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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/4861.txt b/4861.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..27f0dcc --- /dev/null +++ b/4861.txt @@ -0,0 +1,1669 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook History of United Netherlands, 1590(a) +#61 in our series by John Lothrop Motley + +Copyright laws are changing all over the world. Be sure to check the +copyright laws for your country before downloading or redistributing +this or any other Project Gutenberg eBook. + +This header should be the first thing seen when viewing this Project +Gutenberg file. Please do not remove it. Do not change or edit the +header without written permission. + +Please read the "legal small print," and other information about the +eBook and Project Gutenberg at the bottom of this file. Included is +important information about your specific rights and restrictions in +how the file may be used. You can also find out about how to make a +donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**EBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*****These EBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers***** + + +Title: History of the United Netherlands, 1590(a) + +Author: John Lothrop Motley + +Release Date: January, 2004 [EBook #4861] +[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule] +[This file was first posted on April 9, 2002] + +Edition: 10 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + + + + + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY UNITED NETHERLANDS, 1590(a) *** + + + +This eBook was produced by David Widger + + + +[NOTE: There is a short list of bookmarks, or pointers, at the end of the +file for those who may wish to sample the author's ideas before making an +entire meal of them. D.W.] + + + + + +HISTORY OF THE UNITED NETHERLANDS +From the Death of William the Silent to the Twelve Year's Truce--1609 + +By John Lothrop Motley + + + +MOTLEY'S HISTORY OF THE NETHERLANDS, Project Gutenberg Edition, Vol. 61 + +History of the United Netherlands, 1590(a) + + +CHAPTER XXI. + + Effect of the Assassination of Henry III.--Concentration of forces + for the invasion of France--The Netherlands determine on striking a + blow for freedom--Organization of a Dutch army--Stratagem to + surprise the castle of Breda--Intrepidity and success of the + enterprise. + +The dagger of Jacques Clement had done much, and was likely to do +more, to change the face of Europe. Another proof was afforded that +assassination had become a regular and recognised factor in the political +problems of the sixteenth century. Another illustration was exhibited of +the importance of the individual--even although that individual was in +himself utterly despicable--to the working out of great historical +results. It seemed that the murder of Henry III.--that forlorn +caricature of kingship and of manhood--was likely to prove eminently +beneficial to the cause of the Netherland commonwealth. Five years +earlier, the murder of William the Silent had seemed to threaten its +very existence. + +For Philip the Prudent, now that France was deprived of a head, conceived +that the time had arrived when he might himself assume the sovereignty of +that kingdom. While a thing of straw, under the name of Charles X. and +shape of a Cardinal Bourbon, was set up to do battle with that living +sovereign and soldier, the heretic Bearnese, the Duke of Parma was +privately ordered to bend all his energies towards the conquest of the +realm in dispute, under pretence of assisting the Holy League. + +Accordingly, early in the year 1590, Alexander concentrated a +considerable force on the French frontier in Artois and Hainault, +apparently threatening Bergen-op-Zoom and other cities in South Holland, +but in reality preparing to invade France. The Duke of Mayenne, who had +assumed the title of lieutenant-general of that kingdom, had already +visited him at Brussels in order to arrange the plan of the campaign. + +While these measures were in preparation, an opportunity was likely to be +afforded to the Netherlanders of striking a blow or two for liberty and +independence; now that all the force that possibly could be spared was to +be withdrawn by their oppressors and to be used for the subjugation of +their neighbours. The question was whether there would be a statesman +and a soldier ready to make use of this golden opportunity. + +There was a statesman ripe and able who, since the death of the Taciturn, +had been growing steadily in the estimation of his countrymen and who +already was paramount in the councils of the States-General. There was a +soldier, still very young, who was possessed of the strongest hereditary +claims to the confidence and affection of the United Provinces and who +had been passing a studious youth in making himself worthy of his father +and his country. Fortunately, too, the statesman and the soldier were +working most harmoniously together. John of Olden-Barneveld, with his +great experience and vast and steady intellect, stood side by side with +young Maurice of Nassau at this important crisis in the history of the +new commonwealth. + +At length the twig was becoming the tree--'tandem fit surculus arbor'-- +according to the device assumed by the son of William the Silent after +his father's death. + +The Netherlands had sore need of a practical soldier to contend with the +scientific and professional tyrants against whom they had so long been +struggling, and Maurice, although so young, was pre-eminently a practical +man. He was no enthusiast; he was no poet. He was at that period +certainly no politician. Not often at the age of twenty has a man +devoted himself for years to pure mathematics for the purpose of saving +his country. Yet this was Maurice's scheme. Four years long and more, +when most other youths in his position and at that epoch would have been +alternating between frivolous pleasures and brilliant exploits in the +field, the young prince had spent laborious days and nights with the +learned Simon Stevinus of Bruges. The scientific work which they +composed in common, the credit of which the master assigned to the pupil, +might have been more justly attributed perhaps to the professor than to +the prince, but it is certain that Maurice was an apt scholar. + +In that country, ever held in existence by main human force against the +elements, the arts of engineering, hydrostatics and kindred branches were +of necessity much cultivated. It was reserved for the young +mathematician to make them as potent against a human foe. + +Moreover, there were symptoms that the military discipline, learning and +practical skill, which had almost made Spain the mistress of the world, +were sinking into decay. Farnese, although still in the prime of life, +was broken in health, and there seemed no one fit to take the place of +himself and his lieutenants when they should be removed from the scene +where they had played. their parts so consummately. The army of the +Netherlands was still to be created. Thus far the contest had been +mainly carried on by domestic militia and foreign volunteers or +hirelings. The train-bands of the cities were aided in their struggles +against Spanish pikemen and artillerists, Italian and Albanian cavalry by +the German riders, whom every little potentate was anxious to sell to +either combatant according to the highest bid, and by English +mercenaries, whom the love of adventure or the hope of plunder sent forth +under such well-seasoned captains as Williams and Morgan, Vere and the +Norrises, Baskerville and Willoughby. + +But a Dutch army there was none and Maurice had determined that at last +a national force should be created. In this enterprise he was aided and +guided by his cousin Lewis William, Stadtholder of Friesland--the quaint, +rugged little hero, young in years but almost a veteran in the wars of +freedom, who was as genial and intellectual in council as he was reckless +and impulsive in the field. + +Lewis William had felt that the old military art was dying out and that-- +there was nothing to take its place. He was a diligent student of +antiquity. He had revived in the swamps of Friesland the old manoeuvres, +the quickness of wheeling, the strengthening, without breaking ranks or +columns, by which the ancient Romans had performed so much excellent work +in their day, and which seemed to have passed entirely into oblivion. +Old colonels and rittmasters, who had never heard of Leo the Thracian nor +the Macedonian phalanx, smiled and shrugged their shoulders, as they +listened to the questions of the young count, or gazed with profound +astonishment at the eccentric evolutions to which he was accustoming his +troops. From the heights of superior wisdom they looked down with pity +upon these innovations on the good old battle order. They were +accustomed to great solid squares of troops wheeling in one way, +steadily, deliberately, all together, by one impulse and as one man. +It was true that in narrow fields, and when the enemy was pressing, such +stately evolutions often became impossible or ensured defeat; but when +the little Stadtholder drilled his soldiers in small bodies of various +shapes, teaching them to turn, advance; retreat; wheel in a variety of +ways, sometimes in considerable masses, sometimes man by man, sending the +foremost suddenly to the rear, or bringing the hindmost ranks to the +front, and began to attempt all this in narrow fields as well as in wide +ones, and when the enemy was in sight, men stood aghast at his want of +reverence, or laughed at him as a pedant. But there came a day when they +did not laugh, neither friends nor enemies. Meantime the two cousins, +who directed all the military operations in the provinces, understood +each other thoroughly and proceeded to perfect their new system, to be +adopted at a later period by all civilized nations. + +The regular army of the Netherlands was small in number at that moment-- +not more than