which +follow the course of the branches of those mountains. To be assured of +this, we have only to look on a common globe, and trace the old +continent from Spain to China. We shall find, by beginning at Spain, +that the Vigo, Douro, Tagos, and Guadiana run from east to west, and the +Ebro from west to east, and that there is not one remarkable river whose +course is directed from south to north, or from north to south, although +Spain is entirely surrounded by the sea on the west side, and almost so +on the north. This observation on the directions of rivers in Spain not +only proves that the mountains in this country are directed from west to +east, but also that the southern lands, which border on the straits, are +higher than the coasts of Portugal; and on the northern coast, that the +mountains of Galicia, the Asturias, &c. are only a continuation of the +Pyrennees, and that it is this elevation of the country, as well north +as south, which does not permit the rivers to run into the sea that way. + +It will also be seen, by looking on the map of France, that there is +only the Rhone which runs from north to south, and nearly half its +course, from the mountains to Lyons, is directed from the east towards +the west; but that on the contrary all the other great rivers, as the +Loir, the Charantee, the Garonne, and even the Seine, have a direction +from east to west. + +It will be likewise perceived, that in Germany there is only the Rhine, +which like the Rhone shapes the greatest part of its course from north +to south, but that the others, as the Danube, the Drave, and all the +great rivers which fall into them, flow from the west to east into the +Black Sea. + +It will be perceived that this Black Sea, which should rather be +considered as a great lake, has almost three times more extent from east +to west than from north to south, and consequently its direction is +similar to the rivers in general. It is the same with the Mediterranean, +whose length from east to west is about six times greater than from +north to south. + +The Caspian Sea, according to the chart drawn by the order of Czar Peter +I. has more extent from the south to the north than from east to west; +whereas in the ancient charts it appears almost round, or rather more +broad from east to west than from south to north; but if we consider the +lake Aral as a part of the Caspian Sea, from which it is separated only +by plains of sand, we shall find the length is from the western coast of +the Caspian Sea as far as the greatest border of Lake Aral. + +So likewise the Euphrates, the Persian gulph, and almost all the rivers +in China run from west to east; all the rivers in Africa beyond Barbary +flow from east to west, or from west to east, and there are only the +rivers of Barbary and the Nile which flow from south to north. There +are, in fact, great rivers in Asia which partly run from north to +south, as the Wolga, the Don, &c. but by taking the whole length of +their course, we find, that they only turn from the south to run into +the Black and Caspian seas, which are only inland lakes. + +It may therefore in general be said, that in Europe, Asia, and Africa, +the rivers, and other mediterranean waters, extend more from east to +west than from north to south, which proceeds from the chains of +mountains being for the most part so directed, and that the whole +continent of Europe and Asia is broader in this direction than the +other; for there are two modes of considering the direction of +mountains. In a long and narrow continent like South America, in which +there is only one principal chain of mountains which stretches from +south to north, the river not being confined by any parallel range, +necessarily runs perpendicular to the course of the mountains, that is +from east to west, or from west to east; in fact, it is in this +direction all the rivers of America flow. In the old as well as the new +continent most of the waters have their greatest extent from west to +east, and most of the rivers flow in this direction; but yet this +similar direction is produced by different causes; for instance, those +in the old continent flow from east to west, because they are bounded +by mountains whose direction is from west to east; whereas those in +America preserve the same course from there being only one chain of +mountains that extends from north to south. + +In general, rivers run through the centre of vallies, or rather the +lowest ground betwixt two opposite hills or mountains; if the two hills +have nearly an equal inclination, the river will be nearly in the middle +of the intermediate valley, let the valley be broad or narrow. On the +contrary, if one of the hills has a more steep inclination than the +other, the river will not be in the middle of the valley, but much +nearer the hill whose inclination is greatest, and that too in +proportion to the superiority of its declivity: in this case, the lowest +ground is not in the middle of the valley, but inclines towards the +highest hill, and which the river must necessarily occupy. In all places +where there is any considerable difference in the height of the +mountains, the rivers flow at the foot of the steepest hills, and follow +them throughout all their directions, never quitting their course while +they maintain the superiority of height. In the length of time, however, +the steepest hills are diminished by the rain acting upon them with a +greater degree of force, proportionate to their height, and consequently +carry away the sand and gravel in more considerable quantities, and with +greater violence; the river is then constrained to change its bed, and +seek the lowest part of the valley: to this may be added, that as all +rivers overflow at times, they transport and deposit mud and sand in +different places, and that sands often accumulate in their own beds, and +cause a swell of the water, which changes the direction of its course. +It is very common to meet in vallies with a great number of old channels +of the river, particularly if it is subject to frequent inundations, and +carries off much sand and mud. + +In plains and large vallies, where there are great rivers, the beds are +generally the lowest part of the valley, but the surface of the water is +very often higher than the ground adjacent. For example, when a river +begins to overflow, the plain will presently be inundated to a +considerable breadth, and it will be observed that the borders of the +river will be covered the last; which proves that they are higher than +the rest of the ground, and that from the banks to a certain part of +the plain, there is an insensible inclination, so that the surface of +the water must be higher than the plain when the river is full. This +elevation on the banks of rivers proceeds from the deposit of the mud +and sand at the time of inundations. The water is commonly very muddy in +the great swellings of rivers; when it begins to overflow, it runs very +gently over the banks, and by depositing the mud and sand purifies +itself as it advances into the