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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4d960b0 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #50523 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/50523) diff --git a/old/50523-0.txt b/old/50523-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 7e0efee..0000000 --- a/old/50523-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,7267 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's The boys' life of Edison, by William Meadowcroft - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The boys' life of Edison - -Author: William Meadowcroft - -Release Date: November 21, 2015 [EBook #50523] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOYS' LIFE OF EDISON *** - - - - -Produced by Madeleine Fournier. Images made available by -the Internet Archive. - - - - - - -This book, designed for boys and girls, is published with my consent. - -[Illustration: Thomas Edison's signature] - -[Illustration: EDISON AT WORK IN ONE OF THE CHEMICAL ROOMS AT THE -ORANGE LABORATORY] - - - THE BOYS' LIFE OF EDISON - - BY - - WILLIAM H. MEADOWCROFT - - OF THE EDISON LABORATORY. - -AUTHOR OF "ABC OF ELECTRICITY," "ABC OF THE X-RAYS" - - - WITH AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL NOTES - - BY MR. EDISON - - _ILLUSTRATED_ - - - - HARPER & BROTHERS PUBLISHERS - - NEW YORK AND LONDON - - - -CONTENTS - - -CHAP. PAGE - - Introduction............................. ix - - I. The Early Days of Electricity............ 1 - II. Edison's Family.......................... 5 - III. Edison's Early Boyhood................... 15 - IV. The Young Newsboy........................ 21 - V. A Few Stories of Edison's Newsboy Days... 32 - VI. The Young Telegraph Operator............. 41 - VII. Adventures of a Telegraph Operator....... 49 - VIII. Work and Invention in Boston............. 75 - IX. From Poverty to Independence............. 88 - X. A Busy Young Inventor.................... 101 - XI. The Telephone, Motograph, and Microphone. 117 - XII. Making a Machine Talk.................... 129 - XIII. A New Light in the World................. 135 - XIV. Menlo Park............................... 145 - XV. Beginning the Electric Light Business.... 153 - XVI. The First Edison Central Station......... 161 - XVII. Edison's Electric Railway................ 169 -XVIII. Grinding Mountains to Dust............... 177 - XIX. Edison Makes Portland Cement............. 187 - XX. Motion-Pictures.......................... 195 - XXI. Edison Invents a New Storage Battery..... 202 - XXII. Edison's Miscellaneous Inventions........ 209 -XXIII. Edison's Method in Inventing............. 216 - XXIV. Edison's Laboratory at Orange............ 224 - XXV. Edison Himself........................... 233 - XXVI. Edison's New Phonograph.................. 240 -XXVII. Edison's Work During the War............. 250 - Events and Achievements of Edison........ 265 - - - -ILLUSTRATIONS - - -EDISON AT WORK IN ONE OF THE CHEMICAL ROOMS AT THE ORANGE LABORATORY - -EDISON WHEN ABOUT FOURTEEN OR FIFTEEN YEARS OF AGE - -MR. EDISON AT THE CLOSE OF FIVE DAYS AND NIGHTS OF CONTINUED WORK IN -PERFECTING THE EARLY WAX-CYLINDER TYPE OF PHONOGRAPH--JUNE 16, 1888 - -THE EDISON ELECTRIC RAILWAY AT MENLO PARK--1880 - -EDISON AT THE OFFICE DOOR OF THE ORE-CONCENTRATING PLANT AT EDISON, NEW -JERSEY, IN THE 'NINETIES - -THOMAS ALVA EDISON--1911 - -"THE INSOMNIA SQUAD" - -EDISON AT WORK ON RUBBER EXPERIMENTS. FROM A MOVING PICTURE TAKEN -DECEMBER, 1928 - - - -INTRODUCTION - - -This is the story of a great inventor, the most conspicuous figure of -the age of electricity. - -The story is largely autobiography, for, through the author's -association with Mr. Edison, it has been possible often to obtain his -own narrative of his life. For nearly thirty-one years the author -has had the privilege of a connection with Mr. Edison and the Edison -companies, and at present he is acting as Mr. Edison's assistant. -Every page of the book has been read by Mr. Edison himself, and it is -published with his approval as the authoritative story of his life to -the present time. - -It is probably as a worker of wonders, an interpreter of the secrets -of Nature, an actual wizard of science, that Edison fascinates the -imagination of almost every boy. In this picture of the actual facts -of the inventor's life the reader will find that while Edison is just -as great as imagined, yet this greatness has not been reached by -chance, but honestly earned by the hardest kind of hard work and the -most intense and earnest application. The wonderful things that he has -accomplished have been the things that he purposely set out to do, and -are not the result of some happy thought, or blind luck, or chance. - -There has been but little abatement in Mr. Edison's activities. The -flight of time has not dimmed his vivid imagination; has brought no -change to his clear broad mental vision; nor has his capacity for -intensive, forceful work perceptibly lessened. There is no telling what -other inventions he may yet make to benefit the world, but if he never -added anything to what he has already done, his life and achievements -afford the telling of one of the most remarkable stories in the history -of the world. - -The author has had the honor and pleasure of assisting in the -preparation of a large and comprehensive biography entitled, _Edison: -His Life and Inventions_, by Frank L. Dyer and T. Commerford Martin, -published by the publishers of the present volume. He gratefully -acknowledges the fact that certain features of this book have been -adapted from the pages of that elaborate biography. For the permission -to do this he tenders his thanks to his friends Frank L. Dyer and the -late T. Commerford Martin. - -WILLIAM H. MEADOWCROFT. - - - -THE BOYS' LIFE OF EDISON - - -I - -THE EARLY DAYS OF ELECTRICITY - - -This is the life story of the greatest of inventors in the field of -electricity. It is true that Thomas A. Edison has helped the progress -of the world by many other inventions and discoveries quite outside -of electricity, but it is in this field that he is best known. Now, -in this age of electricity, it happens very fortunately that a close -personal association with Mr. Edison makes it possible at last to tell -younger readers the real story of Mr. Edison's life, partly in his -own words. It has been a life full of surprises as well as of great -achievements, and one of the surprises which we meet at the start is -that, unlike Mozart, who showed his musical genius in infancy, and -unlike others devoted to one thing from the outset, Edison took up -electricity almost by accident. - -Yet this is not so strange when we think how little electricity there -was to take up in the middle of the nineteenth century. Electricity -was not studied in the schools. It was not a separate art or business. -Men of science had occupied themselves with electricity for a long -time, but they really did not know as much about it as a bright boy in -the upper grammar grades to-day. Speaking in a very general way, we -may say that simple frictional electricity[1] was an old story, that -Franklin had discovered the identity of electricity and lightning, and -that Galvani had discovered in 1790 and Volta had developed in 1801 the -generating of electric currents from batteries composed of zinc and -copper plates immersed in sulphuric acid. - -But it was not until 1835, only twelve years before Edison was born, -that Samuel F. B. Morse applied electrical currents to the sending of -an alphabet of dots and dashes by wire. Thus it was in the infancy of -telegraphy that Edison first saw the light. - -Telegraph apparatus in those early days was of a crude and cumbersome -kind--quite different from that which young students experiment with at -the present time. For instance, the receiving magnets of the earliest -telegraphs, which performed the same office as the modern sounders, -weighed seventy-five pounds instead of a few ounces. - -It was a very difficult undertaking for Morse to establish the -telegraph after he had invented it. It was such a new idea that the -public could not seem to understand its use and possibilities. People -would not believe that it was possible to send messages regularly over -a long stretch of wire, and, even if it were possible, that it would -be of much use anyway. It took him a long time to raise money to put -up a telegraph line between Baltimore and Washington. Before this, he -had offered to sell the whole invention outright to the United States -Government for one hundred thousand dollars; but the Government did not -buy, as the invention was not thought to be worth that much money. - -In 1847, the year Edison was born, there were only a few telegraph -circuits in existence. The farthest line to the west was in Pittsburgh, -Pennsylvania. It was in this early telegraph office that Andrew -Carnegie was a messenger boy. We could name a great many more notable -men in our country who began their careers in a similar way, or as -telegraph operators, in the early days of telegraphy, but space forbids. - -Within a few years after Edison was born there came a great boom in -telegraphy, and new lines were put up all over the country. Thus, by -the time he had grown to boyhood the telegraph was a well-established -business, and the first great electrical industry became a pronounced -success. - -There were no other electrical industries at this time, except -electro-plating to a limited extent. The chief reason of this was -probably that the only means of obtaining electrical current was by -means of chemical batteries, as mechanical generators had not been -developed at that time. - -While the principles of the dynamo-electric machine had been -discovered, and a few of these machines and small electric motors had -been made by scientists, in the middle of the nineteenth century such -machines were little more than scientific toys, and not to be compared -with the generators of modern days. - -Edison, therefore, was born at the very beginning of "The Age of -Electricity," which can be said to have actually begun about 1840, or -soon after. - -It is not too much to say that the many important and practical -inventions that he has since contributed to the electrical arts have -had no small weight in causing the present time to be known as "The Age -of Electricity." - -[Footnote 1: Made by rubbing certain objects together, like amber and -silk, the original discovery over two thousand years ago.] - - -II - -EDISON'S FAMILY - - -Had there not been a family difference of opinion about the War of -Independence, we might never have had Edison the great inventor. - -The first Edisons in this country came over from Holland about the year -1730. They were descendants of a family of millers on the Zuyder Zee, -and when they came to America they first settled near Caldwell, New -Jersey. - -Later on they removed to some land along the Passaic River. It is a -curious and interesting coincidence that a hundred and sixty years -later Mr. Edison established the home he now occupies in the Orange -Mountains, which is in the same general neighborhood. - -The family must have gotten along well in the world, for we find -the name of Thomas Edison, as a bank official on Manhattan Island, -signed to Continental currency in 1778. This was Mr. Edison's -great-grandfather, who lived to be one hundred and four years of age. - -It will be seen from the date, 1778, that this was during the time of -the War of Independence. This Thomas Edison was a stanch patriot, who -thoroughly believed in American independence. He had a son named John, -who differed with his father in political principles and favored a -continuance of British rule. - -After the war was over John left the country, and, with many other -Loyalists, emigrated to Nova Scotia and settled there. While he still -lived there a son was born to him, at Digby, in 1804. This son was -named Samuel, who became the father of Thomas Alva Edison, the inventor. - -Seven years later John Edison, as a Loyalist, became entitled under -the laws of Canada to a grant of six hundred acres of land, and moved -westward with his family to take possession of it. He made his way -through the State of New York in wagons drawn by oxen to the township -of Bayfield, in upper Canada, on Lake Huron, and there settled down. - -Some time afterward John Edison moved from Bayfield to Vienna, -Ontario, on the northern bank of Lake Erie. As will be understood -from the above, he was the grandfather of Mr. Edison, who gives this -recollection of the old man in those early Canadian days: - -"When I was five years old I was taken by my father and mother on a -visit to Vienna. We were driven by a carriage from Milan, Ohio, to -a railroad, then to a port on Lake Erie, thence by a canal-boat in -a tow of several miles to Port Burwell, in Canada, across the lake, -and from there we drove to Vienna, a short distance away. I remember -my grandfather perfectly as he appeared at one hundred and two years -of age, when he died. In the middle of the day he sat under a large -tree in front of the house, facing a well-traveled road. His head -was covered completely with a large quantity of very white hair, and -he chewed tobacco incessantly, nodding to friends as they passed by. -He used a very large cane, and walked from the chair to the house, -resenting any assistance. I viewed him from a distance, and could never -get very close to him. I remember some large pipes, and especially a -molasses jug, a trunk, and several other things that came from Holland." - -John Edison was long-lived, like his father, and died at the age of -one hundred and two. Little is known of the early manhood of his -son Samuel (Thomas A. Edison's father), until we find him keeping a -hotel at Vienna, and in 1828 marrying Miss Nancy Elliott, who was a -school-teacher there. - -He was six feet in height, and was possessed of great strength and -vigor. He took a lively share in the troublous politics of the period. - -In 1837 the Canadian Rebellion broke out. The cause of it was the same -as that which led to the War of Independence in America--taxation -without representation. - -Samuel Edison was so ardently interested and of such strong character -that he became a captain in the insurgent forces that rallied under the -banners of Papineau and Mackenzie. - -The rebellion failed, however, and those who had taken part in it were -severely dealt with. Many of the insurgents went in exile to Bermuda, -but Samuel Edison preferred the perils of a flight to the United -States. He therefore departed from Canada with his wife, hurriedly and -secretly. - -There was a romantic and thrilling journey of one hundred and -eighty-two miles toward safety. The country through which they passed -was then very wild and infested with Indians of unfriendly disposition, -and the journey was made almost entirely without food or sleep. - -They arrived safely in the United States, however, and, after a few -years spent in various towns along the shores of Lake Erie, finally -came to Milan, Ohio, in 1842. Here they settled down and made their -home, for the place gave great promise of abundance of business and -prosperity. - -In those days railroads were few and far between, and there was none -near Milan. The great quantities of grain that were grown in the -surrounding country were sent to Eastern ports by sailing vessels over -the lake. Milan was connected by a wide canal with the Huron River, -which emptied into Lake Erie. Thus the town became a busy port, with -grain warehouses and elevators, at which as many as twenty sailing -vessels were loaded in a single day. - -There also sprang up a brisk ship-building industry, for which the -abundant forests of the region supplied the necessary lumber. - -You will see, therefore, that Mr. Edison's father gave evidence of -shrewd judgment when he decided to make his permanent home at Milan, -for there was plenty of occupation, with every prospect of prosperity. -He was always ready to look on the brightest side of everything, and -could and did turn his hand to many occupations. - -He decided to make his chief business the manufacture of shingles, for -which there was a large demand, both in the neighborhood and along the -shores of the lake. The shingles were made mostly of Canadian wood, -which was imported for the purpose. They were made entirely by hand and -of first-class wood, and so well did they last that a house in Milan on -which these shingles were put in 1844 was still in excellent condition -forty-two years later. Samuel Edison did well in this business and -employed a number of men. - -In a few years after the family had made their home at Milan, Thomas -Alva Edison was born there, on February 11, 1847. - -His mother was an attractive and highly educated woman, and her -influence upon his disposition has been profound and lasting. She was -born in Chenango County, New York, in 1810, and was the daughter of -the Rev. John Elliott, a Baptist minister, and descendant of an old -Revolutionary soldier, Capt. Ebenezer Elliott, of Scotch descent. - -The Elliott family was evidently one of considerable culture and deep -religious feeling, for two of Mrs. Elliott's uncles and two brothers -were also in the Baptist ministry. As a young woman she became a -teacher in the public high school at Vienna, Ontario, and thus met her -husband, who was residing there. - -The Edison family consisted of three children, two boys and a girl. -Besides Thomas Alva, there was an elder brother, William Pitt, and a -sister named Tannie. Both brother and sister had considerable ability, -although in different lines. William Pitt Edison was clever with his -pencil, and there was at one time an idea of having him become an art -student; but evidently the notion was not carried out, for later in -life he was manager of the local street-railway lines at Port Huron, -Michigan, in which he was heavily interested. - -This talent for sketching seems to run in the family, for Thomas A. -Edison's first impulse in discussing any mechanical question is to take -up the nearest piece of paper and make drawings. Scarcely a day passes -that this does not happen. His immense number of note-books contain -thousands of such sketches. - -His sister, who in later life became Mrs. Tannie Edison Bailey, had, on -the other hand, a great deal of literary ability, and spent much of her -time in writing. - -As a child the great inventor was not at all strong, and was of fragile -appearance. His head was well shaped but very large, and it is said -that local doctors feared he might have brain trouble. - -On account of his supposed delicacy, he was not allowed to go to school -at as early an age as is usual. And when he did go, it was not for a -long time. He was usually at the foot of his class, and the teacher had -spoken of the boy to a school inspector as being "addled." - -Perhaps the reader can imagine the indignation of his mother on hearing -of this teacher's report. She had watched and studied her boy closely, -and knew that he had a mind unusually receptive and mental powers far -beyond those of other children. So she resolved to take him out of -school and educate him herself. - -It was fortunate that Mr. Edison had a mother who was not only loving, -observing, and wise, but at the same time well informed and ambitious. -From her experience as a teacher, she was able to give him an education -better than could be had in the local schools of that day. - -Under her care the boy formed studious habits and a taste for good -literature that have lasted to this day. He is a great reader, and what -has once been read by him is never forgotten if it is in any way useful. - -When Edison was a child he was deeply interested in the busy scenes of -the canal and grain warehouses, and particularly in the ship-building -yards. - -He asked so many questions that he fairly tired out his father, -although the older man had no small ability. It has been reported -that other members of the family regarded the boy as being mentally -unbalanced and likely to be a lifelong care to his parents. - -Even while he was quite a young child his mechanical tendencies showed -themselves in his fondness for building little plank roads from the -pieces of wood thrown out by the ship-building yards and the sawmills. -One day he was found in the village square laboriously copying the -signs of the stores. - -To this day Mr. Edison is not inclined to accept a statement unless he -can prove it for himself by experiment. Once, when he was about six -years old, he watched a goose sitting on her eggs and saw them hatch. -Soon after he was missing. By and by, after an anxious search, his -father found him sitting in a nest he had made in the barn filled with -goose and hen eggs he had collected, trying to hatch them out. - -His remarkable memory was noticeable even when he was a child, for -before he was five years old he had learned all the songs of the lumber -gangs and of the canal men. Even now his recollection goes back to -1850, when, as a child three or four years old, he saw camped in front -of his home six covered wagons, "prairie schooners," and witnessed -their departure for California, where gold had just been discovered. - -Another of his recollections of childhood is of a sadder nature. He -went off one day with another boy to bathe in the creek. Soon after -they entered the water the other boy disappeared. Young Edison waited -around for about half an hour, and then, as it was growing dark, went -home, puzzled and lonely, but said nothing about the matter. About two -hours afterward, when the missing boy was being searched for, a man -came to the Edison home to make anxious inquiry of the companion with -whom he had last been seen. Edison told all the circumstances with -a painful sense of being in some way guilty. The creek was at once -dragged, and then the body was recovered. - -Edison himself had more than one narrow escape. Of course, he fell into -the canal and was nearly drowned--few boys in Milan worth their salt -omitted that performance. On another occasion he fell into a pile of -wheat in a grain elevator and was almost smothered. Holding the end of -a skate-strap, that another lad might cut it with an ax, he lost the -top of a finger. Fire also had its peril. He built a fire in a barn, -but the flames spread so rapidly that, although he escaped himself, -the barn was wholly destroyed. He was publicly whipped in the village -square as a warning to other youths. Equally well remembered is a -dangerous encounter with a ram which attacked him while he was busily -engaged digging out a bumblebee's nest near an orchard fence, and was -about to butt him again when he managed to drop over on the safe side -and escape. He was badly hurt and bruised, and no small quantity of -arnica was needed for his wounds. - -Meanwhile railroad building had been going on rapidly, and the new -Columbus, Sandusky & Hocking Railroad had reached Milan and quickly -deprived it of its flourishing grain trade. The town, formerly so -bustling and busy, no longer offered to so active a man as Mr. Edison's -father the opportunity of conducting a prosperous business, so he -decided to move away. He was well-to-do, but he determined to do better -elsewhere. In 1854 he and his family removed to Port Huron, Michigan, -where they occupied a large Colonial house standing in the middle of an -old Government fort reservation of ten acres, overlooking the St. Clair -River just after it leaves Lake Huron. - -The old house at Milan where Mr. Edison was born is still in existence, -and is occupied at this time (1911) by Mr. S. O. Edison, a half-brother -of Edison's father, and a man of much ability. - -This birthplace of Edison still remains the plain, substantial brick -house it was originally, one-storied, with rooms finished on the attic -floor. - - -III - -EDISON'S EARLY BOYHOOD - - -It was when he was about seven years old that Edison's parents moved -to Port Huron, Michigan, and it was there, a few years later, that he -began his active life by becoming a newsboy. - -With his mother he found study easy and pleasant. The quality of the -education she gave him may be judged from the fact that before he was -twelve years old he had studied the usual rudiments and had read, with -his mother's help, Gibbon's _Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_, -Hume's _History of England_, Sear's _History of the World_, Burton's -_Anatomy of Melancholy_, and the _Dictionary of Sciences_. - -They even tried to struggle through Newton's _Principia_, but the -mathematics were too much for both teacher and student. To this day -Edison has little personal use for arithmetic beyond that which -is called "mental." He said to a friend, "I can always hire some -mathematicians, but they can't hire me." - -His father always encouraged his literary tastes, and paid him a small -sum for each book which he mastered. Although there is no fiction in -the list, Edison has all his life enjoyed it, particularly the works -of such writers as Victor Hugo. Indeed, later on, when he became a -telegraph operator, he was nicknamed by his associates "Victor Hugo -Edison"--possibly because of his great admiration for that writer. - -When he was about eleven years old he became greatly interested in -chemistry. He got a copy of Parker's _School Philosophy_, an elementary -book on physics, and tried almost every experiment in it. He also -experimented on his own account. It is said that he once persuaded a -boy employed by the family to swallow a large quantity of Seidlitz -powders in the belief that the gases penetrated would enable him to -fly. The awful agonies of the victim attracted attention, and Edison's -mother marked her displeasure by an application of the switch kept -behind the old Seth Thomas "grandfather's clock." - -It was as early as this that young Alva, or "Al," as he was called, -displayed a passion for chemistry, which has never left him. He used -the cellar of the house for his experiments and collected there no -fewer than two hundred bottles from various places. They contained the -chemicals with which he was constant experimenting, and were all marked -"Poison," so that no one else would disturb them. - -He soon became familiar with all the chemicals to be had at the local -drug stores, for he did not believe the statements made in his books -until he had tested them for himself. - -Edison used such a large part of his mother's cellar for this, his -first laboratory, that, becoming tired of the "mess," she once ordered -him to clear out everything. The boy was so much distressed at this -that she relented, but insisted that he must keep things under lock and -key when he was not there. - -Most of his spare time was spent in the cellar, for he did not share to -any extent in the sports of the boys of the neighborhood. His chum and -chief companion at this time was a Dutch boy, much older than himself, -named Michael Oates, who did chores around the house. It was Michael -upon whom the Seidlitz powder experiment was tried. - -As Edison got deeper into his chemical studies his limited pocket-money -disappeared rapidly. He was being educated by his mother, and, -therefore, not attending a regular school, and he had read all the -books within reach. So he thought the matter out and decided that if -he became a train newsboy he could earn all the money he wanted for -his experiments and also get fresh reading from papers and magazines. -Besides, if he could get permission to go on the train he had in mind, -he would have some leisure hours in Detroit and would be able to spend -them at the public library free of charge. His parents objected, -particularly his mother, but finally he obtained their consent. - -It has been thought by many people that his family was poor, and -that it was on account of their poverty that young Edison came to -sell newspapers on the train. This is not true, for his father was a -prosperous dealer in grain and feed, and was also actively interested -in the lumber industry and other things. While he was not rich, he -made money in his business, and, having a well-stocked farm and a -large orchard besides, was in comfortable circumstances. Socially the -family stood high in the town, where at the time many well-to-do people -resided. - -It was of his own choice and because of his never-satisfied desire for -experiment and knowledge that Edison became a newsboy. - -In 1859, when he was twelve years old, he applied for the privilege of -selling newspapers on the trains of the Grand Trunk Railroad between -Port Huron and Detroit. After a short delay the necessary permission -was obtained. - -Even before this he had had some business experience. His father had -laid out a "market-garden" on the farm, and young Edison, at eleven -years of age, and Michael Oates had worked in it pretty steadily. In -the season the two boys would load up a wagon with onions, lettuce, -peas, etc., and drive through the town to sell their produce. As much -as $600 was turned over to Mrs. Edison in one year from this source. - -Edison was industrious, but he did not take kindly to farming. He tells -us about this himself: - -"After a while I tired of this work. Hoeing corn in a hot sun is -unattractive, and I did not wonder that boys had left the farm for the -city. Soon the Grand Trunk Railroad was extended from Toronto to Port -Huron, at the foot of Lake Huron, and thence to Detroit, at about the -same time the War of the Rebellion broke out. By a great amount of -persistence I got permission from my mother to go on the local train -as newsboy. The local train from Port Huron to Detroit, a distance of -sixty-three miles, left at 7 A.M. and arrived again at 9.30 P.M. After -being on the train for several months, I started two stores at Port -Huron--one for periodicals and the other for vegetables, butter, and -berries in the season. These were attended by two boys, who shared in -the profits. The periodical store I soon closed, as the boy in charge -could not be trusted. The vegetable store I kept up for nearly a -year. After the railroad had been opened a short time they put on an -express, which left Detroit in the morning and returned in the evening. -I received permission to put a newsboy on this train. Connected with -this train was a car, one part for baggage and the other part for -United States mail, but for a long time it was not used. Every morning -I had two large baskets of vegetables from the Detroit market loaded -in the mail car and sent to Port Huron, when the boy would take them -to the store. They were much better than those grown locally, and sold -readily. I never was asked for freight, and to this day cannot explain -why, except that I was so small and industrious and the nerve to -appropriate a United States mail car to do a free freight business was -so monumental. However, I kept this up for a long time, and in addition -bought butter from the farmers along the line and an immense amount of -blackberries in the season. I bought wholesale and at a low price, and -permitted the wives of the engineers and trainmen to have the benefit -of the discount. After a while there was a daily immigrant train put -on. This train generally had from seven to ten coaches, filled always -with Norwegians, all bound for Iowa and Minnesota. On these trains I -employed a boy who sold bread, tobacco, and stick candy. As the war -progressed the daily newspaper sales became very profitable, and I gave -up the vegetable store." - -This shrewd commercial instinct, and the capacity for carrying on -successfully several business undertakings at the same time, were -certainly remarkable in a boy only thirteen years old. And now, having -had a glimpse of Edison's very early youth, let us begin a new chapter -and follow his further adventures as a newsboy on a railway train. - - -IV - -THE YOUNG NEWSBOY - - -Edison's train left Port Huron at seven o'clock in the morning and -arrived at Detroit in about three hours. It did not leave Detroit -again until quite late in the afternoon, arriving at Port Huron -about nine-thirty at night. This made a long day for the boy, but -it gave him an opportunity to do just what he wanted, which was to -read, to buy chemicals and apparatus, and to indulge in his favorite -occupation--chemical experimentation. - -The train was made up of three coaches--baggage, smoking, and ordinary -passenger. The baggage-car was divided into three compartments--one for -trunks and packages, one for the mail, and one for smoking. - -As there was no ventilation in this smoking-compartment, no use was -made of it. It was therefore turned over to young Edison, who not only -kept his papers there and his stock of goods as a "candy butcher," but -he also transferred to it the contents of the precious laboratory from -his mother's cellar. He found plenty of leisure on the two daily runs -of the train to follow up his study of chemistry. - -His earnings on the train were excellent, for he often took in eight -or ten dollars a day. One dollar a day always went to his mother, and, -as he was thus supporting himself, he felt entitled to spend any other -profit left over on chemicals and apparatus. Detroit being a large -city, he could obtain a greater variety there than in his own small -town. He spent a great deal of time in reading up on his favorite -subject at the public library, where he could find plenty of technical -books. Thus he gave up most of his time and all his money to chemistry. - -He did not confine himself entirely to chemistry in his reading at the -Detroit public library, but sought to gain knowledge on other subjects. -It is a matter of record that in the beginning of his reading he -started in with a certain section of the library and tried to read it -through, shelf by shelf, regardless of subject. - -Edison went along in this manner for quite a long time. When the -Civil War broke out he noticed that there was a much greater demand -for newspapers. He became ambitious to publish a local journal of his -own. So his little laboratory in the smoking-compartment received some -additions which made it also a newspaper office. - -He picked up a second-hand printing-press in Detroit and bought some -type. With his mechanical ability, it was not a difficult matter to -learn the rudiments of the printing art, and as some of the type was -kept on the train he could set it up in moments of leisure. Thus he -became the compositor, pressman, editor, proprietor, publisher, and -newsdealer of the _Weekly Herald_. The price was three cents a copy, or -eight cents a month for regular subscribers and the circulation ran up -to over four hundred copies an issue. Only one or two copies of this -journal are now to be found. - -It was the first newspaper in the world printed on a train in motion. -It received the patronage of the famous English engineer, Stephenson, -and was also noted by the _London Times_. As the production of a boy of -fourteen it was certainly a clever sheet, and many people were willing -subscribers, for, by the aid of the railway telegraph, Edison was often -able to print late news of local importance which could not be found in -regular papers, like those of Detroit. - -Edison's business grew so large that he employed a boy friend to help -him. There was often plenty of work for both in the early days of the -war, when the news of battle caused great excitement. - -In order to increase the sales of newspapers, Edison would telegraph -the news ahead to the agents of stations where the train stopped and -get them to put up bulletins, so that, when the stations were reached, -there would usually be plenty of purchasers waiting. - -He recalls in particular the sensation caused by the great battle of -Shiloh, or Pittsburg Landing, in April, 1862, in which both Grant and -Sherman were engaged, in which the Confederate General Johnston was -killed, and in which there was a great number of men killed and wounded. - -The bulletin-boards of the Detroit newspapers were surrounded by dense -crowds, which read that there were about sixty thousand killed and -wounded, and that the result was uncertain. Edison, in relating his -experience of that day, says: - -"I knew if the same excitement was shown at the various small towns -along the road, and especially at Port Huron, the sale of papers would -be great. I then conceived the idea of telegraphing the news ahead, -went to the operator in the depot, and, on my giving him _Harper's -Weekly_ and some other papers for three months, he agreed to telegraph -to all the stations the matter on the bulletin-board. I hurriedly -copied it, and he sent it, requesting the agents to display it on the -blackboards used for stating the arrival and departure of trains. I -decided that, instead of the usual one hundred papers, I could sell one -thousand; but not having sufficient money to purchase that number, I -determined in my desperation to see the editor himself and get credit. -The great paper at that time was the _Detroit Free Press_. I walked -into the office marked 'Editorial' and told a young man that I wanted -to see the editor on important business--important to me, anyway. - -"I was taken into an office where there were two men, and I stated what -I had done about telegraphing, and that I wanted a thousand papers, but -only had money for three hundred, and I wanted credit. One of the men -refused it, but the other told the first spokesman to let me have them. -This man, I afterward learned, was Wilbur F. Storey, who subsequently -founded the _Chicago Times_ and became celebrated in the newspaper -world. With the aid of another boy I lugged the papers to the train -and started folding them. The first station, called Utica, was a small -one, where I generally sold two papers. I saw a crowd ahead on the -platform, and thought it was some excursion, but the moment I landed -there was a rush for me; then I realized that the telegraph was a great -invention. I sold thirty-five papers there. The next station was Mount -Clemens, now a watering-place, but then a town of about one thousand -population. I usually sold six to eight papers there. I decided that if -I found a corresponding crowd there the only thing to do to correct my -lack of judgment in not getting more papers was to raise the price from -five cents to ten. The crowd was there, and I raised the price. At the -various towns there were corresponding crowds. It had been my practice -at Port Huron to jump from the train at a point about one-fourth of -a mile from the station, where the train generally slackened speed. -I had drawn several loads of sand to this point to jump on, and had -become quite expert. The little Dutch boy with the horse met me at this -point. When the wagon approached the outskirts of the town I was met by -a large crowd. I then yelled: 'Twenty-five cents apiece, gentlemen! I -haven't enough to go around!' I sold out, and made what to me then was -an immense sum of money." - -But this and similar gains of money did not increase Edison's savings, -for all his spare cash was spent for new chemicals and apparatus. He -had bought a copy of Fresenius's _Qualitative Analysis_, and, with -his ceaseless testing and study of its advanced problems, his little -laboratory on the train was now becoming crowded with additional -equipment, especially as he now added electricity to his studies. - -"While a newsboy on the railroad," says Edison, "I got very much -interested in electricity, probably from visiting telegraph offices -with a chum who had tastes similar to mine." - -We have already seen that he was shrewd enough to use the telegraph -to get news items for his own little journal and also to bulletin his -special news of the Civil War along the line. To such a ceaseless -experimenter as he was, it was only natural that electricity should -come in for a share of his attention. With his knowledge of chemistry, -he had no trouble in "setting up" batteries, but his difficulty lay in -obtaining instruments and material for circuits. - -To-day any youth who desires to experiment with telegraphy or telephony -can find plenty of stores where apparatus can be bought ready made, -or he can make many things himself by following the instructions in -_Harper's Electricity Book for Boys_. But in Edison's boyish days -it was quite different. Telegraph supplies were hard to obtain, and -amateurs were usually obliged to make their own apparatus. - -However, he and his chum had a line between their homes, built of -common stove-pipe wire. The insulators were bottles set on nails driven -into trees and short poles. The magnet wire was wound with rags for -insulation, and pieces of spring brass were used for telegraph keys. - -With the idea of securing current cheaply, Edison applied the little -he knew about static electricity, and actually experimented with cats. -He treated them vigorously as frictional machines until the animals -fled in dismay, leaving their marks to remind the young inventor of -his first great lesson in the relative value of sources of electrical -energy. Resorting to batteries, however, the line was made to work, and -the two boys exchanged messages. - -[Illustration: EDISON WHEN ABOUT FOURTEEN OR FIFTEEN YEARS OF AGE] - -Edison wanted lots of practice, and secured it in an ingenious manner. -If he could have had his way he would have sat up until the small hours -of the morning, but his father insisted on eleven-thirty as the proper -bed-time, which left but a short interval after a long day on the train. - -Now, each evening, when the boy went home with newspapers that had not -been sold, his father would sit up to read them. So Edison on some -excuse had his friend take the papers, but suggested to his father that -he could get the news from the chum by telegraph bit by bit. The scheme -interested the father, and was put into effect, the messages over the -wire being written down by Edison and handed to the old gentleman to -read. - -This gave good practice every night until twelve or one o'clock, and -was kept up for some time, until the father became willing that his son -should sit up for a reasonable time. The papers were then brought home -again, and the boys practised to their hearts' content, until the line -was pulled down by a stray cow wandering through the orchard. - -Now we come to the incident which may be regarded as turning Edison's -thoughts more definitely to electricity. One August morning, in 1862, -the mixed train on which he worked as newsboy was doing some shunting -at Mount Clemens station. A laden box-car had been pushed out of a -siding, when Edison, who was loitering about the platform, saw the -little son of the station agent, Mr. J. U. Mackenzie, playing with the -gravel on the main track, along which the car, without a brakeman, was -rapidly approaching. - -Edison dropped his papers and his cap and made a dash for the child, -whom he picked up and lifted to safety without a second to spare, as -the wheel struck his heel. Both were cut about the face and hands by -the gravel ballast on which they fell. - -The two boys were picked up by the train-hands and carried to the -platform, and the grateful father, who knew and liked the rescuer, -offered to teach him the art of train telegraphy and to make an -operator of him. It is needless to say that the proposal was most -eagerly accepted. - -Edison found time for his new studies by letting one of his friends -look after the newsboy work on the train for part of the trip, keeping -for himself the run between Port Huron and Mount Clemens. We have -already seen that he was qualified as a beginner, and, besides, he was -able to take to the station a neat little set of instruments he had -just finished at a gun shop in Detroit. - -What with his business as newsboy, his publication of the _Weekly -Herald_, his reading and chemical and electrical experiments, Edison -was leading a busy life and making rapid progress, but unexpectedly -there came disaster, which brought about a sudden change. One day, as -the train was running swiftly over a piece of poorly laid track, there -was a sudden lurch, and a stick of phosphorus was jarred from its -shelf, fell to the floor and burst into flame. - -The car took fire, and Edison was trying in vain to put out the blaze -when the conductor rushed in with water and saved the car. On arriving -at the next station the enraged conductor put the boy off with his -entire outfit, including his laboratory and printing-plant. - -The origin of Edison's deafness may be told in his own words: "My train -was standing by the platform at Smith's Creek station. I was trying -to climb into the freight car with both arms full of papers when the -conductor took me by the ears and lifted me. I felt something snap -inside my head, and my deafness started from that time and has ever -since progressed." - -"This deafness has been a great advantage to me in various ways. When -in a telegraph office I could hear only the instrument directly on -the table at which I sat, and, unlike the other operators, I was not -bothered by the other instruments. Again, in experimenting on the -telephone, I had to improve the transmitter so that I could hear it. -This made the telephone commercial, as the magneto telephone receiver -of Bell was too weak to be used as a transmitter commercially. It was -the same with the phonograph. The great defect of that instrument was -the rendering of the overtones in music and the hissing consonants in -speech. I worked over one year, twenty hours a day, Sundays and all, -to get the word "specie" perfectly recorded and reproduced on the -phonograph. When this was done I knew that everything else could be -done--which was a fact. Again, my nerves have been preserved intact. -Broadway is as quiet to me as a country village is to a person with -normal hearing." - -But we left young Edison on the station platform, sorrowful and -indignant, as the train moved off, deserting him in the midst of his -beloved possessions. He was saddened, but not altogether discouraged, -and after some trouble succeeded in making his way home, where he again -set up his laboratory and also his printing-office. There was some -objection on the part of the family, as they feared that they might -also suffer from fire, but he promised not to bring in anything of a -dangerous nature. - -He continued to publish the _Weekly Herald_, but after a while was -persuaded by a chum to change its character and publish it under the -name of _Paul Pry_, making it a journal of town gossip about local -people and their affairs and peculiarities. - -No copies of _Paul Pry_ can now be found, but it is known that its -style was distinctly personal, and the weaknesses of the townspeople -were discussed in it very freely and frankly by the two boys. It caused -no small offense, and in one instance Edison was pitched into the St. -Clair River by one of the victims whose affairs had been given such -unsought publicity. - -Possibly this was one of the reasons that caused Edison to give up the -paper not very long afterward. He had a great liking for newspaper -work, and might have continued in that field had it not been for strong -influences in other directions. There is no question, however, that he -was the youngest publisher and editor of his time. - - -V - -A FEW STORIES OF EDISON'S NEWSBOY DAYS - - -The Grand Trunk Railroad machine shops at Port Huron had a great -attraction for young Edison. The boy who was to have much to do with -the evolution of the modern electric locomotive in later years was -fascinated with the mechanism of the steam locomotive. Whenever he -could get the chance he would ride with the engineer in the cab, and he -liked nothing better than to handle the locomotive himself during the -run. Edison's own account of what happened on of these trips is very -laughable. He says: - -"The engine was one of a number leased to the Grank Trunk by the -Chicago, Burlington & Quincy. It had bright brass bands all over the -woodwork, was beautifully painted, and everything was highly polished, -which was the custom up to the time old Commodore Vanderbilt stopped it -on his roads. It was a slow freight train. The engineer and fireman had -been out all night at a dance. After running about fifteen miles they -became so sleepy that they couldn't keep their eyes open, and agreed -to permit me to run the engine. I took charge, reducing the speed to -about twelve miles an hour, and brought the train of seven cars to her -destination at the Grand Trunk junction safely. But something occurred -which was very much out of the ordinary. I was greatly worried about -the water, and I knew that if it got low the boiler was likely to -explode. I hadn't gone twenty miles before black, damp mud blew out of -the stack and covered every part of the engine, including myself. I -was about to awaken the fireman to find out the cause of this, when it -stopped. Then I approached a station where the fireman always went out -to the cow-catcher, opened the oil-cup on the steam-chest, and poured -oil in. I started to carry out the procedure, when, upon opening the -oil-cup, the steam rushed out with a tremendous noise, nearly knocking -me off the engine. I succeeded in closing the oil-cup and got back -in the cab, and made up my mind that she would pull through without -oil. I learned afterward that the engineer always shut off steam when -the fireman went to oil. This point I failed to notice. My powers of -observation were very much improved after this occurrence. Just before -I reached the junction another outpour of black mud occurred, and the -whole engine was a sight--so much so that when I pulled into the yard -everybody turned to see it, laughing immoderately. I found the reason -of the mud was that I carried so much water it passed over into the -stack, and this washed out all the accumulated soot." - -One afternoon, about a week before Christmas, the train on which Edison -was a newsboy jumped the track. Four old cars with rotten sills went -all to pieces, distributing figs, raisins, dates, and candies all over -the track. Hating to see so much waste, the boy tried to save all he -could by eating it on the spot, but, as a result, he says, "our family -doctor had the time of his life with me." - -Another incident, which shows free and easy railroading and Southern -extravagance, is related by Edison, as follows: - -"In 1860, just before the war broke out, there came to the train one -afternoon in Detroit two fine-looking young men, accompanied by a -colored servant. They bought tickets for Port Huron, the terminal point -for the train. After leaving the junction just outside of Detroit, I -brought in the evening papers. When I came opposite the two young men, -one of them said, 'Boy, what have you got?' I said, 'Papers.' 'All -right.' He took them and threw them out of the window, and, turning to -the colored man, said, 'Nicodemus, pay this boy.' I told Nicodemus the -amount, and he opened a satchel and paid me. The passengers didn't know -what to make of the transaction. I returned with the illustrated papers -and magazines. These were seized and thrown out of the window, and I -was told to get my money of Nicodemus. I then returned with all the old -magazines and novels I had not been able to sell, thinking perhaps this -would be too much for them. I was small and thin, and the layer reached -above my head, and was all I could possibly carry. I had prepared a -list, and knew the amount in case they bit again. When I opened the -door all the passengers roared with laughter. I walked right up to the -young men. One asked me what I had. I said, 'Magazines and novels.' He -promptly threw them out of the window, and Nicodemus settled. Then I -came in with cracked hickory nuts, then popcorn balls, and, finally, -molasses candy. All went out of the window. I felt like Alexander the -Great!--I had no more chances! I had sold all I had. Finally I put a -rope to my trunk, which was about the size of a carpenter's chest, -and started to pull this from the baggage-car to the passenger-car. -It was almost too much for my strength, but at last I got it in front -of those men. I pulled off my coat and hat and shoes and laid them on -the chest. Then the young man asked, 'What have you got, boy?' I said, -'Everything, sir, that I can spare that is for sale.' The passengers -fairly jumped with laughter. Nicodemus paid me $27 for this last sale, -and threw the whole out of the door in the rear of the car. These men -were from the South, and I have always retained a soft spot in my heart -for a Southern gentleman." - -While Edison was a newsboy on the train a request came to him one day -to go to the office of E. B. Ward & Co., at that time the largest -owners of steamboats on the Great Lakes. The captain of their largest -boat had died suddenly, and they wanted a message taken to another -captain who lived about fourteen miles from Ridgeway station on the -railroad. This captain had retired, taken up some lumber land, and had -cleared part of it. Edison was offered fifteen dollars by Mr. Ward -to go and fetch him, but as it was a wild country and would be dark, -Edison stood out for twenty-five dollars, so that he could get the -companionship of another lad. The terms were agreed to. Edison arrived -at Ridgeway at 8.30 P.M., when it was raining and as dark as ink. -Getting with difficulty another boy to volunteer, he launched out on -his errand in the pitch-black night. The two boys carried lanterns, -but the road was a rough path through dense forest. The country was -wild, and it was quite usual to see deer, bear, and coon skins nailed -up on the sides of houses to dry. Edison had read about bears, but -couldn't remember whether they were day or night prowlers. The farther -they went, the more afraid they became, and every stump in the forest -looked like a bear. The other lad proposed seeking safety up a tree, -but Edison objected on the plea that bears could climb, and that the -message must be delivered that night to enable the captain to catch -the morning train. First one lantern went out, then the other. Edison -says: "We leaned up against a tree and cried. I thought if I ever got -out of that scrape alive I would know more about the habits of animals -and everything else, and be prepared for all kinds of mischance when I -again undertook an enterprise. However, the intense darkness dilated -the pupils of our eyes so as to make them very sensitive, and we could -just see at times the outline of the road. Finally, just as a faint -gleam of daylight arrived, we entered the captain's yard and delivered -the message. In my whole life I never spent such a night of horror as -that, but I got a good lesson." - -An amusing incident of this period is told by Edison. "When I was a -boy," he says, "the Prince of Wales, the late King Edward, came to -Canada (1860). Great preparations were made at Sarnia, the Canadian -town opposite Port Huron. About every boy, including myself, went -over to see the affair. The town was draped in flags most profusely, -and carpets were laid on the cross-walks for the Prince to walk on. -There were arches, etc. A stand was built, raised above the general -level, where the Prince was to be received by the Mayor. Seeing all -these preparations, my idea of a prince was very high; but when he -did arrive I mistook the Duke of Newcastle for him, the Duke being a -fine-looking man. I soon saw that I was mistaken, that the Prince was a -young stripling, and did not meet expectations. Several of us expressed -our belief that a prince wasn't much after all, and said that we were -thoroughly disappointed. For this one boy was whipped. Soon the Canuck -boys attacked the Yankee boys, and we were all badly licked. I, myself, -got a black eye. That has always prejudiced me against that kind of -ceremonial and folly." - -Many years afterward, when Edison had won fame by many inventions, -including his electric-light system, and had been awarded the Albert -Gold Medal by the Royal Society of Arts, it was this same prince who -wrote a graceful letter which accompanied the medal. - -Here is another of Mr. Edison's stories: - -"After selling papers in Port Huron, which was often not reached -until about nine-thirty at night, I seldom got home before eleven or -eleven-thirty. About half-way home from the station and the town, -within twenty-five feet of the road, in a dense wood, was a soldiers' -graveyard, where three hundred soldiers were buried, due to a cholera -epidemic which took place at Fort Gratiot, near by, many years -previously. At first we used to shut our eyes and run the horse past -this graveyard, and if the horse stepped on a twig my heart would give -a violent movement, and it is a wonder that I haven't some valvular -disease of that organ. But soon this running of the horse became -monotonous, and after a while all fears of graveyards absolutely -disappeared from my system. I was in the condition of Sam Houston, the -pioneer and founder of Texas, who, it was said, knew no fear. Houston -lived some distance from the town, and generally went home late at -night, having to pass through a dark cypress swamp over a corduroy -road. One night, to test his alleged fearlessness, a man stationed -himself behind a tree, and enveloped himself in a sheet. He confronted -Houston suddenly, and Sam stopped and said: 'If you are a man, you -can't hurt me. If you are a ghost, you don't want to hurt me. And if -you are the devil, come home with me; I married your sister!'" - -We have already seen that Edison was of an exceedingly studious nature -and full of ambition to work, experiment, and hustle. The serious -side of his nature did not, however, wholly prevail. He had a keen -enjoyment of a joke, even as he has now, and in his boyhood days had -no particular objection if it took a practical form. The following, as -related by him, is one of many: - -"After the breaking out of the War there was a regiment of volunteer -soldiers quartered at Fort Gratiot, the reservation extending to the -boundary line of our house. Nearly every night we would hear a call -such as 'Corporal of the Guard No. 1.' This would be repeated from -sentry to sentry, until it reached the barracks, when Corporal of the -Guard No. 1 would come and see what was wanted. I and the little Dutch -boy, upon returning from the town after selling our papers, thought we -would take a hand at military affairs. So one night, when it was very -dark, I shouted for Corporal of the Guard No. 1. The second sentry, -thinking it was the terminal sentry who shouted, repeated it to the -third, and so on. This brought the corporal along the half mile, only -to find that he was fooled. We tried him three nights; but the third -night they were watching, and caught the little Dutch boy, took him -to the lock-up at the fort, and shut him up. They chased me to the -house. I rushed for the cellar. In one small compartment, where there -were two barrels of potatoes and a third one nearly empty, I poured -these remnants into the other barrels, sat down, and pulled the empty -barrel over my head, bottom up. The soldiers had awakened my father, -and they were searching for me with candles and lanterns. The corporal -was absolutely certain I came into the cellar, and couldn't see how I -could have gotten out, and wanted to know from my father if there was -no secret hiding-place. On assurance of my father, who said that there -was not, he said it was most extraordinary. I was glad when they left, -as I was cramped, and the potatoes that had been in the barrel were -rotten and violently offensive. The next morning I was found in bed, -and received a good switching on the legs from my father, the first and -only one I ever received from him, although my mother kept behind the -old Seth Thomas clock a switch that had the bark worn off. My mother's -ideas and mine differed at times, especially when I got experimenting -and mussed up things. The Dutch boy was released next morning." - -It may have seemed strange to you, on reading this and the previous -chapter, that a lad so young as Edison was during the newsboy -period--from about twelve to fifteen years of age--should have been -allowed such wide liberty. An extensive traveler for those days, going -early and returning late, an experimenter in chemistry, a publisher, -printer, newsdealer, amateur locomotive engineer, and what not, covered -a large range of experience and action for one so youthful. - -To others of the family than his mother he was accounted a strange boy, -some believing him to be mentally unbalanced. His mother, however, -understood that his was no ordinary mind, for she had studied him -thoroughly. While she watched him closely, she allowed him the widest -possible sphere of action and encouraged his ever increasing studies. - -A member of the family, in talking recently with the writer, said -that when any one expressed nervousness about young Edison during his -absences she would say: "Al is all right. Nothing will happen to him. -God is taking care of him." - - -VI - -THE YOUNG TELEGRAPH OPERATOR - - -After Edison's expulsion from the train with his laboratory and -belongings, his career as a newsboy came to a sudden close. But, while -he felt some disappointment, he was not discouraged and was none the -less busy. As we have seen, he published his local paper for a while -and also continued his chemical experiments at home. In addition, he -plunged deeply into the study of telegraphy under Mr. Mackenzie's -tuition. - -Edison took to telegraphy enthusiastically, giving to it no less than -eighteen hours a day. After some months he had made such progress that -he put up a telegraph line from the station to the village, about a -mile distant, and opened an office in a drug store; but the business -there was very light and the office was not continued long. - -A little later he became the regular operator at Port Huron. The -office was in the store of a Mr. M. Walker, who sold jewelry and also -newspapers and periodicals. Edison was to be found at the office both -day and night, and slept there. - -He says: "I became quite valuable to Mr. Walker. After working all -day I worked at the office nights as well, for the reason that 'press -reports' came over one of the wires until 3 A.M., and I would cut in -and copy it as well as I could, to become proficient more rapidly. The -goal of the rural telegraph operator was to be able to take press. Mr. -Walker tried to get my father to apprentice me at twenty dollars per -month, but they could not agree. I then applied for a job on the Grand -Trunk Railroad as a railway operator, and was given a place, nights, at -Stratford Junction, Canada." - -Many years afterward Mr. Walker described the boy of sixteen as -engrossed intensely in his experiments and scientific reading. The -telegraph office was not a busy one, but sometimes messages taken -in would remain unsent while Edison was in the cellar busy on some -chemical problem. - -He would be seen at times reading a scientific paper and then -disappearing to buy a few sundries for experiments. Returning from -the drug store with his chemicals, he would not be seen again until -required by his duties, or until he had found out for himself, if -possible, the truth of the statement he had been reading. If wanted -for his experiment, he did not hesitate to make free use of the -watchmaker's tools that lay on the table in the front window. His one -idea was to do quickly when he wanted to do; and this tendency is still -one of his marked characteristics. - -The telegrapher's position at Stratford Junction, Canada, was taken by -Edison in 1863, when he was sixteen years old, and paid him twenty-five -dollars per month. In speaking of it he has since remarked that there -was little difference between the telegraph of that time and that of -to-day. He says: "The telegraph men couldn't explain how it worked, -and I was always trying to get them to do so. I think they couldn't. -I remember the best explanation I got was from an old Scotch line -repairer employed by the Montreal Telegraph Company, which operated the -railroad wires. He said that if you had a dog like a dachshund, long -enough to reach from Edinburgh to London, if you pulled his tail in -Edinburgh he would bark in London. I could understand that, but I never -could get it through me what went through the dog or over the wire." - -Edison was ever keenly anxious to add to his stock of experimental -apparatus, as an incident of this period shows: "While working at -Stratford Junction," he says, "I was told by one of the freight -conductors that in the freight-house at Goodrich there were several -boxes of old broken-up batteries. I went there and found over eighty -cells of the well-known Grove nitric-acid battery. The operator there, -who was also agent, when asked by me if I could have the electrodes -of each cell, which were made of sheet platinum, gave his permission -readily, thinking they were of tin. I removed them all, and they -amounted to several ounces in weight. Platinum even in those days was -very expensive, costing several dollars an ounce, and I owned only -three small strips. I was overjoyed at this acquisition, and those very -strips and the reworked scrap are used to this day in my laboratory, -over forty years later." - -It was while he was employed as a night operator at Stratford Junction -that Edison's inventiveness was first displayed. In order to make -sure that the operators were not asleep they were required to send -the signal "6" to the train despatcher's office every hour during the -night. Now, Edison spent all day in study and experiment, but he needed -sleep, just as any healthy youth does, and so he made a small wheel -with notches on the rim and attached it to the clock and line. At night -he connected it with the circuit, and at each hour the wheel revolved -and automatically sent in the dots required for "sixing." - -The invention was a success, but the train despatcher soon noticed that -frequently, in spite of the regularity of the report, Edison's office -could not be raised even if a message were sent immediately after. An -investigation followed, which revealed this ingenious device, and he -received a reprimand. - -A serious occurrence that might have resulted in accident drove him -soon after from Canada, although the youth could hardly be held to -blame for it. Edison says: "This night job just suited me, as I could -have the whole day to myself. I had the faculty of sleeping in a chair -any time for a few minutes at a time. I taught the night yardman my -call, so I could get half an hour's sleep now and then between trains, -and in case the station was called the watchman would awaken me. One -night I got an order to hold a freight train, and I replied that I -would. I rushed out to find the signalman, but before I could find -him and get the signal set the train ran past. I ran to the telegraph -office, and reported that I could not hold her. The train despatcher, -on the strength of my message that I would hold the train, had -permitted another to leave the last station in the opposite direction. -There was a lower station near the junction, where the day operator -slept. I started for it on foot. The night was dark, and I fell into a -culvert and was knocked senseless." - -Fortunately, the two engineers saw each other approaching and stopped -in time to prevent an accident. Edison, however, was summoned to the -general manager's office to be tried for neglect of duty. During the -trial two Englishmen called, and while they were talking with the -manager the youthful operator slipped out, jumped on a freight train -going to Sarnia, and was not happy until the ferry-boat from Sarnia had -landed him safe on the Michigan shore. - -The same winter, of 1863-64, while at Port Huron, Edison had a further -opportunity of showing his ingenuity. An ice-jam had broken the -telegraph cable laid in the bed of the river across to Sarnia, and -communication was interrupted. The river is three-quarters of a mile -wide, and could not be crossed on foot, nor could the cable be repaired. - -Edison suggested using the steam whistle of a locomotive to give the -long and short signals of the Morse code. An operator on the Sarnia -shore was quick enough to understand the meaning of the strange -whistling, and thus messages were sent in wireless fashion across the -ice-floes in the river. - -Young Edison had no inclination to return to Canada after his late -experience there. He decided, however, that he would stick to -telegraphy as a business, and, after a short stay at home in Port -Huron, set out to find work as an operator in another city. And thus he -commenced the roaming and drifting life which in the next five years -took him all over the Middle States. - -At this time the Civil War was in progress, and many hundreds of -skilled operators were at the front with the army, engaged exclusively -in government service. Consequently there was a great scarcity of -telegraphers throughout all the cities and towns of the country. For -this reason it was not difficult for an operator to get work wherever -he might go. Thus one might gratify a desire to travel and get -experience without running much risk of privation. - -There were a great many others besides Edison who wandered about from -city to city, working awhile in one place and drifting to another. As -a rule, they were bright, happy-go-lucky fellows, full of the spirit -of good comradeship, and willing to share bed, board, and pocket-money -with those who might temporarily be less fortunate than themselves. - -Many of them used telegraphy as a stepping-stone to better themselves -in life, while others, unfortunately, became dissipated, and, becoming -unreliable through drink, could not hold a position for long. Had -Edison been by nature less persistent and industrious than he was, this -miscellaneous companionship might have tended to wreck his career, but -all through his life, from boyhood, he has been particularly abstemious -and has had a contempt for the wastefulness of time, money, and health -entailed by the drink habit. - -Throughout this period of his life Edison, although wandering from -place to place, never ceased to study, explore, and experiment. -Referring to this beginning of his career, he mentions a curious fact -that throws light on his ceaseless application. "After I became a -telegraph operator," he says, "I practised for a long time to become -a rapid reader of print, and got so expert I could sense the meaning -of a whole line at once. This faculty, I believe, should be taught in -schools, as it appears to be easily acquired. Then one can read two or -three books in a day, whereas if each word at a time only is sensed -reading is laborious." - -During this wandering period of his life Edison made many friends, one -of the earliest of whom was Milton F. Adams, who had a strange career. -Of him Edison says: "Adams was one of a class of operators never -satisfied to work at any place for any great length of time. He had the -'wanderlust.' After enjoying hospitality in Boston in 1868-69, on the -floor of my hall bedroom, which was a paradise for the entomologist, -while the boarding-house itself was run on the Banting system of flesh -reduction, he came to me one day and said: 'Good-by, Edison, I have -got sixty cents, and I am going to San Francisco.' And he did go. How, -I never knew personally. I learned afterward that he got a job there, -and then within a week they had a telegraphers' strike. He got a big -torch and sold patent medicine on the streets at night to support the -strikers. Then he went to Peru as partner of a man who had a grizzly -bear which they proposed entering against a bull in the bull-ring in -that city. The grizzly was killed in five minutes, and so the scheme -died. Then Adams crossed the Andes, and started a market report bureau -in Buenos Ayres. This didn't pay, so he started a restaurant in -Pernambuco, Brazil. There he did very well, but something went wrong -(as it always does to a nomad), so he went to the Transvaal, and ran -a panorama called 'Paradise Lost' in the Kaffir kraals. This didn't -pay, and he became the editor of a newspaper; then he went to England -to raise money for a railroad in Cape Colony. Next I heard of him in -New York, having just arrived from Bogota, United States of Columbia, -with a power of attorney and two thousand dollars from a native of that -republic, who applied for a patent for tightening a belt to prevent it -from slipping on a pulley--a device which he thought a new and great -invention, but which was in use ever since machinery was invented. I -gave Adams then a position as salesman for electrical apparatus. This -he soon got tired of, and I lost sight of him." - - -VII - -ADVENTURES OF A TELEGRAPH OPERATOR - -The first position that Edison took after leaving Canada so hurriedly -was at Adrian, Michigan, and of what happened there he tells a story -typical of his wanderings for several years to come. - -"After leaving my first job at Stratford Junction I got a position as -operator on the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern at Adrian, Michigan, -in the division superintendent's office. As usual, I took the 'night -trick,' which most operators disliked, but which I preferred, as it -gave me more leisure to experiment. I had obtained from the station -agent a small room, and had established a little shop of my own. One -day the day operator wanted to get off, and I was on duty. About nine -o'clock the superintendent handed me a despatch which he said was very -important, and which I must get off at once. The wire at the time was -very busy, and I asked if I should break in. I got orders to do so, -and, acting under those orders of the superintendent, I broke in and -tried to send the despatch; but the other operator would not permit it, -and the struggle continued for ten minutes. Finally I got possession -of the wire and sent the message. The superintendent of telegraph, -who then lived in Adrian and went to his office in Toledo every day, -happened that day to be in the Western Union office up-town--and it -was the superintendent I was really struggling with! In about twenty -minutes he arrived, livid with rage, and I was discharged on the spot. -I informed him that the general superintendent had told me to break in -and send the despatch, but the general superintendent then and there -repudiated the whole thing. Their families were socially close, so I -was sacrificed. My faith in human nature got a slight jar." - -From Adrian Edison went to Toledo, Ohio, and secured a position at -Fort Wayne, on the Pittsburg, Fort Wayne & Chicago Railroad. This was -a "day job," and he did not like it. Two months later he drifted to -Indianapolis, arriving there in the fall of 1864, when for the first -time he entered the employ of the Western Union Telegraph Company, -with which in later years he entered into closer relationship. At this -time, however, he was assigned to duty at Union Station, at a salary of -seventy-five dollars a month. - -He did not stay long in Indianapolis, however, leaving in February, -1865, and going from there to Cincinnati. This change was possibly -caused by one of his early inventions, which has been spoken of by -an expert as probably the most simple and ingenious arrangement of -connections for a repeater. - -His ambition was to take "press report," which would come over the -wire quite fast, but finding even after considerable practice, that he -"broke" frequently, he adjusted two embossing Morse registers--one to -receive the press matter and the other to repeat the dots and dashes at -a lower speed, so that the message could be copied leisurely. Hence, -he could not be rushed or "broken" in receiving, while he could turn -out copy that was a marvel of neatness and clearness. This went well -under ordinary conditions, but when an unusual pressure occurred he -fell behind, and the newspapers complained of the slowness with which -the reports were delivered to them. As to this device, Mr. Edison said -recently: "Together we took press for several nights, my companion -keeping the apparatus in adjustment and I copying. The regular press -operator would go to the theater or take a nap, only finishing the -report after 1 A.M. One of the newspapers complained of bad copy toward -the end of the report--that is, from 1 to 3 A.M.