twenty thousand foot with two thousand horse--but it was +well disciplined, well equipped, and, what was of great importance, +regularly paid. Old campaigners complained that in the halcyon days of +paper enrolments, a captain could earn more out of his company than a +colonel now received for his whole regiment. The days when a thousand +men were paid for, with a couple of hundred in the field, were passing +away for the United Provinces and existed only for Italians and +Spaniards. While, therefore, mutiny on an organised and extensive scale +seemed almost the normal condition of the unpaid legions of Philip, the +little army of Maurice was becoming the model for Europe to imitate. + +The United Provinces were as yet very far from being masters of their own +territory. Many of their most important cities still held for the king. +In Brabant, such towns as Breda with its many dependencies and +Gertruydenberg; on the Waal, the strong and wealthy Nymegen which Martin +Schenk had perished in attempting to surprise; on the Yssel, the thriving +city of Zutphen, whose fort had been surrendered by the traitor York, and +the stately Deventer, which had been placed in Philip's possession by the +treachery of Sir William Stanley; on the borders of Drenthe, the almost +impregnable Koevorden, key to the whole Zwollian country; and in the very +heart of ancient Netherland, Groningen, capital of the province of the +same name, which the treason of Renneberg had sold to the Spanish tyrant; +all these flourishing cities and indispensable strongholds were +garrisoned by foreign troops, making the idea of Dutch independence +a delusion. + +While Alexander of Parma, sorely against his will and in obedience to +what, he deemed the insane suggestions of his master, was turning his +back on the Netherlands in order to relieve Paris, now hard pressed +by the Bearnese, an opportunity offered itself of making at least a +beginning in the great enterprise of recovering these most valuable +possessions. + +The fair and pleasant city of Breda lies on the Merk, a slender stream, +navigable for small vessels, which finds its way to the sea through the +great canal of the Dintel. It had been the property of the Princes of +Orange, Barons of Breda, and had passed with the other possessions of +the family to the house of Chalons-Nassau. Henry of Nassau had, half a +century before, adorned and strengthened it by a splendid palace-fortress +which, surrounded by a deep and double moat, thoroughly commanded the +town. A garrison of five companies of Italian infantry and one of +cavalry lay in this castle, which was under the command of Edward +Lanzavecchia, governor both of Breda and of the neighbouring +Gertruydenberg. + +Breda was an important strategical position. It was moreover the feudal +superior of a large number of adjacent villages as well as of the cities +Osterhout, Steenberg and Rosendaal. It was obviously not more desirable +for Maurice of Nassau to recover his patrimonial city than it was for the +States-General to drive the Spaniards from so important a position! + +In the month of February, 1590, Maurice, being then at the castle of +Voorn in Zeeland, received a secret visit from a boatman, Adrian van der +Berg by name, who lived at the village of Leur, eight or ten miles from +Breda, and who had long been in the habit of supplying the castle with +turf. In the absence of woods and coal mines, the habitual fuel of the +country was furnished by those vast relics of the antediluvian forests +which abounded in the still partially submerged soil. The skipper +represented that his vessel had passed so often into and out of the +castle as to be hardly liable to search by the guard on its entrance. +He suggested a stratagem by which it might be possible to surprise the +stronghold. + +The prince approved of the scheme and immediately consulted with +Barneveld. That statesman at once proposed, as a suitable man to +carry out the daring venture, Captain Charles de Heraugiere, a nobleman +of Cambray, who had been long in the service of the States, had +distinguished himself at Sluys and on other occasions, but who had been +implicated in Leicester's nefarious plot to gain possession of the city +of Leyden a few years before. The Advocate expressed confidence that he +would be grateful for so signal an opportunity of retrieving a somewhat +damaged reputation. Heraugiere, who was with his company in Voorn at the +moment, eagerly signified his desire to attempt the enterprise as soon as +the matter was communicated to him; avowing the deepest devotion to the +house of William the Silent and perfect willingness to sacrifice his +life, if necessary, in its cause and that of the country. Philip Nassau, +cousin of Prince Maurice and brother of Lewis William, governor of +Gorcum, Dorcum, and Lowenstein Castle and colonel of a regiment of +cavalry, was also taken into the secret, as well as Count Hohenlo, +President Van der Myle and a few others; but a mystery was carefully +spread and maintained over the undertaking. + +Heraugiere selected sixty-eight men, on whose personal daring and +patience he knew that he could rely, from the regiments of Philip Nassau +and of Famars, governor of the neighbouring city of Heusden, and from his +own company. Besides himself, the officers to command the party were +captains Logier and Fervet, and lieutenant Matthew Held. The names of +such devoted soldiers deserve to be commemorated and are still freshly +remembered by their countrymen. + +On the 25th of February, Maurice and his staff went to Willemstad on the +Isle of Klundert, it having been given out on his departure from the +Hague that his destination was Dort. On the same night at about eleven +o'clock, by the feeble light of a waning moon, Heraugiere and his band +came to the Swertsenburg ferry, as agreed upon, to meet the boatman. +They found neither him nor his vessel, and they wandered about half the +night, very cold, very indignant, much perplexed. At last, on their way +back, they came upon the skipper at the village of Terheyde, who made the +extraordinary excuse that he had overslept himself and that he feared the +plot had been discovered. It being too late to make any attempt that +night, a meeting was arranged for the following evening. No suspicion of +treachery occurred to any of the party, although it became obvious that +the skipper had grown faint-hearted. He did not come on the next night +to the appointed place but he sent two nephews, boatmen like himself, +whom he described as dare-devils. + +On Monday night, the 26th of February, the seventy went on board the +vessel, which was apparently filled with blocks of turf, and packed +themselves closely in the hold. They moved slowly during a little time +on their perilous voyage; for the winter wind, thick with fog and sleet, +blew directly down the river, bringing along with it huge blocks of ice +and scooping the water out of the dangerous shallows, so as to render the +vessel at any moment liable to be stranded. At last the navigation +became impossible and they came to a standstill. From Monday night till +Thursday morning those seventy Hollanders lay packed like herrings in the +hold of their little vessel, suffering from hunger, thirst, and deadly +cold; yet not one of them attempted to escape or murmured a wish to +abandon the enterprise. Even when the third morning dawned there was no +better prospect of proceeding; for the remorseless east wind still blew a +gale against them, and the shoals which beset their path had become more +dangerous than ever. It was, however, absolutely necessary to recruit +exhausted nature, unless the adventurers were to drop powerless on the +threshold when they should at last arrive at their destination. In all +secrecy they went ashore at a lonely castle called Nordam, where they +remained to refresh themselves until about eleven at night, when one of +the boatmen came to them with the intelligence that the wind had changed +and was now blowing freshly in from the sea. Yet the voyage of a few +leagues, on which they were embarked, lasted nearly two whole days +longer. On Saturday afternoon they passed through the last sluice, and +at about three o'clock the last boom was shut behind them. There was no +retreat possible for them now. The seventy were to take the strong +castle and city of Breda or to lay down their lives, every man of them. +No quarter and short shrift--such was their certain destiny, should that +half-crippled, half-frozen little band not succeed in their task before +another sunrise. + +They were now in the outer harbour and not far from the Watergate which +led into the inner castle-haven. Presently an officer of the guard put +off in a skiff and came on board the vessel. He held a little +conversation with the two boatmen, observed that the castle was--much +in want of full, took a survey of the turf with which the ship was +apparently laden, and then lounged into the little cabin. Here he was +only separated by a sliding trap-door from the interior of the vessel. +Those inside could hear and see his every movement. Had there been a +single cough or sneeze from within, the true character of the cargo, +then making its way into the castle, would have been discovered and +every man would within ten minutes have been butchered. But the officer, +unsuspecting, soon took his departure, saying that he would send some men +to warp the vessel into the castle dock. + +Meantime, as the adventurers were making their way slowly towards the +Watergate, they struck upon a hidden obstruction in the river and the +deeply laden vessel sprang a leak. In a few minutes those inside were +sitting up to their knees in water--a circumstance which scarcely +improved their already sufficiently dismal condition. The boatmen +vigorously plied the pumps to save the vessel from sinking outright; +a party of Italian soldiers soon arrived on the shore, and in the course +of a couple of hours they had laboriously dragged the concealed +Hollanders