plain; so that all the soil which the +currents of the river does not carry along, is deposited on the banks, +which raises them by degrees above the rest of the plain. + +Rivers are always broadest at their mouths; in proportion as we advance +in the country, and are more remote from the sea, their breadth +diminishes; but what is more remarkable, in the inland parts they flow +in a direct line, and in proportion as they approach their mouths the +windings of their course increase. I have been informed by M. Fabry, a +sensible traveller, who went several times by land into the western part +of North America, that travellers, and even the savages, are seldom +deceived in the distance they are from the sea if they follow the bank +of a large river; when the direction of the river is straight for 15 or +20 leagues, they know themselves to be a great distance from the coast; +but, on the contrary, if the river winds, and often changes its +direction, they are certain of not being far from the sea. M. Fabry +himself verified this remark in his travels over that unknown and almost +uninhabited country. In large rivers there is a considerable eddy along +the banks, which is so much the more considerable as the river is less +remote from the sea, which may also serve as a guide to judge whether we +are at a great or short distance from the mouth; and as the windings of +rivers increase in proportion as they approach the sea, it is not +surprising that some of them should give way to the water, and be one +reason why great rivers generally divide into many arms before they gain +the sea. + +The motion of the waters in rivers is quite different from that supposed +by authors who attempt to give mathematical theories on this subject; +the surface of a river in motion is not level when taken from one bank +to the other, but according to circumstances the current in the middle +is considerably higher or lower than the water close to the banks; when +a river swells by a sudden melting of snow, or when by some other cause +its rapidity is augmented, if the direction of the river is straight, +the middle of the water where the current is rises, and the river forms +a convex curve, of a very sensible elevation. This elevation is +sometimes very considerable; M. Hupeau, an able engineer of bridges, +once measured the river Avieron, and found the middle was three feet +higher than near the bank. This, in fact, must happen every time the +water has a very great rapidity; the velocity with which it is carried, +diminishing the action of its weight in the middle of the current, so +that it has not time to sink to a level with that near shore, and +therefore remains higher. On the other hand, near the mouths, it often +happens that the water which is near the banks is higher than that of +the middle, although the current be ever so rapid. This happens wherever +the action of the tides is felt in a river, which in great ones often +sensibly extends as far as one or two hundred leagues from the sea; it +is also a well known fact that the current of a river preserves its +motion in the sea to a considerable distance; there is, in this case, +therefore, two contrary motions in a river; the middle, which forms the +current, precipitates itself towards the sea, and the action of the +tide forms a counter-current, which causes the water near the banks to +ascend, while that in the middle descends, and as then all the water +must be carried down by the current in the middle, that of the banks +continually descends thereto, and descends so much the more as it is +higher, and counteracted with more force by the tide. + +There are two kinds of ebbings in rivers; the first above-mentioned is a +strong power occasioned by the tide, which not only opposes the natural +motion of the river, but even forces a contrary and opposite current. +The other arises from an inactive cause, such as a projection of land, +an island, &c. This does not commonly occasion a very sensible +counter-current, yet it is sufficient to impede the progress of boats +and craft, and necessarily produces what is called a dead water, which +does not flow like the rest of the river, but whirls about in such a +manner that when boats are drawn therein they require great strength to +get them out. These dead waters are very perceptible at the arches of +bridges in rapid rivers. The velocity of the water increases in +proportion as the diameter of the channel through which it passes +diminishes, the impelling force being the same; the velocity of a +river, therefore, increases at the passage of a bridge, in an inverse +proportion of the breadth of the arches to the whole breadth of the +river; the rapidity being very considerable in coming through the arch, +it forces the water against the banks, from whence it is reflected with +such violence as to form dangerous eddies and whirlpools. In going +through the bridge St. Esprit, the men are forced to be careful not to +lose the stream, even after they are past the bridge, for if they suffer +the boat to go either to the right or left, it might be driven against +the shore, or forced into the whirling waters, which would be attended +with great danger. When this eddy is very considerable, it forms a kind +of small gulph, the middle of which appears hollow and to form a kind of +cylindrical cavity, around which the water whirls with rapidity: this +appearance of a cylindrical cavity is produced by the centrifugal force, +which causes the water to endeavour to remove itself from the centre of +the whirlpool. When a great swell of water happens, the watermen know it +by a particular motion; they then say the water at the bottom flows +quicker than common: this augmentation of rapidity at the bottom, +according to them, always announces a sudden rise of the water. The +motion and weight of the upper water communicates this motion to them; +for in certain respects we must consider a river as a pillar of water +contained in a tube, and the whole channel as a very long canal where +every motion must be communicated from one end to the other. Now, +independent of the motion of the upper waters, their weight alone might +cause the rapidity of the river to increase, and perhaps move it at +bottom; for it is known, that by putting many boats at one time into the +water, at that instant we increase the rapidity of the under part of the +river, as well as retard that of the upper. + +The rapidity of running waters does not exactly, nor even nearly, follow +the proportion of the declivity of their channels. One river whose +inclination is uniform and double that of another, ought, according to +appearance, to flow only as rapid again, but in fact it flows much +faster. Its rapidity, instead of being doubled, is sometimes triple, +quadruple, &c. This rapidity depends much more on the quantity of water +and the weight of the upper waters than on the declivity. When we are +desirous to hollow the bed of a river, we need not equally distribute +the inclination throughout its whole length, in order to give a greater +rapidity, as