diff options
| -rw-r--r-- | .gitattributes | 3 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 4598-0.txt | 4969 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | LICENSE.txt | 11 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | README.md | 2 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/4598.txt | 5355 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/4598.zip | bin | 0 -> 106574 bytes |
6 files changed, 10340 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/4598-0.txt b/4598-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b43654a --- /dev/null +++ b/4598-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4969 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 4598 *** + +THE STORY OF CREATION AS TOLD BY THEOLOGY AND BY SCIENCE. + +BY T. S. ACKLAND, M.A., + +FORMERLY FELLOW OF CLARE COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE; VICAR OF WOLD NEWTON, +YORKSHIRE. + +"SIRS, YE ARE BRETHREN: WHY DO YE WRONG ONE TO ANOTHER?" + + + + + +CONTENTS. + + +CHAPTER I. THE CASE STATED +CHAPTER II. DIFFICULTIES IN GEOLOGY +CHAPTER III. DIFFICULTIES IN ASTRONOMY +CHAPTER IV. DIFFICULTIES IN PHYSIOLOGY +CHAPTER V. SCIENCE A HELP TO INTERPRETATION + + + + + +CHAPTER I. + +THE CASE STATED. + + +The History of the Creation with which the Bible commences, is not +a mere incidental appendage to God's Revelation, but constitutes +the foundation on which the whole of that Revelation is based. +Setting forth as it does the relation in which man stands to God +as his Maker, and to the world which God formed for his abode, it +forms a necessary introduction to all that God has seen fit to +reveal to us with reference to His dispensations of Providence and +of Grace. + +It is, however, not uncommonly asserted that this history cannot +be reconciled with a vast number of facts which modern science has +revealed to us, and with theories based on observed facts, and +recommended by the unquestioned ability of the men by whom they +have been brought forward. At first sight there does seem to be +some ground for this assertion. Geology, for instance, makes us +acquainted with strata of rock of various kinds, arranged in exact +order, and of an aggregate thickness of many miles, which are +filled with the remains of a wonderful series of plants and +animals, these remains not being promiscuously collected, but +arranged in an unvarying order. It seems impossible that all these +plants and animals could have lived and died, and been imbedded in +the rocks in this exact succession, in six of our ordinary days. +Astronomy directs our attention to changes now going on in the +starry heavens which occupy ages in their development, and points +to traces in the constitution of our own world which seem to +indicate that it was formed by analogous means. Physiology reveals +to us the fact that the different varieties of plants and animals +now in existence are not separated from each other by well defined +lines of demarcation, but shade into each other by almost +imperceptible gradations; and geological researches show that +while the existing species of animals are the representatives of +those which lived and died at a period in which we can find no +traces of man, they are not identical with them, but that either +the old species must have died out, and been replaced by a fresh +creation, or a considerable change must have taken place in the +course of ages. These facts are held to be incompatible with the +account of creation given by Moses, and hence it is inferred that +a record, which appears to be so widely at variance with admitted +facts, cannot be entitled to the authority which is claimed for +it, as a fundamental portion of a Revelation made by the Creator +Himself. + +This difficulty is sometimes met by the assertion that the Bible +was not given to us to teach us Science, but to convey to us +certain information which was essential to our moral welfare, and +which we could not obtain by any other means; that these +discrepancies do not in any way interfere with that portion of +those truths which is involved in the History of Creation, but +that, however the narrative may be viewed as far as regards its +details, the facts that God is the Creator of all things visible +and invisible, that He is a Being of infinite Wisdom, Power, and +Love, and that He has placed man in a peculiar relation to +Himself, remain unaffected. On this ground it is often urged that +we may pass over scientific inaccuracies as matters of no great +importance. + +Theologians are by no means agreed as to the nature and limits of +that inspiration by which Holy Scripture was written. There are +many who think that in matters purely incidental to its main +object, and lying within the reach of human faculties, the sacred +writers were left to the ordinary sources of information, and that +many alleged difficulties may be removed by this view. + +But whatever may be thought of the application of this hypothesis +to some parts of the Bible, there are others to which it is +plainly inapplicable, and of these the narrative of the Creation +is evidently one. No theory of limited inspiration can be admitted +to explain any supposed inaccuracies in that narrative. It cannot +be liable to those imperfections which are inevitable when men +have to obtain knowledge by the ordinary means, because there were +no ordinary means by which such information could be obtained. The +most carefully preserved records, the oldest traditions could not +extend backwards beyond the moment when the first man awoke to +conscious existence. For every thing beyond that point the only +source of knowledge available was information derived from the +Creator Himself. It may be that a revelation of this character was +made to Adam in the days of his innocence, that it was carefully +handed down to his descendants, and that Moses, under the divine +direction, incorporated it into his history; or it may have been +directly communicated to Moses by special inspiration--that +matters not--but a divine revelation it must have been, or it is +nothing; the dream of a poet, or the theory of a philosopher, if +we can believe that such a philosopher existed at such a time. But +if it be indeed a revelation from the Creator Himself, we cannot +imagine that He could fall into any error, or sanction any +misrepresentation with reference even to the smallest detail of +His own work. + +If then there are really any errors in this record--any assertions +which the discoveries of science have proved to be untrue, we +cannot account for them on any theory of limited inspiration. A +single proved error would be fatal to the authority of the whole +narrative. But, on the other hand, we are not justified in +expecting such an account of the Creation as would commend itself +to the scientific intellect of the present day. When we attempt to +form a judgment upon it. We must look not only to its alleged +author, but also to the purposes for which, the circumstances +under which, and the persons to whom it was given. In these we may +expect to meet with many limitations. It was not designed for the +communication of scientific knowledge, it was necessarily conveyed +in human language, and addressed to human intelligence, that +language and that intelligence being, not as they are now, but as +they were, taking the latest possible date that can be assigned to +it, considerably more than three thousand years ago. + +This last consideration affects not only the record itself, but +also our facilities for understanding and forming a judgment upon +it. We have to contend with difficulties of interpretation arising +from our inability fully to realize the circumstances under which +it was given, and to place ourselves in the mental position of its +original recipients. Owing to our want of this power it may well +happen, that though we are in possession of vastly increased +knowledge, we may be far more liable to fall into error in some +directions, in the interpretation of it, than those to whom it was +originally addressed. + +An additional difficulty arises from the circumstance that our +knowledge, wonderfully as it has been increased of late, is yet +very far from complete, and is probably in many cases still mixed +with error. Hence it may very well happen that where there is +complete harmony between the history and the facts, we may suspect +discord owing to our misunderstanding of the record, or our +misconception of the facts. In order that the harmony may be +recognized in its fulness, there must be a perfect understanding +of the record, and a perfect knowledge of the facts. But from both +of these we are probably at present very far removed. + +If a person who was a thorough master of some science undertook to +write a treatise for the purpose of teaching children the +rudiments of that science, we should expect, and the more strongly +if the author were a master of language as well as of science, +that his work should contain indications of a master's hand. We +should expect that while the book conveyed clearly and simply to +the minds of those for whom it was written, the truths which it +was intended to teach, it should also convey to the more educated +reader some intimations of a deeper knowledge on the part of its +author. The choice of a word, the turn of a phrase, the order in +which facts were arranged, the occurrence here and there of a +sentence which an ordinary reader would pass over as unimportant, +would to such a person be indications of trains of thought far +more profound than those which appeared on the surface. And this +recognition would be proportional to two things--the amount of +scientific knowledge possessed by the reader, and his mastery of +the language in which the book was written. + +Such, then, are the characteristics which we may expect to find in +the Record of Creation, if it be indeed, as we believe, a +revelation from God, made to men in a very low stage of +intellectual development. In order that we may be able to form a +satisfactory judgment of it, it will be well for us to consider a +little in detail two classes of difficulties. 1. Those which +belong to the Revelation itself, arising from the limitations to +which it was necessarily subject in its delivery. 2. Those which +arise from our imperfect knowledge of the language in which it is +written, and from our inability to place ourselves in the +intellectual position of those to whom it was originally given. + +1. When this record was committed to writing, language was in a +very different condition from that in which it is now. We have an +account of the first recorded exercise of the faculty of speech in +Gen. ii. 19. Adam first used it to give names to all the living +creatures as they passed in review before him. In accordance with +this statement it appears, from the researches of philologists, +that language in its earliest state was entirely, or almost +entirely limited to words denoting sensible objects and actions. +It seems probable that these names were derived from radicals +expressing general ideas [Footnote: Max Muller's Lectures on the +Science of Language, First Series Lect. viii. ix.]; but there is +reason to doubt whether these radicals ever had a formal existence +as words--they seem rather to have been the mental stock out of +which words were produced. But the human mind had from the first +powers for the exercise of which this limited vocabulary was +insufficient. Even in the outer world there was much which was the +object of reason and inference rather than of sense, while the +whole world of consciousness was entirely unprovided with the +means of expression. To meet this difficulty words, which +originally denoted objects of sense, were used figuratively to +express ideas which bore some resemblance or analogy, real or +fancied, to their original significance. As time passed on this +difficulty was gradually diminished: synonyms crept into all +languages from various sources, and when once adopted, they were +in many cases gradually differentiated, the various senses which +the original word had borne were portioned off among them, and +increased precision was thus obtained. + +But in the infancy of mankind the figurative system was in full +operation. Hence, all early documents have a strong tinge of the +poetic element. Poetry, strictly so called, probably had not as +yet a separate existence; but the whole spoken and written +language was permeated by that poetic spirit which delights in +tracing subtle analogies, and in expressing the invisible by means +of the visible. The translation of the Sanscrit Hymns, which has +recently appeared [Footnote: Hymns of the Big Veda Sanhita, +translated by Max Muller, vol. i.], furnishes a most valuable +illustration of this state of thought and of language. These hymns +are probably nearly coeval with the Pentateuch. They were the +production of a different branch of the human family, and indicate +a different tone of thought, but they bring out very clearly the +figurative character of primitive language, abounding in fanciful +descriptions of natural phenomena, which, when their metaphorical, +character was forgotten, passed by an easy transition into the +graceful myths and legends of early Greece. + +Then there was a poverty in these primitive vocabularies even in +reference to sensible objects, which in many cases rendered it +necessary to employ the same word in more or less extensive +significations, and in the Semitic languages the power of +inflexion was in some directions very limited. This limitation is +most remarkable in the forms used for the expression of time. One +form alone was available to express those modifications which are +indicated by the imperfect, perfect, pluperfect, and aorist tenses +of the classical languages. + +Instances of all these sources of uncertainty meet us very early +in Genesis. In the very first verse we have a word, [Hebrew +script], which has great latitude of meaning. It is either the +earth as a whole (ver. 1), or the land as distinguished from the +water (ver. 10), or a particular country (ii. 11). In many cases, +as in all these, the context at once determines the sense to be +chosen; but there are other cases in which considerable difficulty +arises. The whole question of the universality of the deluge +turns, in a great degree, upon the signification which is assigned +to this same word in the sixth and following chapters. In the +second verse we have another word, [Hebrew script], which is +capable of various interpretations. It is used throughout the +Bible in the three distinct meanings of "wind," "breath," and +"spirit." Where we read, "And the Spirit of God moved upon the +face of the waters," the Jewish paraphrase is, "And a wind of God +(i.e. a great wind) moved," &c. Here there is nothing in the +context to assist us in determining the sense to be chosen; but, +as will be seen in the sequel, modern science indicates that the +Jewish interpretation is untenable, and that our translation is, +consequently, the correct one. As an instance of confusion of +time, we may refer to ii. 19. In our translation this verse seems +to place the creation of animals after that of man; but in xii. 1, +the very same form is translated by the pluperfect, "Now the Lord +had said unto Abram." It ought evidently to be translated in the +same way here: "And out of the ground the Lord God had formed," +&c. In ii. 5, on the other hand, the pluperfect might with +advantage have given place to another form: "For the Lord God did +not cause it to rain." The phenomenon referred to appears to have +been local and temporary. Had the pluperfect been omitted in one +case and supplied in the other two sources of apparent difficulty +would have been removed. + +It is very clear, then, that there could be no approach to +scientific accuracy in a narrative written in such a language as +this. Such accuracy is, in fact, attainable only in proportion, as +science has moulded language for its own purposes. But language is +at all times an index of the general mental condition of the +people who use it, and so the knowledge and the ideas of the men +of these primitive times must have been extremely limited in all +those directions with which we have to do. Accordingly, we find no +trace of any doubt whether the information with reference to +external objects which was received through the senses was in all +cases to be depended on. There can be little doubt that to those +early observers the sky was a solid vault, on the face of which +the sun, moon, and planets moved in their appointed courses; the +stars were points of light, golden studs in the azure canopy; the +sun and moon were just as large as they appeared to be, and the +earth was a solid immovable plane of comparatively small extent. +At the time of the Exodus, it seems clear that, even among a +people so far advanced as the Egyptians, all that lay beyond the +mountains which bounded their land on the west was believed to +belong not to living men, but to disembodied spirits. It was the +terrible country through which the souls of the departed made +their arduous way to the Hall of Judgment [Footnote: "The Nations +Around," pp. 49, 50.] Accordingly, we find that the Egyptians made +no attempt to extend the limits of their empire in this direction, +while the monarchs of the Mesopotamian region seem to have been +equally unambitious of conquest beyond the mountain ranges which +bounded the valley of the Tigris on the east. Mesopotamia, then, +on the east, Egypt on the west, Armenia and Asia Minor on the +north, and Arabia on the south, seem, in the view of the +contemporaries of Moses, to have been the utmost regions of the +world. Ignorant as they were of any countries beyond these, they +were, of course, equally ignorant of the numberless varieties of +plants and animals that were to be found in them, and with which +we are familiar. Mining was not unknown, but the mines were few +and superficial; they could not reveal much of the structure of +the earth, and what little they did reveal passed unnoticed. +Nothing was known of the successive beds of rock which form the +crust of the earth, of the fossils with which they abound, or of +the gradual changes to Which they are still subject. If any one +had told the men of that generation that the solid earth on which +they stood, or the everlasting hills which surrounded them, were +undergoing slow but steady modifications, he would have been +looked upon as a madman. + +A revelation, then, addressed to men whose language, whose +intellectual powers, and whose stock of ideas were thus limited, +must of itself also necessarily have been both limited and +destitute of precision. It could only deal with things with which +they had some acquaintance, or of which they could form some idea, +while, from the character of the language, and the extreme brevity +of the record, the treatment of even these few subjects must have +been of a vague and indefinite character. Traces of a deeper +knowledge there might be, but they would not lie upon the surface. +They must be carefully sought for, and then they would be +discernible only by those who were in possession of the key which +would unlock their hidden secrets. + +Such are the limitations under which the revelation was +necessarily given. We have now to consider our own especial +difficulties, the obstacles which stand in our way when we would +discover for ourselves all the information which the record is +capable of conveying. For if this record be, as we believe, the +work of the Great Architect of the Universe, then it is probable +that its every detail is significant; that wherever it was +possible words were chosen which, when scrutinized, would convey +much more information than appeared on the surface. The great +problem for us to solve is, What are the difficulties which stand +in our way when we would seek this knowledge, and what are the +means by which those difficulties may be surmounted, and the +hidden treasure displayed? + +Our first difficulty arises from a matter which, viewed in another +light, is one of our greatest blessings. We are familiar with the +Record through the medium of our own noble version. Probably it is +impossible for any translation more exactly to represent the +original as it presented itself in the first instance to the minds +of those to whom it was addressed. Accordingly we learn it in our +earliest childhood; its majestic phrases imprint themselves on our +memory; our undeveloped minds seem capable of taking in all that +it was intended to convey, and so the impressions formed of it in +our infancy abide with us all our days. We are contented with +them, and do not trouble ourselves to inquire whether there is not +something beyond, which we have not realized. + +All this time we forget that, excellent as it is, it is after all +only a translation, and that the very best translation cannot +represent in their fulness the ideas embodied in the original. +Etymological relations between words often give a force and +meaning to a sentence which it is impossible to transfuse into +another language, because the same relations do not exist between +the words which we are constrained to employ. Then there is an +intimate relation between men's thoughts and the language which +they habitually use, so that those thoughts cannot be perfectly +expressed in a language whose character is different. Again in +every language there are many words which bear several cognate +senses, which may be represented by as many different words in the +language of the translation; so that if the best word is chosen, +much of the fulness of the original must be lost; while it may so +happen that the selected word has also a variety of +significations, which do not correspond with the varying meanings +of the original word, and thus senses may be ascribed to the +original which it will not bear, because the reader annexes to the +word in the translation a sense different from that in which it +corresponds to the original word. To all these sources of +imperfection must be added the fact that our translation was made +at a time when science was not yet sufficiently developed to +exercise any influence upon it. There was nothing to induce the +translators to attempt, where it was possible, to preserve any +indications of a deeper meaning, because they had no reason to +suspect that any such deeper meaning existed, or that any +indications of such a meaning were to be found. + +To the difficulties of translation must be added the difficulties +of accumulated tradition. The characteristics which mark our own +childish intellect are apparent also in the collective intellect +of the human race in its earlier and ruder development. There are +two characteristics of the human mind in this condition, which +have had a very great effect on the interpretation of this portion +of the Bible. + +The first of these is the impatience of doubt and uncertainty. The +power of recognizing the imperfection of our knowledge, and the +consequent necessity of suspending our judgment, is a power which +is only gradually acquired with the accumulation of experience. +The young untrained mind finds it difficult to realize the truth +that any information communicated to it is not altogether within +the grasp of its faculties. It must attach some definite meaning +to the words; it must image to itself some way in which great +events were brought about, great works were accomplished. It finds +it difficult to realize a fact as accomplished, unless it can also +picture to itself some way in which it might have been effected. +For this purpose such knowledge as it has at its command is +employed, and where that fails recourse is had to the imagination +to supply the deficiency. Thus it has been with ourselves in our +childhood, and thus it was in the childhood of the world. +Knowledge was indeed sought, but it was not sought in the right +way, and so the search often resulted in error, and this error +produced its effect in the interpretation of the passage in +question. The old school of inquirers started from certain +abstract principles, and endeavoared to reduce the results of +observation to conformity with those principles. This was the case +with astronomy. The old astronomers taking as axioms the two +assumptions that everything connected with the heavenly bodies +must be perfect, and that the circle is the only perfect figure, +easily satisfied themselves that the orbits of all the heavenly +bodies must be circles. Hence came the + + "Cycle on epicycle, orb on orb," + +by which they sought to account for the phenomena which they +observed. When once the method was changed, when once it had +occurred to Kepler that, as it seemed to be impossible to account +for the apparent motion of Mars by any theory of circular orbits, +it might be worth while to try to ascertain by observation what +its orbit really was, a few years of patient labour sufficed to +solve the problem. + +It was science such as this, then, that our forefathers brought to +the interpretation of the Mosaic Record, and the consequence was +that when, from time to time, facts were casually brought to light +which might have led the way to vast discoveries, their true +significance was never discerned; all that was sought from them +was some additional support to the old views. Thus sometimes +gigantic bones were exhumed: without investigation, it was at once +assumed that they were human bones, and they were brought forward +to prove the truth of the statement, "There were also giants in +the earth in those days." Sea-shells were found on mountain sides, +far from and high above the sea--they were evidences of the +Deluge. + +The second characteristic of that state of mind is its admiration +of the startling and the vast. In these alone it recognizes the +tokens of unlimited power. It is unable to appreciate those more +majestic manifestations of power which are discerned by the +enlightened eye, when a stupendous scheme is developed, gradually +and imperceptibly, but without pause or hesitation through a long +succession of ages; when a multitude of seemingly discordant +elements are at last brought together in a perfect work; when a +power, unseen and unnoticed, slowly but surely overrules the +working of ten thousand apparently independent agents, through a +thousand generations, and moulds their separate works into one +harmonious whole. Such a manifestation of power as this was beyond +the grasp of the untrained mind; but to such intellects there was +something irresistibly fascinating in the idea of a world rising +into perfect existence in a moment, of innumerable hosts of living +creatures called into being at a word. Such was the meaning of the +account of creation which naturally suggested itself to the +untrained mind, and there was nothing in science in those early +days to throw any doubt upon it, and so this belief was +unhesitatingly and almost universally adopted. Here and there, +indeed, some man of deeper thought than his brethren, such as St. +Augustine [Footnote: See St. Augustine, "De Genesi ad Literam," +Liber Imperfectus, and Libri Duodecim, and also "Confessionum" +Liber xiii.], suspected that there might be more in that seemingly +simple record than was generally acknowledged; but such men had no +means of verifying their conjectures, and their number was very +small. For three thousand years the old view was practically +unquestioned, it received the tacit sanction of the Church, it +gradually became identified in the minds of all with the record +itself, and was as much an article of faith as the very Creed. + +This was the state of things, when at last science awoke from its +long slumber, and began for the first time to employ its energies +in the right direction. Very soon discoveries were made which +startled the minds of all believers in the Bible. The first shock +which the old belief sustained was from the establishment of the +Copernican view of the Solar System. That the world was the +immovable centre of the universe, around which sun, moon, and +planets moved in their appointed courses, was universally held to +be the express teaching of the Bible; and when Galileo ventured to +maintain the new views in Italy, the Roman Curia took up the +question, and by the agency of the Inquisition wrung from him a +reluctant retractation of his so-called heresy. But it was of no +avail. The new doctrine was true, and it could not be crushed. +Fresh evidence of its truth was continually coming forward, till +at last it was universally received. Then the defenders of the +Bible had recourse to the suggestion that as the Bible was not +intended to teach us science, such errors were of no consequence, +But this argument, though perfectly sound with reference to such +passages as Joshua x. 12-14, where an event is described as it +appeared to those who witnessed it, is not admissible in such a +passage as Psalm xcvi. 10, where the supposed immobility of the +earth is alleged as a proof of God's sovereignty, and is made the +foundation of the duty of proclaiming that sovereignty among the +heathen. When the supposed proof was found to be a fallacy, the +statement in support of which it was alleged would be more or less +shaken. In such a passage, then, the theory of limited inspiration +is evidently untenable. At last the only sensible course was +adopted. Recourse was had to the original, and it was at once +apparent that the supposed difficulty had no real existence, but +that there was a very trifling inaccuracy in the translation; for +that the word translated "shall not be moved" really signified +"shall not be shaken or totter." The same word is used in Psalm +xvii. 5, "Hold up my goings in Thy paths, that my footsteps SLIP +NOT." Instead, then, of an error, we have an exact description of +the earth's motion--a motion so steady and equable, that for +thousands of years no single individual out of the myriads who +were continually carried along by it had ever suspected its +existence. + +Well had it been for all if the lesson thus taught had been deeply +laid to heart. But unhappily it was entirely unnoticed. Science +pursued its way with increasing energy, and more facts were year +by year brought to light which seemed entirely to contradict the +teaching of the Bible, and again alarm and distrust sprung up in +the minds of what, for want of a better name, we may perhaps be +allowed to designate as the "Theological Party." The power of the +Church of Rome was by this time so far curtailed that the old +means of repression were no longer available; but the old spirit +survived, and not in Rome only. There was the same blind distrust, +the same mistaken zeal for supposed truth, the same indignation +which naturally arises when things which we hold precious are +attacked, and, as it seems to us, without any sufficient reason. + +There was indeed much to account for and even to justify the +feelings of anger and alarm which were excited, for the time when +these discoveries began to be brought prominently forward was the +latter half of the last century. At that time the famous French +Academy was doing its deadly work, and the new discoveries were +gladly hailed by the infidel philosophers of France, as weapons +against the Bible. But the reception given to these discoveries by +the theological party, though partially justified by the +circumstances of the times, was nevertheless very mischievous in +its results. For though the new discoveries were hailed +enthusiastically by the infidel school, a very large portion of +the men by whom they were made, and of those who were convinced of +their truth, were men of a very different character. They were +simple earnest seekers after truth as it is displayed in God's +works. Their belief in the Bible rested in most cases on the +authority of others. They had not investigated for themselves its +external evidences; in many cases they had neither the ability nor +the opportunity to do so; nor had many of them as yet become +practically familiar with that internal evidence which the +faithful Christian carries within him, though in time they might +have become so, had they not been driven into infidelity by the +reception which was given to their discoveries. When men of this +character were informed by those to whom they were accustomed to +look up as teachers in religious matters, that the discoveries, of +the truth of which they were so firmly convinced, and in which +they took such justifiable pride, were contradictory to the +teaching of the Bible, they were placed in a position of extreme +difficulty. For this statement was, in fact, a demand made upon +them that they should give up these discoveries as erroneous, or +else renounce their belief in the Bible. But their belief in the +Bible rested in the main on the authority of others; they felt +themselves incompetent judges of the evidence on which it rested, +while they were fully acquainted with, and competent judges of, +the grounds on which their own discoveries were based. The +evidence on which they acted was, to their minds, quite as +convincing as the Biblical evidence was to the minds of their +antagonists. Two things, then, were pronounced incompatible by +what seemed to be a competent authority; they could not adhere to +both, and the natural consequence was that their assent was given +to those statements which rested on evidence which they thoroughly +understood, and the Bible was rejected. Thus it has come to pass +that many of our scientific men, if not professed unbelievers, +have yet learnt to look upon the Bible with suspicion and +distrust. To some of them, as is evident from their writings, +their position is a matter of profound sorrow. + +There have, indeed, been many noble exceptions to this state of +things. Many men whose pre-eminence in scientific knowledge and +research is admitted by all, have yet clung in childlike trust to +the Bible. They have recognized its authority, they have been +satisfied that God's Word could not be in opposition to His Work, +and they have been content to wait in unquestioning faith for the +day when all that now seems dark and perplexing shall be made +clear. But there have also been very many with whom this has not +been the case, and their unbelief has not affected themselves +alone. The knowledge of it has had a deadly effect upon thousands +who were utterly incompetent to form any judgment on either +theological or scientific subjects, but who gladly welcomed +anything which would help to justify them to their own consciences +in their refusal to submit themselves to a law which, in their +ignorance, they deemed to be harsh and intolerable. There has also +been another class of sufferers. Many persons who loved the Bible, +but whose education, and, consequently, whose powers of judgment +in the matter were very limited, have received very great injury +from the doubt which has been thrown on its authority. Unable of +themselves to form a judgment on the subject, they could not be +unmoved by the opinion expressed by those whom they regarded as +better informed than themselves. Hence their faith has received a +shock always painful and dangerous, often perhaps fatal. + +Many attempts have been made to overcome the difficulty which has +thus arisen. When geologists first began to study the lessons +which are to be learnt from fossils, a suggestion was made which, +though it was soon shown to be untenable, has still perhaps a few +supporters. It was said that these fossils were not what they +seemed to be, the remains of creatures which once lived, but +simple stones, fashioned from the first in their present form by +the will of the Creator. But such an idea is at variance with all +that either Nature or Revelation teaches us concerning God. All +those who have any familiarity with the subject cannot but feel +that the suggestion of such a solution of the difficulty is little +short of a suggestion that the Almighty has stamped a lie upon the +face of His own Work. + +Another proposed solution, which for a time seemed satisfactory, +assumed several successive creations and destructions of the world +to have taken place in the interval between the first and second +verses of Genesis. To these all the fossil remains were ascribed, +while the present state of things was supposed to be the result of +the operations recorded in the remainder of the chapter. But as +geological knowledge advanced, it soon became clear that there +were no breaks in the chain of life; no points at which one set of +creatures had died out, while another had not yet arisen to fill +up the void, but that all change had been gradual and progressive, +and that species still living on the earth are identical with some +which were in existence when the lowest tertiary strata were in +process of formation--a time which must have been many thousand +years prior to the appearance of man. + +Other attempts have been made upon literary grounds. Hugh Miller +[Footnote: Testimony of the Rocks.] carefully worked out a +suggestion derived from a German source, that the history of +Creation was presented to Moses in a series of six visions, which +appeared to him as so many days with intervening nights. More +recently Dr. Rorison [Footnote: In Answers to "Essays and +Reviews."] has maintained that the first chapter of Genesis is not +a history at all, but a poem--"the Hymn of Creation." There is, +however, nothing in the chapter itself to confirm either of these +views. When visions are recorded elsewhere we are told that they +are visions, but no such hint is given us here. Nor do we find in +the passage any of the characteristics of Hebrew poetry. It is +inserted in an Historical document, and in the absence of any +proof to the contrary, it is plainly itself also to be regarded as +History. + +But there remains yet one method to be attempted. If there is +reason to believe that the Bible is the Word of God, just as the +universe is His Work, then we may well expect that each of them +will throw light upon and help us to a right understanding of the +other. And if there be one part beyond all others in which this +may be confidently looked for, it is that part in which the Divine +Architect describes His own work. We know how difficult it is to +understand a complicated process, or a complex piece of machinery, +from a mere written description; and how our difficulty is +lessened if we have the opportunity of inspecting the machinery or +the process. Just in the same way we may expect to encounter +difficulties, and to form erroneous conclusions when we study by +itself such a document as the history of Creation, and we may well +expect that those difficulties will be diminished, and those +errors corrected by an examination of that material universe, the +production of which it describes. And, on the other hand, if +science--the study of the universe--is found to throw light upon +and to receive light from the Bible, this is a fresh proof that +the Bible and the universe are from the same source; the authority +of the Bible is more firmly established, and the conclusions +arrived at by men of science are confirmed. + +But before this can be done to any good purpose, something is +required from both the contending parties. The theological party +must be prepared to sacrifice many an old opinion, many a +cherished belief. Great care must be taken to discriminate between +the genuine statements of the Mosaic Record, and the old +interpretations which have been incorporated into and identified +with those statements. Some, perhaps, may fear lest, in rejecting +those interpretations, they may be setting at nought an authority +to which they ought to submit, since these interpretations seem to +have the sanction of the Church. But it can hardly be maintained +that those promises of Divine guidance and protection from error +which were given to the Church extended to such matters as this. +No question of faith or duty is involved in the interpretation +which we may give to the details of Creation. If there are some +parts of the Bible in which the earliest interpretation is +unquestionably the true one, there are also other parts, such as +many of the prophecies, which became intelligible only when light +was thrown upon them by subsequent events. And so it seems to be +with the Record of Creation: it can only be rightly understood in +proportion as we become acquainted with the details of the matters +to which it refers. Any interpretation which was put upon it +before those details were brought to light must of necessity be +liable to error. + +But something is also required of the opposite party. At the very +threshold of the investigation they must be asked to lay aside, so +far as is possible, those prejudices against the Bible which have +naturally arisen in their minds from the obstinacy with which +views, which they knew to be untenable, have been forced upon +their acceptance as the undoubted teaching of God, so that they +may enter upon the investigation with unbiassed minds. Then they +must be careful to distinguish between established facts, and +theories however probable. There is something very fascinating in +a well constructed theory. Theories have again and again done such +good service in opening the way, first, to the discovery, and then +to the arrangement of facts, that we are very apt to assign to +them an authority far beyond that to which they are really +entitled. When, for instance, we have ascertained that a certain +number of facts are explained by some particular theory, we are +apt to assume prematurely, that the same theory must account for +and be in harmony with all similar and related facts; or, if we +have satisfied ourselves that certain results MAY have been +produced in a particular way, we are in great danger of being led +to conclude that they MUST have happened in that way. No mere +theory can have any weight against a statement resting on solid +evidence, but where the evidence is weak, or, what is practically +the same thing, where the knowledge of that evidence is defective, +a probable theory must carry great weight in influencing our +judgment. Care must therefore be taken to keep theories in their +proper place. Where we have to deal with well-established facts, +any interpretations to which those facts may lead us may be taken +as also established, but interpretations which are suggested by +theories only must be regarded as provisional, and liable to +future modification or rejection, as our knowledge increases. + +The Mosaic Record itself, when carefully examined, seems to be +peculiarly open to the process suggested. No doubt there is yet +much work for Philology to do in its interpretation [Footnote: +Such words, for instance, as [Hebrew script:],[Hebrew script:], +[Hebrew script], used of different creative acts, may imply some +difference of which we are ignorant. So again the uses of the +words [Hebrew script], [Hebrew script:], and [Hebrew script:] for +"man," may have a bearing on some of those questions which now +seem most perplexing.], but one thing seems certain--there is in +it an absence of all detail. The facts to which it has reference +are stated in the briefest and most simple manner, without the +slightest reference to the means by which they were effected, or, +apart from the question of the days, the time which was occupied +in their accomplishment. When stripped of all that is traditional, +and examined strictly by itself, the narrative seems greatly to +resemble one of those outline maps which are supplied to children +who are learning geography, on which only a few prominent features +of the country are laid down, and the learner is left to fill in +the details as his knowledge advances. Only in this case the +details have already been filled in by the light of very imperfect +knowledge, aided by a fertile imagination. These we must +obliterate if we would restore the possibility of a faithful +delineation, and we must be careful, in future, to avoid a similar +error. We must put down nothing as certain which has not been +conclusively shown to be so. + +This last caution is specially needed at the present time, for, +proud as we are of our advance in science, the amount of what is +certainly known is probably very much less than we imagine. A +great deal that was received as certain a few years ago, is now +considered to be doubtful, or even recognized as a mistake and +abandoned. This is especially the case with Astronomy, which seems +to be almost in a state of revolution. Dependent, as it is almost +entirely, upon mechanical and optical aid, every improvement and +discovery in these departments changes its position, bringing to +light new facts, and modifying the aspect of those which were +previously known. The very basis of all astronomical calculations, +the standard of time, is now no longer relied upon as invariable. +It is suspected of a change resulting from a gradual retardation +in the rate of the earth's rotation on its axis, produced by tidal +friction. When the binary stars were discovered, the discovery was +hailed as a proof of the universal prevalence of the law of +gravitation. Later observations have thrown doubt upon that +conclusion, as many pairs are known to exist, which, though they +have what is termed a "common proper motion," or are journeying +through space together, have no relative motion, which they must +show, if they were moving under the influence of their mutual +attractions. The supposed simplicity of the solar system has given +place to extreme complexity. A century ago, six planets, ten +satellites, and a few comets, were supposed to constitute the +whole retinue of the sun: now, instead of this, we have two groups +of four planets each, the individual members of each group closely +resembling each other in all points within our knowledge, while in +all these points the groups differ greatly. Between these two +groups lies a belt of very small planets, of which the 1st was +discovered on the first day of the present century, and the 124th +this year, and the number of known satellites has increased from +10 to 17. Add to this the meteoric groups, and their suspected +connexion with certain comets, and the perplexing questions +suggested by the Solar Corona and the Zodiacal light, and it will +be seen that our knowledge is in a transitional state; that with +so many problems unsolved, any apparent contradiction to the +sacred record will require a careful scrutiny to ascertain that +the grounds on which it is brought forward are well established. + +Geology, so far as our present subject is concerned, stands upon a +somewhat different footing. Though a much younger science than +astronomy, it has one great advantage over it; the facts with +which it has to do are for the most part discernible by the +unaided senses, and it is therefore independent of instrumental +help. Many changes have occurred in the views of Geologists, but +in the main they have reference to processes [Footnote: Such, for +instance, is the modification of the views of geologists as to the +relative effects of "disruption" and "denudation" in determining +the features of the earth's surface.] rather than to results, and +it is the results with which we are chiefly concerned. + +Physiologists have entered on the contest with the Bible on two +different, and seemingly contradictory grounds. Some of them have +maintained that the varieties of mankind are so distinct, that it +is impossible they can all be descended from a single human pair, +while others assert that not only all the varieties of mankind, +but all the varieties of living beings are descended from a single +progenitor. Between the advocates of these two systems there must +be such an enormous difference as to the extent to which variation +is possible, as to justify us in assuming that the fundamental +principles of physiological science are not yet satisfactorily +ascertained. + +These are the three branches of science which come especially into +collision with the Mosaic Record of the Creation. Of these Geology +is the most important, because it is able to bring forward +unquestionable facts which are in direct opposition to the +traditionary interpretation Astronomy and physiology have little +to object except theoretical views; the hypotheses of Laplace and +Darwin. These, however, will have to be carefully considered. It +will be necessary for us first to ascertain whether there really +exists any such fundamental discrepancy between the record and +ascertained facts, or theories so far as they are supported by +facts, and stand on a probable footing, as should render all +attempts at harmonizing them vain. If this is found not to be the +case, we shall then be in a position to inquire whether modern +discoveries afford us any really valuable light, and can assist us +to form a somewhat more extended and accurate idea of the +processes described by the sacred historian. + + + + + +CHAPTER II. + +DIFFICULTIES IN GEOLOGY. + + +The principal points on which there is a supposed discrepancy +between the Mosaic Record and the discoveries of geologists are as +follows:-- + +THE MOSAIC RECORD APPEARS TO ASSERT-- + +I. That the world in all its completeness, as it now exists, was +moulded out of material in a chaotic state in six ordinary days. +Geologists have ascertained, beyond the possibility of a doubt, +that the process must have occupied countless ages. + +II. That the first appearance of animal life was on the fifth of +those six days. Geologists have discovered that animal life was in +existence at the very earliest period to which they have as yet +been able to extend their investigations. + +III. That all living creatures are divided into two classes, and +that the first of these classes was created on the fifth, the +second on the sixth day; and that each class, in all its +divisions, with the exception of man, came into existence +simultaneously. Geologists trace the rise and increase of each +class through a long course of ages. + +IV. That death entered into the world through the sin of man. The +very existence of fossils implies that it was the law of all +animal life from the first. + +V. That till the fall all creatures lived exclusively on vegetable +food. Geologists have ascertained the existence of carnivorous +creatures from a very remote period. + +Besides these, there are some other supposed difficulties and +inaccuracies of a less important character, which may be noticed, +in passing, when the true meaning of the record is under +discussion. + +SECTION 1. THE DAYS. + +The question of the days is beyond all doubt the most important of +those which have to be discussed. On the one hand, the impression +naturally left upon the reader of the first chapter of Genesis is +that natural days are meant, and this impression is not removed by +a cursory inspection of the original. On the other hand, if there +is any one scientific belief which rests on peculiarly solid +ground, it is the belief that the formation of the world occupied +a period which is beyond the grasp of the most powerful +imagination. + +There is, indeed, some reason to think that the time claimed by +geologists is somewhat exaggerated. Their views are in many cases +based on the assumption that change is now going on, on the +surface of the earth, as it did in all past time--that it is the +same in character, in intensity, and in rate. But there are good +reasons for supposing that almost all the causes which lead to +change are gradually decreasing in intensity. The chief causes by +which changes are brought about are the upheaval and subsidence of +the earth's surface; the destructive agencies of wind, storms at +sea, rain and frost; and the action of the tides. Of these, all +but the last are directly dependent on the action of heat, and +there is every reason to believe that the heat of the earth is in +process of gradual dissipation. If this be the case, all those +agencies which are dependent on it must + +[Footnote: It is thought probable that this process is complete, +or nearly so, in the moon. If this be the case, it is in all +probability in progress in the case of the earth, though, owing to +the much greater bulk of the latter, it occupies a longer period. +--Lockyer, Lessons in Astronomy, p. 93.] be declining in intensity; +but the rate of that decrease is unknown; it may be in +arithmetical, or it may be in geometrical progression. It is, +then, by no means impossible that changes, which now only become +discernible with the lapse of centuries, might, at some past +period of our globe's history, have been the work of years only. +Nor is it at all probable that the present rate of change, which +is assumed as the basis of the calculation, is known with any +approach to accuracy. Exact observations are of very recent date; +both the inclination and the means for making them are the growth +of the last two centuries, and the changes which have to be +ascertained are of a class peculiarly liable to modification from +a variety of local and temporary causes, so that a very much +longer period must elapse before we can arrive at average values +which may be relied on as even approximately accurate. + +Another circumstance, which seems to merit more attention than it +has received, is the very frequent recurrence in Greek mythology +of allusions to creatures which have been usually regarded as the +creations of a poetic fancy, but which bear a strong resemblance +to the Saurian and other monsters of the Oolite and Cretaceous +formations. Of course, it is not impossible that these things may +have been purely poetic imaginings; but, if so, it is very +remarkable that such realizations of those imaginings should be +afterwards discovered. It would seem much more probable that these +legends were exaggerated traditions of creatures which actually +existed when the first colonists reached their new homes, in +numbers comparatively small, but still sufficient to occasion much +danger and alarm to the early settlers, and to cause their +destroyers to be regarded as among the greatest heroes of the time +and the greatest benefactors of mankind. The Hindoo tradition of +the tortoise on whose back stands the elephant which upholds the +world, and the account of Leviathan in the Book of Job, seem to +point in the same direction. [Footnote: For additional instances +see Tylor's Early History of Mankind, p. 303.] + +But, after all, the question is not one of a few thousands of +years more or less, but of six common days, or many thousands of +years. It may help us to arrive at a right conclusion on the +subject if we endeavour to ascertain, in the first instance, +whether there are any strongly-marked indications that the writer +of the first chapter of Genesis did possess some accurate +information on some points in the history of Creation which he was +not likely to obtain by his own researches. For this purpose we +will place in parallel columns the leading facts recorded by +Moses, and a table of the successive formations of the rocks, +abridged from the last edition (1871) of Sir C. Lyell's Student's +Geology. This process will bring to light certain coincidences +which may serve as landmarks for our investigation. + + The Days. THE ROCKS. + + 1. Creation of light. + + 2. Creation of the Atmosphere. + + + |The earth covered with water |Laurentian. + 3.--| [implied]. |Cambrian. + |Upheaval of land. ----|Silurian. + |Creation of terrestrial Flora. |Devonian. + |Carboniferous. + + 4. The sun and moon made "Luminaries."----|Permian. + |Triassic. + + |Triassic. + 5. Creation of birds and reptiles ----|Jurassic. + |Cretaceous, + |Eocene. + + 6.--|Creation of land animals. ----|Eocene. + |Creation of man. |Miocene. + |Pleiocene. + |Post Tertiary. + +CONCURRENT EVENTS. + +Laurentian: Upper Laurentian unconformably placed on Lower +Laurentian, which contains Eozoon Canadense. + +Cambrian: Traces of volcanic action. Ripple marks indicating land. + +Silurian: Earliest fish. + +Devonian: Earliest land plants. + +Carboniferous: The coal measures. Peculiarly abundant vegetation. +Earliest known reptile. + +Permian: Foot-prints of birds and reptiles--with a few remains of +the latter. + +Jurassic: The first bird, and the first mammal. The age of +reptiles. + +Cretaceous: Reptiles passing away, mammalia abundant and of large +size. + +Post Tertiary: Human remains found only in the most recent +deposits. In this table we see certain points of strongly-marked +coincidence:-- + +1. The oldest rocks with which we are acquainted--the Lower +Laurentian [Footnote: The age of granite is uncertain.--Lyell'a +Student's Geology, p. 548.]--were formed under water, but had +begun to be elevated before the next series, the Upper Laurentian, +were deposited. Ripple marks are found in the Cambrian group +[Footnote: Ibid. p. 470], indicating that the parts where they +occur formed a sea-beach, and, consequently, that dry land was in +existence at that time. + +2. The earliest fossil land plants as yet discovered are found in +the Devonian series, and they gradually increase till, in the +Carboniferous strata, they attain the extreme abundance which gave +rise to the coal measures. + +3. The age of reptiles. The earliest known reptile is found in the +Carboniferous strata. In the Permian and Triassic groups the +numbers gradually increase, till in the Lias, Oolite, and +Cretaceous systems, this class attains a very great development +both numerically and in the magnitude of individual specimens. +During the same period the first traces of birds are found. The +first actual fossil bird was found in the upper Oolite. + +4. The age of mammalia. The first remains--two teeth of a small +marsupial--were discovered in the Rhaetic beds of the Upper Trias, +and a somewhat similar discovery has been made in beds of +corresponding periods in Devonshire and North America. During the +subsequent periods the numbers slowly increase, till in the +Tertiary strata the mammalian becomes the predominant type. + +5. The earliest traces of man--flint implements--are found in the +Post Tertiary strata. + +We have then in the Mosaic narrative five points which correspond +in order and character to five points in the Geological record; +and with reference to two, at least, of these points, we cannot +imagine any cause for the coincidence in the shape of a fortunate +conjecture, because, so far as we can tell, there was nothing +apparent on the face of the earth to suggest to the mind of the +writer the long past existence of such a state of things as has +been revealed to us by the discovery of the Carboniferous and +Reptilian remains. It seems then that Moses must have been in +possession of information which could not be obtained from any +ordinary source. But if he was thus acquainted with the order in +which the development took place, there is nothing improbable in +the supposition that he was not altogether ignorant of the length +of time which that development required. + +Let us suppose then that his knowledge did extend a little +farther; let us suppose him to have been aware that each of the +Creations which he describes was a process occupying many +thousands of years--how could he have imparted this knowledge to +his readers? What modification could he have introduced into his +narrative, which without changing its general character, or +detracting from its extreme simplicity, should have embodied this +fact? + +This amounts to the question: What words significant of definite +periods of time were in use, and consequently at the writer's +command, at this time? No language is very rich in such words; but +in the early Hebrew they seem to have been very scanty. The day, +week, month, year, and generation (this last usually implying the +time from the birth of a man to that of his son, but possibly in +Gen. xv. 16, a century) are all that we find. These in their +literal sense were evidently inadequate. Nor could the deficiency +be supplied by numerals, even if the general style of the +narrative would have admitted their use, for we find in Genesis no +numeral beyond the thousand. There was no word at all in early +Hebrew equivalent to our words "period" and "season." When such an +idea was to be expressed, it was done by the use of the word +"day," either in the singular, or more commonly in the plural. +Thus, "the time of harvest;" "the season of the first ripe fruit," +are literally "the days of harvest," "the days of the first ripe +fruit." In Isaiah xxxiv. 8, the singular is used, and followed by +the word year in the same indefinite sense. "It is the day of the +Lord's vengeance, and the year of recompenses for the controversy +of Zion." + +The only method then which was open to the writer was to make use +of one of the words above mentioned in an extended sense, just as +he used the word [Hebrew script] (earth) in several senses. But if +one of them was to be employed, the one which he has chosen seems +the best; not only because its use in that way was common, but +because the brevity of the time covered by its natural +significance would in itself be a hint of the way in which it was +used. That which was impossible in a day might be possible in a +year or a generation. The extended significance of the word would +become apparent just in proportion as the time covered by its +natural significance was inadequate for the processes ascribed to +it. + +An additional reason may, perhaps, be found for the choice of the +word "day," in the accordance of its phenomena with some, at +least, of the processes which Moses describes--the dawn, the light +slowly increasing to the perfect day, and then fading away +gradually into night--these do seem aptly to represent the first +scanty appearance, the gradual increase, and the vast development +of plants, of the reptiles and of the mammalia, and in the case of +the first two classes, their gradual passing away. + +But if the word was thus employed in a figurative, and not in its +natural sense, we may expect to find some indications in the +context that this was the case. Such indications we do find. The +fact that the work of Creation was distributed into days, is, in +itself, significant. There is no reason to believe that in the +opinion of the writer each day's work tasked to the utmost the +power of the Creator. Moses was evidently as well aware as we are, +that to Him it would have been equally easy, had He so willed, to +call everything into instant and perfect being at a single word. +Nor was the detailed description necessary to establish the +foundation of all religion--the right of the Creator to the entire +obedience of His creature For this the short recapitulation which +(ch. ii. 4) prefaces the more detailed account of man's peculiar +relation to his Maker would have been sufficient. Some purpose, +however, there must have been for this more particular account +which precedes the summary. We may trace two probable reasons. It +brings before us the method of the Divine Working in the light of +an orderly progress. But beside this, it is of infinite service to +us, in enabling us more thoroughly to realize the Fatherly +character and ever watchful care of our Creator. As far as that +care itself was concerned, it was unimportant whether the work was +instantaneous or progressive; but it was very important to us, in +so far as it affected our conceptions of God, and of our relations +to Him. For all our conceptions of God must rest ultimately on our +self-consciousness; we can form no idea of Him except in so far as +that idea is analogous to something which comes within the range +of our own experience. Now to us and to our feelings there is a +very wide difference between an act performed in a moment, and a +work over which we have lovingly dwelt, and to which we have +devoted our time, our labour, and our thought, for months or +years. The one may pass from our mind and be forgotten as quickly +as it was performed, but in the other we commonly feel an abiding +interest. When therefore the great Creator is represented to us as +thus dwelling upon His work, carrying it on step by step, through +the long ages, to its completion, we find it far less difficult to +realize that other truth, so precious to us, that His care and His +tender mercies are over all His works, that the loving +watchfulness which still upholds all, and provides for all, is but +the continuance of that care which was displayed in the creation +of all. Creation, Providence and Grace are blended together in one +continuous manifestation of the Divine Wisdom, Power, and Love. + +But for this purpose it is of little importance to us whether +Creation is described as taking place in a moment, or in six +ordinary days. If the division into six days indicates orderly +progress and watchful care, we naturally expect to find the same +indications in each of the subordinate parts. To our imperfect +conceptions each single day's work would bear that same character +of vast instantaneous action which seemed so undesirable. It would +not help us to realize what it is so important that we should +thoroughly feel. The very fact then that the history of Creation +is divided into days carries with it a strong presumption that +those days are not ordinary days. + +In the 14th and following verses, when Moses is describing the +formation of the heavenly luminaries, he is particular in +mentioning that one part of their office was to "rule over the day +and over the night, and to divide the light from the darkness." +Hence it is sometimes inferred that he was under a mistake in +speaking of day and night at an earlier period. But such a mistake +seems incredible. To suppose that Moses did not perceive that what +he wrote in the 14th and following verses was incompatible with +what he had written in the 4th and 5th verses, if such an +incompatibility really existed, is to impute to him an amount of +ignorance or carelessness which is at variance with the whole +character of his writings from beginning to end. Instead of this +it will be shown hereafter that, in all probability, his +statements rested on a wide knowledge of facts. If then, under +such circumstances, he uses the word "day" long before he comes to +the formation of the sun, the natural inference is that he did so +designedly--that it was his intention that his readers should +understand that he was speaking of something very different from +that natural day which is regulated by sunrise and sunset. + +The way too in which he introduces the mention of the first and +following days is apparently significant, though its full meaning +is probably more than we can at present understand. In ver. 5 he +carefully defines light and darkness as the equivalents of day and +night; but in the next verse he passes over these words, and +introduces two new ones, which he has not defined; these two words +being as much out of place before the creation of the atmosphere +as light and darkness are supposed to have been before the +Creation of the Sun. And not only does he introduce two new words, +but he introduces them in a very remarkable and, with our present +knowledge, unaccountable manner. Had he said "And there was +morning and there was evening, one day," we should have found no +difficulty in harmonizing; his words with what he had previously +said concerning the evolution of light. But he first of all +reverses the order, and then does not supply the natural +termination to his sentence--"And there was evening and there was +morning,"--"one night" would seem to be the natural conclusion; +but instead of that we read, "there was evening and there was +morning, one day." Whatever farther significance then may be +hereafter discovered in this remarkable statement, one thing at +all events seems clear, that it was designed to call attention to +the fact that the day spoken of was not a natural day. Probably +certain stages in the progress of the work were indicated, which +farther investigations may disclose to us. A few years ago such +stages seemed to be discernible, but the continued progress of +discovery has partly obliterated the supposed lines of +demarcation. Still further discoveries may bring to light other +divisions. + +In the opening of the second chapter we are told that God rested +on the seventh day from all His work, and His rest is spoken of in +such a way as to carry our thoughts at once to the Fourth +Commandment. In that commandment the duty of hallowing a seventh +portion of our time is based on the fact that "in six days the +Lord made heaven and earth, the sea and all that in them is, and +rested the seventh day." But the analogy entirely fails unless the +days of the Creator's work bore the same proportion to the day of +His rest which man's six days of labour bear to his Sabbath. Now +we are expressly told in other parts of Scripture that the Divine +Sabbath is not yet ended (Heb. iii. iv.), and we are led to infer +that it will not end till He that sitteth upon the throne shall +say, "Behold I make all things new." If then the Sabbath of the +Creator is measured by thousands of years--the whole duration of +man upon the earth--it follows that the days of His work must have +been of corresponding length. + +One more indication, so strong that in itself it seems sufficient +to decide the question, is to be found in the 4th verse of the +second chapter. [Footnote: It is not unusual with critics of the +German school to assert that this is an independent account of the +Creation. But the assertion does not appear to have any valid +foundation. The supposed grounds for it are well discussed in the +"Speaker's Commentary," vol. i. p. 23, and in "Aids to Faith," +Essay v., Sections 2, 4, 5. It has already been pointed out that +the supposed variations in order rest entirely on the +translation.] In that verse all that is ascribed to the six days +in the preceding chapter is summed up as the work of a single day. +If then the word is used in a natural sense in the first chapter, +it is clearly used in an extended sense in the second chapter. But +if it had been used in a natural sense in the first chapter, there +would have been no need whatever for its use here. Its place would +have been taken--and most appropriately--by the word [Hebrew +script], a week, with which Moses was familiar (ch. xxix. 28; +Deut. xvi. 10). Its use here would have connected the weekly +division of time with the Creation, and as its presence would have +been thus strongly significant, its absence is a no less +significant indication that the six days spoken of in the +preceding chapter are something very different from six natural +days. + +Three points, therefore, seem to be clear:-- + +1. However the chapter may be interpreted, there are in it +coincidences with ascertained facts so marked that they cannot +possibly be fortuitous. They prove therefore that Moses was in +possession of some accurate information on the subject on which he +was writing. + +As we proceed with our subject we shall come upon many more +indications of this, some of them exceedingly remarkable. It is +therefore by no means improbable that he was acquainted with the +fact, that the work which he was describing was one which had +occupied a long series of ages. + +2. Supposing that Moses was acquainted with all which has now been +discovered by geologists, and that he was desirous of imparting +that knowledge to his readers, the language which he has employed +is the most appropriate that, under the circumstances, he could +have chosen for the purpose. 