into the inner harbour and made their vessel fast, close to +the guard-house of the castle. + +And now a crowd of all sorts came on board. The winter nights had been +long and fearfully cold, and there was almost a dearth of fuel both in +town and fortress. A gang of labourers set to work discharging the turf +from the vessel with such rapidity that the departing daylight began to +shine in upon the prisoners much sooner than they wished. Moreover, the +thorough wetting, to which after all their other inconveniences they had +just been exposed in their narrow escape from foundering, had set the +whole party sneezing and coughing. Never was a catarrh so sudden, so +universal, or so ill-timed. Lieutenant Held, unable to control the +violence of his cough, drew his dagger and eagerly implored his next +neighbour to stab him to the heart, lest his infirmity should lead to the +discovery of the whole party. But the calm and wary skipper who stood on +the deck instantly commanded his companion to work at the pump with as +much clatter as possible, assuring the persons present that the hold was +nearly full of water. By this means the noise of the coughing was +effectually drowned. Most thoroughly did the bold boatman deserve the +title of dare-devil, bestowed by his more fainthearted uncle. Calmly +looking death in the face, he stood there quite at his ease, exchanging +jokes with his old acquaintances, chaffering with the eager purchasers of +peat shouting most noisy and superfluous orders to the one man who +composed his crew, doing his utmost, in short, to get rid of his +customers and to keep enough of the turf on board to conceal the +conspirators. + +At last, when the case seemed almost desperate, he loudly declared that +sufficient had been unladen for that evening and that it was too dark +and he too tired for further work. So, giving a handful of stivers among +the workmen, he bade them go ashore at once and have some beer and come +next morning for the rest of the cargo. Fortunately, they accepted his +hospitable proposition and took their departure. Only the servant of the +captain of the guard lingered behind, complaining that the turf was not +as good as usual and that his master would never be satisfied with it. + +"Ah!" returned the cool skipper, "the best part of the cargo is +underneath. This is expressly reserved for the captain. He +is sure to get enough of it to-morrow." + +Thus admonished, the servant departed and the boatman was left to +himself. His companion had gone on shore with secret orders to make the +best of his way to Prince Maurice, to inform him of the arrival of the +ship within the fortress, and of the important fact which they had just +learned, that Governor Lanzavecchia, who had heard rumours of some +projected enterprise and who suspected that the object aimed at was +Gertruydenberg, had suddenly taken his departure for that city, leaving +as his lieutenant his nephew Paolo, a raw lad quite incompetent to +provide for the safety of Breda. + +A little before midnight, Captain Heraugiere made a brief address to his +comrades in the vessel, telling them that the hour for carrying out their +undertaking had at length arrived. Retreat was impossible, defeat was +certain death, only in complete victory lay their own safety and a great +advantage for the commonwealth. It was an honor to them to be selected +for such an enterprise. To show cowardice now would be an eternal shame +for them, and he would be the man to strike dead with his own hand any +traitor or poltroon. But if, as he doubted not, every one was prepared +to do his duty, their success was assured, and he was himself ready to +take the lead in confronting every danger. + +He then divided the little band into two companies, one under himself to +attack the main guard-house, the other under Fervet to seize the arsenal +of the fortress. + +Noiselessly they stole out of the ship where they had so long been +confined, and stood at last on the ground within the precincts of the +castle. Heraugiere marched straight to the guard-house. + +"Who goes there?" cried a sentinel, hearing some movement in the +darkness. + +"A friend," replied the captain, seizing him, by the throat, and +commanding him, if he valued his life, to keep silence except when +addressed and then to speak in a whisper. + +"How many are there in the garrison?" muttered Heraugiere. + +"Three hundred and fifty," whispered the sentinel. + +"How many?" eagerly demanded the nearest followers, not hearing the +reply. + +"He says there are but fifty of them," said Heraugiere, prudently +suppressing the three hundred, in order to encourage his comrades. + +Quietly as they had made their approach, there was nevertheless a stir +in the guard-house. The captain of the watch sprang into the courtyard. + +"Who goes there?" he demanded in his turn. + +"A friend," again replied Heraugiere, striking him dead with a single +blow as he spoke. + +Others emerged with torches. Heraugiere was slightly wounded, but +succeeded, after a brief struggle, in killing a second assailant. His +followers set upon the watch who retreated into the guard-house. +Heraugiere commanded his men to fire through the doors and windows, and +in a few minutes every one of the enemy lay dead. + +It was not a moment for making prisoners or speaking of quarter. +Meantime Fervet and his band had not been idle. The magazine-house of +the castle was seized, its defenders slain. Young Lanzavecchia made a +sally from the palace, was wounded and driven back together with a few of +his adherents. + +The rest of the garrison fled helter-skelter into the town. Never had +the musketeers of Italy--for they all belonged to Spinola's famous +Sicilian Legion--behaved so badly. They did not even take the precaution +to destroy the bridge between the castle and the town as they fled panic- +stricken before seventy Hollanders. Instead of encouraging the burghers +to their support they spread dismay, as they ran, through every street. + +Young Lanzavecchia, penned into a corner of the castle; began to parley; +hoping for a rally before a surrender should be necessary. In the midst +of the negotiation and a couple of hours before dawn, Hohenlo; duly +apprised by the boatman, arrived with the vanguard of Maurice's troops +before the field-gate of the fort. A vain attempt was made to force this +portal open, but the winter's ice had fixed it fast. Hohenlo was obliged +to batter down the palisade near the water-gate and enter by the same +road through which the fatal turf-boat had passed. + +Soon after he had marched into the town at the head of a strong +detachment, Prince Maurice himself arrived in great haste, attended by +Philip Nassau, the Admiral Justinus Nassau, Count Solms, Peter van der +Does, and Sir Francis Vere, and followed by another body of picked +troops; the musicians playing merrily that national air, then as now so +dear to Netherlanders-- + + "Wilhelmus van Nassouwen + Ben ick van Duytaem bloed." + +The fight was over. Some forty of the garrison had been killed, but not +a man of the attacking party. The burgomaster sent a trumpet to the +prince asking permission to come to the castle to arrange a capitulation; +and before sunrise, the city and fortress of Breda had surrendered to the +authority of the States-General and of his Excellency. + +The terms were moderate. The plundering was commuted for the payment of +two months' wages to every soldier engaged in the affair. Burghers who +might prefer to leave the city were allowed to do so with protection to +life, and property. Those who were willing to remain loyal citizens were +not to be molested, in their consciences or their households, in regard +to religion. The public exercise of Catholic rites was however suspended +until the States-General should make some universal provision on this +subject. + +Subsequently, it must be allowed, the bargain of commutation proved a bad +one for the burghers. Seventy men had in reality done the whole work, +but so many soldiers, belonging to the detachments who marched in after +the fortress had been taken, came forward to claim their months' wages +as to bring the whole amount required above one hundred thousand florins. +The Spaniards accordingly reproached Prince Maurice with having fined his +own patrimonial city more heavily than Alexander Farnese had mulcted +Antwerp, which had been made to pay but four hundred thousand florins, +a far less sum in proportion to the wealth and importance of the place. + +Already the Prince of Parma, in the taking of Breda, saw verified his +predictions of the disasters about to fall on the Spanish interests in +the Netherlands, by reason of Philip's obstinate determination to +concentrate all his energies on the invasion of France. Alexander had +been unable, in the midst of preparations for his French campaign, to +arrest this sudden capture, but his Italian blood was on fire at the +ignominy which had come upon the soldiership of his countrymen. Five +companies of foot and one of horse-picked troops of Spain and Italy--had +surrendered a wealthy, populous town and a well-fortified castle to a +mud-scow, and had fled shrieking in dismay from the onset of seventy +frost-bitten Hollanders. + +It was too late to save the town, but he could punish, as it deserved, +the pusillanimity of the garrison. + +Three captains--one of them rejoicing in the martial name of Cesar +Guerra--were publicly beheaded in Brussels. A fourth, Ventimiglia, +was degraded but allowed to escape with life, on account of his near +relationship to the Duke of Terranova, while Governor Lanzavecchia was +obliged to resign the command of Gertruydenberg. The great commander +knew better than to encourage the yielding up of cities and fortresses +by a mistaken lenity to their unlucky defenders. + +Prince Maurice sent off letters the same night announcing his success to +the States-General. Hohenlo wrote pithily to Olden-Barneveld--"The +castle and town of Breda are ours, without a single man dead