--and requested that -the operators taking the report up to 1 A.M., which were ourselves, -take it all, as the copy then was perfectly unobjectionable. This led -to an investigation by the manager, and the scheme was forbidden. - -"This instrument many years afterward was applied by me to transferring -messages from one wire to any other wire simultaneously or after any -interval of time. It consisted of a disk of paper, the indentations -being formed in a volute spiral, exactly as in the disk phonograph -to-day. It was this instrument which gave me the idea of the phonograph -while working on the telephone." - -Arriving in Cincinnati, Edison got employment in the Western Union -Commercial Telegraph Department at sixty dollars per month. Here he -made the acquaintance of Milton F. Adams, referred to in the preceding -chapter. Speaking of that time, Mr. Adams says: - -"I can well recall when Edison drifted in to take a job. He was a youth -of about eighteen years, decidedly unprepossessing in dress and rather -uncouth in manner. I was twenty-one, and very dudish. He was quite thin -in those days, and his nose was very prominent, giving a Napoleonic -look to his face, although the curious resemblance did not strike me at -the time. The boys did not take to him cheerfully, and he was lonesome. -I sympathized with him, and we became close companions. As an operator -he had no superiors, and very few equals. Most of the time he was -'monkeying' with the batteries and circuits, and devising things to -make the work of telegraphy less irksome. He also relieved the monotony -of office work by fitting up the battery circuits to play jokes on -his fellow-operators, and to deal with the vermin that infested the -premises. He arranged in the cellar what he called his 'rat paralyzer,' -a very simple contrivance, consisting of two plates insulated from each -other and connected with the main battery. They were so placed that -when a rat passed over them the fore feet on the one plate and the hind -feet on the other completed the circuit, and the rat departed this -life, electrocuted." Shortly after Edison's arrival in Cincinnati came -the close of the Civil War and the assassination of President Lincoln. -One of Edison's reminiscences is interesting as showing the mechanical -way in which some telegraph operators do their work. "I noticed," he -says, "an immense crowd gathering in the street outside a newspaper -office. I called the attention of the other operators to the crowd, -and we sent a messenger boy to find the cause of the excitement. He -returned in a few minutes and shouted, 'Lincoln's shot!' Instinctively -the operators looked from one face to another to see which man had -received the news. All the faces were blank, and every man said he had -not taken a word about the shooting. 'Look over your files,' said the -boss to the man handling the press stuff. For a few moments we waited -in suspense, and then the man held up a sheet of paper containing a -short account of the shooting of the President. The operator had worked -so mechanically that he had handled the news without the slightest -realization of its significance." - -Edison's diversions in Cincinnati were characteristic of his life -before and since. He read a great deal, but spent most of his leisure -time experimenting. Occasionally he would indulge in some form of -amusement, but this was not often. At this time he and Adams were close -friends, and Mr. Adams remarks: "Edison and I were fond of tragedy. -Forrest and John McCullough were playing at the National Theater, -and when our capital was sufficient we would go to see those eminent -tragedians alternate in Othello and Iago. Edison always enjoyed Othello -greatly. Aside from an occasional visit to the Loewen Garten, 'over -the Rhine,' with a glass of beer and a few pretzels consumed while -listening to the excellent music of a German band, the theater was the -sum and substance of our innocent dissipation." - -While Edison was in Cincinnati there came one day a delegation of -five trade-union operators from Cleveland to form a local branch in -Cincinnati. The occasion was one of great conviviality. Night came and -many of the operators were away. The Cleveland wire was in special -need, and Edison, almost alone in the office, devoted himself to it all -through the night and until three o'clock next morning, when he was -relieved. He had been previously getting eighty dollars a month, and -added to this by copying plays for a theater. - -His rating was that of a "plug," or inferior operator, but having -determined to become a first-class operator, he had kept up a practice -of going to the office at night to take "press," acting willingly -as a substitute for any operator who wanted to get off for a few -hours--which often meant all night. - -Thus he had been unconsciously preparing for the special ordeal which -the conviviality of the trade-unionists had brought about. - -Speaking of that night's work, Edison says: "My copy looked fine if -viewed as a whole, as I could write a perfectly straight line across -the wide sheet, which was not ruled. There were no flourishes, but -the individual letters would not bear close inspection. When I missed -understanding a word there was no time to think what it was, so I made -an illegible one to fill in, trusting to the printers to sense it. I -knew they could read anything, although Mr. Bloss, an editor of the -_Inquirer_, made such bad copy that one of his editorials was pasted -up on the notice board in the telegraph office with an offer of one -dollar to any man who could 'read twenty consecutive words.' Nobody -ever did it. When I got through I was too nervous to go home, and so I -waited the rest of the night for the day manager, Mr. Stevens, to see -what was to be the outcome of this union formation and of my efforts. -He was an austere man, and I was afraid of him. I got the morning -papers, which came out at 4 A.M., and the press report read perfectly, -which surprised me greatly. I went to work on my regular day wire to -Portsmouth, Ohio, and there was considerable excitement, but nothing -was said to me, neither did Mr. Stevens examine the copy on the office -hook, which I was watching with great interest. However, about 3 P.M. -he went to the hook, grabbed the bunch and looked at it as a whole -without examining it in detail, for which I was thankful. Then he -jabbed it back on the hook, and I knew I was all right. He walked over -to me, and said: 'Young man, I want you to work the Louisville wire -nights; your salary will be one hundred and twenty-five dollars.' Thus -I got from the plug classification to that of a 'first-class man.'" - -Not long after this promotion was secured Edison started again on his -wanderings. He went south, while his friend Adams went north, neither -one having any difficulty in making the trip. He says: "The boys in -those days had extraordinary facilities for travel. As a usual thing -it was only necessary for them to board a train and tell the conductor -they were operators. Then they could go as far as they liked. The -number of operators was small, and they were in demand everywhere." - -Edison's next stopping place was Memphis, Tennessee, where he got a -position as operator. Here again he began to invent and improve on -existing apparatus, with the result of being obliged once more to "move -on." He tells the story as follows: "I was not the inventor of the -auto-repeater, but while in Memphis I worked on one. Learning that the -chief operator, who was a protégé of the superintendent, was trying -in some way to put New York and New Orleans together for the first -time since the close of the war, I redoubled my efforts, and at two -o'clock one morning I had them speaking to each other. The office of -the Memphis _Avalanche_ was in the same building. The paper got wind -of it and sent messages. A column came out in the morning about it; -but when I went to the office in the afternoon to report for duty I -was discharged without explanation. The superintendent would not even -give me a pass to Nashville, so I had to pay my fare. I had so little -money left that I nearly starved at Decatur, Alabama, and had to stay -three days before going on north to Nashville. Arrived in that city, I -went to the telegraph office, got money enough to buy a little solid -food, and secured a pass to Louisville. I had a companion with me who -was also out of a job. I arrived at Louisville on a bitterly cold day, -with ice in the gutters. I was wearing a linen duster and was not much -to look at, but got a position at once, working on a press wire. My -traveling companion was less successful on account of his 'record.' -They had a limit even in those days when the telegraph service was so -demoralized." - -After the Civil War was over the telegraph service was in desperate -condition, and some of Mr. Edison's reminiscences of these times are -quite interesting. He says: "The telegraph was still under military -control, not having been turned over to the original owners, the -Southern Telegraph Company. In addition to the regular force, there -was an extra force of two or three operators, and some stranded ones, -who were a burden to us, for board was high. One of these derelicts -was a great source of worry to me personally. He would come in at all -hours and either throw ink around or make a lot of noise. One night he -built a fire in the grate and started to throw pistol cartridges into -the flames. These would explode, and I was twice hit by the bullets, -which left a black-and-blue mark. Another night he came in and got from -some part of the building a lot of stationery with 'Confederate States' -printed at the head. He was a fine operator, and wrote a beautiful -hand. He would take a sheet of paper, write capital 'A,' and then take -another sheet and make the 'A' differently; and so on through the -alphabet, each time crumpling the paper up in his hand and throwing it -on the floor. He would keep this up until the room was filled nearly -flush with the table. Then he would quit. - -"Everything at that time was 'wide open.' Disorganization reigned -supreme. There was no head to anything. At night myself and a companion -would go over to a gorgeously furnished faro-bank and get our midnight -lunch. Everything was free. There were over twenty keno-rooms running. -One of them that I visited was in a Baptist church, the man with the -wheel being in the pulpit and the gamblers in the pews. - -"While there, the manager of the telegraph office was arrested for -something I never understood, and incarcerated in a military prison -about half a mile from the office. The building was in plain sight from -the office and four stories high. He was kept strictly incommunicado. -One day, thinking he might be confined in a room facing the office, I -put my arm out of the window and kept signaling dots and dashes by the -movement of the arm. I tried this several times for two days. Finally -he noticed it, and, putting his arm through the bars of the window, he -established communication with me. He thus sent several messages to his -friends, and was afterward set free." - -Another curious story told by Edison concerns a fellow operator on -night duty at Chattanooga Junction at the time he was at Memphis: -"When it was reported that Hood was marching on Nashville, one night -a Jew came into the office about eleven o'clock in great excitement, -having heard the Hood rumor. He, being a large sutler, wanted to send -a message to save his goods. The operator said it was impossible--that -orders had been given to send no private messages. Then the Jew wanted -to bribe my friend, who steadfastly refused, for the reason, as he told -the Jew, that he might be court-martialed and shot. Finally the Jew -got up to eight hundred dollars. The operator swore him to secrecy and -sent the message. Now, there was no such order about private messages, -and the Jew, finding it out, complained to Captain Van Duzer, chief -of telegraphs, who investigated the matter, and while he would not -discharge the operator, laid him off indefinitely. Van Duzer was so -lenient that if an operator was to wait three days and then go and sit -on the stoop of Van Duzer's office all day he would be taken back. But -Van Duzer swore that if the operator had taken eight hundred dollars -and sent the message at the regular rate, which was twenty-five cents, -it would have been all right, as the Jew would be punished for trying -to bribe a military operator; but when the operator took the eight -hundred dollars and then sent the message deadhead he couldn't stand -it, and he would never relent." - -A third typical story of this period relates to a cipher message for -General Thomas. Mr. Edison narrates it as follows: "When I was an -operator in Cincinnati, working the Louisville wire nights for a time, -one night a man over on the Pittsburg wire yelled out: 'D. I. cipher,' -which meant that there was a cipher message from the War Department at -Washington, and that it was coming, and he yelled out 'Louisville.' I -started immediately to call up that place. It was just at the change of -shift in the office. I could not get Louisville, and the cipher message -began to come. It was taken by the operator on the other table, direct -from the War Department. It was for General Thomas, at Nashville. I -called for about twenty minutes and notified them that I could not get -Louisville. I kept at it for about fifteen minutes longer, and notified -them that there was still no answer from Louisville. They then notified -the War Department that they could not get Louisville. Then we tried to -get it by all kinds of roundabout ways, but in no case could anybody -get them at that office. Soon a message came from the War Department -to send immediately for the manager of the Cincinnati office. He was -brought to the office and several messages were exchanged, the contents -of which, of course, I did not know, but the matter appeared to be very -serious, as they were afraid of General Hood, of the Confederate Army, -who was then attempting to march on Nashville; and it was important -that this cipher of about twelve hundred words or so should be got -through immediately to General Thomas. I kept on calling up to twelve -or one o'clock, but no Louisville. About one o'clock the operator -at the Indianapolis office got hold of an operator who happened to -come into his office, which had a wire which ran from Indianapolis to -Louisville along the railroad. He arranged with this operator to get a -relay of horses, and the message was sent through Indianapolis to this -operator, who had engaged horses to carry the despatches to Louisville -and find out the trouble, and get the despatches through without delay -to General Thomas. In those days the telegraph fraternity was rather -demoralized, and the discipline was very lax. It was found out a couple -of days afterward that there were three night operators at Louisville. -One of them had gone over to Jeffersonville and had fallen off a horse -and broken his leg, and was in a hospital. By a remarkable coincidence -another of the men had been stabbed in a keno-room, and was also in a -hospital, while the third operator had gone to Cynthiana to see a man -hanged and had got left by the train." - -[Illustration: Note handwritten by Edison] - -I think the most important line of -investigation is the production of -Electricity direct from carbon. - - Edison - -From Memphis Edison went to Louisville. Here he remained for about -two years. It was while he was there that he perfected the peculiar -vertical style of writing which has since been his characteristic -style. He says of this form of writing, an example of which is given -above: "I developed this style in Louisville while taking press -reports. My wire was connected to the 'blind' side of a repeater at -Cincinnati, so that if I missed a word or sentence, or if the wire -worked badly, I could not break in and get the last words, because -the Cincinnati man had no instrument by which he could hear me. I had -to take what came. When I got the job the cable across the Ohio River -at Covington, connecting with the line to Louisville, had a variable -leak in it, which caused the strength of the signaling current to make -violent fluctuations. I obviated this by using several relays, each -with a different adjustment, working several sounders all connected -with one sounding-plate. The clatter was bad, but I could read it with -fair ease. When, in addition to this infernal leak, the wires north -to Cleveland worked badly it required a large amount of imagination -to get the sense of what was being sent. An imagination requires an -appreciable time for its exercise, and as the stuff was coming at the -rate of thirty-five to forty words a minute, it was very difficult -to write down what was coming and imagine what wasn't coming. Hence -it was necessary to become a very rapid writer, so I started to find -the fastest style. I found that the vertical style, with each letter -separate and without any flourishes, was the most rapid, and that, the -smaller the letter, the greater the rapidity. As I took on an average -from eight to fifteen columns of news report every day, it did not take -long to perfect this method." - -The telegraph offices of those early days were very crude as compared -with the equipments of modern times. The apparatus was generally -in a very poor condition, and the wiring was of a haphazard kind. -The conditions during the time of the Civil War all tended to -demoralization, both of operators and apparatus. - -Indeed, the following story, related by Edison, illustrates the -lengths to which telegraphers could go at a time when they were in so -much demand: "When I took the position there was a great shortage of -operators. One night, at 2 A.M., another operator and I were on duty. -I was taking press report, and the other man was working the New York -wire. We heard a heavy tramp, tramp, tramp on the rickety stairs. -Suddenly the door was thrown open with great violence, dislodging -it from one of the hinges. There appeared in the doorway one of the -best operators we had, who worked daytime, and who was of a very -quiet disposition except when intoxicated. He was a great friend of -the manager of the office. His eyes were bloodshot and wild, and one -sleeve had been torn away from his coat. Without noticing either of -us, he went up to the stove and kicked it over. The stove-pipe fell, -dislocated at every joint. It was half full of exceedingly fine soot, -which floated out and completely filled the room. This produced a -momentary respite to his labors. When the atmosphere had cleared -sufficiently to see he went around and pulled every table away from -the wall, piling them on top of the stove in the middle of the room. -Then he proceeded to pull the switchboard away from the wall. It was -held tightly by screws. He succeeded, finally, and when it gave way he -fell with the board, and, striking on a table, cut himself so that he -soon became covered with blood. He then went to the battery-room and -knocked all the batteries off on the floor. The nitric acid soon began -to combine with the plaster in the room below, which was the public -receiving-room for messengers and bookkeepers. The excess acid poured -through and ate up the account-books. After having finished everything -to his satisfaction, he left. I told the other operators to do nothing. -We would leave things just as they were, and wait until the manager -came. In the meantime, as I knew all the wires coming through to the -switchboard, I rigged up a temporary set of instruments so that the New -York business could be cleared up, and we also got the remainder of the -press matter. At seven o'clock the day men began to appear. They were -told to go downstairs and await the coming of the manager. At eight -o'clock he appeared, walked around, went into the battery-room, and -then came to me, saying: 'Edison, who did this?' I told him that Billy -L. had come in full of soda-water and invented the ruin before him. -He walked back and forth about a minute, then, coming up to my table, -put his fist down, and said: 'If Billy L. ever does that again I will -discharge him.' It was needless to say that there were other operators -who took advantage of that kind of discipline, and I had many calls at -night after that, but none with such destructive effects." - -Incidents such as these, together with the daily life and work of -an operator, presented one aspect of life to our young operator in -Louisville. But there was another, more intellectual side, in the -contact afforded with journalism and its leaders, on which Mr. Edison -looks back with great satisfaction. "I remember," he says, "the -discussions between the celebrated poet and journalist George D. -Prentice, then editor of the _Courier-Journal_, and Mr. Tyler, of the -Associated Press. I believe Prentice was the father of the humorous -paragraph of the American newspaper. He was poetic, highly educated, -and a brilliant talker. He was very thin and small. I do not think he -weighed over one hundred and twenty-five pounds. Tyler was a graduate -of Harvard, and had a very clear enunciation, and, in sharp contrast -to Prentice, he was a large man. After the paper had gone to press -Prentice would generally come over to Tyler's office, where I heard -them arguing on the immortality of the soul, etc. I asked permission -of Mr. Tyler if, after finishing the press matter, I might come in and -listen to the conversation, which I did many times after. One thing I -never could comprehend was that Tyler had a sideboard with liquors and -generally crackers. Prentice would pour out half a glass of what they -call corn whisky, and would dip the crackers in it and eat them. Tyler -took it _sans_ food. One teaspoonful of that stuff would put me to -sleep." - -Mr. Edison throws also a curious side-light on the origin of the comic -paragraph in the modern American newspaper, as distributed instantly -throughout the country through the telegraph. "It was the practice -of the press operators all over the country at that time, when a -lull occurred, to start in and send jokes or stories the day men had -collected; and these were copied and pasted up on the bulletin-board. -Cleveland was the originating office for 'press,' which it received -from New York and sent out simultaneously to Milwaukee, Chicago, -Toledo, Detroit, Pittsburg, Columbus, Dayton, Cincinnati, Indianapolis, -Vincennes, Terre Haute, St. Louis and Louisville. Cleveland would call -first on Milwaukee and ask if he had anything. If so, he would send -it, and Cleveland would repeat it to all of us. Thus any joke or story -originating anywhere in that area was known the next day all over. The -press men would come in and copy anything which could be published, -which was about three per cent. I collected, too, quite a large -scrap-book of it, but, unfortunately, I have lost it." - -Edison was always a great reader, and was in the habit of buying books -at auctions and second-hand stores. One day at an auction he bought -twenty unbound volumes of the _North American Review_ for two dollars. -These he had bound and delivered at the telegraph office. One morning, -about three o'clock, he started off for home at a rapid pace with ten -volumes on his shoulder. Very soon he became conscious of the fact that -bullets were flying around him. He stopped, and a breathless policeman -came up and seized him as a suspicious character, ordering him to drop -his parcel and explain matters. Opening the package, he showed the -books, somewhat to the disgust of the officer, who imagined he had -caught a burglar sneaking away with his booty. Edison explained that, -being deaf, he had heard no challenge, and therefore had kept moving; -and the policeman remarked, apologetically, it was well for Edison he -was not a better shot. - -Through all his travels Edison has preserved these books, and he has -them now in his library at Llewelyn Park, Orange, New Jersey. - -After two years at Louisville, Edison went back North as far as -Detroit, but soon returned to Louisville. At this time there was a -great deal of exaggerated talk and report about the sunny life and easy -wealth of South America. This idea appealed especially to telegraph -operators, and young Edison, with his fertile imagination, was readily -inflamed with the glowing idea of these great possibilities. - -Once more he threw up his work, and, with a couple of young friends, -made his way to New Orleans, where they expected to catch a specially -chartered steamer for Brazil. - -They arrived in New Orleans just at the time of the great riot, when -the city was in the hands of a mob. The government had seized the -steamer for carrying troops. The young men therefore visited another -shipping office to make inquiries about vessels for Brazil. - -Here they got into conversation with an old Spaniard, to whom they -explained their intentions. He had lived and worked in South America, -and was very emphatic in advising them that the worst thing they -could do was to leave the United States, whose freedom, calm, and -opportunities could not be equaled anywhere on the face of the globe. -Edison took the Spaniard's advice, and made his way North again. He -heard later that his two companions had gone to Vera Cruz and had died -there of yellow fever. - -He returned to Louisville and resumed work there. He seems to have been -fairly comfortable and happy at this time. He surrounded himself with -books and various apparatus, and even indited a treatise on electricity. - -It is well known that Edison is very studious and a great reader, -but his associates sometimes felt surprised at his fund of general -information. His own words throw some light upon this subject: "The -second time I was in Louisville the Telegraph Company had moved into -a new office, and the discipline was now good. I took the press job. -In fact, I was a very poor sender, and therefore made the taking of -press report a specialty. The newspaper men allowed me to come over, -after the paper went to press, at 3 A.M., and get all the exchanges -I wanted. These I would take home and lay at the foot of my bed. I -never slept more than four or five hours, so that I would awake at -nine or ten and read these papers until dinner-time. I thus kept -posted, and knew from their activity every member of Congress, and what -committees they were on, and all about the topical doings, as well -as the prices of breadstuffs in all the primary markets. I was in a -much better position than most operators to call on my imagination to -supply missing words or sentences, which were frequent in those days -of old, rotten wires, badly insulated, especially on stormy nights. -Upon such occasions I had to supply in some cases one-fifth of the -whole matter--pure guessing--but I got caught only once. There had been -some kind of convention in Virginia, in which John Minor Botts was the -leading figure. There was great excitement about it, and two votes had -been taken in the convention on the two days. There was no doubt that -the vote the next day would go a certain way. A very bad storm came up -about ten o'clock, and my wire worked badly, and there was a cessation -of all signals; then I made out the words 'Minor Botts.' The next was a -New York item. I filled in a paragraph about the convention and how the -vote had gone as I was sure it would go. But next day I learned that, -instead of there being a vote, the convention had adjourned without -action until the day after." - -The insatiable thirst for knowledge beyond known facts again proved -Edison's undoing. Operators were strictly forbidden to remove -instruments or to use batteries except on extra work. This rule did -not mean much to Edison, who had access to no other instruments -except those of the company. "I went one night," he says, "into the -battery-room to obtain some sulphuric acid for experimenting. The -carboy tipped over, the acid ran out, went through to the manager's -room below, and ate up his desk and all the carpet. The next morning -I was summoned before him, and told that what the company wanted was -operators, not experimenters. I was at liberty to take my pay and get -out." - -Thus he was once more thrown upon the world. He went back to -Cincinnati, and began his second term there as an operator. He was -again put on night duty, much to his satisfaction. He rented a room on -the top floor of an office building, bought a cot and an oil-stove, a -foot lathe, and some tools. - -He became acquainted with Mr. Sommers, superintendent of telegraph of -the Cincinnati & Indianapolis Railroad, who gave him permission to -take such scrap apparatus as he might desire that was of no use to the -company. - -Edison and Sommers became very friendly, and were congenial in many -ways. Both of them enjoyed jokes of a practical nature, and Edison -relates one of them as follows: "Sommers was a very witty man," he -says, "and fond of experimenting. We worked on a self-adjusting -telegraph relay, which would have been very valuable if we could -have got it. I soon became the possessor of a second-hand Ruhmkorff -induction coil, which, although it would only give a small spark, -would twist the arms and clutch the hands of a man so that he could -not let go of the apparatus. One day we went down to the roundhouse -of the Cincinnati & Indianapolis Railroad and connected up the long -wash-tank in the room with the coil, one electrode being connected to -earth. Above this wash-room was a flat roof. We bored a hole through -the roof, and could see the men as they came in. The first man as he -entered dipped his hands in the water. The floor, being wet, formed a -circuit, and up went his hands. He tried it the second time, with the -same result. He then stood against the wall with a puzzled expression. -We surmised that he was waiting for somebody else to come in, which -occurred shortly after, with the same result. Then they went out, and -the place was soon crowded and there was considerable excitement. -Various theories were broached to explain the curious phenomenon. We -enjoyed the sport immensely." - -The reader must remember this occurred forty years ago, when -electricity was not popularly understood. Had it occurred to-day the -mystery would have soon been explained. - -It is interesting to note that the germ of Edison's quadruplex -originated while he was at the Cincinnati office. There he became -acquainted with George Ellsworth, a telegraph operator who left the -regular telegraph service to become an operator for the Confederate -guerilla Morgan. - -"We soon became acquainted," says Edison of this period in Cincinnati, -"and he wanted me to invent a secret method of sending despatches, so -that an intermediate operator could not tap the wire and understand -it. He said that if it could be accomplished he could sell it to the -government for a large sum of money. This suited me, and I started -in and succeeded in making such an instrument, which had in it the -germ of my quadruplex now used throughout the world, permitting the -despatch of four messages over one wire simultaneously. By the time -I had succeeded in getting the apparatus to work Ellsworth suddenly -disappeared. Many years afterward I used this little device again for -the same purpose. At Menlo Park, New Jersey, I had my laboratory. There -were several Western Union wires cut into the laboratory and used by -me in experimenting at night. One day I sat near an instrument which I -had left connected during the night. I soon found it was a private wire -between New York and Philadelphia, and I heard among a lot of stuff a -message that surprised me. A week after that I had occasion to go to -New York, and, visiting the office of the lessee of the wire, I asked -him if he hadn't sent such and such a message. The expression that came -over his face was a sight. He asked me how I knew of such message. I -told him the circumstances, and suggested that he had better cipher -such communications, or put on a secret sounder. The result of the -interview was that I installed for him my old Cincinnati apparatus, -which was used thereafter for many years." - -Edison's second term in Cincinnati was not a very long one. After a -while he left and went home to Port Huron, where he stayed a short -time. He soon became tired of comparative idleness and communicated -with his old friend, Milton Adams, who was then working in Boston, and -whom he wished to rejoin if he could get work promptly in the East. - -Edison himself gives the details of this eventful move, when he went -East to grow up with the new art of electricity. "I had left Louisville -the second time, and went home to see my parents. After stopping at -home for some time, I got restless, and thought I would like to work in -the East. Knowing that a former operator named Adams, who had worked -with me in the Cincinnati office, was in Boston, I wrote him that I -wanted a job there. He wrote back that if I came on immediately he -could get me in the Western Union office. I had helped out the Grank -Trunk Railroad telegraph people by a new device when they lost one -of the two submarine cables they had across the river, making the -remaining cable act just as well for their purpose as if they had two. -I thought I was entitled to a pass, which they conceded, and I started -for Boston. After leaving Toronto a terrific blizzard came up and -the train got snowed under in a cut. After staying there twenty-four -hours, the trainmen made snow-shoes of fence-rail splints and started -out to find food, which they did about a half mile away. They found a -roadside inn, and by means of snow-shoes all the passengers were taken -to the inn. The train reached Montreal four days late. A number of the -passengers and myself went to the military headquarters to testify -in favor of a soldier who had been two days late in returning from a -furlough, which was a serious matter with military people, I learned. -We willingly did this, for this soldier was a great story-teller, and -made the time pass quickly. I met here a telegraph operator named -Stanton, who took me to his boarding-house, the most cheerless I have -ever been in. Nobody got enough to eat; the bedclothes were too short -and too thin; it was twenty-eight degrees below zero, and the washwater -was frozen solid. The board was cheap, being only one dollar and fifty -cents a week. - -"Stanton said that the usual live-stock accompaniment of operators' -boarding-houses was absent; he thought the intense cold had caused -them to hibernate. Stanton, when I was working in Cincinnati, left -his position and went out on the Union Pacific to work at Julesburg, -which was a cattle town at that time and very tough. I remember seeing -him off on the train, never expecting to meet him again. Six months -afterward, while working press wire in Cincinnati, about 2 A.M., there -was flung into the middle of the operating-room a large tin box. It -made a report like a pistol, and we all jumped up startled. In walked -Stanton. 'Gentlemen,' he said, 'I have just returned from a pleasure -trip to the land beyond the Mississippi. All my wealth is contained -in my metallic traveling-case, and you are welcome to it.' The case -contained one paper collar. He sat down, and I noticed that he had a -woolen comforter around his neck, with his coat buttoned closely. The -night was intensely warm. He then opened his coat and revealed the fact -that he had nothing but the bare skin. 'Gentlemen,' said he, 'you see -before you an operator who has reached the limit of impecuniosity.'" - - -VIII - -WORK AND INVENTION IN BOSTON - - -When Milton Adams received Edison's letter from Port Huron he at once -went over to the Western Union Office and asked the manager, Mr. George -F. Milliken, if he did not want a good operator from the West. - -"What kind of copy does he make?" was the cautious response. Adams -says: "I passed Edison's letter through the window for his inspection. -Milliken read it and a look of surprise came over his countenance -as he asked me if he could take it off the line like that. I said -he certainly could, and that there was nobody who could stick him. -Milliken said if he was that kind of an operator I could send for him; -and I wrote Edison to come on, as I had a job for him in the main -office of the Western Union." - -On reporting to Mr. Milliken in Boston, Edison secured a "job" very -quickly. As he tells the story, he says: "The manager asked me when -I was ready to go to work. 'Now,' I replied. I was then told to -return at 5.30 P.M., and punctually at that hour I entered the main -operating-room and was introduced to the night manager. The weather -being cold, and being clothed poorly, my peculiar appearance caused -much mirth, and, as I afterward learned, the night operators had -consulted together how they might 'put up a job on the jay from the -woolly West.' I was given a pen and assigned to the New York No. 1 -wire. After waiting an hour, I was told to come over to a special table -and take a special report for the _Boston Herald_, the conspirators -having arranged to have one of the fastest senders in New York send -the despatch and 'salt' the new man. I sat down unsuspiciously at -the table, and the New York man started slowly. Soon he increased -his speed, to which I easily adapted my pace. This put my rival on -his mettle, and he put on his best powers, which, however, were soon -reached. At this point I happened to look up, and saw the operators -all looking over my shoulder, with their faces shining with fun and -excitement. I knew then that they were trying to put up a job on me, -but kept my own counsel. The New York man then commenced to slur over -his words, running them together and sticking the signals; but I had -been used to this style of telegraphy in taking report, and was not in -the least discomfited. Finally, when I thought the fun had gone far -enough, and having about completed the special, I quietly opened the -key and remarked, telegraphically, to my New York friend, 'Say, young -man, change off and send with your other foot.' This broke the New York -man all up, and he turned the job over to another man to finish." - -Edison did not devote his whole life at this time to the routine work -of a telegraph office. His insatiable desire for knowledge led him -to study deeply the underlying principles of electricity that made -telegraphy possible, and he was constantly experimenting to improve -the apparatus he handled daily, as well as pursuing his studies in -chemistry. - -One day he was more than delighted to pick up a complete set of -Faraday's works. Mr. Adams says that when Edison brought home these -books, at 4 A.M., he read steadily until breakfast time, and then -he remarked, enthusiastically, "Adams, I have got so much to do and -life is so short I am going to hustle." And thereupon he started on -a run for breakfast. Edison himself says: "It was in Boston I bought -Faraday's works. I think I must have tried about everything in those -books. His explanations were simple. He used no mathematics. He was -the master experimenter. I don't think there were many copies of -Faraday's works sold in those days. The only people who did anything -in electricity were the telegraphers and the opticians, making simple -school aparatus to demonstrate the principles." - -At this time there was a number of practical investigators and -electrical workers in Boston, and Edison with his congenial tastes soon -became very much at home with them. He spent a great deal of time among -them, and especially in the electrical workshop of the late Charles -Williams, who afterward became an associate of Alexander Graham Bell. - -It was in this workshop that Edison worked out into an operative model -his first patented invention, a vote recorder. This forms the subject -of Edison's first patent, for which application was signed on October -11, 1868, the patent itself being taken out June 1, 1869, No. 90,646. - -The purpose of this particular device was to permit a vote in the -National House of Representatives to be taken in a minute or so. -Edison took the vote recorder to Washington and exhibited it before -a committee. In recalling the circumstance, he says: "The chairman -of the committee, after seeing how quickly and perfectly it worked, -said: 'Young man, if there is any invention on earth that we don't -want down here it is this. One of the greatest weapons in the hands of -a minority to prevent bad legislation is filibustering on votes, and -this instrument would prevent it.' I saw the truth of this, because as -press operator I had taken miles of Congressional proceedings, and to -this day an enormous amount of time is wasted during each session of -the House in foolishly calling the members' names and recording, and -then adding, their votes, when the whole operation could be done in -almost a moment by merely pressing a particular button at each desk. -For filibustering purposes, however, the present methods are most -admirable." - -The outcome of this exhibition was a great disappointment to the young -inventor, but it proved to be a wholesome lesson, for he determined -from that time forth to devote his inventive faculties only to things -for which there was a real, genuine demand. We shall see later that he -has ever since lived up to the decision then made. - -After the above incident Edison, with increased earnestness, resumed -his study of electricity, especially in its application to telegraphy. -He did not neglect his chemistry, however, but indulged his tastes -freely in that direction, thus laying the foundation for the remarkable -chemical knowledge that enabled him later to make some of his great -inventions. - -He tells an amusing incident of one of his chemical experiments of -this early period: "I had read in a scientific paper the method of -making nitroglycerin, and was so fired by the wonderful properties it -was said to possess that I determined to make some of the compound. -We tested what we considered a very small quantity, but this produced -such terrible and unexpected results that we became alarmed, the -fact dawning upon us that we had a very large white elephant in our -possession. At 6 A.M. I put the explosive into a sarsaparilla bottle, -tied a string to it, wrapped it in a paper, and gently let it down into -the sewer at the corner of State and Washington Streets." - -The daily routine of a telegraph office and the busy hours of reading -and experimenting employed Edison's time for eighteen to twenty hours -a day. Life, however, was never too strenuous for him to indulge his -humor, especially if it called for the exercise of some ingenuity, as -shown in the following incident related by him: "The office was on the -ground floor, and had been a restaurant previous to its occupation -by the Western Union Telegraph Company. It was literally loaded with -cockroaches, which lived between the wall and the board running -around the room at the floor, and which came after the lunch. These -were such a bother on my table that I pasted two strips of tin-foil -on the wall at my desk, connecting one piece to the positive pole of -the big battery supplying current to the wires and the negative pole -to the other strip. The cockroaches moving up on the wall would pass -over the strips. The moment they got their legs across both strips -there was a flash of light and the cockroaches went into gas. This -automatic electrocuting device got half a column in an evening paper, -and attracted so much attention that the manager made me stop it." -About this time an innocent use of his chemical knowledge gave Edison -a narrow escape from injury which might have shortened his career. He -tells the story as follows: "After being in Boston several months, -working New York wire No. 1, I was requested to work the press wire, -called the 'milk route,' as there were so many towns on it taking -press simultaneously. New York office had reported great delays on the -wire, due to operators constantly interrupting, or 'breaking,' as it -was called, to have words repeated which they had failed to get; and -New York claimed that Boston was one of the worst offenders. It was a -rather hard position for me, for if I took the report without breaking, -it would prove the previous Boston operator incompetent. The results -made the operator have some hard feelings against me. He was put back -on the wire, and did much better after that. It seems that the office -boy was down on this man. One night he asked me if I could tell him how -to fix a key so that it would not 'break,' even if the circuit-breaker -was open, and also so that it could not be easily detected. I told -him to jab a penful of ink on the platinum points, as there was sugar -enough in it to make it sufficiently thick to hold up when the operator -tried to break--the current still going through the ink, so that he -could not break. - -"The next night about 1 A.M. this operator, on the press wire, while -I was standing near a House printer studying it, pulled out a glass -insulator, then used upside down as a substitute for an ink-bottle, -and threw it with great violence at me, just missing my head. It would -certainly have killed me if it had not missed. The cause of the trouble -was that this operator was doing the best he could not to break, but, -being compelled to open his key, he found he couldn't. The press matter -came right along, and he could not stop it. The office boy had put the -ink in a few minutes before, when the operator had turned his head -during a lull. He blamed me instinctively as the cause of the trouble. -Later we became good friends. He took his meals at the same 'emaciator' -that I did. His main object in life seemed to be acquiring the art of -throwing up wash-pitchers and catching them without breaking them. -About a third of his salary was used up in paying for pitchers." - -One of the most amusing incidents of Edison's life in Boston, occurred -through a request received at the Western Union office one day from the -principal of a select school for young ladies. The principal desired to -have some one sent up to the school to exhibit and describe the Morse -telegraph to her "children." - -Edison, who was always ready to earn some extra money for his -experiments, and was already known as the best-informed operator in -the office, accepted the task, inviting Adams to accompany him. What -happened is described by Adams as follows: "We gathered up a couple of -sounders, a battery, and some wire, and at the appointed time called on -her to do the stunt. Her school-room was about twenty by twenty feet, -not including a small platform. We rigged up the line between the two -ends of the room, Edison taking the stage, while I was at the other -end of the room. All being in readiness, the principal was told to -bring in her children. The door opened, and in came about twenty young -ladies elegantly gowned, not one of whom was under seventeen. When -Edison saw them I thought he would faint. He called me on the line and -asked me to come to the stage and explain the mysteries of the Morse -system. I replied that I thought he was in the right place, and told -him to get busy with his talk on dots and dashes. Always modest, Edison -was so overcome he could hardly speak, but he managed to say finally -that, as his friend, Mr. Adams, was better equipped with cheek than he -was, we would change places, and he would do the demonstrating while I -explained the whole thing. This caused the bevy to turn to see where -the lecturer was. I went on the stage, said something, and we did some -telegraphing over the line. I guess it was satisfactory; we got the -money, which was the main point to us." - -Edison tells the story in a similar manner, but insists that it was -he who saved the situation. "I managed to say that I would work the -apparatus, and Mr. Adams would make the explanations. Adams was so -embarrassed that he fell over an ottoman. The girls tittered, and this -increased his embarrassment until he couldn't say a word. The situation -was so desperate that for a reason I never could explain I started -in myself and talked and explained better than I ever did before or -since. I can talk to two or three persons, but when there are more -they radiate some unknown form of influence which paralyzes my vocal -cords. However, I got out of this scrape, and many times afterward -when I chanced with other operators to meet some of the young ladies -on their way home from school they would smile and nod, much to the -mystification of the operators, who were ignorant of this episode." The -purchase of supplies and apparatus for his constant experiments and -studies kept Edison's pocket-money at low ebb. He never had a surplus -of cash, and tells this amusing story of those impecunious days: - -"My friend Adams was working in the Franklin Telegraph Company, which -competed with the Western Union. Adams was laid off, and as his -financial resources had reached absolute zero centigrade, I undertook -to let him sleep in my hall bedroom. I generally had hall bedrooms, -because they were cheap and I needed money to buy apparatus. I also -had the pleasure of his genial company at the boarding-house about a -mile distant, but at the sacrifice of some apparatus. One morning, as -we were hastening to breakfast, we came into Tremont Row, and saw a -large crowd in front of two small 'gents'' furnishing goods stores. We -stopped to ascertain the cause of the excitement. One store put up a -paper sign in the display window which said, 'Three hundred pairs of -stockings received this day, five cents a pair--no connection with the -store next door.' Presently the other store put up a sign stating they -had received three hundred pairs, price three cents a pair, also that -they had no connection with the store next door. Nobody went in. The -crowd kept increasing. Finally, when the price had reached three pairs -for one cent, Adams said to me: I can't stand this any longer; give me -a cent.' I gave him a cent, and he elbowed his way in; and throwing -the money on the counter, the store being filled with women clerks, he -said, 'Give me three pairs.' The crowd was breathless, and the girl -took down a box and drew out three pairs of baby socks. 'Oh!' said -Adams, 'I want men's size.' 'Well, sir, we do not permit one to pick -sizes for that amount of money.' And the crowd roared, and this broke -up the sales." - -During Edison's first stay in Boston he began to weary of the -monotonous routine of a telegraph operator's life and took steps to -establish himself in an independent business. It was at this point that -he began his career as an inventor. - -He says: "After the vote recorder I invented a stock ticker, and -started a ticker service in Boston, had thirty or forty subscribers, -and operated from a room over the Gold Exchange. This was about a year -after Callahan started in New York." - -It has been generally supposed that Edison did not take up stock ticker -work until he left Boston finally and went to New York in 1869. But the -above shows that he actually started a ticker service in Boston in 1868. - -The stock ticker had been invented about a year before, 1867, by E. -A. Callahan, and had then been introduced into service in New York. -Its success was immediate, and it became the common ambition of every -operator to invent a new ticker, as there seemed to be a promise of -great wealth in this direction. Edison, however, was about the only one -in Boston who seems to have achieved any tangible result. - -This was not by any means all the practical work he did in Boston at -this time, as we learn from his own words. He says: "I also engaged -in putting up private lines, upon which I used an alphabetical dial -instrument for telegraphing between business establishments, a -forerunner of modern telephony. This instrument was very simple and -practical, and any one could work it after a few minutes' explanation. -I had these instruments made at Mr. Hamblet's, who had a little shop -where he was engaged in experimenting with electric clocks. Mr. -Hamblet was the father and introducer in after years of the Western -Union Telegraph system of time distribution. My laboratory was the -headquarters for the men, and also of tools and supplies for those -private lines. They were put up cheaply, as I used the roofs of -houses, just as the Western Union did. It never occurred to me to ask -permission from the owners; all we did was to go to the store, etc., -say we were telegraph men, and wanted to go up to the wires on the -roof; and permission was always granted. - -"In this laboratory I had a large induction coil which I had borrowed -to make some experiments with. One day I got hold of both electrodes of -the coil, and it clinched my hands on them so that I couldn't let go. -The battery was on a shelf. The only way I could get free was to back -off and pull the coil, so that the battery wires would pull the cells -off the shelf and thus break the circuit. I shut my eyes and pulled, -but the nitric acid splashed all over my face and ran down my back. I -rushed to a sink, which was only half big enough, and got in as well as -I could and wiggled around for several minutes to permit the water to -dilute the acid and stop the pain. My face and back were streaked with -yellow; the skin was thoroughly oxidized. I did not go on the street by -daylight for two weeks, as the appearance of my face was dreadful. The -skin, however, peeled off, and new skin replaced it without any damage." - -With all the practical work he was now doing, Boston seemed to be too -limited a sphere, and Edison longed for the greater opportunities of -New York. His friend Adams went West to continue a life of roving and -adventure, but the serious-minded Edison had had more than enough of -aimless roaming, and had determined to forge ahead on the lines on -which he was working. - -Realizing that he must look to New York to better his fortunes, Edison, -deep in debt for his new inventions, but with high hope and courage, -now made the next momentous step in his career. - - -IX - -FROM POVERTY TO INDEPENDENCE - - -Edison came first to New York in 1868, with his early stock printer, -which he tried unsuccessfully to sell. He went back to Boston, and, -quite undismayed, got up a duplex telegraph. "Toward the end of my stay -in Boston," he says, "I obtained a loan of money, amounting to eight -hundred dollars, to build up a peculiar kind of duplex telegraph for -sending two messages over a single wire simultaneously. The apparatus -was built, and I left the Western Union employ and went to Rochester, -New York, to test the apparatus on the lines of the Atlantic and -Pacific Telegraph between that city and New York. But the assistant at -the other end could not be made to understand anything, notwithstanding -I had written out a very minute description of just what to do. After -trying for a week I gave it up and returned to New York with but a few -cents in my pocket." - -No one could have been in direr poverty than Edison when the steamboat -landed him in New York in 1869. He was in debt, and his few belongings -in books and instruments had to be left behind. He was not far from -starving. - -After leaving the boat his first thought was for breakfast; but he was -without money to obtain it. He walked the streets, and in passing a -wholesale tea house saw a man "tasting" tea, so he went in and asked -the "taster" if he might have some tea. His request was granted, and -this was his first breakfast in New York. - -He knew a telegraph operator in the city, and in the course of the day -succeeded in finding him, but he also was out of work, and the best he -could do was to lend Edison one dollar. - -By this time Edison was extremely hungry, and he gave most serious -consideration as to what he should buy in the way of food that would be -most satisfying. He finally decided upon apple dumplings and coffee, -which he obtained at Smith & McNeil's restaurant. He says he never ate -anything more appetizing. - -He applied to the Western Union Company for a position as operator, -but as there was no immediate vacancy he was obliged to wait for an -opening. Having only the remainder of the borrowed dollar, he did not -want to spend it for lodging, so he got permission to stay overnight -in the battery-room of the Gold Indicator Company. Thus he kept what -little change he had to buy food. - -This was four years after the Civil War, but its effects were felt -everywhere, and notably in the depreciation of government securities -and our paper money. Gold, being the standard, was regarded as much -more valuable than a paper promise to pay issued by a government -heavily in debt. A gold dollar, therefore, would buy much more than -a paper dollar, at times a dollar and a quarter, or a dollar and a -half in value. In a word, gold commanded a high premium. For several -years afterward there was a great deal of speculation in the precious -metal, and a "Gold Room" had been established in Wall Street, where -the transactions took place. At first the prices were exhibited on a -blackboard there, but before long this plan was found to be too slow -for the brokers. Then Dr. S. S. Laws, vice president and presiding -officer of the Gold Exchange, invented a system of indicators to be -placed in the offices of brokers. These indicators were operated from -a complicated transmitting instrument at the Exchange, and each one -showed the fluctuations of price as transactions took place. Dr. Laws -resigned from the Exchange and organized the Gold Indicator Company, -which put the system into operation. - -At the time when Edison took shelter at night in the battery-room of -the company there were about three hundred instruments in the offices -of subscribers. While waiting to hear from the Western Union, Edison -spent his days studying the indicators and the complicated transmitting -instrument in the office, controlled from the keyboard of the operator -on the floor of the Gold Exchange. - -What happened next has been the basis of many inaccurate stories, -but the following is Mr. Edison's own version: "On the third day of -my arrival, and while sitting in the office, the complicated general -instrument for sending on all the lines, and which made a very great -noise, suddenly came to a stop with a crash. Within two minutes over -three hundred boys--a boy from every broker in the street--rushed -up-stairs and crowded the long aisle and office, that hardly had -room for one hundred, all yelling that such and such a broker's wire -was out of order and to fix it at once. It was pandemonium, and the -man in charge became so excited that he lost control of all the -knowledge he ever had. I went to the indicator, and, having studied -it thoroughly, knew where the trouble ought to be, and found it. One -of the innumerable contact springs had broken off and had fallen down -between the two gearwheels and stopped the instrument; but it was not -very noticeable. As I went out to tell the man in charge what the -matter was Dr. Laws appeared on the scene, the most excited person I -had seen. He demanded of the man the cause of the trouble, but the man -was speechless. I ventured to say that I knew what the trouble was, -and he said, 'Fix it! Fix it! Be quick!' I removed the spring and set -the contact wheels at zero; and the line, battery, and inspecting men -all scattered through the financial district to set the instruments. -In about two hours things were working again. Dr. Laws came in to ask -my name and what I was doing. I told him, and he asked me to come to -his private office the following day. His office was filled with stacks -of books all relating to metaphysics and kindred matters. He asked me -a great many questions about the instruments and his system, and I -showed him how he could simplify things generally. He then requested -that I should call next day. On arrival, he stated at once that he had -decided to put me in charge of the whole plant, and that my salary -would be three hundred dollars a month! This was such a violent jump -from anything I had ever had before that it rather paralyzed me for a -while. I thought it was too much to be lasting; but I determined to try -and live up to that salary if twenty hours a day of hard work would do -it. I kept this position, made many improvements, devised several stock -tickers, until the Gold and Stock Telegraph Company consolidated with -the Gold Indicator Company." - -Certainly few changes in fortune have been more sudden and dramatic in -any notable career than this which thus placed an ill-clad, unkempt, -half-starved, eager lad in a position of such responsibility in days -when the fluctuations in the price of gold at every instant meant -fortune or ruin to thousands. - -There was at this time a very active period of speculation, and not a -great while afterward came the attempt of Jay Gould and his associates -to corner the gold market by buying all the available supply. This -brought about the panic of Black Friday, September 24, 1869. - -Edison, then but twenty-two years old, was a keen observer, and his -recollection of this episode is interesting. "On Black Friday," he -says, "we had a very exciting time with the indicators. The Gould and -Fisk crowd had cornered gold, and had run the quotations up faster -than the indicator could follow. The indicator was composed of several -wheels; on the circumference of each wheel were the numerals; and -one wheel had fractions. It worked in the same way as an ordinary -counter; one wheel made ten revolutions, and at the tenth it advanced -the adjacent wheel; and this, in its turn having gone ten revolutions, -advanced the next wheel, and so on. On the morning of Black Friday the -indicator was quoting one hundred and fifty premium, whereas the bids -by Gould's agents in the Gold Room were one hundred and sixty-five for -five millions or any part. We had a paper-weight at the transmitter -(to speed it up), and by one o'clock reached the right quotation. The -excitement was prodigious. New Street, as well as Broad Street, was -jammed with excited people. I sat on the top of the Western Union -telegraph booth to watch the surging, crazy crowd. One man came to the -booth, grabbed a pencil, and attempted to write a message to Boston. -The first stroke went clear off the blank; he was so excited that he -had the operator write the message for him. Amid great excitement -Speyer, the banker, went crazy, and it took five men to hold him; and -everybody lost their heads. The Western Union operator came to me and -said: 'Shake, Edison, we are O. K. We haven't got a cent.' I felt very -happy because we were poor. These occasions are very enjoyable to a -poor man; but they occur rarely." - -Edison in those days rather liked the modest coffee-shops and mentions -visiting one. "When on the New York No. 1 wire that I worked in Boston -there was an operator named Jerry Borst at the other end. He was a -first-class receiver and rapid sender. We made up a scheme to hold this -wire, so he changed one letter of the alphabet and I soon got used to -it; and finally we changed three letters. If any operator tried to -receive from Borst he couldn't do it, so Borst and I always worked -together. Borst did less talking than any operator I ever knew. Never -having seen him, I went, while in New York, to call upon him. I did -all the talking. He would listen, stroke his beard, and say nothing. -In the evening I went over to an all-night lunch-house in Printing -House Square, in a basement--Oliver's. Night editors, including Horace -Greeley, and Henry Raymond, of the New York _Times_, took their -midnight lunch there. When I went with Borst and another operator they -pointed out two or three men who were then celebrated in the newspaper -world. The night was intensely hot and close. After getting our lunch -and upon reaching the sidewalk, Borst opened his mouth, and said: -'That's a great place; a plate of cakes, a cup of coffee, and a Russian -bath for ten cents.' This was about fifty per cent, of his conversation -for two days." - -The work of Edison on the gold indicator had thrown him into close -relationship with Mr. Franklin L. Pope, a young telegraph engineer, and -afterward a distinguished expert and technical writer. Each recognized -the special ability of the other, and barely a week after Black Friday -the announcement of their partnership appeared in the _Telegrapher_ of -October 1, 1869. - -This was the first "professional card," if it may be so described, ever -issued in America by a firm of electrical engineers. - -In order to be near his new friend, Edison boarded with Pope at -Elizabeth, New Jersey, for some time living the "strenuous life" in -the performance of his duties and following up his work on telegraph -printers with marked success. - -In regard to this Mr. Edison says: "While with them" (Pope and J. -N. Ashley) "I devised a printer to print gold quotations instead of -indicating them. The lines were started, and the whole was sold out to -the Gold and Stock Telegraph Company. My experimenting was all done -in the small shop of a Dr. Bradley, located near the station of the -Pennsylvania Railroad in Jersey City. Every night I left for Elizabeth -on the 1 A.M. train, then walked half a mile to Mr. Pope's house, and -up at 6 A.M. for breakfast, to catch the 7 A.M. train. This continued -all winter, and many were the occasions when I was nearly frozen in the -Elizabeth walk." - -After the Edison and Pope printer was bought out by the Gold and Stock -Telegraph Company, its president, Gen. Marshall Lefferts, requested -Edison to go to work on improving the stock ticker, he, Lefferts, to -furnish the money. - -Edison tackled the subject enthusiastically, and as one result produced -the "Universal" ticker, which came into wide-spread use in its day. -This and some other inventions had a startling effect on his fortunes. -Mr. Edison says: "I made a great many inventions; one was the special -ticker used for many years outside of New York in the large cities. -This was made exceedingly simple, as they did not have the experts we -had in New York to handle anything complicated. The same ticker was -used on the London Stock Exchange. After I had made a great number of -inventions and obtained patents, the General seemed anxious that the -matter should be closed up. One day I exhibited and worked a successful -device whereby, if a ticker should get out of unison in a broker's -office and commence to print wild figures, it could be brought to -unison from the central station, which saved the labor of many men and -much trouble to the broker. He called me into his office, and said: -'Now, young man, I want to close up the matter of your inventions. How -much do you think you should receive?' I had made up my mind that, -taking into consideration the time and killing pace I was working at, I -should be entitled to five thousand dollars, but could get along with -three thousand dollars. When the psychological moment arrived, I hadn't -the nerve to name such a large sum, so I said: 'Well, General, suppose -you make me an offer.' Then he said: 'How would forty thousand dollars -strike you?' This caused me to come as near fainting as I ever got. I -was afraid he would hear my heart beat. I managed to say that I thought -it was fair. 