3. The phenomena exhibited by the +context indicate not only that he had this intention, but that he +also intended that such of his readers as were competent to +entertain the idea, should have sufficient indications to guide +them to his meaning. + +Whatever then may be the real significance of the "days"--a point +which the knowledge at present in our possession seems +insufficient to explain--it seems very clear that something very +different from natural days is intended. And this is a sufficient +answer to the objection which is founded on that interpretation. +That there would be very many points which as yet we are unable +fully to understand, has been already shown to be not only +possible but probable; and among them it appears this question of +the true meaning of the days must be left for the present. When we +come to consider subsequently the great number of points in which +harmony between the narrative and discovered facts is brought out +on investigation, [Footnote: Chap. v.] we may well be content to +leave many points unexplained till our knowledge is greatly +increased. + +SECTION 2. FIRST TRACES OF LIFE. + +The second objection has reference to the relative antiquity of +the various forms of life, of which we find traces in the +successive strata of the rocks. If it be assumed that the apparent +coincidences which have been pointed out between the Mosaic +narrative and the geological records are real, and that the +traditional interpretation is the true one, then we ought to find-- + +1. No traces at all of animal life below the Trias. + +2. No traces of mammalia below the Cretaceous formation. + +But the examination of the rocks leads to a very different result. +Traces of life have been found, probably in the Laurentian, +certainly in the Cambrian rocks. The earliest known fish is the +Pteraspis, which has been discovered in the upper Silurian +formation at Leintwardine, in Shropshire. The first member of the +reptilian order, Archegesaurus, occurs in the coal measures; and +the first traces of a mammalian--two teeth--occur at the junction +of the Lias and Trias. In every case, then, we meet with traces of +life at a period long anterior to that at which we should +naturally expect them. + +In order to ascertain the real weight of this objection we hare to +investigate two points:-- + +1. What are the animals to which the Mosaic Record refers? + +2. What does it really tell us about the creation of those +animals? + +1. It is commonly assumed that all living creatures are +comprehended under the terms used in describing the work of the +fifth and sixth days. But a more careful examination shows that +there is no real ground for this assumption. The first point which +presents itself is the omission of the Hebrew word for fish, +[Hebrew script], in the account of the fifth day--an omission the +more marked, because the word does occur in vv. 26, 28, in which +dominion over all living creatures is granted to man. The two +words which are used in ver. 21 are [Hebrew script] from [Hebrew +script], to stretch out, to extend, and [Hebrew script], from +[Hebrew script], identical with [Hebrew script], to trample with +the feet. The description then points us to animals of great size, +especially length, which trample with the feet. "Great sea- +monsters," Gesenius calls them. These words clearly indicate the +Saurian and allied tribes of reptiles; and when we turn to the +rocks we find the remains of these creatures occurring in great +numbers, precisely at the point which Moses assigns to them. + +Again, in the account of the sixth day, three classes of animals +are mentioned; but we have no means whatever of ascertaining what +kinds of animals were comprehended in these three classes, or +whether they included all the mammalia then known to the Jews; +much less then are we justified in inferring that they comprehend +all mammalia that were then, or ever had been in existence. + +But it may perhaps appear strange, that the account of the +Creation of living beings should be of such limited extent, +embracing only reptiles, birds, and mammals. A little +consideration, however, will remove this apparent strangeness. We +should, perhaps, naturally expect to have some notice of the first +appearance of animal life; but from the circumstances under which +Moses wrote such a notice was simply impossible. The lowest and +simplest form of life with which we are now acquainted is the +Amoeba Princeps, a minute particle of jelly-like substance, called +sarcode--scarcely larger than a small grain of sand--and with no +distinction of organs or limbs. [Footnote: Carpenter, The +Microscope and its Revelations, p. 428.] The oldest known fossil, +Eozoon Canadense, is of a class but little above this--the +foraminifera; we may therefore deem it probable that life began +with some form not very unlike the Amoeba. How could the formation +of such a creature have been described to the contemporaries of +Moses? They could have had no idea of its existence. To describe +the first beginnings of life then, was, under the circumstances, +an absolute impossibility. But if a part only of the long series +of animal life could possibly be noticed, the determination of the +point at which he should first speak of it would be left to the +writer, guided as he would be by considerations of the object for +which, and the persons for whom, he wrote, which we must +necessarily in our position be unable duly to estimate. All that +we are entitled to expect is that the account, so far as it +extends, should be in accordance with facts. + +The next point to be ascertained is, "Does the Mosaic Record +intimate that the creations of reptiles on the fifth, and of +mammals on the sixth days were entirely new creations, i.e. that +no creatures of these classes had existed before?" There is no +direct assertion to this effect; it is only an inference, though a +natural one, when we consider the circumstances under which it was +drawn. When, however, we turn to the original we find the 20th +verse worded in a way which seems designed to avoid the suggestion +of such an inference. Literally translated it is, "Let the waters +swarm swarms, the soul of life." Such creatures then may have +existed before, but not in swarms. And in the account of the sixth +day, as has been already noticed, three forms of mammalia are +specified, and we have no knowledge as to the varieties included +in these three forms. Nor is there here any intimation that it was +the first creation of such animals. The greater part of the +earlier fossils belong to the Marsupialia and Mouotremata, and we +have no reason to believe that these classes have existed in +historic times in Europe, Asia, or Africa. They are now confined +(with the exception of the opossums, which are American) to +Australia. They were therefore entirely unknown to the Jews, and +in consequence necessarily omitted in a document intended for +their use. + +What has been said with reference to reptiles is also applicable +to birds. The first traces of them are found in the ornithichnites +of the new red sandstone, and the first fossil--Archaeopteryx, in +the Solenhofen strata, belonging to the Oolite. From the nature of +the case the remains are necessarily scanty, since birds would be +less exposed than other animals to those casualties which would +lead to their preservation as fossils, but enough traces have been +found to show that in the period corresponding to the fifth day +they were very numerous, and attained in many instances to a +gigantic stature. A height of from ten to twelve feet was not +uncommon. + +When, therefore, we notice that the fifth and sixth days +correspond to two periods, in the first of which reptiles and +birds, and in the second mammalia, were the prominent types, the +words of the sacred historian seem to have an adequate +interpretation in that fact. There is no contradiction between the +two records. Moses describes but a very few of the facts which +geology has brought to light, but those few facts are in exact +accordance with the results of independent observation. The acts +of Creation of which Moses speaks correspond to remarkable +developments of the orders of animals to which he refers. To have +noticed the time of the appearance of the first individual member +of each class, as distinguished from the time when that class +occupied the foremost place in the ranks of creation, would have +been inconsistent with the simplicity and brevity of the +narrative, while it would have been unintelligible to those for +whom the narrative was intended, since these primeval types had +passed out of existence ages before the creation of man. It is, +however, noteworthy, that the first appearances of the several +orders follow precisely the same arrangement as the times of their +greatest development. + +SECTION 3. SIMULTANEOUS CREATION. + +This objection may be very briefly disposed of, though it appears +to be one which has made a very deep impression on Mr. Darwin. +[Footnote: Origin of Species, p 1, &c.] It is entirely an +inference drawn from the old interpretation of the six days. While +that interpretation was received it followed, as a necessary +consequence, that the creation of all kinds of plants on the third +day, and of reptiles, birds, and mammalia on the fifth and sixth +days respectively, must have been simultaneous. But if that +interpretation is proved to be untenable, the inference drawn from +it falls to the ground. The language of the narrative seems to +point in an opposite direction. There is one instance in the +chapter in which the words used seem to point to an instantaneous +result. "And God said 'Let light be' and Light was," though in +this case the words probably have a further significance, which +has been brought out by the discovery of the nature of light. But +in these three cases the command is first recorded, with (in two +cases) the addition "and it was so," and then the narrative goes +on to speak of the fulfilment of the command, as if the command +and its fulfilment were distinct things. + +SECTION 4. DEATH. CARNIVOROUS ANIMALS. + +These two objections may advantageously be considered together, +since the fifth is in a great measure, though not entirely, +dependent upon the fourth. For if death, in the common sense of +the word, was unknown till the fall of Adam, it follows as a +necessary consequence that no carnivorous creatures could have +existed before that time. On the other hand, it may be considered +as the natural death of large classes of animals to be devoured by +the carnivora; so that if there were no carnivorous animals prior +to the Fall, one of the avenues to death, at all events, had not +been opened. + +There is really no ground at all for the first of these objections +in the actual history of Creation. It is only when the threat held +out to Adam (ii. 17) is viewed in the light of St. Paul's comment +upon it (Rom. v. 12; viii. 20) that the supposition can be +entertained. This, then, is the real foundation of the difficulty. + +But, first of all, there is no reason to suppose that St. Paul's +words refer to any death but that of man. Now, it may well have +been, that although man, having a body exactly analogous to those +of the animals, would naturally have been subject, like them, to +the ordinary laws of decay and death, yet in the case of a +creature who possessed so much which raised him above the level of +the lower animals, there may have been some provision made which +should exempt him from this necessity. That this was the case +appears probable from the mention made in the narrative of the +Tree of Life. We have no intimation whether the action of the +fruit of this tree was physical or sacramental, but that, in one +way or other, it had the power to preserve man from physical death +seems almost certain from the way in which it is spoken of after +the Fall (iii. 22-24). But the mention of the Tree of Life leads +to the inference that the case of Adam was entirely exceptional. + +In the next place, it does not seem probable that that dissolution +of the body which was the natural lot of all other animals was the +whole, or even the chief part, of the evil consequence of Adam's +fall. That it was included in the penalty seems probable, but it +only constituted a comparatively unimportant part of that penalty. +The threat was, "In THE DAY that thou eatest thereof thou shalt +surely die," and we cannot doubt that the Divine words were +exactly fulfilled, though Adam's natural death did not take place +for many hundred years. But the guilty creatures, covering their +nakedness with fig-leaves, crouching among the trees of the garden +in the vain hope of hiding themselves from the face of their +Maker, who were to transmit an inheritance of sin and shame and +misery to their yet unborn posterity, were surely very different +beings from those whom the Creator but a short time before had +pronounced "very good." The true life of the soul was gone; the +image of God defaced. This was the real, the terrible death. If +death in its full sense means nothing more than the dissolution of +the body, our Lord's words, "He that liveth and believeth in Me +shall never die," have failed of their fulfilment. That promise +has been in force for more than eighteen centuries, and yet no +case has occurred of a Christian, however holy he may have been, +or however strong his faith, who has escaped the universal doom. +The Church of the Patriarchs could point to an Enoch, the Jewish +Church to an Elijah, who were exempted from the universal penalty; +but Christianity can point to no such exemption, nor does she need +it. To her members, to die is to sleep in Jesus; to be absent from +the body is to be present with the Lord, for the penalty of death +is cancelled. + +Though, then, it seems by no means improbable that Adam, if he had +not fallen, would have been exempt from the dissolution of the +body, yet this is not absolutely certain, and even if it were +certain, his case would be an exceptional one: no inference as to +the immortality of the animal creation could have been drawn from +it. + +The supposition that all animals prior to the fall lived entirely +on vegetable food rests partly on this groundless inference, and +partly on the Divine Words recorded in verse 30: "And to every +beast of the field, and to every fowl of the air, have I given +every green herb for meat." But it is important to notice that +these words are not recorded as addressed to the animals, like the +command to be fruitful and multiply. Had this been the case, any +omission to mention the flesh of other animals, might have been +looked upon as significant. Instead of this they are addressed to +Adam, and they follow other words in which the same things are +assigned to Adam for his food. They come then in the form of a +limitation to the rights granted to Adam, rather than of a +definition of the rights of the lower animals. Adam was to have +the free use of every green herb, but he was not to account +himself the exclusive owner of it. The beast of the field and the +fowl of the air were to be co-proprietors with him; they were to +have the use of it as freely as himself; but that they were to be +restricted to the use of vegetable food nowhere appears. +Accordingly we know that carnivorous creatures have existed from +the first, and that though to a superficial observer this may +appear a cruel arrangement, yet in reality it is a most merciful +provision, by which aged, weak, or maimed animals are preserved +from the agonies of death by starvation. + +We may conclude then that there is no real contradiction between +the conclusions at which Geologists have arrived, and the words +actually made use of by Moses, but that all such supposed +contradictions have arisen from meanings being attached to those +words, which, though possible or even probable, were not the only +possible meanings. When the difficulty has been suggested, and the +words have in consequence been more closely examined, it appears +that they are capable of an interpretation in strict harmony with +every fact which Geologists have as yet discovered, and that in +many cases there are not wanting indications that the writer +intended them to be thus understood. + + + + + +CHAPTER III. + +DIFFICULTIES IN ASTRONOMY. + + +These objections, so far as they are based or supposed to be based +on ascertained facts, are very few and insignificant. The chief of +them are as follows:-- + +1. Moses describes light, and the division of night and day as +existing before the Creation of the Sun. + +2. Moses describes the firmament as a solid vault. + +3. Moses speaks of the stars as created on the fourth day, only +two days before Adam, whereas astronomers have asserted that many +of them are so distant that the light by which we see them must +have been on its way ages before Adam was created. + +That part of the first objection which refers to the existence of +light prior to the creation of the Sun, appears so extremely +childish that it might have been thought unnecessary to notice it, +had it not been solemnly propounded in such a work as "Essays and +Reviews." [Footnote: Page 219] Anyone who is in possession of a +telescope of but moderate power may satisfy himself of its +futility on any starlight night. He has only to turn his telescope +to one or two of the more conspicuous nebulae; the Great Nebula in +Orion, for instance, or the Ring Nebula in Lyra, and his eye will +receive light which has not come from any Sun, for it is a well- +ascertained fact that these nebulae are nothing but vast masses of +incandescent gas. And this objection is singularly inappropriate +in the mouth of the opponents of the Mosaic Record, inasmuch as +the Nebular hypothesis is with them the favourite method of +accounting for the present state of things. The view which they +bring forward as an alternative to the Mosaic account assumes the +very state of things which, when, alleged by Moses, they denounce +as impossible. The other part of this objection, which refers to +the division of day and night, will be more advantageously +discussed when we come to consider the actual accounts of the +first and fourth days' work. It will then appear probable that the +statements which Moses has made on this subject, instead of being +indications of ignorance, are the result of a profound knowledge +of the subject on which he was writing. + +Next, it is alleged that Moses describes the firmament as a solid +vault.[Footnote: Essays and Reviews, p. 220.] "The work of the +second day of creation is to erect the vault of heaven, which is +represented as supporting an ocean of water above it." That the +Greek and Latin translations in this place do seem to imply the +idea of solidity seems indisputable; and from the Latin the word +"firmament" has passed into our own language. But there is no +reason to think that the Hebrew word has any such meaning. It is +derived from a root signifying "to beat out--to extend." +[Footnote: May not this root, [Hebrew script], have some connexion +with [Hebrew script], "to be light," from which is derived the +Aramaic "Raca" of Matt. v. 22?] The verb is often applied to the +beating out of metals, but not always. It is a new doctrine in +etymology, that the meaning of a verbal noun is to be deduced from +the nouns which often supply objects to its root, instead of from +the meaning of the root itself. But even if it can be shown that +the word did originally involve such a meaning, that would be +nothing to the purpose. It would only be in the same case with a +vast number of other words, which, though etymologically untrue, +are habitually used without inconvenience, because they do convey +to the minds of others the idea which we intend to convey, their +etymology being lost sight of. Probably, the very persons who +bring forward the objection do sometimes use the word "firmament," +though they know the error which is involved in it. Nor would they +be any more accurate if they substituted for it the Saxon word +"heaven," since that also involves a scientific inaccuracy. The +word used by Moses was the commonly recognized name for the object +of which he was writing; and no objection to his use of it can be +maintained, unless it can be shown that in using it he rejected +some other word equally intelligible to all, and which was at the +same time etymologically correct. But there is no ground for the +assumption that any such word existed in the time of Moses or at +any subsequent period. + +The third objection, of course, ceases to have any force if the +days of creation are no longer regarded as natural days. But the +objection is in itself, apart from this condition, of no +consequence whatever. For, in the first place, it is by no means +certain, or even probable, that the stars referred to in the +fourth day's work are the fixed stars. The Hebrew has no word for +planets as distinguished from the fixed stars, although, as we +know for certain, the difference between the planets and the fixed +stars was recognized from a very early period. In every case, +then, the context must determine the sense to be given to the +word. In this case, the fact that these stars are mentioned in +connexion with the sun and moon, combined with our knowledge that +the planets, like the moon, are dependent upon the sun for their +light, would lead us to infer that they are meant. + +But even if the fixed stars were meant, the objection would be no +longer tenable. It rests on certain estimates as to the supposed +distances of the fixed stars and star clusters, which were formed +by the late Sir W. Herschel from what he designated the "space- +penetrating power" of his telescopes. Starting with the assumption +that the stars were of tolerably uniform size and brilliancy, and +that the difference in apparent brightness was the result, and +therefore a measure of their distances, he proceeded to apply the +same process to the star clusters, which, even in a fair +telescope, present only the appearance of faint nebulous spots of +light, but are resolved into clusters of stars by more powerful +instruments. In many cases, he found that a certain proportion +existed between the telescopic power by which a cluster was first +rendered visible, and that required for its resolution, and by +this means he formed what he considered a probable estimate of its +distance. Other clusters there were which only became visible in +his most powerful telescopes, and which, therefore, he could never +succeed in resolving. These he placed at a still greater distance, +and from this estimate he deduced the conclusion that their light +must have been in some cases as much as 60,000 years in reaching +the earth. + +But the whole foundation on which this long chain of inference +rested has now been shown to be evanescent. In the first place +many of his irresolvable nebulae have been proved by the +spectroscope to be true nebulae--masses of luminous gas, and not +star clusters at all; and, in the next place, the actual distances +of a few of the fixed stars have been approximately ascertained, +and it is proved beyond all doubt that the different degree of +brightness exhibited by different stars is no test at all of their +distance. Of all the stars in our hemisphere whose distance has +thus been measured, the nearest to us is one which can only just +be discerned by a practised eye on a favourable night, 61 Cygni, +whilst the most brilliant star visible in England, Sirius, is at a +considerably greater distance. The most competent judges estimate +the magnitude of Sirius as about one thousand times that of the +sun [Footnote: Mr. Proctor in Good Words, February, 1872.]. In +addition to this, many stars of very different magnitudes are +found to be related to each other in such a way as to show that +they are in actual, and not merely in optical proximity. The +clusters which were formerly supposed to consist of large stars at +enormous distances from us, are now, upon very solid grounds, +believed to be formed of much smaller stars, at much more moderate +distances, so that it is very improbable that there is any object +visible in the heavens whose light has taken so much as 6000 +years, instead of 60,000 years to reach us. + +THE NEBULAR THEORY. + +We come now to the consideration of the Nebular Theory of Laplace, +in so far as it is opposed to the Mosaic account. It must be +remembered that, after all, this is only a theory. Even if it +could be satisfactorily established, it would only point out a way +in which this world MIGHT have been formed. That it could not have +been formed in any other way is an independent proposition, in +support of which no single argument has ever yet been brought +forward. There may be a greater or less probability that the earth +was formed in this particular way, that probability depending on +the extent to which the theory accounts for observed facts. This +it does in many cases, and it has in consequence been accepted AS +A WHOLE by many scientific men, as a substitute for the Scriptural +account. As will be seen hereafter, there are strong reasons for +admitting it as a supplement to the brief account given by Moses; +but our business now is to ascertain, whether it has any just +claim to be received instead of that account. + +The theory seems to have been suggested by certain speculations of +Sir W. Herschel. In his telescopic examination of the Nebulae and +star clusters, he found that in a great number of cases, when a +nebula was rendered visible by a certain amount of telescopic +power, it would be resolved into separate stars by a telescope of +a little higher power. But there were some nebulae, visible in +very small telescopes, or even discernible with the naked eye, +such as those in Orion and Andromeda, which could not be resolved +even by his great four-foot reflector, the largest telescope that +had then been constructed. And these nebulae exhibited a great +variety of forms. Some of them were vast shapeless masses of faint +light; others, which he designated "planetary" nebulae, exhibited +a regular form--a circular disc more or less clearly defined, +often brightest in the centre. Others seemed to be intermediate +between these two classes. Hence he was led to the idea that these +were worlds in the process of formation, and that their varying +forms indicated varying stages of that process. + +This suggestion was eagerly adopted by the members of the French +Academy, who were at that time on the look-out for anything which +they thought would help them to account for the existence of the +world, while they refused to acknowledge a Creator. It was taken +up by one of their number--Laplace--a man who stood in the very +foremost rank as a mathematician and physical astronomer, and +moulded into shape by him.[Footnote: There is a very full account +of Laplace's hypothesis, extracted from the works of Pontecoulant, +in Professor Nichol's System of the World, pp. 69--86.] + +He assumed, that the Solar System existed at the very earliest +period as a shapeless nebula, a vast undefined mass of "fire- +mist;" that at some time or other the separate particles of this +fire-mist began to move towards their centre of gravity, under the +influence of their mutual attractions, and thus assumed a +spherical shape; that by some means or other a motion of rotation +was originated in this spherical mass, which increased in rapidity +as the process of condensation advanced. The effect of this +rotation would be a flattening of the sphere; the equatorial +diameter would increase while the polar diameter, or axis of +rotation, diminished; and when the centrifugal force thus produced +had reached a certain point, a ring would detach itself from the +equator, but would continue to revolve about the common centre. He +supposed that a succession of rings were thus thrown off, which +finally broke up and accumulated into one or more spherical +masses, forming the planets and their satellites, while the +remainder of the original sphere was condensed into the sun. The +planets and their satellites would continue to revolve about the +centre as the ring from which they were formed had done, while the +different original velocities of the particles of which they were +formed, some having been in the outer, some in the inner part of +the ring, would cause them also to rotate on their axis. As the +condensation advanced, the heat which had originally existed in +the "fire-mist" would be condensed also, so that all the masses +when formed would be in an incandescent state, but the planets and +their satellites being comparatively small would soon cool down, +while the sun, owing to its greatly superior bulk, still retains +its heat. + +There is no doubt much to be said in favour of this theory, which +may be more advantageously considered hereafter, when we shall +have to consider it as supplementary to the Mosaic account. At +present we are only concerned with it as it claims to stand alone, +and to be accepted as a substitute for that account. Viewed in +this light, as a substitute for a Creator, as showing us how the +universe might have come into existence spontaneously, it utterly +breaks down in three points. + +1. It gives us no account whatever of the origin of matter, but +assumes that it was already in existence at the time from which +the theory takes its point of departure. But some account of it +must be given. Either it was created by some higher power, or it +was eternal; for the idea of its being self-originated is +manifestly untenable. If it was created, there is an end of the +theory--the act of creation assumes the existence of a Creator; +and the only question left is, whether that Creator did more or +less. But the very object of the theory was to dispense with the +existence of a Creator. This alternative, then, it must reject, +and there is nothing left but to fall back upon the other, and to +assume that it existed from all eternity. But it is certainly not +less difficult to us to conceive the possibility of inert matter +being self-existent and eternal, than it is to recognize the +existence of an eternal and all-powerful Spirit. Our own +consciousness helps us to realize the possibility of the existence +of an Eternal Mind, and of the exercise of power by that mind; but +we have nothing to help us to a conception of self-existent +matter. + +In addition to this, the idea of eternity precludes from its very +nature the idea of possible change. If there is change there must +be the distinction of before and after, and so of the succession +of existence, which involves the idea of time. That which is +subject to change, and this theory assumes a change in the +condition of matter, cannot be eternal. + +2. The next failing point is, that this theory assumes a change, +of the origin of which it can give no account. The assumption is, +that matter which had existed from all eternity, or for an +indefinite time, in a state of perfect rest, suddenly began to +move towards its centre of gravity. A body, or a system of +particles, can remain at rest only under one of two conditions. +Either it must be acted on by no force at all, or all the forces +by which it is acted on must be in perfect equilibrium. If matter +existed under the first of these conditions, whence did the force +suddenly emanate? Force cannot be self-originated any more than +matter. But if the other alternative be adopted, how was the +equilibrium disturbed? It is a fundamental axiom of mechanics that +"a body (or system of bodies) at rest will continue at rest till +it be acted upon by some external force." But the theory supplies +no such external force, for it could only originate in that which +the theory ignores--the will and power of some intelligent Being. + +3. The third defect is, that the theory does not give any +satisfactory account of the origin of the motions of rotation and +revolution. Laplace does not attempt this. He simply assumes that +a motion of rotation was set up somehow; but many of his +followers, perceiving that the theory broke down here--though they +passed the other two defects unnoticed--have attempted to supply +the deficiency in this point. Some have attempted to account for +this motion by analogy. It has been suggested that it was of the +same nature, and produced by the same causes, as the vortex which +is formed when a vessel full of fluid is emptied through an +orifice in its bottom. Pontecoulant, in his account of the theory, +enters more into detail. He assumes that in the process of +agglomeration large bodies of matter impinged obliquely on the +already formed mass, and so imparted to it a motion of rotation. + +A consideration of the mechanical conditions of the problem will +show the unsoundness of Pontecoulant's views. It is of course +assumed that the forces by which this rotation is said to have +been produced are identical in their character with those with +which we are familiar, for the introduction of any force peculiar +to that time would be equivalent to an admission of a directing +power. The following propositions then seem unquestionable:-- + +1. The nebula must be considered as a system of particles acted on +by their mutual attractions, and by no other force. + +2. When two particles of matter, a and b, attract each other, it +is a fundamental principle of mechanics, (commonly known as the +"Third Law of Motion") that whatever amount of momentum is +produced in a, an equal and opposite momentum must be produced in +b. Hence if the mutual action remain undisturbed, the two +particles will approach each other and finally meet. On their +union, the two momenta being equal and opposite will neutralize +each other, and there will be no tendency to produce motion of any +kind. 3. The same law will hold good with reference to any number +of particles, and therefore with reference to the supposed nebula. +Every single particle will produce a certain momentum in each of +the other particles, and at the same time will have impressed upon +it by each of the other particles an equal and opposite momentum. +Hence when all the particles are collected into a single mass, +each individual momentum will be balanced by an equal and opposite +one, and there can be no resultant motion. + +The analogy from fluids flowing through an orifice fails, because-- + +1. The particles of the fluid are acted on by forces other than +their mutual attractions, and in many cases affecting them +unequally, e. g., friction against the sides of the containing +vessel and the orifice. + +2. Because the orifice is not a point, but a finite area, and +consequently the particles of the fluid are acted on by forces +which do not pass through the same point. + +Considered then as a substitute for the action of an intelligent +Creator, Laplace's theory utterly breaks down in three points, +which, as they will have to be referred to hereafter, it is well +to recapitulate. + +1. It does not account for the origin of matter. + +2. It does not account for the emergence of the force of +attraction. + +3. It does not give a satisfactory account for the motion of +rotation. + + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +DIFFICULTIES IN PHYSIOLOGY. + + +The third science which is supposed to come into collision with +the Mosaic Record is Physiology. Here, however, we meet with no +objections which rest upon ascertained facts, as in the case of +geology. We have only to do with theories. All that can be brought +forward is merely matter of opinion or theory--such theory +resting indeed on a foundation of ascertained facts--but being in +itself a mere inference more or less probable from those facts. +Even if it were proved to be a true account of the causation of +those facts, it would be by no means certain that other facts, +however similar, might not have had a totally different origin. + +At one time it was very confidently asserted, by many eminent +physiologists, that the differences between various branches of +the human race were so great, that it was impossible that all +should have descended from the same original stock. Probably this +opinion is still maintained in some quarters, but of late years +views of a diametrically opposite character have been brought +forward, and very ably advocated. In proportion as these views are +admitted to have in them an element of truth, the importance of +the older objection is diminished. It will therefore be +unnecessary to dwell upon it. This new view is, that not only all +branches of the human race, but all living beings now existing, or +that have ever existed on the face of the earth, are descended by +the process of "evolution," carried on under what are designated +as "natural laws" from some one variety, or small number of +varieties of living creatures of the lowest type. + +This theory, like that of Laplace, had its origin among the French +Academicians, at the close of the last century. Its author was La +Marck. According to his view the simplest form of animal life, the +"monad," was spontaneously developed by some unknown process. From +this monad higher forms of animal life were produced, and the +course of development was continued till it finally culminated in +man. But it does not appear that La Marck suggested any means by +which the various stages of development were brought about, and +the view attracted little attention. Some thirty years ago it was +revived by an anonymous writer, in a work called "Vestiges of +Creation." In this work the idea of spontaneous generation was +repudiated. The original monad was supposed to have derived its +existence from an act of Creative Power, and to have been then +left to work out its own development, by virtue of powers +originally implanted in it. All its variations and advances were +supposed to be the result of the will and efforts of the creature +acting through many generations. Thus the desire and attempt to +walk ended in the development of legs, while wings were the final +result of its efforts to fly. It was felt, however, that this was +by no means a satisfactory account of the state of things, and so +the work, though it produced a great sensation at the time, has +now been almost entirely forgotten. + +Latterly, however, the theory has found a far more able advocate +in the person of Mr. Darwin, with whose name it has been popularly +identified. By his indefatigable labours a vast variety of facts +have been collected and skilfully arranged, to show that all the +varieties of life may be satisfactorily accounted for by the +continued action, through a long course of ages, of certain +natural causes, with the results of which we are familiar, and of +which intentional use is continually made by man. Mr. Darwin does +not deny the existence of a Creator, but the tendency of his +arguments is to prove that His interference was limited to the +single act of original Creation; and that from the moment of its +creation the world has been a sort of automatic machine, producing +its results without any interference from any higher power. + +The theory taken as a whole comes into contact with the Mosaic +Record in three points:-- + +1. As it assumes the possibility that life may be self-originated. + +2. As it indicates a mode of procedure different from that given +by Moses. + +3. As it requires unlimited time. + +Of these the last is already disposed of, when the narrative is +shown to be capable of an interpretation in accordance with it. +The first requires only a brief notice; but the second must be +carefully investigated, to separate ascertained truth from +inferences which have no sufficient foundation. + +The theory of spontaneous generation rests almost entirely upon +assumptions. Its only semblance of support from facts is derived +from certain experiments of a very unsatisfactory character, which +are said to have resulted in the production of some of the lowest +forms of animal life. These experiments have been by no means +uniformly successful. One or two experimenters have thought that +they have succeeded, but not uniformly, while the same process, +repeated by men whose scientific and manipulative powers are +universally recognized, has never once resulted in any seeming +development of life. Even if, however, they had been uniformly +successful, there would have been great reason to doubt whether +the apparent success was not really a failure--a failure in the +precautions necessary to exclude all germs of life from the matter +experimented upon. For the lower forms of life are excessively +minute; and their germs--eggs, seeds, or spores--must be far +smaller. It is known that these are constantly floating in the +atmosphere, though, owing to their extreme minuteness, the fact +can only be ascertained by the most skilful investigation. And the +lower forms of animalcules have a singular tenacity of life; they +can pass unharmed through processes which would be fatal to +creatures of higher organization. One variety is known to survive +entire desiccation; another lives upon strychnine; others bear +without injury great extremes of heat and cold; and if this is the +case with the mature creatures, it is probable that the germ +possesses still stronger powers of vitality. If one acarus can +live upon strychnine, then it is not impossible that mineral acids +should be harmless to others; the germs might be carried through +sulphuric acid in air without coming into contact with the acid, +as air would pass through in bubbles, in the centre of which they +might be suspended; or if like the diatomaceae, they were coated +with silex, they might come into contact with it and resist its +action. Thus one of the precautions commonly taken is not certain +in its action, and the same might be shown to be true of the +others. The theory of spontaneous generation is, in fact, +generally repudiated by Evolutionists, and cannot therefore be +taken as a starting-point. + +We come then to the theory of Evolution with which Mr. Darwin's +name is associated. This theory asserts that all the varieties of +animal life now existing on the earth, however widely they may +differ from each other, are in reality derived from one, or a very +few original types; and that in this general statement the human +race is to be included. This theory rests upon the following +admitted facts. + +1. There are not, as was at one time commonly supposed, broad and +distinct lines of demarcation between the different varieties of +animals and plants. Our increasing knowledge of zoology has +brought to light the fact that one species shades off into another +by almost imperceptible gradations. As we go back in the fossil +records of animal life in the past, we find that the species now +existing, while they are closely allied to correspondent species +of an earlier period, are scarcely ever identical with them, and +that the few cases of identity which do occur, are limited to the +most recent rocks. Either then the old species must have perished, +and new ones, similar but not identical, must have been created to +take their places, or there must have been a process of gradual +change, by which the present species have been derived from their +predecessors. In one or two cases fossils have been found which +combine, to some extent, forms which are now found in distinct +species, as if the process of variation had proceeded in distinct +lines from a common source. + +2. No two animals of any class are exactly alike in all points. +Each has its individual peculiarities, and in some cases these +peculiarities are strongly marked. + +3. Man has been enabled, to a certain extent, to make use of these +individual peculiarities, and by means of them to produce great +varieties in the breeds of domesticated animals. This has been +sometimes done unconsciously through a selection influenced by +other motives, and then the process has been very slow; but +latterly intentionally, with a view to the production of improved +breeds, and whenever this has been the case, changes of +considerable extent have been rapidly produced. By carefully +selecting the animals to be paired, any desired modification can +generally be produced in the course of a few generations. This is +exemplified in the numerous and increasing varieties of the breeds +of almost all domestic animals and birds. + +The theory of Evolution then suggests that the same processes +which are employed by the cattle-breeder have been in operation +through untold ages. For the intention and care of the human +agent, Mr. Darwin substitutes two principles; one designated as +"Natural Selection," the other as "Sexual Selection." For their +full development he claims unlimited time. The ground on which the +Process of Natural Selection is maintained is as follows:-- + +It has been already noticed that no two individuals of the same +kind are exactly alike in all respects; each individual has some +peculiarities, generally very trifling, but sufficient to +distinguish it from all other individuals. Some of these +peculiarities will probably be such as to be of some service to +the individual in the struggle of life; they will assist it in +procuring food, or in resisting or escaping from its natural +enemies, while on the other hand the peculiarities of other +individuals will be prejudicial to them in these ways. The +consequence will be that a larger proportion of those having +favourable peculiarities will survive and propagate their kind; +their offspring will inherit the peculiarities of their parents, +and reproduce them in various degrees. The same process will then +be repeated, and thus from generation to generation the +peculiarity will be increased, till at last it is sufficient to +mark out, first a new variety, then a new species, and so on. This +process then, continued through a long course of ages, was at one +time considered by Mr. Darwin sufficient to account for all the +varieties of living creatures now existing, or that have existed +in past ages. But he has more recently satisfied himself +[Footnote: Descent of Man, vol. i p. 152.] that there are many +phenomena which are not satisfactorily accounted for by this +principle, since many of the specific differences of animals are +found to exist in matters which, cannot directly promote their +success in the struggle of life. Such, for instance, are the +brilliant colours which are found, especially among the males, in +many species of birds. These he proposes to explain by the +supplementary theory of "Sexual Selection." His suggestion is that +these peculiarities are in some way attractive to animals of the +opposite sex, so that the individuals in which they are most +strongly developed are more successful than others in obtaining +mates, and that in this way the peculiarity is gradually fixed and +increased. + +By these two processes, then, Mr. Darwin supposes that all the +differences now existing among animals have been produced and +perpetuated; and not only that, but that man also is the result of +similar processes, acting through a very long period; that the +progeny of certain "anthropomorphous apes" have, by slow degrees, +risen in the scale of being above their progenitors; that all our +faculties, intellectual and moral as well as physical, differ from +those possessed by lower animals in DEGREE only, and not in KIND, +[Footnote: Descent of Man, chaps, ii.-v.] so that man has arrived +at his present state by what may be termed purely natural +processes, without the intervention of any external power. + +In considering these theories, our attention must first be +directed to some defects which appear to weaken the whole course +of the argument; and then we may consider the peculiar +difficulties in the way of the processes of natural and sexual +selection; and the grounds for the belief that man is in +possession of something entirely different in KIND from any +faculty or power possessed by any lower animals, which could not +therefore be derived by inheritance and improvement. + +The first thing which strikes us in Mr. Darwin's works is that, +from time to time, he betrays a sort of latent consciousness that +his theory is insufficient; that the processes to which he +ascribes such vast results are not quite adequate to the purpose, +but that they need in some way to be supplemented. Every now and +then recourse is had to some law--some unknown cause--which must +co-operate in the production of the results he is considering. In +spite of the apparent care which he has taken to guard against it, +he is continually betrayed into a confusion between the two senses +in which the word "law" is employed. In its proper significance, +law is an expression of the will of an intelligent superior, +enforced by adequate power. In this sense the law may be +considered as an efficient cause. The combination of will and +power is an adequate cause for any result whatever. But Mr. Darwin +expressly excludes this sense of the word, in a sentence which +seems to involve a self-contradiction. "I mean by nature only the +aggregate action and product of many natural laws, and by law only +the ascertained sequence of events." [Footnote: Plants and Animals +under Domestication, vol. i. p. 6.] Law, in this sense, then, is +simply the statement of observed facts, and as such can have no +action at all. It asserts that certain phenomena do uniformly +follow each other in an ascertained order; but it gives us no +information whatever as to the cause of those events, or the +reason why they do thus succeed each other. But, taking law in +this last sense, by his own definition, Mr. Darwin does, +nevertheless, continually bring forward certain "laws" as +accounting for certain results. Thus, we have the laws of +"Correlation of Growth," [Footnote: Origin of Species, ed. 1872, +p. 114.] "Inheritance limited to Males," [Footnote: Descent of +Man, vol. i. pp. 256, 257.] and a "Principle of Compensation." +[Footnote: Origin of Species, p. 117.] When Mr. Darwin, therefore, +brings forward these laws as efficient causes, he not only tacitly +admits the inadequacy of his theory to account for the phenomena +in question, but he also endeavours to supply the defect by +another cause, which, by his own definition, is no cause at all. +And further, Mr. Darwin calls in the action of "unknown agencies." +[Footnote: Descent of Man, vol. i. p. 154.] + +But it may be said, "Is not this the case with all sciences, at +least in their earlier stages? Are there not frequently, or +always, many phenomena which at first seem inexplicable, but which +are gradually accounted for as knowledge increases? If, then, this +is no objection in scientific pursuits generally, why should it be +so here?" This reasoning would be perfectly valid if Darwinism +were regarded simply as a scientific investigation. But it is +under consideration now on very different rounds. Whatever Mr. +Darwin's own views may be, the theory is brought forward by +others, not as a mere interesting speculation, but as antagonistic +to a record whose authority is attested by evidence of the very +highest class. It claims to discredit that record, and to be +received as a substitute for it. But that record, however it may +be interpreted, does give us adequate causes for all that it +professes to account for, in the will and operation of an Almighty +Creator. The theory, therefore, which professes to supplant it, +must at least stand upon an equal ground--it must give an +adequate account of everything. There must be no unverified laws. +To fall back upon such laws is in reality to fall back on the +working of that very power whose operation is formally denied. +[Footnote: See Foster's Essays, Essay i. Letter 5.] + +The next point to be noticed is a great confusion between +assumptions and proved facts. This is especially prominent in that +part of his last work which is devoted to sexual selection. Thus, +in one case it is taken for granted, that various characteristics +of the males "serve only to allure or excite the female." +[Footnote: Descent of Man, vol. i. p. 258.] "Hence" (because +brilliant colours of insects have probably not been acquired FOR +THE PURPOSE of protection), "I am led to suppose that the females +generally prefer, or are most excited by the more brilliant +males." [Footnote: Ibid. p. 399.] "Nevertheless, when we see many +males pursuing the same female, we can hardly believe that the +pairing is left to blind chance; that the female exerts no choice, +and is not influenced by the gorgeous colours, or other ornaments +with which the male alone is decorated" [Footnote: Descent of Man, +vol. i p. 421.] Such sentences are of continual occurrence, and do +duty in the argument as if they expressed ascertained facts. And +not only this, but in the very part of the work which is devoted +to establishing the adequacy of sexual selection to produce +certain effects, that adequacy is assumed from the very beginning. +Thus, we read, "That these characters are the result of sexual +selection is clear," [Footnote: Ibid. p. 258.] before we have got +six pages into an argument which occupies a volume and a half. +This is surely a strong instance of what is commonly called +"begging the question." Another instance of confusion of ideas is +to be found in the assumption of design which occasionally occurs. +Thus, we read, "In some other remarkable cases beauty has been +gained for the sake of protection, through the imitation of other +beautiful species." [Footnote: Ibid. p. 393.] "From these +considerations Mr. Bates inferred, that the butterflies which +imitate the protected species, had acquired their present +marvellously deceptive appearance through variation and natural +selection, in order to be mistaken for the protected kinds." +[Footnote: Descent of Man, vol. i. p. 411.] In these cases there +is an assumption of purpose and design, which, necessarily implies +a designer, just as law, treated as an efficient cause, implies a +law-giver. It may indeed be that this is only an inaccurate way of +expressing something else; but then, such modes of expression are +usually the result of a want of clear perception of the ideas to +be expressed; and, in this case, such expressions must diminish +the weight to be assigned to Mr. Darwin's judgment. + +We come now to the consideration of the first of Mr. Darwin's +supposed agencies--"Natural Selection," or, "Survival of the +fittest." The results produced by this process must be ascribed to +one of two causes: either they are the work of a Superintending +Providence, watching over and directing every separate detail; or +they are the result of pure chance and accident. There is nothing +intermediate between these two causes. Natural law--apart from +design and a designer--is, as we have seen, a nonentity--a mere +expression of observed facts, for which it can give no account +whatever. Mr. Darwin's argument is expressly directed to exclude +the interference of a superintending Providence. Chance is the +only cause which he can bring forward. The very first question, +then, which arises is, What is there upon which chance may +operate? What are the conditions from which the probabilities may +be calculated? Mr. Darwin assumes, and no doubt correctly, that +minute variations are continually taking place. But as these +variations are the result of accident [Footnote: If they are not +the result of accident, we again see design and need a designer.] +they will take place in various directions; some of them will have +a beneficial, some of them a noxious tendency. As, moreover, they +are supposed to be very small at each step, the difference of +advantage in the case of different individuals must be also very +small, and will not be likely to produce any considerable +difference in the chances of pairing. But in order that any +variation may be perpetuated and increased, the pairing of +similarly affected individuals is necessary. Parents, in which the +variations took opposite directions, would probably have offspring +of the normal type, the opposite variations neutralizing each +other. And this must be repeated again and again; and with every +repetition of the process required, the probabilities against it +would rapidly increase. Thus, supposing that in the first +generation the proportion of favourable conditions were such, that +of those animals that paired there were four of each sex that had +them to three that wanted them, the chances that any given pair +were alike in possessing them would be represented by the product +4/7 x 4/7, or 16/49. Hence, the chances would be rather more than +two to one against it. In the next generation it would be +256/2401, or more than eight to one, and so on. [Footnote: This is +given merely as an illustration of the nature of the calculation. +In any actual case the conditions would be infinitely more +complex, but the calculation, if it could be made at all, must be +made on this principle.] + +But next, we have not to do with one series of changes only, but +with a vast number of different series going on in different +directions, if we are to have a large variety of animals produced +from a common stock. All the probabilities against the separate +variations must be combined, not by addition, but by +multiplication, so that the probabilities against the production +of all these separate forms become enormous. + +Against all this improbability Mr. Darwin brings forward the +supposed advantages which these variations give to their +possessors. But here again a new element is introduced into the +calculation. It is assumed, in the very statement of the question, +that the process of adaptation has already taken place; the +original stock must have been adapted to the circumstances under +which they existed, or in their case the whole theory fails. If, +then, a fresh adaptation is wanted, it must be because a change in +external circumstances must have taken place. In order that a new +variety may be established there must be a concurrence between the +change of external circumstances and the change in the animals. +Here we get a new, and a large factor for our multiplication. + +This argument may be, perhaps, made clearer by an illustration. +Mr. Darwin has written a very interesting book on the +fertilization of orchids by means of insects. According to his +view all insects are descended from one common type, and all +orchids are also descended from one parent; but we meet with +insects and orchids in pairs, each perfectly adapted to the other. +We will suppose that a change takes place in a particular orchid, +that the nectary recedes to a greater distance from the point to +which the insect can penetrate, and so an advantage is given to +those insects in which the haustellum is of a length above the +average. This may have a slight tendency to increase the number of +such insects; but then it will have an opposite tendency in the +case of the orchid. It cannot, of course, be supposed that the +variation, which is only partial in the insect, is universal in +the plant. The unchanged insects will therefore be confined to the +unchanged flowers, while the changed insects will be indifferent +on the subject, as they will be able to reach the nectary in any +case. Hence, an advantage will be given to the unchanged flower, +which will be more likely to be fertilized, and the two lines of +variation will move in opposite directions. + +But next, the variation in the insects and the flowers must take +place at the same time and the same place, or no result will +follow to the insect, while the new variety of orchid must perish +for want of an insect to fertilize it. It is this which makes the +supposition of unlimited time almost useless, because just in +proportion as the time is increased the probability of two +independent events happening simultaneously is diminished. + +But even supposing this difficulty out of the way, we meet with an +immediate repetition of it. The insect derives an advantage from +its increased haustellum, but what advantage does the plant derive +from its retiring nectary? How does that help it in the "struggle +of life?" But if it produces no beneficial result, the variation +according to the theory must drop. Hence we should arrive at an +insect suited for a new form of the flower, but no flower suited +to the new form of the insect. + +If, then, we reject the idea of superintendence and design, we +have on the one hand an enormous antecedent improbability, while +on the other hand we have only a very small power by which a +direction may be given to the course of events, since by the +hypothesis in any one generation the change, and consequently the +superior advantage, is exceedingly small, and there is a strong +tendency in related changes, as in the case of the orchid and +insect, to move in opposite directions. + +But next, in the varieties of animals with which we are +acquainted, there is a certain connexion between the differences +of independent organs, for which this theory does not help us to +account. Thus, for instance, according to this theory the canine +and the feline races are descended from a common ancestor. But +there are several points of difference between a cat and a dog. +There are the differences in the form of jaws, in the dentition; +in the muscles by which the jaws are moved, and in the feet and +claws. All animals of the cat tribe agree in all these respects, +so do all animals of the dog tribe. We never find a cat's head +combined with the feet of a dog. Why is this? Mr. Darwin attempts +to account for it by his supposed law of "correlation of growth," +but, as has been already shown, any such law, being by Mr. +Darwin's definition the observed sequence of events and nothing +more, is utterly useless, when it is brought forward as a cause +for those events. On this point the theory completely breaks down. + +3. The theory does not account for any changes which are not +immediately beneficial. [Footnote: In the "Origin of Species" (Ed. +1872) Mr. Darwin makes an admission which is virtually a giving-up +of his whole theory. He says, "In many other cases modifications +are probably the direct result of the laws of variation or of +growth, independently of any good having been thus gained; but +even such structures have often, as we may feel assured, been +subsequently taken advantage of," pp. 165, 166. Here, then, we +have a preparation for future circumstances, which surely implies +design.] If any rudimentary advance is made in the organism, if, +for instance, the rudiments of a new bone, or joint, or organ of +sense are developed, the nascent organ must, according to the +hypothesis of minute changes, be useless in the first instance. +Hence it would confer no advantage in the struggle of life; there +would be no tendency towards its preservation and growth. This +becomes a very important consideration, when certain important +differences in animal structure and habits are to be accounted +for. How, for instance, could the mammary glands be developed in +oviparous creatures? Mr. Darwin regards them as originating in +cutaneous glands, developed in the pouch of the marsupials. But +his grounds for this statement are very meagre. To a great extent +they rest on what an American Naturalist "believes he has seen;" +and besides, the ornithorhyncus, which has no pouch, and which is +lower in the scale of life than the marsupials, by Mr. Darwin's +own admission (O. S., p. 190), possesses the glands. Mr. Mivart's +question (Darwin, O. S., p. 189) is a very pertinent one. + +Another point which this view fails to explain, is the +determination of the line of development in particular directions +at different periods. At one time it is most marked in fishes, at +another in reptiles, at another in mammals. How is this to be +accounted for? + +4. The experience of cattle-breeders does not warrant the +assumption that the principle of natural selection has more than a +limited operation. No case has as yet been brought forward in +which varieties have been produced which were not capable of +interbreeding. Apart from their experience there is not a particle +of evidence in favour of the assertion that races which cannot be +made to breed together can be descended from a common stock. The +unlimited application of this principle is therefore a pure +assumption. + +5. To this must be added the circumstance that no authenticated +instance of variation by natural selection can be brought forward. +It is true that this is not a very important argument, because our +knowledge of those classes of animals in which natural selection +could act is even now very incomplete; and our knowledge of their +past history is still more limited, so that we are not in a +condition to prove a negative. But in such a case as this the onus +of proof should surely lie on the other side. It is for those who +would assert the theory to bring forward positive proof of it. +There is, however, one point in Mr. Darwin's view of domesticated +animals which tells against his theory. The cat remains unchanged, +because from its vagrant habits man has no control over its +pairing [Footnote: Darwin's "Animals and Plants," vol. ii. p. +236.]. Now considering the variety of conditions under which cats +exist, here is surely a great opening for natural selection. But +it has produced no results. + +We come now to the theory of Sexual Selection, which is to account +for those peculiarities and distinctions which can have no +beneficial effect in the struggle of life, and which are accounted +for on the supposition that they render their possessors more +agreeable to the opposite sex, and so facilitate pairing, so that +those animals which possess them in a remarkable degree would have +the greatest chance of continuing their race. The case on which +Mr. Darwin mainly rests his argument is that of birds, in which +the males are frequently distinguished by exquisite colours and +very graceful markings, and in which also the proceedings of the +sexes can, in many cases, be more easily watched. + +It is in maintaining this theory that Mr. Darwin has such frequent +recourse to what may be called the "argumentum ad ignorantiam." +"If such and such organs or ornaments were not designed for this +or that particular object, then we do not know of what use they +are." [Footnote: For instance, Descent of Man, vol. ii. pp. 284. +399.] This maybe very true, but it proves nothing, unless we +assume that we are or ought to be acquainted with, the use and +object of everything in nature. And it involves another and a very +wide question. There are certain tastes which seem to be inherent +in our nature, and there are certain external objects which afford +gratification to those tastes. Must we view this coincidence as +merely accidental? or is it a part of the design of the world that +it should minister not only to our needs, but also to our +enjoyments? Mr. Darwin does not reject the idea of an Author and +Designer of Nature, is he then prepared to assert that beauty did +not form a part of the design as well as utility? [Footnote: In +the "Origin of Species," p 159, Mr. Darwin does seem to assert +this; but he says in conclusion, "How the sense of beauty in its +simplest form--that is, the reception of a peculiar kind of +pleasure from certain colours, forms, and sounds--was first +developed in the mind of man and of the lower animals is a very +obscure subject," p. 162. To Mr. Darwin, with his present views, +it may well be obscure; but it presents no obscurity at all to +those who believe that the universe in all its details was +designed, and its formation superintended, by a loving Father, +whose will was that it should not only supply the needs, but also +minister to the enjoyment of all His creatures, nor to those who +in every form of beauty, physical, intellectual, or moral, behold +a far-off reflexion of the glory of the Invisible Creator.] If he +is not prepared to assert this, he must admit the possibility that +many things exist whose sole object is to minister to that sense +of beauty which is probably possessed by other beings besides +ourselves. + +Mr. Darwin admits that many other causes, beside the supposed +preference on the part of one sex for certain material adornments +possessed by the other, influence the pairing of animals. In a +very large number of cases the female is quite passive in the +matter. The question is decided by a battle between the males, and +the female seems, as a matter of course, to become the mate of the +conqueror. In many other cases pairing seems to be the result of +accident; the two sexes pair as they happen to meet each other. +The great points on which Mr. Darwin rests his argument are that +in some cases, on the approach of breeding-time, certain +ornamental appendages become more highly developed or more +brilliantly coloured, [Footnote: Descent of Man, vol. ii. p. 80.] +and that in many cases the males, when courting the females, are +observed to display their ornaments before them. [Footnote: Ibid. +vol. ii. p. 86, et seq.] but then there are other facts, which Mr. +Darwin. also notices, which detract more than he seems willing to +allow, from the relevancy of these facts. The development of +ornaments at breeding-time sometimes takes place in both sexes, +indicating some latent connexion with the reproductive organs; +thus the comb of the domestic hen becomes a bright red, as well as +that of the cock. It would appear then that the object of the +change is not to render the cock more attractive to the hens, for +how could it serve the hens (if the choice lies with them) to be +made more attractive to the cocks? Then again an old hen who is +past laying, often assumes, to a considerable extent, the plumage +of the cock. When these ornaments are the exclusive possession of +the male, they are often displayed for other purposes than the +gratification of the female. The possessors seem to be conscious +of their beauty, and to take a pleasure in displaying it to any +spectators. + +Very great beauty and brilliancy of colour is often found in cases +in which it can have nothing whatever to do with the relation +between the sexes. Thus, a vast number of caterpillars are +remarkable for their beauty; but in their immature state it can +have no relation to sexual selection; and if it may, or rather +must, have a different object in one case, what ground have we for +assuming that it may not have a different object in the other? + +Again, we are not in a position to form any opinion as to the +causes which really influence the pairing of animals when choice +is exercised. We have no certain knowledge upon the important +question whether the ideal of beauty, if possessed by the lower +animals at all, is in all, or even in many cases, in accordance +with our own. We, for instance, admire a male humming-bird; what +certainty have we that he is equally beautiful in the eyes of his +mate? In cases where we have reason to believe that deliberate +selection has taken place, we do not know that that selection was +influenced by only one condition--that of beauty. There may have +been a thousand causes at work of which we know nothing. Mr. +Darwin brings forward an instance in which the owner of a number +of peahens wished them to breed with a peacock of a particular +variety, while they showed a deliberate preference for another +bird; and he supposes that their preference was decided by the +plumage. But there might have been another cause--at least the +circumstances as related by him seem to suggest it--which would +give a very different turn to the affair. The favoured peacock, +spoken of as "old," [Footnote: Descent of Man, vol. ii. p. 119.] +was probably an old friend of the hens, while his unsuccessful +rival seems to have been a new introduction. The preference shown +by the hens would in this case be fully accounted for, without +supposing them to have exhibited any choice in the matter of +plumage. + +Then there are a vast number of peculiarities which are certainly +not ornamental in our eyes, but which are confined to the male +sex. They are, so far as we can tell, of no service whatever in +the struggle of life. With reference to these Mr. Darwin's +argument seems to be this,--"They can serve no other purpose with +which we are acquainted, therefore they must be attractive to the +female--therefore they must be acquired by sexual selection." Such +arguments as these cannot carry much weight. [Footnote: Descent of +Man, vol ii p 284.] + +On the whole, we can hardly come to any other conclusion than that +the theory of sexual selection is not proved. In many cases it is +known that such selection is not the result of choice; in other +cases, where choice seems probable, we have no ground for +believing that external appearance is the sole ground of that +choice. It may exercise some influence, but that is all. Even if +admitted, there are many things which cannot be accounted for by +it without very extravagant assumptions. It cannot then be +admitted as covering the large classes of phenomena left +unaccounted for by the theory of natural selection. + +So far as the lower animals are concerned, the results to which an +examination of Mr. Darwin's views has led us may be summed up in +the following propositions:-- + +1. That the two causes, natural and sexual selection, have +probably exercised some influence in the modification of animal +forms; but that the laws of probability preclude our entertaining +the belief that these causes can have had, by themselves, and +apart from a superintending power, anything beyond a very limited +operation. + +2. That in cases where there have been related changes in +different parts of the same organism, or in different organisms, +the inadequacy of these two causes is virtually admitted by the +introduction of certain supposed laws; and that these laws, being +defined by Mr. Darwin to be no more than "the ascertained sequence +of events," cannot be regarded as efficient causes, and so cannot +supply the defect. + +3. That there are particular points in the chain of life, in which +the transition from one form to another is so great, and so +incapable of graduation, that it is impossible to suppose that +these two causes can have been adequate to produce it. Of this a +notable instance is to be found in the transition from oviparous +animals to the mammalia. + +We come now to the consideration of the origin of man, which Mr. +Darwin, in his last work, ascribes also to natural and sexual +selection. His view is, that man is descended from some family of +anthropomorphous apes, and that all those enormous differences +which, as he admits, exist between the highest ape and the most +degraded member of the human race, are differences of degree only, +and not of kind; that all our intellectual wealth, and all our +moral laws, are simply the development of faculties and ideas +which were possessed in a ruder form by the creatures from whom +man is descended. + +So far as man's physical constitution is concerned, there is +undoubtedly something to be said in favour of this view. For man's +bodily frame is composed of the same elements, and moulded upon +the same general plan as that of the higher apes, and, what is +still more remarkable, it retains, in a rudimentary form, certain +muscles and organs which are fully developed and answer important +purposes in many of the quadrumana. Of these the tail is a +remarkable instance. But when the differences between the physical +peculiarities of man, and those of his supposed progenitors are +examined, the theory of natural selection collapses entirely, for +the development has taken the form which would be most +disadvantageous in the struggle of life. This is very clearly put +by the Duke of Argyll.