on our side. +The garrison made no resistance but ran distracted out of the town." + +The church bells rang and bonfires blazed and cannon thundered in every +city in the United Provinces to commemorate this auspicious event. +Olden-Barneveld, too, whose part in arranging the scheme was known to +have been so valuable, received from the States-General a magnificent +gilded vase with sculptured representations of the various scenes in the +drama, and it is probable that not more unmingled satisfaction had been +caused by any one event of the war than by this surprise of Breda. + +The capture of a single town, not of first-rate importance either, would +hardly seem too merit so minute a description as has been given in the +preceding pages. But the event, with all its details, has been preserved +with singular vividness in Netherland story. As an example of daring, +patience, and complete success, it has served to encourage the bold +spirits of every generation and will always inspire emulation in +patriotic hearts of every age and clime, while, as the first of a series +of audacious enterprises by which Dutch victories were to take the place +of a long procession of Spanish triumphs on the blood-stained soil of the +provinces, it merits, from its chronological position, a more than +ordinary attention. + +In the course of the summer Prince Maurice, carrying out into practice +the lessons which he had so steadily been pondering, reduced the towns +and strong places of Heyl, Flemert, Elshout, Crevecoeur, Hayden, +Steenberg, Rosendaal, and Osterhout. But his time, during the remainder +of the year 1590, was occupied with preparations for a campaign on an +extended scale and with certain foreign negotiations to which it will +soon be necessary to direct the reader's attention. + + + + +CHAPTER XXII. + + Struggle of the United Provinces against Philip of Spain--Progress + of the Republic--Influence of Geographical position on the fate of + the Netherlands--Contrast offered by America--Miserable state of the + so--called "obedient" provinces--Prosperity of the Commonwealth--Its + internal government--Tendency to provincialism--Quibbles of the + English Members of the Council, Wilkes and Bodley--Exclusion of + Olden-Barneveld from the State Council--Proposals of Philip for + mediation with the United Provinces--The Provinces resolutely + decline all proffers of intervention. + +The United Provinces had now been engaged in unbroken civil war for a +quarter of a century. It is, however, inaccurate to designate this great +struggle with tyranny as a civil war. It was a war for independence, +maintained by almost the whole population of the United Provinces against +a foreigner, a despot, alien to their blood, ignorant of their language, +a hater of their race, a scorner of their religion, a trampler upon their +liberties, their laws, and institutions--a man who had publicly declared +that he would rather the whole nation were exterminated than permitted to +escape from subjection to the Church of Rome. Liberty of speech, liberty +of the press, liberty of thought on political, religious, and social +questions existed within those Dutch pastures and Frisian swamps to a far +greater degree than in any other part of the world at that day; than in +very many regions of Christendom in our own time. Personal slavery was +unknown. In a large portion of their territory it had never existed. +The free Frisians, nearest blood-relations of, in this respect, the less +favoured Anglo-Saxons, had never bowed the knee to the feudal system, nor +worn nor caused to be worn the collar of the serf. In the battles for +human liberty no nation has stood with cleaner hands before the great +tribunal, nor offered more spotless examples of patriotism to be emulated +in all succeeding ages, than the Netherlanders in their gigantic struggle +with Philip of Spain. It was not a class struggling for their own +privileges, but trampling on their fellow-men in a lower scale of +humanity. Kings and aristocrats sneered at the vulgar republic where +Hans Miller, Hans Baker, and Hans Brewer enjoyed political rights end +prated of a sovereignty other than that of long-descended races and of +anointed heads. Yet the pikemen of Spain and the splendid cavalry and +musketeers of Italy and Burgundy, who were now beginning to show their +backs both behind entrenchments and in the open field to their republican +foes, could not deny the valour with which the battles of liberty were +fought; while Elizabeth of England, maintainer, if such ever were, of +hereditary sovereignty and hater of popular freedom, acknowledged that +for wisdom in council, dignity and adroitness in diplomatic debate, there +were none to surpass the plain burgher statesmen of the new republic. + +And at least these Netherlanders were consistent with themselves. They +had come to disbelieve in the mystery of kingcraft, in the divine +speciality of a few transitory mortals to direct the world's events and +to dictate laws to their fellow-creatures. What they achieved was for +the common good of all. They chose to live in an atmosphere of blood and +fire for generation after generation rather than flinch from their +struggle with despotism, for they knew that, cruel as the sea, it would +swallow them all at last in one common destruction if they faltered or +paused. They fought for the liberty of all. And it is for this reason +that the history of this great conflict deserved to be deeply pondered by +those who have the instinct of human freedom. Had the Hollanders basely +sunk before the power of Spain, the proud history of England, France, and +Germany would have been written in far different terms. The blood and +tears which the Netherlanders caused to flow in their own stormy days +have turned to blessings for remotest climes and ages. A pusillanimous +peace, always possible at any period of their war, would have been hailed +with rapture by contemporary statesmen, whose names have vanished from +the world's memory; but would have sown with curses and misery the soil +of Europe for succeeding ages. The territory of the Netherlands is +narrow and meagre. It is but a slender kingdom now among the powers of +the earth. The political grandeur of nations is determined by physical +causes almost as much as by moral ones. Had the cataclysm which +separated the fortunate British islands from the mainland happened to +occur, instead, at a neighbouring point of the earth's crust; had the +Belgian, Dutch, German and Danish Netherland floated off as one island +into the sea, while that famous channel between two great rival nations +remained dry land, there would have been a different history of the +world. + +But in the 16th century the history of one country was not an isolated +chapter of personages and events. The history of the Netherlands is +history of liberty. It was now combined with the English, now with +French, with German struggles for political and religious freedom, but it +is impossible to separate it from the one great complex which makes up +the last half of the sixteenth and the first half of the seventeenth +centuries. + +At that day the Netherland republic was already becoming a power of +importance in the political family of Christendom. If, in spite of her +geographical disadvantages, she achieved so much, how much vaster might +her power have grown, how much stronger through her example might popular +institutions throughout the world have become, and how much more pacific +the relations of European tribes, had nature been less niggard in her +gifts to the young commonwealth. On the sea she was strong, for the +ocean is the best of frontiers; but on land her natural boundaries faded +vaguely away, without strong physical demarcations and with no sharply +defined limits of tongue, history or race. Accident or human caprice +seemed to have divided German Highland from German Netherland; Belgic +Gaul from the rest of the Gallic realm. And even from the slender body, +which an arbitrary destiny had set off for centuries into a separate +organism, tyranny and religious bigotry had just hewn another portion +away. But the commonwealth was already too highly vitalized to permit +peaceful dismemberment. Only the low organisms can live in all their +parts after violent separations. The trunk remained, bleeding but alive +and vigorous, while the amputated portion lay for centuries in fossilized +impotence. + +Never more plainly than in the history of this commonwealth was the +geographical law manifested by which the fate of nations is so deeply +influenced. Courage, enterprise amounting almost to audacity, and a +determined will confronted for a long lapse of time the inexorable, and +permitted a great empire to germinate out of a few sand-banks held in +defiance of the ocean, and protected from human encroachments on the +interior only by the artificial barrier of custom-house and fort. + +Thus foredoomed at birth, it must increase our admiration of human energy +and of the sustaining influence of municipal liberty that the republic, +even if transitory, should yet have girdled the earth with its +possessions and held for a considerable period so vast a portion +of the world in fee. + +What a lesson to our transatlantic commonwealth, whom bountiful nature +had blessed at her birth beyond all the nations of history and seemed to +speed upon an unlimited career of freedom and peaceful prosperity, should +she be capable at the first alarm on her track to throw away her +inestimable advantages! If all history is not a mockery and a fable, +she may be sure that the nation which deliberately carves itself in +pieces and, substitutes artificial boundaries for the natural and +historic ones, condemns itself either to extinction or to the lower life +of political insignificance and petty warfare, with the certain loss of +liberty and national independence at last. Better a terrible struggle, +better the sacrifice of prosperity and happiness for years, than the +eternal setting