it is more easily effected by making the descent much +greater at the beginning, than at the mouth, where it may almost be +insensible, as we see it in natural rivers, and yet they preserve a +rapidity so much the greater as the river is fuller of water; in great +rivers, where the ground is level, the water does not cease flowing, and +even rapidly, not only with its original velocity, but also with the +addition of that which it has acquired by the action and weight of the +upper waters. To render this fact more conceivable, let us suppose the +Seine between the Pont-neuf and Pont-royal to be perfectly level, and +ten feet deep throughout: let us then suppose that the bed of the river +below Pont-royal and above Pont-neuf were left entirely dry, the water +would instantly run up and down the channel, and continue to do so until +it had recovered an equilibrium; for the weight of the water would keep +it in motion, nor would it cease flowing until its particles became +equally pressed and have sunk to a perfect level. The weight of water +therefore greatly contributes to its velocity, and this is the reason +that the greatest rapidity of the current is neither of the surface nor +at the bottom of the water, but nearly in the middle of its depth, being +pressed by the action of its weight at its surface, and by the re-action +from the bottom. Still more, if a river has acquired a great rapidity, +it will not only preserve it in passing a level country, but even +surmount an eminence without spreading much on either side, or at least +without causing any great inundation. + +We might be inclined to think that bridges, locks, and other obstacles +raised on rivers, considerably diminishes the celerity of the water's +course; nevertheless that occasions but little difference. Water rises +on meeting with any obstacle, and having surmounted it, the elevation +causes it to act with more rapidity in its fall, so that in fact it +suffers little or no diminution in its celerity, by these seeming +retardments. Sinuosities, projections, and islands, also but very little +diminish the velocity of the course of rivers. A considerable diminution +is produced by the sinking of the water, and, on the contrary, its +augmentation increases its velocity; thus if a river is shallow the +stream passes slowly along, and if deep with a proportionate rapidity. + +If rivers were always nearly of an equal fulness, the best means of +diminishing their rapidity, and confining them within their banks, would +be to enlarge their channel; but as almost all rivers are subject to +increase and diminish, to confine them we must retrench the channel, +because in shallow waters, if the channel is very broad, the water which +passes in the middle hollows a winding bed, and when it begins to swell +follows the direction it took in this particular bed, and striking +forcibly against the banks of the channel destroys them and does great +injuries. These effects of the water's fury might be prevented by +making, at particular distances, small gulphs in the earth; that is, by +cutting through one of these banks to a certain distance in the land. In +order that these gulphs might be advantageously placed, they should be +made in the obtuse angle of the river, for then the current of the water +in turning would run into them, and of course its velocity would be +diminished. This mode might be proper to prevent the fall of bridges in +places where it is not possible to make bars near the bridge which +sustain the action of the weight of the water. + +The manner in which inundations are occasioned merits peculiar +attention. When a river swells, the rapidity of the water always +increases till it begins to overflow the banks; at that instant the +velocity diminishes, which causes inundations to continue for several +days; for when even a less quantity of water comes after the overflowing +than before, the inundation will still be made, because it depends much +more on the velocity of the water than on the quantity; if it was not so +rivers would overflow for an hour or two and then return to their beds, +which never occurs; the inundations always remaining for several days; +whether the rain ceases, or a less quantity of water is brought, because +the overflowing has diminished the velocity, and consequently, although +the like quantity of water is no longer carried in the same time as +before, yet the effects are the same as if the greater quantity had come +there. It might be remarked on the occasion of this diminution, that if +a constant wind blows against the current of the river, the inundation +will be much greater than it would have been without this accidental +cause, which diminishes the celerity of the water; on the contrary, if +the wind blows in the same directions with the current, the inundation +will be much less, and will more speedily decline. + +"The swelling of the Nile, says M. Granger, and its inundations, has a +long time employed the learned; most of them have looked upon it as +marvellous, although nothing can be more natural, and is every day to be +seen in every country throughout the world. It is the rains which fall +in Abyssinia and Ethiopia which cause the swelling and inundation of +that river, though the north wind must be regarded as the principal +cause. 1. Because the north wind drives the clouds which contain this +rain into Abyssinia. 2. Because, blowing against the mouths of the Nile, +it causes the waters to return against the stream, and thus prevents +them from running out in any great quantity: this circumstance may be +every season observed, for when the wind, being at the north, suddenly +veers to the south, the Nile loses in one day more than it gathers in +four." + +Inundations are generally greatest in the upper part of rivers, because +the velocity of a river continues always increasing until it arrives at +the sea, for the reasons we have related. Father Costelli, who has +written very sensibly on this subject, remarks, that the height of the +banks made to confine the Po from overflowing diminishes as they advance +towards the sea; so that at Ferrara, which is 50 or 60 miles from the +sea, they are near 20 feet high above the common surface of the Po, but +that at 10 or 12 miles from it they are not above 12 feet, although the +channel of the river is as narrow there as at Ferrara[306:A]. + +On the whole, the theory of the motion of running waters is still +subject to many difficulties, nor is it easy to lay down rules which +might be applied to every particular case. Experience is here more +useful than speculation. We must not only know the general effects of +rivers, but we must also know in particular the river we have to do +with, if we would reason justly, make useful observations, and draw +stable conclusions. The remarks I have above given are mostly new; it is +to be wished that others may be collected, and then, possibly, in time, +we may obtain a sufficient knowledge of the subject to lay down certain +rules to confine and direct rivers, and prevent the ruin of