[Footnote: "Recent Speculations on Primeval +Man," in Good Words, April, 1868.] + +"The unclothed and unprotected condition of the human body, its +comparative slowness of foot; the absence of teeth adapted for +prehension or for defence; the same want of power for similar +purposes in the hands and fingers; the bluntness of the sense of +smell, so as to render it useless for the detection of prey which +is concealed;--all these are features which stand in fixed and +harmonious relation to the mental powers of man. But, apart from +these, they would place him at an immense disadvantage in the +struggle for existence. This, therefore, is not the direction in +which the blind forces of selection could ever work .... Man must +have had human proportions of mind before he could afford to lose +bestial proportions of body." + +But it is in the intellectual and spiritual part of man's nature +that the greatest difficulty in the way of the application of +these theories arises. The strongest argument of all against them +is one which is incapable of proof, since it arises not from facts +around us, but from our own self-consciousness--our realization of +our own powers--and so, to each individual man it must vary in +apparent strength, in proportion as he realizes what he is, and +what it is in his power to become. The very outcry that has been +raised against Mr. Darwin's proposition is a proof of this. The +theory of the descent of man, as he propounds it, was felt to be +an outrage upon the universal instincts of humanity. But, because +this objection rests upon such a foundation, it is incapable of +being duly weighed and investigated as an argument, and we proceed +therefore to such considerations as are within our reach. + +First of all it is desirable to dispose of one of the stock +arguments in favour of the theory. That argument is, that the +difference between the lowest type of savage and the highest type +of civilized man--between a Fuegian or an Australian on the one +hand, and a Newton, a Shakspeare, or a Humboldt, on the other,--is +quite as great as that between the higher forms of ape and the +lowest forms of humanity. But in this argument there is a fatal +confusion of ideas. The capacity for acquisition is confounded +with the opportunity for acquisition. That the savage is in +possession of but very few ideas does not prove that he is +incapable of more; it may equally well arise from the fact that he +had had no opportunity of acquiring more. The only way to test the +question is by putting a savagoe from his earliest infancy, under +the same favourable circumstances as the child of civilisation. +Whenever this experiment has been tried, and our missionaries have +had many opportunities of trying it, the difference has either not +appeared at all, or has proved to be very trifling. Mr. Darwin +himself seems to have been very much surprised at what he saw in +some natives of Terra del Fuego, who were for a time his +companions on board the "Beagle." "The Fuegians rank amongst the +lowest barbarians, but I was continually struck with surprise how +closely the three natives on board H.M.S. 'Beagle,' who had lived +some years in England, and could talk a little English, resembled +us in disposition, and in most of our mental faculties." +[Footnote: Descent of Man, vol. i. p 34] And these Fuegians had +not been educated from their infancy, they had only come to +England later in life, and were thus under an incalculable +disadvantage. Had they been heirs to such an intellectual +inheritance as fell to the lot of Mr. Darwin, there is nothing +extravagant in the supposition that they might have proved +themselves equal to him in the ability to make use of it. The +comparison then proves to be quite illusory; but it draws our +attention to a fact which is of very high importance in our +investigation of the difference between man and all other animals. +Man alone seems to be capable of laying up what may be termed an +external store of intellectual wealth. Other animals in the state +of nature make, so far as we know, no intellectual advances. The +bee constructs its cell, the bird builds its nest precisely as its +progenitors did in the earliest dawn of history. There is a +possibility that some advance, though a very small one, may be +made by animals brought under the control of man. It is said, for +instance, that a young pointer dog will sometimes point at game +without any training. But in this case the acquired knowledge is +congenital, and is therefore to be regarded as a development +brought about by superintended selection. But with man none of the +acquired knowledge is innate. It is a treasure entirely external +to himself until he has appropriated it by study of some kind or +other. There is no reason to believe that any advance in +intellectual power has been made by man, in his collective +capacity, since his first appearance on earth. Various individuals +have varying powers, but these differences are no result of +development, since they may often be found among members of the +same family, who have been subjected to the same discipline, and +enjoyed the same educational advantages. It follows that the gulf +between the ape and the lowest type of humanity is almost if not +quite as great as between the ape and the highest type. The savage +does not in any way help to bridge over that gulf. + +But it is said that the moral and intellectual faculties which man +possesses, and which he looks upon as the great badge of his +superiority, are in truth only different in degree and not in kind +from those possessed by the lower animals. But the grounds on +which this assertion is based are wonderful in their tenuity. Dogs +are possessed of self-consciousness because they sometimes emit +sounds in their sleep from which it is concluded that they dream. +[Footnote: Descent of Man, vol. i. p. 62.] "Can we feel sure that +an old dog, with an excellent memory, and some power of +imagination, as shown by his dreams, never reflects on his past +pleasures in the chace? And this would be a form of self- +consciousness." Our duty to our neighbour is entirely the result +of "social instinct," [Footnote: Descent of Man, vol. i. pp. 70- +106.] and our duty to our God the development of a belief which +has its origin in dreams. [Footnote: Ibid, p. 66.] + +It is impossible for us satisfactorily to meet these assertions +with a direct negative, [Footnote: There are some who think that +this statement may be directly refuted. Their views will be found +in the QUARTERLY REVEIW, July, 1871.] for this simple reason, that +we have no means whatever of knowing what ideas are present in the +minds of the lower animals, or even what communications pass +between them. For anything we can tell to the contrary, the bark +of a dog may be as articulate to his fellow-dogs as our speech is +to our fellow-men, while on the other hand to the dog our speech +may be as inarticulate as his bark is to us. But our total +ignorance of the mental state of animals which have been the +companions of man from the very earliest ages, our utter inability +to hold any conversation with them, is in itself a proof of the +wide gulf that separates them from us. Put two men of the most +widely separated races on a desert isle together, and a very +little time will elapse before they are able to hold some +communication with each other. If then the difference between man +and the lower animals were a difference of the same kind as that +between the civilized man and the savage, though greater in +degree, surely in so many thousand years something might have been +done to open a way for intellectual communication; some +development of the faculties of the lower creatures would have +been perceived, some means of interchanging ideas would have been +discovered. If Mr. Darwin had had for his companions on board the +"Beagle," instead of three Fuegians, as many Gorillas or +Chimpanzees, would he, at the end of the voyage, have been able to +report any approximation, at all to European mental +characteristics, or even to those of the lowest savage? But if the +difference be only one of degree, some approximation ought to have +taken place. + +As then we can have no direct knowledge of the moral and +intellectual powers of animals, we can only judge of them from +their actions, and other external signs. One great mark of +difference has already been noticed. Man has, other animals have +not, the power of laying up an external treasure of intellectual +acquirements. Then there are certain arts which seem to be +indispensable to man in his lowest state--no savage is so low that +he is utterly destitute of them--no animal makes any pretence to +them. Such are the designing, construction, and use of tools. Mr. +Darwin asserts that in certain cases--very rare ones--apes have +been known to use stones to break open nuts; but the mere use of a +stone is a very different thing from the conception and deliberate +formation of a tool, however rude. Then there is the kindling of +fire, and the use of it for the purpose of cooking; and lastly, +the preparation and the wearing of clothes. The tools or the +clothes may be of the rudest kind, the tools may be formed from a +flint, and the clothes from bark or skin, but in the preparation +of each there are signs of intellectual power, of which we find no +indications whatever in the lower animals. + +Another important difference between man and all other animals +lies in the fact, that whatever an animal does it does perfectly +from the first, but it makes no improvements. A bird's first nest +is perfect. With man the case is the reverse, it is only by many +trials, many failures, that he attains to skill in any operation, +but then he goes forward. Arts improve from generation to +generation. This seems to show that the faculties of man differ +from those of animals in kind, and not in degree only. + +The question also arises, if man has been produced from an +anthropomorphous ape by a process of natural development, how is +it that the same process has not gone on in other lines? The dog, +the horse, and the elephant are at least equal in intelligence and +sagacity to the highest known apes. Such a development from them +cannot have proceeded through the line of the apes. If these +different orders are at all connected it must be through some +remote common ancestor. Why then has this development come to an +abrupt termination in some cases and not in all? It may indeed be +said that the dog and the horse are indebted for their +intelligence to the inherited results of long intercourse with +man, but this cannot be the case with the elephant, which is never +known to breed in captivity. Nor is there any reason to believe +that the present intelligence of the elephant is recently +developed. Why then has it been arrested in its course? + +Whether or not we assume the theory of development to be wholly or +partially correct in reference to the lower animals, we must admit +that it is true of man, but in a sense totally different from that +which Mr. Darwin suggests. The development of which he is the +advocate is a development of race, in which the advance made by +each individual generation is exceedingly small, while the +difference in remote generations, the accumulated advance of +successive generations, is great. In man, on the contrary, there +is no reason whatever to believe that there has been any advance +at all in the race from the very earliest periods--that either in +physical power or intellectual ability the present generation of +men, taken as a whole, are in any way superior to their most +remote ancestors. The development of which man is especially +capable is the development of the individual, that development +being not physical, but intellectual and moral, and being in a +great degree dependent on the will and perseverance of the +individual, and very little on external circumstances. The result +of these individual developments has been the accumulation of a +vast fund of wealth, useful arts, sciences, literature, which form +the common possession of the whole race, but do not necessarily +imply the slightest advance in any particular individual--that +advance being dependent, not on the possession of those treasures, +but on the use made of them. In the case of man then development +does certainly exist, but it takes a line totally distinct from +that which Mr. Darwin advocates, and thus forms another broad line +of demarcation between man and the most advanced of the lower +animals. + +It appears then that the faculties of man differ generically from +those of the animals. A new order of things seems to have +commenced with the appearance of man on the earth--an order in +which the highest place was to be maintained by intellectual +instead of physical power. No mere process of evolution then will +account for man's origin. His physical nature may have been formed +in that way; but we cannot believe that his intellectual and moral +nature were developed from any lower creatures. Only some special +Creative interference can account for his existence. + +So far then as it tends to negative the continued operation of the +Creator, the theory of evolution is untenable. Like that of +Laplace, it fails to give an adequate cause for existing +phenomena. But it seems probable, as will be seen in the next +chapter, that both theories have in them much of truth. They +cannot point out the cause of the universe, but they may give us a +more or less accurate view of the manner in which that cause +operated. The facts brought forward by geologists have been shown +not to be incompatible with interpretations which the Mosaic +Record readily admits, though they conflict with existing notions +upon certain points. In no one then of the three sciences which +have been supposed to be specially antagonistic to that record, is +there anything to be found which can be maintained as a reasonable +ground for doubting that that record is, what it has always been +held to be by the Church, a direct Revelation from the Creator. + + + + + +CHAPTER V. + +SCIENCE A HELP TO INTERPRETATION. + + +It is now clear that there is nothing in the Mosaic Record itself, +which is contradicted by any scientific discovery, and that all +the alleged difficulties arise either from interpretations +prematurely adopted, or from theories which, when carefully +examined, are found to be defective, but which may nevertheless +contain in them a large element of truth. But if scientific +discoveries are available for the refutation of erroneous +interpretations, the probability is that when rightly understood +they will help us to arrive at the true meaning, since the Works +of God are, beyond all other things, likely to throw light on that +portion of His Word in which those Works are described. Nor are +the theories to be passed over--the greater the amount of truth +which they embody the greater will be the likelihood that they +will receive help from, as well as throw light upon, such a +record; and thus we shall have additional evidence that the Word, +the Work, and the Intellect, which has scrutinized and interpreted +the Work, are all derived from the same source. We proceed, +therefore, to inquire whether these facts and theories do in any +way elucidate the concise statements of Scripture, so that we may +be enabled to arrive at a somewhat clearer idea of the meaning of +this most ancient document, and be enabled to entertain somewhat +more distinct views of the manner in which the Divine Architect +saw fit to accomplish His Work. + +In pursuing this investigation two points must be carefully kept +in mind; the first is the distinction between theory and +conjecture on the one hand, and well ascertained facts on the +other. We shall have much to do with theory, and with conjectural +interpretations of observed facts. These can never stand on the +same footing as the facts themselves, but can only be regarded as +invested with greater or less probability. If it is found that +these theories do explain many observed facts, that they harmonize +with, and as it were dovetail into any proposed interpretation of +which the words of Moses are capable; and still more if that +interpretation actually completes the defective points of the +theories, and supplies an adequate cause for facts hitherto +inexplicable--then the presumption is a very strong one that the +interpretation thus supported is at all events an approximation to +the true one. + +The second point to be carefully kept in mind is the very +imperfect state of scientific knowledge even at the present time. +As far as the matter in hand is concerned, the facts which are +ascertained beyond all possibility of doubt, are very few. New +means of investigation have very recently been discovered, and as +a consequence new sources of information have been pointed out, +new fields of research have been laid open. Twenty years ago the +spectroscope was a thing undreamt of--now astronomers reckon it as +of equal value with the telescope, while chemists find it +indispensable to their researches. Who shall say that the next +twenty years may not witness some invention of equal importance, +which shall throw upon us a fresh flood of light from some +unexpected quarter? If then the principle which has hitherto been +maintained is correct, that all our difficulties arise from +interpretations based upon insufficient knowledge, but maintained +as if of equal authority with the record itself, there is a great +danger lest after a time the same difficulty should recur--that +the discovery of fresh facts may discredit interpretations based +upon our present knowledge. Any interpretation therefore to which +we may be led by the scientific views at present entertained, must +be regarded as only provisional and tentative, liable at any time +to be either confirmed, amended, or rejected, as fresh discoveries +may be made. + +Before we enter upon a detailed examination of the records of the +several days, there are two preliminary points to which attention +must be directed. We shall have to make frequent reference to +"law." It will be well that the sense in which the term is used +should be made clear. The account of the First Day's Work will +lead to the recent theory of the Correlation of Forces. As this is +probably a new subject to many, some previous explanation of it +will be necessary. + +SECTION 1. OF LAW. [Footnote: This subject is fully treated in the +Duke of Argyll's "Reign of Law."] + +Law, in its original and proper sense, is the expression to an +inferior of the will of a superior, which the inferior has it in +his power to obey or to resist, but resistance to which entails a +penalty more or less severe, in proportion to the moral turpitude, +or the injurious consequences of the act of disobedience. In this +its strict sense the law can only exist in connection with beings +possessed of reason to understand it, of power to obey it, and of +free will to determine whether they will obey it or not. When +these three conditions are absent law can have no existence. But +the result of perfect law, perfectly obeyed, would be perfect +order. Hence the observation of perfect order leads, by a reversed +process, to the supposition of some law of which that order is the +result. Hence arose in the first instance the term "natural laws," +or "laws of nature." Events were found to follow each other in a +uniform way, and this uniformity was thus sought to be accounted +for. Probably in the minds of those by whom the word was thus +applied in the first instance Nature was not the mere abstraction +it is now, but an unseen power--Deity or subordinate to Deity-- +working consciously and with design. + +[Footnote: Mr. Darwin, especially in the "Origin of Species," +seems continually to betray the existence of this feeling in his +own mind. Though he from time to time reminds us that by Nature he +means nothing but the aggregate of sequences of events, or laws, +he yet frequently speaks of Nature in a way which is applicable +only to an intelligent worker.] + +But this feeling has disappeared, and now we are told that natural +law is "the observed sequence of events." In this case, then, the +true meaning of the word is entirely lost--it is no longer +possible to speak of law as the cause of any event. + +But the old sense in which the word was applied to natural +phenomena had in it far more of truth than the modern one. It was +the imperfect expression of the great truth that God is a God of +order--that there is a uniform procedure in His works, because in +Him there is no change, no caprice. And it is of great importance +to us that we should realize this truth, because we are dependent +upon the laws of nature every moment of our lives. Every conscious +act is performed under the conviction that the natural forces +which that act calls forth will operate in a certain prescribed +manner. But this conviction, though it restricts us to the limits +of the possible, does not further impede the freedom of our will. +To a certain extent we can choose what action we will perform, +what forces we will call forth for that purpose, and what +direction we will give them. Sometimes we can arrange our forces +so that they will continue to act for a considerable time without +any intervention from us; in other cases continued interference is +necessary. But in all these cases there is no interruption of the +law by which the working of these forces is regulated. We have +then a limited control over these forces, and yet they are +unchangeable in themselves, and in their mode of action. + +When, however, we strive to ascend from our own works to those of +God, we can no longer regard these forces as absolutely +unchangeable. If they are practically so, it is because it is His +Will that they should be so. It is this Will then which has its +expression in the so-called laws of nature. The term now assumes a +sense akin to, though not identical with, its original ethical +sense. It is no longer a rule imposed by a superior on an +inferior, but the rule by which the Supreme Being sees fit to +order His own Work. While however we admit the possibility of law +of this kind being changed, we have no reason to believe that in +the universe with which we have to do any such change has ever +taken place. But this does not preclude the possibility of Divine +interference in the processes either of Creation or of Providence. +New forces may from time to time be supplied, new directions may +be given to existing forces, without any variation in the laws by +which the action of those forces is regulated. + +And if we believe that Creation was a progressive act, it is +rather probable than otherwise that such interferences should take +place. For a long period perhaps the uniformity of the work might +lead us to forget the Being who was working; but times would +arrive when definite stages of the work were accomplished, when +higher developments of being were rendered possible, and in the +introduction of those higher developments a something would be +seen which could not be the result of the processes with which we +had already become acquainted. Such interference would not in any +way justify the supposition that the designs of the Author of +Nature were changed, or that His original plan had proved +defective. The more natural inference would be that they were a +part of the plan from the first, but that the time for them was +not then come. + +It will be seen in the sequel that in all probability many of the +special acts of Creation, mentioned in the Mosaic Record, are +interferences of this kind; that for long periods of time matters +advanced in a uniform manner; that the sequence of events was such +as our own experience would lead us to anticipate; but that these +periods were separated from one another by the introduction of new +forces and new results. Of the former we may speak then as carried +on under the operation of natural laws; the other may be described +as special interferences not antagonistic, but supplementary, to +natural laws, and forming part of the original design. + +SECTION 2. THE CORRELATION OF FORCES. + +[Footnote: For fuller information on this subject, Grove's +"Correlation of the Physical Forces," or Tyndall's "Lectures on +Heat considered as a Mode of Motion," may be consulted.] + +It has long been known that heat and light are closely connected +together. The accumulation of a certain amount of heat is always +accompanied by the appearance of light. But when it was found that +the light could be separated from the heat by various means, it +seemed possible that the two phenomena were simply associated. It +is now, however, ascertained that light and heat are identical in +their nature, and that a vast number of other phenomena-- +electricity, galvanism, magnetism, chemical action, and +gravitation, as well as light and heat, are different +manifestations of one and the same thing, which is called force or +energy. In a great number of cases it is possible for us, by the +use of appropriate means and apparatus, to transform these +manifestations, so as to make the same force assume a variety of +forms. Thus motion suddenly arrested becomes heat. A rifle-ball +when it strikes the target becomes very hot. The heat produced by +the concussion against an iron shield is found sufficient to +ignite the powder in some of the newly invented projectiles. The +best illustration, however, is to be obtained from galvanism. By +means of the Voltaic battery we set free a certain amount of +force, and we can employ it at pleasure to produce an intense +light in the electric lamp, or to melt metals which resist the +greatest heat of our furnaces; it will convert a bar of iron into +a magnet, or decompose water into its constituents, oxygen and +hydrogen, or separate a metal from its combination with oxygen. +But in all these processes no new force is produced--the force +set free is unchangeable in itself, and we cannot increase its +amount. Owing to the imperfection of our instruments and our skill +a part of it will always escape from our control, and be lost to +us, but not destroyed. When, however, due allowance is made for +this loss, the results produced are always in exact proportion to +the amount of force originally set free. Thus, if we employ it to +decompose water, the amount of water decomposed always bears an +exact proportion to the amount of metal which has been oxidized in +the cells of the battery. + +This force pervades everything which comes within the cognizance +of our senses. It exists in what are termed the elementary +substances of which the crust of the earth is composed. A certain +amount of it seems to be required to maintain them in the forms in +which we know them; for in many cases, when two of them are made +to combine, a certain amount of force is set free, which commonly +makes its appearance as heat. This seems to indicate that a less +amount of force suffices to maintain the compound body than was +requisite for its separate elements. Thus, when oxygen and +hydrogen are combined to form water intense heat is produced. If +we wish to dissolve the union, and restore the oxygen and hydrogen +to a gaseous state, we must restore the force which has been lost. +This, however, must be done by means of electricity, as heat +produces a different change--converting the water into vapour, but +not dissolving the union between its elements. + +Force, in the shape of heat, determines the condition in which all +inorganic bodies exist. In most cases we can make any given +element assume the form of a solid, a fluid, or a vapour, by the +addition or subtraction of heat. Thus if a pound of ice at 32 +degrees be exposed to heat, it will gradually melt--but the water +produced will remain unchanged in temperature till the last +particle of ice is melted--then it will begin to rise in +temperature; and, if the supply of heat be uniform, it will reach +a temperature of 172 degrees in exactly the same time as was +occupied in melting the ice. Thus then the force which was applied +to the ice as heat passes into some other form so long as the ice +is being melted--it is no longer perceptible by the senses--we +only see its effect in the change from the solid to the fluid +form. And this result is brought about by a definite quantity of +force. Each of the inorganic materials of which the crust of the +earth is composed seems thus to require in its composition a +definite amount of force. + +The life of vegetables is developed in the formation of fresh +compounds of inorganic matter and force. No vegetable can thrive +without sunlight, either direct or diffused. This supplies the +force which the plant combines with carbon, hydrogen, and other +elements to form woody fibre, starch, oils, and other vegetable +products. When we kindle a fire, we dissolve the union which has +thus been formed--the carbon and hydrogen enter into simpler +combinations which require less force to maintain them, and the +superfluous force supplies us with light and heat. + +The life of animals is developed by a process exactly the reverse +of vegetable life. It is maintained by the destruction of the +compounds which the vegetable had formed. These compounds are +taken into the body as food, and after undergoing certain +modifications and arrangements are finally decomposed. Of the +force thus set free a part makes its appearance as heat, +maintaining an even temperature in the body, and another part +supplies the power by virtue of which the muscles, &c., act. No +manifestation of animal life is possible except by force thus set +free. It seems all but certain that we cannot think a single +thought without the decomposition of an equivalent amount of the +brain. It must not, however, be concluded that force and life are +identical. Force seems to be only the instrument of which the +higher principle of life makes use in its manifestations. + +Force then pervades the whole universe so far as it is cognizable +by our senses. But we cannot conceive of force as acting, without +at the same time conceiving of something on which that force acts. +That something, whatever it may be, we designate "matter." We have +not the slightest idea of what matter really is--no man has ever +yet succeeded in separating it from its combination with force. +Even if success were possible, which seems very improbable, it is +not likely that matter by itself would be discernible by any of +our senses. We know that two of them, sight and hearing, enable us +to perceive certain kinds of motion, i. e. manifestations of +force, and this is in all probability the case with the rest of +them. The existence of matter then is not known by scientific +proof but by inference. Our belief in it arises from something in +the constitution of our minds which makes it a necessary +inference. + +There is one more point in reference to force which must be +noticed. It is indestructible, but it is capable of what is termed +"degradation." It may exist in various intensities and quantities, +and a small quantity of force of a higher intensity may be changed +into a larger quantity of force at a lower intensity. In the +instance above given of the union of oxygen and hydrogen, heat is +given out, but heat does not suffice to dissolve that union. The +force must be supplied in the more intense form of Voltaic +Electricity. But to reverse this process seems impossible for us. +As, however, this is clearly explained in a previous volume of +this series, [Footnote: Can we Believe in Miracles? p. 152.] it is +not necessary to dwell upon it at length. + +We may conclude then that the whole material universe is built up +of matter and force in various combinations, but we can form no +conception of what these two things are in themselves; they are +only known to us by the effects produced by their union in various +proportions. + +SECTION 3. THE BEGINNING. + +"In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth. + +"And the earth was desolate and void, and darkness upon the face +of the deep." + +These words carry us back to a time indefinitely remote. Eternity +and Infinity are ideas which we cannot grasp, and yet we cannot +avoid them. If we stretch our imagination to conceive of the most +distant possible period of time--the farthest point of space-- +still we feel that there must have been something before the one, +that there must be something beyond the other; and yet we cannot +conceive of that which has no beginning, or no boundaries. The +first verse marks out for us as it were a definite portion of this +limitless ocean. "In the beginning," is the point from which time +begins to run--"the heavens and the earth," the visible universe +beyond which our investigations cannot extend. Whether other +manifestations of God have taken place in Eternity, or other +systems of worlds now exist in infinity, we are not told. + +The heavens and the earth then are to be considered as comprising +the visible universe, sun, moon, and stars, and their +concomitants, which the eye surveys, or which scientific research +brings to our knowledge. All are comprehended in this one group by +Moses, and recent spectroscopic investigations teach us that one +general character pervades the whole. Every star whose light is +powerful enough to be analyzed, is now known to comprehend in its +materials a greater or less number of those elementary substances +of which the earth and the sun are composed. Whether any of these +worlds were called into perfect existence at once, or whether they +all passed through various stages of development, we are not told, +that in some of them the process of development is only +commencing, while in others various stages of it are in progress, +is, as will be seen presently, highly probable. But the narrative +takes no farther notice of anything beyond our own group of +worlds, and proceeds to describe the condition of the earth +(probably including the whole solar system) at the time at which +it commences. Its words imply such a state of things as +corresponds to what has been said in the preceding section of +matter, apart from force. No better words could probably have been +chosen for the purpose. The only word which seems to convey any +definite idea is in the following clause, where water is +mentioned. Until force was in operation water could not exist. +Probably St. Augustine's interpretation is the correct one--the +confused mass is called alternately earth and water, because +though it was as yet neither one thing nor the other, it contained +the elements of both. And the word "water" expressed its plastic +character. ("De Genesi ad Literam" Liber Imperfectus, Section 13, +14.) + +One other important point in these words is, that they negative +the eternal existence of matter. The second verse describes it as +existing, because it had been called into existence at the bidding +of an Almighty Creator, as described in the first verse. + +SECTION 4. THE FIRST DAY. + +"And the Spirit of God (was) brooding upon the face of the water. + +"And God said, 'Let light be' and light was. + +"And God saw the light that it was good, and God divided the light +from the darkness. + +"And God called the light Day, and the darkness He called Night. + +"And there was evening and there was morning, one day." + +The first clause seems to belong rather to the period of action +than to the precedent indefinite period of chaos, and may +therefore be taken as marking the transition from the "beginning" +to the first day, better than as belonging to that beginning +itself. The Jewish interpretation of the clause is untenable in +the light of the doctrine of the Correlation of the Physical +Forces. Till force was evolved there could be neither air nor +motion, and so no wind. The words of course bear on their face an +assertion of the action of the eternal Spirit in the work of +Creation; but when we examine the position which they occupy, it +seems highly probable that they have beyond this a much more +definite signification. In them a sort of localized action is +ascribed to the Spirit--a something very different from the idea +conveyed by the often-repeated phrase, "And God said." What that +something may be it is hard for us to conceive, harder still to +express, but the following considerations may perhaps throw some +glimmering of light upon the matter:-- + +1. There must be some point in which the Creator comes into +contact, as it were, with His creature--a point at which His Will +first clothes itself in the form of a physical fact--the point to +which all second causes lead up, and at which they lose themselves +in the one first cause, the Will of God. Now this is what all +systems of philosophy require as their starting-point, but it is +entirely out of their unaided reach. But these words supply that +indispensable desideratum. + +2. These words come in immediate connexion with the evolution of +light. Light is throughout the Bible intimately connected with the +Deity. It is His chosen emblem. "God is light." It is His abode. +"He dwelleth in the light inaccessible." It is the symbol of His +presence, and the means by which Creation is quickened. "In Him +was life; and the life was the light of men." + +3. Light, as we now know, is only one form of the force by which +the universe is upheld. But the phenomena of light lead us to +infer the existence of what we call Ether, which is supposed to be +a perfectly elastic fluid, imponderable, and in fact exempt from +almost all the conditions to which matter, as we know it, is +subject, except that POSSIBLY it offers resistance to bodies +moving in it. [Footnote: Encke's comet shows signs of retardation, +as if moving in a resisting medium; but it is possible that that +resistance may not arise from the ether, but from the nebulous +envelope of the sun.] This fluid must pervade the whole universe, +since it brings to us the light of the most distant star or +nebula. As it is the medium through which light is conveyed, and +as light is now known to be identified with force of all kinds, it +seems by no means improbable that it is the medium through which +all force acts. + +These words, then, seem to suggest the idea that the brooding of +the Spirit may have some connexion with the formation of that +ether which is indispensable to the manifestation of light, and +probably to the operations of all force; and that, if so, the +ether may also be the point at which, and the medium through +which, Spirit acts upon Matter. On the one hand, the facts that +force, as used, is constantly in process of degradation, and that +it is also constantly poured forth into space from the Sun and +Planets in the shape of heat, and so lost to our system, seem to +indicate that fresh supplies of it are continually needed; while, +on the other hand, the supply of that need seems to be implied in +the words, "By Him all things consist." "Upholding all things by +the word of His Power." + +If this be so, we have a point up to which natural laws may +possibly be traced, but at which they merge in the action of the +Will of God, which is beyond our investigation. Here, then, is a +solution of that great difficulty, which those who are most +familiar with the laws of nature have felt in reconciling the +existence of those laws with a particular Providence and with the +efficacy of Prayer, since we have here the point at which all +forces and all laws begin to act, and at which, therefore, the +amount of the force, and the direction of its action, are capable +of unlimited modification, without any alteration of, or +interference with, the laws by which that action is regulated, and +consequently without the danger of introducing confusion into the +Universe. + +"And God said, 'Let light be' and light was." It has already been +pointed out that these words differ from those used in describing +any other creative act. They are the only ones which seem to imply +an instantaneous fulfilment of the command. Another matter which +has long since been observed, is their exact harmony with what +science teaches us respecting the nature of light. Light is not a +material substance, but a "mode of motion." It consists of very +small undulations propagated with inconceivable velocity. Hence of +it, and of it alone, it could not be correctly said that it was +created. To say that God made light would be inexact. The words +which are used exactly suit the circumstances of the case. But the +discovery of the correlation of forces has given to these words a +much more extended significance, while at the same time it +furnishes a satisfactory reason for their occurrence at this +particular point. So long as they were supposed to refer to light +simply, they seemed out of place. Light was not apparently needed +till there were organisms to whose existence it was essential. But +we now know that to call forth light, was to call force in all its +modifications into action. It has been seen that matter and force +are the two elements out of which everything that is discernible +by our senses is built up. The formation of matter has already +been described in the original act of creation. But till force +also was evolved, matter must of necessity remain in that chaotic +state to which verse 2 refers. To matter is now added that which +was required to enable the progressive work of Creation to be +carried on. The first result of this would probably be that the +force of gravitation would begin to act, while, from what the +telescope reveals to us, we may conjecture, that at the same time +the whole incoherent mass would be permeated with light and heat, +and some, at all events, of those elementary substances with which +chemistry makes us acquainted would be developed, and the whole +mass, acted upon by the mutual attraction of its several +particles, would begin to move towards, and accumulate about its +centre of gravity. + +It has been shown that Laplace's Nebular Hypothesis, when +substituted for the action of a Creator, broke down in three +important points. Of these the first two were, that it failed to +give any account of the origin of matter, and of the first +commencement of the action of Gravitation. These two defects are +completely supplied by the first three verses of Genesis. We may +probably see in the "Great Nebula" in Orion an illustration of the +condition of the solar system when light first made its +appearance. It is very probable that that nebula has only very +recently become visible. Galileo examined Orion very carefully +with his newly invented telescope, but makes no mention of it. +[Footnote: Webb's Celestial Objects, p. 255, note.] At present it +is visible to the unaided eye even in England, where the +atmospheric conditions and its low altitude are alike +unfavourable. In Italy, where the atmosphere is remarkably pure, +and the meridian altitude is greater by 7 1/2 degrees, it must be +a conspicuous object, and had it been so at the time when Galileo +was observing the constellation, it could hardly have failed to +attract his attention. It was, however, noticed in 1618. It is a +vast, shapeless mass, having its boundaries in some parts +tolerably well defined, while in other directions it fades away +imperceptibly; its light is very faint, and when examined by the +spectroscope is found to proceed from a gaseous source. Professor +Secchi has traced it through an extent of 5 degrees. When it is +remembered that at such a distance the semi-diameter of the +earth's orbit subtends an angle less than 1 inch, some idea of the +enormous extent of this mass of gas may be formed. Drawings of it +have been made from time to time by our most distinguished +astronomers, which are found to differ considerably. Great +allowance must, of course, be made for differences in the +telescopic power employed, and in the visual powers of the several +observers, but the differences in the drawings seem too great to +be explained by those sources of inaccuracy alone, and actual +change in the nebula is therefore strongly suspected. Another +nebula of similar character, in which changes are suspected, is +that which surrounds the star A in the constellation Argo. This is +being very carefully watched through the great telescope recently +erected at Melbourne, and from the observations made there, it is +probable that fresh light may soon be thrown on the subject. + +The next act recorded is, that "God divided the light from the +darkness." This is one of those passages which we are very apt to +pass over as unimportant, without giving ourselves any trouble to +ascertain what they mean, or asking if they may not give valuable +information, or supply some important hints. It is evident, +however, that in these words some act of the Creator is implied, +but when we inquire what that act was, the answer does not lie +immediately on the surface. Darkness is simply the absence of +light. It cannot therefore be said that God divided the light from +the darkness in the same sense in which it is said that "a +shepherd divideth his sheep from the goats". Between light and +darkness that division exists in the very nature of things, and it +could not therefore be said to be made by a definite act. Nor +again, is there any sharp well-defined boundary set between light +and darkness, so that we can say, "Here light begins, here +darkness ends." The very opposite is the case, the one blends +imperceptibly into the other. This then cannot be the meaning of +the words. But the next verse guides us to the real meaning. "And +God called the light Day, and the darkness He called Night." The +division of light from darkness then is the alternation of night +and day. When God divided the light from the darkness He made +provision for that alternation. But we know that that alternation +is the result of the earth's rotation upon its axis, so that the +dividing the light from the darkness evidently implies the +communication to the accumulated mass of the motion of rotation. + +It does not clearly appear in the account of the first day, +whether this alternation of day and night took effect immediately. +Certainly the introduction of it here does not prove that it did +so follow. For there was no way in which the fact of the earth's +rotation could be directly communicated to those for whom the +narrative was primarily intended. They were ignorant of the +spherical form of the earth, and so could not have attached any +idea whatever to a statement that it revolved about its axis. + +The only way then in which Moses could speak of that rotation was +in connexion with some phenomenon resulting from it. The only such +phenomenon with which the Jews were acquainted was the alternation +of day and night. There was therefore no way in which Moses could +record the fact except with reference to this ultimate effect. It +does not follow that that effect was immediate. Beside the +rotation of the earth, another condition is required. The light +must come from a single source, and so when the act is recorded by +which that condition is effected, the division of light and +darkness is again noticed. The sun and the moon are set in the +firmament of heaven to divide the light from the darkness. But +that division was potentially effected when the motion of rotation +was given. + +The third defect noticed in the Nebular Hypothesis was, that it +did not account for this motion of rotation. This defect, then, +like the two preceding ones, is supplied by the Mosaic Record, and +the hypothesis thus supplemented becomes complete. It is capable +of giving a satisfactory account of the phenomena to which it +applies. But as it is only a theory, and only points out a way in +which the universe might have been constructed, it does not in +itself exclude the possibility that some other plan might in fact +have been adopted, and we have now to examine into the reasons for +supposing that it was the method which was actually employed. +These divide themselves into two classes:--those which render it +probable that similar processes are now in progress; and those +which render it probable that the solar system has passed through +such a process. + +It has already been pointed out that the great nebulae in Orion +and Argo seem to represent the condition of our system on the +first appearance of light, and that changes are strongly suspected +to be taking place in both; but we cannot expect to trace any +single nebula through the stages of its development, since that +development must occupy untold ages. All we can do is to inquire +if there are other nebulas which seem to be in more advanced +stages. It must at once be recognized, that if this be one of the +processes now going on, it is not the only one. There are many +nebulas "which have assumed forms for which the law of +gravitation, as we know it, will not enable us to account--such as +the Ring Nebula in Lyra, the Dumb-bell Nebula in Vulpecula, or the +double Horseshoe in Scutum Sobieski. But some nebulas can be found +which arrange themselves so as to illustrate the stages through +which we may suppose our world to have passed. These are chiefly +to be found among the planetary nebulse, which in a small +telescope exhibit a faint circular disc, but in larger instruments +frequently show considerable varieties of structure. Some of them +present the appearance of a condensation of light in the centre, +which gradually fades off; in others there is a bright ring +surrounding the central spot, but separated from it by a darker +space. The Nebula Andromeda 49647, [Footnote: The numbers are +those given by Sir J. Hersohel.] as seen in Mr. Lassel's four-foot +reflector appears as a luminous spot, surrounded by two luminous +rings, which, in the more powerful instrument of Lord Bosse, +combine into a spiral. Its spectrum is gaseous, with one line +indicating some element unknown to us. In another nebula, Draco +4373, there is a double spectrum, the one gaseous, indicating the +presence of hydrogen, nitrogen, and barium; the other, apparently +from the nucleus, continuous, and so representing a solid or fluid +mass, but so faint that the lines belonging to particular elements +cannot be distinguished. [Footnote: Hugging, Philosophical +Transactions, 1864.] Bridanus 846, and Andromeda 116, are probably +similar nebulee occupying different positions with reference to +us. They both give a continuous spectrum. The one in Bridanus is +described as "an eleventh magnitude star, standing in the centre +of a circular nebula, itself placed centrally on a larger and +fainter circle of hazy light." [Footnote: Lassell, quoted in +Webb's "Celestial Objects," p. 227.] The nebula in Andromeda +assumes a lenticular form; that in Bridanus would probably present +the same appearance if we saw it edge-ways. The former has +probably increased in brilliancy in the course of centuries. Mr. +Webb remarks of it, "It is so plain to the naked eye that it is +strange the ancients scarcely mention it." [Footnote: Webb's +"Celestial Objects," p. 180.] In these two nebulas we may perhaps +see the mass ready to break up into separate worlds, the +lenticular form being a natural result of extremely rapid +rotation. Prom the fact that Andromeda 116 gives a continuous +spectrum, Dr. Huggins inclines to the belief that it is an +unresolved star cluster. But the reasons which led Sir W. Herschel +to conclude that the nebula in Orion was gaseous, (a conclusion +which, though for a time discredited by the supposed resolution of +the nebula in Lord Kosse's telescope, was ultimately found to be +correct), are equally applicable here. In general a certain +proportion exists between the telescopic power requisite to render +a star cluster visible as a nebulous spot, and that which will +resolve it into stars; but this nebula, like that in Orion, though +visible to the naked eye, cannot be resolved by the most powerful +instruments yet made. And the nebula in Draco 4373, seems to +present an intermediate stage between the purely gaseous nebula +and this one. The faint continuous spectrum is probably the result +of incipient central condensation. This nebula, if recent +observations by Mr. Gill, of Aberdeen, are confirmed [Footnote: +Popular Science Review, 1871, p. 426.], is much nearer to us than +any of the fixed stars. + +"We come now to the reasons derived from the Solar System itself, +and of these there are several, some of them of considerable +weight. The first is to be found in the uniform direction of +almost all the motions of the system. They are from west to east. +The sun rotates upon his axis, the planets revolve about the sun +and rotate upon their axes, and the satellites, with one +exception, revolve about their primaries, and, so far as is known, +rotate upon their axes in the same direction, from west to east, +and the motions take place very nearly in the same plane--the +ecliptic. This seems to point to the conclusion that these motions +have a common origin, as would be the case if all these bodies at +one time existed as a single mass which revolved in the same +direction. The one exception is to be found in the satellites of +Uranus, whose motion is retrograde. But there are certain +phenomena, which lead to the conclusion, that, on the outskirts of +our system, there has at some time or other been an action of a +disturbing force, of which, except from these results, we know +nothing." + +[Footnote: Bode's "Law of Planetary Distances," What holds good as +far as Uranus, breaks down in the case of Neptune. Both Leverrier +and Adams were to some extent misled by this law. The new planet +should according to their calculations, based on this law, have +been of greater magnitude and at a greater distance than Neptune. + +The polar axis of Uranus, instead of being nearly perpendicular to +the ecliptic, as in the case of all the other planets (except +Venus), is nearly coincident with it. Venus occupies an +intermediate position, the inclination of its equator to its orbit +being 49 degrees 58'.] + + There is also strong reason for believing that the sun is still a +nebulous star, that the whole of the original nebula is not yet +gathered up in the vast globe which at ordinary times is all that +we can see. This aspect of the case, however, will come more fully +under our notice when we come to the work of the fourth day. The +figure of the earth, which is that naturally assumed by a plastic +mass revolving about its axis, and the traces which it retains of +a former state of intense heat, are both in accordance with this +theory. + +When these facts are duly weighed, there seems to be a reasonable +probability that this process is the one which was actually +employed in the formation of the solar system. The remarkable +manner in which the theory adapts itself to the Mosaic account, +and the fact that that account records special interferences of +the Creator exactly at the points where the theory shows that such +interferences would be necessary, give rise to a very strong +presumption in its favour. We have in it also a clear illustration +of the combination of general laws of nature with special +interferences of Creative Power--the law of gravitation was called +into action, and the work would proceed steadily under that law +for a considerable period, till matters were ripe for a farther +stage in the progress, and then the special interference would +take place, in this instance the imparting the motion of rotation, +and the work would again proceed under the natural law. All this +while, however, the work would be one, and performed by one power, +the only difference being in the direct or indirect action of that +power. + +The only point an reference to the first day which remains to be +inquired into is the extent to which the work had proceeded at its +close. As the commencement of the second day's work implies that +at that time the earth had an independent existence, we may +conclude that the first day's work comprehended the casting off of +the several successive rings, and the condensation of those rings, +or some of them, into the corresponding planets and satellites. +These would probably still retain their intense heat, in virtue of +which they would be luminous. + +Many of the multiple stars may not improbably present to us much +the same appearance as the solar system then presented. In many +cases we have one large star, with one or more very minute +attendants. Such a star is Orionis, a tolerably conspicuous star, +which has two companions invisible to the naked eye, but visible +with moderate telescopic power. (A telescope of 2.1 inches +aperture, by Cooke, shows them well.) Five more companions are +visible in a 4-inch telescope. In the large telescope at Harvard +no less than 35 minute stars have been seen in apparent connexion +with the brilliant star Vega. In all these cases it is true that +the distances and periods of the companion stars are very much +greater than in the case of the earth; but then our telescopes +will only enable us to discern the more distant companions. Any +small companion stars holding positions corresponding to those of +the four interior planets, would be lost in the light of the +primary star; and if, as is suspected, all the heavenly bodies are +subject to some resistance, however small, from the medium in +which they move, this resistance would in the course of ages +diminish the mean distance, and with it the periodic time of the +companion stars. + +The latter part of the 5th verse has already been considered, and +there is no need to recur to it at this point. At the close of the +history we shall be in a better position to ascertain if any light +has been thrown on that mysterious subject. + +SECTION 5. THE SECOND DAY. + +"And God said, Let there be a firmament in the midst of the +waters, and let it divide the waters from the waters. + +"And God made the firmament, and divided the waters which were +under the firmament from the waters which were above the +firmament, and it was so. + +"And God called the firmament Heaven, and there was evening and +there was morning, a second day" + +The work of the second and third days evidently has its scene on +the earth alone. At its commencement the earth appears to have +become distinctly separated from the gradually condensing mass of +the solar system, and to have assumed its spherical form. It had, +in fact, acquired an independent existence; but it was still in a +chaotic state. Its elements, which were hereafter to assume the +three forms of solid, fluid, and gas, seem to have been still +blended together. Of the three states, fluidity seems to have been +that to which the mass most nearly approached. This seems to be +indicated by the application of the term, waters, to the two parts +into which it is now divided; for the Hebrew has no general word +for "fluid," so that the only method of expressing it was by the +use of this word "water" in an extended signification; and all +scientific investigations point to the same conclusion. The heat, +as yet, must have been so intense that no rocks or metals with +which we are acquainted could have remained in a solid form. The +sorting out and first arrangement of the materials of the earth, +with probably the farther development of a large portion of them +by the introduction of a new element, seems to have been the work +of the second day. + +When we proceed to examine the narrative more closely, two +important questions suggest themselves:--l. What special +interference of Creative Power does it indicate? 2. What is the +meaning of the division between the waters which were above the +firmament and the waters which were under the firmament? + +1. What special interference of Creative Power took place on the +second day? Till within the last ten years, it would have been +difficult to give a satisfactory answer to this question; for if +all the elements were already in existence at the commencement of +the second day, their arrangement would, as it seems, have been +brought about by the ordinary operation of natural laws which were +already established. The cooling and condensation of a portion of +the elements would have been effected by the radiation of their +heat, and the portions thus condensed would, under the influence +of gravitation, have arranged themselves in immediate proximity to +the centre of gravity, forming a solid or fluid nucleus, round +which those portions which still remained in a gaseous state would +have formed an atmospheric envelope. But here again the +spectroscope comes to our aid. In many of the nebulae which give +in it the bright lines indicative of gas, hydrogen and nitrogen +are the chief gases discovered. These must be in an incandescent +state, or they would not be visible at all. But hydrogen cannot, +in the present state of things, remain in this condition in +contact with oxygen; it must instantly combine with it, that +combination being attended with intense heat, and resulting in the +production of water. The introduction of oxygen, then, must +involve a very important crisis in the process of development; but +that introduction must have preceded the formation of atmospheric +air and water. Prior to the second day oxygen must either have +been non-existent, or it must have existed in a form and under +conditions very different from those under which it exists now. +Free oxygen cannot be in existence in the sun or in any celestial +object in which the spectroscope indicates the existence of +incandescent hydrogen. The special act of the second day would +appear to have consisted in the development of oxygen, or the +calling it from a quiescent state into active operation. + +But the effects of the new element thus called into operation +would not be limited to the production of air and water. It is +estimated that oxygen constitutes, by weight, nearly half of the +solid crust of the earth. It forms a part of every rock and of +every metallic ore. The second day, then, must have been a period +of intense chemical action, resulting from the introduction of +this powerful agent. + +But (2) what is the meaning of the division of the waters which +are above the firmament from the waters which were under the +firmament? At present all the water contained in the atmosphere, +in the shape of vapour and clouds, is so insignificant in +comparison with that vast volume of water which not only fills the +ocean, but also permeates the solid earth, that such a notice of +it seems unaccountable. Mr. Goodwin, indeed, maintains that there +was an ancient belief, not only that the firmament was a solid +vault, but that on it there rested another ocean, at least as +copious as that with which we are acquainted. [Footnote: Essays +and Reviews, p. 220] In support of this assertion he brings +forward the phrase, "The windows of heaven were opened" (Gen, VII. +11) and other similar expressions. But such phrases as this +evidently belong to the same class as the fanciful names so often +given to the clouds in the hymns of the Rig Veda. Both expressions +evidently point to a time when figurative language, if no longer a +necessity, was at all events a common and favourite form of +speech, and was understood by all. Dr. Whewell [Footnote: +Plurality of Worlds, chap. x. Section 5.] has put forward the +curious notion that when the creation of the interior planets was +completed, there remained a superfluity of water, which was +gathered up into the four exterior planets. But the only fact in +favour of such an hypothesis is the close correspondence between +the apparent density of these planets and that of water. Now, as +will be seen immediately, there is strong reason to believe that +the true density of these planets is much greater than their +apparent diameters would seem to indicate; so that the one +solitary ground on which the suggestion rests vanishes when it is +examined. Apart from this, however, the suggestion that there +would be any superfluous material when the work of creation was +finished, is a very strange one. Neither of these views, then, can +be accepted as giving a satisfactory meaning to the text. + +Astronomical investigations however, which have been carried on +with great diligence during the last four winters, and which are +still being continued with unremitting interest, have brought to +light phenomena which seem to be in remarkable correspondence with +the state of things spoken of in the text. It has already been +noticed that the eight greater planets at present known to us are +divided into two groups of four by the intervening belt of minor +planets. These two groups have totally distinct characteristics. +In density, magnitude, and length, of day the members of each +group differ little from each other, while the two groups differ +very widely. The moon is the only satellite as yet known in the +inner group. The planets of the outer group are attended by at +least seventeen satellites. + +Of these outer planets Jupiter, from his great brilliancy, +specially attracts observation, while from his comparative +proximity to the earth we are enabled to examine him much more +satisfactorily than we can Saturn, Uranus, or Neptune. Two facts +with reference to him have long been well known, the one, that the +polar compression in his case is much greater than it is in any of +the interior planets, so that when seen through a telescope of +very moderate power his disc is evidently elliptical, while the +compression of the interior planets can only be detected by the +most delicate micrometrical measurements--the other, that his +apparent surface is always crossed by several alternating belts of +light and shade, which though subject to constant changes of +detail, always preserve the same general character. Until recently +the generally received theory was that these belts consisted of +clouds, raised by the heat of the sun, and arranged in zones under +the influence of winds similar in character to, and produced by +the same causes as, the trade-winds which blow over our own +oceans. This view, however, has been shown by Mr. Proctor to be +untenable. [Footnote: See a paper by Mr. Proctor in the Monthly +Packet for October, 1870.] + +About forty years ago, a very remarkable phenomenon was observed +simultaneously, but independently, by three astronomers, Admiral +Smyth, Mr. Maclean, and Mr. Pearson, who were watching a transit +of Jupiter's second satellite from stations several miles apart. +Admiral Smyth's account of it is as follows:--"On Thursday, the +26th of June, 1828, the moon being nearly full, and the evening +extremely fine, I was watching the second satellite of Jupiter as +it gradually approached to transit the disc of the planet. My +instrument was an excellent refractor of 3 3/4 inches aperture, +and five feet focal length, with a power of one hundred. The +satellite appeared in contact at about half-past ten, and for some +minutes remained on the edge of the limb, presenting an appearance +not unlike that of the lunar mountains which come into view during +the first quarter of the moon, until it finally disappeared on the +body of the planet. At least twelve or thirteen minutes must have +elapsed when, accidentally turning to Jupiter again, I perceived +the same satellite outside the disc. It was in the same position +as to being above a line with the lower belt, where it remained +distinctly visible for at least four minutes, and then suddenly +vanished." A somewhat similar phenomenon, but of shorter duration, +was witnessed by Messrs. Gorton and Wray, during an occultation of +the same satellite, April 26, 1863. In this case the satellite +reappeared after passing behind the apparent disc of the planet. +So lately as 1868 this phenomenon was regarded as inexplicable. +[Footnote: Webb's Celestial Objects, p. 141.] + +In the winter of 1868-9 the attention of astronomers was called to +the fact that rapid and extensive changes were taking place in the +appearance of Jupiter's belts, and they have consequently been +watched from that time with unremitting attention by astronomers +furnished with telescopes of the best quality. The results of +these observations are given in two very interesting papers, +communicated to the Popular Science Review, by Mr. Webb. +[Footnote: Popular Science Review for April, 1870, and July, +1871.] Very curious markings and variations in the depth of shade +have been seen, accompanied by equally curious changes of colour. +Mr. Browning compares these changes to those which are seen when a +cloud of steam of varying depth and density is illuminated from +behind by a strong light, as when we look through the steam +escaping from the safety-valve of a locomotive at a gas-lamp +immediately behind it. This appears to be the true explanation of +the phenomenon. [Footnote: Popular Science Review, 1871, p. 307.] +These belts are probably due to vast masses of steam, poured forth +with great force from the body of the planet. As the atmosphere of +Jupiter is probably of enormous depth, the rotatory velocity of +its upper portions would be much greater than that of the surface +of the planet, hence the steam would arrange itself in belts +parallel to the equator of the planet. But this view leads us to +wonderful conclusions with reference to the condition of the +planet. + +"Processes of the most amazing character are taking place beneath +that cloudy envelope, which forms the visible surface of the +planet as seen by the terrestrial observer. The real globe of the +planet would seem to be intensely heated, perhaps molten, through +the fierceness of the heat which pervades it. Masses of vapour +streaming continually upward from the surface of this fiery globe +would be gathered at once into zones because of their rapid change +of distance from the centre. That which is wholly unintelligible +when we regard the surface of Jupiter as swept like our earth by +polar and equatorial winds, is readily interpreted when we +recognize the existence of rapidly uprushing streams of vapour." +[Footnote: Mr. Proctor in Monthly Packet, October, 1870.] + +Supposing then that the atmosphere of Jupiter is of very great +depth, and thus laden with masses of watery vapour, the effect of +a sudden current of heated, but comparatively dry, air or gas +would be the immediate absorption of the whole or a large portion +of the vapour, and the consequent transparency of the portion of +the atmosphere affected by it. We see this result continually on a +small scale in our own atmosphere, when a heavy cloud comes in +contact with a warm air current, and rapidly melts away, Many of +the rapid changes which have been witnessed in Jupiter's +appearance are readily explained if this view is admitted. +Supposing such a thing to have happened near the edge of the disc, +the phenomenon recorded by Admiral Smyth is at once satisfactorily +explained. When the satellite appeared to pass on to the disc, and +to be lost in the light of the planet, it would for some time, +proportional to the depth of Jupiter's atmosphere, have behind it +a background of clouds only, it would not have entered upon the +actual disc of the planet. If then these clouds were suddenly +absorbed, the atmosphere behind the satellite would become +transparent and invisible, the background would be gone, and the +satellite would reappear. In the case of the occultation witnessed +by Messrs. Gorton and Wray, the satellite would at first be hidden +by cloud only, and would reappear if the cloud were removed. Such +seems to be the true explanation of these hitherto mysterious +phenomena. That they could not have resulted from any alteration +in the motions of the planet or the satellite is evident. Such an +alteration would have been instantly detected, since the places of +both the planet and the satellites are computed years in advance, +and any such change would at once have thrown out all these +computations. + +Assuming that this is the true solution of the mystery, we are +enabled to form an approximate estimate of the extent of the +atmosphere of Jupiter. The time between the first and second +disappearances does not seem to have been accurately noted. +Admiral Smyth's account makes it 16 or 17 minutes; but if we +estimate it at 15 minutes only, and if we further assume that the +second disappearance was upon the actual disc of Jupiter, and not +upon a lower stratum of clouds, we shall be safe from any risk of +exaggeration. The probability seems to be that the second +disappearance was caused not by the disc, but by the formation of +a fresh body of cloud, as it was not gradual, as in the first +instance, but sudden. We shall then only have an estimate which +cannot be greater, but may be much less, than the true value. + +The mean distance of the second satellite from the centre of +Jupiter is in round numbers 425,000 miles, and consequently the +circumference of its orbit is 2,671,000 miles. The satellite +travels through this orbit in about 86 hours, which gives a horary +velocity of 31,400 miles, or 7850 miles in 15 minutes. This then +is the least possible depth of the atmosphere of Jupiter. +[Footnote: For the direction of the motion of the satellite would +be at right angles to the line of sight.] The whole diameter of +Jupiter, atmosphere and all, is 85,390 miles. Deduct from this +15,700 miles for the atmosphere, and we have for the diameter of +the solid nucleus rather less than 70,000 miles. The height of the +atmosphere is therefore not less than three-fourteenths of the +radius of the planet, and may be much greater. The extent of the +atmosphere, combined with the rapidity of rotation, accounts +satisfactorily for the great apparent polar compression of the +planet. Another inference is that the density of the planet must +exceed the ordinary estimate in the proportion of two to one. + +But next, the atmosphere of Jupiter is probably of very great +density. Dr. Huggins states that he has observed in the spectrum +of Jupiter "three or four strong lines, one of them coincident +with a strong line in the earth's atmosphere." [Footnote: Lecture +at Manchester, November 16, 1870.] Strong lines mark increased +density in the absorbent medium, and lines hitherto unobserved +indicate new elements. It is therefore probable that the +atmosphere of Jupiter is not only much more dense than that of the +earth, but also contains some elements--which are absent from the +latter. When with this fact we connect the very great extent of +the atmosphere, it will be evident that the pressure at the +surface of the planet will be enormous, and from this we can form +an estimate of the intensity of the forces which must be at work +in the interior of the planet, to project jets of vapour through +such an atmosphere to so great a height. + +The link which connects Jupiter with the earth, in the second +stage of its existence, is the mention by Moses of the "waters +which were above the firmament." Viewed in the light of the +present condition of the earth such a notice seems unaccountable. +But if the earth at that time were in a condition similar to that +in which Jupiter appears to be now, the water in the atmosphere or +above the firmament would be a very important element in any +description that might be given of it. It is in fact most probable +that all the water (in the strict sense of the word) then in +existence would be in a state of vapour, and that the waters which +were under the firmament were the molten materials which +afterwards formed rocks and ores, since, as has been already +noticed, the word is the only one which could be employed to +describe fluids in general. + +We may now try to form some idea of the probable state of the +earth at this period. Its centre would be occupied by a fused +mass, in which were blended all the more intractable solid +constituents of the present world. This would be surrounded by an +atmosphere of very great height and density, containing not only +all the present constituents of air, but also all, or nearly all, +the water, and all the more volatile of the metals and other +elements. Carbonic acid, to a very large extent, would probably be +present, and a very considerable proportion of the oxygen which +now exists in combination with various bases, and forms by weight +so large a proportion of the solid crust of the world. + +Owing to the intense heat, chemical combinations would readily be +formed between the ingredients of the fused mass and the other +elements which existed in the form of vapour, and thus the +earliest of the vast variety of existing minerals would be +elaborated. The volumes of steam which floated in the upper +regions of the atmosphere would rapidly part with their heat by +radiation into space, and would descend towards the surface of the +earth in the form of rain. At first probably, and for a long time, +they would not reach the surface, but as they approached it would +be again converted into vapour, and re-ascend to pass again and +again through the same process. But by this means the intense heat +of the nucleus would be gradually conveyed away, till the cooling +reached a point at which some of the superficial materials would +assume a solid form. It is by no means certain what is the true +primary rock--for a long time it was almost universally assumed to +be granite, since granite is uniformly found underlying the oldest +sedimentary rocks that are known. But as these rocks have been +forced from their original position and tilted up, the underlying +stratum may probably be of later date than the upper ones, since +it was the elevating agent. So that we can have no certain +knowledge on this point, since the earliest sedimentary strata, +wherever they retain their original position, must be at a depth +far below the reach of man. If, however, Sir C. Kyell's view of +the conditions requisite for the formation of granite are correct, +these conditions [Footnote: Student's Geology, chap. xxxi.]