of that great popular hope, the United American Republic. + +I speak in this digression only of the relations of physical nature to +liberty and nationality, making no allusion to the equally stringent +moral laws which no people can violate and yet remain in health and +vigour. + +Despite a quarter of a century of what is commonly termed civil war, +the United Netherlands were prosperous and full of life. It was in the +provinces which had seceded from the union of Utrecht that there was +silence as of the grave, destitution, slavery, abject submission to a +foreign foe. The leaders in the movement which had brought about the +scission of 1579--commonly called the 'Reconciliation'--enjoyed military +and civil posts under a foreign tyrant, but were poorly rewarded for +subserviency in fighting against their own brethren by contumely on the +part of their masters. As for the mass of the people it would be +difficult to find a desolation more complete than that recorded of the +"obedient" provinces. Even as six years before, wolves littered their +whelps in deserted farmhouses, cane-brake and thicket usurped the place +of cornfield and, orchard, robbers swarmed on the highways once thronged +by a most thriving population, nobles begged their bread in the streets +of cities whose merchants once entertained emperors and whose wealth and +traffic were the wonder of the world, while the Spanish viceroy formally +permitted the land in the agricultural districts to be occupied and +farmed by the first comer for his own benefit, until the vanished +proprietors of the soil should make their re-appearance. + +"Administered without justice or policy," said a Netherlander who was +intensely loyal to the king and a most uncompromising Catholic, "eaten up +and abandoned for that purpose to the arbitrary will of foreigners who +suck the substance and marrow of the land without benefit to the king, +gnaw the obedient cities to the bones, and plunder the open defenceless +country at their pleasure, it may be imagined how much satisfaction these +provinces take in their condition. Commerce and trade have ceased in a +country which traffic alone has peopled, for without it no human +habitation could be more miserable and poor than our land."--[Discours +du Seigneur de Champagny sur les affaires des Pays Bas, 21 Dec. 1589. +Bibl. de Bourgogne, MS. No. 12,962.] + +Nothing could be more gloomy than the evils thus described by the +Netherland statesman and soldier, except the remedy which he suggested. +The obedient provinces, thus scourged and blasted for their obedience, +were not advised to improve their condition by joining hands with their +sister States, who had just constituted themselves by their noble +resistance to royal and ecclesiastical tyranny into a free and powerful +commonwealth. On the contrary, two great sources of regeneration and +prosperity were indicated, but very different ones from those in which +the republic had sought and found her strength. In the first place, it +was suggested as indispensable that the obedient provinces should have +more Jesuits and more Friars. The mendicant orders should be summoned to +renewed exertions, and the king should be requested to send seminary +priests to every village in numbers proportionate to the population, who +should go about from house to house, counting the children, and seeing +that they learned their catechism if their parents did not teach them, +and, even in case they did, examining whether it was done thoroughly and +without deception. + +In the second place it was laid down as important that the bishops should +confirm no one who had not been sufficiently catechized. "And if the +mendicant orders," said Champagny, "are not numerous enough for these +catechizations, the Jesuits might charge themselves therewith, not more +and not less than the said mendicants, some of each being deputed to each +parish. To this end it would be well if his Majesty should obtain from +the Pope a command to the Jesuits to this effect, since otherwise they +might not be willing to comply. It should also be ordered that all +Jesuits, natives of these provinces, should return hither, instead of +wandering about in other regions as if their help were not so necessary +here."--[Ibid.] + +It was also recommended that the mendicant friars should turn their +particular attention to Antwerp, and that one of them should preach in +French, another in German, another in English, every day at the opening +of the Exchange. + +With these appliances it was thought that Antwerp would revive out of +its ruins and, despite the blockade of its river, renew its ancient +commercial glories. Founded on the substantial rocks of mendicancy and +jesuitism, it might again triumph over its rapidly rising rival, the +heretic Amsterdam, which had no better basis for its grandeur than +religious and political liberty, and uncontrolled access to the ocean. + +Such were the aspirations of a distinguished and loyal Netherlander for +the regeneration of his country. Such were his opinions as to the true +sources of the wealth and greatness of nations. Can we wonder that the +country fell to decay, or that this experienced, statesman and brave +soldier should himself, after not many years, seek to hide his +dishonoured head under the cowl of a monk? + +The coast of the obedient provinces was thoroughly blockaded. The United +Provinces commanded the sea, their cruisers, large and small, keeping +diligent watch off every port and estuary of the Flemish coast, so that +not a herringboat could enter without their permission. Antwerp, when it +fell into the hands of the Spaniard, sank for ever from its proud +position. The city which Venetians but lately had confessed with a sigh +to be superior in commercial grandeur to their own magnificent capital, +had ceased to be a seaport. Shut in from the ocean by Flushing--firmly +held by an English garrison as one of the cautionary towns for the +Queen's loan--her world-wide commerce withered before men's eyes. Her +population was dwindling to not much more than half its former numbers, +while Ghent, Bruges, and other cities were diminished by two-thirds. + +On the other hand, the commerce and manufactures of the United Republic +had enormously augmented. Its bitterest enemies bore witness to the +sagacity and success by which its political affairs were administered, +and to its vast superiority in this respect over the obedient provinces. +"The rebels are not ignorant of our condition," said Champagny, "they are +themselves governed with consummate wisdom, and they mock at those who +submit themselves to the Duke of Parma. They are the more confirmed in +their rebellion, when they see how many are thronging from us to them, +complaining of such bad government, and that all take refuge in flight +who can from the misery and famine which it has caused throughout these +provinces!" The industrial population had flowed from the southern +provinces into the north, in obedience to an irresistible law. The +workers in iron, paper, silk, linen, lace, the makers of brocade, +tapestry, and satin, as well as of all the coarser fabrics, had fled from +the land of oppression to the land of liberty. Never in the history of +civilisation had there been a more rapid development of human industry +than in Holland during these years of bloodiest warfare. The towns were +filled to overflowing. Amsterdam multiplied in wealth and population as +fast as Antwerp shrank. Almost as much might be said of Middelburg, +Enkhuyzen, Horn, and many other cities. It is the epoch to which the +greatest expansion of municipal architecture is traced. Warehouses, +palaces, docks, arsenals, fortifications, dykes, splendid streets and +suburbs, were constructed on every side, and still there was not room for +the constantly increasing population, large numbers of which habitually +dwelt in the shipping. For even of that narrow span of earth called the +province of Holland, one-third was then interior water, divided into five +considerable lakes, those of Harlem, Schermer, Beemster, Waert, and +Purmer. The sea was kept out by a magnificent system of dykes under +the daily superintendence of a board of officers, called dyke-graves, +while the rain-water, which might otherwise have drowned the soil thus +painfully reclaimed, was pumped up by windmills and drained off through +sluices opening and closing with the movement of the tides. + +The province of Zeeland was one vast "polder." It was encircled by an +outer dyke of forty Dutch equal to one hundred and fifty English, miles +in extent, and traversed by many interior barriers. The average cost of +dyke-building was sixty florins the rod of twelve feet, or 84,000 florins +the Dutch mile. The total cost of the Zeeland dykes was estimated at +3,360,000 florins, besides the annual repairs. + +But it was on the sea that the Netherlanders were really at home, and +they always felt it in their power--as their last resource against +foreign tyranny--to bury their land for ever in the ocean, and to seek a +new country at the ends of the earth. It has always been difficult to +doom to political or personal slavery a nation accustomed to maritime +pursuits. Familiarity with the boundless expanse of ocean, and the habit +of victoriously contending with the elements in their stormy strength, +would seem to inspire a consciousness in mankind of human dignity and +worth. With the exception of Spain, the chief seafaring nations of the +world were already protestant. The counter-league, which was to do +battle so strenuously with the Holy Confederacy, was essentially a +maritime league. "All the maritime heretics of the world, since heresy +is best suited to navigators, will be banded together," said Champagny, +"and then woe to the Spanish Indies, which England and Holland are +already threatening." + +The Netherlanders had been noted from earliest times for a free-spoken +and independent personal demeanour. At this epoch they were taking the +lead of the whole world