'All right, I will have a contract drawn; come around in -three days and sign it, and I will give you the money.' I arrived on -time, but had been doing some considerable thinking on the subject. -The sum seemed to be very large for the amount of work, for, at that -time I determined the value by the time and trouble, and not by what -the invention was worth to others. I thought there was something unreal -about it. However, the contract was handed to me. I signed without -reading it" - -Edison was then handed the first check he had ever received, one for -forty thousand dollars. He went down to the bank and passed the check -in to the paying teller, who handed it back to him with some remarks -which in his deafness he did not hear. Fancying for a moment he had -been cheated, Edison went outside "to let the cold sweat evaporate." - -He went back to the General, who, with his secretary, had a good laugh -over the matter, and told him the check must be endorsed, and sent with -him a clerk to identify him. - -The ceremony of identification performed with the paying teller, who -was quite merry over the incident, Edison was given the amount in -bundles of small bills "until there certainly seemed to be one cubic -foot." Unaware that he was the victim of a practical joke, Edison -proceeded gravely to stow away the money in his overcoat pockets and -all his other pockets. He then went to Newark and sat up all night with -the money for fear it might be stolen. Once more he sought help next -morning, when the General laughed heartily, and, telling the clerk that -the joke must not be carried any further, enabled him to deposit the -currency in the bank and open an account--his first bank account. - -Thus in a very brief time Edison had passed from poverty to -independence. Not only that, but he had made a deep impression as to -his originality and ability on important people, and had brought out -valuable inventions. Thus he lifted himself at one hound out of the -ranks and away from the drudgery of the key. - -Many young men of twenty-two would have been so dazzled by coming -suddenly into possession of forty thousand dollars after a period of -poverty, struggle, and hard work, that their main ideas would have been -of recreation and pleasure. Not so with Edison, however. Naturally -enterprising and a pioneer, this money meant to him nothing but means -to an end. - -He bought some machinery and opened a small shop and got work for it. -Very quickly he was compelled to move to larger quarters. Nos. 10 -and 12 Ward Street, Newark, New Jersey. He secured large orders from -General Lefferts to build stock tickers, and employed fifty men. - -As business increased he put on a night force, and was his own foreman -in both shifts. Half an hour of sleep three or four times in the -twenty-four hours was all he needed. His force increased to one hundred -and fifty men, and, besides superintending all the work day and night, -he was constantly making new inventions in the lines on which he was -then working, which was chiefly stock tickers. - -A glimpse at some of young Edison's first methods as a manufacturer -is interesting. He says: "Nearly all my men were on piece-work, and I -allowed them to make good wages, and never cut until the pay became -absurdly high as they got more expert. I kept no books. I had two -hooks. All the bills and accounts I owed I jabbed on one hook, and -memoranda of all owed to myself I put on the other. When some of the -bills fell due, and I couldn't deliver tickers to get a supply of -money, I gave a note. When the notes were due a messenger came around -from the bank with the note and a protest pinned to it for one dollar -and twenty-five cents. Then I would go to New York and get an advance -or pay the note if I had the money. This method of giving notes for -my accounts and having all notes protested I kept up over two years, -yet my credit was fine. Every store I traded with was always glad to -furnish goods, perhaps in amazed admiration of my system of doing -business, which was certainly new." - -After a while Edison got a bookkeeper, whose vagaries made him look -back with regret on the earlier, primitive method. "The first three -months I had him go over the books to find out how much we had made. -He reported three thousand dollars. I gave a supper to some of my men -to celebrate this, only to be told two days afterward that he had made -a mistake, and that we had lost five hundred dollars; and then a few -days after that he came to me again and said he was all mixed up, and -now found that we had made over seven thousand dollars." Edison changed -bookkeepers, but never afterward counted anything real profit until he -had paid all his debts and had the profits in the bank. - -Among the men who have worked with Edison in his various shops from -time to time, there have always been those who later have risen to some -notable degree of prominence in the electrical arts. This early shop -was no exception. - -At a single bench there worked three men since rich or prominent. One -was Sigmund Bergmann, for a time partner with Edison in his lighting -developments in the United States, and now head and principal owner -of electrical works in Berlin, employing ten thousand men. The next -man adjacent was John Kruesi, afterward engineer of the great General -Electric Works at Schenectady. A third was Schuckert, who left the -bench to settle up his father's little estate at Nuremberg, stayed -there and founded electrical factories which became the third largest -in Germany, their proprietor dying very wealthy. - -"I gave them a good training as to working hours and hustling," says -Edison. And this is equally true as applied to many scores of others -who have worked with him. - - -X - -A BUSY YOUNG INVENTOR - - -Edison had now plunged into the intensely active life that has never -since ceased. Some idea of his activity may be gained from the fact -that he started no fewer than three manufacturing shops in Newark -during 1870-71. All of these he directed personally, besides busying -himself with many of his own schemes. - -Speaking of those days, he says: "Soon after starting the large shop -(10 and 12 Ward Street, Newark), I rented shop-room to the inventor -of a new rifle. I think it was the Berdan. In any event, it was a -rifle which was subsequently adopted by the British army. The inventor -employed a tool-maker who was the finest and best I had ever seen. I -noticed that he worked pretty near the whole of the twenty-four hours. -This kind of application I was looking for. He was getting $21.50 a -week, and was also paid for overtime. I asked him if he could run the -shop. 'I don't know; try me!' he said. 'All right, I will give you -sixty dollars a week to run both shifts.' He went at it. His executive -ability was greater than that of any other man I have yet seen. His -memory was prodigious, conversation laconic, and movements rapid. -He doubled the production inside three months, without materially -increasing the pay-roll, by increasing the cutting speed of tools and -by the use of various devices. When in need of rest he would lie down -on a work-bench, sleep twenty or thirty minutes, and wake up fresh. -As this was just what I could do, I naturally conceived a great pride -in having such a man in charge of my work. But almost everything has -trouble connected with it. He disappeared one day, and, although I -sent men everywhere that it was likely he could be found, he was not -discovered. After two weeks he came into the factory in a terrible -condition as to clothes and face. He sat down, and, turning to me, -said: 'Edison, it's no use, this is the third time; I can't stand -prosperity. Put my salary back and give me a job.' I was very sorry -to learn that it was whisky that spoiled such a career. I gave him an -inferior job and kept him for a long time." - -Those were indeed busy days, when, at one time, Edison, besides -directing the work of his shops, was working on no less than forty-five -separate inventions of his own. He had thus entered definitely upon -that career as an inventor which has left so deep an imprint on the -records of the Patent Office. - -Soon after he commenced manufacturing he was engaged by the Automatic -Telegraph Company, of New York, to help it out of its difficulties. An -Englishman named George Little had brought over a system of automatic -telegraphy which worked well on a short line, but was a failure when -put upon the longer circuits, for which automatic methods are best -adapted. - -This principle of automatic telegraphy, briefly described, was somewhat -as follows: A narrow paper ribbon was perforated with groups of holes -corresponding to Morse characters. This ribbon was passed over a -cylinder, and a metallic pen was so connected that it would drop into -the holes as they passed. The pen and cylinder being connected with -the telegraph line, a current would pass over the line whenever the -pen touched the cylinder. At the other end of the line the electrical -impulses passed through another metallic pen, which rested upon another -ribbon of paper chemically prepared, and, through electro-chemical -action, would mark dots and dashes upon the paper. - -There were a great many very serious difficulties to be overcome in -order to make this system practical on long lines, but Edison applied -himself to the work with tremendous energy. His laboratory note-books -of the period show many thousands of experiments in the three years -that he was working on his problem, and during this time he also took -out a long list of patents on the subject. - -So successful were his efforts that with his apparatus it became -possible to send and record one thousand words a minute between New -York and Washington, and thirty-five hundred words a minute between New -York and Philadelphia. - -Later on, Edison improved this system by further inventions, by means -of which the message at the receiving end was automatically printed -upon the paper ribbon in Roman letters instead of dots and dashes. -Thus, the paper on which the message was received could be torn off -and sent out immediately to the person for whom it was intended. This -saved time and expense, for under the previous system a clerk must -first translate the dots and dashes into words and write it out before -delivery. The apparatus worked so perfectly that three thousand words -a minute were sent between New York and Philadelphia and recorded in -Roman letters. - -After Edison's automatic system was put into successful use in America -by the Automatic Telegraph Company, an arrangement was made for a -trial of the system in England, involving its probable adoption if -successful. Edison went to England in 1873 to make the demonstration. -He was to report there to Col. George E. Gouraud, through whom the -arrangement had been made. - -With one small satchel of clothes, three large boxes of instruments, -and a bright fellow-telegrapher named Jack Wright, he took voyage on -the _Jumping Java_, as she was humorously known, of the Cunard line. -The voyage was rough, and the little _Java_ justified her reputation -by jumping all over the ocean. "At the table," says Edison, "there -were never more than ten or twelve people. I wondered at the time how -it could pay to run an ocean steamer with so few people; but when we -got into calm water and could see the green fields, I was astounded -to see the number of people who appeared. There were certainly two or -three hundred. Only two days could I get on deck, and on one of these a -gentleman had a bad scalp wound from being thrown against the iron wall -of a small smoking-room erected over a freight hatch." - -Arrived in London, Edison set up his apparatus at the Telegraph Street -headquarters, and sent his companion to Liverpool with the instruments -for that end. The condition of the test was that he was to record at -the rate of one thousand words a minute, five hundred words to be sent -every half hour for six hours. Edison was given a wire and batteries to -operate with, but a preliminary test soon showed that he was going to -fail. Both wire and batteries were poor, and one of the men detailed by -the authorities to watch the test remarked quietly, in a friendly way: -"You are not going to have much show. They are going to give you an old -Bridgewater Canal wire that is so poor we don't work it, and a lot of -'sand batteries' at Liverpool."[1] - -The situation was rather depressing to the young American, but "I -thanked him," says Edison, "and hoped to reciprocate somehow. I knew I -was in a hole. I had been staying at a little hotel in Covent Garden -called the Hummums, and got nothing but roast beef and flounders, and -my imagination was getting into a coma. What I needed was pastry. -That night I found a French pastry shop in High Holborn Street and -filled up. My imagination got all right. Early in the morning I saw -Gouraud, stated my case, and asked if he would stand for the purchase -of a powerful battery to send to Liverpool. He said 'Yes.' I went -immediately to Apps, on the Strand, and asked if he had a powerful -battery. He said he hadn't; that all that he had was Tyndall's Royal -Institution battery, which he supposed would not serve. I saw it--one -hundred cells--and getting the price--one hundred guineas--hurried to -Gouraud. He said 'Go ahead.' I telegraphed to the man in Liverpool. He -came on, and got the battery to Liverpool, set up and ready just two -hours before the test commenced. One of the principal things that made -the system a success was that the line was put to earth at the sending -end through a magnet, and the extra current from this passed to the -line served to sharpen the recording waves. This new battery was strong -enough to pass a powerful current through the magnet without materially -diminishing the strength of the current." The test under these more -favorable circumstances was a success. "The record was as perfect as -copper plate, and not a single remark was made in the 'time lost' -column." Edison was now asked if he thought he could get a better speed -through submarine cables with this system, and replied that he would -like a chance to try it. For this purpose twenty-two hundred miles of -cable stored under water in tanks was placed at his disposal from 8 -P.M. until 6 A.M. He says: "This just suited me, as I preferred night -work. I got my apparatus down and set up, and then to get a preliminary -idea of what the distortion of the signal would be I sent a single dot, -which should have been recorded upon my automatic paper by a mark about -one thirty-second of an inch long. Instead of that it was twenty-seven -feet long. If I ever had any conceit, it vanished from my boots up! I -worked on this cable more than two weeks, and the best I could do was -two words per minute, which was only one-seventh of what the guaranteed -speed of the cable should be when laid. What I did not know at the time -was that a coiled cable, owing to induction, was infinitely worse than -when laid out straight, and that my speed was as good as, if not better -than, the regular system, but no one told me this." - -After a short stay in England Edison returned to America. He states -that the automatic was finally adopted in England and used for many -years; indeed, it is still in use there. But they took whatever they -needed from his system, and he "has never had a cent from them." - -On arriving home he resumed arduous work on many of his -inventions--chiefly those relating to duplex telegraphy. This subject -had interested him at various times for four or five years previously, -and he now returned to it with great vigor. - -Many inventors had been working on multiple transmission, and at this -period a system of sending two messages in opposite directions at the -same time over one wire had been invented by Joseph Stearns, and had -then lately come into use. - -The subject of multiple transmission gave plenty of play for ingenuity -and was one that had great fascination for Edison. He worked out -many plans, and in April, 1873, two applications for patents. One of -these covered an invention by which not only could two messages be -sent in opposite directions over one wire at the same time, but, if -desired, two separate messages could be sent simultaneously _in the -same direction_ over a single wire. The former method was called the -"duplex," and the latter the "diplex." - -Duplexing was accomplished by varying the _strength_ of the current, -and diplexing by _also_ varying the _direction_ of the current. In -this invention there was the germ of the quadruplex, and now Edison -redoubled his efforts toward completing the latter system, for, while -duplexing doubled the capacity of a line, the quadruplex would increase -it four times. - -He was working also on other inventions, but the quadruplex claimed -most of his attention. He says: "This problem was of the most difficult -and complicated kind, and I bent all my energies toward its solution. -It required a peculiar effort of the mind, such as the imagining of -eight different things moving simultaneously on a mental plane without -anything to demonstrate their efficiency." - -It is, perhaps, hardly to be wondered at that, when notified he would -have to pay twelve and one-half per cent, extra if his taxes in Newark -were not at once paid, he actually forgot his own name when asked for -it suddenly at the City Hall, and lost his place in the line! - -He succeeded, however, in inventing a successful quadruplex system by -a skilful combination of the duplex and diplex with other ingenious -devices. The immense value of this invention may be realized when it is -stated that it has been estimated to have saved from fifteen million to -twenty million dollars in the cost of line construction in America. But -Mr. Edison received only a small amount for it. We will let him tell -the story in his own words: - -"About this time I invented the quadruplex. I wanted to interest the -Western Union Telegraph Company in it, with a view of selling it, but -was unsuccessful until I made an arrangement with the chief electrician -of the company, so that he could be known as a joint inventor and -receive a portion of the money. At that time I was very short of money, -and needed it more than glory. This electrician appeared to want glory -more than money, so it was an easy trade. I brought my apparatus over -and was given a separate room with a marble-tiled floor--which, by the -way, was a very hard kind of floor to sleep on--and started in putting -on the finishing touches. - -"After two months of very hard work I got a detail at regular times of -eight operators, and we got it working nicely from one room to another -over a wire which ran to Albany and back. Under certain conditions of -weather one side of the quadruplex would work very shakily, and I had -not succeeded in ascertaining the cause of the trouble. On a certain -day, when there was a board meeting of the company, I was to make an -exhibition test. The day arrived. I had picked the best operators in -New York, and they were familiar with the apparatus. I arranged that, -if a storm occurred and the bad side got shaky, they should do the best -they could and draw freely on their imaginations. They were sending old -messages. About twelve o'clock everything went wrong, as there was a -storm somewhere near Albany, and the bad side got shaky. Mr. Orton, the -president, and William H. Vanderbilt and the other directors came in. -I had my heart trying to climb up around my Å“sophagus. I was paying a -sheriff five dollars a day to withhold execution of judgment which had -been entered against me in a case which I had paid no attention to; and -if the quadruplex had not worked before the president I knew I was to -have trouble and might lose my machinery. The New York _Times_ came out -next day with a full account. I was given five thousand dollars as part -payment for the invention, which made me easy, and I expected the whole -thing would be closed up. But Mr. Orton went on an extended tour just -about that time. I had paid for all the experiments on the quadruplex -and exhausted the money, and I was again in straits. In the meantime I -had introduced the apparatus on the lines of the company, where it was -very successful. - -"At that time the general superintendent of the Western Union was Gen. -T. T. Eckert (who had been Assistant Secretary of War with Stanton). -Eckert was secretly negotiating with Gould to leave the Western Union -and take charge of the Atlantic and Pacific--Gould's company. One -day Eckert called me into his office and made inquiries about money -matters. I told him Mr. Orton had gone off and left me without means, -and I was in straits. He told me I would never get another cent, but -that he knew a man who would buy it. I told him of my arrangement with -the electrician, and said I could not sell it as a whole to anybody; -but if I got enough for it I would sell all my interest in any share -I might have. He seemed to think his party would agree to this. I had -a set of quadruplex over in my shop, 10 and 12 Ward Street, Newark, -and he arranged to bring him over next evening to see the apparatus. -So the next day Eckert came over with Jay Gould and introduced him -to me. This was the first time I had ever seen him. I exhibited and -explained the apparatus, and they departed. The next day Eckert sent -for me, and I was taken up to Gould's house, which was near the Windsor -Hotel, Fifth Avenue. In the basement he had an office. It was in the -evening, and we went in by the servants' entrance, as Eckert probably -feared that he was watched. Gould started in at once and asked me how -much I wanted. I said, 'Make me an offer.' Then he said, 'I will give -you thirty thousand dollars.' I said, 'I will sell any interest I may -have for that money,' which was something more than I thought I could -get. The next morning I went with Gould to the office of his lawyers, -Sherman & Sterling, and received a check for thirty thousand dollars, -with a remark by Gould that I had got the steamboat _Plymouth Rock_, as -he had sold her for thirty thousand dollars, and had just received the -check. There was a big fight on between Gould's company and the Western -Union, and this caused litigation. The electrician, on account of the -testimony involved, lost his glory. The judge never decided the case, -but went crazy a few months afterward." - -Mr. Gould controlled the Atlantic and Pacific Telegraph Company and was -aiming to get control of the Western Union Company, and his purchase -of Edison's share in the quadruplex was an important move in this -direction. - -Having learned of the success of Edison's automatic system, mentioned -in the early part of this chapter, Mr. Gould's next move was to get -control of that. It was owned by Mr. Edison and his associates of -the Automatic Telegraph Company, and that company was bought by Mr. -Gould under an agreement to pay four million dollars in stock. As to -this, Mr. Edison says: "After this, Gould wanted me to help install -the automatic system in the Atlantic and Pacific Company, of which -General Eckert had been elected president, the company having bought -the Automatic Telegraph Company. I did a lot of work for this company -making automatic apparatus in my shop at Newark." - -Unfortunately for the inventor and his associates, the terms of the -contract have never been carried out. Mr. Edison remarks in regard to -this: "He" (Gould) "took no pride in building up an enterprise. He -was after money, and money only. Whether the company was a success -or a failure mattered not to him. After he had hammered the Western -Union through his opposition company and had tired out Mr. Vanderbilt, -the latter retired from control, and Gould went in and consolidated -his company and controlled the Western Union. He then repudiated the -contract with the Automatic Telegraph people, and they never received -a cent for their wires or patents, and I lost three years of very hard -labor. But I never had any grudge against him, because he was so able -in his line, and as long as my part was successful the money with me -was a secondary consideration. When Gould got the Western Union I knew -no further progress in telegraphy was possible, and I went into other -lines." - -One of the most remarkable suits in the history of American -jurisprudence arose out of this transaction. Mr. Edison and his -associates sued Mr. Gould in 1876 for the recovery of the contract -price of these inventions, and, at this writing, thirty-five years -later, the suit has not been finally decided. It is now on appeal to -the United States Supreme Court. - -A busier shop than that of the young inventor during the years 1870 to -1874 would be difficult to find. Not only was he and it engaged on the -tremendous problems of the automatic and quadruplex systems, but the -shop was also busy making stock tickers. The hours were endless; and on -one occasion when an order was on hand for a large quantity of these -instruments Edison locked the men in until the job had been finished of -making the machine perfect, and "all the bugs taken out," which meant -sixty hours of hard work before the difficulties were overcome. - -In addition to all this work, Edison gave attention to many other -things. One of them was the first typewriter. In the early 'seventies -Mr. D. N. Craig, who was interested in the automatic, brought with him -from Milwaukee a Mr. Sholes, who had a wooden model of a machine to -which had been given the then new and unfamiliar name of "typewriter." -Mr. Craig was interested in the machine and put the model in Edison's -hands to perfect. - -"This typewriter proved a difficult thing," says Edison, "to make -commercial. The alignment of the letters was awful. One letter would -be one-sixteenth of an inch above the others, and all the letters -wanted to wander out of line. I worked on it till the machine gave -fair results. Some were made and used in the office of the Automatic -Company. Craig was very sanguine that some day all business letters -would be written on a typewriter. He died before that took place; -but it gradually made its way. The typewriter I got into commercial -shape is now known as the Remington. I now had five shops, and with -experimenting on this new scheme I was pretty busy--at least I did not -have ennui." - -Later on, after the automatic was completed, and Edison was installing -the system for the Atlantic and Pacific Telegraph Company he says: -"About this time I invented a district messenger call-box system, and -organized a company called the Domestic Telegraph Company, and started -in to install the system in New York. I had great difficulty in getting -subscribers, having tried several canvassers, who, one after the other, -failed to get subscribers. When I was about to give it up a test -operator named Brown, who was on the Automatic Telegraph wire between -New York and Washington, which passed through my Newark shop, asked -permission to let him try and see if he couldn't get subscribers. I had -very little faith in his ability to get any, but I thought I would give -him a chance, as he felt certain of his ability to succeed. He started -in, and the results were surprising. Within a month he had procured two -hundred subscribers, and the company was a success. I have never quite -understood why six men should fail absolutely, while the seventh man -should succeed. Perhaps hypnotism would account for it. This company -was sold out to the Atlantic and Pacific Company." - -This was not the first time that Edison had worked on district -messenger signal boxes, for as far back as 1872 he had applied for a -patent on a device of this kind. Although he was not the first, he was -a very early inventor in this field. - -It will be seen, therefore, that not all of his problems and inventions -were connected with telegraphy. He seemed to find relief in working -on several lines that were quite different and distinct, but all -were useful and capable of wide application. For instance, when we -take a piece of paraffin paper off candy, chocolate, chewing-gum or -other articles, we scarcely realize that it owes its introduction to -Mr. Edison. Yet such is the fact, and we relate it in his own modest -words: "Toward the latter part of 1875, in the Newark shop, I invented -a device for multiplying copies of letters, which I sold to Mr. A. -B. Dick, of Chicago, and in the years since it has been introduced -universally throughout the world. It is called the mimeograph. I also -invented devices for making, and introduced, paraffin paper, now used -universally for wrapping up candy, etc." - -In the mimeograph a stencil is prepared by writing with a pointed -pencil-like stylus on a tough prepared paper placed on a finely grooved -steel plate. The pressure of the stylus causes the letters to be -punctured in the sheet by a series of minute perforations, thus forming -a stencil from which hundreds of copies can be made. - -Edison accomplished the same perforating result by two other -inventions, one a pneumatic and the other an electric motor. The latter -was the one which came into extensive use, and was called the "Edison -electric pen." A tiny electric motor was mounted on a pencil-like tube -in which a pointed stylus (connected to the motor) traveled to and fro -at a very high rate of speed. Current from a battery was supplied to -the motor through a flexible cord, and the tube was held and used like -a pencil, as in the other case. As many as three thousand copies have -been made from such a stencil. - -[Footnote 1: The sand battery is now obsolete. In this type the cell -containing the elements was filled with sand, which was kept moist with -an electrolyte.] - - -XI - -THE TELEPHONE, MOTOGRAPH, AND MICROPHONE - - -It is well known that to Mr. Alexander Graham Bell belongs the credit -for transmitting the articulate voice over an electric circuit by -talking against a diaphragm placed in front of an electromagnet. -But after Mr. Bell brought out the telephone Mr. Edison made some -remarkable improvements. - -In the year 1875 Edison took up the study of harmonic telegraphs, in -addition to his other work, with the idea of developing a system of -multiple transmission by sending sound waves over an electric circuit. - -One of the devices he then made is illustrated in an interesting -drawing on file at the Orange Laboratory, entitled "First Telephone -on Record." This device is described by Edison in a caveat filed in -the Patent Office January 14, 1876, a month before Bell filed his -application for patent. - -Mr. Edison states, however, that while this device was crudely capable -of use as a magneto telephone, he did not invent it for transmitting -speech, but as an apparatus for analyzing the complex waves arising -from various sounds. He did not try the effects of sound waves produced -by the human voice until after Bell's discovery was announced, but then -found that this device was capable of use as a telephone. - -This was a curious coincidence, but it must be understood that Mr. -Edison in his testimony and public utterances has always given Mr. -Bell full credit for the original discovery of transmitting articulate -speech over an electric circuit. - -In order to understand the value of Edison's work in this field it -should be stated that, while Bell's telephone transmitted speech and -other sounds, it was only practicable for short lines. Bell had no -separate transmitter, but used a single apparatus both as transmitter -and receiver. This instrument was similar to the receiver used to-day, -having a metallic diaphragm placed near the pole of a magnet. The -vibrations of the diaphragm induced very weak electric impulses in the -magnetic coil. These impulses passed over the line to the receiving -end, energizing the magnet coil there, and, by varying the magnetism, -caused the receiving diaphragm to be similarly vibrated, and thus -reproduce the sounds. Under such conditions the telephone would be -practicable upon lines of only a few miles in extent, as the amount of -power generated by the human voice is necessarily quite limited. - -The Western Union Company requested Edison to experiment on the -telephone so that it would be commercially practicable. He then went to -work with a corps of helpers, and, after months of hard work day and -night and the performance of many thousands of experiments, invented -the carbon transmitter. This, with his plan of using an induction coil -and constant battery current on the line, were the needed elements of -success, and it made the telephone a commercial possibility. Every -one of the many millions of telephones in use all over the world -to-day bears the imprint of Edison's genius in the employment of the -principles he then established. - -What Edison accomplished was this: Instead of using one single -apparatus for transmitting and receiving, he made a separate -transmitter of special design. In this he used carbon, which varies -in electrical resistance with the pressure applied. The carbon was an -electrode in connection with the vibrating diaphragm, and was in a -closed circuit through which flowed a battery current. The vibrations -of the diaphragm caused variations of pressure on the carbon and -consequent variations in the current. These in turn resulted in -corresponding impulses in the receiving magnet, and the diaphragm of -the receiver was vibrated accordingly, thus reproducing the sounds. -Edison's plan also included the passing of the current through an -induction coil, the secondary of which was connected with the main -line. By this means electrical impulses of enormously high potential -are sent out on the main line to the receiving end. - -Thus it will be seen that with Bell's telephone the sound-waves -themselves generate the electric impulses, which are hence extremely -weak. With Edison's telephone the sound-waves actuate an electric -valve, so to speak, and permit variations in a current of any desired -strength. - -Mr. Edison's own story of his telephone work is full of interest: "In -1876 I started again to experiment for the Western Union and Mr. Orton. -This time it was the telephone. Bell invented the first telephone, -which consisted of the present receiver, used both as a transmitter -and a receiver (the magneto type). It was attempted to introduce -it commercially, but it failed on account of its faintness and the -extraneous sounds which came in on its wire from various causes. -Mr. Orton wanted me to take hold of it and make it commercial. As I -had also been working on a telegraph system employing tuning-forks, -simultaneously with both Bell and Gray, I was pretty familiar with the -subject. I started in, and soon produced the carbon transmitter, which -is now universally used. - -"Tests were made between New York and Philadelphia, also between New -York and Washington, using regular Western Union wires. The noises -were so great that not a word could be heard with the Bell receiver -when used as a transmitter between New York and Newark, New Jersey. -Mr. Orton and W. K. Vanderbilt and the board of directors witnessed -and took part in the tests of my transmitter. They were successful. -The Western Union then put the transmitters on private lines. Mr. -Theodore Puskas, of Budapest, Hungary, was the first man to suggest -a telephone exchange, and soon after exchanges were established. The -telephone department was put in the hands of Hamilton McK. Twombly, -Vanderbilt's ablest son-in-law, who made a success of it. The Bell -Company, of Boston, also started an exchange, and the fight was on, -the Western Union pirating the Bell receiver and the Boston company -pirating the Western Union transmitter. About this time I wanted to be -taken care of. I threw out hints of this desire. Then Mr. Orton sent -for me. He had learned that inventors didn't do business by the regular -process, and concluded he would close it right up. He asked me how much -I wanted. I had made up my mind it was certainly worth twenty-five -thousand dollars if it ever amounted to anything for central station -work; so that was the sum I had in mind to obstinately stick to and -get. Still it had been an easy job, and only required a few months, -and I felt a little shaky and uncertain. So I asked him to make me an -offer. He promptly said he would give me one hundred thousand dollars. -'All right,' I said, 'it is yours on one condition, and that is that -you do not pay it all at once, but pay me at the rate of six thousand -dollars a year for seventeen years--the life of the patent.' He seemed -only too pleased to do this, and it was closed. My ambition was about -four times too large for my business capacity, and I knew that I would -soon spend this money experimenting if I got it all at once; so I fixed -it that I couldn't. I saved seventeen years of worry by this stroke." - -Edison continued his telephone work through a number of years and made -and tested many other kinds of telephones, such as the water telephone, -electrostatic telephone, condenser telephone, chemical telephone, -various magneto telephones, inertia telephone, mercury telephone, -voltaic pile telephone, musical transmitter, and the electromotograph. - -The principle of the electromotograph was utilized by him in more -ways than one; first of all in telegraphy. Soon after the time he had -concluded the telephone arrangement just mentioned a patent was issued -to a Mr. Page. This patent was considered very important. It related to -the use of a retractile spring to withdraw the armature lever from the -magnet of a telegraph or other relay or sounder, and thus controlled -the art of telegraphy, except in simple circuits. - -"There was no known way," remarks Edison, "whereby this patent could -be evaded, and its possessor would eventually control the use of what -is known as the relay and sounder, and this was vital to telegraphy. -Gould was pounding the Western Union on the Stock Exchange, disturbing -its railroad contracts, and, being advised by his lawyers that this -patent was of great value, bought it. The moment Mr. Orton heard -this he sent for me and explained the situation, and wanted me to go -to work immediately and see if I couldn't evade it or discover some -other means that could be used in case Gould sustained the patent. It -seemed a pretty hard job, because there was no known means of moving -a lever at the other end of a telegraph wire except by the use of a -magnet. I said I would go at it that night. In experimenting some -years previously I had discovered a very peculiar phenomenon, and that -was that if a piece of metal connected to a battery was rubbed over -a moistened piece of chalk resting on a metal connected to the other -pole, when the current passed the friction was greatly diminished. When -the current was reversed the friction was greatly increased over what -it was when no current was passing. Remembering this, I substituted a -piece of chalk, rotated by a small electric motor for the magnet, and -connecting a sounder to a metallic finger resting on the chalk, the -combination claim of Page was made worthless. A hitherto unknown means -was introduced in the electric art. Two or three of the devices were -made and tested by the company's expert. Mr. Orton, after he had had -me sign the patent application and got it in the Patent Office, wanted -to settle for it at once. He asked my price. Again I said, 'Make me -an offer.' Again he named one hundred thousand dollars. I accepted, -providing he would pay it at the rate of six thousand dollars a year -for seventeen years. This was done, and thus, with the telephone money, -I received twelve thousand dollars yearly for that period from the -Western Union Telegraph Company." - -A year or two later the electromotograph principle was again made -use of in a curious manner. The telephone was being developed in -England, and Edison had made arrangements with Colonel Gouraud, his old -associate in the automatic telegraph, to represent his interests. - -A company was formed, a large number of instruments were made and -sent to London, and prospects were bright. Then there came a threat -of litigation from the owners of the Bell patent, and Gouraud found -he could not push the enterprise unless he could avoid using what was -asserted to be an infringement of the Bell receiver. - -He cabled for help to Edison, who sent back word telling him to hold -the fort. "I had recourse again," says Edison, "to the phenomenon -discovered by me some years previous, that the friction of a rubbing -electrode passing over a moist chalk surface was varied by electricity. -I devised a telephone receiver which was afterward known as the -'loud-speaking telephone,' or 'chalk receiver.' There was no magnet, -simply a diaphragm and a cylinder of compressed chalk about the size -of a thimble. A thin spring connected to the center of the diaphragm -extended outwardly and rested on the chalk cylinder, and was pressed -against it with a pressure equal to that which would be due to a weight -of about six pounds. The chalk was rotated by hand. The volume of sound -was very great. A person talking into the carbon transmitter in New -York had his voice so amplified that he could be heard one thousand -feet away in an open field at Menlo Park. This great excess of power -was due to the fact that the latter came from the person turning the -handle. The voice, instead of furnishing all the power, as with the -present receiver, merely controlled the power, just as an engineer -working a valve would control a powerful engine. - -"I made six of these receivers and sent them in charge of an expert on -the first steamer. They were welcomed and tested, and shortly afterward -I shipped a hundred more. At the same time I was ordered to send twenty -young men, after teaching them to become expert. I set up an exchange -of ten instruments around the laboratory. I would then go out and get -each one out of order in every conceivable way, cutting the wires of -one, short-circuiting another, destroying the adjustment of a third, -putting dirt between the electrodes of a fourth, and so on. A man would -be sent to each to find out the trouble. When he could find the trouble -ten consecutive times, using five minutes each, he was sent to London. -About sixty men were sifted to get twenty. Before all had arrived, -the Bell Company there, seeing we could not be stopped, entered into -negotiations for consolidation. One day I received a cable from Gouraud -offering 'thirty thousand' for my interest. I cabled back I would -accept. When the draft came I was astonished to find it was for thirty -thousand pounds. I had thought it was dollars." - -After the consolidation of the Bell and Edison interests in England the -chalk receiver was finally abandoned in favor of the Bell receiver--the -latter being more simple and cheaper. Extensive litigation with -newcomers into the telephone field followed, and Edison's carbon -transmitter patent was sustained by the English courts, while Bell's -was declared invalid. - -In America, the competition between the Western Union and Bell -companies, which had been keen and strenuous, was finally brought to -an end under an agreement, the former company agreeing to retire from -the telephonic field and the latter company agreeing to stay out of the -telegraphic field. Through its ownership of Edison's carbon transmitter -invention, the Western Union company came to enjoy an annual income of -several hundred thousand dollars for some years as a compensation for -its retirement from telephony under this agreement. - -The principle involved in Edison's carbon-transmitter gave birth to -another interesting device called the microphone, by means of which -the faintest sounds could be very plainly heard. For instance, the -footsteps of a common house-fly make a loud noise when the hearing -is assisted by the microphone. As every one knows, the microphone is -universally used in our modern radio. - -This invention was claimed at the time for Professor Hughes, of -England. Whatever credit might be due to him for the form he proposed, -a standard history ascribes two original forms of the microphone to -Edison, and he himself remarks: "After I sent one of my men over to -London especially to show Preece the carbon transmitter, when Hughes -first saw it, and heard it--then within a month he came out with the -microphone, without any acknowledgment whatever. Published dates will -show that Hughes came along after me." - -The carbon transmitter has not been the only way in which Edison has -utilized the peculiar property that carbon possesses of altering -its resistance to the passage of current according to the degree of -pressure brought to bear on it. - -For his quadruplex system he constructed a rheostat, or resistance box, -with a series of silk disks saturated with plumbago and well dried. The -pressure on the disks can be regulated by an adjustable screw, and in -this way the resistance of the circuit can be varied. - -He also developed a "pressure," or carbon, relay, by means of which -signals of variable strength can be transferred from one telegraphic -circuit to another. The poles of the electromagnet in the local or -relay circuit are hollowed out and filled up with carbon disks or -powdered plumbago. - -If a weak current passes through the relay the armature will be but -feebly attracted and will only compress the carbon slightly. Thus the -carbon will offer considerable resistance and the signal on the local -sounder will be weak. - -If, on the contrary, the incoming current be strong, the armature -will be strongly attracted, the carbon will be more compressed, thus -lowering the resistance and giving a loud signal on the local sounder. - -Another beautiful and ingenious use of carbon was made by Edison in an -instrument invented by him called the tasimeter. This device was used -for indicating most minute degrees of heat, and was so exceedingly -sensitive that in one case the heat of rays of light from the remote -star Arcturus showed results. - -The tasimeter is a very simple instrument. A strip of hard rubber rests -vertically on a platinum plate, beneath which is a carbon button, under -which again lies another platinum plate. The two plates and the carbon -button form part of an electric circuit containing a battery and a -galvanometer. Hard rubber is very sensitive to heat, and the slightest -rise of temperature causes it to expand, thus increasing the pressure -on the carbon button. This produces a variation in resistance shown by -the swinging of the galvanometer needle. - -This instrument is so sensitive that with a delicate galvanometer the -heat of a person's hand thirty feet away will throw the needle off the -scale. - - -XII - -MAKING A MACHINE TALK - - -If one had never heard a phonograph, it would seem as though it would -be impossible to take some pieces of metal and make a machine that -would repeat speaking, singing, or instrumental music just like life. - -So, before the autumn of 1877, when Edison invented the phonograph, the -world thought such a thing was entirely out of the question. Indeed, -Edison's own men in his workshop, who had seen him do some wonderful -things, thought the idea was absurd when he told them that he was -making a machine to reproduce human speech. - -One of his men went so far as to bet him a box of cigars that the thing -would be an utter failure when finished, but, as every one knows, -Edison won the bet, for the very first time the machine was tried it -repeated clearly all the words that were spoken into it. - -A story has often been told in the newspapers that the invention was -made through Edison's finger being pricked by a point attached to a -vibrating telephone diaphragm, but this is not true. - -The invention was not made through any accident, but was the result -of pure reasoning, and in this case, as in many others, fact is more -wonderful than fiction. Mr. Edison's own account of the invention of -the phonograph is intensely interesting. - -"I was experimenting," he says, "on an automatic method of recording -telegraph messages on a disk of paper laid on a revolving platen, -exactly the same as the disk talking-machine of to-day. The platen had -a spiral groove on its surface, like the disk. Over this was placed -a circular disk of paper; an electromagnet with the embossing point -connected to an arm travelled over the disk, and any signals given -through the magnets were embossed on the disk of paper. If this disk -was removed from the machine and put on a similar machine provided -with a contact point the embossed record would cause the signals to be -repeated into another wire. The ordinary speed of telegraphic signals -is thirty-five to forty words a minute; but with this machine several -hundred words were possible. - -"From my experiments on the telephone I knew of the power of a -diaphragm to take up sound vibrations, as I had made a little toy which -when you recited loudly in the funnel would work a pawl connected to -the diaphragm; and this, engaging a ratchet-wheel, served to give -continuous rotation to a pulley. This pulley was connected by a cord -to a little paper toy representing a man sawing wood. Hence, if one -shouted: 'Mary had a little lamb,' etc., the paper man would start -sawing wood. I reached the conclusion that if I could record the -movements of the diaphragm properly I could cause such records to -reproduce the original movements imparted to the diaphragm by the -voice, and thus succeed in recording and reproducing the human voice. - -"Instead of using a disk I designed a little machine, using a cylinder -provided with grooves around the surface. Over this was to be placed -tin-foil, which easily received and recorded the movements of the -diaphragm. A sketch was made, and the piece-work price, eighteen -dollars, was marked on the sketch. I was in the habit of marking the -price I would pay on each sketch. If the workman lost, I would pay -his regular wages; if he made more than the wages, he kept it. The -workman who got the sketch was John Kruesi. I didn't have much faith -that it would work, expecting that I might possibly hear a word or so -that would give hope of a future for the idea. Kruesi, when he had -nearly finished it, asked what it was for. I told him I was going to -record talking, and then have the machine talk back. He thought it -absurd. However, it was finished; the foil was put on; I then shouted -'Mary had a little lamb,' etc. I adjusted the reproducer, and the -machine reproduced it perfectly. I was never so taken back in my life. -Everybody was astonished. I was always afraid of things that worked -the first time. Long experience proved that there were great drawbacks -found generally before they could be made commercial; but here was -something there was no doubt of." - -No wonder that John Kruesi, as he heard the little machine repeat the -words that had been spoken into it, ejaculated in an awe-stricken tone: -"Mein Gott im Himmel!" No wonder the "boys" joined hands and danced -around Edison, singing and shouting. No wonder that Edison and his -associates sat up all night fixing and adjusting it so as to get better -and better results--reciting and singing and trying one another's -voices and listening with awe and delight as the crude little machine -repeated the words spoken or sung into it. - -The news quickly became public, and the newspapers of the world -published columns about this wonderful invention. Mr. Edison was -besieged with letters from every part of the globe. Every one wanted -to hear this machine; and in order to satisfy a universal demand for -phonographs to be used for exhibition purposes he had a number of them -made and turned them over to various individuals, who exhibited them to -great crowds around the country. These were the machines in which the -record was made on a sheet of tin-foil laid around the cylinder. - -They created great excitement both in America and abroad. The -announcement of a phonograph concert was sufficient to fill a hall with -people who were curious to hear a machine talk and sing. - -In the next year, 1878, Edison entered upon his experiments in electric -lighting. His work in this field kept him intensely busy for nearly ten -years, and the phonograph was laid aside as far as he was concerned. - -He had not forgotten it, however, for he had fully realized its -tremendous possibilities very quickly after its invention. This -is shown by an article he wrote for the _North American Review_, -which appeared in the summer of 1878. In that article he predicted -the possible uses of the phonograph, many of which have since been -fulfilled. - -[Illustration: MR. EDISON AT THE CLOSE OF FIVE DAYS AND NIGHTS -OF CONTINUED WORK IN PERFECTING THE EARLY WAX-CYLINDER TYPE OF -PHONOGRAPH--JUNE 16, 1888 - -This is the longest continuous session of labor he ever performed.] - -In 1887, having finished the greatest part of his work on the electric -light, he turned to the phonograph once more. Realizing that the -tin-foil machine was not an ideal type and could not come into common -use, he determined to re-design it, and make it an instrument that -could be handled by any one. - -This meant the design and construction of an entirely different type of -machine, and resulted in the kind of phonograph with which every one is -familiar in these modern days. One of the chief differences was the use -of a wax cylinder instead of tin-foil, and, instead of indenting with a -pointed stylus, the record is cut into the wax with a tiny sapphire, -the next hardest jewel to a diamond. - -Into his improvements of the phonograph Mr. Edison has put an enormous -amount of time and work. He has never lost interest, but has worked on -it more or less through all the intervening years up to the present -time. Even during recent years he has expended a prodigious amount of -energy in improving the reproducer and other parts, spending night -after night, and frequently all night, at the laboratory. - -Inasmuch as great quantities of phonographs were sold, requiring -millions of records, one of the difficulties to be overcome was to make -large numbers of duplicates from an original record made by a singer, -speaker, or band of musicians. - -This difficulty will be perceived when it is stated that the record -cut into the wax cylinder is hardly ever greater than one-thousandth -of an inch deep, which is less than the thickness of a sheet of tissue -paper, and in a single phonograph record there are many millions of -sound-waves so recorded. - -Through endless experiments of Edison and his working force, and with -many ingenious inventions, however, these difficulties were overcome -one by one. - -It may be added that the phonograph was an invention so absolutely new -that when Mr. Edison applied for his original patent, in 1877, the -Patent Office could not find that any such attempt had ever before been -made to record and reproduce speech or other sounds, and the patent -was granted immediately. He has since taken out more than one hundred -patents on improvements. - -The original patent has long since expired, and many kinds of -talking-machines are now made by others also, but they all operate on -the identical principle which Edison was the first to discover and put -into actual practice. - - -XIII - -A NEW LIGHT IN THE WORLD - - -In these modern times an incandescent electric lamp is such an -every-day affair as to be a familiar object even to a small child. But -only a few years ago--a little over thirty--the man who proposed and -invented it was derided in the newspapers, and called a madman and a -dreamer. - -If among Edison's numerous inventions there should be selected one or a -class that might be considered the greatest, it seems to be universal -opinion that the palm would be awarded to the incandescent lamp and his -_complete system_ for the distribution of electric light, heat, and -power. These inventions as a class, and what has sprung from them, have -brought about most wonderful changes in the world. - -The year 1877 was a busy one at Edison's laboratory at Menlo Park. -He was engaged on the telephone, on acoustic electric transmission, -sextuplex telegraphs, duplex telegraphs, miscellaneous carbon articles, -and other things. He also commenced experimenting on the electric light. - -Besides, as we have seen in the previous chapter, he invented the -phonograph. The great interest and excitement caused by the latter -invention took up nearly all of his time and attention for many months, -and, indeed, up to July, 1878. He then took a vacation and went out to -Wyoming with a party of astronomers to observe an eclipse of the sun -and to make a test of his tasimeter. - -He was absent about two months, coming home rested and refreshed. Mr. -Edison says: "After my return from the trip to observe the eclipse -of the sun I went with Professor Barker, professor of physics in the -University of Pennsylvania, and Dr. Chandler, professor of chemistry -in Columbia College, to see Mr. Wallace, a large manufacturer of brass -in Ansonia, Connecticut. Wallace at this time was experimenting on -series arc lighting. Just at that time I wanted to take up something -new, and Professor Barker suggested that I go to work and see if I -could subdivide the electric light so it could be got in small units -like gas. This was not a new suggestion, because I had made a number of -experiments on electric lighting a year before this. They had been laid -aside for the phonograph. I determined to take up the search again and -continue it. On my return home I started my usual course of collecting -every kind of data about gas; bought all the transactions of the gas -engineering societies, etc., all the back volumes of gas journals, etc. -Having obtained all the data, and investigated gas-jet distribution in -New York by actual observations, I made up my mind that the problem -of the subdivision of the electric current could be solved and made -commercial." - -The problem which Edison had undertaken to solve was a gigantic one. -The arc light was then known and in use to a very small extent, but the -subdivision of the electric light--as it was then called--had not been -accomplished. It had been the dream of scientists and inventors for a -long time. - -Innumerable trials and experiments had been made in America and Europe -for many years, but without success. Although a great number of -ingenious lamps had been made by the foremost inventors of the period, -they were utterly useless as part of a scheme for a system of electric -lighting. In fact, these efforts had been so unsuccessful that many of -the leading scientists of the time, even as late as 1879, declared that -the subdivision of the light was an impossibility. - -The chief trouble was that the early experimenters did not conceive the -idea of a _system_, and worked only on a lamp. They all seemed to have -the idea that an electric lamp was the main thing and that it should -be of low resistance and should be operated on a current of very low -voltage, or pressure. They, therefore experimented on lamps using short -carbon rods or strips for burners, which required a large quantity of -current. - -Electric lighting with this kind of lamp was indeed a practical -impossibility. The quantity of current required for a large number of -them would have been prodigious, giving rise to tremendous problems on -account of the heating effects. Besides, the most fatal objection was -the cost of copper for conductors, which for a city section of about -half a mile square would have cost not less than a hundred million -dollars, on account of the enormous quantity of current that would be -required. - -Mr. Edison realized at the beginning that previous experimenters had -failed because they had been following the wrong track. He knew that -electric lighting could not be a success unless it could be sold to the -public at a reasonable price and pay a profit to those who supplied it. -With such lamps as had been proposed, requiring such an enormous outlay -for copper, this would have been impossible. Besides, there would not -have been enough copper in the world to supply conductors for one large -city. - -Edison did what he has so often done before and since. He turned about -and went in the opposite direction. He reasoned that in order to -develop a successful system of electric lighting the cost of conductors -must come within very reasonable limits. To insure this, he must -invent a lamp of comparatively high resistance, requiring only a small -quantity of current, and with a burner having a small radiating surface. - -Having the problem clearly in mind, Edison went to work in the fall -of 1878 with that enthusiastic energy so characteristic of him. His -earliest experiments were made with carbon as the burner for his lamp. -In the previous year he had also experimented on this line, beginning -with strips of carbon burned in the open air, and then _in vacuo_ -by means of a hand-worked air-pump. These strips burned only a few -minutes. On resuming his work in 1878 he again commenced with carbon, -and made a very large number of trials, all _in vacuo_. Not only did he -try ordinary strips of carbonized paper, but tissue-paper coated with -tar and lampblack was rolled into thin sticks, like knitting-needles, -carbonized and raised to the white heat of incandescence _in vacuo_. - -He also tried hard carbon, wood carbon, and almost every conceivable -variety of paper carbon in like manner. But with the best vacuum that -he could then get by means of the ordinary hand-pump the carbons -would last at the most only from ten to fifteen minutes in a state of -incandescence. - -It was evident to Edison that such results as these were not of -commercial value. He feared that, after all, carbon was not the ideal -substance he had thought it was for an