--heat, +moisture, and enormous pressure--would all be present at the +surface of the nucleus. Some kind of solid floor must have been +formed before the next stage could be reached, at which it would +be possible for water to exist in a fluid state. This, however, +would be possible at a much higher temperature than at present, +owing to the enormous atmospheric pressure. It is possible now, by +artificial means, to raise water, nearly if not quite, to a red +heat, without the formation of steam, and the pressure of the +atmosphere in the case supposed would, in all probability, be much +greater than any which we can now apply under the conditions +necessary for heating the water. + +It is probable that at this point the close of the second day must +be placed: but the indications of the narrative do not enable us +to fix it with any degree of certainty. As, however, from this +point a new series of processes would commence, and those +processes are in intimate connexion with the first of the two +developments ascribed to the third day, the period when water +could first maintain a fluid form on the earth's surface, seems to +present the most probable line of demarcation. + +SECTION 6. THE THIRD DAY. + +"And God said, Let the waters under the Heaven be gathered +together in one place, and let the dry land appear; and it was so. + +"And God called the dry land Earth, and the gathering together of +the waters called He Seas, and God saw that it was good. + +"And God said, Let the earth sprout sprouts, the herb seeding +seed, and the fruit-tree yielding fruit after his kind, whose +seed is in it, [Footnote: "It" seems preferable to "itself" here. +The same Hebrew word stands for both, but if the "fruit-tree" be +taken as the antecedent, which it must be if we translate +"itself," there seems no meaning in the statement. If we read +"it," the pronoun will refer to the fruit--"the tree whose seed is +in its fruit"--which gives an intelligible sense.] upon the earth, +and it was so. + +"And the earth caused to go forth sprouts, the herb seeding seed, +and the fruit-tree yielding fruit whose seed is in it, after his +kind, and God saw that it was good. And there was evening, and +there was morning, a third day." + +The record of the third day is a very important one, because it is +the first point at which the Mosaic Record comes in contact with +that other record which is written in the rocks. Up to this time +we have only been able to compare the statements of Moses with +conjectural views of the earliest condition of the earth, which, +though they may be highly probable, are at best only conjectures. +But from this point we have to deal with a number of ascertained +facts--certain landmarks stand out which enable us to fix the +correspondent parts of the two narratives, and guide us to the +identification and interpretation of their minor details. + +The first of these landmarks is the appearance of the dry land, +or, in geological language, the commencement of the process of +upheaval. At the close of the second day the earth was, in all +probability, as we have seen, a globe internally molten, but +having a solid crust which was uniformly covered with a layer of +water, and surrounded by an atmosphere which, though it had parted +with some of its ingredients, was still very much more complex, +more dense, and more extensive than it is at present. The newly +condensed waters would rest on the surface of the primeval rock, +whatever that rock might be. The internal heat conducted through +it would keep the waters in a state of intense ebullition, and at +the same time their surface would be agitated by violent +atmospheric currents as the heated air ascended, and was replaced +by cooler air from the outer regions of the atmosphere. Under +these circumstances the water would dissolve or wear down portions +of the newly-formed rock on which it rested. At the same time the +steam, which would be continually rising from the boiling ocean, +would descend from the upper regions of the atmosphere in the form +of rain, and bring with it in solution considerable quantities of +those elements which still existed in the form of vapour, just as +rain now brings down ammonia and carbonic acid which it has +absorbed in its passage through the atmosphere. New combinations +would thus be formed between the materials dissolved or abraded by +the ocean and those brought down by the rain. When these +combinations had reached a certain amount they would be deposited +in the form of mud upon the bed of the ocean, and thus the +earliest sedimentary rocks would be formed. As the temperature +gradually decreased, the character of these combinations would +probably be changed, and at the same time the atmosphere would be +diminished in volume and density, and become more pure by the +absorption of a large portion of its original constituents, which +would have been incorporated into various minerals. + +The earliest sedimentary rock with which we are acquainted at +present is what is known as the Laurentian formation. [Footnote: +The whole of the geological details in this section are taken from +Sir C. Lyell's Geology for Students.] It occupies an area of +200,000 square miles north of the St. Lawrence; and is also traced +into the United States and the western highlands of Scotland and +some of the adjacent isles. It is divided into two sections--the +Upper and Lower Laurentian. It is not certain that it is really +the oldest rock; for as every sedimentary rock is formed of the +debris of preceding rocks, it is very possible that all the +exposed portions of some older rocks may have been decomposed and +worn away; but it is the oldest yet known. The thickness of the +lower portion is estimated at 20,000 feet, or nearly four miles, +while the Upper Laurentian beds are 10,000 feet thick. At this +point we meet with the first traces of that process of upheaval +and subsidence which has ever since been going on in the earth. +The Lower Laurentian rocks had been displaced from their original +horizontal position before the Upper Laurentian were deposited +upon them. + +This process of upheaval of some parts of the earth, accompanied +with subsidence in other parts, is one which cannot be accounted +for by any natural laws with which we are acquainted. It is in all +probability the result of a series of changes which are taking +place in the interior of the earth, but of which we know nothing +at all. It is in the commencement of this series of changes that +we trace that direct interference of the Creator--which is +indicated by the command, "Let the waters under the firmament be +gathered together into one place, and let the dry land appear." We +have not, however, any means of ascertaining how long a period +elapsed before the process of upheaval reached the point at which +the land would rise above the surface of the ocean. + +The Lower Laurentian rocks are remarkable in another way. There is +little doubt that traces of life, the earliest yet known, occur in +them. They include a bed of limestone varying in thickness from +700 to 1500 feet. In all probability limestone, wherever it +occurs, is an animal product, though in many cases all traces of +its organization have been lost by exposure to heat. This +particular bed appears to have been formed by a very lowly +creature, which in organization was akin to the foraminifera, of +which large quantities are now known to exist at the bottom of the +Atlantic. It differed from them, however, in one respect--the +individuals were connected together, as is the case now with many +varieties of the coral animal. No notice of this first appearance +of life is found in the Mosaic Record, nor, for reasons already +given, was it possible that any mention of it should be made. + +The rocks which come next to the Laurentian in the order of time +are those known as the Cambrian. They are so called because they +constitute a large portion of the mountains of North Wales, and it +was there that their characteristics were first carefully studied +by Professor Sedgwick. In one of the strata of this formation--the +Harlech Grit--what are known as "ripple-marks" are found, proving +that parts of these rocks at the time of their deposition formed a +sea-beach, and that consequently at this time, at the latest, the +dry land had emerged from the ocean. In these rocks there are also +decided traces of Volcanic Action, which seem to indicate the +existence of a Volcano similar to the recent "Graham's Island." At +this point a considerable advance in animal life is found. The +fossils comprise several corals, varieties of mollusca, and a +class of crustaceans peculiar to the very early rocks--the +trilobites. + +On the Cambrian rocks rest the formations known as Silurian, from +the fact that they were first thoroughly examined in South Wales +(Siluria) by Sir E. Murchison. In these rocks many fresh varieties +of invertebrate fossils are found, and the vertebrata make their +first appearance, numerous remains of fishes having been +discovered. The earliest specimen was found in the Lower Ludlow +beds at Leintwardine, while the Upper Ludlow formation contains an +extensive bed composed almost entirely of fish-bones. Immediately +above this bed are found what seem to be traces of land-plants, in +the shape of the spores of a cryptogamous plant. + +The Silurian rocks are succeeded by rocks which present two +distinct characters, but are probably contemporaneous, the +Devonian and the old Red Sandstone. The former seem to have been +deposited in the bed of the sea, while the latter is a fresh-water +formation. In these decided remains of land plants are found, of +which about 200 species have at present been discovered. The old +Red Sandstone is also peculiarly rich in fossil fish. The first +signs of coal appear in this series of rocks, but on a very small +scale. + +We now come to what are known as the Carboniferous rocks, of which +the lower series is known as the mountain limestone, and above it +come the "coal measures," containing numerous beds of coal, +sometimes of great thickness. These beds have resulted entirely +from the decomposition, under peculiar circumstances, of an +enormous development of terrestrial vegetation. They seem to have +originated in vast swamps, subject to occasional flooding, and to +alternate movements of upheaval and subsidence. On these swamps +there must have existed for ages a vegetation of whose luxuriance +the richest tropical jungles of the present time can give us no +idea. They tell the tale of a time when the temperature of the +earth, was uniformly high (since coal fields are found in high +northern latitudes), when the atmosphere was charged with +moisture, and probably contained a large proportion of carbonic +acid. In the coal measures we come upon the first traces of land +animals. Several remains of reptiles have been found, as well as +footprints left on the soft mud or sand of a riverbank or sea- +beach. There seems to be no doubt that they were left by lung- +breathing animals. + +The carboniferous strata form the second of our landmarks. They +seem to point to the fulfilment of the command that the earth, +should bring forth vegetation. There is, however, one point which +requires some notice. The Mosaic account, as we read it in our +English Bibles, seems to be limited to phanerogamous plants-- +grass, the herb yielding seed, and the fruit-tree yielding fruit. +Now, it is a well-known fact that the great mass of the +vegetation, the remains of which constitute coal, consisted of +cryptogamic plants, which do not produce seed, properly so called, +but only spores; the distinction being that the spore contains the +germ and nothing more, while in the seed the germ is provided with +a store of nutriment to assist in the earlier stages of the +development of the plant. What appears to be a farther +discrepancy, the absence of any traces of the grasses, leads in +reality to the solution of the difficulty. + +The word which is translated "grass" [Hebrew script] means in +reality, any fresh sprout. Now it is remarkable that Moses +specifies three kinds of vegetation, with regard to two of which +it is noted that they produce seed, while nothing is said of the +seed of the remaining class. Grass too, is really a herb bearing +seed, and, as such would be included in the second class, and +there would have been no occasion, to mention it separately. It +would appear then that the first class consisted of seedless +plants, i. e. of the cryptogamia. This conclusion is strengthened +when we turn to verses 29 and 30. If the word [Hebrew script] were +correctly translated "grass," we should certainly expect to find +it in those verses, since the grasses contribute more to the food +of both man and beast, than all the other herbaceous plants put +together. This omission then, is an indication that the word, as +used in this chapter, denotes a class of plants which are not +commonly employed for food, and this condition also is fulfilled +in the cryptogamia. + +There are then four special points in this period, of which two +seem to correspond with the Mosaic record, while the other two are +unnoticed in it. The two points of correspondence are the upheaval +of the dry land, and the prevalence of a very abundant and +luxuriant Flora. As in the case of the fifth and sixth days, the +words used with reference to land plants seem to denote a period +of remarkable development, rather than the first appearance. The +two points unnoticed are the beginnings of animal and vegetable +life. In the case of animal life the omission has already been +accounted for. The beginning of vegetable life was probably +contemporaneous with that of animal life, for each is necessary to +the other, since the food of the animal must be prepared by the +vegetable, and after being used by the former returns to a state +in which it is fitted for the nourishment of the latter. As animal +life commenced in the ocean, so in all probability did vegetable +life, though no certain traces of it are found in the earliest +rocks; but this is easily accounted for by the very perishable +character of the simpler forms of algae. Like the earliest +animals, the first algae were probably microscopic plants, and the +omission of any mention of them was therefore inevitable. + +One characteristic of cryptogamic vegetation is important for its +bearing on the work of the fourth day. Almost all the phanerogamic +plants are dependent for their development upon the direct light +and heat of the sun. Deprived of these they either perish +entirely, or make an unhealthy growth, and produce little or no +fruit. But the cryptogamia, in general, thrive best when they are +protected from the direct rays of the sun. They nourish in a +diffused light, and with abundant atmospheric moisture. And so we +find them at this time doing what seems a very important work in +the progress of the world. By taking up and decomposing the excess +of carbonic acid which at this time probably existed in the +atmosphere, they at once purified that atmosphere, and rendered it +fit for the respiration of more highly organized creatures, and +laid up in the earth an invaluable store of fuel for the future +use of man. The other orders of vegetation seem to have existed in +very small proportions at this time, and only in their lower +forms. As the conditions of the earth changed, the cryptogamia +seemed to have dwindled away, while higher forms of vegetation +asserted their supremacy. It is not, however, improbable that a +special development at a much later period is indicated by the +mention in the second chapter of the formation of the garden of +Eden. + +SECTION 7. THE FOURTH DAY. + +"And God said, Let there be luminaries in the firmament of heaven +to divide between the day and the night, and let them be for signs +and for seasons, and for days and for years. + +"And let them be for luminaries in the firmament of heaven to give +light upon the earth; and it was so. + +"And God made the two luminaries, the great ones; the luminary, +the great one, to rule over the day, and the luminary, the small +one, to rule over the night, and also the stars. + +"And God gave them in the firmament of heaven to give light upon +the earth. + +"And to rule over the day and over the night, and to divide +between the light and between the darkness; and God saw that it +was good. + +"And there was evening, and there was morning, a fourth day." + +This day's work differs from that of the preceding and succeeding +days, in the fact that its sphere was without the earth, which was +only indirectly influenced by it, and consequently the geological +records give us no direct information upon the subject, though in +two points they tally with the Mosaical account. In the first +place, the deposits of coal, which preceded this period, indicate +a time when a nearly uniform temperature, and that a high one, +prevailed throughout the world. The coal beds are found not only +in tropical regions, but in very high latitudes. Not only is the +vegetation of which these coalfields are the result, analogous to +that which is now found in warm climates only--(this might be the +case, and yet we should not be justified in drawing the inference +that the actual species of plants were tropical, for it often +happens that different species of the same genus, having +considerable external resemblance, are very different in their +habits, some requiring tropical heat, while others flourish only +in temperate climates)--but the marked feature is the astonishing +luxuriance of this vegetation, which could only have been +developed under the most favourable circumstances of warmth and +moisture. Now the heat which any particular portion of the earth's +surface receives from the sun depends entirely upon the latitude. +hence it is impossible that a uniform high temperature could exist +in a world which derived its heat wholly or chiefly from that +source. Whether the high temperature which prevailed on the earth +during the deposition of the coal measures was derived from +internal heat it is impossible to say; it is evident that the +temperature of the earth's surface has been in past times, and +perhaps is now, modified by causes which no scientific research +has been enabled to detect [Footnote: Since the sun's secular +motion has been known, astronomers have suggested that the solar +system has been carried through portions of space having variable +temperatures. Geologists, however, do not seem inclined to accept +this as a sufficient reason for the phenomena observed.]. But we +may safely conclude that during the third day the earth did not +derive its heat from the sun. The second point, the barrenness of +the geological records of this period, will be noticed hereafter. + +The record of the fourth day's work admits of two interpretations, +it may describe things merely as they appeared, or as they +actually occurred. + +1. It is possible that the events of the fourth day may be +described phenomenally--that up to this period the state of things +on the earth had been to a great extent similar to that which we +have reason to believe is still existing in the planet Jupiter- +that the atmosphere was so charged with vapour that no direct rays +from the heavenly bodies could penetrate it; but that at this +time, owing to the declining heat, a great part of the aqueous +constituents of this vapour had been precipitated in the form of +rain, while other vapours had entered into chemical combinations +with other elements to form the various minerals of the earth's +surface, and the atmosphere had become first translucent, and then +transparent. While this process was going on, no direct light from +the sun, supposing it to be already in existence, could penetrate +the veil. Diffused light only could reach the earth's surface, but +when the atmosphere became clear the sun, moon, and stars would +become visible. + +Against this view several objections may be brought. In the first +place, as has been already noticed, we cannot treat the account of +the Creation as derived from ordinary human sources. Either it is +a revelation from the Creator or it is nothing. Now we can readily +admit that a man, speaking of an event which lie had witnessed, +but did not understand, would describe it as it appeared to him, +but we cannot admit this supposition when the work is described by +the Great Artificer Himself. In the next place, the temperature of +the earth's surface must in this case have been affected by the +sun, and must therefore have been more or less dependent upon +latitude--and in the third place the distinction between day and +night must have come into operation, whereas the narrative implies +that it was yet incomplete. + +2. The other possible interpretation is, that at this period the +concentration of light and heat in the sun was so far completed +that he became the luminary of the system, which had hitherto +derived its light and heat from other sources. Probably, for a +long time, the internal heat of the planets may have been so great +that they were a light to themselves. This state of things, +however, must have come to an end before animal or vegetable life +could have existed on their surface, but other ways exist, and are +in operation in other parts of the universe, by which light and +heat might have been supplied independently of the sun. That light +which is now gathered up in the sun might for a long time have +existed as a nebulous ring, similar to the well-known Ring Nebula +in Lyra. Any planets existing within such a ring would probably +derive from it sufficient light and heat. Or the nebulous matter, +in a luminous state, while slowly advancing to concentration, +might as yet have been so diffused as to fill a space in which the +earth's orbit was included. In either case the earth would have +received a uniform diffused light, without any alternations of +night and day. It is of course impossible that we should be able +to say whether there are any worlds in which such a state of +things prevails at present. Up to this time, with one possible +exception, [Footnote: "Sirius is accompanied by a 10 mag. star, +whose existence was suspected (like that of Neptune), long before +its discovery by Alvan Clark in 1861, from the irregular movements +of its primary. But though it appears so small, its disturbing +effects can only be accounted for on the supposition that its mass +is at least half that of Sirius, in which case its light must be +very faint, possibly wholly reflected." (Webb's Celestial Objects, +p. 202.)] the only worlds which the telescope has revealed to us, +beyond the limits of our own system, are self-luminous. No +reflected light is strong enough to make its existence perceptible +at such enormous distances in the most powerful telescope which +has yet been constructed. + +There are some facts connected with our own system which make it +appear not improbable that up to the time of which we are speaking +the light which is now gathered up in the sun was diffused over a +space in which at all events the earth's orbit was included. It is +now a recognized fact that all the light of the system is not as +yet wholly concentrated in the sun, as we generally recognize it, +but that to some extent the sun is still a nebulous star. Under +ordinary circumstances we see only that circular disc, which we +usually recognize as the sun. Its surpassing brightness overpowers +every thing else, whether we view it with the unaided eye or +through the telescope. But when the actual disc is hidden from us +by the moon in a total eclipse, other regions of light surrounding +the disc, make their appearance, and in them the most wonderful +processes are continually going on. The simultaneous discoveries +of Messrs. Lockyer and Janssen, in 1868, have enabled some of +these processes to be continuously watched when the sun is not +eclipsed, but others can as yet only be seen during the few +minutes (never amounting to seven) which a total eclipse lasts, so +that as yet we know very little of them. + +Immediately surrounding the disc of the sun, which is visible to +the naked eye, is a brilliant ring of light, known now as the +chromosphere or sierra. This is the region which till 1868 could +be seen only during total eclipses, but can now be watched at all +times by means of the spectroscope. In it symptoms of intense +action are from time to time witnessed. For many years past, +whenever a total eclipse occurred, there were observed on the edge +of this ring certain red prominences. The spectroscope has +revealed their nature. They consist chiefly of enormous volumes of +hydrogen, ejected from the surface of the sun with a velocity +almost inconceivable, and at the same time revolving about their +axis after the fashion of a cyclone. [Footnote: Popular Science +Review, January, 1872, p. 150; Look. Byer's Lecture on the Sun, at +Manchester, 1871.] A very remarkable instance of this was observed +in America in September 1871, by Professor Young. A mass of +incandescent hydrogen was propelled to a height of 200,000 miles +above the visible disc; of these the last 100,000 miles were +passed through in 10 minutes. Such events, though not commonly on +so vast a scale, are continually occurring on the surface of the +sun, and they seem to be in close connexion with the magnetic +phenomena occurring on the earth. + +Beyond the chromosphere lies the corona. The spectroscope has not +yet rendered this visible at all times, and consequently we are +dependent upon the information to be obtained during the few +minutes of total eclipses, when alone it is visible. Consequently +during recent solar eclipses this has been the point to which the +attention of astronomers has been especially devoted. The eclipse +of December, 1870, decided one point, that the corona was a truly +solar phenomenon, and not, as some astronomers imagined, an +optical phenomenon, produced by our own atmosphere. The corona +presents the appearance of nebulous light, fading as it becomes +more remote from the sun, of very irregular outline, at some +points not extending more than 15', at others as much as 60' or +70' from the sun's disc, or, in other words, reaching to distances +from the sun's surface varying from 400,000 to 1,800,000 miles. +More important information has been obtained from the eclipse of +December 12,1871. It is now ascertained that the corona comprises +not only gaseous elements, especially hydrogen, but also solid or +fluid particles, capable of giving a continuous though very faint +spectrum with dark lines, indicating the existence of matter +capable of reflecting light. The character of the coronal spectrum +very much resembles that of the Nebula in Draco, No. 4373. The +ascertained extent of the corona exceeds a million of miles above +the surface of the sun, and it seems probable that the Zodiacal +light is only a fainter extension of it. [Footnote: Popular +Science Review, April, 1872, pp. 136-146.] + +On a clear evening in the early spring months, as soon as twilight +is completely ended, a conical streak of light may be sometimes +seen, arising' from the western horizon, and extending through an +arc of 60 or 70 degrees, nearly in the direction of the Ecliptic, +and finally terminating in a point. This is the Zodiacal light. In +tropical climates it is seen much more frequently, [Footnote: +Humboldt, Kosmos, vol. i. p. 126 (Bohu's edition).] and is much +more brilliant than in England. This then is probably an envelope +of still fainter light than the corona. It must extend beyond the +orbit of Venus, as the maximum elongation of Venus is 47 degrees, +while the Zodiacal light has been traced for 70 degrees, and +probably farther. It is very possible that the earth is +occasionally involved in it, and that from it we derive that +diffused light which, though faint, is very serviceable to us on a +starless evening, and of which no other account has as yet been +given. The light we receive in this way is often as powerful as +that which we should receive from the stars if they were not +hidden by clouds. + +These phenomena seem to point to the conclusion that the +condensation of light in the sun has been a very gradual process, +which is even yet incomplete. If we suppose that at the time of +the formation of the coal measures it was not far advanced, but +that a diffused light extended beyond the orbit of the earth, +similar in some respects to the present Zodiacal light, but equal +in intensity to the light which we now see in the corona, the +phenomena of the third day will be satisfactorily accounted for. +There is, however, still an enormous amount of mystery connected +with the sun. It is the centre from which an inconceivable amount +of force in the shape of light, heat, actinism, and probably other +manifestations, is hourly poured forth. If the whole of that force +were divided into two thousand million parts, the portion received +by the earth would be represented by one of those parts, and the +whole amount received by all the planets would fall short of +twelve of them. All the rest is radiated away into space, and so +far as we know at present lost to the system. The question then +arises, "How is this enormous expenditure supplied?" Various +sources of heat have been suggested, but none of them seem +satisfactory. One conceivable source there is, but that lies out +of the domain of science. Then again, metals, which only our most +powerful furnaces will even melt, exist in the sun's atmosphere in +the state of vapour. What must be the intensity of the heat which +underlies that metallic atmosphere? and what can be the solid or +fluid substances which, from the continuity of the spectrum, we +know must exist there? + +We turn now to the Mosaic Record to see what light it throws upon +and receives from this investigation. The first thing to be +noticed is that the word used by Moses for the sun and moon is not +the same as that employed to denote light. It properly signifies a +light-holder, such as a candlestick, and harmonizes with the view +that the sun in his original state was not luminous, but was made +a luminary by the condensation of light previously existent under +other conditions. In the next place, though the apparent +dimensions of the sun and moon are the same, Moses correctly +describes the one as "the great light," the other as "the little +light," thus indicating a knowledge to which the astronomers of +his day had probably not attained. + +The relation between the accounts of the first and fourth day's +work becomes clear if we assume that the sun was not made a +luminary till the fourth day. The division of night and day +depends upon two things, the rotation of the earth upon its axis, +and the concentration of light in the sun. Hence when the rotation +of the earth commenced that division was potentially provided for, +but the provision would not take effect until the second condition +was fulfilled by the concentration of light in the sun. The +indications given by the coal measures point, as we have seen, to +the same conclusion. + +The only remaining question is "What was going on in the earth at +the same time?" Our materials for answering this question are but +scanty. So great an alteration in the sources of light and heat +must have involved great physical changes on the earth's surface, +and there is reason to believe that great mechanical forces were +at work producing vast changes in the relations of land and water. +"It has long been the opinion of the most eminent geologists that +the coalfields of Lancashire and Yorkshire were once united, the +upper coal measures and the overlying Millstone Grit and Toredale +Bocks having been subsequently removed by denudation; but what is +remarkable is the ancient date now assigned to this denudation, +for it seems that a thickness of no less than 10,000 feet of the +coal measures had been carried away before the deposition of even +the lower Permian Rocks, which were thrown down upon the already +disturbed truncated edges of the coal strata." [Footnote: Lyell, +Geology for Students, p. 377.] And this is but a single instance. + +During the interval between the deposition of the coal measures, +which seem to belong to the third, and the Saurian remains which +mark the fifth day, we have the Permian and Triassic Rocks, of +which the Magnesian. Limestone and the new Red Sandstone are the +most important representatives in England. Till a very recent +period it was thought that these rocks belonged to a period +remarkably destitute of animal life, very few fossils having been +found in them. Recently, however, some very rich deposits have +been found in the Tyrol, belonging to this period, but they are +only local. + +Of the Permian formation Sir C. Lyell says, "Not one of the +species (of fossils) is common to rocks newer than the +Palaeozoic." [Footnote: Geology for Students, p. 369.] This was +not then a time for the origination of new forms of life. In the +Trias, however, the new development of life, which was to attain +its full dimensions on the fifth day, begins to open upon us. The +earliest Saurian fossils are found, and the rocks still present us +with impressions of the feet of reptiles and birds, which walked +over the soft seashore, and left footprints, which were first +dried and hardened by the sun and wind, and then filled up with +fresh sand by the returning tide, but never entirely coalesced +with the new material. + +At the close of this period the first traces of mammalian life +occur, in the shape of teeth, which are supposed to have belonged +to some small Marsupial quadrupeds, and in America the whole lower +jaws of three such animals have been discovered; but no other +remains have as yet been traced. + +The Trias then seems to mark the boundary between the fourth and +fifth days. The fourth day seems to have been on the earth a +period of great change, not only in physical conditions, but also +in the forms of life. In the latter point of view, however, it +seems to have been marked by the passing-away of old forms much +more than by the origination of new ones, and hence the barrenness +of the Geological Records is in exact accordance with the silence +of the Mosaic Record as to any new developments. + +SECTION 8. THE FIFTH DAY + +"And God said. Let the waters swarm swarms, the soul of life, and +let fowl fly above the earth in the face of the firmament of +heaven. + +"And God created the monsters, the great ones, and every soul of +life that creepeth, with which the waters swarmed, after their +kind, and every winged fowl after his kind; and God saw that it +was good. + +"And God blessed them, saying, Be fruitful and multiply, and fill +the waters in the sea, and let fowl multiply on the earth. + +"And there was evening, and there was morning, a fifth day." + +The fifth and sixth days of Creation are those to which the theory +of development chiefly refers. It will, therefore, be better to +defer the consideration of its bearing on the narrative till the +relation of that narrative to Geological facts has been +considered, since it can only be thoroughly weighed when taken in +connexion with the facts which belong to the two days. + +The beginning of the fifth day may be assigned to a point near +where the Trias is succeeded by the Lias. As the Trias is drawing +to its close, the class of reptiles, whose first known appearance +belongs to the carboniferous epoch of the third day, begins to +show signs of advance. The first true Saurians are found in the +Trias: the great development takes place in the Lias and Oolite, +while in the chalk large quantities of kindred remains are found, +which, however, are not identical with the species found in the +earlier groups. Of these some were probably almost entirely +aquatic, as their limbs take the form of paddles; others were +purely terrestrial, a large proportion were amphibious, and some, +as the pterodactylus, bore the same relation to the rest of their +class as the bats bear to the other mammalia, being furnished with +membranous wings, supported upon a special development of the +anterior limbs. One important characteristic of the race at this +time was the great size of many of its members: thirty feet is by +no means an uncommon length. This marks the fitness of the name +given to the class by Moses. + +Very few actual remains of birds have been found; but this is not +surprising, since birds would rarely be exposed to the conditions +which were essential to the fossilization of their remains. The +earliest known fossil bird is the Archaeopteryx, the remains of +which were found in 1862 in the Solenhofen Slates, which belong to +the Oolite formation. Though the actual remains of birds are very +few, traces of their footprints have been found in many places, +from the New Red Sandstone upwards, and these traces prove not +only that they were very numerous, but also that they attained to +a gigantic size, as their feet were sometimes from twelve to +fifteen inches in length, and their stride extended from six to +eight feet. During this period, then, these two classes must have +been the dominant races of the earth. As the precursors of these +classes made their appearance at a much earlier period, so the +epoch of birds and reptiles witnessed the beginning and gradual +advance of the class which was to succeed them in the foremost +place--the mammalia. Generally, however, the mammalian remains of +this period belong to what are considered the lower classes--the +monotremata and marsupialia. The close of this period must have +been a time of great disturbance in the Northern Hemisphere, since +the chalk which runs through a great part of Northern Europe, and +frequently attains a thickness of 1000 feet, must have been +deposited at the bottom of a deep sea, and subsequently elevated. + +SECTION 9. THE SIXTH DAY. + +1. The Mammalia. + +"And God said, Let the earth cause to go forth the soul of life, +cattle, and creeping thing, and the beast of the earth (wild +animals) after his kind; and it was so. + +"And God made the beast of the earth after his kind, and cattle +after their kind, and every creeping thing of the ground after his +kind; and God saw that it was good." + +In these two verses there are one or two points which call for +notice. In the first place, the creatures mentioned are divided +into three classes, of which two, cattle and the beast of the +earth, are tolerably clear in their general significance, though +their extent is not determined. The third is denoted by a word +which had already been employed to describe the work of the fifth +day, and is translated in our version "creeping thing." The +probability seems to be that it has reference to such classes of +animals as the smaller rodentia, and the mustelidas, whose motions +may be appropriately described by the word "creeping." That it +denotes four-footed creatures has already been pointed out. The +next point is, that in each case the singular is used; in the case +of the domestic animals this fact is lost to the English reader by +the use of the collective noun "cattle." Of course it is a common +usage, to denote a class of animals by a singular noun used +generically, but the statements of the passage would also be +justified if one pair only of each of the three types specified +were called into existence at first. It is also to be noticed that +while the word [Hebrew script], the earth is used to define the +wild beast; another word, [Hebrew script] the ground, is applied +to the "creeping thing." There is probably a reason for this, +though it may not at present be apparent. + +When we turn to the Geological record, we find that the period of +the chalk was followed by the deposition of the tertiary strata. +During the upheaval of the chalk these strata seem to have been +gradually laid down in its hollows, and around its edges. They +extend from the London clay upward to the crag formations which +appear on the Eastern coast of England at intervals from +Bridlington to Suffolk. In these strata we see signs of an +approach to the existing state of things. As we ascend through +them, a gradually increasing number of the fossil shells are found +to be specifically identical with those which at present inhabit +the ocean. + +Another characteristic of this period is the abundance of fossil +remains of mammalia; but in this case, although the remains are +evidently, in many cases, those of creatures nearly allied to +those now existing, they are not identical, very great +modifications both of bulk and of minor structural details having +taken place. One very important point of difference is the vastly +superior bulk of these ancient animals: a good illustration of +which may be seen in the skeletons of the mammoth and of the +modern elephant, which are placed near each other in the British +Museum. Many of these animals appear not to have become extinct +till long after the appearance of man. + +The first appearance of mammalia, as has been already noticed, +must have been long before this, as the earliest fossils yet found +are at the lower limit of the Lias. They belong, however, to the +genus Marsupialia, of which, as far as we know, no representatives +were in existence in any part of the world known to Moses, so that +even on the supposition that he intended to give an account of the +first appearance of the classes of animals which he mentions, the +omission of these would have been inevitable. His words, however, +appear to point to a time when the mammalia occupied the leading +place, just as the reptiles had occupied the leading place at a +previous epoch. And his words are fully borne out by the records +of the rocks. + +At the close of the tertiary period great changes once more took +place in the Northern hemisphere. There was a great and extensive +subsidence, in consequence of which a large portion of Northern +and Middle Europe must have been under water, the mountain summits +only appearing as detached islands. At the same time, from causes +utterly unknown to us, there was a great depression of +temperature, the result of which was, that all, or nearly all the +land, in those regions which were not submerged, was covered with +glaciers, much as Greenland is now, and from these glaciers vast +icebergs must from time to time have been detached by the sea and +floated off, carrying with them fragments of rock, some freshly +broken, some rounded by long attrition, which were deposited on +the then submerged lands as the ice melted, and are now found as +boulders, sometimes lying on the surface, at others dispersed +through beds of clay and sand formed under water from the debris +worn down by the glaciers. A subsequent movement of elevation +ushered in the state of things which exists on the earth at the +present time. + +2. Man. + +"And God said, Let Us make man (Adam) in Our image after Our +likeness; and he shall have dominion over the fish of the sea, and +over the fowl of the heaven, and over the cattle, and over all the +earth, and over every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth. + +"And God created man (the Adam) in His image, in the image of God +created He him; male and female He created them. + +"And God blessed them, and God said to them, Be fruitful and +multiply, and fill the earth and subdue it; and rule over the fish +of the sea, and the fowl of the heaven, and over every animal that +creepeth upon the earth. + +"And God said, Behold, I have given you every herb seeding seed, +which is upon the face of all the earth, and every tree which has +in it the fruit of a tree seeding seed; to you it shall be for +food. + +"And to every animal of the earth, and to every fowl of the +heaven, and to every thing that creepeth upon the earth, in which +is the soul of life, every green herb is for meat; and it was so. + +"And God saw every thing--which He had made, and behold it was +good exceedingly. + +"And there was evening and there was morning, the sixth day." + +The terms in which the Creation of man is spoken of are such as to +challenge particular attention and to induce us to expect +something very different from what occurred on any previous +occasion. In the first place, more agents than one are introduced +by the use of the plural form of the verb, and thus at the very +commencement of man's career there is an intimation of that +mysterious fact of the Trinity in Unity which was to have so +important an influence upon his future destiny. Then we are told +that man was to be formed in the Image of God, a statement which +probably is of very wide import. It has been variously interpreted +as having reference to the spiritual, moral, and intellectual +nature of man; to the fact that the nature of man was afterwards +to be assumed by the Second Person of the Trinity; to the +delegated empire of this world which man was to hold. There are +two expressions of St. Paul: that "man is the image and glory of +God" (1 Cor. xi. 7), and that "the invisible things of Him from +the creation of the world are clearly seen, being understood by +the things that are made, even His eternal Power and Godhead" +(Rom. i. 20), which seem to indicate that this record has a +significance which as yet we can only partially understand. Then +the story of man's creation is repeated in the second chapter, and +while the other events recorded in the first chapter are very +briefly summarized, that of man is very much amplified. This does +riot necessarily indicate an independent account, as is sometimes +asserted; at the fourth verse of the second chapter a distinct +portion of revelation commences--the special dealing of God with +man, and this could not be intelligible without an amount of +detail with reference to man's origin, which would have been out +of place in the short account of the origin of the world by which +it is preceded. In this account the creation of Adam and Eve is +recorded as two separate events, the latter of which is described +in terms of deep mystery, of which all that we can say is that +they point to that still deeper mystery--the birth of the Bride-- +the Lamb's Wife from the pierced side of the Lamb. But in the case +of Adam there is a remarkable difference from anything that has +gone before. Two distinct acts of creation are recorded; one of +which places man before us in his physical relation to the lower +animals, while the other treats of him in his spiritual relation +to his Maker. "The Lord God formed man (the Adam) dust from the +ground (adamah), and breathed into his nostrils the breath of +lives; and man became a soul of life." The inspiration of the +"breath of lives" distinguishes the creation of man from that of +all other creatures. + +The Geological records harmonize exactly with the Bible as to the +date of man's appearance on the earth. It is towards the close of +the age of gigantic mammalia, that the earliest remains of man's +workmanship make their appearance in the shape of tools and +weapons rudely fashioned from stone. Parts of human skeletons have +also been occasionally found, but they are exceedingly rare. +Weapons and bones are alike confined to superficial, and +comparatively very recent formations. From such traces as have +been found there is no reason to believe that any physical changes +of importance have taken place in man's body since his first +appearance on the earth. The differences which do exist are of the +same kind as, and not greater than, the differences which exist +between individuals at present. + +The gift of dominion over the lower animals seems to indicate +something different from that which gives one animal superiority +over another, and accordingly we find that it is not by physical +power that that dominion is exercised; but that in most of his +physical faculties man is inferior to the very animals which he +holds in subjection. It is partly in virtue of his intellectual +superiority, and partly perhaps by means of an instinctive +recognition on the part of the animals of man's higher nature +(Gen. ix. 2) that that supremacy is maintained. + +SECTION 10. DEVELOPMENT. + +We have now to consider the question of development, in reference +to the Mosaic Record of the last two days, and to the known facts +to which that record has relation. The account of the third day's +work has also a bearing on the subject, but as the same +considerations will to a great extent apply to animals and to +plants, it will not be necessary to make any special reference to +it. + +The facts in favour of the theory of development are these:--1. +The different classes of plants and animals are not separated by +broad lines of demarcation, but shade insensibly into each other. +2. The characteristics of the same species are not constant; the +lion, for instance, the horse, the elephant, and the hyena of the +present day differ in many minor points from the corresponding +animals of the Tertiary period, so that unless there was a +possibility of spontaneous change, we must assume successive +creations of animals, with only trivial differences. 3. In all +animals there are minute individual differences, and if under any +circumstances these differences had a tendency to accumulate, they +might in the course of time result in great structural +modifications. 4. Man has been able to take advantage of this fact +and by careful selection to mould the breeds of domestic animals +to a certain extent in accordance with his own wishes. + +The theory of development assumes that for the care of man other +forces might be substituted, which in a long course of ages might +result in changes of far greater extent than those produced by +human agency. The forces assigned are natural selection and sexual +selection. The difficulties in the way of this hypothesis have +been already considered, and only require to be briefly re-stated. + +1. As regards modifications of organs already existing, the two +alleged causes are insufficient to account for the results which +we witness, since in each individual case the concurrence of many +contingent causes, continued through a long series of ages, is +required to produce the result. But the probabilities against +such, a concurrence in any one case are enormous, and against +their concurrence in a large number of cases the chances are +practically infinite. + +2. That such causes do not at all account for cases in which an +entirely new organ is developed, such as mammary glands--or for +the case of man, in which intellectual superiority is accompanied +by a loss of physical power. + +3. That from the nature of the case it is impossible for us to +ascertain that natural or sexual selection has ever acted to +produce a single modification, however small, and that the results +of man's superintendence have not as yet passed beyond certain +narrow limits, so that there is no justification for the +assumption that such modifications are capable of being carried to +an unlimited extent. + +We see that in the only case in which change is known to have been +brought about, it has been the result of choice and design. If +then there is a probability that choice and design may have been +exercised by a power higher than man, there is no longer any +reason to doubt but that results much greater than any to which +man can attain may have been brought about by the same means. And +in fact the advocates of the theory of development do virtually +admit the existence and action of such a power, whenever they have +recourse to assumed "laws" to account for phenomena for which +their naked theory can give no reason. For, as has been shown, +law, if it is to be assigned as an efficient cause, and not merely +as the statement of observed facts, can only be regarded as the +expressed and enforced will of a higher power. And there was no +reason why those minute variations themselves, which are the basis +of Mr. Darwin's hypothesis, should be considered casual. Instead +then of natural selection, or sexual selection, let us suppose +that the selection took place under the superintending care of the +Creator, and was directed towards the carrying out of His designs, +and then we shall have no reason to doubt but that all results +which consisted only in the modification of existing organs may +have been obtained by the operation of those laws which we term +natural, because they express modes of operation with which we are +so familiar that we look upon them as automatic. + +But there are other results for which no natural laws with which +we are acquainted will thus account. Just as no mechanical laws +within our knowledge will account for the rotation of the earth, +so no physiological laws yet discovered will account for the +changes when totally new orders of being came on the stage--when +the course of life took, as it were, a new point of departure. But +it is precisely at these points that the Mosaic Record points to a +special interference on the part of the Creator. How that +interference took place we are not informed. Very possibly it may +have been the result of other laws which lie wholly out of the +reach of our powers of observation. But whatever may have been its +character, it does not in any way imply change or defect in the +original plan, unless we know, (what we do not know, and cannot +ascertain) that such interference formed no part of the original +design. Everything bears the marks of progressive development, and +there is nothing improbable, but rather the reverse, in the +supposition that such a plan should include special steps of +advance to be made when the preparation for them was completed. + +The Mosaic Record tells us nothing about the method by which God +created the different varieties of plants and animals. All that we +read there is just as applicable to a process of evolution, as to +any other method which we may be able to imagine. But it is +remarkable that what Moses does say is just what is required to +make Mr. Darwin's theory possible. So far then as the lower orders +of creation are concerned, the hypothesis of development, modified +by the admission of uniform superintendence and occasional special +interferences on the part of the Creator, may be accepted as being +the most satisfactory explanation that can be given, in the +present state of physiological science, of the Scriptural +Narrative. + +But we have yet to consider this hypothesis as applied to man in +Mr. Darwin's latest work. We naturally recoil from the thought +that we have sprung from some lower race of animals--that we are +only the descendants of some race of anthropoid apes. So long as +it is asserted that we are no more than this, we may well be +reluctant to admit the suggestion. But if it be admitted that to a +physical nature formed like the bodies of the lower animals, a +special spiritual gift may have been superadded, the difficulty +vanishes. All Mr. Darwin's arguments with reference to physical +resemblances may then be admitted, and we may allow that he has +given a probable explanation of the method by which "the Lord God +formed the Adam, dust from the ground" while we maintain that the +intellectual and moral faculties of man are derived from a source +which lies beyond the investigations of science. + +The conclusions to be drawn from this investigation may be briefly +summed up as follows:-- + +1. There is every reason to conclude that the process of Creation +was carried on, in great part, under the operation of the system +of natural laws which we still see acting in the world around us: +such laws being so far as we are concerned only an expression of +an observed uniformity in the action of that Being by whom the +Universe was created and is upheld. + +2. That inasmuch as the development of a new state of things +differs from the maintenance of a condition already existing, the +working of these laws was necessarily from time to time +supplemented by special interferences of the Creator, but that +such interferences formed parts of the original design, and are +not indications of anything in the shape of change or failure. + +3. That many of the events recorded in the Mosaic Record are of +the nature of such special interferences, while others point to +remarkable developments of particular forms of organic life. + +4. That these interferences thus recorded occur at the exact +points at which natural laws, so far as science has yet been able +to ascertain them, are inadequate to produce the phenomena which +then took place, and that the developments are proved by geology +to have taken place at the points indicated. + +5. That the six days into which the work is divided by Moses do +correspond to the probable order of development--that in three of +them, the third, fifth, and sixth, this correspondence is marked +by facts ascertained by Geology--that the fourth, in which no +terrestrial phenomenon is recorded, corresponds to a very long +period in the Geological record in which no indications of any new +development are found--while the first and second indicate a state +of things which the nebular hypothesis renders highly probable, +but of which no positive information is within the reach of +science. + +Admitting then that there is something in the way in which the +days are spoken of which we are at present unable to understand, +we may yet confidently assert that such a record could not have +been the product of man's thought at the period at which it was +written. It is utterly impossible that it should have been the +result of a series of fortunate conjectures without any foundation +to rest upon, and scientific foundation there was none, for there +is every reason to believe that the sciences which might perchance +now supply some foundation are entirely the growth of the last +three centuries. There is then only one conclusion that we can +draw, that it is a revelation from the Creator Himself, and that +if there is anything in it which seems inexplicable or erroneous, +that appearance arises from our own ignorance of facts, and not +from any error on the part of the Author. + + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 4598 *** diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..c5a76bb --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #4598 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/4598) diff --git a/old/4598.txt b/old/4598.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2418a53 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/4598.txt @@ -0,0 +1,5355 @@ +The Project Gutenberg Etext of The Story of Creation as told by Theology and by Science +by T. S. Ackland + +Copyright laws are changing all over the world. Be sure to check the +copyright laws for your country before downloading or redistributing +this or any other Project Gutenberg file. + +Please do not remove this header information. + +This header should be the first thing seen when anyone starts to +view the eBook. Do not change or edit it without written permission. +The words are carefully chosen to provide users with the information +needed to understand what they may and may not do with the eBook. +To encourage this, we have moved most of the information to the end, +rather than having it all here at the beginning. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**eBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!***** + +Information on contacting Project Gutenberg to get eBooks, and +further information, is included below. We need your donations. + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a 501(c)(3) +organization with EIN [Employee Identification Number] 64-6221541 +Find out about how to make a donation at the bottom of this file. + + +Title: The Story of Creation as told by Theology and by Science + +Author: T. S. Ackland + +Release Date: October, 2003 [Etext #4598] +[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule] +[This file was first posted on February 13, 2002] + +Edition: 10 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +The Project Gutenberg Etext of The Story of Creation as told by Theology and by Science +by T. S. Ackland +******This file should be named 4598.txt or 4598.zip****** + +Project Gutenberg eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the US +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we usually do not +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + +The "legal small print" and other information about this book +may now be found at the end of this file. Please read this +important information, as it gives you specific rights and +tells you about restrictions in how the file may be used. + +*** +Robert Rowe, Charles Franks and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team. + +THE STORY OF CREATION AS TOLD BY THEOLOGY AND BY SCIENCE. + +BY T. S. ACKLAND, M.A., + +FORMERLY FELLOW OF CLARE COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE; VICAR OF WOLD NEWTON, +YORKSHIRE. + +"SIRS, YE ARE BRETHREN: WHY DO YE WRONG ONE TO ANOTHER?" + + + + + +CONTENTS. + + +CHAPTER I. THE CASE STATED +CHAPTER II. DIFFICULTIES IN GEOLOGY +CHAPTER III. DIFFICULTIES IN ASTRONOMY +CHAPTER IV. DIFFICULTIES IN PHYSIOLOGY +CHAPTER V. SCIENCE A HELP TO INTERPRETATION + + + + + +CHAPTER I. + +THE CASE STATED. + + +The History of the Creation with which the Bible commences, is not +a mere incidental appendage to God's Revelation, but constitutes +the foundation on which the whole of that Revelation is based. +Setting forth as it does the relation in which man stands to God +as his Maker, and to the world which God formed for his abode, it +forms a necessary introduction to all that God has seen fit to +reveal to us with reference to His dispensations of Providence and +of Grace. + +It is, however, not uncommonly asserted that this history cannot +be reconciled with a vast number of facts which modern science has +revealed to us, and with theories based on observed facts, and +recommended by the unquestioned ability of the men by whom they +have been brought forward. At first sight there does seem to be +some ground for this assertion. Geology, for instance, makes us +acquainted with strata of rock of various kinds, arranged in exact +order, and of an aggregate thickness of many miles, which are +filled with the remains of a wonderful series of plants and +animals, these remains not being promiscuously collected, but +arranged in an unvarying order. It seems impossible that all these +plants and animals could have lived and died, and been imbedded in +the rocks in this exact succession, in six of our ordinary days. +Astronomy directs our attention to changes now going on in the +starry heavens which occupy ages in their development, and points +to traces in the constitution of our own world which seem to +indicate that it was formed by analogous means. Physiology reveals +to us the fact that the different varieties of plants and animals +now in existence are not separated from each other by well defined +lines of demarcation, but shade into each other by almost +imperceptible gradations; and geological researches show that +while the existing species of animals are the representatives of +those which lived and died at a period in which we can find no +traces of man, they are not identical with them, but that either +the old species must have died out, and been replaced by a fresh +creation, or a considerable change must have taken place in the +course of ages. These facts are held to be incompatible with the +account of creation given by Moses, and hence it is inferred that +a record, which appears to be so widely at variance with admitted +facts, cannot be entitled to the authority which is claimed for +it, as a fundamental portion of a Revelation made by the Creator +Himself. + +This difficulty is sometimes met by the assertion that the Bible +was not given to us to teach us Science, but to convey to us +certain information which was essential to our moral welfare, and +which we could not obtain by any other means; that these +discrepancies do not in any way interfere with that portion of +those truths which is involved in the History of Creation, but +that, however the narrative may be viewed as far as regards its +details, the facts that God is the Creator of all things visible +and invisible, that He is a Being of infinite Wisdom, Power, and +Love, and that He has placed man in a peculiar relation to +Himself, remain unaffected. On this ground it is often urged that +we may pass over scientific inaccuracies as matters of no great +importance. + +Theologians are by no means agreed as to the nature and limits of +that inspiration by which Holy Scripture was written. There are +many who think that in matters purely incidental to its main +object, and lying within the reach of human faculties, the sacred +writers were left to the ordinary sources of information, and that +many alleged difficulties may be removed by this view. + +But whatever may be thought of the application of this hypothesis +to some parts of the Bible, there are others to which it is +plainly inapplicable, and of these the narrative of the Creation +is evidently one. No theory of limited inspiration can be admitted +to explain any supposed inaccuracies in that narrative. It cannot +be liable to those imperfections which are inevitable when men +have to obtain knowledge by the ordinary means, because there were +no ordinary means by which such information could be obtained. The +most carefully preserved records, the oldest traditions could not +extend backwards beyond the moment when the first man awoke to +conscious existence. For every thing beyond that point the only +source of knowledge available was information derived from the +Creator Himself. It may be that a revelation of this character was +made to Adam in the days of his innocence, that it was carefully +handed down to his descendants, and that Moses, under the divine +direction, incorporated it into his history; or it may have been +directly communicated to Moses by special inspiration--that +matters not--but a divine revelation it must have been, or it is +nothing; the dream of a poet, or the theory of a philosopher, if +we can believe that such a philosopher existed at such a time. But +if it be indeed a revelation from the Creator Himself, we cannot +imagine that He could fall into any error, or sanction any +misrepresentation with reference even to the smallest detail of +His own work. + +If then there are really any errors in this record--any assertions +which the discoveries of science have proved to be untrue, we +cannot account for them on any theory of limited inspiration. A +single proved error would be fatal to the authority of the whole +narrative. But, on the other hand, we are not justified in +expecting such an account of the Creation as would commend itself +to the scientific intellect of the present day. When we attempt to +form a judgment upon it. We must look not only to its alleged +author, but also to the purposes for which, the circumstances +under which, and the persons to whom it was given. In these we may +expect to meet with many limitations. It was not designed for the +communication of scientific knowledge, it was necessarily conveyed +in human language, and addressed to human intelligence, that +language and that intelligence being, not as they are now, but as +they were, taking the latest possible date that can be assigned to +it, considerably more than three thousand years ago. + +This last consideration affects not only the record itself, but +also our facilities for understanding and forming a judgment upon +it. We have to contend with difficulties of interpretation arising +from our inability fully to realize the circumstances under which +it was given, and to place ourselves in the mental position of its +original recipients. Owing to our want of this power it may well +happen, that though we are in possession of vastly increased +knowledge, we may be far more liable to fall into error in some +directions, in the interpretation of it, than those to whom it was +originally addressed. + +An additional difficulty arises from the circumstance that our +knowledge, wonderfully as it has been increased of late, is yet +very far from complete, and is probably in many cases still mixed +with error. Hence it may very well happen that where there is +complete harmony between the history and the facts, we may suspect +discord owing to our misunderstanding of the record, or our +misconception of the facts. In order that the harmony may be +recognized in its fulness, there must be a perfect understanding +of the record, and a perfect knowledge of the facts. But from both +of these we are probably at present very far removed. + +If a person who was a thorough master of some science undertook to +write a treatise for the purpose of teaching children the +rudiments of that science, we should expect, and the more strongly +if the author were a master of language as well as of science, +that his work should contain indications of a master's hand. We +should expect that while the book conveyed clearly and simply to +the minds of those for whom it was written, the truths which it +was intended to teach, it should also convey to the more educated +reader some intimations of a deeper knowledge on the part of its +author. The choice of a word, the turn of a phrase, the order in +which facts were arranged, the occurrence here and there of a +sentence which an ordinary reader would pass over as unimportant, +would to such a person be indications of trains of thought far +more profound than those which appeared on the surface. And this +recognition would be proportional to two things--the amount of +scientific knowledge possessed by the reader, and his mastery of +the language in which the book was written. + +Such, then, are the characteristics which we may expect to find in +the Record of Creation, if it be indeed, as we believe, a +revelation from God, made to men in a very low stage of +intellectual development. In order that we may be able to form a +satisfactory judgment of it, it will be well for us to consider a +little in detail two classes of difficulties. 