in marine adventure. At least three thousand +vessels of between one hundred and four hundred tons, besides innumerable +doggers, busses, cromstevens, and similar craft used on the rivers and in +fisheries, were to be found in the United Provinces, and one thousand, +it was estimated, were annually built. + +They traded to the Baltic regions for honey, wax, tallow, lumber, iron, +turpentine, hemp. They brought from farthest Indies and from America all +the fabrics of ancient civilisation, all the newly discovered products of +a virgin soil, and dispensed them among the less industrious nations of +the earth. Enterprise, led on and accompanied by science, was already +planning the boldest flights into the unknown yet made by mankind, and +it will soon be necessary to direct attention to those famous arctic +voyages, made by Hollanders in pursuit of the north-west passage to +Cathay, in which as much heroism, audacity, and scientific intelligence +were displayed as in later times have made so many men belonging to both +branches of the Anglo-Saxon race illustrious. A people, engaged in +perennial conflict with a martial and sacerdotal despotism the most +powerful in the world, could yet spare enough from its superfluous +energies to confront the dangers of the polar oceans, and to bring back +treasures of science to enrich the world. + +Such was the spirit of freedom. Inspired by its blessed influence this +vigorous and inventive little commonwealth triumphed over all human, all +physical obstacles in its path. It organised armies on new principles +to drive the most famous legions of history from its soil. It built +navies to help rescue, at critical moments, the cause of England, of +Protestantism, of civil liberty, and even of French nationality. More +than all, by its trade with its arch-enemy, the republic constantly +multiplied its resources for destroying his power and aggrandizing its +own. + +The war navy of the United Provinces was a regular force of one hundred +ships--large at a period when a vessel of thirteen hundred tons was a +monster--together with an indefinite number of smaller craft, which could +be put into the public service on short notice? In those days of close +quarters and light artillery a merchant ship was converted into a cruiser +by a very simple, process. The navy was a self-supporting one, for it +was paid by the produce of convoy fees and licenses to trade. It must be +confessed that a portion of these revenues savoured much of black-mail to +be levied on friend and foe; for the distinctions between, freebooter, +privateer, pirate, and legitimate sea-robber were not very closely drawn +in those early days of seafaring. + +Prince Maurice of Nassau was lord high admiral, but he was obliged to +listen to the counsels of various provincial boards of admiralty, which +often impeded his action and interfered with his schemes. + +It cannot be denied that the inherent vice of the Netherland polity was +already a tendency to decentralisation and provincialism. The civil +institutions of the country, in their main characteristics, have been +frequently sketched in these pages. At this period they had entered +almost completely into the forms which were destined to endure until the +commonwealth fell in the great crash of the French Revolution. Their +beneficial effects were more visible now--sustained and bound together as +the nation was by the sense of a common danger, and by the consciousness +of its daily developing strength--than at a later day when prosperity and +luxury had blunted the fine instincts of patriotism. + +The supreme power, after the deposition of Philip, and the refusal by +France and by England to accept the sovereignty of the provinces, was +definitely lodged in the States-General. But the States-General did not +technically represent the, people. Its members were not elected by the +people. It was a body composed of, delegates from each provincial +assembly, of which there were now five: Holland, Zeeland, Friesland, +Utrecht, and Gelderland. Each provincial assembly consisted again of +delegates, not from the inhabitants of the provinces, but from the +magistracies of the cities. Those, magistracies, again, were not elected +by the citizens. They elected themselves by renewing their own +vacancies, and were, in short, immortal corporations. Thus, in final +analysis, the supreme power was distributed and localised among the +mayors and aldermen of a large number of cities, all independent alike +of the people below and of any central power above. + +It is true that the nobles, as, a class, had a voice in the provincial +and, in the general assembly, both for themselves and as technical +representatives of the smaller towns and of the rural population. But, +as a matter of fact, the influence of this caste had of late years very +rapidly diminished, through its decrease in numbers, and the far more +rapid increase in wealth and power of the commercial and manufacturing +classes. Individual nobles were constantly employed in the military, +civil, and diplomatic service of the republic, but their body had ceased +to be a power. It had been. the policy of William the Silent to +increase the number of cities entitled to send deputies to the States; +for it was among the cities that his resistance to the tyranny of Spain, +and his efforts to obtain complete independence for his country, had been +mainly supported. Many of the great nobles, as has been seen in these +pages, denounced the liberator and took sides with the tyrant. Lamoral +Egmont had walked to the scaffold to which Philip had condemned him, +chanting a prayer for Philip's welfare. Egmont's eldest son was now +foremost in the Spanish army, doing battle against his own country in +behalf of the tyrant who had taken his father's life. Aremberg and +Ligny, Arachot, Chimay, Croy, Caprea, Montigny, and most of the great +patrician families of the Netherlands fought on the royal side. + +The revolution which had saved the country from perdition and created the +great Netherland republic was a burgher revolution, and burgher statesmen +now controlled the State. The burgher class of Europe is not the one +that has been foremost in the revolutionary movements of history, +or that has distinguished itself--especially in more modern times-- +by a passionate love of liberty. It is always easy to sneer at Hans +Miller and Hans Baker, and at the country where such plebeians are +powerful. Yet the burghers played a prominent part in the great drama +which forms my theme, and there has rarely been seen a more solid or +powerful type of their class than the burgher statesman, John of Olden- +Barneveld, who, since the death of William the Silent and the departure +of Lord Leicester, had mainly guided the destinies of Holland. Certainly +no soldier nor statesman who ever measured intellects with that potent +personage was apt to treat his genius otherwise than with profound +respect. + +But it is difficult to form a logical theory of government except on the +fiction of divine right as a basis, unless the fact of popular +sovereignty, as expressed by a majority, be frankly accepted in spite of +philosophical objections. + +In the Netherlands there was no king, and strictly speaking no people. +But this latter and fatal defect was not visible in the period of danger +and of contest. The native magistrates of that age were singularly pure, +upright, and patriotic. Of this there is no question whatever. And the +people acquiesced cheerfully in their authority, not claiming a larger +representation than such as they virtually possessed in the multiple +power exercised over them, by men moving daily among them, often of +modest fortunes and of simple lives. Two generations later, and in the +wilderness of Massachusetts, the early American colonists voluntarily +placed in the hands of their magistrates, few in number, unlimited +control of all the functions of government, and there was hardly an +instance known of an impure exercise of authority. Yet out of that +simple kernel grew the least limited and most powerful democracy ever +known. + +In the later days of Netherland history a different result became +visible, and with it came the ruin of the State. The governing class, of +burgher origin, gradually separated itself from the rest of the citizens, +withdrew from commercial pursuits, lived on hereditary fortunes in the +exercise of functions which were likewise virtually hereditary, and so +became an oligarchy. This result, together with the physical causes +already indicated, made the downfall of the commonwealth probable +whenever it should be attacked by an overwhelming force from without. + +The States-General, however, at this epoch--although they had in a manner +usurped the sovereignty, which in the absence of a feudal lord really +belonged to the whole people, and had silently repossessed themselves of +those executive functions which they had themselves conferred upon the +state council--were at any rate without self-seeking ambition. The +Hollanders, as a race, were not office seekers, but were singularly +docile to constituted authority, while their regents--as the municipal +magistrates were commonly called--were not very far removed above the +mass by birth or habitual occupation. The republic was a social and +political fact, against which there was no violent antagonism either of +laws or manners, and the people, although not technically existing, in +reality was all in all. In Netherland story the People is ever the true +hero. It was an almost unnoticed but significant revolution--that by +which the state council was now virtually deprived of its authority. +During Leicester's rule it had been a most important college of +administration. Since his resignation it had been entrusted by the +States-General with high executive functions, especially in war matters. +It was an assembly of learned counsellors appointed from the various +provinces for wisdom and experience, usually about eighteen in