incandescent lamp-burner. The -lamp that he had in mind was one which should have a tough, hair-like -filament for a light-giving body that could be maintained at a white -heat for a thousand hours before breaking. - -He therefore turned his line of experiments to wires made of refractory -metals, such as platinum and iridium, and their alloys. These metals -have very high fusing points, and while they would last longer than the -carbon strips, they melted with a slight excess of current after they -had been lighted but a short time. - -Nevertheless, Edison continued to experiment along this line, making -some improvements, until about April, 1879, he made an important -discovery which led him to the first step toward the modern -incandescent lamp. He discovered that if he introduced a piece of -platinum wire into an all-glass globe, completely sealed and highly -exhausted of air, and passed a current through the platinum wire -while the vacuum was being made the wire would give a light equal to -twenty-five candle-power without melting. Previously, the same length -of wire would melt in the open air when giving a light equal to four -candles. - -He thus discovered that the passing of current through the platinum -while the vacuum was being obtained would drive out occluded gases -(_i.e._, gases mechanically held in or upon the metal). This was -important and soon led to greater results. - -Edison and his associates had been working night and day at the Menlo -Park laboratory, and now that promising results were ahead their -efforts went on with greater vigor than ever. Taking no account of -the passage of time, with an utter disregard of meal-times, and with -but scanty hours of sleep snatched reluctantly at odd periods, Edison -labored on, and the laboratory was kept going without cessation. - -Following up the progress he had made, Edison made improvement after -improvement, especially in the line of high vacua, and about the -beginning of October had so improved his pumps that he could produce -a vacuum up to the one-millionth part of an atmosphere. It should -be understood that the maintaining of such a high vacuum was only -rendered possible by Edison's invention of a one-piece all-glass globe, -hermetically sealed during its manufacture into a lamp. - -In obtaining this perfection of vacuum apparatus Edison realized that -he was drawing nearer to a solution of the problem. For many reasons, -however, he was dissatisfied with platino-iridium filaments for -burners, and went back to carbon, which from the first he had thought -of as an ideal substance for a burner. - -His next step proved that he was correct. On October 21, 1879, after -many patient trials, he carbonized a piece of cotton sewing-thread bent -into a loop or horseshoe form, and had it sealed into a glass globe -from which he exhausted the air until a vacuum up to one-millionth of -an atmosphere was produced. This lamp, when put on the circuit, lighted -up brightly to incandescence and maintained its integrity for over -forty hours, and lo! the practical incandescent lamp was born. The -impossible, so called, had been attained; subdivision of the electric -current was made practicable; the goal had been reached, and one of the -greatest inventions of the century was completed. - -Edison and his helpers stayed by the lamp during the whole forty hours -watching it, some of the men making bets as to how long it would burn. -It may well be imagined that there was great jubilation throughout the -laboratory during those two days of delight and anxiety. - -But now that the principle was established work was renewed with great -fervor in making other lamps. A vast number of experiments were made -with carbons made of paper, and the manufacture of lamps with these -paper carbons was carried on continuously. A great number of these were -made and put into actual use. - -Edison was not satisfied, however. He wanted something better. He began -to carbonize everything that he could lay hands on. In his laboratory -note-books are innumerable jottings of the things that were carbonized -and tried, such as tissue-paper, soft paper, all kinds of cardboards, -drawing paper of all grades, paper saturated with tar, all kinds of -threads, fish-line, threads rubbed with tarred lampblack, fine threads -plaited together in strands, cotton soaked in boiling tar, lamp-wick, -twine, tar and lampblack mixed with a proportion of lime, vulcanized -fiber, celluloid, boxwood, cocoanut hair and shell, spruce, hickory, -baywood, cedar, and maple shavings, rosewood, punk, cork, bagging, -flax, and a host of other things. - -He also extended his searches far into the realms of nature in the -line of grasses, plants, canes, and similar products, and in these -experiments at that time and later he carbonized, made into lamps, -and tested no fewer than six thousand different species of vegetable -growths. - -At this time Edison was investigating everything with a microscope. One -day he picked up a palm-leaf fan and examined the long strip of cane -binding on its edge. He gave it to one of his assistants, telling him -to cut it up into filaments, carbonize them, and put them into lamps. - -These proved to be the best thus far obtained, and on further -examination Edison decided that he had now found the best material so -far tried, and a material entirely suitable for his lamps. - -Within a very short time he sent a man off to China and Japan to search -for bamboo, with instructions to keep on sending samples until the -right one was found. This man did his work well, and among the species -of bamboo he sent was one that was found satisfactory. Mr. Edison -obtained a quantity of this and arranged with a farmer in Japan to grow -it for him and to ship regular supplies. This was done for a number of -years, and during that time millions of Edison lamps were regularly -made from that particular species of Japanese bamboo. - -Mr. Edison did not stop at this, however. He was continually in search -of the best, and sent other men out to Cuba, Florida, and all through -South America to hunt for something that might be superior to what he -was using. Another man was sent on a trip around the world for the same -purpose. - -Some of these explorers met with striking adventures during their -travels, and all of them sent vast quantities of bamboos, palms, and -fibrous grasses to the laboratory for examination, but Edison never -found any of them better for his purposes than the bamboo from Japan. - -In this remarkable exploration of the world for such a material will -be found an example of the thoroughness of Edison's methods. He is not -satisfied to believe he has the best until he has proved it, and this -search for the best bamboo was so thorough that it cost him altogether -about one hundred thousand dollars. - -In the meantime he was experimenting to manufacture an artificial -filament that would be better than bamboo. He finally succeeded in his -efforts, and brought out what is known as a "squirted" filament. This -was made of a cellulose mixture and pressed out in the form of a thread -through dies. This kind of filament has gradually superseded the bamboo -in the manufacture of lamps. - -We have been obliged to confine ourselves to a very brief outline -history of the invention and development of the incandescent lamp. -To tell the detailed story of the intense labors of the inventor and -his staff of faithful workers would require a volume as large as the -present one. - -All that could be done in the space at our disposal was to try and give -the reader a general idea of the clear thinking, logical reasoning, -endless experimenting, hard work, and thoroughness of method of Edison -in the creation of a new art. - - -XIV - -MENLO PARK - - -In the history of the world's progress, Menlo Park, New Jersey, will -ever be famous as the birthplace of the carbon transmitter, the -phonograph, the incandescent lamp, the commercial dynamo, and the -fundamental systems of distributing electric light, heat, and power. - -In this list might also be included the electric railway, for while -others had previously made some progress in this direction, it was in -this historic spot that Edison did his pioneer work that advanced the -art to a stage of practicability. - -The name of Menlo Park will not have as striking a significance to the -younger readers as to their elders whose recollections carry them back -to the years between 1876 and 1886. During that period the place became -invested with the glamor of romance by reason of the many startling and -wonderful inventions coming out of it from time to time. - -Edison worked there during these ten years. He had adopted Invention -as a profession. As we have seen, he had always had a passion for a -laboratory. Thus, from the little cellar at Port Huron, from the scant -shelves in a baggage car, from the nooks and corners of dingy telegraph -offices, and the grimy little shops in New York and Newark, he had come -to the proud ownership of a _real_ laboratory where he could wrestle -with Nature for her secrets. - -Here he could experiment to his heart's content, and invent on a bolder -and larger scale than ever before. All the world knows that he did. - -Menlo Park was the merest hamlet, located a few miles below Elizabeth. -Besides the laboratory buildings, it had only a few houses, the -best-looking of which Edison lived in. Two or three of the others -were occupied by the families of members of his staff; in the others -boarders were taken. - -During the ten years that Edison occupied his laboratory there, life in -Menlo Park could be summed up in one short word--work. Through the days -and through the nights, year in and year out, for the most part, he -and his associates labored on unceasingly, snatching only a few hours -of sleep here and there when tired nature positively demanded it. Such -a scene of concentrated and fruitful activity the world has probably -never seen. - -The laboratory buildings consisted of the laboratory proper, the -library and office, a machine shop, carpenter shop, and some smaller -buildings, and, later on, a wooden building, which was used for a short -time as an incandescent lamp factory. - -Here Edison worked through those busy years, surrounded by a band of -chosen assistants, whose individual abilities and never-failing loyalty -were of invaluable aid to him in accomplishing the purposes that he had -in mind. - -As to these associates, we quote Mr. Edison's own words from an -autobiographical article in the _Electrical World_ of March 5, 1904: -"It is interesting to note that in addition to those mentioned above -(Charles Batchelor and Francis R. Upton), I had around me other men who -ever since have remained active in the field, such as Messrs. Francis -Jahl, William J. Hammer, Martin Force, Ludwig K. Boehm, not forgetting -that good friend and co-worker, the late John Kruesi. They found plenty -to do in the various developments of the art, and as I now look back I -sometimes wonder how we did so much in so short a time." - -To this roll of honor may be added the names of a few others: The -Carman brothers, Stockton L. Griffin, Dr. A. Haid, John F. Ott (still -with Mr. Edison at Orange), John W. Lawson, Edward H. Johnson, Charles -L. Clarke, William Holzer, James Hippie, Charles T. Hughes, Samuel D. -Mott, Charles T. Mott, E. G. Acheson, Dr. E. L. Nichols, J. H. Vail, W. -S. Andrews, and Messrs. Worth, Crosby, Herrick, Hill, Isaacs, Logan, -and Swanson. - -To these should be added the name of Mr. Samuel Insull, who, in 1881, -became Mr. Edison's private secretary, and who for many years afterward -managed all his business affairs. - -Mr. Insull's position as secretary in the Menlo Park days was not a -"soft snap," as his own words will show. He says: "I never attempted to -systematize Edison's business life. Edison's whole method of work would -upset the system of any office. He was just as likely to be at work in -his laboratory at midnight as midday. He cared not for the hours of the -day or the days of the week. If he was exhausted he might more likely -be asleep in the middle of the day than in the middle of the night, as -most of his work in the way of invention was done at night. I used to -run his office on as close business methods as my experience admitted, -and I would get at him whenever it suited his convenience. Sometimes -he would not go over his mail for days at a time, but other times he -would go regularly to his office in the morning. At other times my -engagements used to be with him to go over his business affairs at -Menlo Park at night, if I was occupied in New York during the day. In -fact, as a matter of convenience I used more often to get at him at -night as it left my days free to transact his affairs, and enabled me, -probably at a midnight luncheon, to get a few minutes of his time to -look over his correspondence and get his directions as to what I should -do in some particular negotiation or matter of finance. While it was -a matter of suiting Edison's convenience as to when I should transact -business with him, it also suited my own ideas, as it enabled me after -getting through my business with him to enjoy the privilege of watching -him at his work, and to learn something about the technical side of -matters. Whatever knowledge I may have of the electric light and power -industry I feel I owe it to the tuition of Edison. He was about the -most willing tutor, and I must confess that he had to be a patient one." - -It must not be supposed that the hard work of these times made life -a burden to the small family of laborers associated with Edison. On -the contrary, they were a cheerful, happy lot of men, always ready to -brighten up their strenuous life by the enjoyment of anything of a -humorous nature that came along. - -Often during the long, weary nights of experimenting Edison would call -a halt for refreshments, which he had ordered always to be sent in at -midnight when night work was in progress. Everything would be dropped, -all present would join in the meal, and the last good story or joke -would pass around. - -Mr. Jehl has written some recollections of this period, in which he -says: "Our lunch always ended with a cigar, and I may mention here that -although Edison was never fastidious in eating, he always relished -a good cigar, and seemed to find in it consolation and solace.... -It often happened that while we were enjoying the cigars after our -midnight repast, one of the boys would start up a tune on the organ -and we would sing together, or one of the others would give a solo. -Another of the boys had a voice that sounded like something between -the ring of an old tomato-can and a pewter jug. He had one song that -he would sing while we roared with laughter. He was also great in -imitating the tin-foil phonograph. When Boehm was in good humor he would -play his zither now and then, and amuse us by singing pretty German -songs. On many of these occasions the laboratory was the rendezvous of -jolly and convivial visitors, mostly old friends and acquaintances of -Mr. Edison. Some of the office employees would also drop in once in a -while, and, as every one present was always welcome to partake of the -midnight meal, we all enjoyed these gatherings. After a while, when we -were ready to resume work, our visitors would intimate that they were -going home to bed, but we fellows could stay up and work, and they -would depart, generally singing some song like 'Good-night, Ladies!' ... -It often happened that when Edison had been working up to three or -four o'clock in the morning he would lie down on one of the laboratory -tables, and with nothing but a couple of books for a pillow, would fall -into a sound sleep. He said it did him more good than being in a soft -bed, which spoils a man. Some of the laboratory assistants could be -seen now and then sleeping on a table in the early morning hours. If -their snoring became objectionable to those still at work, the 'calmer' -was applied. This machine consisted of a Babbitt's soap-box without a -cover. Upon it was mounted a broad ratchet-wheel with a crank, while -into the teeth of the wheel there played a stout, elastic slab of wood. -The box would be placed on the table where the snorer was sleeping -and the crank turned rapidly. The racket thus produced was something -terrible, and the sleeper would jump up as though a typhoon had struck -the laboratory. The irrepressible spirit of humor in the old days, -although somewhat strenuous at times, caused many a moment of hilarity -which seemed to refresh the boys, and enabled them to work with renewed -vigor after its manifestation." - -The "boys" were ever ready for a joke on one of their number. Mr. -Mackenzie, who taught Edison telegraphy, spent a great deal of time at -the laboratory. He had a bushy red beard, and was persuaded to give -a few hairs to be carbonized and used for filaments in experimental -lamps. When the lamps were lighted the boys claimed that their -brightness was due to the rich color of the hairs. - -The history of the busy years at Menlo Park would make a long story -if told in full, but only a hint can be given here of the gradual -development of many important inventions. These include the innumerable -experiments on the lamp, on different kinds and weights of iron for -field magnets and armatures, on magnetism, on windings and connections -for field magnets and armatures, on distribution circuits, control, and -regulation, and so on through a long list. - -All these things were new. There was nothing in the books to serve as a -guide in solving these new problems, but Edison patiently worked them -out, one by one, until a complete system was the result of his labors. - -Menlo Park was historic in one other particular. It was the very first -place in the world to see incandescent electric lighting from a central -station. - -The newspapers had been so full of the wonderful invention that there -was a great demand to see the new light. Edison decided to give a -public exhibition, and for this purpose put up over four hundred lights -in the streets and houses of Menlo Park, all connected to underground -conductors which ran to the dynamos in one of the shop buildings. - -On New Year's Eve, 1879, the Pennsylvania Railroad ran special trains, -and over three thousand people availed themselves of the opportunity to -witness the demonstration. It was a great success, and gave rise to a -wide public interest. - -Edison's laboratory at Menlo Park had never suffered for lack of -visitors, but now it became a center of attraction for scientific and -business men from all parts of the world. Pages of this book could be -filled with the names of well-known visitors at this period, but it -would be of no practical use to give them; besides we must now pass on -to the time when the light was introduced to the world. - - -XV - -BEGINNING THE ELECTRIC LIGHT BUSINESS - - -The close of the last two chapters found us attending the birth of an -art that was then absolutely and entirely new--the art of electric -lighting by incandescent lamps. It will now be interesting to take a -brief glance at the way in which it was introduced to the world. - -Edison invented not only a lamp and a dynamo, but a complete _system_ -of distributing electric light, heat, and power from central stations. -This included a properly devised network of conductors fed with -electricity from several directions and capable of being tapped to -supply current to each building; a lamp that would be cheap, lasting, -take little current, be easy to handle, and each to be independent of -every other lamp; means for measuring electricity by meter; means for -regulating the current so that every lamp, whether near to or far away -from the station, would give an equal light; the designing of new and -efficient dynamos, with means for connecting and disconnecting and -for regulating and equalizing their loads; the providing of devices -that would prevent fires from excessive current, and the providing of -switches, lamp-holders, fixtures, and the like. - -This was a large program to fill, for it was all new, and there was -nothing in the world from which to draw ideas, but Edison carried out -his scheme in full, and much more besides. By the end of 1880 he was -ready to launch his electric light system for commercial use, and the -Edison Electric Light Company, that had been organized for the purpose, -rented a mansion at No. 65 Fifth Avenue, New York, to be used for -offices. Edison now moved some of his Menlo Park staff into that city -to pursue the work. - -Right at the very beginning a most serious difficulty was met with. -None of the appliances necessary for use in the lighting system could -be purchased anywhere in the world. - -They were all new and novel--dynamos, switchboards, regulators, -pressure and current indicators, incandescent lamps, sockets, small -switches, meters, fixtures, underground conductors, junction boxes, -service boxes, manhole boxes, connectors, and even specially made wire. -Not one of these things was in existence; and no outsider knew enough -about such devices to make them on order, except the wire. - -Edison himself solved the difficulty by raising some money and -establishing several manufacturing shops in which these articles could -be made. The first of all was a small factory at Menlo Park to make the -lamps, Mr. Upton taking charge of that branch. - -For making the dynamos he secured a large works on Goerck Street, New -York, and gave its management to Mr. Batchelor. For the underground -conductors and their parts a building on Washington Street was rented -and the work done under the superintendence of Mr. Kruesi. In still -another factory building there were made the smaller appliances, such -as sockets, switches, fixtures, meters, safety fuses and other details. -This latter plant was at first owned by Mr. Sigmund Bergmann, who had -worked with Edison on telephones and phonographs, but later Mr. Edison -and E. H. Johnson became partners. - -Still another difficulty presented itself. There were no men who knew -how to do wiring for electric lights, except those who had been with -Edison at Menlo Park. This problem was solved by opening a night-school -at No. 65 Fifth Avenue in which a large number of men were educated and -trained for the work by Edison's associates. Many of these men have -since become very prominent in electrical circles. - -Thus, in planning these matters, and in guiding the operations in -these four shops in New York, and with all the work he was doing on -new experiments and inventions there and at Menlo Park, and in making -preparations for the first central station in New York City, Edison was -a prodigiously busy man. He worked incessantly, and it is safe to say -that he did not average more than four hours' sleep a day. - -He was the center and the guiding spirit of those intensely busy times. -The aid of his faithful associates was invaluable in the building up of -the business, but he was the great central storehouse of ideas, and it -is owing to his undaunted courage, energy, perseverance, knowledge and -foresight, that the foundations of so great an art have been so well -laid. - -As has been well said by Major S. B. Eaton, who was president and -general manager of the Edison Electric Light Company in its earliest -years: "In looking back on those days and scrutinizing them through -the years, I am impressed by the greatness, the solitary greatness, I -may say, of Mr. Edison. We all felt then that we were of importance, -and that our contribution of effort and zeal was vital. I can see now, -however, that the best of us was nothing but the fly on the wheel. -Suppose anything had happened to Edison? All would have been chaos and -ruin. To him, therefore, be the glory, if not the profit." - -Early in 1881 comparatively few people had seen the incandescent light. -In order to make the public familiar with it, the Edison company -equipped its office building with fixtures and lamps, the latter -being lighted by current from a dynamo in the cellar. In the evenings -the house was thrown open to visitors until ten or eleven o'clock. -Thousands of people flocked to see the new light, which in those days -was regarded as wonderful and mysterious, for while the lamps gave a -soft, steady illumination, there was no open flame, practically no -heat, no danger of fire, and no vitiation of air. For the most part of -four years the writer spent his evenings receiving these visitors if no -important business was in progress at the moment. - -Mr. Edison and his shops had scarcely time to get well on their feet -before a rush of business set in. How this business rapidly developed -and grew until it became of very great magnitude is a matter of -history, which we shall not attempt to relate here. - -Some idea of this wonderful development, as it has gone on through the -years that have passed since 1880, may be formed when it is stated that -at this time there are more than one hundred millions of incandescent -lamps in daily use in the United States alone. Every one of these lamps -and the fundamental principles upon which they are operated rest upon -the foundations which Edison laid so well. - -One of Mr. Edison's interesting stories of the early days relates to -the making of the lamps. He says: - -"When we first started the electric light we had to have a factory for -manufacturing lamps. As the Edison light company did not seem disposed -to go into manufacturing, we started a small lamp factory at Menlo Park -with what money I could raise from my other inventions and royalties -and some assistance. The lamps at that time were costing about one -dollar and twenty-five cents each to make, so I said to the company: -'If you will give me a contract during the life of the patents I will -make all the lamps required by the company and deliver them for forty -cents.' The company jumped at the chance of this offer, and a contract -was drawn up. We then bought at a receiver's sale at Harrison, New -Jersey, a very large brick factory building which had been used as an -oil-cloth works. We got it at a great bargain, and only paid a small -sum down, and the balance on mortgage. We moved the lamp works from -Menlo Park to Harrison. The first year the lamps cost us about one -dollar and ten cents each. We sold them for forty cents; but there were -only about twenty or thirty thousand of them. The next year they cost -us about seventy cents, and we sold them for forty. There were a good -many, and we lost more money the second year than the first. The third -year I succeeded in getting up machinery and in changing the processes, -until it got down so that they cost somewhere around fifty cents. I -still sold them for forty cents, and lost more money that year than any -other, because the sales were increasing rapidly. The fourth year I got -it down to thirty-seven cents, and I made all the money in one year -that I had lost previously. I finally got it down to twenty-two cents, -and sold them for forty cents; and they were made by the million. -Whereupon the Wall Street people thought it was a very lucrative -business, so they concluded they would like to have it, and bought us -out. - -"When we formed the works at Harrison we divided the interests into -one hundred shares or parts at one hundred dollars par. One of the -boys was hard up after a time, and sold two shares to Bob Cutting. -Up to that time we had never paid anything, but we got around to the -point where the board declared a dividend every Saturday night. We had -never declared a dividend when Cutting bought his shares, and after -getting his dividends for three weeks in succession he called up on the -telephone and wanted to know what kind of a concern this was that paid -a weekly dividend. The works sold for $1,085,000." - -We have been obliged to confine ourselves to a very brief and general -description of the beginnings of the art of electric lighting, but this -chapter would not be complete without reference to Edison's design and -construction of the greatest dynamo that had ever been made up to that -time. - -The earliest dynamos he made would furnish current only for sixty lamps -of sixteen candle-power each. These machines were belted up to an -engine or countershaft. He realized that much larger dynamos would be -needed for central stations, and in 1880 constructed one in Menlo Park, -but it was not entirely successful. - -In the spring of 1881, however, he designed a still larger one, to be -connected direct to its own engine and operated without belting. Its -capacity was to be twelve hundred lamps, instead of sixty. - -At that time such a project was not dreamed of outside the Edison -laboratory, and once more he was the subject of much ridicule and -criticism by those who were considered as experts. They said the thing -was impossible and absolutely impracticable. - -Such opinions, however, have never caused a moment's hesitation to -Edison when he has made up his mind that a thing can be done. He calmly -went ahead with his plans, and although he found many difficulties, -he overcame them all. He worked the shops night and day, until he had -built this great machine and operated it successfully. - -The dynamo was finished in the summer of 1881. At that time there was -in progress an international Electrical Exposition in Paris, at which -Edison was exhibiting his system of electric lighting. He had promised -to send this great dynamo over to Paris. - -When the dynamo was finished and tested there were only four hours -to take it and the engine apart and get all the parts on board the -steamer. Edison had foreseen all this, and had arranged to have sixty -men get to work all at once to take it apart. Each man had written -instructions just what to do, and when the machine was stopped every -man did his own particular work and the job was quickly accomplished. - -Arrangements had been made with the police for rapid passage through -the streets from the shops to the steamship. The trucks made quick time -of it, being preceded by a wagon with a clanging bell. Street traffic -was held up for them, just as it is for engines and hose-carts going to -a fire. The dynamo and engine got safely down to the dock without delay -and were loaded on the steamer an hour before she sailed. - -This dynamo and engine weighed twenty-seven tons, and was then, and -for a long time after, the eighth wonder of the scientific world. Its -arrival and installation in Paris were eagerly watched by the most -famous scientists and electricians in Europe. - - -XVI - -THE FIRST EDISON CENTRAL STATION - - -From the beginning of his experiments on the electric light Edison had -one idea ever in mind, and that was to develop a system of lighting -cities from central stations. His plan was to supply electric light and -power in much the same way that gas is furnished. - -He never forsook this idea for a moment. Indeed, it formed the basis of -all his plans, although the scientific experts of the time predicted -utter failure. While the experiments were going on at Menlo Park he had -Mr. Upton and others at work making calculations and plans for city -systems. - -Soon after he had invented the incandescent lamp he began to take -definite steps toward preparing for the first central station in -the city of New York. After some consideration, he decided upon the -district included between Wall, Nassau, Spruce and Ferry Streets, Peck -Slip and the East River, covering nearly a square mile in extent. - -He sent into this district a number of men, who visited every building, -counted every gas-jet and found out how many hours per day or night -they were burned. - -These men also ascertained the number of business houses using power -and how much they consumed. All this information was marked in colored -inks on large maps, so that Edison could study the question with all -the details before him. - -All this work had taken several months, but, with this information -to guide him, the main conductors to be laid in the streets of this -district were figured, block by block, and the results were marked upon -the maps. It was found, however, that the quantity of copper required -for these conductors would be exceedingly large and costly, and, if -ever, Edison was somewhat dismayed. - -This difficulty only spurred him on to still greater effort. Before -long he solved the problem by inventing the "feeder and main" system, -for which he signed an application for patent on August 4, 1880. - -By this invention he saved seven-eighths of the amount of copper -previously required. So the main conductors were figured again, at only -one-eighth the size they were before, and the results were marked upon -enormous new maps which were now prepared for the actual installation. - -It should be remembered that from the very start Edison had determined -that his conductors should be placed underground. He knew that this was -the only method for permanent and satisfactory service to the public. - -Our young readers can scarcely imagine the condition of New York -streets at that time. They were filled with lines of ugly wooden -poles carrying great masses of telegraph, telephone, stock ticker, -burglar alarm and other wires, in all conditions of sag and decay. The -introduction of the arc-lamp added another series of wires which with -their high potentials carried a menace to life. Edison was the first to -put conductors underground, and the wisdom of so doing became so clear -that a few years later laws were made compelling others to do likewise. - -But to return to our story. Just before Christmas in 1880 the Edison -Electric Illuminating Company of New York was organized, and a license -was issued to it for the use of the Edison patents on Manhattan Island. - -The work for the new station now commenced in real earnest. A double -building at 255 and 257 Pearl Street was purchased, and the inside of -one half was taken out and a strong steel structure was erected inside -the walls. - -Work on the maps and plans for the underground network of conductors -was continued at Menlo Park. Mr. Edison started his factories for -making dynamos, lamps, underground conductors, sockets, switches, -meters, and other details. Thus, the wheels of industry were humming -merrily in preparation for the installation of the system. Every detail -received Edison's personal care and consideration. He had plenty of -competent men, but he deemed nothing too small or insignificant for his -attention in this important undertaking. - -In the fall of 1881 the laying of the underground conductors was begun -and pushed forward with frantic energy. Here again Edison left nothing -to chance. Although he had a thousand things to occupy his mind he also -superintended this work. He did not stand around and give orders, but -worked with the men in the trenches day and night helping to lay tubes, -filling up junction boxes, and taking part in all the infinite detail. - -He would work till he felt the need of a little rest. Then he would go -off to the station building in Pearl Street, throw an overcoat on a -pile of iron tubes, lie down and sleep a few hours, rising to resume -work with the first gang. - -It is worth pausing just a moment to glance at this man taking a fitful -rest on a pile of iron pipe in a dingy building. His name is on the -tip of the world's tongue. Distinguished scientists from every part -of Europe seek him eagerly. He has just been decorated and awarded -high honors by the French government. He is the inventor of wonderful -new apparatus and the exploiter of novel and successful arts. The -magic of his achievements and the rumors of what is being done have -caused a wild drop in gas securities and a sensational rise in his -own electric-light stock from one hundred dollars to thirty-five -hundred a share. Yet these things do not at all affect his slumber or -his democratic simplicity, for in that, as in everything else, he is -attending strictly to business, "doing the thing that is next to him." - -The laying of the underground conductors was interrupted by frost in -the winter of 1881, but in the following spring the work was renewed -with great energy until there had been laid over eighty thousand feet. -In the mean time the buildings of the district were being wired for -lamps, and the machine-works had been busy on the building of three of -the "Jumbo" dynamos for the station. These were larger than the great -dynamo that had been sent to Paris. - -These three dynamos were installed in the station, and the other parts -of the system were completed. A bank of one thousand lamps was placed -in one of the buildings; and in the summer a whole month was spent in -making tests of the working of the system, using this bank of lamps -instead of sending current out to customers' premises. Edison and his -assistants made the station their home during this busy month. They -even slept there on cots that he had sent to the station for this -purpose. - -The system tested out satisfactorily, and finally, on September 4, -1882, at three o'clock in the afternoon, the station was started by -sending out current from one of the big dynamos through the conductors -laid in the streets, and electric light was supplied for the first time -to a number of customers in the district. - -The station was now started and everything went well. New customers -were added daily, and very soon it became necessary to supply more -current. This called for the operation of two dynamos at one time. -As this involved new problems, Edison chose a Sunday to try it, when -business places would be closed. We will let him tell the story. He -says: "My heart was in my mouth at first, but everything worked all -right.... Then we started another engine and threw the dynamos in -parallel. Of all the circuses since Adam was born, we had the worst -then! One engine would stop, and the other would run up to about a -thousand revolutions, and then they would see-saw. The trouble was with -the governors. When the circus commenced the gang that was standing -around ran out precipitately, and I guess some of them kept running -for a block or two. I grabbed the throttle of one engine, and E. H. -Johnson, who was the only one present to keep his wits, caught hold of -the other, and we shut them off." - -One of the gang that ran, but, in this case, only to the end of the -room, afterward said: "At the time it was a terrifying experience, as -I didn't know what was going to happen. The engines and dynamos made a -horrible racket, from loud and deep groans to a hideous shriek, and the -place seemed to be filled with sparks and flames of all colors. It was -as if the gates of the infernal regions had been suddenly opened." - -Edison attacked this problem in his strenuous way. Although it was -Sunday, he sent out and gathered his men and opened the machine-works -to make new appliances to overcome this trouble. - -Space will not permit of telling all the methods he applied until the -difficulty was entirely conquered. It was only a short time, however, -before he was able to operate two or any number of dynamos all together -as one, in parallel, without the least trouble. - -This early station grew and prospered, and continued in successful -operation for more than seven years, until January 2, 1890, when -it was partially destroyed by fire. This occurrence caused a short -interruption of service, but in a few days current was again supplied -to customers as before, and the service has never since ceased. - -Increasing demands for service soon afterward led to the construction -of other stations on Manhattan Island, until at the present time -the New York Edison Company (the successor to the Edison Electric -Illuminating Company of New York) is operating over forty stations and -sub-stations. These supply current for about 800,000 customers, wired -for 17,000,000 incandescent lamps and for about 1,300,000 horse-power -in electric motors. - -The early success of the first central station in New York led to the -formation of new companies in other cities, and the installation of -many similar plants. The business has grown by leaps and bounds, until -at the present time there are many thousands of central stations spread -all over the United States, furnishing electric light, heat, and power, -chiefly by use of the principles elaborated so many years ago by Mr. -Edison. - -We ought to mention that this tremendous growth has also been largely -due to another invention made by him in 1882, called the "three-wire -system." Its value consists in the fact that it allowed a further -saving of sixty-two and one-half per cent, of copper required for -conductors. This invention is in universal use all over the world. - -It may be mentioned here that at the opening ceremonies of the -Electrical Exposition in New York, on October 11, 1911, the leading -producers and consumers of copper presented Mr. Edison with an -inscribed cubic foot of that metal in recognition of the stimulus -of his inventions to the industry. The inscription shows that the -yearly output of copper was 377,644,000 pounds at the time of Edison's -first invention in 1868, and in October, 1911, the yearly output had -increased to 1,910,608,000 pounds. - - -XVII - -EDISON'S ELECTRIC RAILWAY - - -It is quite likely that many of our young readers have never seen a -horse-car. This is not strange, for in a little over twenty years the -victorious trolley has displaced the old-time street-cars drawn by one -or two horses. Indeed, a horse-car is quite a curiosity in these modern -days, for such vehicles have almost entirely disappeared from the -streets. - -The first horse railroad in the United States was completed in 1827, -and it was only seven years afterward that a small model of a circular -electric railroad was made and exhibited by Thomas Davenport, of -Brandon, Vermont. Other inventors also worked on electric railways -later on, but they did not make much progress, because in their day -there were no dynamos, and they had to use primary batteries to obtain -current. This method of generating current was far too cumbersome and -expensive for general use. - -In 1879, after dynamos had become known, the firm of Siemens exhibited -at the Berlin Exhibition a road about one-third of a mile in length, -over which an electric locomotive hauled three small cars at a speed of -about eight miles an hour. - -This was just before Edison had developed the efficient commercial -dynamo with low-resistance armature and high-resistance field, which -made it possible to generate and use electric power cheaply. Thus we -see that Edison was not the first to form the broad idea of a electric -railway, but his dynamo and systems of distribution and regulation of -current first made the idea commercially practicable. - -When Edison made his trip to Wyoming with the astronomers in 1878 he -noticed that the farmers had to make long hauls of their grain to the -railroads or markets. He then conceived the idea of building light -electric railways to perform this service. - -As we have already noted, he started on his electric-light experiments, -including the dynamo, when he returned from the West. He had not -forgotten his scheme for an electric railway, however, for, early in -1880, after the tremendous rush on the invention of the incandescent -lamp had begun to subside, he commenced the construction of a stretch -of track at Menlo Park, and at the same time began to build an electric -locomotive to operate over it. - -The locomotive was an ordinary flat dump-car on a four-wheeled iron -truck. Upon this was mounted one of his dynamos, used as a motor. -It had a capacity of about twelve horse-power. Electric current was -generated by two dynamos in the machine-shop, and carried to the rails -by underground conductors. - -The track was about a third of a mile in length, the rails being of -light weight and spiked to ties laid on the ground. In this short -line there were some steep grades and short curves. The locomotive -pulled three cars; one a flat freight-car; one an open awning-car, -and one box-car, facetiously called the "Pullman," with which Edison -illustrated a system of electromagnetic braking. - -[Illustration: THE EDISON ELECTRIC RAILWAY AT MENLO PARK--1880] - -On May 13, 1880, this road went into operation. All the laboratory -"boys" made holiday and scrambled aboard for a trip. Things went well -for a while, but presently a weakness developed and it became necessary -to return the locomotive to the shop to make changes in the mechanism. -And so it was for a short time afterward. Imperfections of one kind -and another were disclosed as the road was operated, but Edison was -equal to the occasion and overcame them, one by one. Before long he had -his locomotive running regularly, hauling the three cars with freight -and passengers back and forth over the full length of the track. -Incidentally, the writer remembers enjoying a ride over the road one -summer afternoon. - -The details of the various improvements made during these months are -too many and too technical to be given here. It is a fact, however, -that at this time Edison was doing some heavy electric railway -engineering, each improvement representing a step which advanced the -art toward the perfection it has reached in these modern days. - -The newspapers and technical journals lost no time in publishing -accounts of this electric railroad, and once again Menlo Park received -great numbers of visitors, including many railroad men, who came to see -and test this new method of locomotion. - -Of course, in operating this early road there were a few mishaps, -fortunately none of them of a serious nature. In the correspondence of -the late Grosvenor P. Lowry, a friend and legal adviser of Mr. Edison, -is a letter dated June 5, 1880, giving an account of one experience. -The letter reads as follows: "Goddard and I have spent a part of the -day at Menlo, and all is glorious. I have ridden at forty miles an hour -on Mr. Edison's electric railway--and we ran off the track. I protested -at the rate of speed over the sharp curves, designed to show the power -of the engine, but Edison said they had done it often. Finally, when -the last trip was to be taken, I said I did not like it, but would go -along. The train jumped the track on a short curve, throwing Kruesi, -who was driving the engine, with his face down in the dirt, and another -man in a comical somersault through some underbrush. Edison was off -in a minute, jumping and laughing, and declaring it a most beautiful -accident. Kruesi got up, his face bleeding, and a good deal shaken; and -I shall never forget the expression of voice and face in which he said, -with some foreign accent: 'Oh yes! pairfeckly safe.' Fortunately no -other hurts were suffered, and in a few minutes we had the train on the -track and running again." - -This first electric railway was continued in operation right along -through 1881. In the fall of that year Edison was requested by the late -Mr. Henry Villard to build a longer road at Menlo Park, equipped with -more powerful locomotives, to demonstrate the feasibility of putting -electric railroads in the Western wheat country. - -Work was commenced at once, and early in 1882 the road and its -equipment were finished. It was three miles long, and had sidings, -turn-tables, freight platform and car-house. It was much more complete -and substantial than the first railroad. There were two locomotives, -one for freight and the other for passenger service. - -The passenger locomotive was very speedy and hauled as many as ninety -persons at a time. Many thousands of passengers traveled over the road -during 1882. The freight locomotive was not so speedy, but could pull -heavy trains at a good speed. Taken altogether, this early electric -railway made a great advance toward modern practice as its exists -to-day. - -There are many interesting stories of the railway period at Menlo Park. -One of them, as told by the late Charles T. Hughes, who worked with -Edison on the experimental roads, is as follows: "Mr. Villard sent J. -C. Henderson, one of his mechanical engineers, to see the road when -it was in operation, and we went down one day--Edison, Henderson, and -I--and went on the locomotive. Edison ran it, and just after we started -there was a trestle sixty feet long and seven feet deep, and Edison put -on all the power. When we went over it we must have been going forty -miles an hour, and I could see the perspiration come out on Henderson. -After we got over the trestle and started on down the track Henderson -said: 'When we go back I will walk. If there is any more of that kind -of running I won't be in it myself.'" - -The young reader, who is now living in an age in which the electric -railway is regarded as a matter of course, will find it difficult to -comprehend that there should ever have been any doubt on the part of -engineering experts as to the practicability of electric railroads. -But in the days of which we are writing such was the case, as the -following remarks of Mr. Edison will show: "At one time Mr. Villard -got the idea that he would run the mountain division of the Northern -Pacific Railroad by electricity. He asked me if it could be done. I -said: 'Certainly; it is too easy for me to undertake; let some one else -do it.' He said: 'I want you to tackle the problem,' and he insisted on -it. So I got up a scheme of a third rail and shoe and erected it in my -yard here in Orange. When I got it all ready he had all his division -engineers come on to New York, and they came over here. I showed them -my plans, and the unanimous decision of the engineers was that it was -absolutely and utterly impracticable. That system is on the New York -Central now, and was also used on the New Haven road in its first work -with electricity." - -Mr. Edison knew at the time that these engineers were wrong. They were -prejudiced and lacking in foresight, and had no faith in electric -railroading. Indeed, these particular engineers were not by any means -the only persons who could see no future for electric methods of -transportation. Their doubts were shared by capitalists and others, -and it was not until several years afterward that the business of -electrifying street railroads was commenced in real earnest. - -In the mean time, however, Edison's faith did not waver, and he -continued his work on electric railways, making innumerable experiments -and taking out a great many patents, including a far-sighted one -covering a sliding contact in a slot. This principle and many of those -covered by his earlier work are in use to-day on the street railways in -large cities. - -The early railroad at Menlo Park has gone to ruin and decay, but the -crude locomotive built by Edison has become the property of the Pratt -Institute, of Brooklyn, New York, to whose students it is a constant -example and incentive. - -Down to the present moment Edison has kept up an active interest in -transportation problems. His latest work has been in the line of -operating street-cars with his improved storage battery. During the -time that this book has been in course of preparation he has given a -great deal of time to this question. - -Some years ago there were a number of street-cars in various cities -operated by storage batteries of a class entirely different from the -battery invented by Edison. We refer to storage batteries containing -lead and sulphuric acid. These were found to be so costly to operate -and maintain that their use was abandoned. - -Mr. Edison's new nickel and iron storage battery with alkaline -solution has been found by practical use to be entirely satisfactory -for operating street-cars, not only at a low cost, but also with ease -of operation and at a trifling expense for maintenance. Of course -there have been many problems, but he has surmounted the principal -difficulties, and there are now quite a number of street-cars operated -by his storage battery in various cities. These cars are earning -profits and their number is steadily increasing. - - -XVIII - -GRINDING MOUNTAINS TO DUST - - -On walking along the sea-shore the reader may have noticed occasional -streaks or patches of bluish-black sand, somewhat like gunpowder in -appearance. It is carried up from the bed of the sea and deposited by -the waves on the shore to a greater or lesser extent on many beaches. - -If a magnet be brought near to this "black sand" the particles will be -immediately attracted to it, just as iron filings would be in such a -case. As a matter of fact, these particles of black sand are grains of -finely divided magnetic iron in a very pure state. - -Now, if we should take a piece of magnetic iron ore in the form of a -rock and grind it to powder the particles of iron could be separated -from the ground-up mass by drawing them out with a magnet, just as they -could be drawn out of a heap of seashore sand. If all the grains of -iron were thus separated and put together, or concentrated, they would -be called concentrates. - -During the last century a great many experimenters besides Edison -attempted to perfect various cheap methods of magnetically separating -iron ores, but until he took up the work on a large scale no one seems -to have realized the real meaning of the tremendous problems involved. - -The beginning of this work on the part of Edison was his invention -in 1880 of a peculiar form of magnetic separator. It consisted of a -suspended V-shaped hopper with an adjustable slit along the pointed -end. A long electromagnet was placed, edgewise, a little below the -hopper, and a bin with a dividing partition in the center was placed on -the floor below. - -Crushed ore, or sand, was placed in the hopper. If there was no -magnetism this fine material would flow down in a straight line past -the magnet and fill the bin on one side of the partition. If, however, -the magnet were active the particles of iron would be attracted out -of the line of the falling material, but their weight would carry -them beyond the magnet and they would fall to the other side of the -partition. Thus, the material would be separated, the grains of iron -going to one side and the grains of rock or sand to the other side. - -This separator, as afterward modified, was the basis of a colossal -enterprise conducted by Mr. Edison, as we shall presently relate. But -first let us glance at an early experiment on the Atlantic seashore in -1881, as mentioned by him. He says: - -"Some years ago I heard one day that down at Quogue, Long Island, -there were immense deposits of black magnetic sand. This would be very -valuable if the iron could be separated from the sand. So I went down -to Quogue with one of my assistants and saw there for miles large -beds of black sand on the beach in layers from one to six inches -thick--hundreds of thousands of tons. My first thought was that it -would be a very easy matter to concentrate this, and I found I could -sell the stuff at a good price. I put up a small magnetic separating -plant, but just as I got it started a tremendous storm came up, and -every bit of that black sand went out to sea. During the twenty-eight -years that have intervened it has never come back." - -In the same year a similar separating plant was put up and worked on -the Rhode Island shore by the writer under Mr. Edison's direction. More -than one thousand tons of concentrated iron ore of fine quality were -separated from sea-shore sand and sold. It was found, however, that it -could not be successfully used on account of being so finely divided. -Had this occurred a few years later, when Edison invented a system of -putting this fine ore into briquettes, that part of the story might -have been different. - -Magnetic separation of ores was allowed to rest for many years after -this, so far as Edison was concerned. He was intensely busy on the -electric light, electric railway, and other similar problems until -1888, and then undertook the perfecting and manufacturing of his -improved phonograph, and other matters. Somewhere about 1890, however, -he again took up the subject of ore-separation. - -For some years previous to that time the Eastern iron-mills had been -suffering because of the scarcity of low-priced high-grade ores. If -low-grade ores could be crushed and the iron therein concentrated and -sold at a reasonable price the furnaces would be benefited. Edison -decided, after mature deliberation, that if these low-grade ores -were magnetically separated on a colossal scale at a low cost the -furnace-men could be supplied with the much-desired high quality of -iron ore at a price which would be practicable. - -He appreciated the fact that it was a serious and gigantic problem, -but was fully satisfied that he could solve it. He first planned a -great magnetic survey of the East, with the object of locating large -bodies of magnetic iron ore. This survey was the greatest and most -comprehensive of the kind ever made. With a peculiarly sensitive -magnetic needle to indicate the presence of magnetic ore in the earth, -he sent out men who made a survey of twenty-five miles across country, -all the way from lower Canada to North Carolina. - -Edison says: "The amount of ore disclosed by this survey was simply -fabulous. How much so may be judged from the fact that in the three -thousand acres immediately surrounding the mills that I afterward -established at Edison, New Jersey, there were over two hundred million -tons of low-grade ore. I also secured sixteen thousand acres in which -the deposit was proportionately as large. These few acres alone -contained sufficient ore to supply the whole United States iron trade, -including exports, for seventy years." - -Given a mountain of rock containing only one-fifth to one-fourth -magnetic iron, the broad problem confronting Edison resolved itself -into three distinct parts--first, to tear down the mountain bodily and -grind it to powder; second, to extract from this powder the particles -of iron mingled in its mass; and third, to accomplish these results at -a cost sufficiently low to give the product a commercial value. - -From the start Edison realized that in order to carry out this program -there would have to be automatic and continuous treatment of the -material, and that he would have to make the fullest possible use of -natural forces, such as gravity and momentum. The carrying out of -these principles and ideas gave rise to some of the most brilliant -engineering work that has ever been done by Edison. During this period -he also made many important inventions, of which several will now be -mentioned. - -As he proposed to treat enormous masses of material, one of the chief -things to be done was to provide for breaking the rock and crushing it -to powder rapidly and cheaply. After some experimenting, he found there -was no machinery to be bought that would do the work as it must be -done. He was therefore compelled to invent a series of machines for the -purpose. - -The first of these was an invention quite characteristic of Edison's -daring and boldness. It embraced a gigantic piece of mechanism, called -the "Giant Rolls," which was designed to break up pieces of rock that -might be as large as an ordinary upright piano, and weighing as much as -eight tons. - -A pair of iron cylinders five feet long and six feet in diameter, -covered with steel knobs, were set fifteen inches apart in a massive -frame. The rolls weighed about seventy tons. By means of a steam engine -these rolls were revolved in opposite directions until they attained -a peripheral speed of about a mile a minute. Then the rocks were -dumped into a hopper which guided them between the rolls, and in a few -seconds, with a thunderous noise, they were reduced to pieces about -the size of a man's head. The belts were released by means of slipping -friction clutches when the load was thrown on the rolls, the breaking -of the rocks being accomplished by momentum and kinetic energy. - -The broken rock then passed through similar rolls of a lesser size, -by means of which it was reduced to much smaller pieces. These in -their turn passed through a series of other machines in which they -were crushed to fine powder. Here again Edison made another remarkable -invention, called the "Three-High Rolls," for reducing the rock to fine -powder. The best crushers he had been able to buy had an efficiency -of only eighteen per cent, and a loss by friction of eighty-two per -cent. By his invention he reversed these figures and obtained a working -efficiency of eighty-four per cent, and reduced the loss to sixteen per -cent. - -The problems of drying and screening the broken and crushed material -were also solved most ingeniously by Edison's inventive skill and -engineering ability, and always with the idea and purpose in mind of -accomplishing these results by availing himself to the utmost of one of -the great forces of Nature--gravity. - -The great extent of the concentrating works may be imagined when we -state that two hundred and fifty tons of material per hour could be -treated. Altogether, there were about four hundred and eighty immense -magnetic separators in the plant, through which this crushed rock -passed after going through the numerous crushing, drying, and screening -processes. - -[Illustration: EDISON AT THE OFFICE DOOR OF THE ORE-CONCENTRATING PLANT -AT EDISON, NEW JERSEY, IN THE 'NINETIES] - -If it had been necessary to transfer this tremendous quantity of -material from place to place by hand the cost would have been too -great. Edison, therefore, designed an original and ingenious system -of mechanical belt conveyors that would automatically receive and -discharge their loads at appointed places in the works, covering about -a mile in transit. They went up and down, winding in and out, turning -corners, delivering material from one bin to another, making a number -of loops in the drying-oven, filling up bins, and passing on to the -next one when full. In fact, these conveyors in automatic action seemed -to play their part with human intelligence. - -We have been able to take only a passing glance at the great results -achieved by Edison in his nine years' work on this remarkable plant--a -work deserving of most serious study. The story would be incomplete, -however, if we did not mention his labors on putting the fine ore in -the form of solid briquettes. - -When the separated iron was first put on the market it was found that -it could not be used in that form in the furnaces. Edison was therefore -obliged to devise some other means to make it available. After a long -series of experiments he found a way of putting it into the form of -small, solid briquettes. These answered the purpose exactly. - -This called for a line of new machinery, which he had to invent to -carry out the plan. When this was completed, the great rocks went in at -one end of the works and a stream of briquettes poured out of the other -end, being made by each briquetting machine at the rate of sixty per -minute. - -Thus, with never-failing persistence, infinite patience, intense -thought and hard work, Edison met and conquered, one by one, the -difficulties that had confronted him. Furnace trials of his briquettes -proved that they were even better than had been anticipated. He had -received some large orders for them and was shipping them regularly. -Everything was bright and promising, when there came a fatal blow. - -The discovery of rich Bessemer ore in the Mesaba range of mountains in -Minnesota a few years before had been followed by the opening of the -mines there about this time. As this rich ore could be sold for three -dollars and fifty cents per ton, as against six dollars and fifty cents -per ton for Edison's briquettes, his great enterprise must be abandoned -at the very moment of success. - -It was a sad blow to Edison's hopes. He had spent nine years of hard -work and about two millions of his own money in the great work that had -thus been brought to nought through no fault of his. The project had -lain close to his heart and ambition, indeed he had put aside almost -all other work and inventions for a while. - -For five of the nine years he had lived and worked steadily at Edison -(the name of the place where the works were located), leaving there -only on Saturday night to spend Sunday at his home in Orange, and -returning to the plant by an early train on Monday morning. Life at -Edison was of the simple kind--work, meals, and a few hours' sleep day -by day, but Mr. Edison often says he never felt better than he did -during those five years. - -After careful investigations and calculations it was decided to close -the plant. Mr. W. S. Mallory, his close associate during those years of -the concentrating work, says: "The plant was heavily in debt, and, as -Mr. Edison and I rode on the train to Orange, plans were discussed as -to how to make enough money to pay off the debt. Mr. Edison stated most -positively that no company with which he had been personally actively -connected had ever failed to pay its debts, and he did not propose to -have the concentrating company any exception. - -"We figured carefully over the probabilities of financial returns from -the phonograph works and other enterprises, and, after discussing many -plans, it was finally decided that we would apply the knowledge we had -gained in the concentrating plant to building a plant for manufacturing -Portland cement, and that Mr. Edison would devote his attention to the -developing of a storage battery which did not use lead and sulphuric -acid. - -"He started in with the maximum amount of enthusiasm and ambition, -and in the course of about three years we succeeded in paying off the -indebtedness of the concentrating works. - -"As to the state of Mr. Edison's mind when the final decision was -reached to close down, if he was specially disappointed there was -nothing in his manner to indicate it, his every thought being for the -future." - -In this attitude we find a true revelation of one conspicuous trait -in Mr. Edison. No one ever cried less over spilled milk than he. He -had spent a fortune and had devoted nine years of his life to the most -intense thought and labor in the creation and development of this vast -enterprise. He had made many remarkable inventions and had achieved -a very great success, only to see the splendid results swept away -in a moment. He did not sit down and bewail his lot, but with true -philosophy and greatness of mind applied himself with characteristic -energy to new work through which he might be able to open up a more -promising future. - - -XIX - -EDISON MAKES PORTLAND CEMENT - - -Long before Edison ever thought of going into the manufacture of cement -he had very pronounced opinions of its value for building purposes. -More than twenty-five years ago, during a discussion on ancient -buildings, he remarked: "Wood will rot, stone will chip and crumble, -bricks disintegrate, but a cement and iron structure is apparently -indestructible. Look at some of the old Roman baths. They are as solid -as when they were built." - -With such convictions, and the vast fund of practical knowledge and -experience he had gained at Edison in the crushing and handling of -enormous masses of finely divided material, it is not surprising that -he should have decided to engage in the manufacture of cement. - -He was fully aware of the fact that he was proposing to "butt into" an -old-established industry, in which the principal manufacturers were -concerns which had been in business for a long time. He knew there were -great problems to be solved, both in manufacturing and selling the -cement. These difficulties, however, only made the proposition more -inviting to him. - -Edison followed his usual course of reading up all the literature -on the subject that he could find, and seeking information from all -quarters. After thorough study he came to the conclusion that with his -improved methods of handling finely crushed material, and with some new -inventions and processes he had in mind, he could go into the cement -business and succeed in making a finer quality of product. As we shall -see later, he "made good." - -This study of the cement proposition took place during the first few -months of his experimenting on a new storage battery. In the mean time -Mr. Mallory had been busy arranging for the formation of a company with -the necessary money to commence and carry on the business. One day he -went to the laboratory and told Mr. Edison that everything was ready -and that it was now time to engage engineers to lay out the works. - -To this