1. Those which +belong to the Revelation itself, arising from the limitations to +which it was necessarily subject in its delivery. 2. Those which +arise from our imperfect knowledge of the language in which it is +written, and from our inability to place ourselves in the +intellectual position of those to whom it was originally given. + +1. When this record was committed to writing, language was in a +very different condition from that in which it is now. We have an +account of the first recorded exercise of the faculty of speech in +Gen. ii. 19. Adam first used it to give names to all the living +creatures as they passed in review before him. In accordance with +this statement it appears, from the researches of philologists, +that language in its earliest state was entirely, or almost +entirely limited to words denoting sensible objects and actions. +It seems probable that these names were derived from radicals +expressing general ideas [Footnote: Max Muller's Lectures on the +Science of Language, First Series Lect. viii. ix.]; but there is +reason to doubt whether these radicals ever had a formal existence +as words--they seem rather to have been the mental stock out of +which words were produced. But the human mind had from the first +powers for the exercise of which this limited vocabulary was +insufficient. Even in the outer world there was much which was the +object of reason and inference rather than of sense, while the +whole world of consciousness was entirely unprovided with the +means of expression. To meet this difficulty words, which +originally denoted objects of sense, were used figuratively to +express ideas which bore some resemblance or analogy, real or +fancied, to their original significance. As time passed on this +difficulty was gradually diminished: synonyms crept into all +languages from various sources, and when once adopted, they were +in many cases gradually differentiated, the various senses which +the original word had borne were portioned off among them, and +increased precision was thus obtained. + +But in the infancy of mankind the figurative system was in full +operation. Hence, all early documents have a strong tinge of the +poetic element. Poetry, strictly so called, probably had not as +yet a separate existence; but the whole spoken and written +language was permeated by that poetic spirit which delights in +tracing subtle analogies, and in expressing the invisible by means +of the visible. The translation of the Sanscrit Hymns, which has +recently appeared [Footnote: Hymns of the Big Veda Sanhita, +translated by Max Muller, vol. i.], furnishes a most valuable +illustration of this state of thought and of language. These hymns +are probably nearly coeval with the Pentateuch. They were the +production of a different branch of the human family, and indicate +a different tone of thought, but they bring out very clearly the +figurative character of primitive language, abounding in fanciful +descriptions of natural phenomena, which, when their metaphorical, +character was forgotten, passed by an easy transition into the +graceful myths and legends of early Greece. + +Then there was a poverty in these primitive vocabularies even in +reference to sensible objects, which in many cases rendered it +necessary to employ the same word in more or less extensive +significations, and in the Semitic languages the power of +inflexion was in some directions very limited. This limitation is +most remarkable in the forms used for the expression of time. One +form alone was available to express those modifications which are +indicated by the imperfect, perfect, pluperfect, and aorist tenses +of the classical languages. + +Instances of all these sources of uncertainty meet us very early +in Genesis. In the very first verse we have a word, [Hebrew +script], which has great latitude of meaning. It is either the +earth as a whole (ver. 1), or the land as distinguished from the +water (ver. 10), or a particular country (ii. 11). In many cases, +as in all these, the context at once determines the sense to be +chosen; but there are other cases in which considerable difficulty +arises. The whole question of the universality of the deluge +turns, in a great degree, upon the signification which is assigned +to this same word in the sixth and following chapters. In the +second verse we have another word, [Hebrew script], which is +capable of various interpretations. It is used throughout the +Bible in the three distinct meanings of "wind," "breath," and +"spirit." Where we read, "And the Spirit of God moved upon the +face of the waters," the Jewish paraphrase is, "And a wind of God +(i.e. a great wind) moved," &c. Here there is nothing in the +context to assist us in determining the sense to be chosen; but, +as will be seen in the sequel, modern science indicates that the +Jewish interpretation is untenable, and that our translation is, +consequently, the correct one. As an instance of confusion of +time, we may refer to ii. 19. In our translation this verse seems +to place the creation of animals after that of man; but in xii. 1, +the very same form is translated by the pluperfect, "Now the Lord +had said unto Abram." It ought evidently to be translated in the +same way here: "And out of the ground the Lord God had formed," +&c. In ii. 5, on the other hand, the pluperfect might with +advantage have given place to another form: "For the Lord God did +not cause it to rain." The phenomenon referred to appears to have +been local and temporary. Had the pluperfect been omitted in one +case and supplied in the other two sources of apparent difficulty +would have been removed. + +It is very clear, then, that there could be no approach to +scientific accuracy in a narrative written in such a language as +this. Such accuracy is, in fact, attainable only in proportion, as +science has moulded language for its own purposes. But language is +at all times an index of the general mental condition of the +people who use it, and so the knowledge and the ideas of the men +of these primitive times must have been extremely limited in all +those directions with which we have to do. Accordingly, we find no +trace of any doubt whether the information with reference to +external objects which was received through the senses was in all +cases to be depended on. There can be little doubt that to those +early observers the sky was a solid vault, on the face of which +the sun, moon, and planets moved in their appointed courses; the +stars were points of light, golden studs in the azure canopy; the +sun and moon were just as large as they appeared to be, and the +earth was a solid immovable plane of comparatively small extent. +At the time of the Exodus, it seems clear that, even among a +people so far advanced as the Egyptians, all that lay beyond the +mountains which bounded their land on the west was believed to +belong not to living men, but to disembodied spirits. It was the +terrible country through which the souls of the departed made +their arduous way to the Hall of Judgment [Footnote: "The Nations +Around," pp. 49, 50.] Accordingly, we find that the Egyptians made +no attempt to extend the limits of their empire in this direction, +while the monarchs of the Mesopotamian region seem to have been +equally unambitious of conquest beyond the mountain ranges which +bounded the valley of the Tigris on the east. Mesopotamia, then, +on the east, Egypt on the west, Armenia and Asia Minor on the +north, and Arabia on the south, seem, in the view of the +contemporaries of Moses, to have been the utmost regions of the +world. Ignorant as they were of any countries beyond these, they +were, of course, equally ignorant of the numberless varieties of +plants and animals that were to be found in them, and with which +we are familiar. Mining was not unknown, but the mines were few +and superficial; they could not reveal much of the structure of +the earth, and what little they did reveal passed unnoticed. +Nothing was known of the successive beds of rock which form the +crust of the earth, of the fossils with which they abound, or of +the gradual changes to Which they are still subject. If any one +had told the men of that generation that the solid earth on which +they stood, or the everlasting hills which surrounded them, were +undergoing slow but steady modifications, he would have been +looked upon as a madman. + +A revelation, then, addressed to men whose language, whose +intellectual powers, and whose stock of ideas were thus limited, +must of itself also necessarily have been both limited and +destitute of precision. It could only deal with things with which +they had some acquaintance, or of which they could form some idea, +while, from the character of the language, and the extreme brevity +of the record, the treatment of even these few subjects must have +been of a vague and indefinite character. Traces of a deeper +knowledge there might be, but they would not lie upon the surface. +They must be carefully sought for, and then they would be +discernible only by those who were in possession of the key which +would unlock their hidden secrets. + +Such are the limitations under which the revelation was +necessarily given. We have now to consider our own especial +difficulties, the obstacles which stand in our way when we would +discover for ourselves all the information which the record is +capable of conveying. For if this record be, as we believe, the +work of the Great Architect of the Universe, then it is probable +that its every detail is significant; that wherever it was +possible words were chosen which, when scrutinized, would convey +much more information than appeared on the surface. The great +problem for us to solve is, What are the difficulties which stand +in our way when we would seek this knowledge, and what are the +means by which those difficulties may be surmounted, and the +hidden treasure displayed? + +Our first difficulty arises from a matter which, viewed in another +light, is one of our greatest blessings. We are familiar with the +Record through the medium of our own noble version. Probably it is +impossible for any translation more exactly to represent the +original as it presented itself in the first instance to the minds +of those to whom it was addressed. Accordingly we learn it in our +earliest childhood; its majestic phrases imprint themselves on our +memory; our undeveloped minds seem capable of taking in all that +it was intended to convey, and so the impressions formed of it in +our infancy abide with us all our days. We are contented with +them, and do not trouble ourselves to inquire whether there is not +something beyond, which we have not realized. + +All this time we forget that, excellent as it is, it is after all +only a translation, and that the very best translation cannot +represent in their fulness the ideas embodied in the original. +Etymological relations between words often give a force and +meaning to a sentence which it is impossible to transfuse into +another language, because the same relations do not exist between +the words which we are constrained to employ. Then there is an +intimate relation between men's thoughts and the language which +they habitually use, so that those thoughts cannot be perfectly +expressed in a language whose character is different. Again in +every language there are many words which bear several cognate +senses, which may be represented by as many different words in the +language of the translation; so that if the best word is chosen, +much of the fulness of the original must be lost; while it may so +happen that the selected word has also a variety of +significations, which do not correspond with the varying meanings +of the original word, and thus senses may be ascribed to the +original which it will not bear, because the reader annexes to the +word in the translation a sense different from that in which it +corresponds to the original word. To all these sources of +imperfection must be added the fact that our translation was made +at a time when science was not yet sufficiently developed to +exercise any influence upon it. There was nothing to induce the +translators to attempt, where it was possible, to preserve any +indications of a deeper meaning, because they had no reason to +suspect that any such deeper meaning existed, or that any +indications of such a meaning were to be found. + +To the difficulties of translation must be added the difficulties +of accumulated tradition. The characteristics which mark our own +childish intellect are apparent also in the collective intellect +of the human race in its earlier and ruder development. There are +two characteristics of the human mind in this condition, which +have had a very great effect on the interpretation of this portion +of the Bible. + +The first of these is the impatience of doubt and uncertainty. The +power of recognizing the imperfection of our knowledge, and the +consequent necessity of suspending our judgment, is a power which +is only gradually acquired with the accumulation of experience. +The young untrained mind finds it difficult to realize the truth +that any information communicated to it is not altogether within +the grasp of its faculties. It must attach some definite meaning +to the words; it must image to itself some way in which great +events were brought about, great works were accomplished. It finds +it difficult to realize a fact as accomplished, unless it can also +picture to itself some way in which it might have been effected. +For this purpose such knowledge as it has at its command is +employed, and where that fails recourse is had to the imagination +to supply the deficiency. Thus it has been with ourselves in our +childhood, and thus it was in the childhood of the world. +Knowledge was indeed sought, but it was not sought in the right +way, and so the search often resulted in error, and this error +produced its effect in the interpretation of the passage in +question. The old school of inquirers started from certain +abstract principles, and endeavoared to reduce the results of +observation to conformity with those principles. This was the case +with astronomy. The old astronomers taking as axioms the two +assumptions that everything connected with the heavenly bodies +must be perfect, and that the circle is the only perfect figure, +easily satisfied themselves that the orbits of all the heavenly +bodies must be circles. Hence came the + + "Cycle on epicycle, orb on orb," + +by which they sought to account for the phenomena which they +observed. When once the method was changed, when once it had +occurred to Kepler that, as it seemed to be impossible to account +for the apparent motion of Mars by any theory of circular orbits, +it might be worth while to try to ascertain by observation what +its orbit really was, a few years of patient labour sufficed to +solve the problem. + +It was science such as this, then, that our forefathers brought to +the interpretation of the Mosaic Record, and the consequence was +that when, from time to time, facts were casually brought to light +which might have led the way to vast discoveries, their true +significance was never discerned; all that was sought from them +was some additional support to the old views. Thus sometimes +gigantic bones were exhumed: without investigation, it was at once +assumed that they were human bones, and they were brought forward +to prove the truth of the statement, "There were also giants in +the earth in those days." Sea-shells were found on mountain sides, +far from and high above the sea--they were evidences of the +Deluge. + +The second characteristic of that state of mind is its admiration +of the startling and the vast. In these alone it recognizes the +tokens of unlimited power. It is unable to appreciate those more +majestic manifestations of power which are discerned by the +enlightened eye, when a stupendous scheme is developed, gradually +and imperceptibly, but without pause or hesitation through a long +succession of ages; when a multitude of seemingly discordant +elements are at last brought together in a perfect work; when a +power, unseen and unnoticed, slowly but surely overrules the +working of ten thousand apparently independent agents, through a +thousand generations, and moulds their separate works into one +harmonious whole. Such a manifestation of power as this was beyond +the grasp of the untrained mind; but to such intellects there was +something irresistibly fascinating in the idea of a world rising +into perfect existence in a moment, of innumerable hosts of living +creatures called into being at a word. Such was the meaning of the +account of creation which naturally suggested itself to the +untrained mind, and there was nothing in science in those early +days to throw any doubt upon it, and so this belief was +unhesitatingly and almost universally adopted. Here and there, +indeed, some man of deeper thought than his brethren, such as St. +Augustine [Footnote: See St. Augustine, "De Genesi ad Literam," +Liber Imperfectus, and Libri Duodecim, and also "Confessionum" +Liber xiii.], suspected that there might be more in that seemingly +simple record than was generally acknowledged; but such men had no +means of verifying their conjectures, and their number was very +small. For three thousand years the old view was practically +unquestioned, it received the tacit sanction of the Church, it +gradually became identified in the minds of all with the record +itself, and was as much an article of faith as the very Creed. + +This was the state of things, when at last science awoke from its +long slumber, and began for the first time to employ its energies +in the right direction. Very soon discoveries were made which +startled the minds of all believers in the Bible. The first shock +which the old belief sustained was from the establishment of the +Copernican view of the Solar System. That the world was the +immovable centre of the universe, around which sun, moon, and +planets moved in their appointed courses, was universally held to +be the express teaching of the Bible; and when Galileo ventured to +maintain the new views in Italy, the Roman Curia took up the +question, and by the agency of the Inquisition wrung from him a +reluctant retractation of his so-called heresy. But it was of no +avail. The new doctrine was true, and it could not be crushed. +Fresh evidence of its truth was continually coming forward, till +at last it was universally received. Then the defenders of the +Bible had recourse to the suggestion that as the Bible was not +intended to teach us science, such errors were of no consequence, +But this argument, though perfectly sound with reference to such +passages as Joshua x. 12-14, where an event is described as it +appeared to those who witnessed it, is not admissible in such a +passage as Psalm xcvi. 10, where the supposed immobility of the +earth is alleged as a proof of God's sovereignty, and is made the +foundation of the duty of proclaiming that sovereignty among the +heathen. When the supposed proof was found to be a fallacy, the +statement in support of which it was alleged would be more or less +shaken. In such a passage, then, the theory of limited inspiration +is evidently untenable. At last the only sensible course was +adopted. Recourse was had to the original, and it was at once +apparent that the supposed difficulty had no real existence, but +that there was a very trifling inaccuracy in the translation; for +that the word translated "shall not be moved" really signified +"shall not be shaken or totter." The same word is used in Psalm +xvii. 5, "Hold up my goings in Thy paths, that my footsteps SLIP +NOT." Instead, then, of an error, we have an exact description of +the earth's motion--a motion so steady and equable, that for +thousands of years no single individual out of the myriads who +were continually carried along by it had ever suspected its +existence. + +Well had it been for all if the lesson thus taught had been deeply +laid to heart. But unhappily it was entirely unnoticed. Science +pursued its way with increasing energy, and more facts were year +by year brought to light which seemed entirely to contradict the +teaching of the Bible, and again alarm and distrust sprung up in +the minds of what, for want of a better name, we may perhaps be +allowed to designate as the "Theological Party." The power of the +Church of Rome was by this time so far curtailed that the old +means of repression were no longer available; but the old spirit +survived, and not in Rome only. There was the same blind distrust, +the same mistaken zeal for supposed truth, the same indignation +which naturally arises when things which we hold precious are +attacked, and, as it seems to us, without any sufficient reason. + +There was indeed much to account for and even to justify the +feelings of anger and alarm which were excited, for the time when +these discoveries began to be brought prominently forward was the +latter half of the last century. At that time the famous French +Academy was doing its deadly work, and the new discoveries were +gladly hailed by the infidel philosophers of France, as weapons +against the Bible. But the reception given to these discoveries by +the theological party, though partially justified by the +circumstances of the times, was nevertheless very mischievous in +its results. For though the new discoveries were hailed +enthusiastically by the infidel school, a very large portion of +the men by whom they were made, and of those who were convinced of +their truth, were men of a very different character. They were +simple earnest seekers after truth as it is displayed in God's +works. Their belief in the Bible rested in most cases on the +authority of others. They had not investigated for themselves its +external evidences; in many cases they had neither the ability nor +the opportunity to do so; nor had many of them as yet become +practically familiar with that internal evidence which the +faithful Christian carries within him, though in time they might +have become so, had they not been driven into infidelity by the +reception which was given to their discoveries. When men of this +character were informed by those to whom they were accustomed to +look up as teachers in religious matters, that the discoveries, of +the truth of which they were so firmly convinced, and in which +they took such justifiable pride, were contradictory to the +teaching of the Bible, they were placed in a position of extreme +difficulty. For this statement was, in fact, a demand made upon +them that they should give up these discoveries as erroneous, or +else renounce their belief in the Bible. But their belief in the +Bible rested in the main on the authority of others; they felt +themselves incompetent judges of the evidence on which it rested, +while they were fully acquainted with, and competent judges of, +the grounds on which their own discoveries were based. The +evidence on which they acted was, to their minds, quite as +convincing as the Biblical evidence was to the minds of their +antagonists. Two things, then, were pronounced incompatible by +what seemed to be a competent authority; they could not adhere to +both, and the natural consequence was that their assent was given +to those statements which rested on evidence which they thoroughly +understood, and the Bible was rejected. Thus it has come to pass +that many of our scientific men, if not professed unbelievers, +have yet learnt to look upon the Bible with suspicion and +distrust. To some of them, as is evident from their writings, +their position is a matter of profound sorrow. + +There have, indeed, been many noble exceptions to this state of +things. Many men whose pre-eminence in scientific knowledge and +research is admitted by all, have yet clung in childlike trust to +the Bible. They have recognized its authority, they have been +satisfied that God's Word could not be in opposition to His Work, +and they have been content to wait in unquestioning faith for the +day when all that now seems dark and perplexing shall be made +clear. But there have also been very many with whom this has not +been the case, and their unbelief has not affected themselves +alone. The knowledge of it has had a deadly effect upon thousands +who were utterly incompetent to form any judgment on either +theological or scientific subjects, but who gladly welcomed +anything which would help to justify them to their own consciences +in their refusal to submit themselves to a law which, in their +ignorance, they deemed to be harsh and intolerable. There has also +been another class of sufferers. Many persons who loved the Bible, +but whose education, and, consequently, whose powers of judgment +in the matter were very limited, have received very great injury +from the doubt which has been thrown on its authority. Unable of +themselves to form a judgment on the subject, they could not be +unmoved by the opinion expressed by those whom they regarded as +better informed than themselves. Hence their faith has received a +shock always painful and dangerous, often perhaps fatal. + +Many attempts have been made to overcome the difficulty which has +thus arisen. When geologists first began to study the lessons +which are to be learnt from fossils, a suggestion was made which, +though it was soon shown to be untenable, has still perhaps a few +supporters. It was said that these fossils were not what they +seemed to be, the remains of creatures which once lived, but +simple stones, fashioned from the first in their present form by +the will of the Creator. But such an idea is at variance with all +that either Nature or Revelation teaches us concerning God. All +those who have any familiarity with the subject cannot but feel +that the suggestion of such a solution of the difficulty is little +short of a suggestion that the Almighty has stamped a lie upon the +face of His own Work. + +Another proposed solution, which for a time seemed satisfactory, +assumed several successive creations and destructions of the world +to have taken place in the interval between the first and second +verses of Genesis. To these all the fossil remains were ascribed, +while the present state of things was supposed to be the result of +the operations recorded in the remainder of the chapter. But as +geological knowledge advanced, it soon became clear that there +were no breaks in the chain of life; no points at which one set of +creatures had died out, while another had not yet arisen to fill +up the void, but that all change had been gradual and progressive, +and that species still living on the earth are identical with some +which were in existence when the lowest tertiary strata were in +process of formation--a time which must have been many thousand +years prior to the appearance of man. + +Other attempts have been made upon literary grounds. Hugh Miller +[Footnote: Testimony of the Rocks.] carefully worked out a +suggestion derived from a German source, that the history of +Creation was presented to Moses in a series of six visions, which +appeared to him as so many days with intervening nights. More +recently Dr. Rorison [Footnote: In Answers to "Essays and +Reviews."] has maintained that the first chapter of Genesis is not +a history at all, but a poem--"the Hymn of Creation." There is, +however, nothing in the chapter itself to confirm either of these +views. When visions are recorded elsewhere we are told that they +are visions, but no such hint is given us here. Nor do we find in +the passage any of the characteristics of Hebrew poetry. It is +inserted in an Historical document, and in the absence of any +proof to the contrary, it is plainly itself also to be regarded as +History. + +But there remains yet one method to be attempted. If there is +reason to believe that the Bible is the Word of God, just as the +universe is His Work, then we may well expect that each of them +will throw light upon and help us to a right understanding of the +other. And if there be one part beyond all others in which this +may be confidently looked for, it is that part in which the Divine +Architect describes His own work. We know how difficult it is to +understand a complicated process, or a complex piece of machinery, +from a mere written description; and how our difficulty is +lessened if we have the opportunity of inspecting the machinery or +the process. Just in the same way we may expect to encounter +difficulties, and to form erroneous conclusions when we study by +itself such a document as the history of Creation, and we may well +expect that those difficulties will be diminished, and those +errors corrected by an examination of that material universe, the +production of which it describes. And, on the other hand, if +science--the study of the universe--is found to throw light upon +and to receive light from the Bible, this is a fresh proof that +the Bible and the universe are from the same source; the authority +of the Bible is more firmly established, and the conclusions +arrived at by men of science are confirmed. + +But before this can be done to any good purpose, something is +required from both the contending parties. The theological party +must be prepared to sacrifice many an old opinion, many a +cherished belief. Great care must be taken to discriminate between +the genuine statements of the Mosaic Record, and the old +interpretations which have been incorporated into and identified +with those statements. Some, perhaps, may fear lest, in rejecting +those interpretations, they may be setting at nought an authority +to which they ought to submit, since these interpretations seem to +have the sanction of the Church. But it can hardly be maintained +that those promises of Divine guidance and protection from error +which were given to the Church extended to such matters as this. +No question of faith or duty is involved in the interpretation +which we may give to the details of Creation. If there are some +parts of the Bible in which the earliest interpretation is +unquestionably the true one, there are also other parts, such as +many of the prophecies, which became intelligible only when light +was thrown upon them by subsequent events. And so it seems to be +with the Record of Creation: it can only be rightly understood in +proportion as we become acquainted with the details of the matters +to which it refers. Any interpretation which was put upon it +before those details were brought to light must of necessity be +liable to error. + +But something is also required of the opposite party. At the very +threshold of the investigation they must be asked to lay aside, so +far as is possible, those prejudices against the Bible which have +naturally arisen in their minds from the obstinacy with which +views, which they knew to be untenable, have been forced upon +their acceptance as the undoubted teaching of God, so that they +may enter upon the investigation with unbiassed minds. Then they +must be careful to distinguish between established facts, and +theories however probable. There is something very fascinating in +a well constructed theory. Theories have again and again done such +good service in opening the way, first, to the discovery, and then +to the arrangement of facts, that we are very apt to assign to +them an authority far beyond that to which they are really +entitled. When, for instance, we have ascertained that a certain +number of facts are explained by some particular theory, we are +apt to assume prematurely, that the same theory must account for +and be in harmony with all similar and related facts; or, if we +have satisfied ourselves that certain results MAY have been +produced in a particular way, we are in great danger of being led +to conclude that they MUST have happened in that way. No mere +theory can have any weight against a statement resting on solid +evidence, but where the evidence is weak, or, what is practically +the same thing, where the knowledge of that evidence is defective, +a probable theory must carry great weight in influencing our +judgment. Care must therefore be taken to keep theories in their +proper place. Where we have to deal with well-established facts, +any interpretations to which those facts may lead us may be taken +as also established, but interpretations which are suggested by +theories only must be regarded as provisional, and liable to +future modification or rejection, as our knowledge increases. + +The Mosaic Record itself, when carefully examined, seems to be +peculiarly open to the process suggested. No doubt there is yet +much work for Philology to do in its interpretation [Footnote: +Such words, for instance, as [Hebrew script:],[Hebrew script:], +[Hebrew script], used of different creative acts, may imply some +difference of which we are ignorant. So again the uses of the +words [Hebrew script], [Hebrew script:], and [Hebrew script:] for +"man," may have a bearing on some of those questions which now +seem most perplexing.], but one thing seems certain--there is in +it an absence of all detail. The facts to which it has reference +are stated in the briefest and most simple manner, without the +slightest reference to the means by which they were effected, or, +apart from the question of the days, the time which was occupied +in their accomplishment. When stripped of all that is traditional, +and examined strictly by itself, the narrative seems greatly to +resemble one of those outline maps which are supplied to children +who are learning geography, on which only a few prominent features +of the country are laid down, and the learner is left to fill in +the details as his knowledge advances. Only in this case the +details have already been filled in by the light of very imperfect +knowledge, aided by a fertile imagination. These we must +obliterate if we would restore the possibility of a faithful +delineation, and we must be careful, in future, to avoid a similar +error. We must put down nothing as certain which has not been +conclusively shown to be so. + +This last caution is specially needed at the present time, for, +proud as we are of our advance in science, the amount of what is +certainly known is probably very much less than we imagine. A +great deal that was received as certain a few years ago, is now +considered to be doubtful, or even recognized as a mistake and +abandoned. This is especially the case with Astronomy, which seems +to be almost in a state of revolution. Dependent, as it is almost +entirely, upon mechanical and optical aid, every improvement and +discovery in these departments changes its position, bringing to +light new facts, and modifying the aspect of those which were +previously known. The very basis of all astronomical calculations, +the standard of time, is now no longer relied upon as invariable. +It is suspected of a change resulting from a gradual retardation +in the rate of the earth's rotation on its axis, produced by tidal +friction. When the binary stars were discovered, the discovery was +hailed as a proof of the universal prevalence of the law of +gravitation. Later observations have thrown doubt upon that +conclusion, as many pairs are known to exist, which, though they +have what is termed a "common proper motion," or are journeying +through space together, have no relative motion, which they must +show, if they were moving under the influence of their mutual +attractions. The supposed simplicity of the solar system has given +place to extreme complexity. A century ago, six planets, ten +satellites, and a few comets, were supposed to constitute the +whole retinue of the sun: now, instead of this, we have two groups +of four planets each, the individual members of each group closely +resembling each other in all points within our knowledge, while in +all these points the groups differ greatly. Between these two +groups lies a belt of very small planets, of which the 1st was +discovered on the first day of the present century, and the 124th +this year, and the number of known satellites has increased from +10 to 17. Add to this the meteoric groups, and their suspected +connexion with certain comets, and the perplexing questions +suggested by the Solar Corona and the Zodiacal light, and it will +be seen that our knowledge is in a transitional state; that with +so many problems unsolved, any apparent contradiction to the +sacred record will require a careful scrutiny to ascertain that +the grounds on which it is brought forward are well established. + +Geology, so far as our present subject is concerned, stands upon a +somewhat different footing. Though a much younger science than +astronomy, it has one great advantage over it; the facts with +which it has to do are for the most part discernible by the +unaided senses, and it is therefore independent of instrumental +help. Many changes have occurred in the views of Geologists, but +in the main they have reference to processes [Footnote: Such, for +instance, is the modification of the views of geologists as to the +relative effects of "disruption" and "denudation" in determining +the features of the earth's surface.] rather than to results, and +it is the results with which we are chiefly concerned. + +Physiologists have entered on the contest with the Bible on two +different, and seemingly contradictory grounds. Some of them have +maintained that the varieties of mankind are so distinct, that it +is impossible they can all be descended from a single human pair, +while others assert that not only all the varieties of mankind, +but all the varieties of living beings are descended from a single +progenitor. Between the advocates of these two systems there must +be such an enormous difference as to the extent to which variation +is possible, as to justify us in assuming that the fundamental +principles of physiological science are not yet satisfactorily +ascertained. + +These are the three branches of science which come especially into +collision with the Mosaic Record of the Creation. Of these Geology +is the most important, because it is able to bring forward +unquestionable facts which are in direct opposition to the +traditionary interpretation Astronomy and physiology have little +to object except theoretical views; the hypotheses of Laplace and +Darwin. These, however, will have to be carefully considered. It +will be necessary for us first to ascertain whether there really +exists any such fundamental discrepancy between the record and +ascertained facts, or theories so far as they are supported by +facts, and stand on a probable footing, as should render all +attempts at harmonizing them vain. If this is found not to be the +case, we shall then be in a position to inquire whether modern +discoveries afford us any really valuable light, and can assist us +to form a somewhat more extended and accurate idea of the +processes described by the sacred historian. + + + + + +CHAPTER II. + +DIFFICULTIES IN GEOLOGY. + + +The principal points on which there is a supposed discrepancy +between the Mosaic Record and the discoveries of geologists are as +follows:-- + +THE MOSAIC RECORD APPEARS TO ASSERT-- + +I. That the world in all its completeness, as it now exists, was +moulded out of material in a chaotic state in six ordinary days. +Geologists have ascertained, beyond the possibility of a doubt, +that the process must have occupied countless ages. + +II. That the first appearance of animal life was on the fifth of +those six days. Geologists have discovered that animal life was in +existence at the very earliest period to which they have as yet +been able to extend their investigations. + +III. That all living creatures are divided into two classes, and +that the first of these classes was created on the fifth, the +second on the sixth day; and that each class, in all its +divisions, with the exception of man, came into existence +simultaneously. Geologists trace the rise and increase of each +class through a long course of ages. + +IV. That death entered into the world through the sin of man. The +very existence of fossils implies that it was the law of all +animal life from the first. + +V. That till the fall all creatures lived exclusively on vegetable +food. Geologists have ascertained the existence of carnivorous +creatures from a very remote period. + +Besides these, there are some other supposed difficulties and +inaccuracies of a less important character, which may be noticed, +in passing, when the true meaning of the record is under +discussion. + +SECTION 1. THE DAYS. + +The question of the days is beyond all doubt the most important of +those which have to be discussed. On the one hand, the impression +naturally left upon the reader of the first chapter of Genesis is +that natural days are meant, and this impression is not removed by +a cursory inspection of the original. On the other hand, if there +is any one scientific belief which rests on peculiarly solid +ground, it is the belief that the formation of the world occupied +a period which is beyond the grasp of the most powerful +imagination. + +There is, indeed, some reason to think that the time claimed by +geologists is somewhat exaggerated. Their views are in many cases +based on the assumption that change is now going on, on the +surface of the earth, as it did in all past time--that it is the +same in character, in intensity, and in rate. But there are good +reasons for supposing that almost all the causes which lead to +change are gradually decreasing in intensity. The chief causes by +which changes are brought about are the upheaval and subsidence of +the earth's surface; the destructive agencies of wind, storms at +sea, rain and frost; and the action of the tides. Of these, all +but the last are directly dependent on the action of heat, and +there is every reason to believe that the heat of the earth is in +process of gradual dissipation. If this be the case, all those +agencies which are dependent on it must + +[Footnote: It is thought probable that this process is complete, +or nearly so, in the moon. If this be the case, it is in all +probability in progress in the case of the earth, though, owing to +the much greater bulk of the latter, it occupies a longer period. +--Lockyer, Lessons in Astronomy, p. 93.] be declining in intensity; +but the rate of that decrease is unknown; it may be in +arithmetical, or it may be in geometrical progression. It is, +then, by no means impossible that changes, which now only become +discernible with the lapse of centuries, might, at some past +period of our globe's history, have been the work of years only. +Nor is it at all probable that the present rate of change, which +is assumed as the basis of the calculation, is known with any +approach to accuracy. Exact observations are of very recent date; +both the inclination and the means for making them are the growth +of the last two centuries, and the changes which have to be +ascertained are of a class peculiarly liable to modification from +a variety of local and temporary causes, so that a very much +longer period must elapse before we can arrive at average values +which may be relied on as even approximately accurate. + +Another circumstance, which seems to merit more attention than it +has received, is the very frequent recurrence in Greek mythology +of allusions to creatures which have been usually regarded as the +creations of a poetic fancy, but which bear a strong resemblance +to the Saurian and other monsters of the Oolite and Cretaceous +formations. Of course, it is not impossible that these things may +have been purely poetic imaginings; but, if so, it is very +remarkable that such realizations of those imaginings should be +afterwards discovered. It would seem much more probable that these +legends were exaggerated traditions of creatures which actually +existed when the first colonists reached their new homes, in +numbers comparatively small, but still sufficient to occasion much +danger and alarm to the early settlers, and to cause their +destroyers to be regarded as among the greatest heroes of the time +and the greatest benefactors of mankind. The Hindoo tradition of +the tortoise on whose back stands the elephant which upholds the +world, and the account of Leviathan in the Book of Job, seem to +point in the same direction. [Footnote: For additional instances +see Tylor's Early History of Mankind, p. 303.] + +But, after all, the question is not one of a few thousands of +years more or less, but of six common days, or many thousands of +years. It may help us to arrive at a right conclusion on the +subject if we endeavour to ascertain, in the first instance, +whether there are any strongly-marked indications that the writer +of the first chapter of Genesis did possess some accurate +information on some points in the history of Creation which he was +not likely to obtain by his own researches. For this purpose we +will place in parallel columns the leading facts recorded by +Moses, and a table of the successive formations of the rocks, +abridged from the last edition (1871) of Sir C. Lyell's Student's +Geology. This process will bring to light certain coincidences +which may serve as landmarks for our investigation. + + The Days. THE ROCKS. + + 1. Creation of light. + + 2. Creation of the Atmosphere. + + + |The earth covered with water |Laurentian. + 3.--| [implied]. |Cambrian. + |Upheaval of land. ----|Silurian. + |Creation of terrestrial Flora. |Devonian. + |Carboniferous. + + 4. The sun and moon made "Luminaries."----|Permian. + |Triassic. + + |Triassic. + 5. Creation of birds and reptiles ----|Jurassic. + |Cretaceous, + |Eocene. + + 6.--|Creation of land animals. ----|Eocene. + |Creation of man. |Miocene. + |Pleiocene. + |Post Tertiary. + +CONCURRENT EVENTS. + +Laurentian: Upper Laurentian unconformably placed on Lower +Laurentian, which contains Eozoon Canadense. + +Cambrian: Traces of volcanic action. Ripple marks indicating land. + +Silurian: Earliest fish. + +Devonian: Earliest land plants. + +Carboniferous: The coal measures. Peculiarly abundant vegetation. +Earliest known reptile. + +Permian: Foot-prints of birds and reptiles--with a few remains of +the latter. + +Jurassic: The first bird, and the first mammal. The age of +reptiles. + +Cretaceous: Reptiles passing away, mammalia abundant and of large +size. + +Post Tertiary: Human remains found only in the most recent +deposits. In this table we see certain points of strongly-marked +coincidence:-- + +1. The oldest rocks with which we are acquainted--the Lower +Laurentian [Footnote: The age of granite is uncertain.--Lyell'a +Student's Geology, p. 548.]--were formed under water, but had +begun to be elevated before the next series, the Upper Laurentian, +were deposited. Ripple marks are found in the Cambrian group +[Footnote: Ibid. p. 470], indicating that the parts where they +occur formed a sea-beach, and, consequently, that dry land was in +existence at that time. + +2. The earliest fossil land plants as yet discovered are found in +the Devonian series, and they gradually increase till, in the +Carboniferous strata, they attain the extreme abundance which gave +rise to the coal measures. + +3. The age of reptiles. The earliest known reptile is found in the +Carboniferous strata. In the Permian and Triassic groups the +numbers gradually increase, till in the Lias, Oolite, and +Cretaceous systems, this class attains a very great development +both numerically and in the magnitude of individual specimens. +During the same period the first traces of birds are found. The +first actual fossil bird was found in the upper Oolite. + +4. The age of mammalia. The first remains--two teeth of a small +marsupial--were discovered in the Rhaetic beds of the Upper Trias, +and a somewhat similar discovery has been made in beds of +corresponding periods in Devonshire and North America. During the +subsequent periods the numbers slowly increase, till in the +Tertiary strata the mammalian becomes the predominant type. + +5. The earliest traces of man--flint implements--are found in the +Post Tertiary strata. + +We have then in the Mosaic narrative five points which correspond +in order and character to five points in the Geological record; +and with reference to two, at least, of these points, we cannot +imagine any cause for the coincidence in the shape of a fortunate +conjecture, because, so far as we can tell, there was nothing +apparent on the face of the earth to suggest to the mind of the +writer the long past existence of such a state of things as has +been revealed to us by the discovery of the Carboniferous and +Reptilian remains. It seems then that Moses must have been in +possession of information which could not be obtained from any +ordinary source. But if he was thus acquainted with the order in +which the development took place, there is nothing improbable in +the supposition that he was not altogether ignorant of the length +of time which that development required. + +Let us suppose then that his knowledge did extend a little +farther; let us suppose him to have been aware that each of the +Creations which he describes was a process occupying many +thousands of years--how could he have imparted this knowledge to +his readers? What modification could he have introduced into his +narrative, which without changing its general character, or +detracting from its extreme simplicity, should have embodied this +fact? + +This amounts to the question: What words significant of definite +periods of time were in use, and consequently at the writer's +command, at this time? No language is very rich in such words; but +in the early Hebrew they seem to have been very scanty. The day, +week, month, year, and generation (this last usually implying the +time from the birth of a man to that of his son, but possibly in +Gen. xv. 16, a century) are all that we find. These in their +literal sense were evidently inadequate. Nor could the deficiency +be supplied by numerals, even if the general style of the +narrative would have admitted their use, for we find in Genesis no +numeral beyond the thousand. There was no word at all in early +Hebrew equivalent to our words "period" and "season." When such an +idea was to be expressed, it was done by the use of the word +"day," either in the singular, or more commonly in the plural. +Thus, "the time of harvest;" "the season of the first ripe fruit," +are literally "the days of harvest," "the days of the first ripe +fruit." In Isaiah xxxiv. 8, the singular is used, and followed by +the word year in the same indefinite sense. "It is the day of the +Lord's vengeance, and the year of recompenses for the controversy +of Zion." + +The only method then which was open to the writer was to make use +of one of the words above mentioned in an extended sense, just as +he used the word [Hebrew script] (earth) in several senses. But if +one of them was to be employed, the one which he has chosen seems +the best; not only because its use in that way was common, but +because the brevity of the time covered by its natural +significance would in itself be a hint of the way in which it was +used. That which was impossible in a day might be possible in a +year or a generation. The extended significance of the word would +become apparent just in proportion as the time covered by its +natural significance was inadequate for the processes ascribed to +it. + +An additional reason may, perhaps, be found for the choice of the +word "day," in the accordance of its phenomena with some, at +least, of the processes which Moses describes--the dawn, the light +slowly increasing to the perfect day, and then fading away +gradually into night--these do seem aptly to represent the first +scanty appearance, the gradual increase, and the vast development +of plants, of the reptiles and of the mammalia, and in the case of +the first two classes, their gradual passing away. + +But if the word was thus employed in a figurative, and not in its +natural sense, we may expect to find some indications in the +context that this was the case. Such indications we do find. The +fact that the work of Creation was distributed into days, is, in +itself, significant. There is no reason to believe that in the +opinion of the writer each day's work tasked to the utmost the +power of the Creator. Moses was evidently as well aware as we are, +that to Him it would have been equally easy, had He so willed, to +call everything into instant and perfect being at a single word. +Nor was the detailed description necessary to establish the +foundation of all religion--the right of the Creator to the entire +obedience of His creature For this the short recapitulation which +(ch. ii. 4) prefaces the more detailed account of man's peculiar +relation to his Maker would have been sufficient. Some purpose, +however, there must have been for this more particular account +which precedes the summary. We may trace two probable reasons. It +brings before us the method of the Divine Working in the light of +an orderly progress. But beside this, it is of infinite service to +us, in enabling us more thoroughly to realize the Fatherly +character and ever watchful care of our Creator. As far as that +care itself was concerned, it was unimportant whether the work was +instantaneous or progressive; but it was very important to us, in +so far as it affected our conceptions of God, and of our relations +to Him. For all our conceptions of God must rest ultimately on our +self-consciousness; we can form no idea of Him except in so far as +that idea is analogous to something which comes within the range +of our own experience. Now to us and to our feelings there is a +very wide difference between an act performed in a moment, and a +work over which we have lovingly dwelt, and to which we have +devoted our time, our labour, and our thought, for months or +years. The one may pass from our mind and be forgotten as quickly +as it was performed, but in the other we commonly feel an abiding +interest. When therefore the great Creator is represented to us as +thus dwelling upon His work, carrying it on step by step, through +the long ages, to its completion, we find it far less difficult to +realize that other truth, so precious to us, that His care and His +tender mercies are over all His works, that the loving +watchfulness which still upholds all, and provides for all, is but +the continuance of that care which was displayed in the creation +of all. Creation, Providence and Grace are blended together in one +continuous manifestation of the Divine Wisdom, Power, and Love. + +But for this purpose it is of little importance to us whether +Creation is described as taking place in a moment, or in six +ordinary days. If the division into six days indicates orderly +progress and watchful care, we naturally expect to find the same +indications in each of the subordinate parts. To our imperfect +conceptions each single day's work would bear that same character +of vast instantaneous action which seemed so undesirable. It would +not help us to realize what it is so important that we should +thoroughly feel. The very fact then that the history of Creation +is divided into days carries with it a strong presumption that +those days are not ordinary days. + +In the 14th and following verses, when Moses is describing the +formation of the heavenly luminaries, he is particular in +mentioning that one part of their office was to "rule over the day +and over the night, and to divide the light from the darkness." +Hence it is sometimes inferred that he was under a mistake in +speaking of day and night at an earlier period. But such a mistake +seems incredible. To suppose that Moses did not perceive that what +he wrote in the 14th and following verses was incompatible with +what he had written in the 4th and 5th verses, if such an +incompatibility really existed, is to impute to him an amount of +ignorance or carelessness which is at variance with the whole +character of his writings from beginning to end. Instead of this +it will be shown hereafter that, in all probability, his +statements rested on a wide knowledge of facts. If then, under +such circumstances, he uses the word "day" long before he comes to +the formation of the sun, the natural inference is that he did so +designedly--that it was his intention that his readers should +understand that he was speaking of something very different from +that natural day which is regulated by sunrise and sunset. + +The way too in which he introduces the mention of the first and +following days is apparently significant, though its full meaning +is probably more than we can at present understand. In ver. 5 he +carefully defines light and darkness as the equivalents of day and +night; but in the next verse he passes over these words, and +introduces two new ones, which he has not defined; these two words +being as much out of place before the creation of the atmosphere +as light and darkness are supposed to have been before the +Creation of the Sun. And not only does he introduce two new words, +but he introduces them in a very remarkable and, with our present +knowledge, unaccountable manner. Had he said "And there was +morning and there was evening, one day," we should have found no +difficulty in harmonizing; his words with what he had previously +said concerning the evolution of light. But he first of all +reverses the order, and then does not supply the natural +termination to his sentence--"And there was evening and there was +morning,"--"one night" would seem to be the natural conclusion; +but instead of that we read, "there was evening and there was +morning, one day." Whatever farther significance then may be +hereafter discovered in this remarkable statement, one thing at +all events seems clear, that it was designed to call attention to +the fact that the day spoken of was not a natural day. Probably +certain stages in the progress of the work were indicated, which +farther investigations may disclose to us. A few years ago such +stages seemed to be discernible, but the continued progress of +discovery has partly obliterated the supposed lines of +demarcation. Still further discoveries may bring to light other +divisions. + +In the opening of the second chapter we are told that God rested +on the seventh day from all His work, and His rest is spoken of in +such a way as to carry our thoughts at once to the Fourth +Commandment. In that commandment the duty of hallowing a seventh +portion of our time is based on the fact that "in six days the +Lord made heaven and earth, the sea and all that in them is, and +rested the seventh day." But the analogy entirely fails unless the +days of the Creator's work bore the same proportion to the day of +His rest which man's six days of labour bear to his Sabbath. Now +we are expressly told in other parts of Scripture that the Divine +Sabbath is not yet ended (Heb. iii. iv.), and we are led to infer +that it will not end till He that sitteth upon the throne shall +say, "Behold I make all things new." If then the Sabbath of the +Creator is measured by thousands of years--the whole duration of +man upon the earth--it follows that the days of His work must have +been of corresponding length. + +One more indication, so strong that in itself it seems sufficient +to decide the question, is to be found in the 4th verse of the +second chapter. [Footnote: It is not unusual with critics of the +German school to assert that this is an independent account of the +Creation. But the assertion does not appear to have any valid +foundation. The supposed grounds for it are well discussed in the +"Speaker's Commentary," vol. i. p. 23, and in "Aids to Faith," +Essay v., Sections 2, 4, 5. It has already been pointed out that +the supposed variations in order rest entirely on the +translation.] In that verse all that is ascribed to the six days +in the preceding chapter is summed up as the work of a single day. +If then the word is used in a natural sense in the first chapter, +it is clearly used in an extended sense in the second chapter. But +if it had been used in a natural sense in the first chapter, there +would have been no need whatever for its use here. Its place would +have been taken--and most appropriately--by the word [Hebrew +script], a week, with which Moses was familiar (ch. xxix. 28; +Deut. xvi. 10). Its use here would have connected the weekly +division of time with the Creation, and as its presence would have +been thus strongly significant, its absence is a no less +significant indication that the six days spoken of in the +preceding chapter are something very different from six natural +days. + +Three points, therefore, seem to be clear:-- + +1. However the chapter may be interpreted, there are in it +coincidences with ascertained facts so marked that they cannot +possibly be fortuitous. They prove therefore that Moses was in +possession of some accurate information on the subject on which he +was writing. + +As we proceed with our subject we shall come upon many more +indications of this, some of them exceedingly remarkable. It is +therefore by no means improbable that he was acquainted with the +fact, that the work which he was describing was one which had +occupied a long series of ages. + +2. Supposing that Moses was acquainted with all which has now been +discovered by geologists, and that he was desirous of imparting +that knowledge to his readers, the language which he has employed +is the most appropriate that, under the circumstances, he could +have chosen for the purpose. 