number, +and sworn in all things to be faithful to the whole republic. The +allegiance of all was rendered to the nation. Each individual member was +required to "forswear his native province in order to be true to the +generality." They deliberated in common for the general good, and were +not hampered by instructions from the provincial diets, nor compelled to +refer to those diets for decision when important questions were at issue. +It was an independent executive committee for the whole republic. + +But Leicester had made it unpopular. His intrigues, in the name of +democracy, to obtain possession of sovereign power, to inflame the lower +classes against the municipal magistracies, and to excite the clergy to +claim a political influence to which they were not entitled and which was +most mischievous in its effects, had exposed the state council, with +which he had been in the habit of consulting, to suspicion. + +The Queen of England, by virtue of her treaty had the right to appoint +two of her subjects to be members of the council. The governor of her +auxiliary forces was also entitled to a seat there. Since the +malpractices of Leicester and the danger to which the country had been, +subjected in consequence had been discovered, it was impossible that +there should be very kindly feeling toward England in the public mind, +however necessary a sincere alliance between the two countries was known +to be for the welfare of both. + +The bickering of the two English councillors, Wilkes and Bodley, +and of the governor of the English contingent with the Hollanders, +was incessant. The Englishmen went so far as to claim the right of +veto upon all measures passed by the council, but the States-General +indignantly replied that the matters deliberated and decided upon by that +board were their own affairs, not the state affairs of England. The two +members and the military officer who together represented her Majesty +were entitled to participate in the deliberations and to vote with their +brother members. For them to claim the right, however, at will to annul +the proceedings was an intolerable assumption, and could not be listened +to for a moment. Certainly it would have been strange had two Dutchmen +undertaken to veto every measure passed by the Queen's council at +Richmond or Windsor, and it was difficult to say on what article of the +contract this extraordinary privilege was claimed by Englishmen at the +Hague. + +Another cause of quarrel was the inability of the Englishmen to +understand the language in which the debates of the state council were +held. + +According to a custom not entirely unexampled in parliamentary history +the members of assembly and council made use of their native tongue in +discussing the state affairs of their native land. It was however +considered a grievance by the two English members that the Dutchmen +should speak Dutch, and it was demanded in the Queen's name that they +should employ some other language which a foreigner could more easily +understand. + +The Hollanders however refused this request, not believing that in a +reversed case her Majesty's Council or Houses of Parliament would be +likely or competent to carry on their discussions habitually in Italian +or Latin for the benefit of a couple of strangers who might not be +familiar with English. The more natural remedy would have been for the +foreigners to take lessons in the tongue of the country, or to seek for +an interpreter among their colleagues; especially as the States, when all +the Netherlands were but provinces, had steadily refused to adopt any +language but their mother tongue, even at the demand of their sovereign +prince. + +At this moment, Sir Thomas Bodley was mainly entrusted with her Majesty's +affairs at the Hague, but his overbearing demeanour, intemperate +language, and passionate style of correspondence with the States and with +the royal government, did much injury to both countries. The illustrious +Walsingham--whose death in the spring of this year England had so much +reason to deplore--had bitterly lamented, just before his death, having +recommended so unquiet a spirit for so important a place. Ortel, envoy +of the States to London, expressed his hopes that affairs would now be +handled more to the satisfaction of the States; as Bodley would be +obliged, since the death of Sir Francis, to address his letters to the +Lord High Treasurer, with whom it would be impossible for him to obtain +so much influence as he had enjoyed with the late Secretary of State. + +Moreover it was exactly at this season that the Advocate of Holland, +Olden-Barneveld, was excluded from the state council. Already the +important province of Holland was dissatisfied with its influence in that +body. Bearing one-half of the whole burthen of the war it was not +content with one-quarter of the council vote, and very soon it became the +custom for the States-General to conduct all the most important affairs +of the republic. The state council complained that even in war matters +it was not consulted, and that most important enterprises were undertaken +by Prince Maurice without its knowledge, and on advice of the Advocate +alone. Doubtless this was true, and thus, most unfortunately, the +commonwealth was degraded to a confederacy instead of becoming an +incorporate federal State. The members of the States-General--as it +has been seen were responsible only to their constituents, the separate +provinces. They avowed allegiance, each to his own province, none to the +central government. Moreover they were not representatives, but envoys, +appointed by petty provinces, bound by written orders, and obliged to +consult at every step with their sovereigns at home. The Netherland +polity was thus stamped almost at its birth with a narrow provincialism: +Delay and hesitation thus necessarily engendered were overcome in the +days of danger by patriotic fervour. The instinct of union for the +sake of the national existence was sufficiently strong, and the robust, +practical common sense of the people sufficiently enlightened to prevent +this weakness from degenerating into impotence so long as the war +pressure remained to mould them into a whole. But a day was to come for +bitterly rueing this paralysis of the imperial instincts of the people, +this indefinite decentralisation of the national strength. + +For the present, the legislative and executive body was the States- +General. But the States-General were in reality the States provincial, +and the States provincial were the city municipalities, among which the +magistracies of Holland were preponderant. + +Ere long it became impossible for an individual to resist the decrees of +the civic authorities. In 1591, the States-General passed a resolution +by which these arrogant corporations virtually procured their exemption +from any process at the suit of a private person to be placed on record. +So far could the principle of sovereignty be pulverized. City council +boards had become supreme. + +It was naturally impossible during the long continuance of this great +struggle, that neutral nations should not be injuriously affected by it +in a variety of ways. And as a matter of course neutral nations were +disposed to counsel peace. Peace, peace; peace was the sigh of the +bystanders whose commerce was impeded, whose international relations. +were complicated, and whose own security was endangered in the course of +the bloody conflict. It was however not very much the fashion of that +day for governments to obtrude advice upon each other; or to read to each +other moral lectures. It was assumed that when the expense and sacrifice +of war had been incurred, it was for cause, and the discovery had not yet +been made that those not immediately interested in the fray were better +acquainted with its merits than, the combatants themselves, and were +moreover endued with, superhuman wisdom to see with perfect clearness +that future issue which to the parties themselves was concealed. + +Cheap apothegms upon the blessings of peace and upon the expediency of +curbing the angry passions, uttered by the belligerents of yesterday to +the belligerents of to-day, did not then pass current for profound +wisdom. + +Still the emperor Rudolph, abstaining for a time from his star-gazing, +had again thought proper to make a feeble attempt at intervention in +those sublunary matters which were supposed to be within his sphere. + +It was perfectly well known that Philip was incapable of abating one jot +of his pretensions, and that to propose mediation to the United Provinces +was simply to request them, for the convenience of other powers, to +return to the slavery out of which, by the persistent efforts of a +quarter of a century, they had struggled. Nevertheless it was formally +proposed to re-open those lukewarm fountains of diplomatic commonplace in +which healing had been sought during the peace negotiations of Cologne in +the year 1579. But the States-General resolutely kept them sealed. They +simply answered his imperial Majesty by a communication of certain +intercepted correspondence between--the King of Spain and his ambassador +at Vienna, San Clemente, through which it was satisfactorily established +that any negotiation would prove as gigantic a comedy on the part of +Spain as had been the memorable conferences at Ostend, by which the +invasion of England had been masked. + +There never was a possibility of mediation or of compromise except by +complete submission on the part of the Netherlanders to Crown and Church. +Both in this, as well as in previous and subsequent attempts at +negotiations, the secret instructions of Philip forbade any real +concessions on his side. He was always ready to negotiate, he was +especially anxious to obtain a suspension of arms from the rebels during +negotiation; but his agents were instructed to use great dexterity and +dissimulation in order that the proposal for such armistice, as well as +for negotiation at all, should appear