bridges, +banks, and other damages which the violent impetuosity of the water +occasions. + +The greatest rivers in Europe are the Wolga, which is about 650 leagues +in its course from Reschow to Astracan, on the Caspian Sea; the Danube, +whose course is about 450 leagues from the mountains of Switzerland to +the Black Sea; the Don, which is 400 leagues in its course from the +source of the Sosnia, which it receives, to its mouth in the Black Sea; +the Dnieper, whose course is about 350 leagues, and which also runs into +the Black Sea; the Duine is about 400 leagues in its course, and empties +itself into the White Sea, &c. + +The greatest rivers in Asia are the Hoanho of China, whose course is 850 +leagues, taking its source at Raja-Ribron, and falls into the sea of +China, in the middle of the gulph Changi: the Jenisca of Tartary, which +is about 800 leagues in extent, from the lake Seligna to the northern +sea of Tartary; the river Oby, which is about 600 leagues from Lake +Kila, to the Northern Sea, beyond the Strait of Waigats. The river +Amour, of eastern Tartary, which is about 575 leagues in its course, +reckoning it from the source of the river Kerlon, to the sea of +Kamschatka. The river Menan, whose mouth is at Poulo Condor, may be +measured from the surface of the Longmu which falls into it; the Kian, +whose course is about 550 leagues from the source of the river Kinxa, +which it receives, to its mouth in the China Sea; the Ganges is also +about 550 leagues, and the Euphrates 500, taking it from the source of +Irma, which it receives. The Indus about 400 leagues, and which falls +into the Arabian Sea, on the east of Guzarat. The Sirderious, which is +about 400 leagues long, and falls into Lake Aral. + +The greatest rivers in Africa are Senegal, which is 1125 leagues long, +comprehending the Niger, which in fact is a continuation of it, and the +source of Gombarou, which falls into the Niger. The Nile 970 leagues +long, and which derives its source in Upper Ethiopia, where it makes +many windings. There are also the Zaira, the Coanza, and the Couma, +which are known as far as 400 leagues, but extend much farther; the +Quilmanci, whose course is 400 leagues, and which derives its source in +the kingdom of Gingiro. + +The greatest rivers of America, and which are also the greatest in the +world, are the river Amazons, whose course is 1200 leagues, if we go up +as far as the Lake near Guanuco, 30 leagues from Lima, where the +Maragnon takes its source; and even reckoning from the source of the +river Napo, some distance from Quito, the course of the river Amazons is +more than a thousand leagues. + +It might be said that the course of the river St. Lawrence, in Canada, +is more than 900 leagues from its mouth to the lake Ontaro, from thence +to lake Huron, afterwards to the lake Alemipigo, and to the lake +Assiniboils; the waters of these lakes falling one into another, and at +last into St. Lawrence. + +The river Mississippi more than 700 leagues long from its mouth to any +of its sources, which are not remote from the lake of the Assiniboils. + +The river de la Plata is more than 800 leagues long, from the source of +the river Parana, which it receives. + +The river Oroonoko runs more than 575 leagues, reckoning from the source +of the river Caketa, near Pasto, part of which falls into the Oroonoko, +and part flows also towards the river Amazons. + +The river Madera, which falls into the Amazons, is more than 660 +leagues. + +To know nearly the quantity of water the sea receives by all the rivers +which fall into it, let us suppose that one half of the globe is covered +by the sea, and that the other half is land, which is nearly the fact; +let us suppose also, that the mediate depth of the sea is 230 fathom. +The surface of all the earth being 170,981,012 square miles; and that of +the sea 85,490,506 square miles, which being multiplied by 1/4, the +depth of the sea gives 21,372,626, cubical miles for the quantity of +water contained in the ocean. Now, to calculate the quantity of water +which the ocean receives from the rivers, let us take some great river, +whose rapidity and quantity of waters are known; for example, the Po, +which runs through Lombardy, and waters a tract of land 380 miles long; +according to Riccioli, its breadth, before it divides into many +trenches, is 100 perches of Boulogne, or 1000 feet, its depth 10 feet, +and it runs four miles an hour; therefore the Po supplies the sea with +200,000 cubical perches of water in an hour, or 4 millions 800 thousand +in a day; but a cubical mile contains 125 millions cubical perches; +therefore 26 days is required to convey a cubical mile of water to the +sea: it remains therefore only to determine the proportion between the +river Po and all the rivers of the earth taken together, which is +impossible to do precisely. But to know it pretty exactly, let us +suppose that the quantity of water which the sea receives by the large +rivers in all countries is proportional to the extent and surface of +these countries, and that consequently the country watered by the Po, +and other rivers which fall therein, is in the same proportion on the +surface of the whole earth, as the Po is to all the rivers of the earth. +Now by the most correct charts, the Po, from its source to its mouth, +traverses a tract 380 miles long, and the rivers which fall therein, on +each side, proceed from the springs and rivers 60 miles distant from the +Po; therefore this great river, and the others it receives, waters a +tract 380 miles long, and 120 miles broad, which makes 450,600 square +miles, but the surface of all the dry land is 85,490,506 square miles; +consequently all the water which the rivers carry to the sea, will be +1974 times greater than the quantity which the Po furnishes; but as 26 +rivers equal to the Po furnish a cubical mile of water to the sea in a +day, of course 1874 rivers like the Po would supply the sea with 26,308 +cubical miles of water in a year, and that in the space of 812 years all +the rivers would supply the sea with 21,372,626 cubical miles of water; +that is to say, as much as there is in the ocean, and therefore 812 +years is only required to fill it.[312:A] + +The result of this calculation is, that the quantity of water evaporated +from the sea, and which the winds convey on the earth, is about 245 +lines, or from 20 to 21 inches a year, or about two thirds of a line +each day: this is a very trifling evaporation even when trebled, in +order to estimate the water which refalls in the sea, and which is not +conveyed over the earth. Mr. Halley, in the Phil. Transactions, page +192, evidently shews, that the vapours which rise above the sea, and +which the winds convey over all the earth, are sufficient to supply all +the rivers in the world. + +Next to the Nile the river Jordan is the most considerable in the +Levant, or even in Barbary; it supplies the Dead Sea with about six +million tons of water every day; all this water, and more, is raised by +evaporation; for, according to Halley's calculation of 6914 tons +evaporated from each mile, the Dead Sea, which is 72 miles in length by +18 broad, must every day lose near nine million tons of water, that is, +not only all the water it receives from the river Jordan, but also that +of the small rivers which come into it from the mountains of Moab and +elsewhere; consequently there is no necessity for its communicating with +any other sea by subterraneous canals.