3. The phenomena exhibited by the +context indicate not only that he had this intention, but that he +also intended that such of his readers as were competent to +entertain the idea, should have sufficient indications to guide +them to his meaning. + +Whatever then may be the real significance of the "days"--a point +which the knowledge at present in our possession seems +insufficient to explain--it seems very clear that something very +different from natural days is intended. And this is a sufficient +answer to the objection which is founded on that interpretation. +That there would be very many points which as yet we are unable +fully to understand, has been already shown to be not only +possible but probable; and among them it appears this question of +the true meaning of the days must be left for the present. When we +come to consider subsequently the great number of points in which +harmony between the narrative and discovered facts is brought out +on investigation, [Footnote: Chap. v.] we may well be content to +leave many points unexplained till our knowledge is greatly +increased. + +SECTION 2. FIRST TRACES OF LIFE. + +The second objection has reference to the relative antiquity of +the various forms of life, of which we find traces in the +successive strata of the rocks. If it be assumed that the apparent +coincidences which have been pointed out between the Mosaic +narrative and the geological records are real, and that the +traditional interpretation is the true one, then we ought to find-- + +1. No traces at all of animal life below the Trias. + +2. No traces of mammalia below the Cretaceous formation. + +But the examination of the rocks leads to a very different result. +Traces of life have been found, probably in the Laurentian, +certainly in the Cambrian rocks. The earliest known fish is the +Pteraspis, which has been discovered in the upper Silurian +formation at Leintwardine, in Shropshire. The first member of the +reptilian order, Archegesaurus, occurs in the coal measures; and +the first traces of a mammalian--two teeth--occur at the junction +of the Lias and Trias. In every case, then, we meet with traces of +life at a period long anterior to that at which we should +naturally expect them. + +In order to ascertain the real weight of this objection we hare to +investigate two points:-- + +1. What are the animals to which the Mosaic Record refers? + +2. What does it really tell us about the creation of those +animals? + +1. It is commonly assumed that all living creatures are +comprehended under the terms used in describing the work of the +fifth and sixth days. But a more careful examination shows that +there is no real ground for this assumption. The first point which +presents itself is the omission of the Hebrew word for fish, +[Hebrew script], in the account of the fifth day--an omission the +more marked, because the word does occur in vv. 26, 28, in which +dominion over all living creatures is granted to man. The two +words which are used in ver. 21 are [Hebrew script] from [Hebrew +script], to stretch out, to extend, and [Hebrew script], from +[Hebrew script], identical with [Hebrew script], to trample with +the feet. The description then points us to animals of great size, +especially length, which trample with the feet. "Great sea- +monsters," Gesenius calls them. These words clearly indicate the +Saurian and allied tribes of reptiles; and when we turn to the +rocks we find the remains of these creatures occurring in great +numbers, precisely at the point which Moses assigns to them. + +Again, in the account of the sixth day, three classes of animals +are mentioned; but we have no means whatever of ascertaining what +kinds of animals were comprehended in these three classes, or +whether they included all the mammalia then known to the Jews; +much less then are we justified in inferring that they comprehend +all mammalia that were then, or ever had been in existence. + +But it may perhaps appear strange, that the account of the +Creation of living beings should be of such limited extent, +embracing only reptiles, birds, and mammals. A little +consideration, however, will remove this apparent strangeness. We +should, perhaps, naturally expect to have some notice of the first +appearance of animal life; but from the circumstances under which +Moses wrote such a notice was simply impossible. The lowest and +simplest form of life with which we are now acquainted is the +Amoeba Princeps, a minute particle of jelly-like substance, called +sarcode--scarcely larger than a small grain of sand--and with no +distinction of organs or limbs. [Footnote: Carpenter, The +Microscope and its Revelations, p. 428.] The oldest known fossil, +Eozoon Canadense, is of a class but little above this--the +foraminifera; we may therefore deem it probable that life began +with some form not very unlike the Amoeba. How could the formation +of such a creature have been described to the contemporaries of +Moses? They could have had no idea of its existence. To describe +the first beginnings of life then, was, under the circumstances, +an absolute impossibility. But if a part only of the long series +of animal life could possibly be noticed, the determination of the +point at which he should first speak of it would be left to the +writer, guided as he would be by considerations of the object for +which, and the persons for whom, he wrote, which we must +necessarily in our position be unable duly to estimate. All that +we are entitled to expect is that the account, so far as it +extends, should be in accordance with facts. + +The next point to be ascertained is, "Does the Mosaic Record +intimate that the creations of reptiles on the fifth, and of +mammals on the sixth days were entirely new creations, i.e. that +no creatures of these classes had existed before?" There is no +direct assertion to this effect; it is only an inference, though a +natural one, when we consider the circumstances under which it was +drawn. When, however, we turn to the original we find the 20th +verse worded in a way which seems designed to avoid the suggestion +of such an inference. Literally translated it is, "Let the waters +swarm swarms, the soul of life." Such creatures then may have +existed before, but not in swarms. And in the account of the sixth +day, as has been already noticed, three forms of mammalia are +specified, and we have no knowledge as to the varieties included +in these three forms. Nor is there here any intimation that it was +the first creation of such animals. The greater part of the +earlier fossils belong to the Marsupialia and Mouotremata, and we +have no reason to believe that these classes have existed in +historic times in Europe, Asia, or Africa. They are now confined +(with the exception of the opossums, which are American) to +Australia. They were therefore entirely unknown to the Jews, and +in consequence necessarily omitted in a document intended for +their use. + +What has been said with reference to reptiles is also applicable +to birds. The first traces of them are found in the ornithichnites +of the new red sandstone, and the first fossil--Archaeopteryx, in +the Solenhofen strata, belonging to the Oolite. From the nature of +the case the remains are necessarily scanty, since birds would be +less exposed than other animals to those casualties which would +lead to their preservation as fossils, but enough traces have been +found to show that in the period corresponding to the fifth day +they were very numerous, and attained in many instances to a +gigantic stature. A height of from ten to twelve feet was not +uncommon. + +When, therefore, we notice that the fifth and sixth days +correspond to two periods, in the first of which reptiles and +birds, and in the second mammalia, were the prominent types, the +words of the sacred historian seem to have an adequate +interpretation in that fact. There is no contradiction between the +two records. Moses describes but a very few of the facts which +geology has brought to light, but those few facts are in exact +accordance with the results of independent observation. The acts +of Creation of which Moses speaks correspond to remarkable +developments of the orders of animals to which he refers. To have +noticed the time of the appearance of the first individual member +of each class, as distinguished from the time when that class +occupied the foremost place in the ranks of creation, would have +been inconsistent with the simplicity and brevity of the +narrative, while it would have been unintelligible to those for +whom the narrative was intended, since these primeval types had +passed out of existence ages before the creation of man. It is, +however, noteworthy, that the first appearances of the several +orders follow precisely the same arrangement as the times of their +greatest development. + +SECTION 3. SIMULTANEOUS CREATION. + +This objection may be very briefly disposed of, though it appears +to be one which has made a very deep impression on Mr. Darwin. +[Footnote: Origin of Species, p 1, &c.] It is entirely an +inference drawn from the old interpretation of the six days. While +that interpretation was received it followed, as a necessary +consequence, that the creation of all kinds of plants on the third +day, and of reptiles, birds, and mammalia on the fifth and sixth +days respectively, must have been simultaneous. But if that +interpretation is proved to be untenable, the inference drawn from +it falls to the ground. The language of the narrative seems to +point in an opposite direction. There is one instance in the +chapter in which the words used seem to point to an instantaneous +result. "And God said 'Let light be' and Light was," though in +this case the words probably have a further significance, which +has been brought out by the discovery of the nature of light. But +in these three cases the command is first recorded, with (in two +cases) the addition "and it was so," and then the narrative goes +on to speak of the fulfilment of the command, as if the command +and its fulfilment were distinct things. + +SECTION 4. DEATH. CARNIVOROUS ANIMALS. + +These two objections may advantageously be considered together, +since the fifth is in a great measure, though not entirely, +dependent upon the fourth. For if death, in the common sense of +the word, was unknown till the fall of Adam, it follows as a +necessary consequence that no carnivorous creatures could have +existed before that time. On the other hand, it may be considered +as the natural death of large classes of animals to be devoured by +the carnivora; so that if there were no carnivorous animals prior +to the Fall, one of the avenues to death, at all events, had not +been opened. + +There is really no ground at all for the first of these objections +in the actual history of Creation. It is only when the threat held +out to Adam (ii. 17) is viewed in the light of St. Paul's comment +upon it (Rom. v. 12; viii. 20) that the supposition can be +entertained. This, then, is the real foundation of the difficulty. + +But, first of all, there is no reason to suppose that St. Paul's +words refer to any death but that of man. Now, it may well have +been, that although man, having a body exactly analogous to those +of the animals, would naturally have been subject, like them, to +the ordinary laws of decay and death, yet in the case of a +creature who possessed so much which raised him above the level of +the lower animals, there may have been some provision made which +should exempt him from this necessity. That this was the case +appears probable from the mention made in the narrative of the +Tree of Life. We have no intimation whether the action of the +fruit of this tree was physical or sacramental, but that, in one +way or other, it had the power to preserve man from physical death +seems almost certain from the way in which it is spoken of after +the Fall (iii. 22-24). But the mention of the Tree of Life leads +to the inference that the case of Adam was entirely exceptional. + +In the next place, it does not seem probable that that dissolution +of the body which was the natural lot of all other animals was the +whole, or even the chief part, of the evil consequence of Adam's +fall. That it was included in the penalty seems probable, but it +only constituted a comparatively unimportant part of that penalty. +The threat was, "In THE DAY that thou eatest thereof thou shalt +surely die," and we cannot doubt that the Divine words were +exactly fulfilled, though Adam's natural death did not take place +for many hundred years. But the guilty creatures, covering their +nakedness with fig-leaves, crouching among the trees of the garden +in the vain hope of hiding themselves from the face of their +Maker, who were to transmit an inheritance of sin and shame and +misery to their yet unborn posterity, were surely very different +beings from those whom the Creator but a short time before had +pronounced "very good." The true life of the soul was gone; the +image of God defaced. This was the real, the terrible death. If +death in its full sense means nothing more than the dissolution of +the body, our Lord's words, "He that liveth and believeth in Me +shall never die," have failed of their fulfilment. That promise +has been in force for more than eighteen centuries, and yet no +case has occurred of a Christian, however holy he may have been, +or however strong his faith, who has escaped the universal doom. +The Church of the Patriarchs could point to an Enoch, the Jewish +Church to an Elijah, who were exempted from the universal penalty; +but Christianity can point to no such exemption, nor does she need +it. To her members, to die is to sleep in Jesus; to be absent from +the body is to be present with the Lord, for the penalty of death +is cancelled. + +Though, then, it seems by no means improbable that Adam, if he had +not fallen, would have been exempt from the dissolution of the +body, yet this is not absolutely certain, and even if it were +certain, his case would be an exceptional one: no inference as to +the immortality of the animal creation could have been drawn from +it. + +The supposition that all animals prior to the fall lived entirely +on vegetable food rests partly on this groundless inference, and +partly on the Divine Words recorded in verse 30: "And to every +beast of the field, and to every fowl of the air, have I given +every green herb for meat." But it is important to notice that +these words are not recorded as addressed to the animals, like the +command to be fruitful and multiply. Had this been the case, any +omission to mention the flesh of other animals, might have been +looked upon as significant. Instead of this they are addressed to +Adam, and they follow other words in which the same things are +assigned to Adam for his food. They come then in the form of a +limitation to the rights granted to Adam, rather than of a +definition of the rights of the lower animals. Adam was to have +the free use of every green herb, but he was not to account +himself the exclusive owner of it. The beast of the field and the +fowl of the air were to be co-proprietors with him; they were to +have the use of it as freely as himself; but that they were to be +restricted to the use of vegetable food nowhere appears. +Accordingly we know that carnivorous creatures have existed from +the first, and that though to a superficial observer this may +appear a cruel arrangement, yet in reality it is a most merciful +provision, by which aged, weak, or maimed animals are preserved +from the agonies of death by starvation. + +We may conclude then that there is no real contradiction between +the conclusions at which Geologists have arrived, and the words +actually made use of by Moses, but that all such supposed +contradictions have arisen from meanings being attached to those +words, which, though possible or even probable, were not the only +possible meanings. When the difficulty has been suggested, and the +words have in consequence been more closely examined, it appears +that they are capable of an interpretation in strict harmony with +every fact which Geologists have as yet discovered, and that in +many cases there are not wanting indications that the writer +intended them to be thus understood. + + + + + +CHAPTER III. + +DIFFICULTIES IN ASTRONOMY. + + +These objections, so far as they are based or supposed to be based +on ascertained facts, are very few and insignificant. The chief of +them are as follows:-- + +1. Moses describes light, and the division of night and day as +existing before the Creation of the Sun. + +2. Moses describes the firmament as a solid vault. + +3. Moses speaks of the stars as created on the fourth day, only +two days before Adam, whereas astronomers have asserted that many +of them are so distant that the light by which we see them must +have been on its way ages before Adam was created. + +That part of the first objection which refers to the existence of +light prior to the creation of the Sun, appears so extremely +childish that it might have been thought unnecessary to notice it, +had it not been solemnly propounded in such a work as "Essays and +Reviews." [Footnote: Page 219] Anyone who is in possession of a +telescope of but moderate power may satisfy himself of its +futility on any starlight night. He has only to turn his telescope +to one or two of the more conspicuous nebulae; the Great Nebula in +Orion, for instance, or the Ring Nebula in Lyra, and his eye will +receive light which has not come from any Sun, for it is a well- +ascertained fact that these nebulae are nothing but vast masses of +incandescent gas. And this objection is singularly inappropriate +in the mouth of the opponents of the Mosaic Record, inasmuch as +the Nebular hypothesis is with them the favourite method of +accounting for the present state of things. The view which they +bring forward as an alternative to the Mosaic account assumes the +very state of things which, when, alleged by Moses, they denounce +as impossible. The other part of this objection, which refers to +the division of day and night, will be more advantageously +discussed when we come to consider the actual accounts of the +first and fourth days' work. It will then appear probable that the +statements which Moses has made on this subject, instead of being +indications of ignorance, are the result of a profound knowledge +of the subject on which he was writing. + +Next, it is alleged that Moses describes the firmament as a solid +vault.[Footnote: Essays and Reviews, p. 220.] "The work of the +second day of creation is to erect the vault of heaven, which is +represented as supporting an ocean of water above it." That the +Greek and Latin translations in this place do seem to imply the +idea of solidity seems indisputable; and from the Latin the word +"firmament" has passed into our own language. But there is no +reason to think that the Hebrew word has any such meaning. It is +derived from a root signifying "to beat out--to extend." +[Footnote: May not this root, [Hebrew script], have some connexion +with [Hebrew script], "to be light," from which is derived the +Aramaic "Raca" of Matt. v. 22?] The verb is often applied to the +beating out of metals, but not always. It is a new doctrine in +etymology, that the meaning of a verbal noun is to be deduced from +the nouns which often supply objects to its root, instead of from +the meaning of the root itself. But even if it can be shown that +the word did originally involve such a meaning, that would be +nothing to the purpose. It would only be in the same case with a +vast number of other words, which, though etymologically untrue, +are habitually used without inconvenience, because they do convey +to the minds of others the idea which we intend to convey, their +etymology being lost sight of. Probably, the very persons who +bring forward the objection do sometimes use the word "firmament," +though they know the error which is involved in it. Nor would they +be any more accurate if they substituted for it the Saxon word +"heaven," since that also involves a scientific inaccuracy. The +word used by Moses was the commonly recognized name for the object +of which he was writing; and no objection to his use of it can be +maintained, unless it can be shown that in using it he rejected +some other word equally intelligible to all, and which was at the +same time etymologically correct. But there is no ground for the +assumption that any such word existed in the time of Moses or at +any subsequent period. + +The third objection, of course, ceases to have any force if the +days of creation are no longer regarded as natural days. But the +objection is in itself, apart from this condition, of no +consequence whatever. For, in the first place, it is by no means +certain, or even probable, that the stars referred to in the +fourth day's work are the fixed stars. The Hebrew has no word for +planets as distinguished from the fixed stars, although, as we +know for certain, the difference between the planets and the fixed +stars was recognized from a very early period. In every case, +then, the context must determine the sense to be given to the +word. In this case, the fact that these stars are mentioned in +connexion with the sun and moon, combined with our knowledge that +the planets, like the moon, are dependent upon the sun for their +light, would lead us to infer that they are meant. + +But even if the fixed stars were meant, the objection would be no +longer tenable. It rests on certain estimates as to the supposed +distances of the fixed stars and star clusters, which were formed +by the late Sir W. Herschel from what he designated the "space- +penetrating power" of his telescopes. Starting with the assumption +that the stars were of tolerably uniform size and brilliancy, and +that the difference in apparent brightness was the result, and +therefore a measure of their distances, he proceeded to apply the +same process to the star clusters, which, even in a fair +telescope, present only the appearance of faint nebulous spots of +light, but are resolved into clusters of stars by more powerful +instruments. In many cases, he found that a certain proportion +existed between the telescopic power by which a cluster was first +rendered visible, and that required for its resolution, and by +this means he formed what he considered a probable estimate of its +distance. Other clusters there were which only became visible in +his most powerful telescopes, and which, therefore, he could never +succeed in resolving. These he placed at a still greater distance, +and from this estimate he deduced the conclusion that their light +must have been in some cases as much as 60,000 years in reaching +the earth. + +But the whole foundation on which this long chain of inference +rested has now been shown to be evanescent. In the first place +many of his irresolvable nebulae have been proved by the +spectroscope to be true nebulae--masses of luminous gas, and not +star clusters at all; and, in the next place, the actual distances +of a few of the fixed stars have been approximately ascertained, +and it is proved beyond all doubt that the different degree of +brightness exhibited by different stars is no test at all of their +distance. Of all the stars in our hemisphere whose distance has +thus been measured, the nearest to us is one which can only just +be discerned by a practised eye on a favourable night, 61 Cygni, +whilst the most brilliant star visible in England, Sirius, is at a +considerably greater distance. The most competent judges estimate +the magnitude of Sirius as about one thousand times that of the +sun [Footnote: Mr. Proctor in Good Words, February, 1872.]. In +addition to this, many stars of very different magnitudes are +found to be related to each other in such a way as to show that +they are in actual, and not merely in optical proximity. The +clusters which were formerly supposed to consist of large stars at +enormous distances from us, are now, upon very solid grounds, +believed to be formed of much smaller stars, at much more moderate +distances, so that it is very improbable that there is any object +visible in the heavens whose light has taken so much as 6000 +years, instead of 60,000 years to reach us. + +THE NEBULAR THEORY. + +We come now to the consideration of the Nebular Theory of Laplace, +in so far as it is opposed to the Mosaic account. It must be +remembered that, after all, this is only a theory. Even if it +could be satisfactorily established, it would only point out a way +in which this world MIGHT have been formed. That it could not have +been formed in any other way is an independent proposition, in +support of which no single argument has ever yet been brought +forward. There may be a greater or less probability that the earth +was formed in this particular way, that probability depending on +the extent to which the theory accounts for observed facts. This +it does in many cases, and it has in consequence been accepted AS +A WHOLE by many scientific men, as a substitute for the Scriptural +account. As will be seen hereafter, there are strong reasons for +admitting it as a supplement to the brief account given by Moses; +but our business now is to ascertain, whether it has any just +claim to be received instead of that account. + +The theory seems to have been suggested by certain speculations of +Sir W. Herschel. In his telescopic examination of the Nebulae and +star clusters, he found that in a great number of cases, when a +nebula was rendered visible by a certain amount of telescopic +power, it would be resolved into separate stars by a telescope of +a little higher power. But there were some nebulae, visible in +very small telescopes, or even discernible with the naked eye, +such as those in Orion and Andromeda, which could not be resolved +even by his great four-foot reflector, the largest telescope that +had then been constructed. And these nebulae exhibited a great +variety of forms. Some of them were vast shapeless masses of faint +light; others, which he designated "planetary" nebulae, exhibited +a regular form--a circular disc more or less clearly defined, +often brightest in the centre. Others seemed to be intermediate +between these two classes. Hence he was led to the idea that these +were worlds in the process of formation, and that their varying +forms indicated varying stages of that process. + +This suggestion was eagerly adopted by the members of the French +Academy, who were at that time on the look-out for anything which +they thought would help them to account for the existence of the +world, while they refused to acknowledge a Creator. It was taken +up by one of their number--Laplace--a man who stood in the very +foremost rank as a mathematician and physical astronomer, and +moulded into shape by him.[Footnote: There is a very full account +of Laplace's hypothesis, extracted from the works of Pontecoulant, +in Professor Nichol's System of the World, pp. 69--86.] + +He assumed, that the Solar System existed at the very earliest +period as a shapeless nebula, a vast undefined mass of "fire- +mist;" that at some time or other the separate particles of this +fire-mist began to move towards their centre of gravity, under the +influence of their mutual attractions, and thus assumed a +spherical shape; that by some means or other a motion of rotation +was originated in this spherical mass, which increased in rapidity +as the process of condensation advanced. The effect of this +rotation would be a flattening of the sphere; the equatorial +diameter would increase while the polar diameter, or axis of +rotation, diminished; and when the centrifugal force thus produced +had reached a certain point, a ring would detach itself from the +equator, but would continue to revolve about the common centre. He +supposed that a succession of rings were thus thrown off, which +finally broke up and accumulated into one or more spherical +masses, forming the planets and their satellites, while the +remainder of the original sphere was condensed into the sun. The +planets and their satellites would continue to revolve about the +centre as the ring from which they were formed had done, while the +different original velocities of the particles of which they were +formed, some having been in the outer, some in the inner part of +the ring, would cause them also to rotate on their axis. As the +condensation advanced, the heat which had originally existed in +the "fire-mist" would be condensed also, so that all the masses +when formed would be in an incandescent state, but the planets and +their satellites being comparatively small would soon cool down, +while the sun, owing to its greatly superior bulk, still retains +its heat. + +There is no doubt much to be said in favour of this theory, which +may be more advantageously considered hereafter, when we shall +have to consider it as supplementary to the Mosaic account. At +present we are only concerned with it as it claims to stand alone, +and to be accepted as a substitute for that account. Viewed in +this light, as a substitute for a Creator, as showing us how the +universe might have come into existence spontaneously, it utterly +breaks down in three points. + +1. It gives us no account whatever of the origin of matter, but +assumes that it was already in existence at the time from which +the theory takes its point of departure. But some account of it +must be given. Either it was created by some higher power, or it +was eternal; for the idea of its being self-originated is +manifestly untenable. If it was created, there is an end of the +theory--the act of creation assumes the existence of a Creator; +and the only question left is, whether that Creator did more or +less. But the very object of the theory was to dispense with the +existence of a Creator. This alternative, then, it must reject, +and there is nothing left but to fall back upon the other, and to +assume that it existed from all eternity. But it is certainly not +less difficult to us to conceive the possibility of inert matter +being self-existent and eternal, than it is to recognize the +existence of an eternal and all-powerful Spirit. Our own +consciousness helps us to realize the possibility of the existence +of an Eternal Mind, and of the exercise of power by that mind; but +we have nothing to help us to a conception of self-existent +matter. + +In addition to this, the idea of eternity precludes from its very +nature the idea of possible change. If there is change there must +be the distinction of before and after, and so of the succession +of existence, which involves the idea of time. That which is +subject to change, and this theory assumes a change in the +condition of matter, cannot be eternal. + +2. The next failing point is, that this theory assumes a change, +of the origin of which it can give no account. The assumption is, +that matter which had existed from all eternity, or for an +indefinite time, in a state of perfect rest, suddenly began to +move towards its centre of gravity. A body, or a system of +particles, can remain at rest only under one of two conditions. +Either it must be acted on by no force at all, or all the forces +by which it is acted on must be in perfect equilibrium. If matter +existed under the first of these conditions, whence did the force +suddenly emanate? Force cannot be self-originated any more than +matter. But if the other alternative be adopted, how was the +equilibrium disturbed? It is a fundamental axiom of mechanics that +"a body (or system of bodies) at rest will continue at rest till +it be acted upon by some external force." But the theory supplies +no such external force, for it could only originate in that which +the theory ignores--the will and power of some intelligent Being. + +3. The third defect is, that the theory does not give any +satisfactory account of the origin of the motions of rotation and +revolution. Laplace does not attempt this. He simply assumes that +a motion of rotation was set up somehow; but many of his +followers, perceiving that the theory broke down here--though they +passed the other two defects unnoticed--have attempted to supply +the deficiency in this point. Some have attempted to account for +this motion by analogy. It has been suggested that it was of the +same nature, and produced by the same causes, as the vortex which +is formed when a vessel full of fluid is emptied through an +orifice in its bottom. Pontecoulant, in his account of the theory, +enters more into detail. He assumes that in the process of +agglomeration large bodies of matter impinged obliquely on the +already formed mass, and so imparted to it a motion of rotation. + +A consideration of the mechanical conditions of the problem will +show the unsoundness of Pontecoulant's views. It is of course +assumed that the forces by which this rotation is said to have +been produced are identical in their character with those with +which we are familiar, for the introduction of any force peculiar +to that time would be equivalent to an admission of a directing +power. The following propositions then seem unquestionable:-- + +1. The nebula must be considered as a system of particles acted on +by their mutual attractions, and by no other force. + +2. When two particles of matter, a and b, attract each other, it +is a fundamental principle of mechanics, (commonly known as the +"Third Law of Motion") that whatever amount of momentum is +produced in a, an equal and opposite momentum must be produced in +b. Hence if the mutual action remain undisturbed, the two +particles will approach each other and finally meet. On their +union, the two momenta being equal and opposite will neutralize +each other, and there will be no tendency to produce motion of any +kind. 3. The same law will hold good with reference to any number +of particles, and therefore with reference to the supposed nebula. +Every single particle will produce a certain momentum in each of +the other particles, and at the same time will have impressed upon +it by each of the other particles an equal and opposite momentum. +Hence when all the particles are collected into a single mass, +each individual momentum will be balanced by an equal and opposite +one, and there can be no resultant motion. + +The analogy from fluids flowing through an orifice fails, because-- + +1. The particles of the fluid are acted on by forces other than +their mutual attractions, and in many cases affecting them +unequally, e. g., friction against the sides of the containing +vessel and the orifice. + +2. Because the orifice is not a point, but a finite area, and +consequently the particles of the fluid are acted on by forces +which do not pass through the same point. + +Considered then as a substitute for the action of an intelligent +Creator, Laplace's theory utterly breaks down in three points, +which, as they will have to be referred to hereafter, it is well +to recapitulate. + +1. It does not account for the origin of matter. + +2. It does not account for the emergence of the force of +attraction. + +3. It does not give a satisfactory account for the motion of +rotation. + + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +DIFFICULTIES IN PHYSIOLOGY. + + +The third science which is supposed to come into collision with +the Mosaic Record is Physiology. Here, however, we meet with no +objections which rest upon ascertained facts, as in the case of +geology. We have only to do with theories. All that can be brought +forward is merely matter of opinion or theory--such theory +resting indeed on a foundation of ascertained facts--but being in +itself a mere inference more or less probable from those facts. +Even if it were proved to be a true account of the causation of +those facts, it would be by no means certain that other facts, +however similar, might not have had a totally different origin. + +At one time it was very confidently asserted, by many eminent +physiologists, that the differences between various branches of +the human race were so great, that it was impossible that all +should have descended from the same original stock. Probably this +opinion is still maintained in some quarters, but of late years +views of a diametrically opposite character have been brought +forward, and very ably advocated. In proportion as these views are +admitted to have in them an element of truth, the importance of +the older objection is diminished. It will therefore be +unnecessary to dwell upon it. This new view is, that not only all +branches of the human race, but all living beings now existing, or +that have ever existed on the face of the earth, are descended by +the process of "evolution," carried on under what are designated +as "natural laws" from some one variety, or small number of +varieties of living creatures of the lowest type. + +This theory, like that of Laplace, had its origin among the French +Academicians, at the close of the last century. Its author was La +Marck. According to his view the simplest form of animal life, the +"monad," was spontaneously developed by some unknown process. From +this monad higher forms of animal life were produced, and the +course of development was continued till it finally culminated in +man. But it does not appear that La Marck suggested any means by +which the various stages of development were brought about, and +the view attracted little attention. Some thirty years ago it was +revived by an anonymous writer, in a work called "Vestiges of +Creation." In this work the idea of spontaneous generation was +repudiated. The original monad was supposed to have derived its +existence from an act of Creative Power, and to have been then +left to work out its own development, by virtue of powers +originally implanted in it. All its variations and advances were +supposed to be the result of the will and efforts of the creature +acting through many generations. Thus the desire and attempt to +walk ended in the development of legs, while wings were the final +result of its efforts to fly. It was felt, however, that this was +by no means a satisfactory account of the state of things, and so +the work, though it produced a great sensation at the time, has +now been almost entirely forgotten. + +Latterly, however, the theory has found a far more able advocate +in the person of Mr. Darwin, with whose name it has been popularly +identified. By his indefatigable labours a vast variety of facts +have been collected and skilfully arranged, to show that all the +varieties of life may be satisfactorily accounted for by the +continued action, through a long course of ages, of certain +natural causes, with the results of which we are familiar, and of +which intentional use is continually made by man. Mr. Darwin does +not deny the existence of a Creator, but the tendency of his +arguments is to prove that His interference was limited to the +single act of original Creation; and that from the moment of its +creation the world has been a sort of automatic machine, producing +its results without any interference from any higher power. + +The theory taken as a whole comes into contact with the Mosaic +Record in three points:-- + +1. As it assumes the possibility that life may be self-originated. + +2. As it indicates a mode of procedure different from that given +by Moses. + +3. As it requires unlimited time. + +Of these the last is already disposed of, when the narrative is +shown to be capable of an interpretation in accordance with it. +The first requires only a brief notice; but the second must be +carefully investigated, to separate ascertained truth from +inferences which have no sufficient foundation. + +The theory of spontaneous generation rests almost entirely upon +assumptions. Its only semblance of support from facts is derived +from certain experiments of a very unsatisfactory character, which +are said to have resulted in the production of some of the lowest +forms of animal life. These experiments have been by no means +uniformly successful. One or two experimenters have thought that +they have succeeded, but not uniformly, while the same process, +repeated by men whose scientific and manipulative powers are +universally recognized, has never once resulted in any seeming +development of life. Even if, however, they had been uniformly +successful, there would have been great reason to doubt whether +the apparent success was not really a failure--a failure in the +precautions necessary to exclude all germs of life from the matter +experimented upon. For the lower forms of life are excessively +minute; and their germs--eggs, seeds, or spores--must be far +smaller. It is known that these are constantly floating in the +atmosphere, though, owing to their extreme minuteness, the fact +can only be ascertained by the most skilful investigation. And the +lower forms of animalcules have a singular tenacity of life; they +can pass unharmed through processes which would be fatal to +creatures of higher organization. One variety is known to survive +entire desiccation; another lives upon strychnine; others bear +without injury great extremes of heat and cold; and if this is the +case with the mature creatures, it is probable that the germ +possesses still stronger powers of vitality. If one acarus can +live upon strychnine, then it is not impossible that mineral acids +should be harmless to others; the germs might be carried through +sulphuric acid in air without coming into contact with the acid, +as air would pass through in bubbles, in the centre of which they +might be suspended; or if like the diatomaceae, they were coated +with silex, they might come into contact with it and resist its +action. Thus one of the precautions commonly taken is not certain +in its action, and the same might be shown to be true of the +others. The theory of spontaneous generation is, in fact, +generally repudiated by Evolutionists, and cannot therefore be +taken as a starting-point. + +We come then to the theory of Evolution with which Mr. Darwin's +name is associated. This theory asserts that all the varieties of +animal life now existing on the earth, however widely they may +differ from each other, are in reality derived from one, or a very +few original types; and that in this general statement the human +race is to be included. This theory rests upon the following +admitted facts. + +1. There are not, as was at one time commonly supposed, broad and +distinct lines of demarcation between the different varieties of +animals and plants. Our increasing knowledge of zoology has +brought to light the fact that one species shades off into another +by almost imperceptible gradations. As we go back in the fossil +records of animal life in the past, we find that the species now +existing, while they are closely allied to correspondent species +of an earlier period, are scarcely ever identical with them, and +that the few cases of identity which do occur, are limited to the +most recent rocks. Either then the old species must have perished, +and new ones, similar but not identical, must have been created to +take their places, or there must have been a process of gradual +change, by which the present species have been derived from their +predecessors. In one or two cases fossils have been found which +combine, to some extent, forms which are now found in distinct +species, as if the process of variation had proceeded in distinct +lines from a common source. + +2. No two animals of any class are exactly alike in all points. +Each has its individual peculiarities, and in some cases these +peculiarities are strongly marked. + +3. Man has been enabled, to a certain extent, to make use of these +individual peculiarities, and by means of them to produce great +varieties in the breeds of domesticated animals. This has been +sometimes done unconsciously through a selection influenced by +other motives, and then the process has been very slow; but +latterly intentionally, with a view to the production of improved +breeds, and whenever this has been the case, changes of +considerable extent have been rapidly produced. By carefully +selecting the animals to be paired, any desired modification can +generally be produced in the course of a few generations. This is +exemplified in the numerous and increasing varieties of the breeds +of almost all domestic animals and birds. + +The theory of Evolution then suggests that the same processes +which are employed by the cattle-breeder have been in operation +through untold ages. For the intention and care of the human +agent, Mr. Darwin substitutes two principles; one designated as +"Natural Selection," the other as "Sexual Selection." For their +full development he claims unlimited time. The ground on which the +Process of Natural Selection is maintained is as follows:-- + +It has been already noticed that no two individuals of the same +kind are exactly alike in all respects; each individual has some +peculiarities, generally very trifling, but sufficient to +distinguish it from all other individuals. Some of these +peculiarities will probably be such as to be of some service to +the individual in the struggle of life; they will assist it in +procuring food, or in resisting or escaping from its natural +enemies, while on the other hand the peculiarities of other +individuals will be prejudicial to them in these ways. The +consequence will be that a larger proportion of those having +favourable peculiarities will survive and propagate their kind; +their offspring will inherit the peculiarities of their parents, +and reproduce them in various degrees. The same process will then +be repeated, and thus from generation to generation the +peculiarity will be increased, till at last it is sufficient to +mark out, first a new variety, then a new species, and so on. This +process then, continued through a long course of ages, was at one +time considered by Mr. Darwin sufficient to account for all the +varieties of living creatures now existing, or that have existed +in past ages. But he has more recently satisfied himself +[Footnote: Descent of Man, vol. i p. 152.] that there are many +phenomena which are not satisfactorily accounted for by this +principle, since many of the specific differences of animals are +found to exist in matters which, cannot directly promote their +success in the struggle of life. Such, for instance, are the +brilliant colours which are found, especially among the males, in +many species of birds. These he proposes to explain by the +supplementary theory of "Sexual Selection." His suggestion is that +these peculiarities are in some way attractive to animals of the +opposite sex, so that the individuals in which they are most +strongly developed are more successful than others in obtaining +mates, and that in this way the peculiarity is gradually fixed and +increased. + +By these two processes, then, Mr. Darwin supposes that all the +differences now existing among animals have been produced and +perpetuated; and not only that, but that man also is the result of +similar processes, acting through a very long period; that the +progeny of certain "anthropomorphous apes" have, by slow degrees, +risen in the scale of being above their progenitors; that all our +faculties, intellectual and moral as well as physical, differ from +those possessed by lower animals in DEGREE only, and not in KIND, +[Footnote: Descent of Man, chaps, ii.-v.] so that man has arrived +at his present state by what may be termed purely natural +processes, without the intervention of any external power. + +In considering these theories, our attention must first be +directed to some defects which appear to weaken the whole course +of the argument; and then we may consider the peculiar +difficulties in the way of the processes of natural and sexual +selection; and the grounds for the belief that man is in +possession of something entirely different in KIND from any +faculty or power possessed by any lower animals, which could not +therefore be derived by inheritance and improvement. + +The first thing which strikes us in Mr. Darwin's works is that, +from time to time, he betrays a sort of latent consciousness that +his theory is insufficient; that the processes to which he +ascribes such vast results are not quite adequate to the purpose, +but that they need in some way to be supplemented. Every now and +then recourse is had to some law--some unknown cause--which must +co-operate in the production of the results he is considering. In +spite of the apparent care which he has taken to guard against it, +he is continually betrayed into a confusion between the two senses +in which the word "law" is employed. In its proper significance, +law is an expression of the will of an intelligent superior, +enforced by adequate power. In this sense the law may be +considered as an efficient cause. The combination of will and +power is an adequate cause for any result whatever. But Mr. Darwin +expressly excludes this sense of the word, in a sentence which +seems to involve a self-contradiction. "I mean by nature only the +aggregate action and product of many natural laws, and by law only +the ascertained sequence of events." [Footnote: Plants and Animals +under Domestication, vol. i. p. 6.] Law, in this sense, then, is +simply the statement of observed facts, and as such can have no +action at all. It asserts that certain phenomena do uniformly +follow each other in an ascertained order; but it gives us no +information whatever as to the cause of those events, or the +reason why they do thus succeed each other. But, taking law in +this last sense, by his own definition, Mr. Darwin does, +nevertheless, continually bring forward certain "laws" as +accounting for certain results. Thus, we have the laws of +"Correlation of Growth," [Footnote: Origin of Species, ed. 1872, +p. 114.] "Inheritance limited to Males," [Footnote: Descent of +Man, vol. i. pp. 256, 257.] and a "Principle of Compensation." +[Footnote: Origin of Species, p. 117.] When Mr. Darwin, therefore, +brings forward these laws as efficient causes, he not only tacitly +admits the inadequacy of his theory to account for the phenomena +in question, but he also endeavours to supply the defect by +another cause, which, by his own definition, is no cause at all. +And further, Mr. Darwin calls in the action of "unknown agencies." +[Footnote: Descent of Man, vol. i. p. 154.] + +But it may be said, "Is not this the case with all sciences, at +least in their earlier stages? Are there not frequently, or +always, many phenomena which at first seem inexplicable, but which +are gradually accounted for as knowledge increases? If, then, this +is no objection in scientific pursuits generally, why should it be +so here?" This reasoning would be perfectly valid if Darwinism +were regarded simply as a scientific investigation. But it is +under consideration now on very different rounds. Whatever Mr. +Darwin's own views may be, the theory is brought forward by +others, not as a mere interesting speculation, but as antagonistic +to a record whose authority is attested by evidence of the very +highest class. It claims to discredit that record, and to be +received as a substitute for it. But that record, however it may +be interpreted, does give us adequate causes for all that it +professes to account for, in the will and operation of an Almighty +Creator. The theory, therefore, which professes to supplant it, +must at least stand upon an equal ground--it must give an +adequate account of everything. There must be no unverified laws. +To fall back upon such laws is in reality to fall back on the +working of that very power whose operation is formally denied. +[Footnote: See Foster's Essays, Essay i. Letter 5.] + +The next point to be noticed is a great confusion between +assumptions and proved facts. This is especially prominent in that +part of his last work which is devoted to sexual selection. Thus, +in one case it is taken for granted, that various characteristics +of the males "serve only to allure or excite the female." +[Footnote: Descent of Man, vol. i. p. 258.] "Hence" (because +brilliant colours of insects have probably not been acquired FOR +THE PURPOSE of protection), "I am led to suppose that the females +generally prefer, or are most excited by the more brilliant +males." [Footnote: Ibid. p. 399.] "Nevertheless, when we see many +males pursuing the same female, we can hardly believe that the +pairing is left to blind chance; that the female exerts no choice, +and is not influenced by the gorgeous colours, or other ornaments +with which the male alone is decorated" [Footnote: Descent of Man, +vol. i p. 421.] Such sentences are of continual occurrence, and do +duty in the argument as if they expressed ascertained facts. And +not only this, but in the very part of the work which is devoted +to establishing the adequacy of sexual selection to produce +certain effects, that adequacy is assumed from the very beginning. +Thus, we read, "That these characters are the result of sexual +selection is clear," [Footnote: Ibid. p. 258.] before we have got +six pages into an argument which occupies a volume and a half. +This is surely a strong instance of what is commonly called +"begging the question." Another instance of confusion of ideas is +to be found in the assumption of design which occasionally occurs. +Thus, we read, "In some other remarkable cases beauty has been +gained for the sake of protection, through the imitation of other +beautiful species." [Footnote: Ibid. p. 393.] "From these +considerations Mr. Bates inferred, that the butterflies which +imitate the protected species, had acquired their present +marvellously deceptive appearance through variation and natural +selection, in order to be mistaken for the protected kinds." +[Footnote: Descent of Man, vol. i. p. 411.] In these cases there +is an assumption of purpose and design, which, necessarily implies +a designer, just as law, treated as an efficient cause, implies a +law-giver. It may indeed be that this is only an inaccurate way of +expressing something else; but then, such modes of expression are +usually the result of a want of clear perception of the ideas to +be expressed; and, in this case, such expressions must diminish +the weight to be assigned to Mr. Darwin's judgment. + +We come now to the consideration of the first of Mr. Darwin's +supposed agencies--"Natural Selection," or, "Survival of the +fittest." The results produced by this process must be ascribed to +one of two causes: either they are the work of a Superintending +Providence, watching over and directing every separate detail; or +they are the result of pure chance and accident. There is nothing +intermediate between these two causes. Natural law--apart from +design and a designer--is, as we have seen, a nonentity--a mere +expression of observed facts, for which it can give no account +whatever. Mr. Darwin's argument is expressly directed to exclude +the interference of a superintending Providence. Chance is the +only cause which he can bring forward. The very first question, +then, which arises is, What is there upon which chance may +operate? What are the conditions from which the probabilities may +be calculated? Mr. Darwin assumes, and no doubt correctly, that +minute variations are continually taking place. But as these +variations are the result of accident [Footnote: If they are not +the result of accident, we again see design and need a designer.] +they will take place in various directions; some of them will have +a beneficial, some of them a noxious tendency. As, moreover, they +are supposed to be very small at each step, the difference of +advantage in the case of different individuals must be also very +small, and will not be likely to produce any considerable +difference in the chances of pairing. But in order that any +variation may be perpetuated and increased, the pairing of +similarly affected individuals is necessary. Parents, in which the +variations took opposite directions, would probably have offspring +of the normal type, the opposite variations neutralizing each +other. And this must be repeated again and again; and with every +repetition of the process required, the probabilities against it +would rapidly increase. Thus, supposing that in the first +generation the proportion of favourable conditions were such, that +of those animals that paired there were four of each sex that had +them to three that wanted them, the chances that any given pair +were alike in possessing them would be represented by the product +4/7 x 4/7, or 16/49. Hence, the chances would be rather more than +two to one against it. In the next generation it would be +256/2401, or more than eight to one, and so on. [Footnote: This is +given merely as an illustration of the nature of the calculation. +In any actual case the conditions would be infinitely more +complex, but the calculation, if it could be made at all, must be +made on this principle.] + +But next, we have not to do with one series of changes only, but +with a vast number of different series going on in different +directions, if we are to have a large variety of animals produced +from a common stock. All the probabilities against the separate +variations must be combined, not by addition, but by +multiplication, so that the probabilities against the production +of all these separate forms become enormous. + +Against all this improbability Mr. Darwin brings forward the +supposed advantages which these variations give to their +possessors. But here again a new element is introduced into the +calculation. It is assumed, in the very statement of the question, +that the process of adaptation has already taken place; the +original stock must have been adapted to the circumstances under +which they existed, or in their case the whole theory fails. If, +then, a fresh adaptation is wanted, it must be because a change in +external circumstances must have taken place. In order that a new +variety may be established there must be a concurrence between the +change of external circumstances and the change in the animals. +Here we get a new, and a large factor for our multiplication. + +This argument may be, perhaps, made clearer by an illustration. +Mr. Darwin has written a very interesting book on the +fertilization of orchids by means of insects. According to his +view all insects are descended from one common type, and all +orchids are also descended from one parent; but we meet with +insects and orchids in pairs, each perfectly adapted to the other. +We will suppose that a change takes place in a particular orchid, +that the nectary recedes to a greater distance from the point to +which the insect can penetrate, and so an advantage is given to +those insects in which the haustellum is of a length above the +average. This may have a slight tendency to increase the number of +such insects; but then it will have an opposite tendency in the +case of the orchid. It cannot, of course, be supposed that the +variation, which is only partial in the insect, is universal in +the plant. The unchanged insects will therefore be confined to the +unchanged flowers, while the changed insects will be indifferent +on the subject, as they will be able to reach the nectary in any +case. Hence, an advantage will be given to the unchanged flower, +which will be more likely to be fertilized, and the two lines of +variation will move in opposite directions. + +But next, the variation in the insects and the flowers must take +place at the same time and the same place, or no result will +follow to the insect, while the new variety of orchid must perish +for want of an insect to fertilize it. It is this which makes the +supposition of unlimited time almost useless, because just in +proportion as the time is increased the probability of two +independent events happening simultaneously is diminished. + +But even supposing this difficulty out of the way, we meet with an +immediate repetition of it. The insect derives an advantage from +its increased haustellum, but what advantage does the plant derive +from its retiring nectary? How does that help it in the "struggle +of life?" But if it produces no beneficial result, the variation +according to the theory must drop. Hence we should arrive at an +insect suited for a new form of the flower, but no flower suited +to the new form of the insect. + +If, then, we reject the idea of superintendence and design, we +have on the one hand an enormous antecedent improbability, while +on the other hand we have only a very small power by which a +direction may be given to the course of events, since by the +hypothesis in any one generation the change, and consequently the +superior advantage, is exceedingly small, and there is a strong +tendency in related changes, as in the case of the orchid and +insect, to move in opposite directions. + +But next, in the varieties of animals with which we are +acquainted, there is a certain connexion between the differences +of independent organs, for which this theory does not help us to +account. Thus, for instance, according to this theory the canine +and the feline races are descended from a common ancestor. But +there are several points of difference between a cat and a dog. +There are the differences in the form of jaws, in the dentition; +in the muscles by which the jaws are moved, and in the feet and +claws. All animals of the cat tribe agree in all these respects, +so do all animals of the dog tribe. We never find a cat's head +combined with the feet of a dog. Why is this? Mr. Darwin attempts +to account for it by his supposed law of "correlation of growth," +but, as has been already shown, any such law, being by Mr. +Darwin's definition the observed sequence of events and nothing +more, is utterly useless, when it is brought forward as a cause +for those events. On this point the theory completely breaks down. + +3. The theory does not account for any changes which are not +immediately beneficial. [Footnote: In the "Origin of Species" (Ed. +1872) Mr. Darwin makes an admission which is virtually a giving-up +of his whole theory. He says, "In many other cases modifications +are probably the direct result of the laws of variation or of +growth, independently of any good having been thus gained; but +even such structures have often, as we may feel assured, been +subsequently taken advantage of," pp. 165, 166. Here, then, we +have a preparation for future circumstances, which surely implies +design.] If any rudimentary advance is made in the organism, if, +for instance, the rudiments of a new bone, or joint, or organ of +sense are developed, the nascent organ must, according to the +hypothesis of minute changes, be useless in the first instance. +Hence it would confer no advantage in the struggle of life; there +would be no tendency towards its preservation and growth. This +becomes a very important consideration, when certain important +differences in animal structure and habits are to be accounted +for. How, for instance, could the mammary glands be developed in +oviparous creatures? Mr. Darwin regards them as originating in +cutaneous glands, developed in the pouch of the marsupials. But +his grounds for this statement are very meagre. To a great extent +they rest on what an American Naturalist "believes he has seen;" +and besides, the ornithorhyncus, which has no pouch, and which is +lower in the scale of life than the marsupials, by Mr. Darwin's +own admission (O. S., p. 190), possesses the glands. Mr. Mivart's +question (Darwin, O. S., p. 189) is a very pertinent one. + +Another point which this view fails to explain, is the +determination of the line of development in particular directions +at different periods. At one time it is most marked in fishes, at +another in reptiles, at another in mammals. How is this to be +accounted for? + +4. The experience of cattle-breeders does not warrant the +assumption that the principle of natural selection has more than a +limited operation. No case has as yet been brought forward in +which varieties have been produced which were not capable of +interbreeding. Apart from their experience there is not a particle +of evidence in favour of the assertion that races which cannot be +made to breed together can be descended from a common stock. The +unlimited application of this principle is therefore a pure +assumption. + +5. To this must be added the circumstance that no authenticated +instance of variation by natural selection can be brought forward. +It is true that this is not a very important argument, because our +knowledge of those classes of animals in which natural selection +could act is even now very incomplete; and our knowledge of their +past history is still more limited, so that we are not in a +condition to prove a negative. But in such a case as this the onus +of proof should surely lie on the other side. It is for those who +would assert the theory to bring forward positive proof of it. +There is, however, one point in Mr. Darwin's view of domesticated +animals which tells against his theory. The cat remains unchanged, +because from its vagrant habits man has no control over its +pairing [Footnote: Darwin's "Animals and Plants," vol. ii. p. +236.]. Now considering the variety of conditions under which cats +exist, here is surely a great opening for natural selection. But +it has produced no results. + +We come now to the theory of Sexual Selection, which is to account +for those peculiarities and distinctions which can have no +beneficial effect in the struggle of life, and which are accounted +for on the supposition that they render their possessors more +agreeable to the opposite sex, and so facilitate pairing, so that +those animals which possess them in a remarkable degree would have +the greatest chance of continuing their race. The case on which +Mr. Darwin mainly rests his argument is that of birds, in which +the males are frequently distinguished by exquisite colours and +very graceful markings, and in which also the proceedings of the +sexes can, in many cases, be more easily watched. + +It is in maintaining this theory that Mr. Darwin has such frequent +recourse to what may be called the "argumentum ad ignorantiam." +"If such and such organs or ornaments were not designed for this +or that particular object, then we do not know of what use they +are." [Footnote: For instance, Descent of Man, vol. ii. pp. 284. +399.] This maybe very true, but it proves nothing, unless we +assume that we are or ought to be acquainted with, the use and +object of everything in nature. And it involves another and a very +wide question. There are certain tastes which seem to be inherent +in our nature, and there are certain external objects which afford +gratification to those tastes. Must we view this coincidence as +merely accidental? or is it a part of the design of the world that +it should minister not only to our needs, but also to our +enjoyments? Mr. Darwin does not reject the idea of an Author and +Designer of Nature, is he then prepared to assert that beauty did +not form a part of the design as well as utility? [Footnote: In +the "Origin of Species," p 159, Mr. Darwin does seem to assert +this; but he says in conclusion, "How the sense of beauty in its +simplest form--that is, the reception of a peculiar kind of +pleasure from certain colours, forms, and sounds--was first +developed in the mind of man and of the lower animals is a very +obscure subject," p. 162. To Mr. Darwin, with his present views, +it may well be obscure; but it presents no obscurity at all to +those who believe that the universe in all its details was +designed, and its formation superintended, by a loving Father, +whose will was that it should not only supply the needs, but also +minister to the enjoyment of all His creatures, nor to those who +in every form of beauty, physical, intellectual, or moral, behold +a far-off reflexion of the glory of the Invisible Creator.] If he +is not prepared to assert this, he must admit the possibility that +many things exist whose sole object is to minister to that sense +of beauty which is probably possessed by other beings besides +ourselves. + +Mr. Darwin admits that many other causes, beside the supposed +preference on the part of one sex for certain material adornments +possessed by the other, influence the pairing of animals. In a +very large number of cases the female is quite passive in the +matter. The question is decided by a battle between the males, and +the female seems, as a matter of course, to become the mate of the +conqueror. In many other cases pairing seems to be the result of +accident; the two sexes pair as they happen to meet each other. +The great points on which Mr. Darwin rests his argument are that +in some cases, on the approach of breeding-time, certain +ornamental appendages become more highly developed or more +brilliantly coloured, [Footnote: Descent of Man, vol. ii. p. 80.] +and that in many cases the males, when courting the females, are +observed to display their ornaments before them. [Footnote: Ibid. +vol. ii. p. 86, et seq.] but then there are other facts, which Mr. +Darwin. also notices, which detract more than he seems willing to +allow, from the relevancy of these facts. The development of +ornaments at breeding-time sometimes takes place in both sexes, +indicating some latent connexion with the reproductive organs; +thus the comb of the domestic hen becomes a bright red, as well as +that of the cock. It would appear then that the object of the +change is not to render the cock more attractive to the hens, for +how could it serve the hens (if the choice lies with them) to be +made more attractive to the cocks? Then again an old hen who is +past laying, often assumes, to a considerable extent, the plumage +of the cock. When these ornaments are the exclusive possession of +the male, they are often displayed for other purposes than the +gratification of the female. The possessors seem to be conscious +of their beauty, and to take a pleasure in displaying it to any +spectators. + +Very great beauty and brilliancy of colour is often found in cases +in which it can have nothing whatever to do with the relation +between the sexes. Thus, a vast number of caterpillars are +remarkable for their beauty; but in their immature state it can +have no relation to sexual selection; and if it may, or rather +must, have a different object in one case, what ground have we for +assuming that it may not have a different object in the other? + +Again, we are not in a position to form any opinion as to the +causes which really influence the pairing of animals when choice +is exercised. We have no certain knowledge upon the important +question whether the ideal of beauty, if possessed by the lower +animals at all, is in all, or even in many cases, in accordance +with our own. We, for instance, admire a male humming-bird; what +certainty have we that he is equally beautiful in the eyes of his +mate? In cases where we have reason to believe that deliberate +selection has taken place, we do not know that that selection was +influenced by only one condition--that of beauty. There may have +been a thousand causes at work of which we know nothing. Mr. +Darwin brings forward an instance in which the owner of a number +of peahens wished them to breed with a peacock of a particular +variety, while they showed a deliberate preference for another +bird; and he supposes that their preference was decided by the +plumage. But there might have been another cause--at least the +circumstances as related by him seem to suggest it--which would +give a very different turn to the affair. The favoured peacock, +spoken of as "old," [Footnote: Descent of Man, vol. ii. p. 119.] +was probably an old friend of the hens, while his unsuccessful +rival seems to have been a new introduction. The preference shown +by the hens would in this case be fully accounted for, without +supposing them to have exhibited any choice in the matter of +plumage. + +Then there are a vast number of peculiarities which are certainly +not ornamental in our eyes, but which are confined to the male +sex. They are, so far as we can tell, of no service whatever in +the struggle of life. With reference to these Mr. Darwin's +argument seems to be this,--"They can serve no other purpose with +which we are acquainted, therefore they must be attractive to the +female--therefore they must be acquired by sexual selection." Such +arguments as these cannot carry much weight. [Footnote: Descent of +Man, vol ii p 284.] + +On the whole, we can hardly come to any other conclusion than that +the theory of sexual selection is not proved. In many cases it is +known that such selection is not the result of choice; in other +cases, where choice seems probable, we have no ground for +believing that external appearance is the sole ground of that +choice. It may exercise some influence, but that is all. Even if +admitted, there are many things which cannot be accounted for by +it without very extravagant assumptions. It cannot then be +admitted as covering the large classes of phenomena left +unaccounted for by the theory of natural selection. + +So far as the lower animals are concerned, the results to which an +examination of Mr. Darwin's views has led us may be summed up in +the following propositions:-- + +1. That the two causes, natural and sexual selection, have +probably exercised some influence in the modification of animal +forms; but that the laws of probability preclude our entertaining +the belief that these causes can have had, by themselves, and +apart from a superintending power, anything beyond a very limited +operation. + +2. That in cases where there have been related changes in +different parts of the same organism, or in different organisms, +the inadequacy of these two causes is virtually admitted by the +introduction of certain supposed laws; and that these laws, being +defined by Mr. Darwin to be no more than "the ascertained sequence +of events," cannot be regarded as efficient causes, and so cannot +supply the defect. + +3. That there are particular points in the chain of life, in which +the transition from one form to another is so great, and so +incapable of graduation, that it is impossible to suppose that +these two causes can have been adequate to produce it. Of this a +notable instance is to be found in the transition from oviparous +animals to the mammalia. + +We come now to the consideration of the origin of man, which Mr. +Darwin, in his last work, ascribes also to natural and sexual +selection. His view is, that man is descended from some family of +anthropomorphous apes, and that all those enormous differences +which, as he admits, exist between the highest ape and the most +degraded member of the human race, are differences of degree only, +and not of kind; that all our intellectual wealth, and all our +moral laws, are simply the development of faculties and ideas +which were possessed in a ruder form by the creatures from whom +man is descended. + +So far as man's physical constitution is concerned, there is +undoubtedly something to be said in favour of this view. For man's +bodily frame is composed of the same elements, and moulded upon +the same general plan as that of the higher apes, and, what is +still more remarkable, it retains, in a rudimentary form, certain +muscles and organs which are fully developed and answer important +purposes in many of the quadrumana. Of these the tail is a +remarkable instance. But when the differences between the physical +peculiarities of man, and those of his supposed progenitors are +examined, the theory of natural selection collapses entirely, for +the development has taken the form which would be most +disadvantageous in the struggle of life. This is very clearly put +by the Duke of Argyll.[Footnote: "Recent Speculations on Primeval +Man," in Good Words, April, 1868.] + +"The unclothed and unprotected condition of the human body, its +comparative slowness of foot; the absence of teeth adapted for +prehension or for defence; the same want of power for similar +purposes in the hands and fingers; the bluntness of the sense of +smell, so as to render it useless for the detection of prey which +is concealed;--all these are features which stand in fixed and +harmonious relation to the mental powers of man. But, apart from +these, they would place him at an immense disadvantage in the +struggle for existence. This, therefore, is not the direction in +which the blind forces of selection could ever work .... Man must +have had human proportions of mind before he could afford to lose +bestial proportions of body." + +But it is in the intellectual and spiritual part of man's nature +that the greatest difficulty in the way of the application of +these theories arises. The strongest argument of all against them +is one which is incapable of proof, since it arises not from facts +around us, but from our own self-consciousness--our realization of +our own powers--and so, to each individual man it must vary in +apparent strength, in proportion as he realizes what he is, and +what it is in his power to become. The very outcry that has been +raised against Mr. Darwin's proposition is a proof of this. The +theory of the descent of man, as he propounds it, was felt to be +an outrage upon the universal instincts of humanity. But, because +this objection rests upon such a foundation, it is incapable of +being duly weighed and investigated as an argument, and we proceed +therefore to such considerations as are within our reach. + +First of all it is desirable to dispose of one of the stock +arguments in favour of the theory. That argument is, that the +difference between the lowest type of savage and the highest type +of civilized man--between a Fuegian or an Australian on the one +hand, and a Newton, a Shakspeare, or a Humboldt, on the other,--is +quite as great as that between the higher forms of ape and the +lowest forms of humanity. But in this argument there is a fatal +confusion of ideas. The capacity for acquisition is confounded +with the opportunity for acquisition. That the savage is in +possession of but very few ideas does not prove that he is +incapable of more; it may equally well arise from the fact that he +had had no opportunity of acquiring more. The only way to test the +question is by putting a savagoe from his earliest infancy, under +the same favourable circumstances as the child of civilisation. +Whenever this experiment has been tried, and our missionaries have +had many opportunities of trying it, the difference has either not +appeared at all, or has proved to be very trifling. Mr. Darwin +himself seems to have been very much surprised at what he saw in +some natives of Terra del Fuego, who were for a time his +companions on board the "Beagle." "The Fuegians rank amongst the +lowest barbarians, but I was continually struck with surprise how +closely the three natives on board H.M.S. 