to proceed, not from himself as was +the fact, but from the emperor as a neutral potentate. The king +uniformly proposed three points; firstly, that the rebels should +reconvert themselves to the Catholic religion; secondly, that they should +return to their obedience to himself; thirdly, that they should pay the +expenses of the war. Number three was, however, usually inserted in +order that, by conceding it subsequently, after much contestation, he +might appear conciliatory. It was a vehicle of magnanimity towards men +grown insolent with temporary success. Numbers one and two were +immutable. + +Especially upon number one was concession impossible. "The Catholic +religion is the first thing," said Philip, "and although the rebels do +not cease to insist that liberty of conscience should be granted them, +in order that they may preserve that which they have had during these +past years, this is never to be thought of in any event." The king +always made free use of the terrible weapon which the Protestant princes +of Germany had placed in his hands. For indeed if it were right that one +man, because possessed of hereditary power over millions of his fellow +creatures, should compel them all to accept the dogmas of Luther or of +Calvin because agreeable to himself, it was difficult to say why another +man, in a similarly elevated position, might not compel his subjects to +accept the creed of Trent, or the doctrines of Mahomet or Confucius. +The Netherlanders were fighting--even more than they knew-for liberty +of conscience, for equality of all religions; not for Moses, nor for +Melancthon; for Henry, Philip, or Pius; while Philip justly urged that no +prince in Christendom permitted license. "Let them well understand," +said his Majesty, "that since others who live in error, hold the opinion +that vassals are to conform to the religion of their master, it is +insufferable that it should be proposed to me that my vassals should have +a different religion from mine--and that too being the true religion, +proved by so many testimonies and miracles, while all others are +deception. This must be arranged with the authority of the commissioners +of the emperor, since it is well understood by them that the vassal is +never to differ from the opinion of his master." Certainly it was worth +an eighty years' war to drive such blasphemous madness as this out of +human heads, whether crowned or shaven. + +There was likewise a diet held during the summer of this year, of the +circles of the empire nearest to the Netherlands--Westphalia, Cleves, +Juliers, and Saxony--from which commissioners were deputed both to +Brussels and to the Hague, to complain of the misfortunes suffered by +neutral and neighbouring nations in consequence of the civil war. + +They took nothing by their mission to the Duke of Parma. At the Hague +the deputies were heard on the 22nd August, 1590. They complained to the +States-General of "brandschatting" on the border, of the holding of forts +beyond the lines, and of other invasions of neutral territory, of the +cruising of the war-vessels of the States off the shores and on the +rivers, and of their interference with lawful traders. Threats were made +of forcible intervention and reprisals. + +The united States replied on the 13th September. Expressing deep regret +that neutral nations should suffer, they pronounced it to be impossible +but that some sparks from the great fire, now desolating their land, +should fly over into their neighbours' ground. The States were fighting +the battle of liberty against slavery, in which the future generations of +Germany, as well as of the Netherlands were interested. They were +combating that horrible institution, the Holy Inquisition. They were +doing their best to strike down the universal monarchy of Spain, which +they described as a bloodthirsty, insatiable, insolent, absolute dominion +of Saracenic, Moorish Christians. They warred with a system which placed +inquisitors on the seats of judges, which made it unlawful to read the +Scriptures, which violated all oaths, suppressed all civic freedom, +trampled, on all laws and customs, raised inordinate taxes by arbitrary +decree, and subjected high and low to indiscriminate murder. Spain had +sworn the destruction of the provinces and their subjugation to her +absolute dominion, in order to carry out her scheme of universal empire. + +These were the deeds and designs against which the States were waging +that war, concerning some inconvenient results of which their neighbours, +now happily neutral, were complaining. But the cause of the States was +the cause of humanity itself. This Saracenic, Moorish, universal +monarchy had been seen by Germany to murder, despoil, and trample upon +the Netherlands. It had murdered millions of innocent Indians and +Granadians. It had kept Naples and Milan in abject slavery. It had +seized Portugal. It had deliberately planned and attempted an accursed +invasion of England and Ireland. It had overrun and plundered many +cities of the empire. It had spread a web of secret intrigue about +Scotland. At last it was sending great armies to conquer France and +snatch its crown. Poor France now saw the plans of this Spanish tyranny +and bewailed her misery. The subjects of her lawful king were ordered to +rise against him, on account of religion and conscience. Such holy +pretexts were used by these Saracenic Christians in order to gain +possession of that kingdom. + +For all these reasons, men should not reproach the inhabitants of the +Netherlands, because seeing the aims of this accursed tyranny, they had +set themselves to resist it. It was contrary to reason to consider them +as disturbers of the general peace, or to hold them guilty of violating +their oaths or their duty to the laws of the holy empire. The States- +General were sure that they had been hitherto faithful and loyal, and +they were resolved to continue in that path. + +As members of the holy empire, in part--as of old they were considered to +be--they had rather the right to expect, instead of reproaches, +assistance against the enormous power and inhuman oppression of their +enemies. They had demanded it heretofore by their ambassadors, and they +still continued to claim it. They urged that, according to the laws of +the empire, all foreign soldiers, Spaniards, Saracens, and the like +should be driven out of the limits of the empire. Through these means +the German Highland and the German Netherland might be restored once more +to their old friendship and unity, and might deal with each other again +in amity and commerce. + +If, however, such requests could not be granted they at least begged his +electoral highness and the other dukes, lords, and states to put on the +deeds of Netherlanders in this laborious and heavy war the best +interpretation, in order that they might, with the better courage and +resolution, bear those inevitable burthens which were becoming daily +heavier in this task of resistance and self-protection; in order that the +provinces might not be utterly conquered, and serve, with their natural +resources and advantageous situation, as 'sedes et media belli' for the +destruction of neighbouring States and the building up of the +contemplated universal, absolute monarchy. + +The United Provinces had been compelled by overpowering necessity to +take up arms. That which had resulted was and remained in 'terminis +defensionis.' Their object was to protect what belonged to them, to +recover that which by force or fraud had been taken from them. + +In regard to excesses committed by their troops against neutral +inhabitants on the border, they expressed a strong regret, together with +a disposition to make all proper retribution and to cause all crimes to +be punished. + +They alluded to the enormous sins of this nature practised by the enemy +against neutral soil. They recalled to mind that the Spaniards paid +their troops ill or not at all, and that they allowed them to plunder the +innocent and the neutral, while the United States had paid their troops +better wages, and more punctually, than had ever been done by the +greatest potentates of Europe. It was true that the States kept many +cruisers off the coasts and upon the rivers, but these were to protect +their own citizens and friendly traders against pirates and against the +common foe. Germany derived as much benefit from this system as did the +Provinces themselves. + +Thus did the States-General, respectfully but resolutely, decline all +proffers of intervention, which, as they were well aware, could only +enure to the benefit of the enemy. Thus did they avoid being entrapped +into negotiations which could only prove the most lamentable of comedies. + + + + +ETEXT EDITOR'S BOOKMARKS: + +A pusillanimous peace, always possible at any period +At length the twig was becoming the tree +Being the true religion, proved by so many testimonies +Certainly it was worth an eighty years' war +Chief seafaring nations of the world were already protestant +Conceding it subsequently, after much contestation +Fled from the land of oppression to the land of liberty +German Highland and the German Netherland +Little army of Maurice was becoming the model for Europe +Luxury had blunted the fine instincts of patriotism +Maritime heretics +Portion of these revenues savoured much of black-mail +The divine speciality of a few transitory mortals +The history of the Netherlands is history of liberty +The nation which deliberately carves itself in pieces +They had come to disbelieve in the mystery of kingcraft +Worn nor caused to be worn the collar of the serf + + + + + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY UNITED NETHERLANDS, 1590(a) *** + +************ This file should be named 4861.txt or 4861.zip ************ + +This eBook was produced by David Widger + +Project Gutenberg eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the US +unless a copyright notice is included. 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