Edison replied that he intended to do that himself, and -invited Mr. Mallory to go with him to one of the draughting-rooms -up-stairs. Here Edison placed a sheet of paper on a draughting-table -and immediately began to draw out a plan of the proposed works. He -continued all day and away into the evening, when he finished; thus -completing within twenty-four hours the full lay-out of the entire -plant as it was subsequently installed. If the plant were to be rebuilt -to-day no vital change would be necessary. - -It will be granted that this was a remarkable engineering feat, for -Edison was then a newcomer in the cement business. But in that one -day's planning everything was considered and provided for, including -crushing, mixing, weighing, grinding, drying screening, sizing, -burning, packing, storing, and other processes. - -From one end to the other the cement plant is about half a mile long, -and through the various buildings there passes, automatically, each day -a vast quantity of material under treatment. In practice this results -in the production of more than two and a quarter million pounds of -finished cement every twenty-four hours. - -Not only was all this provided for in that one day's designing, but -also smaller details, such, for instance, as the carrying of all -steam, water and air pipes and electrical conductors in a large subway -extending from one end of the plant to the other; also a system by -which the ten thousand bearings in the plant are oiled automatically, -requiring the services of only two men for the entire work. - -Following this general outline plan of the whole plant by Edison -himself there came the preparation of the detail plans by his -engineers. As the manufacture of cement also involves the breaking and -grinding of rocks, the scheme, of course, included using the giant -rolls and other crushing, drying, and screening machinery invented by -him for the iron-concentrating work, as mentioned in our last chapter. - -No magnetic separator is necessary in cement-making, but there were -other processes to provide for that did not occur in concentrating iron -ore. One of them relates to burning the material, which is one of the -most important processes in manufacturing cement. - -Perhaps it may be well to state for the information of the reader that -in cement-making, generally speaking, cement-rock and limestone in -the rough are mixed together and ground to a fine powder. This powder -is "burned" in a kiln and comes out in the form of balls, called -"clinker." This again is crushed to a fine powder, which is the cement -of commerce. - -It will be seen, therefore, that the quantity of finished cement -produced depends largely upon the capacity of the kilns. When Edison -first thought of going into cement-making he expected to use the old -style of kilns, which were about sixty feet long and six feet in -diameter, and had a capacity of turning out about two hundred barrels -of clinker every twenty-four hours. He is never satisfied, however, to -take the experience of others as final, and thought he could improve on -what had been done before. - -He discussed the project with Mr. Mallory, who says: "After having -gone over this matter several times, Mr. Edison said, 'I believe I -can make a kiln which will give an output of one thousand barrels -in twenty-four hours.' Although I had then been closely associated -with him for ten years and was accustomed to see him accomplish great -things, I could not help feeling the improbability of his being able -to jump into an old-established industry--as a novice--and start by -improving the 'heart' of the production so as to increase its capacity -four hundred per cent. But Mr. Edison went to work immediately and -very soon completed the design of a new type of kiln which was to be -one hundred and fifty feet long and nine feet in diameter, made up -in ten-foot sections of cast iron bolted together and arranged to be -revolved on fifteen bearings. He had a wooden model made, and studied -it very carefully through a series of experiments. These resulted so -satisfactorily that this form was finally decided upon, and ultimately -installed as part of the plant. - -"Well, for a year or so the kiln problem was a nightmare to me. We -could only obtain four hundred barrels at first, but gradually crept -up through a series of heart-breaking trials until we got over eleven -hundred barrels a day. Mr. Edison never lost his confidence throughout -the trials, but on receiving a disappointing report would order us to -try it again." - -Although the older cement manufacturers predicted utter failure, they -have since recognized the success of Edison's long kiln, and it is now -being used quite generally in the trade. - -Another invention of minor nature but worthy of note relates to the -weighing of the proportions of cement-rock and limestone. In most cases -the measurement is usually by barrow loads, but Edison determined that -it must be done accurately to the pound, and devised a means of doing -it automatically, for, as he remarked, "The man at the scales might -get to thinking of the other fellow's best girl, so fifty or a hundred -pounds of rock, more or less, wouldn't make much difference to him." - -With Edison's device the scales are set at certain weights and the -materials are fed from hoppers. The moment the scale-beam tips an -electrical connection automatically stops the feed and no more can be -put on the scale until the load is withdrawn. - -Another and important new feature introduced by Edison was in raising -the standard of fine grinding of cement ten points above the regular -standard of seventy-five per cent, through a two-hundred-mesh screen. -By reason of the great improvement he had made in grinding machinery -he could grind cement so that eighty-five per cent, passed through a -two-hundred-mesh screen. As cement is valuable in proportion to its -fineness, it will be seen that he has thus made an advance of great -importance to the trade. - -We cannot enter into all the details of the numerous inventions and -improvements that Edison has introduced into his cement plant during -the last eight or nine years. It is sufficient to say that by his -persistent and energetic labors during that period he has raised his -plant from the position of a newcomer to the rank of the fifth largest -producer of cement in this country. - -A remarkable instance of the power of Edison's memory may be related -here. Some years ago, when the cement plant was nearly finished and -getting ready to start, he went up to look it over and see what needed -to be done. - -On the arrival of the train at ten-forty in the morning he went to the -mill, and, starting at one end, went through the plant to the other -end, examining every detail. He made no notes or memoranda, but the -examination required all day. - -In the afternoon, at five-thirty, he took a train for home, and on -arriving there a few hours later got out some note-books and began to -write from memory the things needing change or attention. He continued -on this work all night and right along until the next afternoon, when -he completed a list of nearly six hundred items. This memory "stunt" -was the more remarkable because many of the items included all the -figures of new dimensions he had decided upon for some of the machinery -in the plant. - -Each item was numbered consecutively, and the list copied and sent -up to the superintendent, who was instructed to make the changes and -report by number as they were done. These changes were made and their -value was proven by later experience. - -Edison's achievements have made a deep impression on the cement -industry, but it is likely that it will become still deeper when his -"Poured Cement House" is exploited. - -A few years ago he conceived the idea of pouring a complete concrete -house in a few hours. He made a long series of experiments for -producing a free-flowing combination of the necessary materials, and -at length found one that satisfied him that his idea was feasible, -although experts said it could not be done. - -His plan is to provide two sets of iron molds, one inside the other, -with an open space between. These molds are made in small pieces and -set up by being bolted together. When erected, the concrete mixture is -poured in from the top in a continuous stream until the space between -the molds is filled. - -The pouring will be done in about six hours, after which the molds will -be left in position about four days in order that the concrete may -harden. When the molds are removed there will remain standing an entire -house, complete from cellar to roof, with walls, floors, stairways, -bath and laundry tubs, all in one solid piece. These houses, when built -in quantity, can be produced at a very moderate cost. - -Mr. Edison intends this house for the workingman, and in its design -has insisted on its being ornamental as well as substantial. As he -expressed it: "We will give the workingman and his family ornamentation -in their house. They deserve it, and besides, it costs no more after -the pattern is made to give decorative effects than it would to make -everything plain." - - -XX - -MOTION-PICTURES - - -Through his invention and introduction of the phonograph and of his -apparatus for taking and exhibiting motion-pictures Edison has probably -done more to interest and amuse the world than any other living man. -These two forms of amusement have more audiences in a week than all the -theaters in America in a year. - -It is a curious fact that while instantaneous photography is necessary -to produce motion pictures, the _suggestion_ of producing them was made -many years before the instantaneous photograph became possible. - -One of the earliest efforts in this direction was made before Edison -was born, and shown by a toy called the Zoetrope, or "Wheel of Life." -A number of figures showing fractional parts of the motion of an -object--such, for instance, as a boy skating--were boldly drawn in -silhouette on a strip of paper. This paper was put inside an open -cylinder having small openings around its circumference. The cylinder -was mounted on a pivot, and, when revolved, the figures on the paper -seemed to be in motion when viewed through the openings. - -The success of this and similar toys, as well as of modern -motion-pictures, depends upon a phenomenon known as the "persistence -of vision." This means that if an object be presented to the vision -for a moment and then withdrawn, the image of that object will remain -impressed on the retina of the eye for a period of one-tenth to -one-seventh of a second. - -If, for instance, a bright light be moved rapidly up and down in front -of the eye in a dark room it appears not as a single light, but as a -line of fire, because there is not time for the eye to lose the image -of the light between the rapid phases of its motion. For the same -reason, if a number of pictures exactly alike were rapidly presented to -the eye in succession it would seem as if a single picture were being -viewed. - -Thus, if a number of photographs, say at the rate of fifteen per -second, be taken of a moving object, each successive photograph will -show a fraction of the movements. Now if these photographs be thrown -on a screen in the same order and at the same rate at which they were -taken the movements of the object would apparently again take place, -because the eye does not have time to lose the image of one fractional -movement before the next follows. - -One of the earliest suggestions of reproducing animate motion was made -by a Frenchman named Ducos about 1864. He was followed by others, but -they were all handicapped by the fact that dry-plates and sensitized -film were entirely unknown, and the wet plates then used were entirely -out of the question for the development of a practical commercial -scheme. - -The first serious attempt to secure photographs of objects in motion -was made in 1878 by Edward Muybridge. At this time very rapid -wet-plates were known. By arranging a line of cameras along a track -and causing a horse in trotting past them to strike wires or strings -attached to the shutters, the plates were exposed and a series of clear -instantaneous photographs of the horse in motion was obtained. - -Positive prints were made which were mounted in a modified form of -Zoetrope and projected upon a screen. The horse in motion was thus -reproduced, but, differing from the motion-pictures of to-day, always -remained in the center of the screen in violent movement and making no -progress. - -Early in the 'eighties dry-plates were introduced, and other -experimenters took up the work, but they were handicapped by the -fact that plates were heavy and only a limited number could be used. -This difficulty may be easily understood when it is realized that a -modern motion-picture reel lasting fifteen minutes comprises about -sixteen thousand separate and distinct photographs. The impossibility -of manipulating this large number of glass plates to show one -motion-picture play will be seen at once. - -This was the condition of the art when Edison entered upon the work. -He himself says, "In the year 1887 idea occurred to me that it was -possible to devise an instrument which should do for the eye what the -phonograph does for the ear, and that by a combination of the two all -motion and sound could be recorded and reproduced simultaneously." - -Two very serious difficulties lay in the way, however--first, a -sensitive surface of such form and weight as could be successively -brought into position and exposed at a very high rate; and, secondly, -the making of a camera capable of so taking the pictures. Edison -proved equal to the occasion, and, after an immense amount of work -and experiment, continuing over a long period of time, succeeded in -producing apparatus that made modern motion-pictures possible. - -In his earliest experiments a cylinder about the size of a phonograph -record was used. It was coated with a highly sensitized surface, -and microscopic photographs, arranged spirally, were taken upon it. -Positive prints were made in the same way, and viewed through a -magnifying-glass. Various forms of this apparatus were made, but all -were open to serious objections, the chief trouble being with the -photographic emulsion. - -During this experimental period the kodak film was being developed by -the Eastman Kodak Company, under the direction of Mr. George Eastman. -Edison recognized that in this product there lay the solution of that -part of the problem. At first the film was not just what he required, -but the Eastman Company after a time developed and produced the highly -sensitized surface that Edison sought. - -It then remained to devise a camera by means of which from twenty to -forty pictures per second could be taken. Every user of a film camera -can appreciate the difficulty of the problem. A long roll of film must -pass steadily behind the lens. At every inch it must be stopped, the -shutter opened for the exposure, and then closed again. The film must -be advanced say an inch, and these operations repeated twenty to forty -times a second throughout, perhaps, a thousand feet of film. - -Who but an Edison would assume that such a device could be made, and -with such exactness that each picture should coincide with the others? -After much experiment, however, he finally accomplished it, and in the -summer of 1889 the first modern motion-picture camera was made. From -that day to this the Edison camera has been the accepted standard for -securing pictures of objects in motion. - -The earliest form of exhibiting apparatus was known as the kinetoscope. -It was a machine in which a positive print from the negative roll -of film obtained in the camera was exhibited directly to the eyes -through a peep-hole. About 1895 the pictures were first shown through -a modified form of magic lantern, and have so continued to this day. -The industry has grown very rapidly, and for a long time the principal -American manufacturers of motion-pictures paid a royalty to Edison -under his basic patents. - -The pictures made in the earliest days of the art were simple and -amusing, such as Fred Ott's sneeze, Carmencita dancing, Italians -and their performing bears, fencing, trapeze stunts, horsemanship, -blacksmithing, and so on. No attempt was made to portray a story or -play. The "boys" at the laboratory laugh when they tell of a local -bruiser who agreed to box a few rounds with "Jim" Corbett in front of -the camera. When this local "sparring partner" came to face Corbett he -was so paralyzed with terror he could hardly move. - -These early pictures were made in the yard of Edison's laboratory at -Orange, in a studio called the "Black Maria." It was made of wood, -painted black inside and out, and could be swung around to face the -sunlight, which was admitted by a movable part of the roof. - -This is all very different in these modern days. The studios in which -interior motion-pictures are made are expensive and pretentious -affairs. An immense building of glass, with all the properties and -stage settings of a regular theater, are required. Of course many of -the plays are produced out of doors, in portions of the country suited -to the story. - -All the companies producing motion-pictures employ regular stock -companies of actors and actresses, selected especially for their skill -in pantomime, although, as may be suspected, in the actual taking -of the pictures they are required to carry on an animated dialogue -as if performing on the real stage. This adds to the smoothness and -perfection of the performance. - -Motion-picture plays are produced under the direction of skilled -stage-managers who must be specially trained for this particular -business. Their work is far from being easy, for an act in a -picture-play must be exact and free from mistakes, and must take place -in a very short time. For instance, an act in such a play may take less -than five minutes to perform, but it must be carefully rehearsed for -several weeks beforehand. - -There is plenty of scope for patience and ingenuity in taking -motion-picture plays. If trained children or animals are required they -must be found or trained; and all the resources of trick and stop -photography are called upon from time to time as the occasion requires. - -Edison has always held to his idea of a combination of the phonograph -and motion-picture. Some time ago he said, "I believe that in coming -years, by my own work and that of Dickson, Muybridge, Marey, and others -who will doubtless enter the field, grand opera can be given at the -Metropolitan Opera House in New York without any material change from -the original, and with artists and musicians long since dead." - -This prediction has been partly fulfilled, for Edison's successful -talking motion-pictures marked the beginning of the "talkies" which are -flourishing to-day. - - -XXI - -EDISON INVENTS A NEW STORAGE BATTERY - - -Many an invention has been made as the result of some happy thought or -inspiration, but most inventions are made by men working along certain -lines, who set out to accomplish a desired result. It is rarely, -however, that man starts out deliberately, as Edison did, to invent an -entirely new type of such an intricate device as a storage battery, -with only a vague starting point. - -Previous to Edison's work the only type of storage battery known was -the one in which lead plates and sulphuric acid were employed. He had -always realized the value of a storage battery as such, but never -believed that the lead-acid type could fulfil all expectations because -of its weight and incurable defects. - -About the time that he closed the magnetic iron ore concentrating plant -(in the beginning of the present century) Edison remarked to Mr. R. -H. Beach, then of the General Electric Company: "Beach, I don't think -nature would be so unkind as to withhold the secret of a _good_ storage -battery if a real earnest hunt for it is made. I'm going to hunt." And -before starting he determined to avoid lead and sulphuric acid. - -Edison is frequently asked what he considers to be the secret of -achievement. He always replies, "Hard work, based on hard thinking." He -has consistently lived up to this prescription to the utmost. - -Of all his inventions it is doubtful whether any one of them has -called forth more original thought, work, perseverance, ingenuity, and -monumental patience than the one we are now dealing with. One of his -associates who has been through the many years of the storage-battery -drudgery with him said: "If Edison's experiments, investigations, and -work on this storage battery were all that he had ever done, I should -say that he was not only a notable inventor, but also a great man. It -is almost impossible to appreciate the enormous difficulties that have -been overcome." - -From a beginning which was made practically in the dark, it was not -until he had completed more than ten thousand experiments that he -obtained any positive results whatever. Month after month of constant -work by day and night had not broken down Edison's faith in success, -and the failure of an experiment simply meant that he had found -something else that would _not_ do, thus bringing him nearer the -possible goal. - -After this immense amount of preliminary work he had obtained promising -results in a series of reactions between nickel and iron, and was -then all afire to push ahead. He therefore established a chemical -plant at Silver Lake, New Jersey, and, gathering around him a corps of -mechanics, chemists, machinists, and experimenters, settled down to one -of his characteristic struggles for supremacy. To some extent it was a -revival of the old Menlo Park days and nights. - -The group that took part in these early years of Edison's arduous -labors included his old-time assistant, Fred Ott, together with his -chemist, J. W. Aylsworth, as well as E. J. Ross, Jr.; W. E. Holland, -and Ralph Arbogast, and a little later W. G. Bee, all of whom grew -up with the battery and devoted their energies to its commercial -development. - -One of these workers, relating the strenuous experiences of these few -years, says: "It was hard work and long hours, but still there were -some things that made life pleasant. One of them was the supper-hour -we enjoyed when we worked nights. Mr. Edison would have supper sent in -about midnight, and we all sat down together, including himself. Work -was forgotten for the time, and all hands were ready for fun. I have -very pleasant recollections of Mr. Edison at these times. He would -always relax and help to make a good time, and on some occasions I have -seen him fairly overflow with animal spirits, just like a boy let out -of school. He was very fond of telling and hearing stories, and always -appreciated a joke. After the supper-hour was over, however, he again -became the serious, energetic inventor, deeply immersed in the work in -hand." - -Another interesting and amusing reminiscence of this period of activity -has been told by another of the family of experimenters: "Sometimes -when Mr. Edison had been working long hours he would want to have a -short sleep. It was one of the funniest things I ever witnessed to see -him crawl into an ordinary roll-top desk and curl up and take a nap. -If there was a sight that was still more funny, it was to see him turn -over on his other side, all the time remaining in the desk. He would -use several volumes of _Watts' Dictionary of Chemistry_ for a pillow, -and we fellows used to say that he absorbed the contents during his -sleep, judging from the flow of new ideas he had on waking." - -Such incidents as these serve merely to illustrate the lighter moments -that relieved the severe and arduous labors of the strenuous five -years of the early storage-battery work of Edison and his associates. -Difficulties there were a-plenty, but these are what Edison usually -thrives on. As another coworker of this period says: "Edison seemed -pleased when he used to run up against a serious difficulty. It would -seem to stiffen his backbone and make him more prolific of new ideas. -For a time I thought I was foolish to imagine such a thing, but I could -never get away from the impression that he really appeared happy when -he ran up against a serious snag." - -It would be out of the question in a book of this kind to follow -Edison's trail in detail through the innumerable twists and turns of -his experimentation on the storage battery, for they would fill a -big volume. The reader may imagine how extensive they were from the -reply of one of his laboratory assistants, who, when asked how many -experiments were made on the storage battery since the year 1900, -replied: "Goodness only knows! We used to number our experiments -consecutively from one to ten thousand, and when we got up to ten -thousand we turned back to one and ran up to ten thousand again, and so -on. We ran through several series--I don't know how many, and have lost -track of them now, but it was not far from fifty thousand." - -The mechanical problems in devising this battery were numerous and -intricate, but the greatest difficulty that Edison had to overcome was -the proper preparation of nickel hydrate for the positive and iron -oxide for the negative plate. He found that comparatively little was -known by manufacturing chemists about these compounds. Hence it became -necessary for him to establish his own chemical works and put them in -charge of men specially trained by himself. - -After an intense struggle with these problems, lasting over several -years, the storage battery was at length completed and put on the -market. The public was ready for it and there was a rapid sale. - -Continuous tests of the battery were carried on at the laboratory, -as well as practical and heavy tests in automobiles, which were kept -running constantly over all kinds of roads under Edison's directions. -After these tests had been going on for some time the results showed -that occasionally a cell here and there would fall short in capacity. - -This did not suit Edison. He was determined to make his storage battery -a complete success, and after careful thought decided to shut down -until he had overcome the trouble. The customers were satisfied and -wanted to buy more batteries, but he was not satisfied and would sell -no more until he had made the battery perfect. - -He therefore shut down the factory and went to experimenting once more. -The old strenuous struggle set in and continued nearly three years -before he was satisfied beyond doubt that the battery was right. In -the early summer of 1909 Edison once more started to manufacture and -sell the batteries, and has since that time continued to supply them as -quickly as they are made. At the present writing the factory is running -day and night in attempting to keep up with orders. - -One of the principal troubles of the earlier cells was a lack of -conductivity between the nickel hydrate and the metal tube in which it -was contained. Edison had used graphite to obtain this conductivity, -but this material proved to be uncertain in some cases. After a long -course of study and experiment he solved this problem in a satisfactory -manner by using flakes of pure nickel, which he obtained by a most -fascinating and ingenious process. - -A metallic cylinder is electroplated with alternate layers of copper -and nickel, one hundred of each. The combined sheet, which is only as -thick as a visiting-card, is stripped off the cylinder and cut into -tiny squares of about one-sixteenth of an inch each. These squares -are put into a bath which dissolves out the copper. This releases the -layers of nickel, so that each of these squares becomes one hundred -tiny sheets, or flakes, of pure metallic nickel, so thin and light -that when they are dried they will float in the air. These flakes are -automatically pressed into the positive tubes with the nickel hydrate -in an ingenious machine which had to be specially invented for the -purpose. - -Not only was this machine specially invented, but it was necessary -to invent and design practically all the other machinery that it was -necessary to use in manufacturing the battery. Thus, we see that in -this, as in many other of Edison's inventions, it is not only the thing -itself that has been invented, but also the special machinery and tools -to make it. - -The principal use that Edison has had in mind for his storage battery -is the transportation of freight and passengers by truck, automobile, -and street-car. Although at the time of writing this book the improved -battery has been on the market a little over two years, great strides -have been made in carrying his ideas into effect. - -The number of trucks and automobiles using Edison's storage battery -already run into the thousands, with more orders than can be -immediately filled. - - -XXII - -EDISON'S MISCELLANEOUS INVENTIONS - - -Thus far the history of Edison's career has fallen naturally into a -series of chapters each aiming to describe a group of inventions in the -development of some art. This plan has been helpful to the writer and -probably useful to the reader. - -It happens, however, that the process has left a vast mass of discovery -and invention untouched, and it is now proposed to make brief mention -of a few of the hundreds of things that have occupied Edison's -attention from time to time. - -Beginning with telegraphy, we find that Edison did some work on -wireless transmission. He says: "I perfected a system of train -telegraphy between stations and trains in motion, whereby messages -could be sent from the moving train to the central office; and this -was the forerunner of wireless telegraphy. This system was used for a -number of years on the Lehigh Valley Railroad on their construction -trains. The electric wave passed from a piece of metal on top of the -car across the air to the telegraph wires, and then proceeded to the -despatcher's office. In my first experiments with this system I tried -it on the Staten Island Railroad and employed an operator named King -to do the experimenting. He reported results every day, and received -instructions by mail; but for some reason he could send messages all -right when the train went in one direction, but could not make it go -in the contrary direction. I made suggestions of every kind to get -around this phenomenon. Finally I telegraphed King to find out if he -had any suggestions himself, and I received a reply that the only way -he could propose to get around the difficulty was to put the island on -a pivot so it could be turned around. I found the trouble finally, and -the practical introduction on the Lehigh Valley road was the result. -The system was sold to a very wealthy man, and he would never sell any -rights or answer letters. He became a spiritualist subsequently, which -probably explains it." - -The earlier experiments with wireless telegraphy were made at Menlo -Park during the first days of the electric light, and it was not until -1886 that Edison had time to spare to put the system into actual -use. At that time Ezra T. Gilliland and Lucius J. Phelps, who had -experimented on the same lines, became associated with him in the work. - -Although the space between the train and the pole line was not more -than fifty feet, Edison had succeeded at Menlo Park in transmitting -messages through the air at a distance of five hundred and eighty -feet. Speaking of this and of his other experiments with induction -telegraphy by means of kites, he said, recently: "We only transmitted -about two and one-half miles through the kites. What has always puzzled -me since is that I did not think of using the results of my experiments -on 'etheric force' that I made in 1875. I have never been able to -understand how I came to overlook them. If I had made use of my own -work I should have had long-distance wireless telegraphy." - -These experiments of 1875, as recorded in Edison's famous note-books, -show that in that year he detected and studied some then unknown and -curious phenomena which made him think he was on the trail of a new -force. His representative, Mr. Batchelor, showed these experiments with -Edison's apparatus, including the "dark box," at the Paris Exposition -in 1881. Without knowing it, for he was far in advance of the time, -Edison had really entered upon the path of long-distance wireless -telegraphy, as was proven later when the magnificent work of Hertz was -published. - -When Roentgen made the discovery of the X-ray in 1895 Edison took -up experimentation with it on a large scale. He made the first -fluoroscope, using tungstate of calcium for the screen. In order to -find other fluorescent substances he set four men to work and thus -collected upward of eight thousand different crystals of various -chemical combinations, of which about eighteen hundred would fluoresce -to the X-ray. He also invented a new lamp for giving light by means of -these fluorescent crystals fused to the inside of the glass. Some of -these lamps were made and used for a time, but he gave up the idea when -the dangerous nature of the X-ray became known. - -It would be possible to go on and describe in brief detail many more of -the hundreds of Edison's miscellaneous inventions, but the limits of -our space will not permit more than the mere mention of a _few_, simply -to illustrate the wide range of his ideas and work. For instance: - -A dry process of separating placer gold; the rapid disposal of heavy -snows in cities. - -Experiments on flying machines with an engine operated by explosions of -guncotton. - -The joint invention, with M. W. Scott Sims, of a dirigible submarine -torpedo operated by electricity. - -Pyromagnetic generators for generating electricity directly from the -combustion of coal. - -Pyromagnetic motors operated by alternate heating and cooling. - -A magnetic bridge for testing the magnetic qualities of iron. - -A "dead-beat" galvanometer without coils or magnetic needle. - -The odoroscope, for measuring odors; preserving fruit _in vacuo_; -making plate glass; drawing wire. - -Metallurgical processes for treatment of nickel, gold, and copper ores. - -From first to last Edison has filed in the United States Patent Office -more than fourteen hundred applications for patents. Besides, he filed -some one hundred and twenty caveats, embracing not less than fifteen -hundred additional inventions. The caveat has now been abolished in -patent-office practice, but such a document could formerly be filed by -an inventor to obtain a partial protection for a year while completing -his invention. As an example of Edison's fertility and the endless -variety of subjects engaging his attention the following list of -matters covered by _one_ of his caveats is given. All his caveats are -not quite so full of "plums," but this is certainly a wonder: - -Forty-one distinct inventions relating to the phonograph, covering -various forms of recorders, arrangement of parts, making of records, -shaving tool, adjustments, etc. - -Eight forms of electric lamps using infusible earthy oxides and brought -to high incandescence _in vacuo_ by high potential current of several -thousand volts; same character as impingement of X-rays on object in -bulb. - -A loud-speaking telephone with quartz cylinder and beam of ultra-violet -light. - -Four forms of arc-light with special carbons. - -A thermostatic motor. - -A device for sealing together the inside part and bulb of an -incandescent lamp mechanically. - -Regulators for dynamos and motors. - -Three devices for utilizing vibrations beyond the ultra-violet. - -A great variety of methods for coating incandescent lamp filaments with -silicon, titanium, chromium, osmium, boron, etc. - -Several methods of making porous filaments. - -Several methods of making squirted filaments of a variety of materials, -of which about thirty are specified. - -Seventeen different methods and devices for separating magnetic ores. - -A continuously operative primary battery. - -A musical instrument operating one of Helmholtz's artificial larynxes. - -A siren worked by explosion of small quantities of oxygen and hydrogen -mixed. - -Three other sirens made to give vocal sounds or articulate speech. - -A device for projecting sound-waves to a distance without spreading, -and in a straight line, on the principle of smoke-rings. - -A device for continuously indicating on a galvanometer the depths of -the ocean. - -A method of preventing in a great measure friction of water against the -hull of a ship and incidentally preventing fouling by barnacles. - -A telephone receiver whereby the vibrations of the diaphragm are -considerably amplified. - -Two methods of "space" telegraphy at sea. - -An improved and extended string telephone. - -Devices and method of talking through water for a considerable distance. - -An audiphone for deaf people. - -Sound-bridge for measuring resistance of tubes and other materials for -conveying sound. - -A method of testing a magnet to ascertain the existence of flaws in the -iron or steel composing the same. - -Method of distilling liquids by incandescent conductor immersed in the -liquid. - -Method of obtaining electricity direct from coal. - -An engine operated by steam produced by the hydration and dehydration -of metallic salts. - -Device and method of telegraphing photographically. - -Carbon crucible kept brilliantly incandescent by current _in vacuo_ for -obtaining reaction with refractory metals. - -Device for examining combinations of odors and their changes by -rotation at different speeds. - -It must be borne in mind that the above and hundreds of others are not -merely _ideas_ put in writing, but represent actual inventions upon -which Edison worked and experimented. In many cases the experiments ran -into the thousands, requiring months for their performance. - -To describe Edison's mere ideas and suggestions for future work would -of itself fill a volume. These are written in his own handwriting in a -number of large record-books which he has shown to the writer. Judging -from a hasty inspection, there is enough material in these books to -occupy the lifetime of several persons. - -The immense range of Edison's mind and activities cannot well be -described in cold print, but can only be adequately comprehended by -those who have been closely associated with him for a length of time, -and who have had opportunity of studying his voluminous records. - - -XXIII - -EDISON'S METHOD IN INVENTING - - -If one were allowed only two words with which to describe Edison it is -doubtful whether a close examination of the entire dictionary would -disclose any others more suitable than "experimenter-inventor." These -would express the overruling characteristics of his eventful career. - -His life as child, boy, and man has revealed the born investigator with -original reasoning powers, unlimited imagination, and daring method. It -is not surprising, therefore, that a man of this kind should exhibit a -ceaseless, absorbing desire for knowledge, willing to spend his last -cent in experimentation to satisfy the cravings of an inquiring mind. - -There is nothing of the slap-dash style in Edison's experiments. While -he "tries everything," it is not merely the mixing of a little of -this, some of that, and a few drops of the other, in the _hope_ that -_something_ will come of it. On the contrary, his instructions are -always clear-cut and direct, and must be followed out systematically, -exactly, and minutely, no matter where they lead nor how long the -experiment may take. - -Unthinking persons have had a notion that some of Edison's successes -have been due to mere dumb fool luck--to fortunate "happenings." -Nothing could be farther from the truth, for, on the contrary, it is -owing almost entirely to his comprehensive knowledge, the breadth -of his conception, the daring originality of his methods, and -minuteness and extent of experiment, combined with patient, unceasing -perseverance, that new arts have been created and additions made to -others already in existence. - -One of the first things Edison does in beginning a new line of -investigation is to master the literature of the subject. He wants to -know what has been done before. Not that he considers this as final, -for he often obtains vastly different results by repeating in his own -way the experiments of others. - -"Edison can travel along a well-used road and still find virgin soil," -remarked one of his experimenters recently, who had been trying to make -a certain compound, but with poor success. Edison tried it in the same -way, but made a change in one of the operations and succeeded. - -Another of the experimental staff says: "Edison is never hindered by -theory, but resorts to actual experiment for proof. For instance, when -he conceived the idea of pouring a complete concrete house it was -universally held that it would be impossible because the pieces of -stone in the mixture would not rise to the level of the pouring-point, -but would gravitate to a lower plane in the soft cement. This, however, -did not hinder him from making a series of experiments which resulted -in an invention that proved conclusively the contrary." - -Having conceived some new idea and read everything obtainable relating -to the subject in general, Edison's fertility of resource and -originality come into play. He will write in one of the laboratory -note-books a memorandum of the experiments to be tried, and, if -necessary, will illustrate by sketches. - -This book is then given to one of the large staff of experimenters. -Here strenuousness and a prompt carrying on of the work are required. -The results of each experiment must be recorded in the notebook, and -daily or more frequent reports are expected. Edison does not forget -what is going on, but in his daily tours through the laboratory keeps -in touch with the work of all the experimenters. His memory is so keen -and retentive that he is as fully aware of the progress and details of -each of the numerous experiments constantly going on as if he had made -them all himself. - -The use of laboratory note-books was begun early in the Menlo Park days -and has continued ever since. They are plain blank-books, each about -eight and a half by six inches, containing about two hundred pages. -At the present time there are more than one thousand of these books -in the series. On their pages are noted Edison's ideas, sketches, and -memoranda, together with records of countless thousands of experiments -made by him or under his direction during more than thirty years. - -These two hundred thousand or more pages cover investigations into -every department of science, showing the operations of a master mind -seeking to surprise Nature into a betrayal of her secrets by asking -her the same question in a hundred different ways. The breadth of -thought, thoroughness of method, infinite detail, and minuteness of -investigation proceeding from the workings of one mind would surpass -belief were they not shown by this wonderful collection of note-books. - -A remark made by one of the staff, who has been experimenting at the -laboratory for over twenty years, is suggestive. He said: "Edison -can think of more ways of doing a thing than any man I ever saw or -heard of. He tries everything and never lets up, even though failure -is apparently staring him in the face. He only stops when he simply -can't go any farther on that particular line. When he decides on any -mode of procedure he gives his notes to the experimenter and lets him -alone, only stopping in from time to time to look at the operations and -receive reports of progress." - -The idea of attributing great successes to "genius" has always been -repudiated by Edison, as evidenced by his historic remark that "genius -is one per cent, inspiration and ninety-nine per cent, perspiration." -Again, in a conversation many years ago between Edison, Batchelor, and -E. H. Johnson, the latter made allusion to Edison's genius, when Edison -replied: - -"Stuff! I tell you genius is hard work, stick-to-it-iveness, and common -sense." - -"Yes," said Johnson, "I admit there is all that to it, but there's -still more. Batch and I have those qualifications, but, although we -knew quite a lot about telephones, and worked hard, we couldn't invent -a brand-new non-infringing telephone receiver as you did when Gouraud -cabled for one. Then, how about the subdivision of the electric light?" - -"Electric current," corrected Edison. - -"True," continued Johnson; "you were the one to make that very -distinction. The scientific world had been working hard on subdivision -for years, using what appeared to be common sense. Results, worse than -nil. Then you come along, and about the first thing you do, after -looking the ground over, is to start off in the opposite direction, -which subsequently proves to be the only possible way to reach the -goal. It seems to me that this is pretty close to the dictionary -definition of genius." - -It is said that Edison replied rather incoherently and changed the -topic of conversation. - -This innate modesty, however, does not prevent Edison from recognizing -and classifying his own methods of investigation. In a conversation -with two old associates a number of years ago he remarked: "It has -been said of me that my methods are empirical. That is true only so -far as chemistry is concerned. Did you ever realize that practically -all industrial chemistry is colloidal in its nature? Hard rubber, -celluloid, glass, soap, paper, and lots of others, all have to deal -with amorphous substances, as to which comparatively little has been -really settled. My methods are similar to those followed by Luther -Burbank. He plants an acre, and when this is in bloom he inspects it. -He has a sharp eye, and can pick out of thousands a single plant that -has promise of what he wants. From this he gets the seed, and uses his -skill and knowledge in producing from it a number of new plants which, -on development, furnish the means of propagating an improved variety in -large quantity. So, when I am after a chemical result that I have in -mind I may make hundreds or thousands of experiments out of which there -may be one that promises results in the right direction. This I follow -up to its legitimate conclusion, discarding the others, and usually -get what I am after. There is no doubt about this being empirical; but -when it comes to problems of a mechanical nature, I want to tell you -that all I've ever tackled and solved have been done by hard, logical -thinking." The intense earnestness and emphasis with which this was -said were very impressive to the auditors. - -If, in following out his ideas, an experiment does not show the results -that Edison wants, it is not regarded as a failure, but as something -learned. This attitude is illustrated by his reply to Mr. Mallory, who -expressed regret that the first nine thousand and odd experiments on -the storage battery had been without results. Edison replied, with a -smile: "Results! Why, man, I have gotten a lot of results! I have found -several thousand things that won't work." - -Edison's patient, plodding methods do not always appear on the -note-books. For instance, a suggestion in one of them refers to a -stringy, putty-like mass being made of a mixture of lampblack and tar. -Some years afterward one of the laboratory assistants was told to make -some and roll it into filaments. After a time he brought the mass to -Edison and said: - -"There's something wrong about this, for it crumbles even after -manipulating it with my fingers." - -"How long did you knead it?" asked Edison. - -"Oh, more than an hour," was the reply. - -"Well, keep on for a few hours more and it will come out all right," -was the rejoinder. And this proved to be correct. - -With the experimenter or employee who exercises thought Edison has -unbounded patience, but to the careless, stupid, or lazy person he is a -terror for the short time they remain around him. Once, when asked why -he had parted with a certain man, he said: "Oh, he was so slow that it -would take him half an hour to get out of the field of a microscope." - -Edison's practical way of testing a man's fitness for special work is -no joke, according to Mr. J. H. Vail, formerly one of the Menlo Park -staff. "I wanted a job," he said, "and was ambitious to take charge of -the dynamo-room. Mr. Edison led me to a heap of junk in a corner and -said: 'Put that together and let me know when it is running.' I didn't -know what it was, but received a liberal education in finding out. It -proved to be a dynamo, which I finally succeeded in assembling and -running. I got the job." - -A somewhat similar experience is related by Mr. John F. Ott, who, in -1869, applied for work. This is the conversation that took place, led -by Edison's question: - -"What do you want?" - -"Work." - -"Can you make this machine work?" (exhibiting it and explaining its -details). - -"Yes." - -"Are you sure?" - -"Well, you needn't pay me if I don't." - -And thus Mr. Ott went to work and accomplished the results desired. Two -weeks afterward Edison put him in charge of the shop. From that day to -this, Mr. Ott has remained a member of Mr. Edison's staff. - -Examples without number could be given of Edison's inexhaustible -fund of ideas, but one must suffice by way of example. In the -progress of the ore-concentrating work one of the engineers submitted -three sketches of a machine for some special work. They were not -satisfactory. He remarked that it was too bad there was no other way -to do the work. Edison said, "Do you mean to say that these drawings -represent the only way to do this work?" The reply was, "I certainly -do." Edison said nothing, but two days afterward brought in his own -sketches showing _forty-eight_ other ways of accomplishing the result, -and laid them on the engineer's desk without a word. One of these -ideas, with slight changes, was afterward adopted. - -This chapter could be continued to great length, but must now be closed -in the hope that in the foregoing pages the reader may have caught an -adequate glance of Mr. Edison at work. - - -XXIV - -EDISON'S LABORATORY AT ORANGE - -If Longfellow's youth "Who through an Alpine village passed" had -been Edison, the word upon his banner would probably not have been -"Excelsior" but "Experiment." This seems to be the watchword of his -life, and is well illustrated by a remark made to Mr. Mason, the -superintendent of the cement works: "You must experiment all the time; -if you don't the other fellow will, and then he will get ahead of you." - -For some years after closing the little laboratory in his mother's -cellar Edison made a laboratory of any nook or corner and experimented -as long as he had a dollar in his pocket. The first place he began to -do larger things was in Newark, where he established his first shops. - -While life there was very strenuous, he tells of some amusing -experiences: "Some of my assistants in those days were very green in -the business. One day I got a new man and told him to conduct a certain -experiment. He got a quart of ether and started to boil it over a -naked flame. Of course it caught fire. The flame was about four feet -in diameter and eleven feet high. The fire department came and put a -stream through the window. That let all the fumes and chemicals out and -overcame the firemen. - -"Another time we experimented with a tubful of soapy water and put -hydrogen into it to make large bubbles. One of the boys, who was -washing bottles in the place, had read in some book that hydrogen was -explosive, so he proceeded to blow the tub up. There was about four -inches of soap in the bottom of the tub, which was fourteen inches -high, and he filled it with soap-bubbles up to the rim. Then he took a -bamboo fish-pole, put a piece of lighted paper at the end and touched -it off. It blew every window out of the place." - -We have seen that Edison moved to Menlo Park, where he had a very -complete laboratory, in which he brought out a large number of -important inventions. After a time, however, this establishment was -outgrown and lost many of its possibilities, and he began to plan a -still greater one which should be the most complete of its kind in the -world. - -The Orange laboratory, as was originally planned, consisted of a main -building two hundred and fifty feet long and three stories in height, -together with four other structures, each one hundred by twenty-five -feet and only one story in height. All these were substantially built -of brick. The main building was divided into five chief divisions--the -library, office, machine-shops, experimental and chemical rooms, and -stock-rooms. The small buildings were to be used for various purposes. - -A high picket fence, with a gate, surrounded these buildings. A keeper -was stationed at the gate with instructions to admit no strangers -without a pass. On one occasion a new gateman was placed in charge, -and, not knowing Edison, refused to admit him until he could get some -one to come out and identify him. - -The library is a spacious room about forty by thirty-five feet. -Around the sides of the room run two tiers of gallery. The main -floor and the galleries are divided into alcoves, in which, on the -main floor, are many thousands of books. In the galleries are still -more books and periodicals of all kinds, also cabinets and shelves -containing mineralogical and geological specimens and thousands of -samples of ores and minerals from all parts of the world. In a corner -of one of the galleries may be seen a large number of magazines -relating to electricity, chemistry, engineering, mechanics, building, -cement, building materials, drugs, water and gas power, automobiles, -railroads, aeronautics, philosophy, hygiene, physics, telegraphy, -mining, metallurgy, metals, music, and other subjects; also theatrical -weeklies, as well as the proceedings and transactions of various -learned and technical societies. All of these form part of Mr. Edison's -current reading. At one end of the main floor of the library, which is -handsomely and comfortably furnished, is Mr. Edison's desk, at which he -may usually be seen for a while in the early morning hours or at noon -looking over his mail. - -The centre of the library is left open for the reception of visitors, -and one corner is partitioned off to provide a private office for Mr. -Edison's son, Charles, who is the President and active manager of the -various Edison industries. Directly opposite to the entrance-door -is a beautiful marble statue representing the supremacy of electric -light over gas. This statue was purchased by Mr. Edison at the Paris -Exposition in 1889. - -A glance at the book-shelves affords a revelation of the subjects in -which Edison is interested, for the titles of the volumes include -astronomy, botany, chemistry, dynamics, electricity, engineering, -forestry, geology, geography, mechanics, mining, medicine, metallurgy, -magnetism, philosophy, psychology, physics, steam, steam-engines, -telegraphy, telephony, and many others. These are not all of Edison's -books by any means, for he has another big library in his house on the -hill. - -Turning to pass out of the library, one's attention is arrested by a -cot standing in one of the alcoves near the door. Sometimes during long -working hours Mr. Edison will throw himself down for a nap. He has -the ability to go to sleep instantly, and, being deaf, noises do not -disturb his slumber. The instant he awakes he is in full possession of -his faculties and goes "back to the job" without a moment's hesitation. - -Immediately outside the library is the famous stock-room, about which -much has been written. Edison planned to have in this stock-room -some quantity, great or small, of every known substance not easily -perishable, together with the most complete assortment of chemicals and -drugs that experience and knowledge could suggest. His theory was, and -is, that he does not know in advance what he may want at any moment, -and he planned to have anything that could be thought of ready at hand. - -Thus, the stock-room is not only a museum, but a sample-room of nature, -as well as a supply department. At first glance the collection is -bewildering, but when classified is more easily comprehended. - -The classification is natural, as, for instance, objects pertaining to -various animals, birds, and fishes, such as skins, hides, hair, fur, -feathers, wool, quills, down, bristles, teeth, bones, hoofs, horns, -tusks, shells; natural products such as woods, barks, roots, leaves, -nuts, seeds, gums, grains, flowers, meals, bran; also minerals in great -assortment; mineral and vegetable oils, clay, mica, ozokerite, etc. -In the line of textiles, cotton and silk threads in great variety, -with woven goods of all kinds, from cheese-cloth to silk plush. As for -paper, there is everything in white and color, from thinnest tissue up -to the heaviest asbestos, even a few newspapers being always on hand. -Twines of all sizes, inks, wax, cork, tar, rosin, pitch, asphalt, -plumbago, glass in sheets and tubes, and a host of miscellaneous -articles are revealed on looking around the shelves, as well as an -interminable collection of chemicals including acids, alkalies, salts, -reagents, every conceivable essential oil, and all the thinkable -extracts. It may be remarked that this collection includes the eighteen -hundred or more fluorescent salts made by Edison during his experiments -for the best material for a fluoroscope in the early X-ray period. All -known metals in form of sheet, rod, and tube, and of great variety -in thickness, are here found also, together with a most complete -assortment of tools and accessories for machine-shop and laboratory -work. - -The list above given is not by any means complete. In detail it would -stretch out to a rather large catalogue. It is not by any means an -idle collection, for a stock clerk is kept busy all the day answering -demands upon him. - -Beyond the stock-room is a good-sized machine-shop, well equipped, in -which the heavier class of models and mechanical devices are made. -Attached to these are the engine-room and boiler-room. Above, on the -second floor, is another machine-shop, in which is carried on work -of greater precision and fineness in the construction of tools and -experimental models. - -There are many experimental rooms on the second and third floors of the -laboratory building. In these the various experimenters are at work -carrying out the ideas of Mr. Edison on the great variety of subjects -to which he is constantly devoting his attention. One cannot go far in -the upper floors without being aware that efforts are being made to -improve the phonograph, for the sounds of vocal and instrumental music -can be heard from all sides. - -On the third floor the visitor may see a number of glass-fronted -cabinets containing a multitude of experimental incandescent lamps, -and an immense variety of models of phonographs, motors, telegraph and -telephone apparatus, and a host of other inventions, upon which Mr. -Edison's energies have at one time or other been bent. Here are also -many boxes of historical instruments and models. In fact, this hallway, -with its variety of contents, may well be considered a scientific attic. - -In the early days of the Orange laboratory some of the upper rooms -contained cots for the benefit of the night-workers. In spite of the -strenuous nights and days the spirit of fun was frequently in evidence. -One instance will serve as an illustration. - -One morning about two-thirty the late Charles Batchelor said he was -tired and would go to bed. Leaving Edison and the others busily -working, he went out and returned quietly in slippered feet, with -his night-gown on, the handle of a feather-duster down his back -with the feathers waving over his head, and his face marked. With -unearthly howls and shrieks, _a l'Indien_, he pranced about the room, -incidentally giving Edison a scare that made him jump up from his work. -He saw the joke quickly, however, and joined in the general merriment -caused by this prank. - -A description of the laboratory building would be incomplete without -mention of room Number 12. This is one of Edison's favorite rooms, -where he may frequently be found seated at a plain table in the center -of the room deeply intent on one of his numerous problems. It is a -plain little room, but seems to exercise a nameless fascination for him. - -Passing out of the building, we come to the four smaller buildings, -which are known as Numbers One, Two, Three, and Four. The building -Number One is called the galvanometer room. Edison originally planned -that this should be used for the most delicate and minute electrical -measurements. He went to great expense in fitting it up and in -providing a large number of costly instruments, but the coming of the -trolley near by a few years afterward rendered the room utterly useless -for this purpose. It is now used as an experimental room, chiefly for -motion-picture experiments. - -Building Number Two is quite an important one. As the visitor arrives -at the door he is quite conscious that it is a chemical-room. Here -a corps of chemists is constantly kept busy in carrying out the -various experiments Mr. Edison has given them to perform. This room is -also one of his special haunts. He may be seen here very frequently -experimenting in person, or seated at a plain little table figuring out -some new combination that he has in mind. - -A chemical store-room and a pattern-maker's shop occupy building Number -Three, while Number Four, which was formerly used for ore concentrating -experiments, is now used as a general stock-room. - -We have only attempted to afford the reader a passing glance of this -interesting laboratory, which for many years has been the headquarters -of Edison and the central source of inspiration for the great -industries he has established at Orange. Around it are grouped a number -of immense concrete buildings in which the manufacture of phonographs, -motion-pictures, and storage batteries is carried on, giving employment -to as many as four thousand people during busy times. - -Needless to say, the laboratory has many visitors. Celebrities of all -kinds and distinguished foreigners are numerous, coming from all parts -of the world to see the great inventor and the scene of his activities. - - -XXV - -EDISON HIMSELF - - -Let us turn from what Edison has done to what Edison is. It is worth -while to know "the man behind the guns." Who and what is the personal -Edison? - -Certainly there must be tremendous force in a personality which has -been one of the most potent factors in bringing into existence new -industries now capitalized at tens of billions of dollars, earning -annually sums running into billions, and giving employment to an army -of more than two million people. - -It must not be thought that there is any intention to give entire -credit to Edison for the present magnificent proportions of these -industries. The labors of many other inventors and the confidence of -capitalists and investors have added greatly to their growth. But -Edison is the father of some of these arts and industries, and as to -some of the others it was the magic of his touch that helped make them -practicable. - -How then does Edison differ from most other men? Is it that he combines -with a vigorous body a mind capable of clear and logical thinking, -and an imagination of unusual activity? No, for there are others of -equal bodily and mental vigor who have not accomplished a tithe of his -achievements. - -We must answer then, first, that his whole life is concentrated upon -his work. When he conceives a broad idea of a new invention he gives -no thought to the limitations of time, or man, or effort. Having his -body and mind in complete subjection through iron nerves, he settles -down to experiment with ceaseless, tireless, unwavering patience, never -swerving to the right or left nor losing sight of his purpose. Years -may come and go, but nothing short of success is accepted. - -A good example of this can be found in the development of the nickel -pocket for the storage battery, an element the size of a short -lead-pencil. More than five years were spent in experiments costing -upward of a million dollars to perfect it. Day after day was spent on -this investigation, tens of thousands of tubes and an endless variety -of chemicals were made, but at the end of five years Edison was as much -interested in these small tubes as when the work was first begun. - -So far as work is concerned, all times are alike to Edison, whether it -be day or night. He carries no watch, and, indeed, has but little use -for watches or clocks except as they may be useful in connection with -an experiment in which time is a factor. The one idea in mind is to go -on with the work incessantly, always pushing steadily onward toward the -purpose in view, with a relentless disregard of effort or the passage -of time. - -[Illustration: THOMAS ALVA EDISON--1911] - -A second and very marked characteristic of Edison's personality is an -intense and courageous hopefulness and self-confidence, into which -no thought of failure can enter. The doubts and fears of others have -absolutely no weight with him. Discouragements and disappointments -find no abiding place in his mind. Indeed, he has the happy faculty -of beginning the day as open-minded as a child, yesterday's -discouragements and disappointment discarded, or, at any rate, -remembered only as useful knowledge gained and serving to point out the -fact that he had been temporarily following the wrong road. - -Difficulties seem to have a fascination for him. To advance along -smooth paths, meeting no obstacles or hardships, has no charm for -Edison. To wrestle with difficulties, to meet obstructions, to attempt -the impossible--these are the things that appear to give him a high -form of intellectual pleasure. He meets them with the keen delight of a -strong man battling with the waves and opposing them in sheer enjoyment. - -Another marked characteristic of Edison is the fact that his happiness -is not bound up in the making of money. While he appreciates a good -balance at his banker's, the keenness of his pleasure is in overcoming -difficulties rather than the mere piling up of a bank account. Had -his nature been otherwise, it is doubtful if his life would have been -filled with the great achievements that it has been our pleasure to -record. - -In a life filled with tremendous purpose and brilliant achievement -there must be expected more or less of troubles and loss. Edison's life -has been no exception, but, with the true philosophy that might be -expected of such a nature, he remarked recently: "Spilled milk doesn't -interest me. I have spilled lots of it, and, while I have always felt -it for a few days, it is quickly forgotten, and I turn again to the -future." - -Edison to-day has a fine physique, and, being free from serious -ailments, enjoys a vigorous old age. His hair has whitened, but it is -still abundant, and though he uses glasses for reading, his gray-blue -eyes are as keen and bright and deeply lustrous as ever, with the -direct, searching look in them that they have ever worn. - -Edison in his 'eighties still has a fine physique, weighs over one -hundred and sixty-five pounds, and has varied little as to weight in -the last forty years. He is very abstemious, hardly ever touching -alcohol and caring little for meat. In fact, the chief article of his -diet is warm milk, which he finds satisfactory for his need. - -He believes that people eat too much, and governs himself accordingly. -His meals are simple, small in quantity, and take but little of his -time at table. If he finds himself varying in weight he will eat a -little more or a little less in order to keep his weight constant. - -As to clothes, Edison is simplicity itself. Indeed, it is one of the -subjects in which he takes no interest. He says: "I get a suit that -fits me, then I compel the tailors to use that as a jig, or pattern, -or blueprint, to make others by. For many years a suit was used as a -measurement; once or twice they took fresh measurements, but these -didn't fit, and they had to go back. I eat to keep my weight constant, -hence I never need changed measurements." - -This will explain why a certain tailor had made Edison's clothes for -twenty years and had never seen him. - -In 1873 Mr. Edison was married to Miss Mary Stilwell, who died in 1884, -leaving three children--Thomas Alva, William