'Beagle,' who had lived +some years in England, and could talk a little English, resembled +us in disposition, and in most of our mental faculties." +[Footnote: Descent of Man, vol. i. p 34] And these Fuegians had +not been educated from their infancy, they had only come to +England later in life, and were thus under an incalculable +disadvantage. Had they been heirs to such an intellectual +inheritance as fell to the lot of Mr. Darwin, there is nothing +extravagant in the supposition that they might have proved +themselves equal to him in the ability to make use of it. The +comparison then proves to be quite illusory; but it draws our +attention to a fact which is of very high importance in our +investigation of the difference between man and all other animals. +Man alone seems to be capable of laying up what may be termed an +external store of intellectual wealth. Other animals in the state +of nature make, so far as we know, no intellectual advances. The +bee constructs its cell, the bird builds its nest precisely as its +progenitors did in the earliest dawn of history. There is a +possibility that some advance, though a very small one, may be +made by animals brought under the control of man. It is said, for +instance, that a young pointer dog will sometimes point at game +without any training. But in this case the acquired knowledge is +congenital, and is therefore to be regarded as a development +brought about by superintended selection. But with man none of the +acquired knowledge is innate. It is a treasure entirely external +to himself until he has appropriated it by study of some kind or +other. There is no reason to believe that any advance in +intellectual power has been made by man, in his collective +capacity, since his first appearance on earth. Various individuals +have varying powers, but these differences are no result of +development, since they may often be found among members of the +same family, who have been subjected to the same discipline, and +enjoyed the same educational advantages. It follows that the gulf +between the ape and the lowest type of humanity is almost if not +quite as great as between the ape and the highest type. The savage +does not in any way help to bridge over that gulf. + +But it is said that the moral and intellectual faculties which man +possesses, and which he looks upon as the great badge of his +superiority, are in truth only different in degree and not in kind +from those possessed by the lower animals. But the grounds on +which this assertion is based are wonderful in their tenuity. Dogs +are possessed of self-consciousness because they sometimes emit +sounds in their sleep from which it is concluded that they dream. +[Footnote: Descent of Man, vol. i. p. 62.] "Can we feel sure that +an old dog, with an excellent memory, and some power of +imagination, as shown by his dreams, never reflects on his past +pleasures in the chace? And this would be a form of self- +consciousness." Our duty to our neighbour is entirely the result +of "social instinct," [Footnote: Descent of Man, vol. i. pp. 70- +106.] and our duty to our God the development of a belief which +has its origin in dreams. [Footnote: Ibid, p. 66.] + +It is impossible for us satisfactorily to meet these assertions +with a direct negative, [Footnote: There are some who think that +this statement may be directly refuted. Their views will be found +in the QUARTERLY REVEIW, July, 1871.] for this simple reason, that +we have no means whatever of knowing what ideas are present in the +minds of the lower animals, or even what communications pass +between them. For anything we can tell to the contrary, the bark +of a dog may be as articulate to his fellow-dogs as our speech is +to our fellow-men, while on the other hand to the dog our speech +may be as inarticulate as his bark is to us. But our total +ignorance of the mental state of animals which have been the +companions of man from the very earliest ages, our utter inability +to hold any conversation with them, is in itself a proof of the +wide gulf that separates them from us. Put two men of the most +widely separated races on a desert isle together, and a very +little time will elapse before they are able to hold some +communication with each other. If then the difference between man +and the lower animals were a difference of the same kind as that +between the civilized man and the savage, though greater in +degree, surely in so many thousand years something might have been +done to open a way for intellectual communication; some +development of the faculties of the lower creatures would have +been perceived, some means of interchanging ideas would have been +discovered. If Mr. Darwin had had for his companions on board the +"Beagle," instead of three Fuegians, as many Gorillas or +Chimpanzees, would he, at the end of the voyage, have been able to +report any approximation, at all to European mental +characteristics, or even to those of the lowest savage? But if the +difference be only one of degree, some approximation ought to have +taken place. + +As then we can have no direct knowledge of the moral and +intellectual powers of animals, we can only judge of them from +their actions, and other external signs. One great mark of +difference has already been noticed. Man has, other animals have +not, the power of laying up an external treasure of intellectual +acquirements. Then there are certain arts which seem to be +indispensable to man in his lowest state--no savage is so low that +he is utterly destitute of them--no animal makes any pretence to +them. Such are the designing, construction, and use of tools. Mr. +Darwin asserts that in certain cases--very rare ones--apes have +been known to use stones to break open nuts; but the mere use of a +stone is a very different thing from the conception and deliberate +formation of a tool, however rude. Then there is the kindling of +fire, and the use of it for the purpose of cooking; and lastly, +the preparation and the wearing of clothes. The tools or the +clothes may be of the rudest kind, the tools may be formed from a +flint, and the clothes from bark or skin, but in the preparation +of each there are signs of intellectual power, of which we find no +indications whatever in the lower animals. + +Another important difference between man and all other animals +lies in the fact, that whatever an animal does it does perfectly +from the first, but it makes no improvements. A bird's first nest +is perfect. With man the case is the reverse, it is only by many +trials, many failures, that he attains to skill in any operation, +but then he goes forward. Arts improve from generation to +generation. This seems to show that the faculties of man differ +from those of animals in kind, and not in degree only. + +The question also arises, if man has been produced from an +anthropomorphous ape by a process of natural development, how is +it that the same process has not gone on in other lines? The dog, +the horse, and the elephant are at least equal in intelligence and +sagacity to the highest known apes. Such a development from them +cannot have proceeded through the line of the apes. If these +different orders are at all connected it must be through some +remote common ancestor. Why then has this development come to an +abrupt termination in some cases and not in all? It may indeed be +said that the dog and the horse are indebted for their +intelligence to the inherited results of long intercourse with +man, but this cannot be the case with the elephant, which is never +known to breed in captivity. Nor is there any reason to believe +that the present intelligence of the elephant is recently +developed. Why then has it been arrested in its course? + +Whether or not we assume the theory of development to be wholly or +partially correct in reference to the lower animals, we must admit +that it is true of man, but in a sense totally different from that +which Mr. Darwin suggests. The development of which he is the +advocate is a development of race, in which the advance made by +each individual generation is exceedingly small, while the +difference in remote generations, the accumulated advance of +successive generations, is great. In man, on the contrary, there +is no reason whatever to believe that there has been any advance +at all in the race from the very earliest periods--that either in +physical power or intellectual ability the present generation of +men, taken as a whole, are in any way superior to their most +remote ancestors. The development of which man is especially +capable is the development of the individual, that development +being not physical, but intellectual and moral, and being in a +great degree dependent on the will and perseverance of the +individual, and very little on external circumstances. The result +of these individual developments has been the accumulation of a +vast fund of wealth, useful arts, sciences, literature, which form +the common possession of the whole race, but do not necessarily +imply the slightest advance in any particular individual--that +advance being dependent, not on the possession of those treasures, +but on the use made of them. In the case of man then development +does certainly exist, but it takes a line totally distinct from +that which Mr. Darwin advocates, and thus forms another broad line +of demarcation between man and the most advanced of the lower +animals. + +It appears then that the faculties of man differ generically from +those of the animals. A new order of things seems to have +commenced with the appearance of man on the earth--an order in +which the highest place was to be maintained by intellectual +instead of physical power. No mere process of evolution then will +account for man's origin. His physical nature may have been formed +in that way; but we cannot believe that his intellectual and moral +nature were developed from any lower creatures. Only some special +Creative interference can account for his existence. + +So far then as it tends to negative the continued operation of the +Creator, the theory of evolution is untenable. Like that of +Laplace, it fails to give an adequate cause for existing +phenomena. But it seems probable, as will be seen in the next +chapter, that both theories have in them much of truth. They +cannot point out the cause of the universe, but they may give us a +more or less accurate view of the manner in which that cause +operated. The facts brought forward by geologists have been shown +not to be incompatible with interpretations which the Mosaic +Record readily admits, though they conflict with existing notions +upon certain points. In no one then of the three sciences which +have been supposed to be specially antagonistic to that record, is +there anything to be found which can be maintained as a reasonable +ground for doubting that that record is, what it has always been +held to be by the Church, a direct Revelation from the Creator. + + + + + +CHAPTER V. + +SCIENCE A HELP TO INTERPRETATION. + + +It is now clear that there is nothing in the Mosaic Record itself, +which is contradicted by any scientific discovery, and that all +the alleged difficulties arise either from interpretations +prematurely adopted, or from theories which, when carefully +examined, are found to be defective, but which may nevertheless +contain in them a large element of truth. But if scientific +discoveries are available for the refutation of erroneous +interpretations, the probability is that when rightly understood +they will help us to arrive at the true meaning, since the Works +of God are, beyond all other things, likely to throw light on that +portion of His Word in which those Works are described. Nor are +the theories to be passed over--the greater the amount of truth +which they embody the greater will be the likelihood that they +will receive help from, as well as throw light upon, such a +record; and thus we shall have additional evidence that the Word, +the Work, and the Intellect, which has scrutinized and interpreted +the Work, are all derived from the same source. We proceed, +therefore, to inquire whether these facts and theories do in any +way elucidate the concise statements of Scripture, so that we may +be enabled to arrive at a somewhat clearer idea of the meaning of +this most ancient document, and be enabled to entertain somewhat +more distinct views of the manner in which the Divine Architect +saw fit to accomplish His Work. + +In pursuing this investigation two points must be carefully kept +in mind; the first is the distinction between theory and +conjecture on the one hand, and well ascertained facts on the +other. We shall have much to do with theory, and with conjectural +interpretations of observed facts. These can never stand on the +same footing as the facts themselves, but can only be regarded as +invested with greater or less probability. If it is found that +these theories do explain many observed facts, that they harmonize +with, and as it were dovetail into any proposed interpretation of +which the words of Moses are capable; and still more if that +interpretation actually completes the defective points of the +theories, and supplies an adequate cause for facts hitherto +inexplicable--then the presumption is a very strong one that the +interpretation thus supported is at all events an approximation to +the true one. + +The second point to be carefully kept in mind is the very +imperfect state of scientific knowledge even at the present time. +As far as the matter in hand is concerned, the facts which are +ascertained beyond all possibility of doubt, are very few. New +means of investigation have very recently been discovered, and as +a consequence new sources of information have been pointed out, +new fields of research have been laid open. Twenty years ago the +spectroscope was a thing undreamt of--now astronomers reckon it as +of equal value with the telescope, while chemists find it +indispensable to their researches. Who shall say that the next +twenty years may not witness some invention of equal importance, +which shall throw upon us a fresh flood of light from some +unexpected quarter? If then the principle which has hitherto been +maintained is correct, that all our difficulties arise from +interpretations based upon insufficient knowledge, but maintained +as if of equal authority with the record itself, there is a great +danger lest after a time the same difficulty should recur--that +the discovery of fresh facts may discredit interpretations based +upon our present knowledge. Any interpretation therefore to which +we may be led by the scientific views at present entertained, must +be regarded as only provisional and tentative, liable at any time +to be either confirmed, amended, or rejected, as fresh discoveries +may be made. + +Before we enter upon a detailed examination of the records of the +several days, there are two preliminary points to which attention +must be directed. We shall have to make frequent reference to +"law." It will be well that the sense in which the term is used +should be made clear. The account of the First Day's Work will +lead to the recent theory of the Correlation of Forces. As this is +probably a new subject to many, some previous explanation of it +will be necessary. + +SECTION 1. OF LAW. [Footnote: This subject is fully treated in the +Duke of Argyll's "Reign of Law."] + +Law, in its original and proper sense, is the expression to an +inferior of the will of a superior, which the inferior has it in +his power to obey or to resist, but resistance to which entails a +penalty more or less severe, in proportion to the moral turpitude, +or the injurious consequences of the act of disobedience. In this +its strict sense the law can only exist in connection with beings +possessed of reason to understand it, of power to obey it, and of +free will to determine whether they will obey it or not. When +these three conditions are absent law can have no existence. But +the result of perfect law, perfectly obeyed, would be perfect +order. Hence the observation of perfect order leads, by a reversed +process, to the supposition of some law of which that order is the +result. Hence arose in the first instance the term "natural laws," +or "laws of nature." Events were found to follow each other in a +uniform way, and this uniformity was thus sought to be accounted +for. Probably in the minds of those by whom the word was thus +applied in the first instance Nature was not the mere abstraction +it is now, but an unseen power--Deity or subordinate to Deity-- +working consciously and with design. + +[Footnote: Mr. Darwin, especially in the "Origin of Species," +seems continually to betray the existence of this feeling in his +own mind. Though he from time to time reminds us that by Nature he +means nothing but the aggregate of sequences of events, or laws, +he yet frequently speaks of Nature in a way which is applicable +only to an intelligent worker.] + +But this feeling has disappeared, and now we are told that natural +law is "the observed sequence of events." In this case, then, the +true meaning of the word is entirely lost--it is no longer +possible to speak of law as the cause of any event. + +But the old sense in which the word was applied to natural +phenomena had in it far more of truth than the modern one. It was +the imperfect expression of the great truth that God is a God of +order--that there is a uniform procedure in His works, because in +Him there is no change, no caprice. And it is of great importance +to us that we should realize this truth, because we are dependent +upon the laws of nature every moment of our lives. Every conscious +act is performed under the conviction that the natural forces +which that act calls forth will operate in a certain prescribed +manner. But this conviction, though it restricts us to the limits +of the possible, does not further impede the freedom of our will. +To a certain extent we can choose what action we will perform, +what forces we will call forth for that purpose, and what +direction we will give them. Sometimes we can arrange our forces +so that they will continue to act for a considerable time without +any intervention from us; in other cases continued interference is +necessary. But in all these cases there is no interruption of the +law by which the working of these forces is regulated. We have +then a limited control over these forces, and yet they are +unchangeable in themselves, and in their mode of action. + +When, however, we strive to ascend from our own works to those of +God, we can no longer regard these forces as absolutely +unchangeable. If they are practically so, it is because it is His +Will that they should be so. It is this Will then which has its +expression in the so-called laws of nature. The term now assumes a +sense akin to, though not identical with, its original ethical +sense. It is no longer a rule imposed by a superior on an +inferior, but the rule by which the Supreme Being sees fit to +order His own Work. While however we admit the possibility of law +of this kind being changed, we have no reason to believe that in +the universe with which we have to do any such change has ever +taken place. But this does not preclude the possibility of Divine +interference in the processes either of Creation or of Providence. +New forces may from time to time be supplied, new directions may +be given to existing forces, without any variation in the laws by +which the action of those forces is regulated. + +And if we believe that Creation was a progressive act, it is +rather probable than otherwise that such interferences should take +place. For a long period perhaps the uniformity of the work might +lead us to forget the Being who was working; but times would +arrive when definite stages of the work were accomplished, when +higher developments of being were rendered possible, and in the +introduction of those higher developments a something would be +seen which could not be the result of the processes with which we +had already become acquainted. Such interference would not in any +way justify the supposition that the designs of the Author of +Nature were changed, or that His original plan had proved +defective. The more natural inference would be that they were a +part of the plan from the first, but that the time for them was +not then come. + +It will be seen in the sequel that in all probability many of the +special acts of Creation, mentioned in the Mosaic Record, are +interferences of this kind; that for long periods of time matters +advanced in a uniform manner; that the sequence of events was such +as our own experience would lead us to anticipate; but that these +periods were separated from one another by the introduction of new +forces and new results. Of the former we may speak then as carried +on under the operation of natural laws; the other may be described +as special interferences not antagonistic, but supplementary, to +natural laws, and forming part of the original design. + +SECTION 2. THE CORRELATION OF FORCES. + +[Footnote: For fuller information on this subject, Grove's +"Correlation of the Physical Forces," or Tyndall's "Lectures on +Heat considered as a Mode of Motion," may be consulted.] + +It has long been known that heat and light are closely connected +together. The accumulation of a certain amount of heat is always +accompanied by the appearance of light. But when it was found that +the light could be separated from the heat by various means, it +seemed possible that the two phenomena were simply associated. It +is now, however, ascertained that light and heat are identical in +their nature, and that a vast number of other phenomena-- +electricity, galvanism, magnetism, chemical action, and +gravitation, as well as light and heat, are different +manifestations of one and the same thing, which is called force or +energy. In a great number of cases it is possible for us, by the +use of appropriate means and apparatus, to transform these +manifestations, so as to make the same force assume a variety of +forms. Thus motion suddenly arrested becomes heat. A rifle-ball +when it strikes the target becomes very hot. The heat produced by +the concussion against an iron shield is found sufficient to +ignite the powder in some of the newly invented projectiles. The +best illustration, however, is to be obtained from galvanism. By +means of the Voltaic battery we set free a certain amount of +force, and we can employ it at pleasure to produce an intense +light in the electric lamp, or to melt metals which resist the +greatest heat of our furnaces; it will convert a bar of iron into +a magnet, or decompose water into its constituents, oxygen and +hydrogen, or separate a metal from its combination with oxygen. +But in all these processes no new force is produced--the force +set free is unchangeable in itself, and we cannot increase its +amount. Owing to the imperfection of our instruments and our skill +a part of it will always escape from our control, and be lost to +us, but not destroyed. When, however, due allowance is made for +this loss, the results produced are always in exact proportion to +the amount of force originally set free. Thus, if we employ it to +decompose water, the amount of water decomposed always bears an +exact proportion to the amount of metal which has been oxidized in +the cells of the battery. + +This force pervades everything which comes within the cognizance +of our senses. It exists in what are termed the elementary +substances of which the crust of the earth is composed. A certain +amount of it seems to be required to maintain them in the forms in +which we know them; for in many cases, when two of them are made +to combine, a certain amount of force is set free, which commonly +makes its appearance as heat. This seems to indicate that a less +amount of force suffices to maintain the compound body than was +requisite for its separate elements. Thus, when oxygen and +hydrogen are combined to form water intense heat is produced. If +we wish to dissolve the union, and restore the oxygen and hydrogen +to a gaseous state, we must restore the force which has been lost. +This, however, must be done by means of electricity, as heat +produces a different change--converting the water into vapour, but +not dissolving the union between its elements. + +Force, in the shape of heat, determines the condition in which all +inorganic bodies exist. In most cases we can make any given +element assume the form of a solid, a fluid, or a vapour, by the +addition or subtraction of heat. Thus if a pound of ice at 32 +degrees be exposed to heat, it will gradually melt--but the water +produced will remain unchanged in temperature till the last +particle of ice is melted--then it will begin to rise in +temperature; and, if the supply of heat be uniform, it will reach +a temperature of 172 degrees in exactly the same time as was +occupied in melting the ice. Thus then the force which was applied +to the ice as heat passes into some other form so long as the ice +is being melted--it is no longer perceptible by the senses--we +only see its effect in the change from the solid to the fluid +form. And this result is brought about by a definite quantity of +force. Each of the inorganic materials of which the crust of the +earth is composed seems thus to require in its composition a +definite amount of force. + +The life of vegetables is developed in the formation of fresh +compounds of inorganic matter and force. No vegetable can thrive +without sunlight, either direct or diffused. This supplies the +force which the plant combines with carbon, hydrogen, and other +elements to form woody fibre, starch, oils, and other vegetable +products. When we kindle a fire, we dissolve the union which has +thus been formed--the carbon and hydrogen enter into simpler +combinations which require less force to maintain them, and the +superfluous force supplies us with light and heat. + +The life of animals is developed by a process exactly the reverse +of vegetable life. It is maintained by the destruction of the +compounds which the vegetable had formed. These compounds are +taken into the body as food, and after undergoing certain +modifications and arrangements are finally decomposed. Of the +force thus set free a part makes its appearance as heat, +maintaining an even temperature in the body, and another part +supplies the power by virtue of which the muscles, &c., act. No +manifestation of animal life is possible except by force thus set +free. It seems all but certain that we cannot think a single +thought without the decomposition of an equivalent amount of the +brain. It must not, however, be concluded that force and life are +identical. Force seems to be only the instrument of which the +higher principle of life makes use in its manifestations. + +Force then pervades the whole universe so far as it is cognizable +by our senses. But we cannot conceive of force as acting, without +at the same time conceiving of something on which that force acts. +That something, whatever it may be, we designate "matter." We have +not the slightest idea of what matter really is--no man has ever +yet succeeded in separating it from its combination with force. +Even if success were possible, which seems very improbable, it is +not likely that matter by itself would be discernible by any of +our senses. We know that two of them, sight and hearing, enable us +to perceive certain kinds of motion, i. e. manifestations of +force, and this is in all probability the case with the rest of +them. The existence of matter then is not known by scientific +proof but by inference. Our belief in it arises from something in +the constitution of our minds which makes it a necessary +inference. + +There is one more point in reference to force which must be +noticed. It is indestructible, but it is capable of what is termed +"degradation." It may exist in various intensities and quantities, +and a small quantity of force of a higher intensity may be changed +into a larger quantity of force at a lower intensity. In the +instance above given of the union of oxygen and hydrogen, heat is +given out, but heat does not suffice to dissolve that union. The +force must be supplied in the more intense form of Voltaic +Electricity. But to reverse this process seems impossible for us. +As, however, this is clearly explained in a previous volume of +this series, [Footnote: Can we Believe in Miracles? p. 152.] it is +not necessary to dwell upon it at length. + +We may conclude then that the whole material universe is built up +of matter and force in various combinations, but we can form no +conception of what these two things are in themselves; they are +only known to us by the effects produced by their union in various +proportions. + +SECTION 3. THE BEGINNING. + +"In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth. + +"And the earth was desolate and void, and darkness upon the face +of the deep." + +These words carry us back to a time indefinitely remote. Eternity +and Infinity are ideas which we cannot grasp, and yet we cannot +avoid them. If we stretch our imagination to conceive of the most +distant possible period of time--the farthest point of space-- +still we feel that there must have been something before the one, +that there must be something beyond the other; and yet we cannot +conceive of that which has no beginning, or no boundaries. The +first verse marks out for us as it were a definite portion of this +limitless ocean. "In the beginning," is the point from which time +begins to run--"the heavens and the earth," the visible universe +beyond which our investigations cannot extend. Whether other +manifestations of God have taken place in Eternity, or other +systems of worlds now exist in infinity, we are not told. + +The heavens and the earth then are to be considered as comprising +the visible universe, sun, moon, and stars, and their +concomitants, which the eye surveys, or which scientific research +brings to our knowledge. All are comprehended in this one group by +Moses, and recent spectroscopic investigations teach us that one +general character pervades the whole. Every star whose light is +powerful enough to be analyzed, is now known to comprehend in its +materials a greater or less number of those elementary substances +of which the earth and the sun are composed. Whether any of these +worlds were called into perfect existence at once, or whether they +all passed through various stages of development, we are not told, +that in some of them the process of development is only +commencing, while in others various stages of it are in progress, +is, as will be seen presently, highly probable. But the narrative +takes no farther notice of anything beyond our own group of +worlds, and proceeds to describe the condition of the earth +(probably including the whole solar system) at the time at which +it commences. Its words imply such a state of things as +corresponds to what has been said in the preceding section of +matter, apart from force. No better words could probably have been +chosen for the purpose. The only word which seems to convey any +definite idea is in the following clause, where water is +mentioned. Until force was in operation water could not exist. +Probably St. Augustine's interpretation is the correct one--the +confused mass is called alternately earth and water, because +though it was as yet neither one thing nor the other, it contained +the elements of both. And the word "water" expressed its plastic +character. ("De Genesi ad Literam" Liber Imperfectus, Section 13, +14.) + +One other important point in these words is, that they negative +the eternal existence of matter. The second verse describes it as +existing, because it had been called into existence at the bidding +of an Almighty Creator, as described in the first verse. + +SECTION 4. THE FIRST DAY. + +"And the Spirit of God (was) brooding upon the face of the water. + +"And God said, 'Let light be' and light was. + +"And God saw the light that it was good, and God divided the light +from the darkness. + +"And God called the light Day, and the darkness He called Night. + +"And there was evening and there was morning, one day." + +The first clause seems to belong rather to the period of action +than to the precedent indefinite period of chaos, and may +therefore be taken as marking the transition from the "beginning" +to the first day, better than as belonging to that beginning +itself. The Jewish interpretation of the clause is untenable in +the light of the doctrine of the Correlation of the Physical +Forces. Till force was evolved there could be neither air nor +motion, and so no wind. The words of course bear on their face an +assertion of the action of the eternal Spirit in the work of +Creation; but when we examine the position which they occupy, it +seems highly probable that they have beyond this a much more +definite signification. In them a sort of localized action is +ascribed to the Spirit--a something very different from the idea +conveyed by the often-repeated phrase, "And God said." What that +something may be it is hard for us to conceive, harder still to +express, but the following considerations may perhaps throw some +glimmering of light upon the matter:-- + +1. There must be some point in which the Creator comes into +contact, as it were, with His creature--a point at which His Will +first clothes itself in the form of a physical fact--the point to +which all second causes lead up, and at which they lose themselves +in the one first cause, the Will of God. Now this is what all +systems of philosophy require as their starting-point, but it is +entirely out of their unaided reach. But these words supply that +indispensable desideratum. + +2. These words come in immediate connexion with the evolution of +light. Light is throughout the Bible intimately connected with the +Deity. It is His chosen emblem. "God is light." It is His abode. +"He dwelleth in the light inaccessible." It is the symbol of His +presence, and the means by which Creation is quickened. "In Him +was life; and the life was the light of men." + +3. Light, as we now know, is only one form of the force by which +the universe is upheld. But the phenomena of light lead us to +infer the existence of what we call Ether, which is supposed to be +a perfectly elastic fluid, imponderable, and in fact exempt from +almost all the conditions to which matter, as we know it, is +subject, except that POSSIBLY it offers resistance to bodies +moving in it. [Footnote: Encke's comet shows signs of retardation, +as if moving in a resisting medium; but it is possible that that +resistance may not arise from the ether, but from the nebulous +envelope of the sun.] This fluid must pervade the whole universe, +since it brings to us the light of the most distant star or +nebula. As it is the medium through which light is conveyed, and +as light is now known to be identified with force of all kinds, it +seems by no means improbable that it is the medium through which +all force acts. + +These words, then, seem to suggest the idea that the brooding of +the Spirit may have some connexion with the formation of that +ether which is indispensable to the manifestation of light, and +probably to the operations of all force; and that, if so, the +ether may also be the point at which, and the medium through +which, Spirit acts upon Matter. On the one hand, the facts that +force, as used, is constantly in process of degradation, and that +it is also constantly poured forth into space from the Sun and +Planets in the shape of heat, and so lost to our system, seem to +indicate that fresh supplies of it are continually needed; while, +on the other hand, the supply of that need seems to be implied in +the words, "By Him all things consist." "Upholding all things by +the word of His Power." + +If this be so, we have a point up to which natural laws may +possibly be traced, but at which they merge in the action of the +Will of God, which is beyond our investigation. Here, then, is a +solution of that great difficulty, which those who are most +familiar with the laws of nature have felt in reconciling the +existence of those laws with a particular Providence and with the +efficacy of Prayer, since we have here the point at which all +forces and all laws begin to act, and at which, therefore, the +amount of the force, and the direction of its action, are capable +of unlimited modification, without any alteration of, or +interference with, the laws by which that action is regulated, and +consequently without the danger of introducing confusion into the +Universe. + +"And God said, 'Let light be' and light was." It has already been +pointed out that these words differ from those used in describing +any other creative act. They are the only ones which seem to imply +an instantaneous fulfilment of the command. Another matter which +has long since been observed, is their exact harmony with what +science teaches us respecting the nature of light. Light is not a +material substance, but a "mode of motion." It consists of very +small undulations propagated with inconceivable velocity. Hence of +it, and of it alone, it could not be correctly said that it was +created. To say that God made light would be inexact. The words +which are used exactly suit the circumstances of the case. But the +discovery of the correlation of forces has given to these words a +much more extended significance, while at the same time it +furnishes a satisfactory reason for their occurrence at this +particular point. So long as they were supposed to refer to light +simply, they seemed out of place. Light was not apparently needed +till there were organisms to whose existence it was essential. But +we now know that to call forth light, was to call force in all its +modifications into action. It has been seen that matter and force +are the two elements out of which everything that is discernible +by our senses is built up. The formation of matter has already +been described in the original act of creation. But till force +also was evolved, matter must of necessity remain in that chaotic +state to which verse 2 refers. To matter is now added that which +was required to enable the progressive work of Creation to be +carried on. The first result of this would probably be that the +force of gravitation would begin to act, while, from what the +telescope reveals to us, we may conjecture, that at the same time +the whole incoherent mass would be permeated with light and heat, +and some, at all events, of those elementary substances with which +chemistry makes us acquainted would be developed, and the whole +mass, acted upon by the mutual attraction of its several +particles, would begin to move towards, and accumulate about its +centre of gravity. + +It has been shown that Laplace's Nebular Hypothesis, when +substituted for the action of a Creator, broke down in three +important points. Of these the first two were, that it failed to +give any account of the origin of matter, and of the first +commencement of the action of Gravitation. These two defects are +completely supplied by the first three verses of Genesis. We may +probably see in the "Great Nebula" in Orion an illustration of the +condition of the solar system when light first made its +appearance. It is very probable that that nebula has only very +recently become visible. Galileo examined Orion very carefully +with his newly invented telescope, but makes no mention of it. +[Footnote: Webb's Celestial Objects, p. 255, note.] At present it +is visible to the unaided eye even in England, where the +atmospheric conditions and its low altitude are alike +unfavourable. In Italy, where the atmosphere is remarkably pure, +and the meridian altitude is greater by 7 1/2 degrees, it must be +a conspicuous object, and had it been so at the time when Galileo +was observing the constellation, it could hardly have failed to +attract his attention. It was, however, noticed in 1618. It is a +vast, shapeless mass, having its boundaries in some parts +tolerably well defined, while in other directions it fades away +imperceptibly; its light is very faint, and when examined by the +spectroscope is found to proceed from a gaseous source. Professor +Secchi has traced it through an extent of 5 degrees. When it is +remembered that at such a distance the semi-diameter of the +earth's orbit subtends an angle less than 1 inch, some idea of the +enormous extent of this mass of gas may be formed. Drawings of it +have been made from time to time by our most distinguished +astronomers, which are found to differ considerably. Great +allowance must, of course, be made for differences in the +telescopic power employed, and in the visual powers of the several +observers, but the differences in the drawings seem too great to +be explained by those sources of inaccuracy alone, and actual +change in the nebula is therefore strongly suspected. Another +nebula of similar character, in which changes are suspected, is +that which surrounds the star A in the constellation Argo. This is +being very carefully watched through the great telescope recently +erected at Melbourne, and from the observations made there, it is +probable that fresh light may soon be thrown on the subject. + +The next act recorded is, that "God divided the light from the +darkness." This is one of those passages which we are very apt to +pass over as unimportant, without giving ourselves any trouble to +ascertain what they mean, or asking if they may not give valuable +information, or supply some important hints. It is evident, +however, that in these words some act of the Creator is implied, +but when we inquire what that act was, the answer does not lie +immediately on the surface. Darkness is simply the absence of +light. It cannot therefore be said that God divided the light from +the darkness in the same sense in which it is said that "a +shepherd divideth his sheep from the goats". Between light and +darkness that division exists in the very nature of things, and it +could not therefore be said to be made by a definite act. Nor +again, is there any sharp well-defined boundary set between light +and darkness, so that we can say, "Here light begins, here +darkness ends." The very opposite is the case, the one blends +imperceptibly into the other. This then cannot be the meaning of +the words. But the next verse guides us to the real meaning. "And +God called the light Day, and the darkness He called Night." The +division of light from darkness then is the alternation of night +and day. When God divided the light from the darkness He made +provision for that alternation. But we know that that alternation +is the result of the earth's rotation upon its axis, so that the +dividing the light from the darkness evidently implies the +communication to the accumulated mass of the motion of rotation. + +It does not clearly appear in the account of the first day, +whether this alternation of day and night took effect immediately. +Certainly the introduction of it here does not prove that it did +so follow. For there was no way in which the fact of the earth's +rotation could be directly communicated to those for whom the +narrative was primarily intended. They were ignorant of the +spherical form of the earth, and so could not have attached any +idea whatever to a statement that it revolved about its axis. + +The only way then in which Moses could speak of that rotation was +in connexion with some phenomenon resulting from it. The only such +phenomenon with which the Jews were acquainted was the alternation +of day and night. There was therefore no way in which Moses could +record the fact except with reference to this ultimate effect. It +does not follow that that effect was immediate. Beside the +rotation of the earth, another condition is required. The light +must come from a single source, and so when the act is recorded by +which that condition is effected, the division of light and +darkness is again noticed. The sun and the moon are set in the +firmament of heaven to divide the light from the darkness. But +that division was potentially effected when the motion of rotation +was given. + +The third defect noticed in the Nebular Hypothesis was, that it +did not account for this motion of rotation. This defect, then, +like the two preceding ones, is supplied by the Mosaic Record, and +the hypothesis thus supplemented becomes complete. It is capable +of giving a satisfactory account of the phenomena to which it +applies. But as it is only a theory, and only points out a way in +which the universe might have been constructed, it does not in +itself exclude the possibility that some other plan might in fact +have been adopted, and we have now to examine into the reasons for +supposing that it was the method which was actually employed. +These divide themselves into two classes:--those which render it +probable that similar processes are now in progress; and those +which render it probable that the solar system has passed through +such a process. + +It has already been pointed out that the great nebulae in Orion +and Argo seem to represent the condition of our system on the +first appearance of light, and that changes are strongly suspected +to be taking place in both; but we cannot expect to trace any +single nebula through the stages of its development, since that +development must occupy untold ages. All we can do is to inquire +if there are other nebulas which seem to be in more advanced +stages. It must at once be recognized, that if this be one of the +processes now going on, it is not the only one. There are many +nebulas "which have assumed forms for which the law of +gravitation, as we know it, will not enable us to account--such as +the Ring Nebula in Lyra, the Dumb-bell Nebula in Vulpecula, or the +double Horseshoe in Scutum Sobieski. But some nebulas can be found +which arrange themselves so as to illustrate the stages through +which we may suppose our world to have passed. These are chiefly +to be found among the planetary nebulse, which in a small +telescope exhibit a faint circular disc, but in larger instruments +frequently show considerable varieties of structure. Some of them +present the appearance of a condensation of light in the centre, +which gradually fades off; in others there is a bright ring +surrounding the central spot, but separated from it by a darker +space. The Nebula Andromeda 49647, [Footnote: The numbers are +those given by Sir J. Hersohel.] as seen in Mr. Lassel's four-foot +reflector appears as a luminous spot, surrounded by two luminous +rings, which, in the more powerful instrument of Lord Bosse, +combine into a spiral. Its spectrum is gaseous, with one line +indicating some element unknown to us. In another nebula, Draco +4373, there is a double spectrum, the one gaseous, indicating the +presence of hydrogen, nitrogen, and barium; the other, apparently +from the nucleus, continuous, and so representing a solid or fluid +mass, but so faint that the lines belonging to particular elements +cannot be distinguished. [Footnote: Hugging, Philosophical +Transactions, 1864.] Bridanus 846, and Andromeda 116, are probably +similar nebulee occupying different positions with reference to +us. They both give a continuous spectrum. The one in Bridanus is +described as "an eleventh magnitude star, standing in the centre +of a circular nebula, itself placed centrally on a larger and +fainter circle of hazy light." [Footnote: Lassell, quoted in +Webb's "Celestial Objects," p. 227.] The nebula in Andromeda +assumes a lenticular form; that in Bridanus would probably present +the same appearance if we saw it edge-ways. The former has +probably increased in brilliancy in the course of centuries. Mr. +Webb remarks of it, "It is so plain to the naked eye that it is +strange the ancients scarcely mention it." [Footnote: Webb's +"Celestial Objects," p. 180.] In these two nebulas we may perhaps +see the mass ready to break up into separate worlds, the +lenticular form being a natural result of extremely rapid +rotation. Prom the fact that Andromeda 116 gives a continuous +spectrum, Dr. Huggins inclines to the belief that it is an +unresolved star cluster. But the reasons which led Sir W. Herschel +to conclude that the nebula in Orion was gaseous, (a conclusion +which, though for a time discredited by the supposed resolution of +the nebula in Lord Kosse's telescope, was ultimately found to be +correct), are equally applicable here. In general a certain +proportion exists between the telescopic power requisite to render +a star cluster visible as a nebulous spot, and that which will +resolve it into stars; but this nebula, like that in Orion, though +visible to the naked eye, cannot be resolved by the most powerful +instruments yet made. And the nebula in Draco 4373, seems to +present an intermediate stage between the purely gaseous nebula +and this one. The faint continuous spectrum is probably the result +of incipient central condensation. This nebula, if recent +observations by Mr. Gill, of Aberdeen, are confirmed [Footnote: +Popular Science Review, 1871, p. 426.], is much nearer to us than +any of the fixed stars. + +"We come now to the reasons derived from the Solar System itself, +and of these there are several, some of them of considerable +weight. The first is to be found in the uniform direction of +almost all the motions of the system. They are from west to east. +The sun rotates upon his axis, the planets revolve about the sun +and rotate upon their axes, and the satellites, with one +exception, revolve about their primaries, and, so far as is known, +rotate upon their axes in the same direction, from west to east, +and the motions take place very nearly in the same plane--the +ecliptic. This seems to point to the conclusion that these motions +have a common origin, as would be the case if all these bodies at +one time existed as a single mass which revolved in the same +direction. The one exception is to be found in the satellites of +Uranus, whose motion is retrograde. But there are certain +phenomena, which lead to the conclusion, that, on the outskirts of +our system, there has at some time or other been an action of a +disturbing force, of which, except from these results, we know +nothing." + +[Footnote: Bode's "Law of Planetary Distances," What holds good as +far as Uranus, breaks down in the case of Neptune. Both Leverrier +and Adams were to some extent misled by this law. The new planet +should according to their calculations, based on this law, have +been of greater magnitude and at a greater distance than Neptune. + +The polar axis of Uranus, instead of being nearly perpendicular to +the ecliptic, as in the case of all the other planets (except +Venus), is nearly coincident with it. Venus occupies an +intermediate position, the inclination of its equator to its orbit +being 49 degrees 58'.] + + There is also strong reason for believing that the sun is still a +nebulous star, that the whole of the original nebula is not yet +gathered up in the vast globe which at ordinary times is all that +we can see. This aspect of the case, however, will come more fully +under our notice when we come to the work of the fourth day. The +figure of the earth, which is that naturally assumed by a plastic +mass revolving about its axis, and the traces which it retains of +a former state of intense heat, are both in accordance with this +theory. + +When these facts are duly weighed, there seems to be a reasonable +probability that this process is the one which was actually +employed in the formation of the solar system. The remarkable +manner in which the theory adapts itself to the Mosaic account, +and the fact that that account records special interferences of +the Creator exactly at the points where the theory shows that such +interferences would be necessary, give rise to a very strong +presumption in its favour. We have in it also a clear illustration +of the combination of general laws of nature with special +interferences of Creative Power--the law of gravitation was called +into action, and the work would proceed steadily under that law +for a considerable period, till matters were ripe for a farther +stage in the progress, and then the special interference would +take place, in this instance the imparting the motion of rotation, +and the work would again proceed under the natural law. All this +while, however, the work would be one, and performed by one power, +the only difference being in the direct or indirect action of that +power. + +The only point an reference to the first day which remains to be +inquired into is the extent to which the work had proceeded at its +close. As the commencement of the second day's work implies that +at that time the earth had an independent existence, we may +conclude that the first day's work comprehended the casting off of +the several successive rings, and the condensation of those rings, +or some of them, into the corresponding planets and satellites. +These would probably still retain their intense heat, in virtue of +which they would be luminous. + +Many of the multiple stars may not improbably present to us much +the same appearance as the solar system then presented. In many +cases we have one large star, with one or more very minute +attendants. Such a star is Orionis, a tolerably conspicuous star, +which has two companions invisible to the naked eye, but visible +with moderate telescopic power. (A telescope of 2.1 inches +aperture, by Cooke, shows them well.) Five more companions are +visible in a 4-inch telescope. In the large telescope at Harvard +no less than 35 minute stars have been seen in apparent connexion +with the brilliant star Vega. In all these cases it is true that +the distances and periods of the companion stars are very much +greater than in the case of the earth; but then our telescopes +will only enable us to discern the more distant companions. Any +small companion stars holding positions corresponding to those of +the four interior planets, would be lost in the light of the +primary star; and if, as is suspected, all the heavenly bodies are +subject to some resistance, however small, from the medium in +which they move, this resistance would in the course of ages +diminish the mean distance, and with it the periodic time of the +companion stars. + +The latter part of the 5th verse has already been considered, and +there is no need to recur to it at this point. At the close of the +history we shall be in a better position to ascertain if any light +has been thrown on that mysterious subject. + +SECTION 5. THE SECOND DAY. + +"And God said, Let there be a firmament in the midst of the +waters, and let it divide the waters from the waters. + +"And God made the firmament, and divided the waters which were +under the firmament from the waters which were above the +firmament, and it was so. + +"And God called the firmament Heaven, and there was evening and +there was morning, a second day" + +The work of the second and third days evidently has its scene on +the earth alone. At its commencement the earth appears to have +become distinctly separated from the gradually condensing mass of +the solar system, and to have assumed its spherical form. It had, +in fact, acquired an independent existence; but it was still in a +chaotic state. Its elements, which were hereafter to assume the +three forms of solid, fluid, and gas, seem to have been still +blended together. Of the three states, fluidity seems to have been +that to which the mass most nearly approached. This seems to be +indicated by the application of the term, waters, to the two parts +into which it is now divided; for the Hebrew has no general word +for "fluid," so that the only method of expressing it was by the +use of this word "water" in an extended signification; and all +scientific investigations point to the same conclusion. The heat, +as yet, must have been so intense that no rocks or metals with +which we are acquainted could have remained in a solid form. The +sorting out and first arrangement of the materials of the earth, +with probably the farther development of a large portion of them +by the introduction of a new element, seems to have been the work +of the second day. + +When we proceed to examine the narrative more closely, two +important questions suggest themselves:--l. What special +interference of Creative Power does it indicate? 2. What is the +meaning of the division between the waters which were above the +firmament and the waters which were under the firmament? + +1. What special interference of Creative Power took place on the +second day? Till within the last ten years, it would have been +difficult to give a satisfactory answer to this question; for if +all the elements were already in existence at the commencement of +the second day, their arrangement would, as it seems, have been +brought about by the ordinary operation of natural laws which were +already established. The cooling and condensation of a portion of +the elements would have been effected by the radiation of their +heat, and the portions thus condensed would, under the influence +of gravitation, have arranged themselves in immediate proximity to +the centre of gravity, forming a solid or fluid nucleus, round +which those portions which still remained in a gaseous state would +have formed an atmospheric envelope. But here again the +spectroscope comes to our aid. In many of the nebulae which give +in it the bright lines indicative of gas, hydrogen and nitrogen +are the chief gases discovered. These must be in an incandescent +state, or they would not be visible at all. But hydrogen cannot, +in the present state of things, remain in this condition in +contact with oxygen; it must instantly combine with it, that +combination being attended with intense heat, and resulting in the +production of water. The introduction of oxygen, then, must +involve a very important crisis in the process of development; but +that introduction must have preceded the formation of atmospheric +air and water. Prior to the second day oxygen must either have +been non-existent, or it must have existed in a form and under +conditions very different from those under which it exists now. +Free oxygen cannot be in existence in the sun or in any celestial +object in which the spectroscope indicates the existence of +incandescent hydrogen. The special act of the second day would +appear to have consisted in the development of oxygen, or the +calling it from a quiescent state into active operation. + +But the effects of the new element thus called into operation +would not be limited to the production of air and water. It is +estimated that oxygen constitutes, by weight, nearly half of the +solid crust of the earth. It forms a part of every rock and of +every metallic ore. The second day, then, must have been a period +of intense chemical action, resulting from the introduction of +this powerful agent. + +But (2) what is the meaning of the division of the waters which +are above the firmament from the waters which were under the +firmament? At present all the water contained in the atmosphere, +in the shape of vapour and clouds, is so insignificant in +comparison with that vast volume of water which not only fills the +ocean, but also permeates the solid earth, that such a notice of +it seems unaccountable. Mr. Goodwin, indeed, maintains that there +was an ancient belief, not only that the firmament was a solid +vault, but that on it there rested another ocean, at least as +copious as that with which we are acquainted. [Footnote: Essays +and Reviews, p. 220] In support of this assertion he brings +forward the phrase, "The windows of heaven were opened" (Gen, VII. +11) and other similar expressions. But such phrases as this +evidently belong to the same class as the fanciful names so often +given to the clouds in the hymns of the Rig Veda. Both expressions +evidently point to a time when figurative language, if no longer a +necessity, was at all events a common and favourite form of +speech, and was understood by all. Dr. Whewell [Footnote: +Plurality of Worlds, chap. x. Section 5.] has put forward the +curious notion that when the creation of the interior planets was +completed, there remained a superfluity of water, which was +gathered up into the four exterior planets. But the only fact in +favour of such an hypothesis is the close correspondence between +the apparent density of these planets and that of water. Now, as +will be seen immediately, there is strong reason to believe that +the true density of these planets is much greater than their +apparent diameters would seem to indicate; so that the one +solitary ground on which the suggestion rests vanishes when it is +examined. Apart from this, however, the suggestion that there +would be any superfluous material when the work of creation was +finished, is a very strange one. Neither of these views, then, can +be accepted as giving a satisfactory meaning to the text. + +Astronomical investigations however, which have been carried on +with great diligence during the last four winters, and which are +still being continued with unremitting interest, have brought to +light phenomena which seem to be in remarkable correspondence with +the state of things spoken of in the text. It has already been +noticed that the eight greater planets at present known to us are +divided into two groups of four by the intervening belt of minor +planets. These two groups have totally distinct characteristics. +In density, magnitude, and length, of day the members of each +group differ little from each other, while the two groups differ +very widely. The moon is the only satellite as yet known in the +inner group. The planets of the outer group are attended by at +least seventeen satellites. + +Of these outer planets Jupiter, from his great brilliancy, +specially attracts observation, while from his comparative +proximity to the earth we are enabled to examine him much more +satisfactorily than we can Saturn, Uranus, or Neptune. Two facts +with reference to him have long been well known, the one, that the +polar compression in his case is much greater than it is in any of +the interior planets, so that when seen through a telescope of +very moderate power his disc is evidently elliptical, while the +compression of the interior planets can only be detected by the +most delicate micrometrical measurements--the other, that his +apparent surface is always crossed by several alternating belts of +light and shade, which though subject to constant changes of +detail, always preserve the same general character. Until recently +the generally received theory was that these belts consisted of +clouds, raised by the heat of the sun, and arranged in zones under +the influence of winds similar in character to, and produced by +the same causes as, the trade-winds which blow over our own +oceans. This view, however, has been shown by Mr. Proctor to be +untenable. [Footnote: See a paper by Mr. Proctor in the Monthly +Packet for October, 1870.] + +About forty years ago, a very remarkable phenomenon was observed +simultaneously, but independently, by three astronomers, Admiral +Smyth, Mr. Maclean, and Mr. Pearson, who were watching a transit +of Jupiter's second satellite from stations several miles apart. +Admiral Smyth's account of it is as follows:--"On Thursday, the +26th of June, 1828, the moon being nearly full, and the evening +extremely fine, I was watching the second satellite of Jupiter as +it gradually approached to transit the disc of the planet. My +instrument was an excellent refractor of 3 3/4 inches aperture, +and five feet focal length, with a power of one hundred. The +satellite appeared in contact at about half-past ten, and for some +minutes remained on the edge of the limb, presenting an appearance +not unlike that of the lunar mountains which come into view during +the first quarter of the moon, until it finally disappeared on the +body of the planet. At least twelve or thirteen minutes must have +elapsed when, accidentally turning to Jupiter again, I perceived +the same satellite outside the disc. It was in the same position +as to being above a line with the lower belt, where it remained +distinctly visible for at least four minutes, and then suddenly +vanished." A somewhat similar phenomenon, but of shorter duration, +was witnessed by Messrs. Gorton and Wray, during an occultation of +the same satellite, April 26, 1863. In this case the satellite +reappeared after passing behind the apparent disc of the planet. +So lately as 1868 this phenomenon was regarded as inexplicable. +[Footnote: Webb's Celestial Objects, p. 141.] + +In the winter of 1868-9 the attention of astronomers was called to +the fact that rapid and extensive changes were taking place in the +appearance of Jupiter's belts, and they have consequently been +watched from that time with unremitting attention by astronomers +furnished with telescopes of the best quality. The results of +these observations are given in two very interesting papers, +communicated to the Popular Science Review, by Mr. Webb. +[Footnote: Popular Science Review for April, 1870, and July, +1871.] Very curious markings and variations in the depth of shade +have been seen, accompanied by equally curious changes of colour. +Mr. Browning compares these changes to those which are seen when a +cloud of steam of varying depth and density is illuminated from +behind by a strong light, as when we look through the steam +escaping from the safety-valve of a locomotive at a gas-lamp +immediately behind it. This appears to be the true explanation of +the phenomenon. [Footnote: Popular Science Review, 1871, p. 307.] +These belts are probably due to vast masses of steam, poured forth +with great force from the body of the planet. As the atmosphere of +Jupiter is probably of enormous depth, the rotatory velocity of +its upper portions would be much greater than that of the surface +of the planet, hence the steam would arrange itself in belts +parallel to the equator of the planet. But this view leads us to +wonderful conclusions with reference to the condition of the +planet. + +"Processes of the most amazing character are taking place beneath +that cloudy envelope, which forms the visible surface of the +planet as seen by the terrestrial observer. The real globe of the +planet would seem to be intensely heated, perhaps molten, through +the fierceness of the heat which pervades it. Masses of vapour +streaming continually upward from the surface of this fiery globe +would be gathered at once into zones because of their rapid change +of distance from the centre. That which is wholly unintelligible +when we regard the surface of Jupiter as swept like our earth by +polar and equatorial winds, is readily interpreted when we +recognize the existence of rapidly uprushing streams of vapour." +[Footnote: Mr. Proctor in Monthly Packet, October, 1870.] + +Supposing then that the atmosphere of Jupiter is of very great +depth, and thus laden with masses of watery vapour, the effect of +a sudden current of heated, but comparatively dry, air or gas +would be the immediate absorption of the whole or a large portion +of the vapour, and the consequent transparency of the portion of +the atmosphere affected by it. We see this result continually on a +small scale in our own atmosphere, when a heavy cloud comes in +contact with a warm air current, and rapidly melts away, Many of +the rapid changes which have been witnessed in Jupiter's +appearance are readily explained if this view is admitted. +Supposing such a thing to have happened near the edge of the disc, +the phenomenon recorded by Admiral Smyth is at once satisfactorily +explained. When the satellite appeared to pass on to the disc, and +to be lost in the light of the planet, it would for some time, +proportional to the depth of Jupiter's atmosphere, have behind it +a background of clouds only, it would not have entered upon the +actual disc of the planet. If then these clouds were suddenly +absorbed, the atmosphere behind the satellite would become +transparent and invisible, the background would be gone, and the +satellite would reappear. In the case of the occultation witnessed +by Messrs. Gorton and Wray, the satellite would at first be hidden +by cloud only, and would reappear if the cloud were removed. Such +seems to be the true explanation of these hitherto mysterious +phenomena. That they could not have resulted from any alteration +in the motions of the planet or the satellite is evident. Such an +alteration would have been instantly detected, since the places of +both the planet and the satellites are computed years in advance, +and any such change would at once have thrown out all these +computations. + +Assuming that this is the true solution of the mystery, we are +enabled to form an approximate estimate of the extent of the +atmosphere of Jupiter. The time between the first and second +disappearances does not seem to have been accurately noted. +Admiral Smyth's account makes it 16 or 17 minutes; but if we +estimate it at 15 minutes only, and if we further assume that the +second disappearance was upon the actual disc of Jupiter, and not +upon a lower stratum of clouds, we shall be safe from any risk of +exaggeration. The probability seems to be that the second +disappearance was caused not by the disc, but by the formation of +a fresh body of cloud, as it was not gradual, as in the first +instance, but sudden. We shall then only have an estimate which +cannot be greater, but may be much less, than the true value. + +The mean distance of the second satellite from the centre of +Jupiter is in round numbers 425,000 miles, and consequently the +circumference of its orbit is 2,671,000 miles. The satellite +travels through this orbit in about 86 hours, which gives a horary +velocity of 31,400 miles, or 7850 miles in 15 minutes. This then +is the least possible depth of the atmosphere of Jupiter. +[Footnote: For the direction of the motion of the satellite would +be at right angles to the line of sight.] The whole diameter of +Jupiter, atmosphere and all, is 85,390 miles. Deduct from this +15,700 miles for the atmosphere, and we have for the diameter of +the solid nucleus rather less than 70,000 miles. The height of the +atmosphere is therefore not less than three-fourteenths of the +radius of the planet, and may be much greater. The extent of the +atmosphere, combined with the rapidity of rotation, accounts +satisfactorily for the great apparent polar compression of the +planet. Another inference is that the density of the planet must +exceed the ordinary estimate in the proportion of two to one. + +But next, the atmosphere of Jupiter is probably of very great +density. Dr. Huggins states that he has observed in the spectrum +of Jupiter "three or four strong lines, one of them coincident +with a strong line in the earth's atmosphere." [Footnote: Lecture +at Manchester, November 16, 1870.] Strong lines mark increased +density in the absorbent medium, and lines hitherto unobserved +indicate new elements. It is therefore probable that the +atmosphere of Jupiter is not only much more dense than that of the +earth, but also contains some elements--which are absent from the +latter. When with this fact we connect the very great extent of +the atmosphere, it will be evident that the pressure at the +surface of the planet will be enormous, and from this we can form +an estimate of the intensity of the forces which must be at work +in the interior of the planet, to project jets of vapour through +such an atmosphere to so great a height. + +The link which connects Jupiter with the earth, in the second +stage of its existence, is the mention by Moses of the "waters +which were above the firmament." Viewed in the light of the +present condition of the earth such a notice seems unaccountable. +But if the earth at that time were in a condition similar to that +in which Jupiter appears to be now, the water in the atmosphere or +above the firmament would be a very important element in any +description that might be given of it. It is in fact most probable +that all the water (in the strict sense of the word) then in +existence would be in a state of vapour, and that the waters which +were under the firmament were the molten materials which +afterwards formed rocks and ores, since, as has been already +noticed, the word is the only one which could be employed to +describe fluids in general. + +We may now try to form some idea of the probable state of the +earth at this period. Its centre would be occupied by a fused +mass, in which were blended all the more intractable solid +constituents of the present world. This would be surrounded by an +atmosphere of very great height and density, containing not only +all the present constituents of air, but also all, or nearly all, +the water, and all the more volatile of the metals and other +elements. Carbonic acid, to a very large extent, would probably be +present, and a very considerable proportion of the oxygen which +now exists in combination with various bases, and forms by weight +so large a proportion of the solid crust of the world. + +Owing to the intense heat, chemical combinations would readily be +formed between the ingredients of the fused mass and the other +elements which existed in the form of vapour, and thus the +earliest of the vast variety of existing minerals would be +elaborated. The volumes of steam which floated in the upper +regions of the atmosphere would rapidly part with their heat by +radiation into space, and would descend towards the surface of the +earth in the form of rain. At first probably, and for a long time, +they would not reach the surface, but as they approached it would +be again converted into vapour, and re-ascend to pass again and +again through the same process. But by this means the intense heat +of the nucleus would be gradually conveyed away, till the cooling +reached a point at which some of the superficial materials would +assume a solid form. It is by no means certain what is the true +primary rock--for a long time it was almost universally assumed to +be granite, since granite is uniformly found underlying the oldest +sedimentary rocks that are known. But as these rocks have been +forced from their original position and tilted up, the underlying +stratum may probably be of later date than the upper ones, since +it was the elevating agent. So that we can have no certain +knowledge on this point, since the earliest sedimentary strata, +wherever they retain their original position, must be at a depth +far below the reach of man. If, however, Sir C. Kyell's view of +the conditions requisite for the formation of granite are correct, +these conditions [Footnote: Student's Geology, chap. xxxi.]