[313:A] + +The most rapid rivers are the Tigris, the Indus, the Danube, the Yrtis, +in Siberia, the Malmistra, in Silesia, &c. but, as we have already +observed, the proportion of the rapidity of rivers depends upon the +declivity and upon the weight and quantity of water; by examining the +globe, we shall find that the Danube is much less inclined than the Po, +the Rhine, or the Rhone, for the Danube has a much longer course than +any of these other rivers, and falls into the Black Sea, which is higher +than the Mediterranean, and perhaps more so than the ocean. + +All large rivers receive many others in the extent of their course; for +example, the Danube receives more than 200 rivulets and rivers; but by +reckoning only such as are considerable rivers, we shall find that the +Danube receives 31, the Wolga 32, the Don 5 or 6, the Nieper 19 or 20, +the Duine 11 or 12; so likewise in Asia the Hoanho receives 34 or 35, +the Jenisca 60, the Oby as many, the Amour about 40, the Kian, or river +Nankin about 30, the Ganges upwards of 20, the Euphrates 10 or 11, &c. +In Africa, the river Senegal receives upwards of 20 rivers: the Nile +does not receive any rivers for upwards of 500 miles from its mouth; the +last which falls therein is the Moraba, and from this place to its +source it receives about 12 or 13 rivers. In America, the river Amazons +receives more than 60, all of which are very considerable; the river St. +Lawrence about 40, by reckoning those which fall into the lakes; the +Mississippi more than 40, the Plata more than 50, &c. + +There are high countries on the earth, which seem to be points of +division marked by nature for the distribution of the waters. In +Europe, the environs of Mount St. Goddard are one of these points; +another is situate between the provinces of Belozera and Wologda, in +Muscovy, from whence many rivers descend, some of which go to the White +Sea, others to the Black, and some to the Caspian. In Asia there are +several, in the country of Mogul Tartary, from whence rivers flow into +Nova Zembla, others to the Gulph Linchidolin, others to the sea of +Corea, others to that of China: and so likewise the Little Thibet, whose +waters flow towards the sea of China; the Gulph of Bengal, the Gulph of +Cambay, and the Lake Aral; in America, the province of Quito; whose +rivers run into the North and South Seas, and the Gulph of Mexico. + +In the old continent there are about 430 rivers, which fall directly +into the ocean, or into the Mediterranean and Black Seas; but in the new +continent not more than 145 rivers are known, which fall directly into +the sea: in this number I have comprehended only the great rivers, like +the Somme in Picardy. + +All these rivers carry to the sea a great quantity of mineral and saline +particles, which they have washed from the different soils through +which they have passed. The particles of salt, which are easily +dissolved, are conveyed to the sea by the water. Some philosophers, and +among the rest Halley, have pretended that the saltness of the sea +proceeded only from the salts of the earth, which the rivers transport +therein. Others assert, that the saltness of the sea is as ancient as +the sea itself, and that this salt was created that the waters might not +corrupt; but we may justly suppose that the sea is preserved from +corruption by the agitations produced by the winds and tides, as much as +by the salt it contains; for when put in a barrel it corrupts in a few +days; and Boyle relates, that a mariner, who was becalmed for 13 days, +found, at the end of that time, the water so infected, that if the calm +had not ceased, the greatest part of his people would have perished. The +water of the sea is also mixed with a bituminous oil, which gives it a +disagreeable taste, and renders it very unhealthful. The quantity of +salt contained in sea water is about a fortieth part, and is nearly +equally saline throughout, at top as well as bottom, under the line, and +at the Cape of Good Hope; although there are several places, as off the +Mosambique Coast, where it is salter than elsewhere.[317:A] It is also +asserted not to be so saline under the Arctic Circle, which may proceed +from the amazing quantities of snow, and the great rivers which fall +into those seas, and because the heat of the sun produces but little +evaporation in hot climates. + +Be this as it may, I conceive that the saltness of the sea is not only +caused by the banks of salt at the bottom of the sea, and along the +coasts, but also by the salts of the earth, which the rivers continually +convey therein; and that Halley had some reason to presume that in the +beginning of the world the sea had but little or no saltness; that it is +become so by degrees, and in proportion as the rivers have brought salts +therein; that this saltness is every day increasing, and that +consequently, by computing the whole quantity of salt brought by all the +rivers, we might attain the knowledge of the age of the world by the +degrees of the saltness of the sea. + +Divers and pearl fishers assert, according to Boyle, that the deeper +they descend into the sea, the colder is the water; and that the cold is +so intense at considerable depths, that they cannot remain there so long +under water, but are obliged to come up again much sooner than when +they descended to only a moderate one. It appeared to me that the weight +of the water might be as much the cause of compelling them to shorten +their usual time as the intenseness of the cold, when they descend to a +depth of 3 or 400 fathoms; but, in fact, divers scarcely ever descend +above an hundred feet. The same author relates, that in a voyage to the +East-Indies, beyond the line, at about 35 degrees south latitude, a +sounding lead of 30 or 35lb weight was sunk to the depth of 400 fathoms, +and that being pulled up again, it had become as cold as ice. It is also +a frequent practice with mariners to cool their wine at sea by sinking +their bottles to the depth of several fathoms, and they affirm the +deeper the bottles are sunk, the cooler is the wine. + +These circumstances might induce us to presume that the sea is salter at +the bottom than at the surface; but we have testimonies which prove the +contrary, founded on experiments made to fill vessels with sea water, +which were not opened till they were sunk to a certain depth, and the +water was found to be no salter than at the surface. There are even some +places where the water at the surface is salt, and that at the bottom +fresh; and this must always be the case where there are springs at the +bottom of the sea, as near Goo, Ormus, and even in the sea of Naples, +where