Leslie, and Marion Estelle. - -Mr. Edison was married again in 1886 to Miss Mina Miller, daughter of -Mr. Lewis Miller, a distinguished pioneer inventor and manufacturer -in the field of agricultural machinery, and equally entitled to fame -as the father of the "Chautauqua idea," and the founder with Bishop -Vincent of the original Chautauqua, which now has so many replicas all -over the country. By this marriage there are three children--Charles, -Madeline, and Theodore. - -For over twenty years Edison's happy and perfect domestic life has -been spent at Glenmont, a beautiful property in Llewellyn Park, on the -Orange Mountain, New Jersey. Here, amid the comforts of a beautifully -appointed home, in which may be seen the many decorations and medals -awarded to him, together with the numerous souvenirs sent to him by -foreign potentates and others, Edison spends the hours that he is away -from the laboratory. They are far from being idle hours, for it is here -that he may pursue his reading free from interruption. - -His hours of sleep are few, not more than six in the twenty-four, -and not as much as that when working nights at the laboratory. In a -recent conversation a friend expressed surprise that he could stand -the constant strain, to which Edison replied that he stood it easily, -because he was interested in everything. He further said: "I don't live -with the past; I am living for to-day and to-morrow. I am interested -in every department of science, art, and manufacture. I read all the -time on astronomy, chemistry, biology, physics, music, metaphysics, -mechanics, and other branches--political economy, electricity, and, in -fact, all things that are making for progress in the world. I get all -the proceedings of the scientific societies, the principal scientific -and trade journals, and read them. I also read some theatrical and -sporting papers and a lot of similar publications, for I like to know -what is going on. In this way I keep up to date, and live in a great, -moving world of my own, and, what's more, I enjoy every minute of it." - -In conversation Edison is direct, courteous, ready to discuss a topic -with anybody worth talking to, and, in spite of his deafness, an -excellent listener. No one ever goes away from him in doubt as to what -he thinks or means, but, with characteristic modesty, he is ever shy -and diffident to a degree if the talk turns on himself rather than on -his work. - -He is a normal, fun-loving, typical American, ever ready to listen to -a new story, with a smile all the while, and a hearty, boyish laugh at -the end. He has a keen sense of humor, which manifests itself in witty -repartee and in various ways. - -In his association with his staff of experimenters the "old man," as he -is affectionately called, is considerate and patient, although always -insisting on absolute accuracy and exactness in carrying out his ideas. -He makes liberal allowance for errors arising through human weakness of -one kind or another, but a stupid mistake or an inexcusable oversight -on the part of an assistant will call forth a storm of contemptuous -expression that is calculated to make the offender feel cheap. The -incident, however, is quickly a thing of the past, as a general rule. - -If there is anything in heredity, Edison has many years of vigor and -activity yet before him. What the future may have in store in the way -of further achievement cannot be foreshadowed, for he is still a mighty -thinker and a prodigy of industry and hard work. - - -XXVI - -EDISON'S NEW PHONOGRAPH - - -As related in a preceding chapter of this work, the first commercial -phonograph was of the wax cylinder type. Celluloid afterwards -superceded wax as a material for the cylinder record, because of its -indestructibility. Edison's work on the disc phonograph and record, -invented by him in 1878, is related in the following pages. - -From the time of his conception of the phonograph in 1877 to the -present day Edison has had a deep conviction that people want good -music in their homes. That this is not a conviction founded upon -commercialism may be appreciated on reading his own words: "Of all -the various forms of entertainment in the home, I know of nothing -that compares with music. It is safe and sane, appeals to all finer -emotions, and tends to bind family influences with a wholesomeness -that links old and young together. If you will consider for a moment -how universally the old 'heart songs' are loved in the homes, you will -realize what a deep hold music has in the affections of the people. It -is a safety-valve in the home." - -Throughout the years that followed the advent of the earlier type of -phonograph with the cylindrical wax records Edison never lost sight of -his determination to make it a more perfect instrument, for, of all -the children of his brain, the phonograph seems to be the one he loves -most. He is the most severe critic of his own work and is never content -with less than the best obtainable. - -Thus it came about that, some thirteen years ago, having reached the -apex of his dissatisfaction with what he thought were the shortcomings -of the phonograph and records of that time, he began work on a -long-cherished plan of refining the machine and the records so that he -could reproduce music, vocal and instrumental, with all its original -beauty of tone and sweetness--in fact, a true "re-creation." As the -world knows, he has succeeded. - -With his characteristic vigor and earnestness Edison plunged into -this campaign, fully realizing the immense difficulties of the task -he had undertaken. In order to accomplish the desired end he must, in -the first place, devise entirely new types of recorder and reproducer -which would have essentially different characteristics from any then -in existence. In addition to this, an entirely new material must be -found and adapted for the surface of the records, a material pliable, -indestructible, and, above all, so exceedingly smooth that there should -be no rasping, scratching sounds to mar the beauty of the music. - -In planning this campaign Edison had decided to return to the disc type -of machine and record, which he had invented away back in 1878, and -which he now took up again, as it would afford him the greatest scope -for his latest efforts. - -While simultaneously carrying on a formidable line of experiments to -produce the desired material for the records he labored patiently -through the days and away into the nights for many months in evolving -the new recorder and reproducer, pausing only to snatch a few hours of -sleep, which sometimes would be taken at home and at other times on a -bench or cot in the laboratory. After some thousands of experiments, -extending over a period of more than ten months and conducted with the -never-wearying patience so characteristic of him, he perfected his -recorder and the diamond-point reproducer which gave him the results -for which he strove so many years. This was on the eve of his departure -for Europe in August, 1911. - -When Edison thinks he has perfected any device his next step is to find -out its weakness by trying his best to destroy it. Illustrative of this -there may be quoted two instances of severe tests in connection with -his alkaline storage battery. After completing it he rigged up a device -by means of which a set of batteries were subjected to a series of -1,700,000 severe bumps in the effort to destroy them. When this failed, -they were mounted on a heavy electric car, which was propelled with -terrific force a number of times against a heavy stone wall, only to -show that they were proof against injury by any such means. - -His new phonograph reproducer was not exempted from this policy -of attempted destruction, and before leaving for Europe he gave -instructions for a grilling test, which was, of course, carried out -faithfully, but the diamond point was found to be uninjured after -playing records more than four thousand times. With such results he -deemed it a safe proposition. - -On his return from Europe in October, 1911, Edison resumed his attack -on the evolution of the new indestructible disc record with a smooth -surface, the main principles of which had been determined upon before -his departure. In addition, there arose the problem of manufacturing -such records in great quantities. The difficulties that confronted him -completely baffle description. The whole battle was carried on with -the aid of powerful microscopes, which even at their best would fail -to reveal the obscure cause of temporary discomfiture. Differences -in material, dirt, dust, temperature, water, chemical action, thumb -marks, breath marks, cloth and brush marks, and a host of major and -minor incidentals, were patiently and painstakingly investigated with a -thoroughness that is almost beyond belief to the layman. - -Day and night the work was carried on incessantly. During the height -of the investigation, toward the close of this five-year campaign, -Edison and a few of his faithful experimenters--facetiously called "The -Insomnia Squad"--stayed steadily at the works for a period of over five -weeks--eating, drinking, working, and sleeping (occasionally) there. -During that time Edison went home only four or five times, and then -merely to change his clothing. He and the men slept for short periods -in the works or in the library, on benches and tables, resuming their -labors immediately on waking up. Edison had arranged for an abundant -supply of good substantial food which they themselves cooked, hence -the inner man was well cared for. The wives of the men came around at -intervals with changes of clothing for their husbands. This intense -application to work left no time for shaving, with the result that all -hands might well have been taken for a gang of traditional pirates from -their unkempt appearance. - -They were all happy, however, and, strange to say, all increased in -weight, although a contrary result might naturally have been expected. -The intense work has never ceased, but there has been no similar -protracted siege since, as the main principles were practically -settled at that time. The foregoing instance has been merely mentioned -to illustrate the fierce vigor with which Edison works when he is -seeking to complete one of his inventions. He has been, and still is, -prosecuting his labors with the same energy to bring about the utmost -perfection that is possible. - -He has not confined his work to the refinement of the merely mechanical -parts, such as the instrument and the records, but during the last -ten years he has devoted an immense amount of time to music itself. -Becoming convinced that the public desired really beautiful music, -he set himself to a thorough study of the subject, not only of -compositions, but also of the human voice, its powers and limitations, -and of different effects of various styles of orchestration. He -determined to hear for himself music of all kinds, and with this object -in view hired a number of sight-reading players and singers to render -musical selections by the hour. - -[Illustration: "THE INSOMNIA SQUAD"--Copyright by Thomas A. Edison] - -In the past ten years he has heard upward of twenty-five thousand -compositions of a wide range, from grand opera to ragtime. As he hears -them he indicates his opinions, which range from "beautiful" to "punk," -according to his idea of availability for the phonograph. An elaborate -card system preserves these indications for further application in -selecting music for the phonograph. - -It might seem dogmatic to have the reproduction of musical compositions -depend upon his opinion, but it must be said that he is not entirely -committed to such drastic measures if there is a real demand for some -musical selection which does not seem to merit his good opinion. His -decision as to a composition is not based on a merely personal whim or -fad, but upon his opinion of it from the standpoint of an inventor. He -has said to the writer more than once: "There is invention in music -just as much as in the arts. Composers such as Verdi, Rossini, Bellini, -Donizetti were inventors. They did not copy, nor did some of the other -great composers. But the rank and file of musicians are not inventors; -they have copied the ideas of the others, consciously or unconsciously. -If you will sit down for a few hours and have a lot of miscellaneous -compositions played you will be convinced of it." - -Edison has had no musical training, as the term is generally -understood, and the writer must confess that before hearing the above -expression he failed to comprehend the true basis of the inventor's -opinions of the various compositions played or sung for him. On several -occasions he therefore arranged (unknown to Edison) to have one or more -compositions played or sung again after a lapse of some weeks, to see -whether or not there would be any similarity of opinion to that first -indicated. In every case Edison's judgment was practically, and in some -cases precisely, the same as before, thus proving that the opinion -first given was not merely a whim, but was based upon some definite -line of thought in the inventor's brain. - -His excursion into the musical realm has also included the personal -hearing of many singers so as to determine their fitness for making -phonograph records. This proved to be a wonderfully interesting -field of investigation, and he has given a great deal of time to it, -listening critically to each voice, good, bad, or indifferent, and -patiently writing out his criticism in each case. Not only has he heard -a large number of singers who have visited the laboratory for the -purpose, but he also had a representative scouring Europe for voices -several years ago. This man visited the principal cities and towns -of Europe and took phonograph records of the voices of the operatic -and other prominent singers in each place and shipped them over to -Edison, who listened to each one and recorded his opinion in a series -of note-books kept for the purpose. He has in the laboratory at Orange -nearly two thousand voice records of this kind. All this is done with -the object of securing the really best voices in the world. Probably -this is the most unique "voice library" in existence. - -He is very deaf, but has a wonderfully acute inner ear, which, being -protected by his deafness from the ordinary sounds of life, will catch -minute imperfections that are imperceptible to the person of ordinary -hearing. In listening to a voice he uses a peculiarly shaped horn which -is held close to the ear, and such is the acuteness of his hearing -that he at once distinguishes minute changes of register, extra waves, -tremolo, non-periodic vibrations, and other minor defects that detract -from the true beauty of vocal sounds. In addition, he can immediately -recognize the number of overtones and rate of tremolo, which may -afterward be verified by a microscopic examination of a record of the -same voice. - -Edison contends that the phonograph will give the "acid test" of a -voice, for it will record nothing more and nothing less than what -is in the voice itself, and the record is unchangeable. In his -judgment, operatic voices are not necessarily the most perfect ones, -for, as he says: "the vocal cords of opera singers are always at the -straining-point. They usually sing on roomy stages in large theaters -with a large orchestra in front of them, and their voices must go out -above all these instruments so as to be heard to the farthest limits of -the house. Consequently, they are always doing their utmost and their -vocal cords become adapted to heavy work only. People often wonder why -their favorite operatic singers do not charm them as much in concert -or through the phonograph as they did at the opera, but do not stop to -think of the difference between the opera-house and the concert-hall or -parlor. I don't mean to say a word of detraction in regard to operatic -singers, for I have a great admiration for their wonderful art and for -many of their voices, and a great number of them have now recognized -the value of special effort to acquire the distinct art and technique -of singing for the phonograph (which is a parlor instrument), and have -made some really beautiful records." - -The writer was one day discussing with Edison the temperament of -singers generally and the good opinion that each one usually has of -his or her own voice irrespective of any artistic use he or she could -make of it. He said: "I don't see what they have to be conceited about. -The Almighty has given them a little piece of meat in their throats -that differs slightly from the corresponding piece of meat in somebody -else's throat. They can take no credit for that, but if they use their -brains to interpret and perfect the use of what has been given them, -they have accomplished something. What I want is voices that will stand -the test of the phonograph and give permanent pleasure to people, -irrespective of stage environment, or the press agent, or pleasing -personality." - -This chapter could be extended to a great length in setting forth the -results of Edison's deep study of music which he undertook solely for -the purpose of bringing his latest achievement up to the high standard -which he set for it so many years ago, but enough has been said to -indicate the immense amount of work he has done and the trend of his -ideas. That he has been able, amid the round of his multitudinous -duties and work, which occupy his time and attention from sixteen to -eighteen hours a day, to delve into the subject so profoundly and -to evolve ideas that are confessedly awakening the musical world is -sufficient to indicate that in spite of his years and herculean labors -in the past he has not lost any of the vim or pertinacity that have so -distinguished him in days gone by. - - -XXVII - -EDISON'S WORK DURING THE WAR - - -With the shattering of the world's peace by the great conflict which -commenced on July 28, 1914, there came a universal disturbance of -industrial conditions. The Edison industries were not exempt. - -Edison's activities during the years of the war were of the same -intensely vigorous and energetic nature so characteristic of him -throughout his busy life. His work during this period is divisible -into two distinct sections: first, the working out of processes and -the design and construction of nine chemical and two benzol plants to -supply chemicals and materials greatly needed by our country; and, -second, his war work for the United States government. We will discuss -these in the above order. - -For many years before the war America had been a large importer of raw -materials and manufactured products from England, Germany, and other -European countries. Among these may be mentioned potash, dyes, carbolic -acid, aniline oil, and other coal-tar products. After hostilities -began the activities of the Allied fleets prevented all exportations -by Germany and the Central Powers. On the other hand, England and her -allies placed embargoes on the exportation from their countries of all -materials and products which could be used for food or munitions of war. - -Thus there suddenly came a great embarrassment to numerous American -industries. By reason of our continued importation for many years -our country had become dependent upon Europe for supplies of various -products and had made practically no provision for the manufacture of -these products within our own borders. - -Inasmuch as our narrative concerns Edison and his work, we shall not -attempt to name all the industries thus affected, but will confine -ourselves to a mention of the items relating to his own needs and -of those which he promptly took steps to produce for the relief of -many industries and for the general good of the country. These items -were carbolic acid, aniline oil, myrbane, aniline salts, acetanilid, -para-nitro-acetanilid, paraphenylenediamine, para-amidophenol, -benzidine, benzol, toluol, xylol, solvent naphtha, and naphthaline -flakes. - -Edison's principal requirements were potash for his storage battery and -carbolic acid and paraphenylenediamine for use in the manufacture of -disc phonograph records. After a great deal of experimenting he found -that caustic soda could be used in his storage battery and therefore -employed it until new supplies of potash were obtainable. - -Carbolic acid and paraphenylenediamine had been previously imported -from England and Germany and as there was practically none produced in -the United States and no possibility of substituting other products -Edison realized that he would be compelled to manufacture them -himself, as the source of supply was cut off. He, therefore, as usual, -gathered together all available literature and plunged into a study of -manufacturing processes and quickly set his chemists to work on various -lines of experiment. - -Having decided through these experiments on the process by which he -would manufacture carbolic acid synthetically, Edison designed his -first plant, gathered the building material and apparatus together and -instructed his engineers to rush the construction as fast as possible. -By working gangs of men twenty-four hours a day the plant was rapidly -completed and on the eighteenth day after the work of construction was -begun it commenced turning out carbolic acid. Within a month this plant -was making more than a ton a day and gradually increased its capacity -until, a few months afterward, it reached its maximum of six tons a day. - -It soon became publicly known that Edison was manufacturing carbolic -acid, and he was overwhelmed with offers to purchase the excess over -his own requirements. The demand for carbolic acid became so great -that he decided to erect a second plant. This was quickly constructed -and its capacity, which was also six tons per day, was contracted for -before the plant was fully completed. It is interesting to note that -the army and navy departments of the United States were among the first -to make long contracts with Edison for his carbolic acid, from which -they made explosives that were badly needed. - -We must digress here to show an emergency that had arisen during the -early days of the first carbolicacid plant. There had come about -a serious shortage of benzol, which is a basic material in the -manufacture of synthetic carbolic acid. Benzol is a product derived -from the gases arising from the destructive distillation of coal in -coke ovens. At the time of which we are writing (beginning of 1915) -there was only a comparatively small quantity of benzol produced in the -United States. - -Mr. Edison realized that without a continuous and liberal supply -of benzol he would be unable to carry out his project of producing -carbolic acid in large quantities. He had also been approached -by various textile manufacturers to make aniline oil, which was -essential to their continuance in business, and of which there was -practically no supply in the country. Without it he could not make -paraphenylenediamine. Benzol is also a basic material in making aniline -oil. - -Therefore, it became doubly important to arrange for an adequate and -continuous supply of benzol. Edison made a study of the methods and -processes of producing benzol and then made proposals to various steel -companies to the effect that he would, with their permission, erect a -benzol plant at their coke ovens, operate the same at his own expense, -and pay them a royalty for every gallon of benzol, toluol, xylol, or -solvent naphtha taken from their gases. Such arrangement would not -only meet his requirements, but at the same time would give the steel -companies an income from something which they had been allowing to -pass away into the air. He succeeded in making arrangements with two -of the companies--namely, the Cambria Steel Company at Johnstown, -Pennsylvania, and the Woodward Iron Company, Woodward, Alabama. - -Ordinarily, it requires from nine to ten months to erect a benzol -plant, but before making his proposal to the steel companies Edison had -worked out a plan for erecting a practical plant within sixty days, -and had laid it out on paper. He was sure of his grounds, because from -his vast experience he knew where to pick up the different pieces of -apparatus in various parts of the country. - -The contract for his first benzol plant at Johnstown, Pennsylvania, -was signed on January 18, 1915, and the actual work was begun an hour -after the contract was signed, with the final result that in forty-five -days afterward the benzol plant was completed and commenced working -successfully. The second plant, at Woodward, Alabama, was completed -within sixty days after breaking ground, the two weeks difference -in time being accounted for by the fact that Woodward was farther -away from the base of supplies and there were delays in railroad -transportation of materials. - -Being sure, through these contracts, of a continuous supply of benzol, -Edison designed a plant for making aniline oil. By working gangs of men -day and night, the erection of this plant was completed in forty-five -days. The capacity of the plant, four thousand pounds per day, was -fully contracted for by anxious manufacturers long before the machinery -was in place. - -Let us now consider Edison's work on paraphenylenediamine. This is a -chemical product which is largely used in dyeing furs black. America -had imported all her requirements from Germany, but within a few -months after the beginning of hostilities the visible supply was -exhausted and no more could be expected during war-times. Fur-dyers -were in despair. This product being also absolutely essential in the -manufacture of phonograph records, Edison worked out a process for -making it, and as his requirements were very moderate he established a -small manufacturing plant at the Orange laboratory and soon began to -produce about twenty-five pounds a day. In some way the news reached -the ears of many desperate fur-dyers, and Edison was quickly besieged -with most urgent requests for such portion of his output as could be -spared. Fortunately, a small proportion of the output was available -and was distributed daily in accordance with the necessities of those -concerned. This small quantity being merely a drop in the bucket, the -fur-dyers earnestly besought Edison to establish a larger plant and -supply them with greater quantities of paraphenylenediamine, as their -business had come almost to a standstill for lack of it. He, therefore, -designed and constructed rapidly a larger plant, which, when put into -operation, was soon producing two hundred to three hundred pounds a -day, thus saving the situation for the fur-dyers. The capacity of this -plant was gradualy increased until it turned out upward of a thousand -pounds a day, of which a goodly proportion was exported to Europe and -Japan. - -Lack of space has prevented the narration of more than a mere general -outline of some of Edison's important achievements during part of -the war years along chemical and engineering lines and in furnishing -many of the industries of the country with greatly needed products -that, for a time at least, were otherwise unobtainable. Much could -be written about his work on producing myrbane, aniline salts, -acetanilid, para-nitro-acetanilid, para-amido-phenol, benzidine, -toluol, xylol, solvent naphtha, and naphthaline flakes--how his -investigations and experiments on them ran along with the others, -team fashion, so to speak, how he brought the same resourcefulness -and energy to bear on many problems, and how he eventually surmounted -numerous difficulties--but limitations of space forbid. Nor can we -make more than a mere passing mention of the assistance he gave to -the governments in the quick production of toluol and in furnishing -plans and help to construct and operate two toluol plants in Canada. -Suffice it to say that his achievements during this episode in his -career were fully in accord with the notable successes he had already -scored. It may be noted that in the three years following 1914 others -went into the business of manufacturing the above chemicals, and as -they installed and operated plants and furnished supplies needed in the -industries Edison withdrew and shut down his special plants one after -another. - -Let us now take a brief glance at the patriot-inventor at work for his -government in war-times and especially during the last two years of the -Great War. - -In the late summer of 1915 the Secretary of the Navy, Hon. Josephus -Daniels, communicated to Mr. Edison an idea he had conceived of -gathering together a body of men preeminent in inventive research to -form an advisory board which should come to the aid of our country -in an inventive and advisory capacity in relation to war measures. -In this communication Secretary Daniels made an appeal to Edison's -patriotism and asked him to devote some of his effort in the service -of the country and also to act as chairman of the board. Although he -was already working about eighteen hours a day, Edison signified his -consent. In the fall of 1915 the board was organized and subsequently -became known as the Naval Consulting Board of the United States. Mr. -Edison was at first chairman and subsequently became president of the -board. - -The history of the work and activities of the board is too extensive -to be related here in detail and can only be hinted at. Indeed, it is -the subject of a separate volume which is being published by the Navy -Department. We shall, therefore, confine our narrative to the story of -Edison's work. - -In December, 1916, Secretary Daniels expressed a desire that Mr. Edison -visit him in Washington for an important conference. At that time it -seemed almost inevitable that the United States would be drawn into the -conflict with Germany sooner or later, and at the conference Secretary -Daniels asked Edison to devote more of his time to the country by -undertaking experiments on a series of problems, a list of which was -handed to him. - -Edison signified his assent, agreeing to give his whole time to -the government without charge, and returned to his laboratory. He -immediately put everything else aside, and with characteristic -enthusiasm and energy delved into the work he had undertaken. The -problems referred to covered a wide range of the sciences and arts, and -time being an essential element, he added to his laboratory staff by -gathering together from various sources a number of young men, experts -in various lines, to assist him in his investigations. - -Inasmuch as Edison's war work for the government occupied his entire -time for upward of two years, it is manifestly out of the question to -narrate the details within the limits of a chapter. We must, therefore, -be content to itemize the principal problems upon which he occupied -himself and assistants and as to which he reported definite results to -Washington. The items are as follows: - -1. Locating position of guns by sound-ranging. - -2. Detecting submarines by sound from moving vessels. - -3. Detecting on moving vessels the discharge of torpedoes by submarines. - -4. Quick turning of ships. - -5. Strategic plans for saving cargo boats from submarines. - -6. Collision mats. - -7. Taking merchant-ships out of mined harbors. - -8. Oleum cloud shells. - -9. Camouflaging ships and burning anthracite. - -10. More power for torpedoes. - -11. Coast patrol by submarine buoys. - -12. Destroying periscopes with machine-guns. - -13. Cartridge for taking soundings. - -14. Sailing-lights for convoys. - -15. Smudging sky-line. - -16. Obstructing torpedoes with nets. - -17. Under-water search-light. - -18. High-speed signaling with search-lights. - -19. Water-penetrating projectile. - -20. Airplane detection. - -21. Observing periscopes in silhouette. - -22. Steamship decoys. - -23. Zigzagging. - -24. Reducing rolling of warships. - -25. Obtaining nitrogen from the air. - -26. Stability of submerged submarines. - -27. Hydrogen detector for submarines. - -28. Induction balance for submarine detection. - -29. Turbine head for projectile. - -30. Protecting observers from smoke-stack gas. - -31. Mining Zeebrugge harbor. - -32. Blinding submarines and periscopes. - -33. Mirror-reflection system for warships. - -34. Device for look-out men. - -35. Extinguishing fires in coal bunkers. - -36. Telephone system on ships. - -37. Extension ladder for spotting-top. - -38. Preserving submarine and other guns from rust. - -39. Freeing range-finder from spray. - -40. Smudging periscopes. - -41. Night glass. - -42. Re-acting shell. - - -It will be seen that Mr. Edison's inventive imagination was permitted -a wide scope. He fairly reveled in the opportunity of attacking so -many difficult problems and worked through the days and nights writh -unflagging enthusiasm. He committed his business interests to the -care of his associates, and during the two years of his work for the -government kept in touch with his great business interests only by -means of reports which were condensed to the utmost. In addition, for -two successive winters, he gave up his regular winter vacation on his -Florida estate, usually a source of great enjoyment to him. But it was -all done willingly and without a word of regret or dissatisfaction so -far as the writer's knowledge goes. - -Although we cannot take space to discuss the above items in detail, the -reader will probably have a desire to know something of Edison's work -in regard to the submarines. - -In view of the vast destruction of shipping, perhaps it is not an -overstatement to say that the most vital problem of the late war was -to overcome the menace of the submarine. Undoubtedly there was more -universal study and experiment on means and devices for locating and -destroying submarines than on any other single problem. - -The class of apparatus most favored by investigators comprised various -forms of listening devices by means of which it was hoped to detect and -locate by sound the movement of an entirely submerged submarine. The -difficulties in obtaining accurate results were very great even when -the observing vessel was motionless, but were enormously enhanced on -using listening devices on a vessel under way, on account of the noises -of the vessel itself, the rushing of the water, and so on. - -Edison's earliest efforts were confined to the induction balance, but -after two months of intensive experimenting on that line he gave it up -and entered upon a long series of experiments with listening devices, -employing telephones, audions, towing devices, resonators, etc. The -Secretary of the Navy provided Edison with a 200-foot vessel for his -experiments, and in the summer and fall of 1917 they had progressed -sufficiently to enable him to detect sounds of moving vessels as far -distant as five thousand yards. This, however, was when the observing -vessel was at anchor. The results with the vessel under way, at full -speed, were not poor. - -Having pushed the possibilities along this line to their reasonable -limit, Edison was of the opinion that this plan would not be practical -and he turned his thoughts to another solution of the problem--namely, -to circumvent the destructive operation of the submarine and avoid the -loss of ships. He had discovered in his experimenting that the noise -made by a torpedo in its swift passage through the water was very -marked and easily distinguishable from any other sound. - -With this fact as a basis, Edison, therefore, evolved a new plan, -which had two parts: first, to provide merchant-ships with a listening -apparatus that would enable them, while going at full speed, to hear -the sound of a torpedo as soon as it was launched from a submarine; -and, second, to provide the merchant-ships with means for quickly -changing their course to another course at right angles. Thus, the -torpedo would miss its mark and the merchantship would be saved. If -another torpedo should be launched, the same tactics could be repeated. - -His further investigations were conducted along this line. After -much experimenting he developed a listening device in the form of an -outrigger suspended from the bowsprit. This device was so arranged that -it hung partly in the water and would always be from 10 to 20 feet -ahead of the vessel, but could be swung inboard at any time. The device -was about 20 feet long and about 16 inches in width and was made of -brass and rubber. It contained brass tubes, with a phonograph diaphragm -at the end which hung in the water. The listening apparatus was placed -in a small room in the bow of the vessel. There were no batteries used. -With this listening apparatus, and while the vessel was going full -speed, moving boats 1,000 yards away could be easily heard in rough -seas. This meant that torpedoes could be heard 3,000 yards away, as -they are by far the noisiest craft that "sail" the ocean. - -The second step in Edison's plan--namely, the quick changing of a -ship's course, was accomplished with the "sea anchor." This device -consists of a strong canvas bag which is attached to a ship by long -ropes. When thrown overboard the bag opens, fills with water, and acts -as a drag on a ship under way. Edison's plan was to use four or more -sea anchors simultaneously. In a trial made with a steamship 325 feet -long, draught 19 feet 6 inches, laden with 4,200 tons of coal, by the -use of four sea anchors, the vessel going at full speed, was turned at -right angles to her previous course with an advance of only 200 feet, -or less than her own length. This means that if an enemy submarine -had launched a torpedo against the ship while she was on her original -course it would have passed by without harming her, thus making -submarine torpedo attack of no avail. It may be noted parenthetically -that this apparatus has its uses in the merchant-marine in peacetimes. -For instance, should the look-out on a steamship running at full speed -sight an iceberg 300 or 400 feet ahead this device could be instantly -put into use and the ship could be turned quickly enough to avoid a -collision. - -[Illustration: EDISON AT WORK ON RUBBER EXPERIMENTS. FROM A MOVING -PICTURE TAKEN DECEMBER, 1928] - -There is only space for a passing mention of the immense amount of -data which Edison gathered, tabulated, and charted in his study and -evolution of strategical plans suggested by him to the government in -the line of lessening the destruction by submarines. He spent day and -night for several months with a number of assistants working out these -plans. It is not possible to make more specific mention of them here, -as they are too voluminous for these pages. - -With this tremendous amount of work pressing on him he retained his -accustomed good health and buoyancy, due, undoubtedly, to his cheerful -spirit, philosophical nature, and abstemious living. Soon after the -armistice was signed his experimental work for the government came to -an end, and he then switched back to the general supervision of his -business interests and to his ceaseless experiments through which he -is continually making improvements and refinements in the products of -the large industries which he established and in which he is so greatly -interested. - -Mention should also be made of another extensive project he has -undertaken, and that is the production of rubber from plants, weeds, -bushes, shrubs, etc., grown in the United States. This he speaks of as -"emergency" rubber, to be resorted to in case our country should ever -be embarrassed in obtaining a supply of rubber from present sources. -This is a tremendous problem, but he is applying to its solution the -same resourceful powers that have characterized his previous endeavors. - -Herein, and in the development of new ideas, lies Edison's daily work -and pleasure, and although he is in his eighties at this writing, with -still boundless energy, it may be said of him - - "Age cannot wither him, nor custom stale - His infinite variety." - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's The boys' life of Edison, by William Meadowcroft - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOYS' LIFE OF EDISON *** - -***** This file should be named 50523-0.txt or 50523-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/0/5/2/50523/ - -Produced by Madeleine Fournier. 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You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The boys' life of Edison - -Author: William Meadowcroft - -Release Date: November 21, 2015 [EBook #50523] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOYS' LIFE OF EDISON *** - - - - -Produced by Madeleine Fournier. Images made available by -the Internet Archive. - - - - - - -</pre> - -<div class="cover"> -<img src="images/cover.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/ed0007.png" width="320" alt="" /> -</div> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<div class="figcenterp"> -<a id="ed0010"></a> -<img src="images/ed0010.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption">EDISON AT WORK IN ONE OF THE CHEMICAL ROOMS AT THE -ORANGE LABORATORY</p> - -<hr class="full" /> - -<h1>THE BOYS' LIFE OF EDISON</h1> - -<p class="author">BY<br /><br /> - -WILLIAM H. MEADOWCROFT<br /><br /> - -OF THE EDISON LABORATORY. AUTHOR OF "ABC OF ELECTRICITY," "ABC OF THE -X-RAYS"</p> - -<p class="edition">WITH AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL NOTES<br /><br /> - -BY MR. EDISON<br /><br /> - -<i>ILLUSTRATED</i></p> - - -<p class="editor">HARPER & BROTHERS PUBLISHERS<br /><br /> - -NEW YORK AND LONDON</p> - -<hr class="full" /> - -<h2>CONTENTS</h2> - -<table class="toc"> -<tr><td>CHAP.</td><td> </td></tr> -<tr><td> </td><td><a href="#INTRODUCTION">Introduction</a></td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#I">I.</a></td><td>The Early Days of Electricity</td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#II">II.</a></td><td>Edison's Family</td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#III">III.</a></td><td>Edison's Early Boyhood</td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#IV">IV.</a></td><td>The Young Newsboy</td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#V">V.</a></td><td>A Few Stories of Edison's Newsboy Days</td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#VI">VI.</a></td><td>The Young Telegraph Operator</td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#VII">VII.</a></td><td>Adventures of a Telegraph Operator</td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#VIII">VIII.</a></td><td>Work and Invention in Boston</td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#IX">IX.</a></td><td>From Poverty to Independence</td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#X">X.</a></td><td>A Busy Young Inventor</td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#XI">XI.</a></td><td>The Telephone, Motograph, and Microphone</td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#XII">XII.</a></td><td>Making a Machine Talk</td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#XIII">XIII.</a></td><td>A New Light in the World</td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#XIV">XIV.</a></td><td>Menlo Park</td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#XV">XV.</a></td><td>Beginning the Electric Light Business</td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#XVI">XVI.</a></td><td>The First Edison Central Station</td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#XVII">XVII.</a></td><td>Edison's Electric Railway</td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#XVIII">XVIII.</a></td><td>Grinding Mountains to Dust</td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#XIX">XIX.</a></td><td>Edison Makes Portland Cement</td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#XX">XX.</a></td><td>Motion-Pictures</td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#XXI">XXI.</a></td><td>Edison Invents a New Storage Battery</td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#XXII">XXII.</a></td><td>Edison's Miscellaneous Inventions</td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#XXIII">XXIII.</a></td><td>Edison's Method in Inventing</td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#XXIV">XXIV.</a></td><td>Edison's Laboratory at Orange</td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#XXV">XXV.</a></td><td>Edison Himself</td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#XXVI">XXVI.</a></td><td>Edison's New Phonograph</td></tr> -<tr><td><a href="#XXVII">XXVII.</a></td><td>Edison's Work During the War</td></tr> -</table> -<p> </p> - -<h2>ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> - - -<p><a href="#ed0010">EDISON AT WORK IN ONE OF THE CHEMICAL ROOMS AT THE ORANGE LABORATORY</a></p> - -<p><a href="#ed0045">EDISON WHEN ABOUT FOURTEEN OR FIFTEEN YEARS OF AGE</a></p> - -<p><a href="#ed0153">MR. EDISON AT THE CLOSE OF FIVE DAYS AND NIGHTS OF CONTINUED WORK IN -PERFECTING THE EARLY WAX-CYLINDER TYPE OF PHONOGRAPH—JUNE 16, 1888</a></p> - -<p><a href="#ed0193">THE EDISON ELECTRIC RAILWAY AT MENLO PARK—1880</a></p> - -<p><a href="#ed0207">EDISON AT THE OFFICE DOOR OF THE ORE-CONCENTRATING PLANT AT EDISON, NEW -JERSEY, IN THE 'NINETIES</a></p> - -<p><a href="#ed0261">THOMAS ALVA EDISON—1911</a></p> - -<p><a href="#ed0273">"THE INSOMNIA SQUAD"</a></p> - -<p><a href="#ed0293">EDISON AT WORK ON RUBBER EXPERIMENTS. FROM A MOVING PICTURE TAKEN -DECEMBER, 1928</a></p> -<p> </p> - -<h2><a id="INTRODUCTION"></a>INTRODUCTION</h2> - - -<p>This is the story of a great inventor, the most conspicuous figure of -the age of electricity.</p> - -<p>The story is largely autobiography, for, through the author's -association with Mr. Edison, it has been possible often to obtain his -own narrative of his life. For nearly thirty-one years the author -has had the privilege of a connection with Mr. Edison and the Edison -companies, and at present he is acting as Mr. Edison's assistant. -Every page of the book has been read by Mr. Edison himself, and it is -published with his approval as the authoritative story of his life to -the present time.</p> - -<p>It is probably as a worker of wonders, an interpreter of the secrets -of Nature, an actual wizard of science, that Edison fascinates the -imagination of almost every boy. In this picture of the actual facts -of the inventor's life the reader will find that while Edison is just -as great as imagined, yet this greatness has not been reached by -chance, but honestly earned by the hardest kind of hard work and the -most intense and earnest application. The wonderful things that he has -accomplished have been the things that he purposely set out to do, and -are not the result of some happy thought, or blind luck, or chance.</p> - -<p>There has been but little abatement in Mr. Edison's activities. The -flight of time has not dimmed his vivid imagination; has brought no -change to his clear broad mental vision; nor has his capacity for -intensive, forceful work perceptibly lessened. There is no telling what -other inventions he may yet make to benefit the world, but if he never -added anything to what he has already done, his life and achievements -afford the telling of one of the most remarkable stories in the history -of the world.</p> - -<p>The author has had the honor and pleasure of assisting in the -preparation of a large and comprehensive biography entitled, <i>Edison: -His Life and Inventions</i>, by Frank L. Dyer and T. Commerford Martin, -published by the publishers of the present volume. He gratefully -acknowledges the fact that certain features of this book have been -adapted from the pages of that elaborate biography. For the permission -to do this he tenders his thanks to his friends Frank L. Dyer and the -late T. Commerford Martin.</p> - -<p class="signature"><span class="smcap">William H. Meadowcroft.</span></p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>THE BOYS' LIFE OF EDISON</h2> -<hr class="r5" /> - -<h3><a id="I"></a>I<br /><br /> - -THE EARLY DAYS OF ELECTRICITY</h3> -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p>This is the life story of the greatest of inventors in the field of -electricity. It is true that Thomas A. Edison has helped the progress -of the world by many other inventions and discoveries quite outside -of electricity, but it is in this field that he is best known. Now, -in this age of electricity, it happens very fortunately that a close -personal association with Mr. Edison makes it possible at last to tell -younger readers the real story of Mr. Edison's life, partly in his -own words. It has been a life full of surprises as well as of great -achievements, and one of the surprises which we meet at the start is -that, unlike Mozart, who showed his musical genius in infancy, and -unlike others devoted to one thing from the outset, Edison took up -electricity almost by accident.</p> - -<p>Yet this is not so strange when we think how little electricity there -was to take up in the middle of the nineteenth century. Electricity -was not studied in the schools. It was not a separate art or business. -Men of science had occupied themselves with electricity for a long -time, but they really did not know as much about it as a bright boy in -the upper grammar grades to-day. Speaking in a very general way, we -may say that simple frictional electricity<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> was an old story, that -Franklin had discovered the identity of electricity and lightning, and -that Galvani had discovered in 1790 and Volta had developed in 1801 the -generating of electric currents from batteries composed of zinc and -copper plates immersed in sulphuric acid.</p> - -<p>But it was not until 1835, only twelve years before Edison was born, -that Samuel F. B. Morse applied electrical currents to the sending of -an alphabet of dots and dashes by wire. Thus it was in the infancy of -telegraphy that Edison first saw the light.</p> - -<p>Telegraph apparatus in those early days was of a crude and cumbersome -kind—quite different from that which young students experiment with at -the present time. For instance, the receiving magnets of the earliest -telegraphs, which performed the same office as the modern sounders, -weighed seventy-five pounds instead of a few ounces.</p> - -<p>It was a very difficult undertaking for Morse to establish the -telegraph after he had invented it. It was such a new idea that the -public could not seem to understand its use and possibilities. People -would not believe that it was possible to send messages regularly over -a long stretch of wire, and, even if it were possible, that it would -be of much use anyway. It took him a long time to raise money to put -up a telegraph line between Baltimore and Washington. Before this, he -had offered to sell the whole invention outright to the United States -Government for one hundred thousand dollars; but the Government did not -buy, as the invention was not thought to be worth that much money.</p> - -<p>In 1847, the year Edison was born, there were only a few telegraph -circuits in existence. The farthest line to the west was in Pittsburgh, -Pennsylvania. It was in this early telegraph office that Andrew -Carnegie was a messenger boy. We could name a great many more notable -men in our country who began their careers in a similar way, or as -telegraph operators, in the early days of telegraphy, but space forbids.</p> - -<p>Within a few years after Edison was born there came a great boom in -telegraphy, and new lines were put up all over the country. Thus, by -the time he had grown to boyhood the telegraph was a well-established -business, and the first great electrical industry became a pronounced -success.</p> - -<p>There were no other electrical industries at this time, except -electro-plating to a limited extent. The chief reason of this was -probably that the only means of obtaining electrical current was by -means of chemical batteries, as mechanical generators had not been -developed at that time.</p> - -<p>While the principles of the dynamo-electric machine had been -discovered, and a few of these machines and small electric motors had -been made by scientists, in the middle of the nineteenth century such -machines were little more than scientific toys, and not to be compared -with the generators of modern days.</p> - -<p>Edison, therefore, was born at the very beginning of "The Age of -Electricity," which can be said to have actually begun about 1840, or -soon after.</p> - -<p>It is not too much to say that the many important and practical -inventions that he has since contributed to the electrical arts have -had no small weight in causing the present time to be known as "The Age -of Electricity."</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Made by rubbing certain objects together, like amber and -silk, the original discovery over two thousand years ago.</p></div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h3><a id="II"></a>II<br /><br /> - -EDISON'S FAMILY</h3> -<hr class="r5" /> - - -<p>Had there not been a family difference of opinion about the War of -Independence, we might never have had Edison the great inventor.</p> - -<p>The first Edisons in this country came over from Holland about the year -1730. They were descendants of a family of millers on the Zuyder Zee, -and when they came to America they first settled near Caldwell, New -Jersey.</p> - -<p>Later on they removed to some land along the Passaic River. It is a -curious and interesting coincidence that a hundred and sixty years -later Mr. Edison established the home he now occupies in the Orange -Mountains, which is in the same general neighborhood.</p> - -<p>The family must have gotten along well in the world, for we find -the name of Thomas Edison, as a bank official on Manhattan Island, -signed to Continental currency in 1778. This was Mr. Edison's -great-grandfather, who lived to be one hundred and four years of age.</p> - -<p>It will be seen from the date, 1778, that this was during the time of -the War of Independence. This Thomas Edison was a stanch patriot, who -thoroughly believed in American independence. He had a son named John, -who differed with his father in political principles and favored a -continuance of British rule.</p> - -<p>After the war was over John left the country, and, with many other -Loyalists, emigrated to Nova Scotia and settled there. While he still -lived there a son was born to him, at Digby, in 1804. This son was -named Samuel, who became the father of Thomas Alva Edison, the inventor.</p> - -<p>Seven years later John Edison, as a Loyalist, became entitled under -the laws of Canada to a grant of six hundred acres of land, and moved -westward with his family to take possession of it. He made his way -through the State of New York in wagons drawn by oxen to the township -of Bayfield, in upper Canada, on Lake Huron, and there settled down.</p> - -<p>Some time afterward John Edison moved from Bayfield to Vienna, -Ontario, on the northern bank of Lake Erie. As will be understood -from the above, he was the grandfather of Mr. Edison, who gives this -recollection of the old man in those early Canadian days:</p> - -<p>"When I was five years old I was taken by my father and mother on a -visit to Vienna. We were driven by a carriage from Milan, Ohio, to -a railroad, then to a port on Lake Erie, thence by a canal-boat in -a tow of several miles to Port Burwell, in Canada, across the lake, -and from there we drove to Vienna, a short distance away. I remember -my grandfather perfectly as he appeared at one hundred and two years -of age, when he died. In the middle of the day he sat under a large -tree in front of the house, facing a well-traveled road. His head -was covered completely with a large quantity of very white hair, and -he chewed tobacco incessantly, nodding to friends as they passed by. -He used a very large cane, and walked from the chair to the house, -resenting any assistance. I viewed him from a distance, and could never -get very close to him. I remember some large pipes, and especially a -molasses jug, a trunk, and several other things that came from Holland."</p> - -<p>John Edison was long-lived, like his father, and died at the age of -one hundred and two. Little is known of the early manhood of his -son Samuel (Thomas A. Edison's father), until we find him keeping a -hotel at Vienna, and in 1828 marrying Miss Nancy Elliott, who was a -school-teacher there.</p> - -<p>He was six feet in height, and was possessed of great strength and -vigor. He took a lively share in the troublous politics of the period.</p> - -<p>In 1837 the Canadian Rebellion broke out. The cause of it was the same -as that which led to the War of Independence in America—taxation -without representation.</p> - -<p>Samuel Edison was so ardently interested and of such strong character -that he became a captain in the insurgent forces that rallied under the -banners of Papineau and Mackenzie.</p> - -<p>The rebellion failed, however, and those who had taken part in it were -severely dealt with. Many of the insurgents went in exile to Bermuda, -but Samuel Edison preferred the perils of a flight to the United -States. He therefore departed from Canada with his wife, hurriedly and -secretly.</p> - -<p>There was a romantic and thrilling journey of one hundred and -eighty-two miles toward safety. The country through which they passed -was then very wild and infested with Indians of unfriendly disposition, -and the journey was made almost entirely without food or sleep.</p> - -<p>They arrived safely in the United States, however, and, after a few -years spent in various towns along the shores of Lake Erie, finally -came to Milan, Ohio, in 1842. Here they settled down and made their -home, for the place gave great promise of abundance of business and -prosperity.</p> - -<p>In those days railroads were few and far between, and there was none -near Milan. The great quantities of grain that were grown in the -surrounding country were sent to Eastern ports by sailing vessels over -the lake. Milan was connected by a wide canal with the Huron River, -which emptied into Lake Erie. Thus the town became a busy port, with -grain warehouses and elevators, at which as many as twenty sailing -vessels were loaded in a single day.</p> - -<p>There also sprang up a brisk ship-building industry, for which the -abundant forests of the region supplied the necessary lumber.</p> - -<p>You will see, therefore, that Mr. Edison's father gave evidence of -shrewd judgment when he decided to make his permanent home at Milan, -for there was plenty of occupation, with every prospect of prosperity. -He was always ready to look on the brightest side of everything, and -could and did turn his hand to many occupations.</p> - -<p>He decided to make his chief business the manufacture of shingles, for -which there was a large demand, both in the neighborhood and along the -shores of the lake. The shingles were made mostly of Canadian wood, -which was imported for the purpose. They were made entirely by hand and -of first-class wood, and so well did they last that a house in Milan on -which these shingles were put in 1844 was still in excellent condition -forty-two years later. Samuel Edison did well in this business and -employed a number of men.</p> - -<p>In a few years after the family had made their home at Milan, Thomas -Alva Edison was born there, on February 11, 1847.</p> - -<p>His mother was an attractive and highly educated woman, and her -influence upon his disposition has been profound and lasting. She was -born in Chenango County, New York, in 1810, and was the daughter of -the Rev. John Elliott, a Baptist minister, and descendant of an old -Revolutionary soldier, Capt. Ebenezer Elliott, of Scotch descent.</p> - -<p>The Elliott family was evidently one of considerable culture and deep -religious feeling, for two of Mrs. Elliott's uncles and two brothers -were also in the Baptist ministry. As a young woman she became a -teacher in the public high school at Vienna, Ontario, and thus met her -husband, who was residing there.</p> - -<p>The Edison family consisted of three children, two boys and a girl. -Besides Thomas Alva, there was an elder brother, William Pitt, and a -sister named Tannie. Both brother and sister had considerable ability, -although in different lines. William Pitt Edison was clever with his -pencil, and there was at one time an idea of having him become an art -student; but evidently the notion was not carried out, for later in -life he was manager of the local street-railway lines at Port Huron, -Michigan, in which he was heavily interested.</p> - -<p>This talent for sketching seems to run in the family, for Thomas A. -Edison's first impulse in discussing any mechanical question is to take -up the nearest piece of paper and make drawings. Scarcely a day passes -that this does not happen. His immense number of note-books contain -thousands of such sketches.</p> - -<p>His sister, who in later life became Mrs. Tannie Edison Bailey, had, on -the other hand, a great deal of literary ability, and spent much of her -time in writing.</p> - -<p>As a child the great inventor was not at all strong, and was of fragile -appearance. His head was well shaped but very large, and it is said -that local doctors feared he might have brain trouble.</p> - -<p>On account of his supposed delicacy, he was not allowed to go to school -at as early an age as is usual. And when he did go, it was not for a -long time. He was usually at the foot of his class, and the teacher had -spoken of the boy to a school inspector as being "addled."</p> - -<p>Perhaps the reader can imagine the indignation of his mother on hearing -of this teacher's report. She had watched and studied her boy closely, -and knew that he had a mind unusually receptive and mental powers far -beyond those of other children. So she resolved to take him out of -school and educate him herself.</p> - -<p>It was fortunate that Mr. Edison had a mother who was not only loving, -observing, and wise, but at the same time well informed and ambitious. -From her experience as a teacher, she was able to give him an education -better than could be had in the local schools of that day.</p> - -<p>Under her care the boy formed studious habits and a taste for good -literature that have lasted to this day. He is a great reader, and what -has once been read by him is never forgotten if it is in any way useful.</p> - -<p>When Edison was a child he was deeply interested in the busy scenes of -the canal and grain warehouses, and particularly in the ship-building -yards.</p> - -<p>He asked so many questions that he fairly tired out his father, -although the older man had no small ability. It has been reported -that other members of the family regarded the boy as being mentally -unbalanced and likely to be a lifelong care to his parents.</p> - -<p>Even while he was quite a young child his mechanical tendencies showed -themselves in his fondness for building little plank roads from the -pieces of wood thrown out by the ship-building yards and the sawmills. -One day he was found in the village square laboriously copying the -signs of the stores.</p> - -<p>To this day Mr. Edison is not inclined to accept a statement unless he -can prove it for himself by experiment. Once, when he was about six -years old, he watched a goose sitting on her eggs and saw them hatch. -Soon after he was missing. By and by, after an anxious search, his -father found him sitting in a nest he had made in the barn filled with -goose and hen eggs he had collected, trying to hatch them out.</p> - -<p>His remarkable memory was noticeable even when he was a child, for -before he was five years old he had learned all the songs of the lumber -gangs and of the canal men. Even now his recollection goes back to -1850, when, as a child three or four years old, he saw camped in front -of his home six covered wagons, "prairie schooners," and witnessed -their departure for California, where gold had just been discovered.</p> - -<p>Another of his recollections of childhood is of a sadder nature. He -went off one day with another boy to bathe in the creek. Soon after -they entered the water the other boy disappeared. Young Edison waited -around for about half an hour, and then, as it was growing dark, went -home, puzzled and lonely, but said nothing about the matter. About two -hours afterward, when the missing boy was being searched for, a man -came to the Edison home to make anxious inquiry of the companion with -whom he had last been seen. Edison told all the circumstances with -a painful sense of being in some way guilty. The creek was at once -dragged, and then the body was recovered.</p> - -<p>Edison himself had more than one narrow escape. Of course, he fell into -the canal and was nearly drowned—few boys in Milan worth their salt -omitted that performance. On another occasion he fell into a pile of -wheat in a grain elevator and was almost smothered. Holding the end of -a skate-strap, that another lad might cut it with an ax, he lost the -top of a finger. Fire also had its peril. He built a fire in a barn, -but the flames spread so rapidly that, although he escaped himself, -the barn was wholly destroyed. He was publicly whipped in the village -square as a warning to other youths. Equally well remembered is a -dangerous encounter with a ram which attacked him while he was busily -engaged digging out a bumblebee's nest near an orchard fence, and was -about to butt him again when he managed to drop over on the safe side -and escape. He was badly hurt and bruised, and no small quantity of -arnica was needed for his wounds.</p> - -<p>Meanwhile railroad building had been going on rapidly, and the new -Columbus, Sandusky & Hocking Railroad had reached Milan and quickly -deprived it of its flourishing grain trade. The town, formerly so -bustling and busy, no longer offered to so active a man as Mr. Edison's -father the opportunity of conducting a prosperous business, so he -decided to move away. He was well-to-do, but he determined to do better -elsewhere. In 1854 he and his family removed to Port Huron, Michigan, -where they occupied a large Colonial house standing in the middle of an -old Government fort reservation of ten acres, overlooking the St. Clair -River just after it leaves Lake Huron.</p> - -<p>The old house at Milan where Mr. Edison was born is still in existence, -and is occupied at this time (1911) by Mr. S. O. Edison, a half-brother -of Edison's father, and a man of much ability.</p> - -<p>This birthplace of Edison still remains the plain, substantial brick -house it was originally, one-storied, with rooms finished on the attic -floor.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h3><a id="III"></a>III<br /><br /> - -EDISON'S EARLY BOYHOOD</h3> -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p>It was when he was about seven years old that Edison's parents moved -to Port Huron, Michigan, and it was there, a few years later, that he -began his active life by becoming a newsboy.</p> - -<p>With his mother he found study easy and pleasant. The quality of the -education she gave him may be judged from the fact that before he was -twelve years old he had studied the usual rudiments and had read, with -his mother's help, Gibbon's <i>Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</i>, -Hume's <i>History of England</i>, Sear's <i>History of the World</i>, Burton's -<i>Anatomy of Melancholy</i>, and the <i>Dictionary of Sciences</i>.</p> - -<p>They even tried to struggle through Newton's <i>Principia</i>, but the -mathematics were too much for both teacher and student. To this day -Edison has little personal use for arithmetic beyond that which -is called "mental." He said to a friend, "I can always hire some -mathematicians, but they can't hire me."</p> - -<p>His father always encouraged his literary tastes, and paid him a small -sum for each book which he mastered. Although there is no fiction in -the list, Edison has all his life enjoyed it, particularly the works -of such writers as Victor Hugo. Indeed, later on, when he became a -telegraph operator, he was nicknamed by his associates "Victor Hugo -Edison"—possibly because of his great admiration for that writer.</p> - -<p>When he was about eleven years old he became greatly interested in -chemistry. He got a copy of Parker's <i>School Philosophy</i>, an elementary -book on physics, and tried almost every experiment in it. He also -experimented on his own account. It is said that he once persuaded a -boy employed by the family to swallow a large quantity of Seidlitz -powders in the belief that the gases penetrated would enable him to -fly. The awful agonies of the victim attracted attention, and Edison's -mother marked her displeasure by an application of the switch kept -behind the old Seth Thomas "grandfather's clock."