--heat, +moisture, and enormous pressure--would all be present at the +surface of the nucleus. Some kind of solid floor must have been +formed before the next stage could be reached, at which it would +be possible for water to exist in a fluid state. This, however, +would be possible at a much higher temperature than at present, +owing to the enormous atmospheric pressure. It is possible now, by +artificial means, to raise water, nearly if not quite, to a red +heat, without the formation of steam, and the pressure of the +atmosphere in the case supposed would, in all probability, be much +greater than any which we can now apply under the conditions +necessary for heating the water. + +It is probable that at this point the close of the second day must +be placed: but the indications of the narrative do not enable us +to fix it with any degree of certainty. As, however, from this +point a new series of processes would commence, and those +processes are in intimate connexion with the first of the two +developments ascribed to the third day, the period when water +could first maintain a fluid form on the earth's surface, seems to +present the most probable line of demarcation. + +SECTION 6. THE THIRD DAY. + +"And God said, Let the waters under the Heaven be gathered +together in one place, and let the dry land appear; and it was so. + +"And God called the dry land Earth, and the gathering together of +the waters called He Seas, and God saw that it was good. + +"And God said, Let the earth sprout sprouts, the herb seeding +seed, and the fruit-tree yielding fruit after his kind, whose +seed is in it, [Footnote: "It" seems preferable to "itself" here. +The same Hebrew word stands for both, but if the "fruit-tree" be +taken as the antecedent, which it must be if we translate +"itself," there seems no meaning in the statement. If we read +"it," the pronoun will refer to the fruit--"the tree whose seed is +in its fruit"--which gives an intelligible sense.] upon the earth, +and it was so. + +"And the earth caused to go forth sprouts, the herb seeding seed, +and the fruit-tree yielding fruit whose seed is in it, after his +kind, and God saw that it was good. And there was evening, and +there was morning, a third day." + +The record of the third day is a very important one, because it is +the first point at which the Mosaic Record comes in contact with +that other record which is written in the rocks. Up to this time +we have only been able to compare the statements of Moses with +conjectural views of the earliest condition of the earth, which, +though they may be highly probable, are at best only conjectures. +But from this point we have to deal with a number of ascertained +facts--certain landmarks stand out which enable us to fix the +correspondent parts of the two narratives, and guide us to the +identification and interpretation of their minor details. + +The first of these landmarks is the appearance of the dry land, +or, in geological language, the commencement of the process of +upheaval. At the close of the second day the earth was, in all +probability, as we have seen, a globe internally molten, but +having a solid crust which was uniformly covered with a layer of +water, and surrounded by an atmosphere which, though it had parted +with some of its ingredients, was still very much more complex, +more dense, and more extensive than it is at present. The newly +condensed waters would rest on the surface of the primeval rock, +whatever that rock might be. The internal heat conducted through +it would keep the waters in a state of intense ebullition, and at +the same time their surface would be agitated by violent +atmospheric currents as the heated air ascended, and was replaced +by cooler air from the outer regions of the atmosphere. Under +these circumstances the water would dissolve or wear down portions +of the newly-formed rock on which it rested. At the same time the +steam, which would be continually rising from the boiling ocean, +would descend from the upper regions of the atmosphere in the form +of rain, and bring with it in solution considerable quantities of +those elements which still existed in the form of vapour, just as +rain now brings down ammonia and carbonic acid which it has +absorbed in its passage through the atmosphere. New combinations +would thus be formed between the materials dissolved or abraded by +the ocean and those brought down by the rain. When these +combinations had reached a certain amount they would be deposited +in the form of mud upon the bed of the ocean, and thus the +earliest sedimentary rocks would be formed. As the temperature +gradually decreased, the character of these combinations would +probably be changed, and at the same time the atmosphere would be +diminished in volume and density, and become more pure by the +absorption of a large portion of its original constituents, which +would have been incorporated into various minerals. + +The earliest sedimentary rock with which we are acquainted at +present is what is known as the Laurentian formation. [Footnote: +The whole of the geological details in this section are taken from +Sir C. Lyell's Geology for Students.] It occupies an area of +200,000 square miles north of the St. Lawrence; and is also traced +into the United States and the western highlands of Scotland and +some of the adjacent isles. It is divided into two sections--the +Upper and Lower Laurentian. It is not certain that it is really +the oldest rock; for as every sedimentary rock is formed of the +debris of preceding rocks, it is very possible that all the +exposed portions of some older rocks may have been decomposed and +worn away; but it is the oldest yet known. The thickness of the +lower portion is estimated at 20,000 feet, or nearly four miles, +while the Upper Laurentian beds are 10,000 feet thick. At this +point we meet with the first traces of that process of upheaval +and subsidence which has ever since been going on in the earth. +The Lower Laurentian rocks had been displaced from their original +horizontal position before the Upper Laurentian were deposited +upon them. + +This process of upheaval of some parts of the earth, accompanied +with subsidence in other parts, is one which cannot be accounted +for by any natural laws with which we are acquainted. It is in all +probability the result of a series of changes which are taking +place in the interior of the earth, but of which we know nothing +at all. It is in the commencement of this series of changes that +we trace that direct interference of the Creator--which is +indicated by the command, "Let the waters under the firmament be +gathered together into one place, and let the dry land appear." We +have not, however, any means of ascertaining how long a period +elapsed before the process of upheaval reached the point at which +the land would rise above the surface of the ocean. + +The Lower Laurentian rocks are remarkable in another way. There is +little doubt that traces of life, the earliest yet known, occur in +them. They include a bed of limestone varying in thickness from +700 to 1500 feet. In all probability limestone, wherever it +occurs, is an animal product, though in many cases all traces of +its organization have been lost by exposure to heat. This +particular bed appears to have been formed by a very lowly +creature, which in organization was akin to the foraminifera, of +which large quantities are now known to exist at the bottom of the +Atlantic. It differed from them, however, in one respect--the +individuals were connected together, as is the case now with many +varieties of the coral animal. No notice of this first appearance +of life is found in the Mosaic Record, nor, for reasons already +given, was it possible that any mention of it should be made. + +The rocks which come next to the Laurentian in the order of time +are those known as the Cambrian. They are so called because they +constitute a large portion of the mountains of North Wales, and it +was there that their characteristics were first carefully studied +by Professor Sedgwick. In one of the strata of this formation--the +Harlech Grit--what are known as "ripple-marks" are found, proving +that parts of these rocks at the time of their deposition formed a +sea-beach, and that consequently at this time, at the latest, the +dry land had emerged from the ocean. In these rocks there are also +decided traces of Volcanic Action, which seem to indicate the +existence of a Volcano similar to the recent "Graham's Island." At +this point a considerable advance in animal life is found. The +fossils comprise several corals, varieties of mollusca, and a +class of crustaceans peculiar to the very early rocks--the +trilobites. + +On the Cambrian rocks rest the formations known as Silurian, from +the fact that they were first thoroughly examined in South Wales +(Siluria) by Sir E. Murchison. In these rocks many fresh varieties +of invertebrate fossils are found, and the vertebrata make their +first appearance, numerous remains of fishes having been +discovered. The earliest specimen was found in the Lower Ludlow +beds at Leintwardine, while the Upper Ludlow formation contains an +extensive bed composed almost entirely of fish-bones. Immediately +above this bed are found what seem to be traces of land-plants, in +the shape of the spores of a cryptogamous plant. + +The Silurian rocks are succeeded by rocks which present two +distinct characters, but are probably contemporaneous, the +Devonian and the old Red Sandstone. The former seem to have been +deposited in the bed of the sea, while the latter is a fresh-water +formation. In these decided remains of land plants are found, of +which about 200 species have at present been discovered. The old +Red Sandstone is also peculiarly rich in fossil fish. The first +signs of coal appear in this series of rocks, but on a very small +scale. + +We now come to what are known as the Carboniferous rocks, of which +the lower series is known as the mountain limestone, and above it +come the "coal measures," containing numerous beds of coal, +sometimes of great thickness. These beds have resulted entirely +from the decomposition, under peculiar circumstances, of an +enormous development of terrestrial vegetation. They seem to have +originated in vast swamps, subject to occasional flooding, and to +alternate movements of upheaval and subsidence. On these swamps +there must have existed for ages a vegetation of whose luxuriance +the richest tropical jungles of the present time can give us no +idea. They tell the tale of a time when the temperature of the +earth, was uniformly high (since coal fields are found in high +northern latitudes), when the atmosphere was charged with +moisture, and probably contained a large proportion of carbonic +acid. In the coal measures we come upon the first traces of land +animals. Several remains of reptiles have been found, as well as +footprints left on the soft mud or sand of a riverbank or sea- +beach. There seems to be no doubt that they were left by lung- +breathing animals. + +The carboniferous strata form the second of our landmarks. They +seem to point to the fulfilment of the command that the earth, +should bring forth vegetation. There is, however, one point which +requires some notice. The Mosaic account, as we read it in our +English Bibles, seems to be limited to phanerogamous plants-- +grass, the herb yielding seed, and the fruit-tree yielding fruit. +Now, it is a well-known fact that the great mass of the +vegetation, the remains of which constitute coal, consisted of +cryptogamic plants, which do not produce seed, properly so called, +but only spores; the distinction being that the spore contains the +germ and nothing more, while in the seed the germ is provided with +a store of nutriment to assist in the earlier stages of the +development of the plant. What appears to be a farther +discrepancy, the absence of any traces of the grasses, leads in +reality to the solution of the difficulty. + +The word which is translated "grass" [Hebrew script] means in +reality, any fresh sprout. Now it is remarkable that Moses +specifies three kinds of vegetation, with regard to two of which +it is noted that they produce seed, while nothing is said of the +seed of the remaining class. Grass too, is really a herb bearing +seed, and, as such would be included in the second class, and +there would have been no occasion, to mention it separately. It +would appear then that the first class consisted of seedless +plants, i. e. of the cryptogamia. This conclusion is strengthened +when we turn to verses 29 and 30. If the word [Hebrew script] were +correctly translated "grass," we should certainly expect to find +it in those verses, since the grasses contribute more to the food +of both man and beast, than all the other herbaceous plants put +together. This omission then, is an indication that the word, as +used in this chapter, denotes a class of plants which are not +commonly employed for food, and this condition also is fulfilled +in the cryptogamia. + +There are then four special points in this period, of which two +seem to correspond with the Mosaic record, while the other two are +unnoticed in it. The two points of correspondence are the upheaval +of the dry land, and the prevalence of a very abundant and +luxuriant Flora. As in the case of the fifth and sixth days, the +words used with reference to land plants seem to denote a period +of remarkable development, rather than the first appearance. The +two points unnoticed are the beginnings of animal and vegetable +life. In the case of animal life the omission has already been +accounted for. The beginning of vegetable life was probably +contemporaneous with that of animal life, for each is necessary to +the other, since the food of the animal must be prepared by the +vegetable, and after being used by the former returns to a state +in which it is fitted for the nourishment of the latter. As animal +life commenced in the ocean, so in all probability did vegetable +life, though no certain traces of it are found in the earliest +rocks; but this is easily accounted for by the very perishable +character of the simpler forms of algae. Like the earliest +animals, the first algae were probably microscopic plants, and the +omission of any mention of them was therefore inevitable. + +One characteristic of cryptogamic vegetation is important for its +bearing on the work of the fourth day. Almost all the phanerogamic +plants are dependent for their development upon the direct light +and heat of the sun. Deprived of these they either perish +entirely, or make an unhealthy growth, and produce little or no +fruit. But the cryptogamia, in general, thrive best when they are +protected from the direct rays of the sun. They nourish in a +diffused light, and with abundant atmospheric moisture. And so we +find them at this time doing what seems a very important work in +the progress of the world. By taking up and decomposing the excess +of carbonic acid which at this time probably existed in the +atmosphere, they at once purified that atmosphere, and rendered it +fit for the respiration of more highly organized creatures, and +laid up in the earth an invaluable store of fuel for the future +use of man. The other orders of vegetation seem to have existed in +very small proportions at this time, and only in their lower +forms. As the conditions of the earth changed, the cryptogamia +seemed to have dwindled away, while higher forms of vegetation +asserted their supremacy. It is not, however, improbable that a +special development at a much later period is indicated by the +mention in the second chapter of the formation of the garden of +Eden. + +SECTION 7. THE FOURTH DAY. + +"And God said, Let there be luminaries in the firmament of heaven +to divide between the day and the night, and let them be for signs +and for seasons, and for days and for years. + +"And let them be for luminaries in the firmament of heaven to give +light upon the earth; and it was so. + +"And God made the two luminaries, the great ones; the luminary, +the great one, to rule over the day, and the luminary, the small +one, to rule over the night, and also the stars. + +"And God gave them in the firmament of heaven to give light upon +the earth. + +"And to rule over the day and over the night, and to divide +between the light and between the darkness; and God saw that it +was good. + +"And there was evening, and there was morning, a fourth day." + +This day's work differs from that of the preceding and succeeding +days, in the fact that its sphere was without the earth, which was +only indirectly influenced by it, and consequently the geological +records give us no direct information upon the subject, though in +two points they tally with the Mosaical account. In the first +place, the deposits of coal, which preceded this period, indicate +a time when a nearly uniform temperature, and that a high one, +prevailed throughout the world. The coal beds are found not only +in tropical regions, but in very high latitudes. Not only is the +vegetation of which these coalfields are the result, analogous to +that which is now found in warm climates only--(this might be the +case, and yet we should not be justified in drawing the inference +that the actual species of plants were tropical, for it often +happens that different species of the same genus, having +considerable external resemblance, are very different in their +habits, some requiring tropical heat, while others flourish only +in temperate climates)--but the marked feature is the astonishing +luxuriance of this vegetation, which could only have been +developed under the most favourable circumstances of warmth and +moisture. Now the heat which any particular portion of the earth's +surface receives from the sun depends entirely upon the latitude. +hence it is impossible that a uniform high temperature could exist +in a world which derived its heat wholly or chiefly from that +source. Whether the high temperature which prevailed on the earth +during the deposition of the coal measures was derived from +internal heat it is impossible to say; it is evident that the +temperature of the earth's surface has been in past times, and +perhaps is now, modified by causes which no scientific research +has been enabled to detect [Footnote: Since the sun's secular +motion has been known, astronomers have suggested that the solar +system has been carried through portions of space having variable +temperatures. Geologists, however, do not seem inclined to accept +this as a sufficient reason for the phenomena observed.]. But we +may safely conclude that during the third day the earth did not +derive its heat from the sun. The second point, the barrenness of +the geological records of this period, will be noticed hereafter. + +The record of the fourth day's work admits of two interpretations, +it may describe things merely as they appeared, or as they +actually occurred. + +1. It is possible that the events of the fourth day may be +described phenomenally--that up to this period the state of things +on the earth had been to a great extent similar to that which we +have reason to believe is still existing in the planet Jupiter- +that the atmosphere was so charged with vapour that no direct rays +from the heavenly bodies could penetrate it; but that at this +time, owing to the declining heat, a great part of the aqueous +constituents of this vapour had been precipitated in the form of +rain, while other vapours had entered into chemical combinations +with other elements to form the various minerals of the earth's +surface, and the atmosphere had become first translucent, and then +transparent. While this process was going on, no direct light from +the sun, supposing it to be already in existence, could penetrate +the veil. Diffused light only could reach the earth's surface, but +when the atmosphere became clear the sun, moon, and stars would +become visible. + +Against this view several objections may be brought. In the first +place, as has been already noticed, we cannot treat the account of +the Creation as derived from ordinary human sources. Either it is +a revelation from the Creator or it is nothing. Now we can readily +admit that a man, speaking of an event which lie had witnessed, +but did not understand, would describe it as it appeared to him, +but we cannot admit this supposition when the work is described by +the Great Artificer Himself. In the next place, the temperature of +the earth's surface must in this case have been affected by the +sun, and must therefore have been more or less dependent upon +latitude--and in the third place the distinction between day and +night must have come into operation, whereas the narrative implies +that it was yet incomplete. + +2. The other possible interpretation is, that at this period the +concentration of light and heat in the sun was so far completed +that he became the luminary of the system, which had hitherto +derived its light and heat from other sources. Probably, for a +long time, the internal heat of the planets may have been so great +that they were a light to themselves. This state of things, +however, must have come to an end before animal or vegetable life +could have existed on their surface, but other ways exist, and are +in operation in other parts of the universe, by which light and +heat might have been supplied independently of the sun. That light +which is now gathered up in the sun might for a long time have +existed as a nebulous ring, similar to the well-known Ring Nebula +in Lyra. Any planets existing within such a ring would probably +derive from it sufficient light and heat. Or the nebulous matter, +in a luminous state, while slowly advancing to concentration, +might as yet have been so diffused as to fill a space in which the +earth's orbit was included. In either case the earth would have +received a uniform diffused light, without any alternations of +night and day. It is of course impossible that we should be able +to say whether there are any worlds in which such a state of +things prevails at present. Up to this time, with one possible +exception, [Footnote: "Sirius is accompanied by a 10 mag. star, +whose existence was suspected (like that of Neptune), long before +its discovery by Alvan Clark in 1861, from the irregular movements +of its primary. But though it appears so small, its disturbing +effects can only be accounted for on the supposition that its mass +is at least half that of Sirius, in which case its light must be +very faint, possibly wholly reflected." (Webb's Celestial Objects, +p. 202.)] the only worlds which the telescope has revealed to us, +beyond the limits of our own system, are self-luminous. No +reflected light is strong enough to make its existence perceptible +at such enormous distances in the most powerful telescope which +has yet been constructed. + +There are some facts connected with our own system which make it +appear not improbable that up to the time of which we are speaking +the light which is now gathered up in the sun was diffused over a +space in which at all events the earth's orbit was included. It is +now a recognized fact that all the light of the system is not as +yet wholly concentrated in the sun, as we generally recognize it, +but that to some extent the sun is still a nebulous star. Under +ordinary circumstances we see only that circular disc, which we +usually recognize as the sun. Its surpassing brightness overpowers +every thing else, whether we view it with the unaided eye or +through the telescope. But when the actual disc is hidden from us +by the moon in a total eclipse, other regions of light surrounding +the disc, make their appearance, and in them the most wonderful +processes are continually going on. The simultaneous discoveries +of Messrs. Lockyer and Janssen, in 1868, have enabled some of +these processes to be continuously watched when the sun is not +eclipsed, but others can as yet only be seen during the few +minutes (never amounting to seven) which a total eclipse lasts, so +that as yet we know very little of them. + +Immediately surrounding the disc of the sun, which is visible to +the naked eye, is a brilliant ring of light, known now as the +chromosphere or sierra. This is the region which till 1868 could +be seen only during total eclipses, but can now be watched at all +times by means of the spectroscope. In it symptoms of intense +action are from time to time witnessed. For many years past, +whenever a total eclipse occurred, there were observed on the edge +of this ring certain red prominences. The spectroscope has +revealed their nature. They consist chiefly of enormous volumes of +hydrogen, ejected from the surface of the sun with a velocity +almost inconceivable, and at the same time revolving about their +axis after the fashion of a cyclone. [Footnote: Popular Science +Review, January, 1872, p. 150; Look. Byer's Lecture on the Sun, at +Manchester, 1871.] A very remarkable instance of this was observed +in America in September 1871, by Professor Young. A mass of +incandescent hydrogen was propelled to a height of 200,000 miles +above the visible disc; of these the last 100,000 miles were +passed through in 10 minutes. Such events, though not commonly on +so vast a scale, are continually occurring on the surface of the +sun, and they seem to be in close connexion with the magnetic +phenomena occurring on the earth. + +Beyond the chromosphere lies the corona. The spectroscope has not +yet rendered this visible at all times, and consequently we are +dependent upon the information to be obtained during the few +minutes of total eclipses, when alone it is visible. Consequently +during recent solar eclipses this has been the point to which the +attention of astronomers has been especially devoted. The eclipse +of December, 1870, decided one point, that the corona was a truly +solar phenomenon, and not, as some astronomers imagined, an +optical phenomenon, produced by our own atmosphere. The corona +presents the appearance of nebulous light, fading as it becomes +more remote from the sun, of very irregular outline, at some +points not extending more than 15', at others as much as 60' or +70' from the sun's disc, or, in other words, reaching to distances +from the sun's surface varying from 400,000 to 1,800,000 miles. +More important information has been obtained from the eclipse of +December 12,1871. It is now ascertained that the corona comprises +not only gaseous elements, especially hydrogen, but also solid or +fluid particles, capable of giving a continuous though very faint +spectrum with dark lines, indicating the existence of matter +capable of reflecting light. The character of the coronal spectrum +very much resembles that of the Nebula in Draco, No. 4373. The +ascertained extent of the corona exceeds a million of miles above +the surface of the sun, and it seems probable that the Zodiacal +light is only a fainter extension of it. [Footnote: Popular +Science Review, April, 1872, pp. 136-146.] + +On a clear evening in the early spring months, as soon as twilight +is completely ended, a conical streak of light may be sometimes +seen, arising' from the western horizon, and extending through an +arc of 60 or 70 degrees, nearly in the direction of the Ecliptic, +and finally terminating in a point. This is the Zodiacal light. In +tropical climates it is seen much more frequently, [Footnote: +Humboldt, Kosmos, vol. i. p. 126 (Bohu's edition).] and is much +more brilliant than in England. This then is probably an envelope +of still fainter light than the corona. It must extend beyond the +orbit of Venus, as the maximum elongation of Venus is 47 degrees, +while the Zodiacal light has been traced for 70 degrees, and +probably farther. It is very possible that the earth is +occasionally involved in it, and that from it we derive that +diffused light which, though faint, is very serviceable to us on a +starless evening, and of which no other account has as yet been +given. The light we receive in this way is often as powerful as +that which we should receive from the stars if they were not +hidden by clouds. + +These phenomena seem to point to the conclusion that the +condensation of light in the sun has been a very gradual process, +which is even yet incomplete. If we suppose that at the time of +the formation of the coal measures it was not far advanced, but +that a diffused light extended beyond the orbit of the earth, +similar in some respects to the present Zodiacal light, but equal +in intensity to the light which we now see in the corona, the +phenomena of the third day will be satisfactorily accounted for. +There is, however, still an enormous amount of mystery connected +with the sun. It is the centre from which an inconceivable amount +of force in the shape of light, heat, actinism, and probably other +manifestations, is hourly poured forth. If the whole of that force +were divided into two thousand million parts, the portion received +by the earth would be represented by one of those parts, and the +whole amount received by all the planets would fall short of +twelve of them. All the rest is radiated away into space, and so +far as we know at present lost to the system. The question then +arises, "How is this enormous expenditure supplied?" Various +sources of heat have been suggested, but none of them seem +satisfactory. One conceivable source there is, but that lies out +of the domain of science. Then again, metals, which only our most +powerful furnaces will even melt, exist in the sun's atmosphere in +the state of vapour. What must be the intensity of the heat which +underlies that metallic atmosphere? and what can be the solid or +fluid substances which, from the continuity of the spectrum, we +know must exist there? + +We turn now to the Mosaic Record to see what light it throws upon +and receives from this investigation. The first thing to be +noticed is that the word used by Moses for the sun and moon is not +the same as that employed to denote light. It properly signifies a +light-holder, such as a candlestick, and harmonizes with the view +that the sun in his original state was not luminous, but was made +a luminary by the condensation of light previously existent under +other conditions. In the next place, though the apparent +dimensions of the sun and moon are the same, Moses correctly +describes the one as "the great light," the other as "the little +light," thus indicating a knowledge to which the astronomers of +his day had probably not attained. + +The relation between the accounts of the first and fourth day's +work becomes clear if we assume that the sun was not made a +luminary till the fourth day. The division of night and day +depends upon two things, the rotation of the earth upon its axis, +and the concentration of light in the sun. Hence when the rotation +of the earth commenced that division was potentially provided for, +but the provision would not take effect until the second condition +was fulfilled by the concentration of light in the sun. The +indications given by the coal measures point, as we have seen, to +the same conclusion. + +The only remaining question is "What was going on in the earth at +the same time?" Our materials for answering this question are but +scanty. So great an alteration in the sources of light and heat +must have involved great physical changes on the earth's surface, +and there is reason to believe that great mechanical forces were +at work producing vast changes in the relations of land and water. +"It has long been the opinion of the most eminent geologists that +the coalfields of Lancashire and Yorkshire were once united, the +upper coal measures and the overlying Millstone Grit and Toredale +Bocks having been subsequently removed by denudation; but what is +remarkable is the ancient date now assigned to this denudation, +for it seems that a thickness of no less than 10,000 feet of the +coal measures had been carried away before the deposition of even +the lower Permian Rocks, which were thrown down upon the already +disturbed truncated edges of the coal strata." [Footnote: Lyell, +Geology for Students, p. 377.] And this is but a single instance. + +During the interval between the deposition of the coal measures, +which seem to belong to the third, and the Saurian remains which +mark the fifth day, we have the Permian and Triassic Rocks, of +which the Magnesian. Limestone and the new Red Sandstone are the +most important representatives in England. Till a very recent +period it was thought that these rocks belonged to a period +remarkably destitute of animal life, very few fossils having been +found in them. Recently, however, some very rich deposits have +been found in the Tyrol, belonging to this period, but they are +only local. + +Of the Permian formation Sir C. Lyell says, "Not one of the +species (of fossils) is common to rocks newer than the +Palaeozoic." [Footnote: Geology for Students, p. 369.] This was +not then a time for the origination of new forms of life. In the +Trias, however, the new development of life, which was to attain +its full dimensions on the fifth day, begins to open upon us. The +earliest Saurian fossils are found, and the rocks still present us +with impressions of the feet of reptiles and birds, which walked +over the soft seashore, and left footprints, which were first +dried and hardened by the sun and wind, and then filled up with +fresh sand by the returning tide, but never entirely coalesced +with the new material. + +At the close of this period the first traces of mammalian life +occur, in the shape of teeth, which are supposed to have belonged +to some small Marsupial quadrupeds, and in America the whole lower +jaws of three such animals have been discovered; but no other +remains have as yet been traced. + +The Trias then seems to mark the boundary between the fourth and +fifth days. The fourth day seems to have been on the earth a +period of great change, not only in physical conditions, but also +in the forms of life. In the latter point of view, however, it +seems to have been marked by the passing-away of old forms much +more than by the origination of new ones, and hence the barrenness +of the Geological Records is in exact accordance with the silence +of the Mosaic Record as to any new developments. + +SECTION 8. THE FIFTH DAY + +"And God said. Let the waters swarm swarms, the soul of life, and +let fowl fly above the earth in the face of the firmament of +heaven. + +"And God created the monsters, the great ones, and every soul of +life that creepeth, with which the waters swarmed, after their +kind, and every winged fowl after his kind; and God saw that it +was good. + +"And God blessed them, saying, Be fruitful and multiply, and fill +the waters in the sea, and let fowl multiply on the earth. + +"And there was evening, and there was morning, a fifth day." + +The fifth and sixth days of Creation are those to which the theory +of development chiefly refers. It will, therefore, be better to +defer the consideration of its bearing on the narrative till the +relation of that narrative to Geological facts has been +considered, since it can only be thoroughly weighed when taken in +connexion with the facts which belong to the two days. + +The beginning of the fifth day may be assigned to a point near +where the Trias is succeeded by the Lias. As the Trias is drawing +to its close, the class of reptiles, whose first known appearance +belongs to the carboniferous epoch of the third day, begins to +show signs of advance. The first true Saurians are found in the +Trias: the great development takes place in the Lias and Oolite, +while in the chalk large quantities of kindred remains are found, +which, however, are not identical with the species found in the +earlier groups. Of these some were probably almost entirely +aquatic, as their limbs take the form of paddles; others were +purely terrestrial, a large proportion were amphibious, and some, +as the pterodactylus, bore the same relation to the rest of their +class as the bats bear to the other mammalia, being furnished with +membranous wings, supported upon a special development of the +anterior limbs. One important characteristic of the race at this +time was the great size of many of its members: thirty feet is by +no means an uncommon length. This marks the fitness of the name +given to the class by Moses. + +Very few actual remains of birds have been found; but this is not +surprising, since birds would rarely be exposed to the conditions +which were essential to the fossilization of their remains. The +earliest known fossil bird is the Archaeopteryx, the remains of +which were found in 1862 in the Solenhofen Slates, which belong to +the Oolite formation. Though the actual remains of birds are very +few, traces of their footprints have been found in many places, +from the New Red Sandstone upwards, and these traces prove not +only that they were very numerous, but also that they attained to +a gigantic size, as their feet were sometimes from twelve to +fifteen inches in length, and their stride extended from six to +eight feet. During this period, then, these two classes must have +been the dominant races of the earth. As the precursors of these +classes made their appearance at a much earlier period, so the +epoch of birds and reptiles witnessed the beginning and gradual +advance of the class which was to succeed them in the foremost +place--the mammalia. Generally, however, the mammalian remains of +this period belong to what are considered the lower classes--the +monotremata and marsupialia. The close of this period must have +been a time of great disturbance in the Northern Hemisphere, since +the chalk which runs through a great part of Northern Europe, and +frequently attains a thickness of 1000 feet, must have been +deposited at the bottom of a deep sea, and subsequently elevated. + +SECTION 9. THE SIXTH DAY. + +1. The Mammalia. + +"And God said, Let the earth cause to go forth the soul of life, +cattle, and creeping thing, and the beast of the earth (wild +animals) after his kind; and it was so. + +"And God made the beast of the earth after his kind, and cattle +after their kind, and every creeping thing of the ground after his +kind; and God saw that it was good." + +In these two verses there are one or two points which call for +notice. In the first place, the creatures mentioned are divided +into three classes, of which two, cattle and the beast of the +earth, are tolerably clear in their general significance, though +their extent is not determined. The third is denoted by a word +which had already been employed to describe the work of the fifth +day, and is translated in our version "creeping thing." The +probability seems to be that it has reference to such classes of +animals as the smaller rodentia, and the mustelidas, whose motions +may be appropriately described by the word "creeping." That it +denotes four-footed creatures has already been pointed out. The +next point is, that in each case the singular is used; in the case +of the domestic animals this fact is lost to the English reader by +the use of the collective noun "cattle." Of course it is a common +usage, to denote a class of animals by a singular noun used +generically, but the statements of the passage would also be +justified if one pair only of each of the three types specified +were called into existence at first. It is also to be noticed that +while the word [Hebrew script], the earth is used to define the +wild beast; another word, [Hebrew script] the ground, is applied +to the "creeping thing." There is probably a reason for this, +though it may not at present be apparent. + +When we turn to the Geological record, we find that the period of +the chalk was followed by the deposition of the tertiary strata. +During the upheaval of the chalk these strata seem to have been +gradually laid down in its hollows, and around its edges. They +extend from the London clay upward to the crag formations which +appear on the Eastern coast of England at intervals from +Bridlington to Suffolk. In these strata we see signs of an +approach to the existing state of things. As we ascend through +them, a gradually increasing number of the fossil shells are found +to be specifically identical with those which at present inhabit +the ocean. + +Another characteristic of this period is the abundance of fossil +remains of mammalia; but in this case, although the remains are +evidently, in many cases, those of creatures nearly allied to +those now existing, they are not identical, very great +modifications both of bulk and of minor structural details having +taken place. One very important point of difference is the vastly +superior bulk of these ancient animals: a good illustration of +which may be seen in the skeletons of the mammoth and of the +modern elephant, which are placed near each other in the British +Museum. Many of these animals appear not to have become extinct +till long after the appearance of man. + +The first appearance of mammalia, as has been already noticed, +must have been long before this, as the earliest fossils yet found +are at the lower limit of the Lias. They belong, however, to the +genus Marsupialia, of which, as far as we know, no representatives +were in existence in any part of the world known to Moses, so that +even on the supposition that he intended to give an account of the +first appearance of the classes of animals which he mentions, the +omission of these would have been inevitable. His words, however, +appear to point to a time when the mammalia occupied the leading +place, just as the reptiles had occupied the leading place at a +previous epoch. And his words are fully borne out by the records +of the rocks. + +At the close of the tertiary period great changes once more took +place in the Northern hemisphere. There was a great and extensive +subsidence, in consequence of which a large portion of Northern +and Middle Europe must have been under water, the mountain summits +only appearing as detached islands. At the same time, from causes +utterly unknown to us, there was a great depression of +temperature, the result of which was, that all, or nearly all the +land, in those regions which were not submerged, was covered with +glaciers, much as Greenland is now, and from these glaciers vast +icebergs must from time to time have been detached by the sea and +floated off, carrying with them fragments of rock, some freshly +broken, some rounded by long attrition, which were deposited on +the then submerged lands as the ice melted, and are now found as +boulders, sometimes lying on the surface, at others dispersed +through beds of clay and sand formed under water from the debris +worn down by the glaciers. A subsequent movement of elevation +ushered in the state of things which exists on the earth at the +present time. + +2. Man. + +"And God said, Let Us make man (Adam) in Our image after Our +likeness; and he shall have dominion over the fish of the sea, and +over the fowl of the heaven, and over the cattle, and over all the +earth, and over every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth. + +"And God created man (the Adam) in His image, in the image of God +created He him; male and female He created them. + +"And God blessed them, and God said to them, Be fruitful and +multiply, and fill the earth and subdue it; and rule over the fish +of the sea, and the fowl of the heaven, and over every animal that +creepeth upon the earth. + +"And God said, Behold, I have given you every herb seeding seed, +which is upon the face of all the earth, and every tree which has +in it the fruit of a tree seeding seed; to you it shall be for +food. + +"And to every animal of the earth, and to every fowl of the +heaven, and to every thing that creepeth upon the earth, in which +is the soul of life, every green herb is for meat; and it was so. + +"And God saw every thing--which He had made, and behold it was +good exceedingly. + +"And there was evening and there was morning, the sixth day." + +The terms in which the Creation of man is spoken of are such as to +challenge particular attention and to induce us to expect +something very different from what occurred on any previous +occasion. In the first place, more agents than one are introduced +by the use of the plural form of the verb, and thus at the very +commencement of man's career there is an intimation of that +mysterious fact of the Trinity in Unity which was to have so +important an influence upon his future destiny. Then we are told +that man was to be formed in the Image of God, a statement which +probably is of very wide import. It has been variously interpreted +as having reference to the spiritual, moral, and intellectual +nature of man; to the fact that the nature of man was afterwards +to be assumed by the Second Person of the Trinity; to the +delegated empire of this world which man was to hold. There are +two expressions of St. Paul: that "man is the image and glory of +God" (1 Cor. xi. 7), and that "the invisible things of Him from +the creation of the world are clearly seen, being understood by +the things that are made, even His eternal Power and Godhead" +(Rom. i. 20), which seem to indicate that this record has a +significance which as yet we can only partially understand. Then +the story of man's creation is repeated in the second chapter, and +while the other events recorded in the first chapter are very +briefly summarized, that of man is very much amplified. This does +riot necessarily indicate an independent account, as is sometimes +asserted; at the fourth verse of the second chapter a distinct +portion of revelation commences--the special dealing of God with +man, and this could not be intelligible without an amount of +detail with reference to man's origin, which would have been out +of place in the short account of the origin of the world by which +it is preceded. In this account the creation of Adam and Eve is +recorded as two separate events, the latter of which is described +in terms of deep mystery, of which all that we can say is that +they point to that still deeper mystery--the birth of the Bride-- +the Lamb's Wife from the pierced side of the Lamb. But in the case +of Adam there is a remarkable difference from anything that has +gone before. Two distinct acts of creation are recorded; one of +which places man before us in his physical relation to the lower +animals, while the other treats of him in his spiritual relation +to his Maker. "The Lord God formed man (the Adam) dust from the +ground (adamah), and breathed into his nostrils the breath of +lives; and man became a soul of life." The inspiration of the +"breath of lives" distinguishes the creation of man from that of +all other creatures. + +The Geological records harmonize exactly with the Bible as to the +date of man's appearance on the earth. It is towards the close of +the age of gigantic mammalia, that the earliest remains of man's +workmanship make their appearance in the shape of tools and +weapons rudely fashioned from stone. Parts of human skeletons have +also been occasionally found, but they are exceedingly rare. +Weapons and bones are alike confined to superficial, and +comparatively very recent formations. From such traces as have +been found there is no reason to believe that any physical changes +of importance have taken place in man's body since his first +appearance on the earth. The differences which do exist are of the +same kind as, and not greater than, the differences which exist +between individuals at present. + +The gift of dominion over the lower animals seems to indicate +something different from that which gives one animal superiority +over another, and accordingly we find that it is not by physical +power that that dominion is exercised; but that in most of his +physical faculties man is inferior to the very animals which he +holds in subjection. It is partly in virtue of his intellectual +superiority, and partly perhaps by means of an instinctive +recognition on the part of the animals of man's higher nature +(Gen. ix. 2) that that supremacy is maintained. + +SECTION 10. DEVELOPMENT. + +We have now to consider the question of development, in reference +to the Mosaic Record of the last two days, and to the known facts +to which that record has relation. The account of the third day's +work has also a bearing on the subject, but as the same +considerations will to a great extent apply to animals and to +plants, it will not be necessary to make any special reference to +it. + +The facts in favour of the theory of development are these:--1. +The different classes of plants and animals are not separated by +broad lines of demarcation, but shade insensibly into each other. +2. The characteristics of the same species are not constant; the +lion, for instance, the horse, the elephant, and the hyena of the +present day differ in many minor points from the corresponding +animals of the Tertiary period, so that unless there was a +possibility of spontaneous change, we must assume successive +creations of animals, with only trivial differences. 3. In all +animals there are minute individual differences, and if under any +circumstances these differences had a tendency to accumulate, they +might in the course of time result in great structural +modifications. 4. Man has been able to take advantage of this fact +and by careful selection to mould the breeds of domestic animals +to a certain extent in accordance with his own wishes. + +The theory of development assumes that for the care of man other +forces might be substituted, which in a long course of ages might +result in changes of far greater extent than those produced by +human agency. The forces assigned are natural selection and sexual +selection. The difficulties in the way of this hypothesis have +been already considered, and only require to be briefly re-stated. + +1. As regards modifications of organs already existing, the two +alleged causes are insufficient to account for the results which +we witness, since in each individual case the concurrence of many +contingent causes, continued through a long series of ages, is +required to produce the result. But the probabilities against +such, a concurrence in any one case are enormous, and against +their concurrence in a large number of cases the chances are +practically infinite. + +2. That such causes do not at all account for cases in which an +entirely new organ is developed, such as mammary glands--or for +the case of man, in which intellectual superiority is accompanied +by a loss of physical power. + +3. That from the nature of the case it is impossible for us to +ascertain that natural or sexual selection has ever acted to +produce a single modification, however small, and that the results +of man's superintendence have not as yet passed beyond certain +narrow limits, so that there is no justification for the +assumption that such modifications are capable of being carried to +an unlimited extent. + +We see that in the only case in which change is known to have been +brought about, it has been the result of choice and design. If +then there is a probability that choice and design may have been +exercised by a power higher than man, there is no longer any +reason to doubt but that results much greater than any to which +man can attain may have been brought about by the same means. And +in fact the advocates of the theory of development do virtually +admit the existence and action of such a power, whenever they have +recourse to assumed "laws" to account for phenomena for which +their naked theory can give no reason. For, as has been shown, +law, if it is to be assigned as an efficient cause, and not merely +as the statement of observed facts, can only be regarded as the +expressed and enforced will of a higher power. And there was no +reason why those minute variations themselves, which are the basis +of Mr. Darwin's hypothesis, should be considered casual. Instead +then of natural selection, or sexual selection, let us suppose +that the selection took place under the superintending care of the +Creator, and was directed towards the carrying out of His designs, +and then we shall have no reason to doubt but that all results +which consisted only in the modification of existing organs may +have been obtained by the operation of those laws which we term +natural, because they express modes of operation with which we are +so familiar that we look upon them as automatic. + +But there are other results for which no natural laws with which +we are acquainted will thus account. Just as no mechanical laws +within our knowledge will account for the rotation of the earth, +so no physiological laws yet discovered will account for the +changes when totally new orders of being came on the stage--when +the course of life took, as it were, a new point of departure. But +it is precisely at these points that the Mosaic Record points to a +special interference on the part of the Creator. How that +interference took place we are not informed. Very possibly it may +have been the result of other laws which lie wholly out of the +reach of our powers of observation. But whatever may have been its +character, it does not in any way imply change or defect in the +original plan, unless we know, (what we do not know, and cannot +ascertain) that such interference formed no part of the original +design. Everything bears the marks of progressive development, and +there is nothing improbable, but rather the reverse, in the +supposition that such a plan should include special steps of +advance to be made when the preparation for them was completed. + +The Mosaic Record tells us nothing about the method by which God +created the different varieties of plants and animals. All that we +read there is just as applicable to a process of evolution, as to +any other method which we may be able to imagine. But it is +remarkable that what Moses does say is just what is required to +make Mr. Darwin's theory possible. So far then as the lower orders +of creation are concerned, the hypothesis of development, modified +by the admission of uniform superintendence and occasional special +interferences on the part of the Creator, may be accepted as being +the most satisfactory explanation that can be given, in the +present state of physiological science, of the Scriptural +Narrative. + +But we have yet to consider this hypothesis as applied to man in +Mr. Darwin's latest work. We naturally recoil from the thought +that we have sprung from some lower race of animals--that we are +only the descendants of some race of anthropoid apes. So long as +it is asserted that we are no more than this, we may well be +reluctant to admit the suggestion. But if it be admitted that to a +physical nature formed like the bodies of the lower animals, a +special spiritual gift may have been superadded, the difficulty +vanishes. All Mr. Darwin's arguments with reference to physical +resemblances may then be admitted, and we may allow that he has +given a probable explanation of the method by which "the Lord God +formed the Adam, dust from the ground" while we maintain that the +intellectual and moral faculties of man are derived from a source +which lies beyond the investigations of science. + +The conclusions to be drawn from this investigation may be briefly +summed up as follows:-- + +1. There is every reason to conclude that the process of Creation +was carried on, in great part, under the operation of the system +of natural laws which we still see acting in the world around us: +such laws being so far as we are concerned only an expression of +an observed uniformity in the action of that Being by whom the +Universe was created and is upheld. + +2. That inasmuch as the development of a new state of things +differs from the maintenance of a condition already existing, the +working of these laws was necessarily from time to time +supplemented by special interferences of the Creator, but that +such interferences formed parts of the original design, and are +not indications of anything in the shape of change or failure. + +3. That many of the events recorded in the Mosaic Record are of +the nature of such special interferences, while others point to +remarkable developments of particular forms of organic life. + +4. That these interferences thus recorded occur at the exact +points at which natural laws, so far as science has yet been able +to ascertain them, are inadequate to produce the phenomena which +then took place, and that the developments are proved by geology +to have taken place at the points indicated. + +5. That the six days into which the work is divided by Moses do +correspond to the probable order of development--that in three of +them, the third, fifth, and sixth, this correspondence is marked +by facts ascertained by Geology--that the fourth, in which no +terrestrial phenomenon is recorded, corresponds to a very long +period in the Geological record in which no indications of any new +development are found--while the first and second indicate a state +of things which the nebular hypothesis renders highly probable, +but of which no positive information is within the reach of +science. + +Admitting then that there is something in the way in which the +days are spoken of which we are at present unable to understand, +we may yet confidently assert that such a record could not have +been the product of man's thought at the period at which it was +written. It is utterly impossible that it should have been the +result of a series of fortunate conjectures without any foundation +to rest upon, and scientific foundation there was none, for there +is every reason to believe that the sciences which might perchance +now supply some foundation are entirely the growth of the last +three centuries. There is then only one conclusion that we can +draw, that it is a revelation from the Creator Himself, and that +if there is anything in it which seems inexplicable or erroneous, +that appearance arises from our own ignorance of facts, and not +from any error on the part of the Author. +The Project Gutenberg Etext of The Story of Creation as told by Theology and by Science +by T. S. Ackland +******This file should be named tscts10.txt or tscts10.zip****** + +Corrected EDITIONS of our etexts get a new NUMBER, tscts11.txt +VERSIONS based on separate sources get new LETTER, tscts10a.txt + +Robert Rowe, Charles Franks and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team. + +*** + +More information about this book is at the top of this file. + + +We are now trying to release all our eBooks one year in advance +of the official release dates, leaving time for better editing. +Please be encouraged to tell us about any error or corrections, +even years after the official publication date. + +Please note neither this listing nor its contents are final til +midnight of the last day of the month of any such announcement. +The official release date of all Project Gutenberg eBooks is at +Midnight, Central Time, of the last day of the stated month. A +preliminary version may often be posted for suggestion, comment +and editing by those who wish to do so. + +Most people start at our Web sites at: +https://gutenberg.org or +http://promo.net/pg + +These Web sites include award-winning information about Project +Gutenberg, including how to donate, how to help produce our new +eBooks, and how to subscribe to our email newsletter (free!). + + +Those of you who want to download any eBook before announcement +can get to them as follows, and just download by date. This is +also a good way to get them instantly upon announcement, as the +indexes our cataloguers produce obviously take a while after an +announcement goes out in the Project Gutenberg Newsletter. + +http://www.ibiblio.org/gutenberg/eBook03 or +ftp://ftp.ibiblio.org/pub/docs/books/gutenberg/eBook03 + +Or /eBook02, 01, 00, 99, 98, 97, 96, 95, 94, 93, 92, 92, 91 or 90 + +Just search by the first five letters of the filename you want, +as it appears in our Newsletters. + + +Information about Project Gutenberg (one page) + +We produce about two million dollars for each hour we work. The +time it takes us, a rather conservative estimate, is fifty hours +to get any eBook selected, entered, proofread, edited, copyright +searched and analyzed, the copyright letters written, etc. Our +projected audience is one hundred million readers. If the value +per text is nominally estimated at one dollar then we produce $2 +million dollars per hour in 2002 as we release over 100 new text +files per month: 1240 more eBooks in 2001 for a total of 4000+ +We are already on our way to trying for 2000 more eBooks in 2002 +If they reach just 1-2% of the world's population then the total +will reach over half a trillion eBooks given away by year's end. + +The Goal of Project Gutenberg is to Give Away 1 Trillion eBooks! +This is ten thousand titles each to one hundred million readers, +which is only about 4% of the present number of computer users. + +Here is the briefest record of our progress (* means estimated): + +eBooks Year Month + + 1 1971 July + 10 1991 January + 100 1994 January + 1000 1997 August + 1500 1998 October + 2000 1999 December + 2500 2000 December + 3000 2001 November + 4000 2001 October/November + 6000 2002 December* + 9000 2003 November* +10000 2004 January* + + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation has been created +to secure a future for Project Gutenberg into the next millennium. + +We need your donations more than ever! + +As of February, 2002, contributions are being solicited from people +and organizations in: Alabama, Alaska, Arkansas, Connecticut, +Delaware, District of Columbia, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Illinois, +Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Massachusetts, +Michigan, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New +Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, +Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, South +Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, West +Virginia, Wisconsin, and Wyoming. + +We have filed in all 50 states now, but these are the only ones +that have responded. + +As the requirements for other states are met, additions to this list +will be made and fund raising will begin in the additional states. +Please feel free to ask to check the status of your state. + +In answer to various questions we have received on this: + +We are constantly working on finishing the paperwork to legally +request donations in all 50 states. If your state is not listed and +you would like to know if we have added it since the list you have, +just ask. + +While we cannot solicit donations from people in states where we are +not yet registered, we know of no prohibition against accepting +donations from donors in these states who approach us with an offer to +donate. + +International donations are accepted, but we don't know ANYTHING about +how to make them tax-deductible, or even if they CAN be made +deductible, and don't have the staff to handle it even if there are +ways. + +The most recent list of states, along with all methods for donations +(including credit card donations and international donations), may be +found online at https://www.gutenberg.org/donation.html + +Donations by check or money order may be sent to: + +Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +PMB 113 +1739 University Ave. +Oxford, MS 38655-4109 + +Contact us if you want to arrange for a wire transfer or payment +method other than by check or money order. + + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation has been approved by +the US Internal Revenue Service as a 501(c)(3) organization with EIN +[Employee Identification Number] 64-622154. Donations are +tax-deductible to the maximum extent permitted by law. As fund-raising +requirements for other states are met, additions to this list will be +made and fund-raising will begin in the additional states. + +We need your donations more than ever! + +You can get up to date donation information at: + +https://www.gutenberg.org/donation.html + + +*** + +If you can't reach Project Gutenberg, +you can always email directly to: + +Michael S. Hart <hart@pobox.com> + +Prof. Hart will answer or forward your message. + +We would prefer to send you information by email. + + +**The Legal Small Print** + + +(Three Pages) + +***START**THE SMALL PRINT!**FOR PUBLIC DOMAIN EBOOKS**START*** +Why is this "Small Print!" statement here? You know: lawyers. +They tell us you might sue us if there is something wrong with +your copy of this eBook, even if you got it for free from +someone other than us, and even if what's wrong is not our +fault. So, among other things, this "Small Print!" statement +disclaims most of our liability to you. It also tells you how +you may distribute copies of this eBook if you want to. + +*BEFORE!* YOU USE OR READ THIS EBOOK +By using or reading any part of this PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm +eBook, you indicate that you understand, agree to and accept +this "Small Print!" statement. If you do not, you can receive +a refund of the money (if any) you paid for this eBook by +sending a request within 30 days of receiving it to the person +you got it from. If you received this eBook on a physical +medium (such as a disk), you must return it with your request. + +ABOUT PROJECT GUTENBERG-TM EBOOKS +This PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm eBook, like most PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm eBooks, +is a "public domain" work distributed by Professor Michael S. Hart +through the Project Gutenberg Association (the "Project"). +Among other things, this means that no one owns a United States copyright +on or for this work, so the Project (and you!) can copy and +distribute it in the United States without permission and +without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, set forth +below, apply if you wish to copy and distribute this eBook +under the "PROJECT GUTENBERG" trademark. + +Please do not use the "PROJECT GUTENBERG" trademark to market +any commercial products without permission. + +To create these eBooks, the Project expends considerable +efforts to identify, transcribe and proofread public domain +works. Despite these efforts, the Project's eBooks and any +medium they may be on may contain "Defects". Among other +things, Defects may take the form of incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other +intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged +disk or other eBook medium, a computer virus, or computer +codes that damage or cannot be read by your equipment. + +LIMITED WARRANTY; DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES +But for the "Right of Replacement or Refund" described below, +[1] Michael Hart and the Foundation (and any other party you may +receive this eBook from as a PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm eBook) disclaims +all liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including +legal fees, and [2] YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE OR +UNDER STRICT LIABILITY, OR FOR BREACH OF WARRANTY OR CONTRACT, +INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE +OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES, EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE +POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES. + +If you discover a Defect in this eBook within 90 days of +receiving it, you can receive a refund of the money (if any) +you paid for it by sending an explanatory note within that +time to the person you received it from. If you received it +on a physical medium, you must return it with your note, and +such person may choose to alternatively give you a replacement +copy. If you received it electronically, such person may +choose to alternatively give you a second opportunity to +receive it electronically. + +THIS EBOOK IS OTHERWISE PROVIDED TO YOU "AS-IS". NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, ARE MADE TO YOU AS +TO THE EBOOK OR ANY MEDIUM IT MAY BE ON, INCLUDING BUT NOT +LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A +PARTICULAR PURPOSE. + +Some states do not allow disclaimers of implied warranties or +the exclusion or limitation of consequential damages, so the +above disclaimers and exclusions may not apply to you, and you +may have other legal rights. + +INDEMNITY +You will indemnify and hold Michael Hart, the Foundation, +and its trustees and agents, and any volunteers associated +with the production and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm +texts harmless, from all liability, cost and expense, including +legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of the +following that you do or cause: [1] distribution of this eBook, +[2] alteration, modification, or addition to the eBook, +or [3] any Defect. + +DISTRIBUTION UNDER "PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm" +You may distribute copies of this eBook electronically, or by +disk, book or any other medium if you either delete this +"Small Print!" and all other references to Project Gutenberg, +or: + +[1] Only give exact copies of it. Among other things, this + requires that you do not remove, alter or modify the + eBook or this "small print!" statement. You may however, + if you wish, distribute this eBook in machine readable + binary, compressed, mark-up, or proprietary form, + including any form resulting from conversion by word + processing or hypertext software, but only so long as + *EITHER*: + + [*] The eBook, when displayed, is clearly readable, and + does *not* contain characters other than those + intended by the author of the work, although tilde + (~), asterisk (*) and underline (_) characters may + be used to convey punctuation intended by the + author, and additional characters may be used to + indicate hypertext links; OR + + [*] The eBook may be readily converted by the reader at + no expense into plain ASCII, EBCDIC or equivalent + form by the program that displays the eBook (as is + the case, for instance, with most word processors); + OR + + [*] You provide, or agree to also provide on request at + no additional cost, fee or expense, a copy of the + eBook in its original plain ASCII form (or in EBCDIC + or other equivalent proprietary form). + +[2] Honor the eBook refund and replacement provisions of this + "Small Print!" statement. + +[3] Pay a trademark license fee to the Foundation of 20% of the + gross profits you derive calculated using the method you + already use to calculate your applicable taxes. If you + don't derive profits, no royalty is due. Royalties are + payable to "Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation" + the 60 days following each date you prepare (or were + legally required to prepare) your annual (or equivalent + periodic) tax return. Please contact us beforehand to + let us know your plans and to work out the details. + +WHAT IF YOU *WANT* TO SEND MONEY EVEN IF YOU DON'T HAVE TO? +Project Gutenberg is dedicated to increasing the number of +public domain and licensed works that can be freely distributed +in machine readable form. + +The Project gratefully accepts contributions of money, time, +public domain materials, or royalty free copyright licenses. +Money should be paid to the: +"Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +If you are interested in contributing scanning equipment or +software or other items, please contact Michael Hart at: +hart@pobox.com + +[Portions of this header are copyright (C) 2001 by Michael S. Hart +and may be reprinted only when these eBooks are free of all fees.] +[Project Gutenberg is a TradeMark and may not be used in any sales +of Project Gutenberg eBooks or other materials be they hardware or +software or any other related product without express permission.] + +*END THE SMALL PRINT! FOR PUBLIC DOMAIN EBOOKS*Ver.02/11/02*END* + + + +End of The Project Gutenberg Etext of The Story of Creation as told by Theology and by Science +by T. S. Ackland + diff --git a/old/4598.zip b/old/4598.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..2e24a5b --- /dev/null +++ b/old/4598.zip |