there are hot springs at the bottom. + +There are other places where sulphurous springs and beds of bitumen have +been discovered at the bottom of the sea, and on land there are many of +these springs of bitumen which run into it. + +At Barbadoes there is a pure bitumen spring, which flows from the rocks +into the sea: salt and bitumen, therefore, are predominant matters in +the sea water: but it is also mixed with many other matters; for the +taste of water is not the same in every part of the sea; besides, the +agitation and the heat of the sun alters the natural taste which the sea +should have; and the different colour of different seas, at different +times, prove that the waters of the sea contain several kinds of +matters, either which it loosens from its own bottom, or are brought +thither by rivers. + +Almost all countries watered by great rivers are subject to periodical +inundations, those which are low, and derive their sources from a great +distance, overflow the most regularly. Every person almost has heard of +the inundations of the Nile, which preserves the sweetness and whiteness +of its waters, though extended over a vast tract of country, and into +the sea. Strabo and other ancient authors have written that it had seven +mouths, but there now remain only two which are navigable; there is a +third canal which descends to Alexandria, and fills the cisterns there, +and a fourth which is still smaller; but as they have for a long time +neglected to clean their canals, they are nearly choaked up. The +ancients employed a great number of workmen and soldiers, and every +year, after the inundation, they carried away the mud and sand which was +in these canals. The cause of the overflowing of the Nile proceeds from +the rains which fall in Ethiopia. They begin in April and do not cease +till September; during the first three months, the days are serene and +fair, but as soon as the sun goes down the rains begin, nor stop till it +rises again, and are generally accompanied with thunder and lightning. +The inundation begins in Egypt about the 17th of June; it generally +increases during 40 days, and diminishes in about the same time; all the +flat country of Egypt is overflowed; but this inundation is much less +now than it was formerly, for Herodotus tells us, that the Nile was 100 +days in swelling, and as many in abating: if this is true, we can only +attribute the cause thereof to the elevation of the land, which the mud +of the waters has heightened by degrees, and to the diminution of the +mountains in Africa, from whence it derives its source. It is very +natural to believe that these mountains have diminished, because the +abundant rains which fall in these climates during half the year sweep +away great quantities of sand and earth from the mountains into the +valleys, from whence the torrents wash them into the Nile, which carries +great part into Egypt, where it deposits them in its overflowings. + +The Nile is not the only river whose inundations are regular; the river +Pegu is called the _Indian Nile_, because it overflows regularly every +year; it inundates the country for more than 30 leagues from its banks; +and, like the Nile, leaves an abundance of mud, which so greatly +fertilizes the earth, that the pasturage is excellent for cattle, and +rice grows in such great abundance, that every year a number of vessels +are laden with it, without leaving a scarcity in the country.[321:A] The +Niger, or what amounts to the same, the upper part of the Senegal, +likewise overflows and covers all the flat country of Nigritia; it +begins nearly at the same time as the Nile, and increases also for 40 +days: the river de la Plata, in Brasil, also overflows every year, and +at the same time as the Nile. The Ganges, the Indus, the Euphrates, and +some others, overflow annually; but all rivers have not periodical +overflowings, and when inundations happen it is the effect of many +causes, which combine to supply a greater quantity of water than common, +and, at the same time, to retard its velocity. We have before observed, +that in almost all rivers the inclination of their beds diminishes +towards their mouths in an almost insensible manner; but there are some +whose declivity is very sudden in some places, and forms what is termed +a _cataract_, which is nothing more than a fall of water, quicker than +the common current of the river. The Rhine, for example, has two +cataracts, the one at Bilefield, and the other near Schafhouse: the Nile +has many, and among the rest two which are very violent, and fall from a +great height between two mountains; the river Wologda, in Muscovy, has +also two near Ladoga; the Zaire, a river of Congo, begins by a very +large cataract, which falls from the top of a mountain; but the most +famous is that of Niagara, in Canada, that falls from a perpendicular +height of 156 feet, like a prodigious torrent, and is more than a +quarter of a mile broad: the fog, or mist, which the water makes in +falling, is perceived at five miles distance, and rises as high as the +clouds, forming a very beautiful rainbow when the sun shines thereon. +Below this cataract there are such terrible whirlpools, that nothing can +be navigated thereon for six miles distance, and above the cataract the +river is much narrower than it is in the upper lands[323:A]. The +description given of it by _Father Charlevoix_ is as follows: + +"My first care, when I arrived, was to visit the most beautiful cascade +that is, perhaps, in nature; but I immediately discovered that Baron la +Hontain was deceived so greatly, both in its height and figure, that one +might reasonably imagine he had never seen it. + +"It is true, that if we measure its height by the three mountains you +are obliged to ascend in going to it, there is not much abatement to be +made of the 600 feet, which the map of M. Delisse gives it, who +doubtless advanced this paradox only on the credit of the Baron la +Hontain, and Father Honnepin; but after I arrived at the top of the +third mountain, I observed that in the space of three leagues, which I +afterwards had to go to this fall of water, although you are forced +sometimes to ascend, you must nevertheless descend still more, and this +is what travellers do not appear to have paid proper attention to. As we +can only approach the cascade on one side, nor see it but in the +profile, it is not easy to measure its height by instruments: +experiments have been made to do it by a long cord, tied to a pole, and +after having often attempted this manner, it was found to be only 115 or +120 feet high; but it is impossible to ascertain whether the pole was +not stopped by some projection of the rock; for although when drawn up +again the end of the cord was always wet, yet that is no proof, since +the water which precipitates from the mountain, flies up again in foam +to a very great height: for my own part, after having considered it on +every side that I could examine it to advantage, I think that we cannot +allow it to be less than 140 or 150 feet. + +"Its figure is that of a horse-shoe, and its circumference is about 400 +paces; but exactly in its middle, it is divided by a very narrow +island, about half a quarter of a league long. It is true these two +parts join again; that which was on my side, and of which I could only +have a side view, has several projecting points, but that which I beheld +in front, appeared to be perfectly even." The Baron has also mentioned a +torrent, which, if not the offspring of his own invention, must fall +into some channel upon the melting of the snow. + +There is another cataract three miles from Albany, in the province of +New-York, whose height is 50 feet perpendicular, and from which there +arises a mist that occasions a faint rainbow.