</p> - -<p>It was as early as this that young Alva, or "Al," as he was called, -displayed a passion for chemistry, which has never left him. He used -the cellar of the house for his experiments and collected there no -fewer than two hundred bottles from various places. They contained the -chemicals with which he was constant experimenting, and were all marked -"Poison," so that no one else would disturb them.</p> - -<p>He soon became familiar with all the chemicals to be had at the local -drug stores, for he did not believe the statements made in his books -until he had tested them for himself.</p> - -<p>Edison used such a large part of his mother's cellar for this, his -first laboratory, that, becoming tired of the "mess," she once ordered -him to clear out everything. The boy was so much distressed at this -that she relented, but insisted that he must keep things under lock and -key when he was not there.</p> - -<p>Most of his spare time was spent in the cellar, for he did not share to -any extent in the sports of the boys of the neighborhood. His chum and -chief companion at this time was a Dutch boy, much older than himself, -named Michael Oates, who did chores around the house. It was Michael -upon whom the Seidlitz powder experiment was tried.</p> - -<p>As Edison got deeper into his chemical studies his limited pocket-money -disappeared rapidly. He was being educated by his mother, and, -therefore, not attending a regular school, and he had read all the -books within reach. So he thought the matter out and decided that if -he became a train newsboy he could earn all the money he wanted for -his experiments and also get fresh reading from papers and magazines. -Besides, if he could get permission to go on the train he had in mind, -he would have some leisure hours in Detroit and would be able to spend -them at the public library free of charge. His parents objected, -particularly his mother, but finally he obtained their consent.</p> - -<p>It has been thought by many people that his family was poor, and -that it was on account of their poverty that young Edison came to -sell newspapers on the train. This is not true, for his father was a -prosperous dealer in grain and feed, and was also actively interested -in the lumber industry and other things. While he was not rich, he -made money in his business, and, having a well-stocked farm and a -large orchard besides, was in comfortable circumstances. Socially the -family stood high in the town, where at the time many well-to-do people -resided.</p> - -<p>It was of his own choice and because of his never-satisfied desire for -experiment and knowledge that Edison became a newsboy.</p> - -<p>In 1859, when he was twelve years old, he applied for the privilege of -selling newspapers on the trains of the Grand Trunk Railroad between -Port Huron and Detroit. After a short delay the necessary permission -was obtained.</p> - -<p>Even before this he had had some business experience. His father had -laid out a "market-garden" on the farm, and young Edison, at eleven -years of age, and Michael Oates had worked in it pretty steadily. In -the season the two boys would load up a wagon with onions, lettuce, -peas, etc., and drive through the town to sell their produce. As much -as $600 was turned over to Mrs. Edison in one year from this source.</p> - -<p>Edison was industrious, but he did not take kindly to farming. He tells -us about this himself:</p> - -<p>"After a while I tired of this work. Hoeing corn in a hot sun is -unattractive, and I did not wonder that boys had left the farm for the -city. Soon the Grand Trunk Railroad was extended from Toronto to Port -Huron, at the foot of Lake Huron, and thence to Detroit, at about the -same time the War of the Rebellion broke out. By a great amount of -persistence I got permission from my mother to go on the local train -as newsboy. The local train from Port Huron to Detroit, a distance of -sixty-three miles, left at 7 A.M. and arrived again at 9.30 P.M. After -being on the train for several months, I started two stores at Port -Huron—one for periodicals and the other for vegetables, butter, and -berries in the season. These were attended by two boys, who shared in -the profits. The periodical store I soon closed, as the boy in charge -could not be trusted. The vegetable store I kept up for nearly a -year. After the railroad had been opened a short time they put on an -express, which left Detroit in the morning and returned in the evening. -I received permission to put a newsboy on this train. Connected with -this train was a car, one part for baggage and the other part for -United States mail, but for a long time it was not used. Every morning -I had two large baskets of vegetables from the Detroit market loaded -in the mail car and sent to Port Huron, when the boy would take them -to the store. They were much better than those grown locally, and sold -readily. I never was asked for freight, and to this day cannot explain -why, except that I was so small and industrious and the nerve to -appropriate a United States mail car to do a free freight business was -so monumental. However, I kept this up for a long time, and in addition -bought butter from the farmers along the line and an immense amount of -blackberries in the season. I bought wholesale and at a low price, and -permitted the wives of the engineers and trainmen to have the benefit -of the discount. After a while there was a daily immigrant train put -on. This train generally had from seven to ten coaches, filled always -with Norwegians, all bound for Iowa and Minnesota. On these trains I -employed a boy who sold bread, tobacco, and stick candy. As the war -progressed the daily newspaper sales became very profitable, and I gave -up the vegetable store."</p> - -<p>This shrewd commercial instinct, and the capacity for carrying on -successfully several business undertakings at the same time, were -certainly remarkable in a boy only thirteen years old. And now, having -had a glimpse of Edison's very early youth, let us begin a new chapter -and follow his further adventures as a newsboy on a railway train.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h3><a id="IV"></a>IV<br /><br /> - -THE YOUNG NEWSBOY</h3> -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p>Edison's train left Port Huron at seven o'clock in the morning and -arrived at Detroit in about three hours. It did not leave Detroit -again until quite late in the afternoon, arriving at Port Huron -about nine-thirty at night. This made a long day for the boy, but -it gave him an opportunity to do just what he wanted, which was to -read, to buy chemicals and apparatus, and to indulge in his favorite -occupation—chemical experimentation.</p> - -<p>The train was made up of three coaches—baggage, smoking, and ordinary -passenger. The baggage-car was divided into three compartments—one for -trunks and packages, one for the mail, and one for smoking.</p> - -<p>As there was no ventilation in this smoking-compartment, no use was -made of it. It was therefore turned over to young Edison, who not only -kept his papers there and his stock of goods as a "candy butcher," but -he also transferred to it the contents of the precious laboratory from -his mother's cellar. He found plenty of leisure on the two daily runs -of the train to follow up his study of chemistry.</p> - -<p>His earnings on the train were excellent, for he often took in eight -or ten dollars a day. One dollar a day always went to his mother, and, -as he was thus supporting himself, he felt entitled to spend any other -profit left over on chemicals and apparatus. Detroit being a large -city, he could obtain a greater variety there than in his own small -town. He spent a great deal of time in reading up on his favorite -subject at the public library, where he could find plenty of technical -books. Thus he gave up most of his time and all his money to chemistry.</p> - -<p>He did not confine himself entirely to chemistry in his reading at the -Detroit public library, but sought to gain knowledge on other subjects. -It is a matter of record that in the beginning of his reading he -started in with a certain section of the library and tried to read it -through, shelf by shelf, regardless of subject.</p> - -<p>Edison went along in this manner for quite a long time. When the -Civil War broke out he noticed that there was a much greater demand -for newspapers. He became ambitious to publish a local journal of his -own. So his little laboratory in the smoking-compartment received some -additions which made it also a newspaper office.</p> - -<p>He picked up a second-hand printing-press in Detroit and bought some -type. With his mechanical ability, it was not a difficult matter to -learn the rudiments of the printing art, and as some of the type was -kept on the train he could set it up in moments of leisure. Thus he -became the compositor, pressman, editor, proprietor, publisher, and -newsdealer of the <i>Weekly Herald</i>. The price was three cents a copy, or -eight cents a month for regular subscribers and the circulation ran up -to over four hundred copies an issue. Only one or two copies of this -journal are now to be found.</p> - -<p>It was the first newspaper in the world printed on a train in motion. -It received the patronage of the famous English engineer, Stephenson, -and was also noted by the <i>London Times</i>. As the production of a boy of -fourteen it was certainly a clever sheet, and many people were willing -subscribers, for, by the aid of the railway telegraph, Edison was often -able to print late news of local importance which could not be found in -regular papers, like those of Detroit.</p> - -<p>Edison's business grew so large that he employed a boy friend to help -him. There was often plenty of work for both in the early days of the -war, when the news of battle caused great excitement.</p> - -<p>In order to increase the sales of newspapers, Edison would telegraph -the news ahead to the agents of stations where the train stopped and -get them to put up bulletins, so that, when the stations were reached, -there would usually be plenty of purchasers waiting.</p> - -<p>He recalls in particular the sensation caused by the great battle of -Shiloh, or Pittsburg Landing, in April, 1862, in which both Grant and -Sherman were engaged, in which the Confederate General Johnston was -killed, and in which there was a great number of men killed and wounded.</p> - -<p>The bulletin-boards of the Detroit newspapers were surrounded by dense -crowds, which read that there were about sixty thousand killed and -wounded, and that the result was uncertain. Edison, in relating his -experience of that day, says:</p> - -<p>"I knew if the same excitement was shown at the various small towns -along the road, and especially at Port Huron, the sale of papers would -be great. I then conceived the idea of telegraphing the news ahead, -went to the operator in the depot, and, on my giving him <i>Harper's -Weekly</i> and some other papers for three months, he agreed to telegraph -to all the stations the matter on the bulletin-board. I hurriedly -copied it, and he sent it, requesting the agents to display it on the -blackboards used for stating the arrival and departure of trains. I -decided that, instead of the usual one hundred papers, I could sell one -thousand; but not having sufficient money to purchase that number, I -determined in my desperation to see the editor himself and get credit. -The great paper at that time was the <i>Detroit Free Press</i>. I walked -into the office marked 'Editorial' and told a young man that I wanted -to see the editor on important business—important to me, anyway.</p> - -<p>"I was taken into an office where there were two men, and I stated what -I had done about telegraphing, and that I wanted a thousand papers, but -only had money for three hundred, and I wanted credit. One of the men -refused it, but the other told the first spokesman to let me have them. -This man, I afterward learned, was Wilbur F. Storey, who subsequently -founded the <i>Chicago Times</i> and became celebrated in the newspaper -world. With the aid of another boy I lugged the papers to the train -and started folding them. The first station, called Utica, was a small -one, where I generally sold two papers. I saw a crowd ahead on the -platform, and thought it was some excursion, but the moment I landed -there was a rush for me; then I realized that the telegraph was a great -invention. I sold thirty-five papers there. The next station was Mount -Clemens, now a watering-place, but then a town of about one thousand -population. I usually sold six to eight papers there. I decided that if -I found a corresponding crowd there the only thing to do to correct my -lack of judgment in not getting more papers was to raise the price from -five cents to ten. The crowd was there, and I raised the price. At the -various towns there were corresponding crowds. It had been my practice -at Port Huron to jump from the train at a point about one-fourth of -a mile from the station, where the train generally slackened speed. -I had drawn several loads of sand to this point to jump on, and had -become quite expert. The little Dutch boy with the horse met me at this -point. When the wagon approached the outskirts of the town I was met by -a large crowd. I then yelled: 'Twenty-five cents apiece, gentlemen! I -haven't enough to go around!' I sold out, and made what to me then was -an immense sum of money."</p> - -<p>But this and similar gains of money did not increase Edison's savings, -for all his spare cash was spent for new chemicals and apparatus. He -had bought a copy of Fresenius's <i>Qualitative Analysis</i>, and, with -his ceaseless testing and study of its advanced problems, his little -laboratory on the train was now becoming crowded with additional -equipment, especially as he now added electricity to his studies.</p> - -<p>"While a newsboy on the railroad," says Edison, "I got very much -interested in electricity, probably from visiting telegraph offices -with a chum who had tastes similar to mine."</p> - -<p>We have already seen that he was shrewd enough to use the telegraph -to get news items for his own little journal and also to bulletin his -special news of the Civil War along the line. To such a ceaseless -experimenter as he was, it was only natural that electricity should -come in for a share of his attention. With his knowledge of chemistry, -he had no trouble in "setting up" batteries, but his difficulty lay in -obtaining instruments and material for circuits.</p> - -<p>To-day any youth who desires to experiment with telegraphy or telephony -can find plenty of stores where apparatus can be bought ready made, -or he can make many things himself by following the instructions in -<i>Harper's Electricity Book for Boys</i>. But in Edison's boyish days -it was quite different. Telegraph supplies were hard to obtain, and -amateurs were usually obliged to make their own apparatus.</p> - -<p>However, he and his chum had a line between their homes, built of -common stove-pipe wire. The insulators were bottles set on nails driven -into trees and short poles. The magnet wire was wound with rags for -insulation, and pieces of spring brass were used for telegraph keys.</p> - -<p>With the idea of securing current cheaply, Edison applied the little -he knew about static electricity, and actually experimented with cats. -He treated them vigorously as frictional machines until the animals -fled in dismay, leaving their marks to remind the young inventor of -his first great lesson in the relative value of sources of electrical -energy. Resorting to batteries, however, the line was made to work, and -the two boys exchanged messages.</p> - -<hr class="r5"/> -<div class="figcenterp"> -<a id="ed0045"></a> -<img src="images/ed0045.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption">EDISON WHEN ABOUT FOURTEEN OR FIFTEEN YEARS OF AGE</p> -<hr class="r5"/> - -<p>Edison wanted lots of practice, and secured it in an ingenious manner. -If he could have had his way he would have sat up until the small hours -of the morning, but his father insisted on eleven-thirty as the proper -bed-time, which left but a short interval after a long day on the train.</p> - -<p>Now, each evening, when the boy went home with newspapers that had not -been sold, his father would sit up to read them. So Edison on some -excuse had his friend take the papers, but suggested to his father that -he could get the news from the chum by telegraph bit by bit. The scheme -interested the father, and was put into effect, the messages over the -wire being written down by Edison and handed to the old gentleman to -read.</p> - -<p>This gave good practice every night until twelve or one o'clock, and -was kept up for some time, until the father became willing that his son -should sit up for a reasonable time. The papers were then brought home -again, and the boys practised to their hearts' content, until the line -was pulled down by a stray cow wandering through the orchard.</p> - -<p>Now we come to the incident which may be regarded as turning Edison's -thoughts more definitely to electricity. One August morning, in 1862, -the mixed train on which he worked as newsboy was doing some shunting -at Mount Clemens station. A laden box-car had been pushed out of a -siding, when Edison, who was loitering about the platform, saw the -little son of the station agent, Mr. J. U. Mackenzie, playing with the -gravel on the main track, along which the car, without a brakeman, was -rapidly approaching.</p> - -<p>Edison dropped his papers and his cap and made a dash for the child, -whom he picked up and lifted to safety without a second to spare, as -the wheel struck his heel. Both were cut about the face and hands by -the gravel ballast on which they fell.</p> - -<p>The two boys were picked up by the train-hands and carried to the -platform, and the grateful father, who knew and liked the rescuer, -offered to teach him the art of train telegraphy and to make an -operator of him. It is needless to say that the proposal was most -eagerly accepted.</p> - -<p>Edison found time for his new studies by letting one of his friends -look after the newsboy work on the train for part of the trip, keeping -for himself the run between Port Huron and Mount Clemens. We have -already seen that he was qualified as a beginner, and, besides, he was -able to take to the station a neat little set of instruments he had -just finished at a gun shop in Detroit.</p> - -<p>What with his business as newsboy, his publication of the <i>Weekly -Herald</i>, his reading and chemical and electrical experiments, Edison -was leading a busy life and making rapid progress, but unexpectedly -there came disaster, which brought about a sudden change. One day, as -the train was running swiftly over a piece of poorly laid track, there -was a sudden lurch, and a stick of phosphorus was jarred from its -shelf, fell to the floor and burst into flame.</p> - -<p>The car took fire, and Edison was trying in vain to put out the blaze -when the conductor rushed in with water and saved the car. On arriving -at the next station the enraged conductor put the boy off with his -entire outfit, including his laboratory and printing-plant.</p> - -<p>The origin of Edison's deafness may be told in his own words: "My train -was standing by the platform at Smith's Creek station. I was trying -to climb into the freight car with both arms full of papers when the -conductor took me by the ears and lifted me. I felt something snap -inside my head, and my deafness started from that time and has ever -since progressed."</p> - -<p>"This deafness has been a great advantage to me in various ways. When -in a telegraph office I could hear only the instrument directly on -the table at which I sat, and, unlike the other operators, I was not -bothered by the other instruments. Again, in experimenting on the -telephone, I had to improve the transmitter so that I could hear it. -This made the telephone commercial, as the magneto telephone receiver -of Bell was too weak to be used as a transmitter commercially. It was -the same with the phonograph. The great defect of that instrument was -the rendering of the overtones in music and the hissing consonants in -speech. I worked over one year, twenty hours a day, Sundays and all, -to get the word "specie" perfectly recorded and reproduced on the -phonograph. When this was done I knew that everything else could be -done—which was a fact. Again, my nerves have been preserved intact. -Broadway is as quiet to me as a country village is to a person with -normal hearing."</p> - -<p>But we left young Edison on the station platform, sorrowful and -indignant, as the train moved off, deserting him in the midst of his -beloved possessions. He was saddened, but not altogether discouraged, -and after some trouble succeeded in making his way home, where he again -set up his laboratory and also his printing-office. There was some -objection on the part of the family, as they feared that they might -also suffer from fire, but he promised not to bring in anything of a -dangerous nature.</p> - -<p>He continued to publish the <i>Weekly Herald</i>, but after a while was -persuaded by a chum to change its character and publish it under the -name of <i>Paul Pry</i>, making it a journal of town gossip about local -people and their affairs and peculiarities.</p> - -<p>No copies of <i>Paul Pry</i> can now be found, but it is known that its -style was distinctly personal, and the weaknesses of the townspeople -were discussed in it very freely and frankly by the two boys. It caused -no small offense, and in one instance Edison was pitched into the St. -Clair River by one of the victims whose affairs had been given such -unsought publicity.</p> - -<p>Possibly this was one of the reasons that caused Edison to give up the -paper not very long afterward. He had a great liking for newspaper -work, and might have continued in that field had it not been for strong -influences in other directions. There is no question, however, that he -was the youngest publisher and editor of his time.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h3><a id="V"></a>V<br /><br /> - -A FEW STORIES OF EDISON'S NEWSBOY DAYS</h3> -<hr class="r5" /> - - -<p>The Grand Trunk Railroad machine shops at Port Huron had a great -attraction for young Edison. The boy who was to have much to do with -the evolution of the modern electric locomotive in later years was -fascinated with the mechanism of the steam locomotive. Whenever he -could get the chance he would ride with the engineer in the cab, and he -liked nothing better than to handle the locomotive himself during the -run. Edison's own account of what happened on of these trips is very -laughable. He says:</p> - -<p>"The engine was one of a number leased to the Grank Trunk by the -Chicago, Burlington & Quincy. It had bright brass bands all over the -woodwork, was beautifully painted, and everything was highly polished, -which was the custom up to the time old Commodore Vanderbilt stopped it -on his roads. It was a slow freight train. The engineer and fireman had -been out all night at a dance. After running about fifteen miles they -became so sleepy that they couldn't keep their eyes open, and agreed -to permit me to run the engine. I took charge, reducing the speed to -about twelve miles an hour, and brought the train of seven cars to her -destination at the Grand Trunk junction safely. But something occurred -which was very much out of the ordinary. I was greatly worried about -the water, and I knew that if it got low the boiler was likely to -explode. I hadn't gone twenty miles before black, damp mud blew out of -the stack and covered every part of the engine, including myself. I -was about to awaken the fireman to find out the cause of this, when it -stopped. Then I approached a station where the fireman always went out -to the cow-catcher, opened the oil-cup on the steam-chest, and poured -oil in. I started to carry out the procedure, when, upon opening the -oil-cup, the steam rushed out with a tremendous noise, nearly knocking -me off the engine. I succeeded in closing the oil-cup and got back -in the cab, and made up my mind that she would pull through without -oil. I learned afterward that the engineer always shut off steam when -the fireman went to oil. This point I failed to notice. My powers of -observation were very much improved after this occurrence. Just before -I reached the junction another outpour of black mud occurred, and the -whole engine was a sight—so much so that when I pulled into the yard -everybody turned to see it, laughing immoderately. I found the reason -of the mud was that I carried so much water it passed over into the -stack, and this washed out all the accumulated soot."</p> - -<p>One afternoon, about a week before Christmas, the train on which Edison -was a newsboy jumped the track. Four old cars with rotten sills went -all to pieces, distributing figs, raisins, dates, and candies all over -the track. Hating to see so much waste, the boy tried to save all he -could by eating it on the spot, but, as a result, he says, "our family -doctor had the time of his life with me."</p> - -<p>Another incident, which shows free and easy railroading and Southern -extravagance, is related by Edison, as follows:</p> - -<p>"In 1860, just before the war broke out, there came to the train one -afternoon in Detroit two fine-looking young men, accompanied by a -colored servant. They bought tickets for Port Huron, the terminal point -for the train. After leaving the junction just outside of Detroit, I -brought in the evening papers. When I came opposite the two young men, -one of them said, 'Boy, what have you got?' I said, 'Papers.' 'All -right.' He took them and threw them out of the window, and, turning to -the colored man, said, 'Nicodemus, pay this boy.' I told Nicodemus the -amount, and he opened a satchel and paid me. The passengers didn't know -what to make of the transaction. I returned with the illustrated papers -and magazines. These were seized and thrown out of the window, and I -was told to get my money of Nicodemus. I then returned with all the old -magazines and novels I had not been able to sell, thinking perhaps this -would be too much for them. I was small and thin, and the layer reached -above my head, and was all I could possibly carry. I had prepared a -list, and knew the amount in case they bit again. When I opened the -door all the passengers roared with laughter. I walked right up to the -young men. One asked me what I had. I said, 'Magazines and novels.' He -promptly threw them out of the window, and Nicodemus settled. Then I -came in with cracked hickory nuts, then popcorn balls, and, finally, -molasses candy. All went out of the window. I felt like Alexander the -Great!—I had no more chances! I had sold all I had. Finally I put a -rope to my trunk, which was about the size of a carpenter's chest, -and started to pull this from the baggage-car to the passenger-car. -It was almost too much for my strength, but at last I got it in front -of those men. I pulled off my coat and hat and shoes and laid them on -the chest. Then the young man asked, 'What have you got, boy?' I said, -'Everything, sir, that I can spare that is for sale.' The passengers -fairly jumped with laughter. Nicodemus paid me $27 for this last sale, -and threw the whole out of the door in the rear of the car. These men -were from the South, and I have always retained a soft spot in my heart -for a Southern gentleman."</p> - -<p>While Edison was a newsboy on the train a request came to him one day -to go to the office of E. B. Ward & Co., at that time the largest -owners of steamboats on the Great Lakes. The captain of their largest -boat had died suddenly, and they wanted a message taken to another -captain who lived about fourteen miles from Ridgeway station on the -railroad. This captain had retired, taken up some lumber land, and had -cleared part of it. Edison was offered fifteen dollars by Mr. Ward -to go and fetch him, but as it was a wild country and would be dark, -Edison stood out for twenty-five dollars, so that he could get the -companionship of another lad. The terms were agreed to. Edison arrived -at Ridgeway at 8.30 P.M., when it was raining and as dark as ink. -Getting with difficulty another boy to volunteer, he launched out on -his errand in the pitch-black night. The two boys carried lanterns, -but the road was a rough path through dense forest. The country was -wild, and it was quite usual to see deer, bear, and coon skins nailed -up on the sides of houses to dry. Edison had read about bears, but -couldn't remember whether they were day or night prowlers. The farther -they went, the more afraid they became, and every stump in the forest -looked like a bear. The other lad proposed seeking safety up a tree, -but Edison objected on the plea that bears could climb, and that the -message must be delivered that night to enable the captain to catch -the morning train. First one lantern went out, then the other. Edison -says: "We leaned up against a tree and cried. I thought if I ever got -out of that scrape alive I would know more about the habits of animals -and everything else, and be prepared for all kinds of mischance when I -again undertook an enterprise. However, the intense darkness dilated -the pupils of our eyes so as to make them very sensitive, and we could -just see at times the outline of the road. Finally, just as a faint -gleam of daylight arrived, we entered the captain's yard and delivered -the message. In my whole life I never spent such a night of horror as -that, but I got a good lesson."</p> - -<p>An amusing incident of this period is told by Edison. "When I was a -boy," he says, "the Prince of Wales, the late King Edward, came to -Canada (1860). Great preparations were made at Sarnia, the Canadian -town opposite Port Huron. About every boy, including myself, went -over to see the affair. The town was draped in flags most profusely, -and carpets were laid on the cross-walks for the Prince to walk on. -There were arches, etc. A stand was built, raised above the general -level, where the Prince was to be received by the Mayor. Seeing all -these preparations, my idea of a prince was very high; but when he -did arrive I mistook the Duke of Newcastle for him, the Duke being a -fine-looking man. I soon saw that I was mistaken, that the Prince was a -young stripling, and did not meet expectations. Several of us expressed -our belief that a prince wasn't much after all, and said that we were -thoroughly disappointed. For this one boy was whipped. Soon the Canuck -boys attacked the Yankee boys, and we were all badly licked. I, myself, -got a black eye. That has always prejudiced me against that kind of -ceremonial and folly."</p> - -<p>Many years afterward, when Edison had won fame by many inventions, -including his electric-light system, and had been awarded the Albert -Gold Medal by the Royal Society of Arts, it was this same prince who -wrote a graceful letter which accompanied the medal.</p> - -<p>Here is another of Mr. Edison's stories:</p> - -<p>"After selling papers in Port Huron, which was often not reached -until about nine-thirty at night, I seldom got home before eleven or -eleven-thirty. About half-way home from the station and the town, -within twenty-five feet of the road, in a dense wood, was a soldiers' -graveyard, where three hundred soldiers were buried, due to a cholera -epidemic which took place at Fort Gratiot, near by, many years -previously. At first we used to shut our eyes and run the horse past -this graveyard, and if the horse stepped on a twig my heart would give -a violent movement, and it is a wonder that I haven't some valvular -disease of that organ. But soon this running of the horse became -monotonous, and after a while all fears of graveyards absolutely -disappeared from my system. I was in the condition of Sam Houston, the -pioneer and founder of Texas, who, it was said, knew no fear. Houston -lived some distance from the town, and generally went home late at -night, having to pass through a dark cypress swamp over a corduroy -road. One night, to test his alleged fearlessness, a man stationed -himself behind a tree, and enveloped himself in a sheet. He confronted -Houston suddenly, and Sam stopped and said: 'If you are a man, you -can't hurt me. If you are a ghost, you don't want to hurt me. And if -you are the devil, come home with me; I married your sister!' "</p> - -<p>We have already seen that Edison was of an exceedingly studious nature -and full of ambition to work, experiment, and hustle. The serious -side of his nature did not, however, wholly prevail. He had a keen -enjoyment of a joke, even as he has now, and in his boyhood days had -no particular objection if it took a practical form. The following, as -related by him, is one of many:</p> - -<p>"After the breaking out of the War there was a regiment of volunteer -soldiers quartered at Fort Gratiot, the reservation extending to the -boundary line of our house. Nearly every night we would hear a call -such as 'Corporal of the Guard No. 1.' This would be repeated from -sentry to sentry, until it reached the barracks, when Corporal of the -Guard No. 1 would come and see what was wanted. I and the little Dutch -boy, upon returning from the town after selling our papers, thought we -would take a hand at military affairs. So one night, when it was very -dark, I shouted for Corporal of the Guard No. 1. The second sentry, -thinking it was the terminal sentry who shouted, repeated it to the -third, and so on. This brought the corporal along the half mile, only -to find that he was fooled. We tried him three nights; but the third -night they were watching, and caught the little Dutch boy, took him -to the lock-up at the fort, and shut him up. They chased me to the -house. I rushed for the cellar. In one small compartment, where there -were two barrels of potatoes and a third one nearly empty, I poured -these remnants into the other barrels, sat down, and pulled the empty -barrel over my head, bottom up. The soldiers had awakened my father, -and they were searching for me with candles and lanterns. The corporal -was absolutely certain I came into the cellar, and couldn't see how I -could have gotten out, and wanted to know from my father if there was -no secret hiding-place. On assurance of my father, who said that there -was not, he said it was most extraordinary. I was glad when they left, -as I was cramped, and the potatoes that had been in the barrel were -rotten and violently offensive. The next morning I was found in bed, -and received a good switching on the legs from my father, the first and -only one I ever received from him, although my mother kept behind the -old Seth Thomas clock a switch that had the bark worn off. My mother's -ideas and mine differed at times, especially when I got experimenting -and mussed up things. The Dutch boy was released next morning."</p> - -<p>It may have seemed strange to you, on reading this and the previous -chapter, that a lad so young as Edison was during the newsboy -period—from about twelve to fifteen years of age—should have been -allowed such wide liberty. An extensive traveler for those days, going -early and returning late, an experimenter in chemistry, a publisher, -printer, newsdealer, amateur locomotive engineer, and what not, covered -a large range of experience and action for one so youthful.</p> - -<p>To others of the family than his mother he was accounted a strange boy, -some believing him to be mentally unbalanced. His mother, however, -understood that his was no ordinary mind, for she had studied him -thoroughly. While she watched him closely, she allowed him the widest -possible sphere of action and encouraged his ever increasing studies.</p> - -<p>A member of the family, in talking recently with the writer, said -that when any one expressed nervousness about young Edison during his -absences she would say: "Al is all right. Nothing will happen to him. -God is taking care of him."</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h3><a id="VI"></a>VI<br /><br /> - -THE YOUNG TELEGRAPH OPERATOR</h3> -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p>After Edison's expulsion from the train with his laboratory and -belongings, his career as a newsboy came to a sudden close. But, while -he felt some disappointment, he was not discouraged and was none the -less busy. As we have seen, he published his local paper for a while -and also continued his chemical experiments at home. In addition, he -plunged deeply into the study of telegraphy under Mr. Mackenzie's -tuition.</p> - -<p>Edison took to telegraphy enthusiastically, giving to it no less than -eighteen hours a day. After some months he had made such progress that -he put up a telegraph line from the station to the village, about a -mile distant, and opened an office in a drug store; but the business -there was very light and the office was not continued long.</p> - -<p>A little later he became the regular operator at Port Huron. The -office was in the store of a Mr. M. Walker, who sold jewelry and also -newspapers and periodicals. Edison was to be found at the office both -day and night, and slept there.</p> - -<p>He says: "I became quite valuable to Mr. Walker. After working all -day I worked at the office nights as well, for the reason that 'press -reports' came over one of the wires until 3 A.M., and I would cut in -and copy it as well as I could, to become proficient more rapidly. The -goal of the rural telegraph operator was to be able to take press. Mr. -Walker tried to get my father to apprentice me at twenty dollars per -month, but they could not agree. I then applied for a job on the Grand -Trunk Railroad as a railway operator, and was given a place, nights, at -Stratford Junction, Canada."</p> - -<p>Many years afterward Mr. Walker described the boy of sixteen as -engrossed intensely in his experiments and scientific reading. The -telegraph office was not a busy one, but sometimes messages taken -in would remain unsent while Edison was in the cellar busy on some -chemical problem.</p> - -<p>He would be seen at times reading a scientific paper and then -disappearing to buy a few sundries for experiments. Returning from -the drug store with his chemicals, he would not be seen again until -required by his duties, or until he had found out for himself, if -possible, the truth of the statement he had been reading. If wanted -for his experiment, he did not hesitate to make free use of the -watchmaker's tools that lay on the table in the front window. His one -idea was to do quickly when he wanted to do; and this tendency is still -one of his marked characteristics.</p> - -<p>The telegrapher's position at Stratford Junction, Canada, was taken by -Edison in 1863, when he was sixteen years old, and paid him twenty-five -dollars per month. In speaking of it he has since remarked that there -was little difference between the telegraph of that time and that of -to-day. He says: "The telegraph men couldn't explain how it worked, -and I was always trying to get them to do so. I think they couldn't. -I remember the best explanation I got was from an old Scotch line -repairer employed by the Montreal Telegraph Company, which operated the -railroad wires. He said that if you had a dog like a dachshund, long -enough to reach from Edinburgh to London, if you pulled his tail in -Edinburgh he would bark in London. I could understand that, but I never -could get it through me what went through the dog or over the wire."</p> - -<p>Edison was ever keenly anxious to add to his stock of experimental -apparatus, as an incident of this period shows: "While working at -Stratford Junction," he says, "I was told by one of the freight -conductors that in the freight-house at Goodrich there were several -boxes of old broken-up batteries. I went there and found over eighty -cells of the well-known Grove nitric-acid battery. The operator there, -who was also agent, when asked by me if I could have the electrodes -of each cell, which were made of sheet platinum, gave his permission -readily, thinking they were of tin. I removed them all, and they -amounted to several ounces in weight. Platinum even in those days was -very expensive, costing several dollars an ounce, and I owned only -three small strips. I was overjoyed at this acquisition, and those very -strips and the reworked scrap are used to this day in my laboratory, -over forty years later."</p> - -<p>It was while he was employed as a night operator at Stratford Junction -that Edison's inventiveness was first displayed. In order to make -sure that the operators were not asleep they were required to send -the signal "6" to the train despatcher's office every hour during the -night. Now, Edison spent all day in study and experiment, but he needed -sleep, just as any healthy youth does, and so he made a small wheel -with notches on the rim and attached it to the clock and line. At night -he connected it with the circuit, and at each hour the wheel revolved -and automatically sent in the dots required for "sixing."</p> - -<p>The invention was a success, but the train despatcher soon noticed that -frequently, in spite of the regularity of the report, Edison's office -could not be raised even if a message were sent immediately after. An -investigation followed, which revealed this ingenious device, and he -received a reprimand.</p> - -<p>A serious occurrence that might have resulted in accident drove him -soon after from Canada, although the youth could hardly be held to -blame for it. Edison says: "This night job just suited me, as I could -have the whole day to myself. I had the faculty of sleeping in a chair -any time for a few minutes at a time. I taught the night yardman my -call, so I could get half an hour's sleep now and then between trains, -and in case the station was called the watchman would awaken me. One -night I got an order to hold a freight train, and I replied that I -would. I rushed out to find the signalman, but before I could find -him and get the signal set the train ran past. I ran to the telegraph -office, and reported that I could not hold her. The train despatcher, -on the strength of my message that I would hold the train, had -permitted another to leave the last station in the opposite direction. -There was a lower station near the junction, where the day operator -slept. I started for it on foot. The night was dark, and I fell into a -culvert and was knocked senseless."</p> - -<p>Fortunately, the two engineers saw each other approaching and stopped -in time to prevent an accident. Edison, however, was summoned to the -general manager's office to be tried for neglect of duty. During the -trial two Englishmen called, and while they were talking with the -manager the youthful operator slipped out, jumped on a freight train -going to Sarnia, and was not happy until the ferry-boat from Sarnia had -landed him safe on the Michigan shore.</p> - -<p>The same winter, of 1863-64, while at Port Huron, Edison had a further -opportunity of showing his ingenuity. An ice-jam had broken the -telegraph cable laid in the bed of the river across to Sarnia, and -communication was interrupted. The river is three-quarters of a mile -wide, and could not be crossed on foot, nor could the cable be repaired.</p> - -<p>Edison suggested using the steam whistle of a locomotive to give the -long and short signals of the Morse code. An operator on the Sarnia -shore was quick enough to understand the meaning of the strange -whistling, and thus messages were sent in wireless fashion across the -ice-floes in the river.</p> - -<p>Young Edison had no inclination to return to Canada after his late -experience there. He decided, however, that he would stick to -telegraphy as a business, and, after a short stay at home in Port -Huron, set out to find work as an operator in another city. And thus he -commenced the roaming and drifting life which in the next five years -took him all over the Middle States.</p> - -<p>At this time the Civil War was in progress, and many hundreds of -skilled operators were at the front with the army, engaged exclusively -in government service. Consequently there was a great scarcity of -telegraphers throughout all the cities and towns of the country. For -this reason it was not difficult for an operator to get work wherever -he might go. Thus one might gratify a desire to travel and get -experience without running much risk of privation.</p> - -<p>There were a great many others besides Edison who wandered about from -city to city, working awhile in one place and drifting to another. As -a rule, they were bright, happy-go-lucky fellows, full of the spirit -of good comradeship, and willing to share bed, board, and pocket-money -with those who might temporarily be less fortunate than themselves.</p> - -<p>Many of them used telegraphy as a stepping-stone to better themselves -in life, while others, unfortunately, became dissipated, and, becoming -unreliable through drink, could not hold a position for long. Had -Edison been by nature less persistent and industrious than he was, this -miscellaneous companionship might have tended to wreck his career, but -all through his life, from boyhood, he has been particularly abstemious -and has had a contempt for the wastefulness of time, money, and health -entailed by the drink habit.</p> - -<p>Throughout this period of his life Edison, although wandering from -place to place, never ceased to study, explore, and experiment. -Referring to this beginning of his career, he mentions a curious fact -that throws light on his ceaseless application. "After I became a -telegraph operator," he says, "I practised for a long time to become -a rapid reader of print, and got so expert I could sense the meaning -of a whole line at once. This faculty, I believe, should be taught in -schools, as it appears to be easily acquired. Then one can read two or -three books in a day, whereas if each word at a time only is sensed -reading is laborious."</p> - -<p>During this wandering period of his life Edison made many friends, one -of the earliest of whom was Milton F. Adams, who had a strange career. -Of him Edison says: "Adams was one of a class of operators never -satisfied to work at any place for any great length of time. He had the -'wanderlust.' After enjoying hospitality in Boston in 1868-69, on the -floor of my hall bedroom, which was a paradise for the entomologist, -while the boarding-house itself was run on the Banting system of flesh -reduction, he came to me one day and said: 'Good-by, Edison, I have -got sixty cents, and I am going to San Francisco.' And he did go. How, -I never knew personally. I learned afterward that he got a job there, -and then within a week they had a telegraphers' strike. He got a big -torch and sold patent medicine on the streets at night to support the -strikers. Then he went to Peru as partner of a man who had a grizzly -bear which they proposed entering against a bull in the bull-ring in -that city. The grizzly was killed in five minutes, and so the scheme -died. Then Adams crossed the Andes, and started a market report bureau -in Buenos Ayres. This didn't pay, so he started a restaurant in -Pernambuco, Brazil. There he did very well, but something went wrong -(as it always does to a nomad), so he went to the Transvaal, and ran -a panorama called 'Paradise Lost' in the Kaffir kraals. This didn't -pay, and he became the editor of a newspaper; then he went to England -to raise money for a railroad in Cape Colony. Next I heard of him in -New York, having just arrived from Bogota, United States of Columbia, -with a power of attorney and two thousand dollars from a native of that -republic, who applied for a patent for tightening a belt to prevent it -from slipping on a pulley—a device which he thought a new and great -invention, but which was in use ever since machinery was invented. I -gave Adams then a position as salesman for electrical apparatus. This -he soon got tired of, and I lost sight of him."</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h3><a id="VII"></a>VII<br /><br /> - -ADVENTURES OF A TELEGRAPH OPERATOR</h3> -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p>The first position that Edison took after leaving Canada so hurriedly -was at Adrian, Michigan, and of what happened there he tells a story -typical of his wanderings for several years to come.</p> - -<p>"After leaving my first job at Stratford Junction I got a position as -operator on the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern at Adrian, Michigan, -in the division superintendent's office. As usual, I took the 'night -trick,' which most operators disliked, but which I preferred, as it -gave me more leisure to experiment. I had obtained from the station -agent a small room, and had established a little shop of my own. One -day the day operator wanted to get off, and I was on duty. About nine -o'clock the superintendent handed me a despatch which he said was very -important, and which I must get off at once. The wire at the time was -very busy, and I asked if I should break in. I got orders to do so, -and, acting under those orders of the superintendent, I broke in and -tried to send the despatch; but the other operator would not permit it, -and the struggle continued for ten minutes. Finally I got possession -of the wire and sent the message. The superintendent of telegraph, -who then lived in Adrian and went to his office in Toledo every day, -happened that day to be in the Western Union office up-town—and it -was the superintendent I was really struggling with! In about twenty -minutes he arrived, livid with rage, and I was discharged on the spot. -I informed him that the general superintendent had told me to break in -and send the despatch, but the general superintendent then and there -repudiated the whole thing. Their families were socially close, so I -was sacrificed. My faith in human nature got a slight jar."</p> - -<p>From Adrian Edison went to Toledo, Ohio, and secured a position at -Fort Wayne, on the Pittsburg, Fort Wayne & Chicago Railroad. This was -a "day job," and he did not like it. Two months later he drifted to -Indianapolis, arriving there in the fall of 1864, when for the first -time he entered the employ of the Western Union Telegraph Company, -with which in later years he entered into closer relationship. At this -time, however, he was assigned to duty at Union Station, at a salary of -seventy-five dollars a month.</p> - -<p>He did not stay long in Indianapolis, however, leaving in February, -1865, and going from there to Cincinnati. This change was possibly -caused by one of his early inventions, which has been spoken of by -an expert as probably the most simple and ingenious arrangement of -connections for a repeater.</p> - -<p>His ambition was to take "press report," which would come over the -wire quite fast, but finding even after considerable practice, that he -"broke" frequently, he adjusted two embossing Morse registers—one to -receive the press matter and the other to repeat the dots and dashes at -a lower speed, so that the message could be copied leisurely. Hence, -he could not be rushed or "broken" in receiving, while he could turn -out copy that was a marvel of neatness and clearness. This went well -under ordinary conditions, but when an unusual pressure occurred he -fell behind, and the newspapers complained of the slowness with which -the reports were delivered to them. As to this device, Mr. Edison said -recently: "Together we took press for several nights, my companion -keeping the apparatus in adjustment and I copying. The regular press -operator would go to the theater or take a nap, only finishing the -report after 1 A.M. One of the newspapers complained of bad copy toward -the end of the report—that is, from 1 to 3 A.M.—and requested that -the operators taking the report up to 1 A.M., which were ourselves, -take it all, as the copy then was perfectly unobjectionable. This led -to an investigation by the manager, and the scheme was forbidden.</p> - -<p>"This instrument many years afterward was applied by me to transferring -messages from one wire to any other wire simultaneously or after any -interval of time. It consisted of a disk of paper, the indentations -being formed in a volute spiral, exactly as in the disk phonograph -to-day. It was this instrument which gave me the idea of the phonograph -while working on the telephone."</p> - -<p>Arriving in Cincinnati, Edison got employment in the Western Union -Commercial Telegraph Department at sixty dollars per month. Here he -made the acquaintance of Milton F. Adams, referred to in the preceding -chapter. Speaking of that time, Mr. Adams says:</p> - -<p>"I can well recall when Edison drifted in to take a job. He was a youth -of about eighteen years, decidedly unprepossessing in dress and rather -uncouth in manner. I was twenty-one, and very dudish. He was quite thin -in those days, and his nose was very prominent, giving a Napoleonic -look to his face, although the curious resemblance did not strike me at -the time. The boys did not take to him cheerfully, and he was lonesome. -I sympathized with him, and we became close companions. As an operator -he had no superiors, and very few equals. Most of the time he was -'monkeying' with the batteries and circuits, and devising things to -make the work of telegraphy less irksome. He also relieved the monotony -of office work by fitting up the battery circuits to play jokes on -his fellow-operators, and to deal with the vermin that infested the -premises. He arranged in the cellar what he called his 'rat paralyzer,' -a very simple contrivance, consisting of two plates insulated from each -other and connected with the main battery. They were so placed that -when a rat passed over them the fore feet on the one plate and the hind -feet on the other completed the circuit, and the rat departed this -life, electrocuted." Shortly after Edison's arrival in Cincinnati came -the close of the Civil War and the assassination of President Lincoln. -One of Edison's reminiscences is interesting as showing the mechanical -way in which some telegraph operators do their work. "I noticed," he -says, "an immense crowd gathering in the street outside a newspaper -office. I called the attention of the other operators to the crowd, -and we sent a messenger boy to find the cause of the excitement. He -returned in a few minutes and shouted, 'Lincoln's shot!' Instinctively -the operators looked from one face to another to see which man had -received the news. All the faces were blank, and every man said he had -not taken a word about the shooting. 'Look over your files,' said the -boss to the man handling the press stuff. For a few moments we waited -in suspense, and then the man held up a sheet of paper containing a -short account of the shooting of the President. The operator had worked -so mechanically that he had handled the news without the slightest -realization of its significance."</p> - -<p>Edison's diversions in Cincinnati were characteristic of his life -before and since. He read a great deal, but spent most of his leisure -time experimenting. Occasionally he would indulge in some form of -amusement, but this was not often. At this time he and Adams were close -friends, and Mr. Adams remarks: "Edison and I were fond of tragedy. -Forrest and John McCullough were playing at the National Theater, -and when our capital was sufficient we would go to see those eminent -tragedians alternate in Othello and Iago. Edison always enjoyed Othello -greatly. Aside from an occasional visit to the Loewen Garten, 'over -the Rhine,' with a glass of beer and a few pretzels consumed while -listening to the excellent music of a German band, the theater was the -sum and substance of our innocent dissipation."</p> - -<p>While Edison was in Cincinnati there came one day a delegation of -five trade-union operators from Cleveland to form a local branch in -Cincinnati. The occasion was one of great conviviality. Night came and -many of the operators were away. The Cleveland wire was in special -need, and Edison, almost alone in the office, devoted himself to it all -through the night and until three o'clock next morning, when he was -relieved. He had been previously getting eighty dollars a month, and -added to this by copying plays for a theater.</p> - -<p>His rating was that of a "plug," or inferior operator, but having -determined to become a first-class operator, he had kept up a practice -of going to the office at night to take "press," acting willingly -as a substitute for any operator who wanted to get off for a few -hours—which often meant all night.</p> - -<p>Thus he had been unconsciously preparing for the special ordeal which -the conviviality of the trade-unionists had brought about.</p> - -<p>Speaking of that night's work, Edison says: "My copy looked fine if -viewed as a whole, as I could write a perfectly straight line across -the wide sheet, which was not ruled. There were no flourishes, but -the individual letters would not bear close inspection. When I missed -understanding a word there was no time to think what it was, so I made -an illegible one to fill in, trusting to the printers to sense it. I -knew they could read anything, although Mr. Bloss, an editor of the -<i>Inquirer</i>, made such bad copy that one of his editorials was pasted -up on the notice board in the telegraph office with an offer of one -dollar to any man who could 'read twenty consecutive words.' Nobody -ever did it. When I got through I was too nervous to go home, and so I -waited the rest of the night for the day manager, Mr. Stevens, to see -what was to be the outcome of this union formation and of my efforts. -He was an austere man, and I was afraid of him. I got the morning -papers, which came out at 4 A.M., and the press report read perfectly, -which surprised me greatly. I went to work on my regular day wire to -Portsmouth, Ohio, and there was considerable excitement, but nothing -was said to me, neither did Mr. Stevens examine the copy on the office -hook, which I was watching with great interest. However, about 3 P.M. -he went to the hook, grabbed the bunch and looked at it as a whole -without examining it in detail, for which I was thankful. Then he -jabbed it back on the hook, and I knew I was all right. He walked over -to me, and said: 'Young man, I want you to work the Louisville wire -nights; your salary will be one hundred and twenty-five dollars.' Thus -I got from the plug classification to that of a 'first-class man.'"</p> - -<p>Not long after this promotion was secured Edison started again on his -wanderings. He went south, while his friend Adams went north, neither -one having any difficulty in making the trip. He says: "The boys in -those days had extraordinary facilities for travel. As a usual thing -it was only necessary for them to board a train and tell the conductor -they were operators. Then they could go as far as they liked. The -number of operators was small, and they were in demand everywhere."</p> - -<p>Edison's next stopping place was Memphis, Tennessee, where he got a -position as operator. Here again he began to invent and improve on -existing apparatus, with the result of being obliged once more to "move -on." He tells the story as follows: "I was not the inventor of the -auto-repeater, but while in Memphis I worked on one. Learning that the -chief operator, who was a protégé of the superintendent, was trying -in some way to put New York and New Orleans together for the first -time since the close of the war, I redoubled my efforts, and at two -o'clock one morning I had them speaking to each other. The office of -the Memphis <i>Avalanche</i> was in the same building. The paper got wind -of it and sent messages. A column came out in the morning about it; -but when I went to the office in the afternoon to report for duty I -was discharged without explanation. The superintendent would not even -give me a pass to Nashville, so I had to pay my fare. I had so little -money left that I nearly starved at Decatur, Alabama, and had to stay -three days before going on north to Nashville. Arrived in that city, I -went to the telegraph office, got money enough to buy a little solid -food, and secured a pass to Louisville. I had a companion with me who -was also out of a job. I arrived at Louisville on a bitterly cold day, -with ice in the gutters. I was wearing a linen duster and was not much -to look at, but got a position at once, working on a press wire. My -traveling companion was less successful on account of his 'record.' -They had a limit even in those days when the telegraph service was so -demoralized."</p> - -<p>After the Civil War was over the telegraph service was in desperate -condition, and some of Mr. Edison's reminiscences of these times are -quite interesting. He says: "The telegraph was still under military -control, not having been turned over to the original owners, the -Southern Telegraph Company. In addition to the regular force, there -was an extra force of two or three operators, and some stranded ones, -who were a burden to us, for board was high. One of these derelicts -was a great source of worry to me personally. He would come in at all -hours and either throw ink around or make a lot of noise. One night he -built a fire in the grate and started to throw pistol cartridges into -the flames. These would explode, and I was twice hit by the bullets, -which left a black-and-blue mark. Another night he came in and got from -some part of the building a lot of stationery with 'Confederate States' -printed at the head. He was a fine operator, and wrote a beautiful -hand. He would take a sheet of paper, write capital 'A,' and then take -another sheet and make the 'A' differently; and so on through the -alphabet, each time crumpling the paper up in his hand and throwing it -on the floor. He would keep this up until the room was filled nearly -flush with the table. Then he would quit.</p> - -<p>"Everything at that time was 'wide open.' Disorganization reigned -supreme. There was no head to anything. At night myself and a companion -would go over to a gorgeously furnished faro-bank and get our midnight -lunch. Everything was free. There were over twenty keno-rooms running. -One of them that I visited was in a Baptist church, the man with the -wheel being in the pulpit and the gamblers in the pews.</p> - -<p>"While there, the manager of the telegraph office was arrested for -something I never understood, and incarcerated in a military prison -about half a mile from the office. The building was in plain sight from -the office and four stories high. He was kept strictly incommunicado. -One day, thinking he might be confined in a room facing the office, I -put my arm out of the window and kept signaling dots and dashes by the -movement of the arm. I tried this several times for two days. Finally -he noticed it, and, putting his arm through the bars of the window, he -established communication with me. He thus sent several messages to his -friends, and was afterward set free."</p> - -<p>Another curious story told by Edison concerns a fellow operator on -night duty at Chattanooga Junction at the time he was at Memphis: -"When it was reported that Hood was marching on Nashville, one night -a Jew came into the office about eleven o'clock in great excitement, -having heard the Hood rumor. He, being a large sutler, wanted to send -a message to save his goods. The operator said it was impossible—that -orders had been given to send no private messages. Then the Jew wanted -to bribe my friend, who steadfastly refused, for the reason, as he told -the Jew, that he might be court-martialed and shot. Finally the Jew -got up to eight hundred dollars. The operator swore him to secrecy and -sent the message. Now, there was no such order about private messages, -and the Jew, finding it out, complained to Captain Van Duzer, chief -of telegraphs, who investigated the matter, and while he would not -discharge the operator, laid him off indefinitely. Van Duzer was so -lenient that if an operator was to wait three days and then go and sit -on the stoop of Van Duzer's office all day he would be taken back. But -Van Duzer swore that if the operator had taken eight hundred dollars -and sent the message at the regular rate, which was twenty-five cents, -it would have been all right, as the Jew would be punished for trying -to bribe a military operator; but when the operator took the eight -hundred dollars and then sent the message deadhead he couldn't stand -it, and he would never relent."</p> - -<p>A third typical story of this period relates to a cipher message for -General Thomas. Mr. Edison narrates it as follows: "When I was an -operator in Cincinnati, working the Louisville wire nights for a time, -one night a man over on the Pittsburg wire yelled out: 'D. I. cipher,' -which meant that there was a cipher message from the War Department at -Washington, and that it was coming, and he yelled out 'Louisville.' I -started immediately to call up that place. It was just at the change of -shift in the office. I could not get Louisville, and the cipher message -began to come. It was taken by the operator on the other table, direct -from the War Department. It was for General Thomas, at Nashville. I -called for about twenty minutes and notified them that I could not get -Louisville. I kept at it for about fifteen minutes longer, and notified -them that there was still no answer from Louisville. They then notified -the War Department that they could not get Louisville. Then we tried to -get it by all kinds of roundabout ways, but in no case could anybody -get them at that office. Soon a message came from the War Department -to send immediately for the manager of the Cincinnati office. He was -brought to the office and several messages were exchanged, the contents -of which, of course, I did not know, but the matter appeared to be very -serious, as they were afraid of General Hood, of the Confederate Army, -who was then attempting to march on Nashville; and it was important -that this cipher of about twelve hundred words or so should be got -through immediately to General Thomas. I kept on calling up to twelve -or one o'clock, but no Louisville. About one o'clock the operator -at the Indianapolis office got hold of an operator who happened to -come into his office, which had a wire which ran from Indianapolis to -Louisville along the railroad. He arranged with this operator to get a -relay of horses, and the message was sent through Indianapolis to this -operator, who had engaged horses to carry the despatches to Louisville -and find out the trouble, and get the despatches through without delay -to General Thomas. In those days the telegraph fraternity was rather -demoralized, and the discipline was very lax. It was found out a couple -of days afterward that there were three night operators at Louisville. -One of them had gone over to Jeffersonville and had fallen off a horse -and broken his leg, and was in a hospital. By a remarkable coincidence -another of the men had been stabbed in a keno-room, and was also in a -hospital, while the third operator had gone to Cynthiana to see a man -hanged and had got left by the train."</p> - - -<hr class="r5" /> -<div class="figcenter" > -<a id="ed0061"></a> -<img src="images/ed0061.png" width="320" alt="I " /> -</div> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p>From Memphis Edison went to Louisville. Here he remained for about -two years. It was while he was there that he perfected the peculiar -vertical style of writing which has since been his characteristic -style. He says of this form of writing, an example of which is given -above: "I developed this style in Louisville while taking press -reports. My wire was connected to the 'blind' side of a repeater at -Cincinnati, so that if I missed a word or sentence, or if the wire -worked badly, I could not break in and get the last words, because -the Cincinnati man had no instrument by which he could hear me. I had -to take what came. When I got the job the cable across the Ohio River -at Covington, connecting with the line to Louisville, had a variable -leak in it, which caused the strength of the signaling current to make -violent fluctuations. I obviated this by using several relays, each -with a different adjustment, working several sounders all connected -with one sounding-plate. The clatter was bad, but I could read it with -fair ease. When, in addition to this infernal leak, the wires north -to Cleveland worked badly it required a large amount of imagination -to get the sense of what was being sent. An imagination requires an -appreciable time for its exercise, and as the stuff was coming at the -rate of thirty-five to forty words a minute, it was very difficult -to write down what was coming and imagine what wasn't coming. Hence -it was necessary to become a very rapid writer, so I started to find -the fastest style. I found that the vertical style, with each letter -separate and without any flourishes, was the most rapid, and that, the -smaller the letter, the greater the rapidity. As I took on an average -from eight to fifteen columns of news report every day, it did not take -long to perfect this method."