[325:A] + +In all countries where mankind are not sufficiently numerous to form +polished societies, the ground is more irregular, and the beds of rivers +more extended, less equal, and often abound with cataracts. Many ages +were required to render the Rhone and the Loire navigable. It is by +confining waters, by directing their course, and by cleansing the bottom +of rivers, that they obtain a fixed and regular course; in all countries +thinly inhabited Nature is rude, and often deformed. + +There are rivers which lose themselves in the sands, and others which +seem to precipitate into the bowels of the earth: the Guadalquiver in +Spain, the river Gottenburg in Sweden, and the Rhine itself, lose +themselves in the earth. It is asserted, that in the west part of the +island of St. Domingo there is a mountain of a considerable height, at +the foot of which are many caverns, into which the rivers and rivulets +fall with so much noise, as to be heard at the distance of seven or +eight leagues.[326:A] + +The number of rivers which lose themselves in the earth is very few, and +there is no appearance that they descend very low; it is more probable +that they lose themselves, like the Rhine, by dividing among the +quantity of sand; this is very common to small rivers that run through +dry and sandy soils, of which we have several examples in Africa, +Persia, Arabia, &c. + +The rivers of the north transport into the sea prodigious quantities of +ice, which accumulating, form those enormous masses so destructive to +mariners. These masses are the most abundant in the Strait of Waigat, +which is entirely frozen over the greatest part of the year, and are +formed by the great flakes which the river Oby almost continually brings +there; they attach themselves along the coasts, and heap up to a +considerable height on both sides, but the middle of the strait is the +last part which freezes, and where the ice is the lowest. When the wind +ceases to blow from the North, and comes in the direction of the Strait, +the ice begins to thaw and break in the middle; afterwards it loosens +from the sides in great masses, which are carried into the high sea. The +wind, which all winter blows from the north over the frozen countries of +Nova Zembla, renders the country watered by the Oby, and all Siberia, so +cold, that even at Tobolski, which is in the 57th degree, there are no +fruit trees, while at Sweden, Stockholm, and even in higher latitudes, +there are both fruit trees and pulse. This difference does not proceed, +as it has been thought, from the sea of Lapland being warmer than the +Straits; nor from the land of Nova Zembla being colder than Lapland; but +solely from the Baltic, and the Gulph of Bothnia, tempering the rigour +of the north winds, whereas in Siberia there is nothing that can +temperate the cold. It is a fact founded on experience, that it is never +so cold on the sea coasts as in the inland parts of a country. There +are plants which stand the winter in London exposed to the open air, +that cannot be preserved at Paris; and Siberia, which is a vast +continent, is for this reason colder than Sweden, which is surrounded on +all sides by the sea. + +The coldest country in the world is Spitzbergen: it lies in the 78th +degree of north latitude, and is entirely formed of small peaked +mountains; these mountains are composed of gravel, and flat stones +somewhat like slate, heaped one on the other; which, it is affirmed by +navigators, are raised by the wind, and increase so quick, that new ones +are discovered every year. The rein-deer is the only animal seen here, +which feeds on a short grass and moss. On the top of these little +mountains, and at more than a mile from the sea, the mast of a ship was +found with a pully fastened to one of its ends, which gives room to +suppose that the sea once covered the tops of these mountains, and that +this country is but of modern date; it is uninhabited, and +uninhabitable; the soil of these small mountains has no consistence, but +is loose, and so cold and penetrating a vapour strikes from it, that it +is impossible to remain any length of time thereon. + +The vessels which go to Spitzbergen for the whale fishery, arrive there +early in the month of July, and take their departure from it about the +15th of August, the ice preventing them from entering the sea earlier, +or quiting it after. Prodigious pieces of ice, 60, 70, and 80 fathoms +thick are seen there, and there are some parts of it where the sea +appears frozen to the very bottom[329:A]: this ice, which is so high +above the level of the sea, is as clear and transparent as glass. + +There is also much ice in the seas of North America, as in Ascension +Bay, in the Straits of Hudson, Cumberland, Davis, Forbishers, &c. Robert +Lade asserts that the mountains of Friezeland are entirely covered with +snow, and its coasts with ice, like a bulwark, which prevents any +approaching them. "It is, says he, very remarkable, that in this sea we +meet with islands of ice more than half a mile round, extremely high, +and 70 or 80 fathoms deep; this ice, which is sweet, is perhaps formed +in the rivers or straits of the neighbouring lands, &c. These islands +or mountains of ice are so moveable, that in stormy weather they follow +the track of a ship, as if they were drawn along in the same furrow by a +rope. There are some of them tower so high above the water, as to +surpass the tops of the masts of the largest vessels."[330:A] + +In the collection of voyages made for the service of the Dutch East +India Company, we meet with the following account of the ice at Nova +Zembla:--"At Cape Troost the weather was so foggy as to oblige us to +moor the vessel to a mountain of ice, which was 36 fathoms deep in the +water, and about 16 fathoms out of it. + +"On the 10th of August the ice dividing, it began to float, and then we +observed that the large piece of ice, to which the ship had been moored, +touched the bottom, as all the others passing by struck against without +moving it. We then began to fear being inclosed between the ice, that we +should either be frozen in or crushed to pieces, and therefore +endeavoured to avoid the danger by attempting to get into another +latitude, in doing of which the vessel was forced through the floating +ice, which made a tremendous noise, and seemingly to a great distance; +at length we moored to another mountain, for the purpose of remaining +there that night. + +"During the first watch the ice began to split with an inexpressible +noise, and the ship keeping to the current, in which the ice was now +floating, we were obliged to cut the cable to avoid it; we reckoned more +than 400 large mountains of ice, which were 10 fathoms under and +appeared more than 2 fathoms above water. + +"We afterwards moored the vessel to another mountain of ice, which +reached above 6 fathoms under water. As soon as we were fixed we +perceived another piece beyond us, which terminated in a point, and went +to the bottom of the sea; we advanced towards it, and found it 20 +fathoms under water, and 12 above the surface. + +"The 11th we reached another large shelve of ice, 18 fathoms under +water, and 10 above it. + +"The 21st the Dutch got pretty far in among the ice, and remained there +the whole night; the next morning they moored their vessel to a large +bank of ice, which they ascended, and considered as a very singular +phenomenon, that its top was covered with earth, and they found near 40 +eggs thereon. The colour was not the common colour of ice, but a fine +sky blue. Those who were on it had various conjectures from this +circumstance, some contending it was an effect of the ice, while others +maintained it to be a mass of frozen earth. It was about eighteen +fathoms under water, and ten above."[332:A] + +Wafer relates, that near Terra del Fuega he met with many high floating +pieces of ice, which he at first mistook for islands. Some appeared a +mile or two in length, and the largest not less than 4 or 500 feet above +the water. + +All this ice, as I have observed in the sixth article, was brought +thither by the rivers; the ice in the sea of Nova Zembla, and the +Straits of Waigat come from the Oby, and perhaps from Jenisca, and other +great rivers of Siberia and Tartary; that in Hudson's Straits, from +Ascension Bay, into which many of the North American rivers fall; that +of Terra del Fuega, from the southern continent. If there are less on +the North coasts of Lapland, than on those of Siberia, and the Straits +of Waigat, it is because all the rivers of Lapland fall into the Gulph +of Bothnia, and none go into the northern sea. The ice may also be +formed in the straits, where the tides swell much higher than in the +open sea, and where, consequently, the ice that is at the surface may +heap up and form those mountains, which are several fathoms high; but +with respect to those which are 4 or 500 feet high, they appear to be +formed on high coasts; and I imagine that when the snow which covers the +tops of these coasts melts, the water flows on the flakes of ice, and +being frozen thereon, thus increases the size of the first until it +comes to that amazing height. That afterwards, in a warm summer, these +hills of ice loosen from the coasts by the action of the wind and motion +of the sea, or perhaps even by their own weight, and are driven as the +wind directs, so that they at length may arrive into temperate climates +before they are entirely melted. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[306:A] See Racolta d'autori che trattano del motto dell' acque, vol. 1, +page 123. + +[312:A] See Keil's Examination of Burnet's Theory, page 126. + +[313:A] See Shaw's Travels, vol. ii, page 71. + +[317:A] See Boyle, vol. iii. page 217. + +[321:A] See Ovington's Travels, vol. ii. page 290. + +[323:A] See Phil. Trans. Abr. vol. vi. part ii. page 119. + +[325:A] Phil. Trans. vol. vi. part ii. page 19. + +[326:A] See Varenii Geograph. gen. page 48. + +[329:A] In contradiction to this idea it is now a generally received +opinion, that the mountains of ice in the North and South Seas are +exactly the same depth under as they are height above the surface of the +water. + +[330:A] See the Voyages of Lade, vol. ii, page 305, &. + +[332:A] Voyage of the Dutch to the North, vol. 1, 3. Page 49. + + +_END OF THE FIRST VOLUME._ + + + + +TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES + + +Variations in spelling and hyphenation have been left as in the +original. + +The words "Phoenicia" and "proedicable" use an oe ligature in the +original. + +The following changes have been made to the original text: + + Page vi: It would have been singular[original has "singuar"] + + Page 9: moon, which are the causes of["of" missing in + original] it + + Page 23: these particles[original has "particels"] of earth + and stone + + Page 31: In a word, the materials[original has "mateterials"] + of the globe + + Page 37: has occurred, and in my opinion[original has + "oppinion"] very naturally + + Page 51: These[original has "these"] could not have been + occasioned + + Page 74: in the regions of the sky [original has "fky"] + + Page 94: that fire cannot[original has "connot"] subsist + + Page 94: planets at[original has "as"] the time of their + quitting the sun + + Page 97: there will be detached[original has "detatched"] from + its equator + + Page 104: which are as 229 to 230.[period missing in original] + + Page 155: ARTICLE VI.[original has "VII."] + + Page 182: conjecture is so much the better[original has + "bettter"] founded + + Page 189: where the pits are very deep[original has "deeep"] + + Page 192: 23. Sand streaked red[original has "read"] and white + + Page 194: In plains surrounded[original has "surounded"] with + hills + + Page 198: in France, Flanders, Holland, Spain,[comma missing + in original] Italy + + Page 199: 10 of sand, then 2 feet of["of" missing in original] + clay + + Page 203: either birds or terrestrial animals."[quotation mark + missing in original] + + Page 210: the Alps, and the Apennine[original has "Appenine"] + mountains + + Page 225: time much longer than a year."[quotation mark + missing in original] + + Page 228: formation is novel, in[original has "n"] comparison + + Page 256: resemblance is perfectly exact."[quotation mark + missing in original] + + [78:A] Vide Newton, 2d edit. page 525.[period missing in + original] + + [177:A] Footnote letter missing in original. + + [178:A] See the Hist. of New France, by the Pere Charlevoix. + [letter and period missing in original. + + [234:A] See Shaw's Voyages, Vol. ii[original has "11"], pages + 40 and 41. + + [240:B] Voyage of Paul Lucus, Vol. II[original has "11"], page + 380. + + [329:A] above the surface of the water.[original has a comma] + + [330:A] See the Voyages of Lade, vol. ii.[original has "11"] + page 305, &. + + [332:A] Voyage of the Dutch to the North, vol. 1, 3.[original + has a comma] Page 49. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Buffon's Natural History, Volume I (of +II), by Georges Louis Leclerc de Buffon + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BUFFON'S NATURAL HISTORY *** + +***** This file should be named 44792.txt or 44792.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/4/4/7/9/44792/ + +Produced by Chris Curnow, Lisa Reigel, and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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