</p> - -<p>The telegraph offices of those early days were very crude as compared -with the equipments of modern times. The apparatus was generally -in a very poor condition, and the wiring was of a haphazard kind. -The conditions during the time of the Civil War all tended to -demoralization, both of operators and apparatus.</p> - -<p>Indeed, the following story, related by Edison, illustrates the -lengths to which telegraphers could go at a time when they were in so -much demand: "When I took the position there was a great shortage of -operators. One night, at 2 A.M., another operator and I were on duty. -I was taking press report, and the other man was working the New York -wire. We heard a heavy tramp, tramp, tramp on the rickety stairs. -Suddenly the door was thrown open with great violence, dislodging -it from one of the hinges. There appeared in the doorway one of the -best operators we had, who worked daytime, and who was of a very -quiet disposition except when intoxicated. He was a great friend of -the manager of the office. His eyes were bloodshot and wild, and one -sleeve had been torn away from his coat. Without noticing either of -us, he went up to the stove and kicked it over. The stove-pipe fell, -dislocated at every joint. It was half full of exceedingly fine soot, -which floated out and completely filled the room. This produced a -momentary respite to his labors. When the atmosphere had cleared -sufficiently to see he went around and pulled every table away from -the wall, piling them on top of the stove in the middle of the room. -Then he proceeded to pull the switchboard away from the wall. It was -held tightly by screws. He succeeded, finally, and when it gave way he -fell with the board, and, striking on a table, cut himself so that he -soon became covered with blood. He then went to the battery-room and -knocked all the batteries off on the floor. The nitric acid soon began -to combine with the plaster in the room below, which was the public -receiving-room for messengers and bookkeepers. The excess acid poured -through and ate up the account-books. After having finished everything -to his satisfaction, he left. I told the other operators to do nothing. -We would leave things just as they were, and wait until the manager -came. In the meantime, as I knew all the wires coming through to the -switchboard, I rigged up a temporary set of instruments so that the New -York business could be cleared up, and we also got the remainder of the -press matter. At seven o'clock the day men began to appear. They were -told to go downstairs and await the coming of the manager. At eight -o'clock he appeared, walked around, went into the battery-room, and -then came to me, saying: 'Edison, who did this?' I told him that Billy -L. had come in full of soda-water and invented the ruin before him. -He walked back and forth about a minute, then, coming up to my table, -put his fist down, and said: 'If Billy L. ever does that again I will -discharge him.' It was needless to say that there were other operators -who took advantage of that kind of discipline, and I had many calls at -night after that, but none with such destructive effects."</p> - -<p>Incidents such as these, together with the daily life and work of -an operator, presented one aspect of life to our young operator in -Louisville. But there was another, more intellectual side, in the -contact afforded with journalism and its leaders, on which Mr. Edison -looks back with great satisfaction. "I remember," he says, "the -discussions between the celebrated poet and journalist George D. -Prentice, then editor of the <i>Courier-Journal</i>, and Mr. Tyler, of the -Associated Press. I believe Prentice was the father of the humorous -paragraph of the American newspaper. He was poetic, highly educated, -and a brilliant talker. He was very thin and small. I do not think he -weighed over one hundred and twenty-five pounds. Tyler was a graduate -of Harvard, and had a very clear enunciation, and, in sharp contrast -to Prentice, he was a large man. After the paper had gone to press -Prentice would generally come over to Tyler's office, where I heard -them arguing on the immortality of the soul, etc. I asked permission -of Mr. Tyler if, after finishing the press matter, I might come in and -listen to the conversation, which I did many times after. One thing I -never could comprehend was that Tyler had a sideboard with liquors and -generally crackers. Prentice would pour out half a glass of what they -call corn whisky, and would dip the crackers in it and eat them. Tyler -took it <i>sans</i> food. One teaspoonful of that stuff would put me to -sleep."</p> - -<p>Mr. Edison throws also a curious side-light on the origin of the comic -paragraph in the modern American newspaper, as distributed instantly -throughout the country through the telegraph. "It was the practice -of the press operators all over the country at that time, when a -lull occurred, to start in and send jokes or stories the day men had -collected; and these were copied and pasted up on the bulletin-board. -Cleveland was the originating office for 'press,' which it received -from New York and sent out simultaneously to Milwaukee, Chicago, -Toledo, Detroit, Pittsburg, Columbus, Dayton, Cincinnati, Indianapolis, -Vincennes, Terre Haute, St. Louis and Louisville. Cleveland would call -first on Milwaukee and ask if he had anything. If so, he would send -it, and Cleveland would repeat it to all of us. Thus any joke or story -originating anywhere in that area was known the next day all over. The -press men would come in and copy anything which could be published, -which was about three per cent. I collected, too, quite a large -scrap-book of it, but, unfortunately, I have lost it."</p> - -<p>Edison was always a great reader, and was in the habit of buying books -at auctions and second-hand stores. One day at an auction he bought -twenty unbound volumes of the <i>North American Review</i> for two dollars. -These he had bound and delivered at the telegraph office. One morning, -about three o'clock, he started off for home at a rapid pace with ten -volumes on his shoulder. Very soon he became conscious of the fact that -bullets were flying around him. He stopped, and a breathless policeman -came up and seized him as a suspicious character, ordering him to drop -his parcel and explain matters. Opening the package, he showed the -books, somewhat to the disgust of the officer, who imagined he had -caught a burglar sneaking away with his booty. Edison explained that, -being deaf, he had heard no challenge, and therefore had kept moving; -and the policeman remarked, apologetically, it was well for Edison he -was not a better shot.</p> - -<p>Through all his travels Edison has preserved these books, and he has -them now in his library at Llewelyn Park, Orange, New Jersey.</p> - -<p>After two years at Louisville, Edison went back North as far as -Detroit, but soon returned to Louisville. At this time there was a -great deal of exaggerated talk and report about the sunny life and easy -wealth of South America. This idea appealed especially to telegraph -operators, and young Edison, with his fertile imagination, was readily -inflamed with the glowing idea of these great possibilities.</p> - -<p>Once more he threw up his work, and, with a couple of young friends, -made his way to New Orleans, where they expected to catch a specially -chartered steamer for Brazil.</p> - -<p>They arrived in New Orleans just at the time of the great riot, when -the city was in the hands of a mob. The government had seized the -steamer for carrying troops. The young men therefore visited another -shipping office to make inquiries about vessels for Brazil.</p> - -<p>Here they got into conversation with an old Spaniard, to whom they -explained their intentions. He had lived and worked in South America, -and was very emphatic in advising them that the worst thing they -could do was to leave the United States, whose freedom, calm, and -opportunities could not be equaled anywhere on the face of the globe. -Edison took the Spaniard's advice, and made his way North again. He -heard later that his two companions had gone to Vera Cruz and had died -there of yellow fever.</p> - -<p>He returned to Louisville and resumed work there. He seems to have been -fairly comfortable and happy at this time. He surrounded himself with -books and various apparatus, and even indited a treatise on electricity.</p> - -<p>It is well known that Edison is very studious and a great reader, -but his associates sometimes felt surprised at his fund of general -information. His own words throw some light upon this subject: "The -second time I was in Louisville the Telegraph Company had moved into -a new office, and the discipline was now good. I took the press job. -In fact, I was a very poor sender, and therefore made the taking of -press report a specialty. The newspaper men allowed me to come over, -after the paper went to press, at 3 A.M., and get all the exchanges -I wanted. These I would take home and lay at the foot of my bed. I -never slept more than four or five hours, so that I would awake at -nine or ten and read these papers until dinner-time. I thus kept -posted, and knew from their activity every member of Congress, and what -committees they were on, and all about the topical doings, as well -as the prices of breadstuffs in all the primary markets. I was in a -much better position than most operators to call on my imagination to -supply missing words or sentences, which were frequent in those days -of old, rotten wires, badly insulated, especially on stormy nights. -Upon such occasions I had to supply in some cases one-fifth of the -whole matter—pure guessing—but I got caught only once. There had been -some kind of convention in Virginia, in which John Minor Botts was the -leading figure. There was great excitement about it, and two votes had -been taken in the convention on the two days. There was no doubt that -the vote the next day would go a certain way. A very bad storm came up -about ten o'clock, and my wire worked badly, and there was a cessation -of all signals; then I made out the words 'Minor Botts.' The next was a -New York item. I filled in a paragraph about the convention and how the -vote had gone as I was sure it would go. But next day I learned that, -instead of there being a vote, the convention had adjourned without -action until the day after."</p> - -<p>The insatiable thirst for knowledge beyond known facts again proved -Edison's undoing. Operators were strictly forbidden to remove -instruments or to use batteries except on extra work. This rule did -not mean much to Edison, who had access to no other instruments -except those of the company. "I went one night," he says, "into the -battery-room to obtain some sulphuric acid for experimenting. The -carboy tipped over, the acid ran out, went through to the manager's -room below, and ate up his desk and all the carpet. The next morning -I was summoned before him, and told that what the company wanted was -operators, not experimenters. I was at liberty to take my pay and get -out."</p> - -<p>Thus he was once more thrown upon the world. He went back to -Cincinnati, and began his second term there as an operator. He was -again put on night duty, much to his satisfaction. He rented a room on -the top floor of an office building, bought a cot and an oil-stove, a -foot lathe, and some tools.</p> - -<p>He became acquainted with Mr. Sommers, superintendent of telegraph of -the Cincinnati & Indianapolis Railroad, who gave him permission to -take such scrap apparatus as he might desire that was of no use to the -company.</p> - -<p>Edison and Sommers became very friendly, and were congenial in many -ways. Both of them enjoyed jokes of a practical nature, and Edison -relates one of them as follows: "Sommers was a very witty man," he -says, "and fond of experimenting. We worked on a self-adjusting -telegraph relay, which would have been very valuable if we could -have got it. I soon became the possessor of a second-hand Ruhmkorff -induction coil, which, although it would only give a small spark, -would twist the arms and clutch the hands of a man so that he could -not let go of the apparatus. One day we went down to the roundhouse -of the Cincinnati & Indianapolis Railroad and connected up the long -wash-tank in the room with the coil, one electrode being connected to -earth. Above this wash-room was a flat roof. We bored a hole through -the roof, and could see the men as they came in. The first man as he -entered dipped his hands in the water. The floor, being wet, formed a -circuit, and up went his hands. He tried it the second time, with the -same result. He then stood against the wall with a puzzled expression. -We surmised that he was waiting for somebody else to come in, which -occurred shortly after, with the same result. Then they went out, and -the place was soon crowded and there was considerable excitement. -Various theories were broached to explain the curious phenomenon. We -enjoyed the sport immensely."</p> - -<p>The reader must remember this occurred forty years ago, when -electricity was not popularly understood. Had it occurred to-day the -mystery would have soon been explained.</p> - -<p>It is interesting to note that the germ of Edison's quadruplex -originated while he was at the Cincinnati office. There he became -acquainted with George Ellsworth, a telegraph operator who left the -regular telegraph service to become an operator for the Confederate -guerilla Morgan.</p> - -<p>"We soon became acquainted," says Edison of this period in Cincinnati, -"and he wanted me to invent a secret method of sending despatches, so -that an intermediate operator could not tap the wire and understand -it. He said that if it could be accomplished he could sell it to the -government for a large sum of money. This suited me, and I started -in and succeeded in making such an instrument, which had in it the -germ of my quadruplex now used throughout the world, permitting the -despatch of four messages over one wire simultaneously. By the time -I had succeeded in getting the apparatus to work Ellsworth suddenly -disappeared. Many years afterward I used this little device again for -the same purpose. At Menlo Park, New Jersey, I had my laboratory. There -were several Western Union wires cut into the laboratory and used by -me in experimenting at night. One day I sat near an instrument which I -had left connected during the night. I soon found it was a private wire -between New York and Philadelphia, and I heard among a lot of stuff a -message that surprised me. A week after that I had occasion to go to -New York, and, visiting the office of the lessee of the wire, I asked -him if he hadn't sent such and such a message. The expression that came -over his face was a sight. He asked me how I knew of such message. I -told him the circumstances, and suggested that he had better cipher -such communications, or put on a secret sounder. The result of the -interview was that I installed for him my old Cincinnati apparatus, -which was used thereafter for many years."</p> - -<p>Edison's second term in Cincinnati was not a very long one. After a -while he left and went home to Port Huron, where he stayed a short -time. He soon became tired of comparative idleness and communicated -with his old friend, Milton Adams, who was then working in Boston, and -whom he wished to rejoin if he could get work promptly in the East.</p> - -<p>Edison himself gives the details of this eventful move, when he went -East to grow up with the new art of electricity. "I had left Louisville -the second time, and went home to see my parents. After stopping at -home for some time, I got restless, and thought I would like to work in -the East. Knowing that a former operator named Adams, who had worked -with me in the Cincinnati office, was in Boston, I wrote him that I -wanted a job there. He wrote back that if I came on immediately he -could get me in the Western Union office. I had helped out the Grank -Trunk Railroad telegraph people by a new device when they lost one -of the two submarine cables they had across the river, making the -remaining cable act just as well for their purpose as if they had two. -I thought I was entitled to a pass, which they conceded, and I started -for Boston. After leaving Toronto a terrific blizzard came up and -the train got snowed under in a cut. After staying there twenty-four -hours, the trainmen made snow-shoes of fence-rail splints and started -out to find food, which they did about a half mile away. They found a -roadside inn, and by means of snow-shoes all the passengers were taken -to the inn. The train reached Montreal four days late. A number of the -passengers and myself went to the military headquarters to testify -in favor of a soldier who had been two days late in returning from a -furlough, which was a serious matter with military people, I learned. -We willingly did this, for this soldier was a great story-teller, and -made the time pass quickly. I met here a telegraph operator named -Stanton, who took me to his boarding-house, the most cheerless I have -ever been in. Nobody got enough to eat; the bedclothes were too short -and too thin; it was twenty-eight degrees below zero, and the washwater -was frozen solid. The board was cheap, being only one dollar and fifty -cents a week.</p> - -<p>"Stanton said that the usual live-stock accompaniment of operators' -boarding-houses was absent; he thought the intense cold had caused -them to hibernate. Stanton, when I was working in Cincinnati, left -his position and went out on the Union Pacific to work at Julesburg, -which was a cattle town at that time and very tough. I remember seeing -him off on the train, never expecting to meet him again. Six months -afterward, while working press wire in Cincinnati, about 2 A.M., there -was flung into the middle of the operating-room a large tin box. It -made a report like a pistol, and we all jumped up startled. In walked -Stanton. 'Gentlemen,' he said, 'I have just returned from a pleasure -trip to the land beyond the Mississippi. All my wealth is contained -in my metallic traveling-case, and you are welcome to it.' The case -contained one paper collar. He sat down, and I noticed that he had a -woolen comforter around his neck, with his coat buttoned closely. The -night was intensely warm. He then opened his coat and revealed the fact -that he had nothing but the bare skin. 'Gentlemen,' said he, 'you see -before you an operator who has reached the limit of impecuniosity.'"</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h3><a id="VIII"></a>VIII<br /><br /> - -WORK AND INVENTION IN BOSTON</h3> -<hr class="r5" /> - - -<p>When Milton Adams received Edison's letter from Port Huron he at once -went over to the Western Union Office and asked the manager, Mr. George -F. Milliken, if he did not want a good operator from the West.</p> - -<p>"What kind of copy does he make?" was the cautious response. Adams -says: "I passed Edison's letter through the window for his inspection. -Milliken read it and a look of surprise came over his countenance -as he asked me if he could take it off the line like that. I said -he certainly could, and that there was nobody who could stick him. -Milliken said if he was that kind of an operator I could send for him; -and I wrote Edison to come on, as I had a job for him in the main -office of the Western Union."</p> - -<p>On reporting to Mr. Milliken in Boston, Edison secured a "job" very -quickly. As he tells the story, he says: "The manager asked me when -I was ready to go to work. 'Now,' I replied. I was then told to -return at 5.30 P.M., and punctually at that hour I entered the main -operating-room and was introduced to the night manager. The weather -being cold, and being clothed poorly, my peculiar appearance caused -much mirth, and, as I afterward learned, the night operators had -consulted together how they might 'put up a job on the jay from the -woolly West.' I was given a pen and assigned to the New York No. 1 -wire. After waiting an hour, I was told to come over to a special table -and take a special report for the <i>Boston Herald</i>, the conspirators -having arranged to have one of the fastest senders in New York send -the despatch and 'salt' the new man. I sat down unsuspiciously at -the table, and the New York man started slowly. Soon he increased -his speed, to which I easily adapted my pace. This put my rival on -his mettle, and he put on his best powers, which, however, were soon -reached. At this point I happened to look up, and saw the operators -all looking over my shoulder, with their faces shining with fun and -excitement. I knew then that they were trying to put up a job on me, -but kept my own counsel. The New York man then commenced to slur over -his words, running them together and sticking the signals; but I had -been used to this style of telegraphy in taking report, and was not in -the least discomfited. Finally, when I thought the fun had gone far -enough, and having about completed the special, I quietly opened the -key and remarked, telegraphically, to my New York friend, 'Say, young -man, change off and send with your other foot.' This broke the New York -man all up, and he turned the job over to another man to finish."</p> - -<p>Edison did not devote his whole life at this time to the routine work -of a telegraph office. His insatiable desire for knowledge led him -to study deeply the underlying principles of electricity that made -telegraphy possible, and he was constantly experimenting to improve -the apparatus he handled daily, as well as pursuing his studies in -chemistry.</p> - -<p>One day he was more than delighted to pick up a complete set of -Faraday's works. Mr. Adams says that when Edison brought home these -books, at 4 A.M., he read steadily until breakfast time, and then -he remarked, enthusiastically, "Adams, I have got so much to do and -life is so short I am going to hustle." And thereupon he started on -a run for breakfast. Edison himself says: "It was in Boston I bought -Faraday's works. I think I must have tried about everything in those -books. His explanations were simple. He used no mathematics. He was -the master experimenter. I don't think there were many copies of -Faraday's works sold in those days. The only people who did anything -in electricity were the telegraphers and the opticians, making simple -school aparatus to demonstrate the principles."</p> - -<p>At this time there was a number of practical investigators and -electrical workers in Boston, and Edison with his congenial tastes soon -became very much at home with them. He spent a great deal of time among -them, and especially in the electrical workshop of the late Charles -Williams, who afterward became an associate of Alexander Graham Bell.</p> - -<p>It was in this workshop that Edison worked out into an operative model -his first patented invention, a vote recorder. This forms the subject -of Edison's first patent, for which application was signed on October -11, 1868, the patent itself being taken out June 1, 1869, No. 90,646.</p> - -<p>The purpose of this particular device was to permit a vote in the -National House of Representatives to be taken in a minute or so. -Edison took the vote recorder to Washington and exhibited it before -a committee. In recalling the circumstance, he says: "The chairman -of the committee, after seeing how quickly and perfectly it worked, -said: 'Young man, if there is any invention on earth that we don't -want down here it is this. One of the greatest weapons in the hands of -a minority to prevent bad legislation is filibustering on votes, and -this instrument would prevent it.' I saw the truth of this, because as -press operator I had taken miles of Congressional proceedings, and to -this day an enormous amount of time is wasted during each session of -the House in foolishly calling the members' names and recording, and -then adding, their votes, when the whole operation could be done in -almost a moment by merely pressing a particular button at each desk. -For filibustering purposes, however, the present methods are most -admirable."</p> - -<p>The outcome of this exhibition was a great disappointment to the young -inventor, but it proved to be a wholesome lesson, for he determined -from that time forth to devote his inventive faculties only to things -for which there was a real, genuine demand. We shall see later that he -has ever since lived up to the decision then made.</p> - -<p>After the above incident Edison, with increased earnestness, resumed -his study of electricity, especially in its application to telegraphy. -He did not neglect his chemistry, however, but indulged his tastes -freely in that direction, thus laying the foundation for the remarkable -chemical knowledge that enabled him later to make some of his great -inventions.</p> - -<p>He tells an amusing incident of one of his chemical experiments of -this early period: "I had read in a scientific paper the method of -making nitroglycerin, and was so fired by the wonderful properties it -was said to possess that I determined to make some of the compound. -We tested what we considered a very small quantity, but this produced -such terrible and unexpected results that we became alarmed, the -fact dawning upon us that we had a very large white elephant in our -possession. At 6 A.M. I put the explosive into a sarsaparilla bottle, -tied a string to it, wrapped it in a paper, and gently let it down into -the sewer at the corner of State and Washington Streets."</p> - -<p>The daily routine of a telegraph office and the busy hours of reading -and experimenting employed Edison's time for eighteen to twenty hours -a day. Life, however, was never too strenuous for him to indulge his -humor, especially if it called for the exercise of some ingenuity, as -shown in the following incident related by him: "The office was on the -ground floor, and had been a restaurant previous to its occupation -by the Western Union Telegraph Company. It was literally loaded with -cockroaches, which lived between the wall and the board running -around the room at the floor, and which came after the lunch. These -were such a bother on my table that I pasted two strips of tin-foil -on the wall at my desk, connecting one piece to the positive pole of -the big battery supplying current to the wires and the negative pole -to the other strip. The cockroaches moving up on the wall would pass -over the strips. The moment they got their legs across both strips -there was a flash of light and the cockroaches went into gas. This -automatic electrocuting device got half a column in an evening paper, -and attracted so much attention that the manager made me stop it." -About this time an innocent use of his chemical knowledge gave Edison -a narrow escape from injury which might have shortened his career. He -tells the story as follows: "After being in Boston several months, -working New York wire No. 1, I was requested to work the press wire, -called the 'milk route,' as there were so many towns on it taking -press simultaneously. New York office had reported great delays on the -wire, due to operators constantly interrupting, or 'breaking,' as it -was called, to have words repeated which they had failed to get; and -New York claimed that Boston was one of the worst offenders. It was a -rather hard position for me, for if I took the report without breaking, -it would prove the previous Boston operator incompetent. The results -made the operator have some hard feelings against me. He was put back -on the wire, and did much better after that. It seems that the office -boy was down on this man. One night he asked me if I could tell him how -to fix a key so that it would not 'break,' even if the circuit-breaker -was open, and also so that it could not be easily detected. I told -him to jab a penful of ink on the platinum points, as there was sugar -enough in it to make it sufficiently thick to hold up when the operator -tried to break—the current still going through the ink, so that he -could not break.</p> - -<p>"The next night about 1 A.M. this operator, on the press wire, while -I was standing near a House printer studying it, pulled out a glass -insulator, then used upside down as a substitute for an ink-bottle, -and threw it with great violence at me, just missing my head. It would -certainly have killed me if it had not missed. The cause of the trouble -was that this operator was doing the best he could not to break, but, -being compelled to open his key, he found he couldn't. The press matter -came right along, and he could not stop it. The office boy had put the -ink in a few minutes before, when the operator had turned his head -during a lull. He blamed me instinctively as the cause of the trouble. -Later we became good friends. He took his meals at the same 'emaciator' -that I did. His main object in life seemed to be acquiring the art of -throwing up wash-pitchers and catching them without breaking them. -About a third of his salary was used up in paying for pitchers."</p> - -<p>One of the most amusing incidents of Edison's life in Boston, occurred -through a request received at the Western Union office one day from the -principal of a select school for young ladies. The principal desired to -have some one sent up to the school to exhibit and describe the Morse -telegraph to her "children."</p> - -<p>Edison, who was always ready to earn some extra money for his -experiments, and was already known as the best-informed operator in -the office, accepted the task, inviting Adams to accompany him. What -happened is described by Adams as follows: "We gathered up a couple of -sounders, a battery, and some wire, and at the appointed time called on -her to do the stunt. Her school-room was about twenty by twenty feet, -not including a small platform. We rigged up the line between the two -ends of the room, Edison taking the stage, while I was at the other -end of the room. All being in readiness, the principal was told to -bring in her children. The door opened, and in came about twenty young -ladies elegantly gowned, not one of whom was under seventeen. When -Edison saw them I thought he would faint. He called me on the line and -asked me to come to the stage and explain the mysteries of the Morse -system. I replied that I thought he was in the right place, and told -him to get busy with his talk on dots and dashes. Always modest, Edison -was so overcome he could hardly speak, but he managed to say finally -that, as his friend, Mr. Adams, was better equipped with cheek than he -was, we would change places, and he would do the demonstrating while I -explained the whole thing. This caused the bevy to turn to see where -the lecturer was. I went on the stage, said something, and we did some -telegraphing over the line. I guess it was satisfactory; we got the -money, which was the main point to us."</p> - -<p>Edison tells the story in a similar manner, but insists that it was -he who saved the situation. "I managed to say that I would work the -apparatus, and Mr. Adams would make the explanations. Adams was so -embarrassed that he fell over an ottoman. The girls tittered, and this -increased his embarrassment until he couldn't say a word. The situation -was so desperate that for a reason I never could explain I started -in myself and talked and explained better than I ever did before or -since. I can talk to two or three persons, but when there are more -they radiate some unknown form of influence which paralyzes my vocal -cords. However, I got out of this scrape, and many times afterward -when I chanced with other operators to meet some of the young ladies -on their way home from school they would smile and nod, much to the -mystification of the operators, who were ignorant of this episode." The -purchase of supplies and apparatus for his constant experiments and -studies kept Edison's pocket-money at low ebb. He never had a surplus -of cash, and tells this amusing story of those impecunious days:</p> - -<p>"My friend Adams was working in the Franklin Telegraph Company, which -competed with the Western Union. Adams was laid off, and as his -financial resources had reached absolute zero centigrade, I undertook -to let him sleep in my hall bedroom. I generally had hall bedrooms, -because they were cheap and I needed money to buy apparatus. I also -had the pleasure of his genial company at the boarding-house about a -mile distant, but at the sacrifice of some apparatus. One morning, as -we were hastening to breakfast, we came into Tremont Row, and saw a -large crowd in front of two small 'gents'' furnishing goods stores. We -stopped to ascertain the cause of the excitement. One store put up a -paper sign in the display window which said, 'Three hundred pairs of -stockings received this day, five cents a pair—no connection with the -store next door.' Presently the other store put up a sign stating they -had received three hundred pairs, price three cents a pair, also that -they had no connection with the store next door. Nobody went in. The -crowd kept increasing. Finally, when the price had reached three pairs -for one cent, Adams said to me: I can't stand this any longer; give me -a cent.' I gave him a cent, and he elbowed his way in; and throwing -the money on the counter, the store being filled with women clerks, he -said, 'Give me three pairs.' The crowd was breathless, and the girl -took down a box and drew out three pairs of baby socks. 'Oh!' said -Adams, 'I want men's size.' 'Well, sir, we do not permit one to pick -sizes for that amount of money.' And the crowd roared, and this broke -up the sales."</p> - -<p>During Edison's first stay in Boston he began to weary of the -monotonous routine of a telegraph operator's life and took steps to -establish himself in an independent business. It was at this point that -he began his career as an inventor.</p> - -<p>He says: "After the vote recorder I invented a stock ticker, and -started a ticker service in Boston, had thirty or forty subscribers, -and operated from a room over the Gold Exchange. This was about a year -after Callahan started in New York."</p> - -<p>It has been generally supposed that Edison did not take up stock ticker -work until he left Boston finally and went to New York in 1869. But the -above shows that he actually started a ticker service in Boston in 1868.</p> - -<p>The stock ticker had been invented about a year before, 1867, by E. -A. Callahan, and had then been introduced into service in New York. -Its success was immediate, and it became the common ambition of every -operator to invent a new ticker, as there seemed to be a promise of -great wealth in this direction. Edison, however, was about the only one -in Boston who seems to have achieved any tangible result.</p> - -<p>This was not by any means all the practical work he did in Boston at -this time, as we learn from his own words. He says: "I also engaged -in putting up private lines, upon which I used an alphabetical dial -instrument for telegraphing between business establishments, a -forerunner of modern telephony. This instrument was very simple and -practical, and any one could work it after a few minutes' explanation. -I had these instruments made at Mr. Hamblet's, who had a little shop -where he was engaged in experimenting with electric clocks. Mr. -Hamblet was the father and introducer in after years of the Western -Union Telegraph system of time distribution. My laboratory was the -headquarters for the men, and also of tools and supplies for those -private lines. They were put up cheaply, as I used the roofs of -houses, just as the Western Union did. It never occurred to me to ask -permission from the owners; all we did was to go to the store, etc., -say we were telegraph men, and wanted to go up to the wires on the -roof; and permission was always granted.</p> - -<p>"In this laboratory I had a large induction coil which I had borrowed -to make some experiments with. One day I got hold of both electrodes of -the coil, and it clinched my hands on them so that I couldn't let go. -The battery was on a shelf. The only way I could get free was to back -off and pull the coil, so that the battery wires would pull the cells -off the shelf and thus break the circuit. I shut my eyes and pulled, -but the nitric acid splashed all over my face and ran down my back. I -rushed to a sink, which was only half big enough, and got in as well as -I could and wiggled around for several minutes to permit the water to -dilute the acid and stop the pain. My face and back were streaked with -yellow; the skin was thoroughly oxidized. I did not go on the street by -daylight for two weeks, as the appearance of my face was dreadful. The -skin, however, peeled off, and new skin replaced it without any damage."</p> - -<p>With all the practical work he was now doing, Boston seemed to be too -limited a sphere, and Edison longed for the greater opportunities of -New York. His friend Adams went West to continue a life of roving and -adventure, but the serious-minded Edison had had more than enough of -aimless roaming, and had determined to forge ahead on the lines on -which he was working.</p> - -<p>Realizing that he must look to New York to better his fortunes, Edison, -deep in debt for his new inventions, but with high hope and courage, -now made the next momentous step in his career.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h3><a id="IX"></a>IX<br /><br /> - -FROM POVERTY TO INDEPENDENCE</h3> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p>Edison came first to New York in 1868, with his early stock printer, -which he tried unsuccessfully to sell. He went back to Boston, and, -quite undismayed, got up a duplex telegraph. "Toward the end of my stay -in Boston," he says, "I obtained a loan of money, amounting to eight -hundred dollars, to build up a peculiar kind of duplex telegraph for -sending two messages over a single wire simultaneously. The apparatus -was built, and I left the Western Union employ and went to Rochester, -New York, to test the apparatus on the lines of the Atlantic and -Pacific Telegraph between that city and New York. But the assistant at -the other end could not be made to understand anything, notwithstanding -I had written out a very minute description of just what to do. After -trying for a week I gave it up and returned to New York with but a few -cents in my pocket."</p> - -<p>No one could have been in direr poverty than Edison when the steamboat -landed him in New York in 1869. He was in debt, and his few belongings -in books and instruments had to be left behind. He was not far from -starving.</p> - -<p>After leaving the boat his first thought was for breakfast; but he was -without money to obtain it. He walked the streets, and in passing a -wholesale tea house saw a man "tasting" tea, so he went in and asked -the "taster" if he might have some tea. His request was granted, and -this was his first breakfast in New York.</p> - -<p>He knew a telegraph operator in the city, and in the course of the day -succeeded in finding him, but he also was out of work, and the best he -could do was to lend Edison one dollar.</p> - -<p>By this time Edison was extremely hungry, and he gave most serious -consideration as to what he should buy in the way of food that would be -most satisfying. He finally decided upon apple dumplings and coffee, -which he obtained at Smith & McNeil's restaurant. He says he never ate -anything more appetizing.</p> - -<p>He applied to the Western Union Company for a position as operator, -but as there was no immediate vacancy he was obliged to wait for an -opening. Having only the remainder of the borrowed dollar, he did not -want to spend it for lodging, so he got permission to stay overnight -in the battery-room of the Gold Indicator Company. Thus he kept what -little change he had to buy food.</p> - -<p>This was four years after the Civil War, but its effects were felt -everywhere, and notably in the depreciation of government securities -and our paper money. Gold, being the standard, was regarded as much -more valuable than a paper promise to pay issued by a government -heavily in debt. A gold dollar, therefore, would buy much more than -a paper dollar, at times a dollar and a quarter, or a dollar and a -half in value. In a word, gold commanded a high premium. For several -years afterward there was a great deal of speculation in the precious -metal, and a "Gold Room" had been established in Wall Street, where -the transactions took place. At first the prices were exhibited on a -blackboard there, but before long this plan was found to be too slow -for the brokers. Then Dr. S. S. Laws, vice president and presiding -officer of the Gold Exchange, invented a system of indicators to be -placed in the offices of brokers. These indicators were operated from -a complicated transmitting instrument at the Exchange, and each one -showed the fluctuations of price as transactions took place. Dr. Laws -resigned from the Exchange and organized the Gold Indicator Company, -which put the system into operation.</p> - -<p>At the time when Edison took shelter at night in the battery-room of -the company there were about three hundred instruments in the offices -of subscribers. While waiting to hear from the Western Union, Edison -spent his days studying the indicators and the complicated transmitting -instrument in the office, controlled from the keyboard of the operator -on the floor of the Gold Exchange.</p> - -<p>What happened next has been the basis of many inaccurate stories, -but the following is Mr. Edison's own version: "On the third day of -my arrival, and while sitting in the office, the complicated general -instrument for sending on all the lines, and which made a very great -noise, suddenly came to a stop with a crash. Within two minutes over -three hundred boys—a boy from every broker in the street—rushed -up-stairs and crowded the long aisle and office, that hardly had -room for one hundred, all yelling that such and such a broker's wire -was out of order and to fix it at once. It was pandemonium, and the -man in charge became so excited that he lost control of all the -knowledge he ever had. I went to the indicator, and, having studied -it thoroughly, knew where the trouble ought to be, and found it. One -of the innumerable contact springs had broken off and had fallen down -between the two gearwheels and stopped the instrument; but it was not -very noticeable. As I went out to tell the man in charge what the -matter was Dr. Laws appeared on the scene, the most excited person I -had seen. He demanded of the man the cause of the trouble, but the man -was speechless. I ventured to say that I knew what the trouble was, -and he said, 'Fix it! Fix it! Be quick!' I removed the spring and set -the contact wheels at zero; and the line, battery, and inspecting men -all scattered through the financial district to set the instruments. -In about two hours things were working again. Dr. Laws came in to ask -my name and what I was doing. I told him, and he asked me to come to -his private office the following day. His office was filled with stacks -of books all relating to metaphysics and kindred matters. He asked me -a great many questions about the instruments and his system, and I -showed him how he could simplify things generally. He then requested -that I should call next day. On arrival, he stated at once that he had -decided to put me in charge of the whole plant, and that my salary -would be three hundred dollars a month! This was such a violent jump -from anything I had ever had before that it rather paralyzed me for a -while. I thought it was too much to be lasting; but I determined to try -and live up to that salary if twenty hours a day of hard work would do -it. I kept this position, made many improvements, devised several stock -tickers, until the Gold and Stock Telegraph Company consolidated with -the Gold Indicator Company."</p> - -<p>Certainly few changes in fortune have been more sudden and dramatic in -any notable career than this which thus placed an ill-clad, unkempt, -half-starved, eager lad in a position of such responsibility in days -when the fluctuations in the price of gold at every instant meant -fortune or ruin to thousands.</p> - -<p>There was at this time a very active period of speculation, and not a -great while afterward came the attempt of Jay Gould and his associates -to corner the gold market by buying all the available supply. This -brought about the panic of Black Friday, September 24, 1869.</p> - -<p>Edison, then but twenty-two years old, was a keen observer, and his -recollection of this episode is interesting. "On Black Friday," he -says, "we had a very exciting time with the indicators. The Gould and -Fisk crowd had cornered gold, and had run the quotations up faster -than the indicator could follow. The indicator was composed of several -wheels; on the circumference of each wheel were the numerals; and -one wheel had fractions. It worked in the same way as an ordinary -counter; one wheel made ten revolutions, and at the tenth it advanced -the adjacent wheel; and this, in its turn having gone ten revolutions, -advanced the next wheel, and so on. On the morning of Black Friday the -indicator was quoting one hundred and fifty premium, whereas the bids -by Gould's agents in the Gold Room were one hundred and sixty-five for -five millions or any part. We had a paper-weight at the transmitter -(to speed it up), and by one o'clock reached the right quotation. The -excitement was prodigious. New Street, as well as Broad Street, was -jammed with excited people. I sat on the top of the Western Union -telegraph booth to watch the surging, crazy crowd. One man came to the -booth, grabbed a pencil, and attempted to write a message to Boston. -The first stroke went clear off the blank; he was so excited that he -had the operator write the message for him. Amid great excitement -Speyer, the banker, went crazy, and it took five men to hold him; and -everybody lost their heads. The Western Union operator came to me and -said: 'Shake, Edison, we are O. K. We haven't got a cent.' I felt very -happy because we were poor. These occasions are very enjoyable to a -poor man; but they occur rarely."</p> - -<p>Edison in those days rather liked the modest coffee-shops and mentions -visiting one. "When on the New York No. 1 wire that I worked in Boston -there was an operator named Jerry Borst at the other end. He was a -first-class receiver and rapid sender. We made up a scheme to hold this -wire, so he changed one letter of the alphabet and I soon got used to -it; and finally we changed three letters. If any operator tried to -receive from Borst he couldn't do it, so Borst and I always worked -together. Borst did less talking than any operator I ever knew. Never -having seen him, I went, while in New York, to call upon him. I did -all the talking. He would listen, stroke his beard, and say nothing. -In the evening I went over to an all-night lunch-house in Printing -House Square, in a basement—Oliver's. Night editors, including Horace -Greeley, and Henry Raymond, of the New York <i>Times</i>, took their -midnight lunch there. When I went with Borst and another operator they -pointed out two or three men who were then celebrated in the newspaper -world. The night was intensely hot and close. After getting our lunch -and upon reaching the sidewalk, Borst opened his mouth, and said: -'That's a great place; a plate of cakes, a cup of coffee, and a Russian -bath for ten cents.' This was about fifty per cent, of his conversation -for two days."</p> - -<p>The work of Edison on the gold indicator had thrown him into close -relationship with Mr. Franklin L. Pope, a young telegraph engineer, and -afterward a distinguished expert and technical writer. Each recognized -the special ability of the other, and barely a week after Black Friday -the announcement of their partnership appeared in the <i>Telegrapher</i> of -October 1, 1869.</p> - -<p>This was the first "professional card," if it may be so described, ever -issued in America by a firm of electrical engineers.</p> - -<p>In order to be near his new friend, Edison boarded with Pope at -Elizabeth, New Jersey, for some time living the "strenuous life" in -the performance of his duties and following up his work on telegraph -printers with marked success.</p> - -<p>In regard to this Mr. Edison says: "While with them" (Pope and J. -N. Ashley) "I devised a printer to print gold quotations instead of -indicating them. The lines were started, and the whole was sold out to -the Gold and Stock Telegraph Company. My experimenting was all done -in the small shop of a Dr. Bradley, located near the station of the -Pennsylvania Railroad in Jersey City. Every night I left for Elizabeth -on the 1 A.M. train, then walked half a mile to Mr. Pope's house, and -up at 6 A.M. for breakfast, to catch the 7 A.M. train. This continued -all winter, and many were the occasions when I was nearly frozen in the -Elizabeth walk."</p> - -<p>After the Edison and Pope printer was bought out by the Gold and Stock -Telegraph Company, its president, Gen. Marshall Lefferts, requested -Edison to go to work on improving the stock ticker, he, Lefferts, to -furnish the money.</p> - -<p>Edison tackled the subject enthusiastically, and as one result produced -the "Universal" ticker, which came into wide-spread use in its day. -This and some other inventions had a startling effect on his fortunes. -Mr. Edison says: "I made a great many inventions; one was the special -ticker used for many years outside of New York in the large cities. -This was made exceedingly simple, as they did not have the experts we -had in New York to handle anything complicated. The same ticker was -used on the London Stock Exchange. After I had made a great number of -inventions and obtained patents, the General seemed anxious that the -matter should be closed up. One day I exhibited and worked a successful -device whereby, if a ticker should get out of unison in a broker's -office and commence to print wild figures, it could be brought to -unison from the central station, which saved the labor of many men and -much trouble to the broker. He called me into his office, and said: -'Now, young man, I want to close up the matter of your inventions. How -much do you think you should receive?' I had made up my mind that, -taking into consideration the time and killing pace I was working at, I -should be entitled to five thousand dollars, but could get along with -three thousand dollars. When the psychological moment arrived, I hadn't -the nerve to name such a large sum, so I said: 'Well, General, suppose -you make me an offer.' Then he said: 'How would forty thousand dollars -strike you?' This caused me to come as near fainting as I ever got. I -was afraid he would hear my heart beat. I managed to say that I thought -it was fair. 'All right, I will have a contract drawn; come around in -three days and sign it, and I will give you the money.' I arrived on -time, but had been doing some considerable thinking on the subject. -The sum seemed to be very large for the amount of work, for, at that -time I determined the value by the time and trouble, and not by what -the invention was worth to others. I thought there was something unreal -about it. However, the contract was handed to me. I signed without -reading it"</p> - -<p>Edison was then handed the first check he had ever received, one for -forty thousand dollars. He went down to the bank and passed the check -in to the paying teller, who handed it back to him with some remarks -which in his deafness he did not hear. Fancying for a moment he had -been cheated, Edison went outside "to let the cold sweat evaporate."</p> - -<p>He went back to the General, who, with his secretary, had a good laugh -over the matter, and told him the check must be endorsed, and sent with -him a clerk to identify him.</p> - -<p>The ceremony of identification performed with the paying teller, who -was quite merry over the incident, Edison was given the amount in -bundles of small bills "until there certainly seemed to be one cubic -foot." Unaware that he was the victim of a practical joke, Edison -proceeded gravely to stow away the money in his overcoat pockets and -all his other pockets. He then went to Newark and sat up all night with -the money for fear it might be stolen. Once more he sought help next -morning, when the General laughed heartily, and, telling the clerk that -the joke must not be carried any further, enabled him to deposit the -currency in the bank and open an account—his first bank account.</p> - -<p>Thus in a very brief time Edison had passed from poverty to -independence. Not only that, but he had made a deep impression as to -his originality and ability on important people, and had brought out -valuable inventions. Thus he lifted himself at one hound out of the -ranks and away from the drudgery of the key.</p> - -<p>Many young men of twenty-two would have been so dazzled by coming -suddenly into possession of forty thousand dollars after a period of -poverty, struggle, and hard work, that their main ideas would have been -of recreation and pleasure. Not so with Edison, however. Naturally -enterprising and a pioneer, this money meant to him nothing but means -to an end.</p> - -<p>He bought some machinery and opened a small shop and got work for it. -Very quickly he was compelled to move to larger quarters. Nos. 10 -and 12 Ward Street, Newark, New Jersey. He secured large orders from -General Lefferts to build stock tickers, and employed fifty men.</p> - -<p>As business increased he put on a night force, and was his own foreman -in both shifts. Half an hour of sleep three or four times in the -twenty-four hours was all he needed. His force increased to one hundred -and fifty men, and, besides superintending all the work day and night, -he was constantly making new inventions in the lines on which he was -then working, which was chiefly stock tickers.</p> - -<p>A glimpse at some of young Edison's first methods as a manufacturer -is interesting. He says: "Nearly all my men were on piece-work, and I -allowed them to make good wages, and never cut until the pay became -absurdly high as they got more expert. I kept no books. I had two -hooks. All the bills and accounts I owed I jabbed on one hook, and -memoranda of all owed to myself I put on the other. When some of the -bills fell due, and I couldn't deliver tickers to get a supply of -money, I gave a note. When the notes were due a messenger came around -from the bank with the note and a protest pinned to it for one dollar -and twenty-five cents. Then I would go to New York and get an advance -or pay the note if I had the money. This method of giving notes for -my accounts and having all notes protested I kept up over two years, -yet my credit was fine. Every store I traded with was always glad to -furnish goods, perhaps in amazed admiration of my system of doing -business, which was certainly new."</p> - -<p>After a while Edison got a bookkeeper, whose vagaries made him look -back with regret on the earlier, primitive method. "The first three -months I had him go over the books to find out how much we had made. -He reported three thousand dollars. I gave a supper to some of my men -to celebrate this, only to be told two days afterward that he had made -a mistake, and that we had lost five hundred dollars; and then a few -days after that he came to me again and said he was all mixed up, and -now found that we had made over seven thousand dollars." Edison changed -bookkeepers, but never afterward counted anything real profit until he -had paid all his debts and had the profits in the bank.</p> - -<p>Among the men who have worked with Edison in his various shops from -time to time, there have always been those who later have risen to some -notable degree of prominence in the electrical arts. This early shop -was no exception.</p> - -<p>At a single bench there worked three men since rich or prominent. One -was Sigmund Bergmann, for a time partner with Edison in his lighting -developments in the United States, and now head and principal owner -of electrical works in Berlin, employing ten thousand men. The next -man adjacent was John Kruesi, afterward engineer of the great General -Electric Works at Schenectady. A third was Schuckert, who left the -bench to settle up his father's little estate at Nuremberg, stayed -there and founded electrical factories which became the third largest -in Germany, their proprietor dying very wealthy.</p> - -<p>"I gave them a good training as to working hours and hustling," says -Edison. And this is equally true as applied to many scores of others -who have worked with him.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h3><a id="X"></a>X<br /><br /> - -A BUSY YOUNG INVENTOR</h3> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p>Edison had now plunged into the intensely active life that has never -since ceased. Some idea of his activity may be gained from the fact -that he started no fewer than three manufacturing shops in Newark -during 1870-71. All of these he directed personally, besides busying -himself with many of his own schemes.</p> - -<p>Speaking of those days, he says: "Soon after starting the large shop -(10 and 12 Ward Street, Newark), I rented shop-room to the inventor -of a new rifle. I think it was the Berdan. In any event, it was a -rifle which was subsequently adopted by the British army. The inventor -employed a tool-maker who was the finest and best I had ever seen. I -noticed that he worked pretty near the whole of the twenty-four hours. -This kind of application I was looking for. He was getting $21.50 a -week, and was also paid for overtime. I asked him if he could run the -shop. 'I don't know; try me!' he said. 'All right, I will give you -sixty dollars a week to run both shifts.' He went at it. His executive -ability was greater than that of any other man I have yet seen. His -memory was prodigious, conversation laconic, and movements rapid. -He doubled the production inside three months, without materially -increasing the pay-roll, by increasing the cutting speed of tools and -by the use of various devices. When in need of rest he would lie down -on a work-bench, sleep twenty or thirty minutes, and wake up fresh. -As this was just what I could do, I naturally conceived a great pride -in having such a man in charge of my work. But almost everything has -trouble connected with it. He disappeared one day, and, although I -sent men everywhere that it was likely he could be found, he was not -discovered. After two weeks he came into the factory in a terrible -condition as to clothes and face. He sat down, and, turning to me, -said: 'Edison, it's no use, this is the third time; I can't stand -prosperity. Put my salary back and give me a job.' I was very sorry -to learn that it was whisky that spoiled such a career. I gave him an -inferior job and kept him for a long time."</p> - -<p>Those were indeed busy days, when, at one time, Edison, besides -directing the work of his shops, was working on no less than forty-five -separate inventions of his own. He had thus entered definitely upon -that career as an inventor which has left so deep an imprint on the -records of the Patent Office.</p> - -<p>Soon after he commenced manufacturing he was engaged by the Automatic -Telegraph Company, of New York, to help it out of its difficulties. An -Englishman named George Little had brought over a system of automatic -telegraphy which worked well on a short line, but was a failure when -put upon the longer circuits, for which automatic methods are best -adapted.</p> - -<p>This principle of automatic telegraphy, briefly described, was somewhat -as follows: A narrow paper ribbon was perforated with groups of holes -corresponding to Morse characters. This ribbon was passed over a -cylinder, and a metallic pen was so connected that it would drop into -the holes as they passed. The pen and cylinder being connected with -the telegraph line, a current would pass over the line whenever the -pen touched the cylinder. At the other end of the line the electrical -impulses passed through another metallic pen, which rested upon another -ribbon of paper chemically prepared, and, through electro-chemical -action, would mark dots and dashes upon the paper.</p> - -<p>There were a great many very serious difficulties to be overcome in -order to make this system practical on long lines, but Edison applied -himself to the work with tremendous energy. His laboratory note-books -of the period show many thousands of experiments in the three years -that he was working on his problem, and during this time he also took -out a long list of patents on the subject.</p> - -<p>So successful were his efforts that with his apparatus it became -possible to send and record one thousand words a minute between New -York and Washington, and thirty-five hundred words a minute between New -York and Philadelphia.</p> - -<p>Later on, Edison improved this system by further inventions, by means -of which the message at the receiving end was automatically printed -upon the paper ribbon in Roman letters instead of dots and dashes. -Thus, the paper on which the message was received could be torn off -and sent out immediately to the person for whom it was intended. This -saved time and expense, for under the previous system a clerk must -first translate the dots and dashes into words and write it out before -delivery. The apparatus worked so perfectly that three thousand words -a minute were sent between New York and Philadelphia and recorded in -Roman letters.</p> - -<p>After Edison's automatic system was put into successful use in America -by the Automatic Telegraph Company, an arrangement was made for a -trial of the system in England, involving its probable adoption if -successful. Edison went to England in 1873 to make the demonstration. -He was to report there to Col. George E. Gouraud, through whom the -arrangement had been made.</p> - -<p>With one small satchel of clothes, three large boxes of instruments, -and a bright fellow-telegrapher named Jack Wright, he took voyage on -the <i>Jumping Java</i>, as she was humorously known, of the Cunard line. -The voyage was rough, and the little <i>Java</i> justified her reputation -by jumping all over the ocean. "At the table," says Edison, "there -were never more than ten or twelve people. I wondered at the time how -it could pay to run an ocean steamer with so few people; but when we -got into calm water and could see the green fields, I was astounded -to see the number of people who appeared. There were certainly two or -three hundred. Only two days could I get on deck, and on one of these a -gentleman had a bad scalp wound from being thrown against the iron wall -of a small smoking-room erected over a freight hatch."</p> - -<p>Arrived in London, Edison set up his apparatus at the Telegraph Street -headquarters, and sent his companion to Liverpool with the instruments -for that end. The condition of the test was that he was to record at -the rate of one thousand words a minute, five hundred words to be sent -every half hour for six hours. Edison was given a wire and batteries to -operate with, but a preliminary test soon showed that he was going to -fail. Both wire and batteries were poor, and one of the men detailed by -the authorities to watch the test remarked quietly, in a friendly way: -"You are not going to have much show. They are going to give you an old -Bridgewater Canal wire that is so poor we don't work it, and a lot of -'sand batteries' at Liverpool."<a name="FNanchor_1_2" id="FNanchor_1_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_2" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p> - -<p>The situation was rather depressing to the young American, but "I -thanked him," says Edison, "and hoped to reciprocate somehow. I knew I -was in a hole. I had been staying at a little hotel in Covent Garden -called the Hummums, and got nothing but roast beef and flounders, and -my imagination was getting into a coma. What I needed was pastry. -That night I found a French pastry shop in High Holborn Street and -filled up. My imagination got all right. Early in the morning I saw -Gouraud, stated my case, and asked if he would stand for the purchase -of a powerful battery to send to Liverpool. He said 'Yes.' I went -immediately to Apps, on the Strand, and asked if he had a powerful -battery. He said he hadn't; that all that he had was Tyndall's Royal -Institution battery, which he supposed would not serve. I saw it—one -hundred cells—and getting the price—one hundred guineas—hurried to -Gouraud. He said 'Go ahead.' I telegraphed to the man in Liverpool. He -came on, and got the battery to Liverpool, set up and ready just two -hours before the test commenced. One of the principal things that made -the system a success was that the line was put to earth at the sending -end through a magnet, and the extra current from this passed to the -line served to sharpen the recording waves. This new battery was strong -enough to pass a powerful current through the magnet without materially -diminishing the strength of the current." The test under these more -favorable circumstances was a success. "The record was as perfect as -copper plate, and not a single remark was made in the 'time lost' -column." Edison was now asked if he thought he could get a better speed -through submarine cables with this system, and replied that he would -like a chance to try it. For this purpose twenty-two hundred miles of -cable stored under water in tanks was placed at his disposal from 8 -P.M. until 6 A.M. He says: "This just suited me, as I preferred night -work. I got my apparatus down and set up, and then to get a preliminary -idea of what the distortion of the signal would be I sent a single dot, -which should have been recorded upon my automatic paper by a mark about -one thirty-second of an inch long. Instead of that it was twenty-seven -feet long. If I ever had any conceit, it vanished from my boots up! I -worked on this cable more than two weeks, and the best I could do was -two words per minute, which was only one-seventh of what the guaranteed -speed of the cable should be when laid. What I did not know at the time -was that a coiled cable, owing to induction, was infinitely worse than -when laid out straight, and that my speed was as good as, if not better -than, the regular system, but no one told me this."</p> - -<p>After a short stay in England Edison returned to America. He states -that the automatic was finally adopted in England and used for many -years; indeed, it is still in use there. But they took whatever they -needed from his system, and he "has never had a cent from them."</p> - -<p>On arriving home he resumed arduous work on many of his -inventions—chiefly those relating to duplex telegraphy. This subject -had interested him at various times for four or five years previously, -and he now returned to it with great vigor.</p> - -<p>Many inventors had been working on multiple transmission, and at this -period a system of sending two messages in opposite directions at the -same time over one wire had been invented by Joseph Stearns, and had -then lately come into use.</p> - -<p>The subject of multiple transmission gave plenty of play for ingenuity -and was one that had great fascination for Edison. He worked out -many plans, and in April, 1873, two applications for patents. One of -these covered an invention by which not only could two messages be -sent in opposite directions over one wire at the same time, but, if -desired, two separate messages could be sent simultaneously <i>in the -same direction</i> over a single wire. The former method was called the -"duplex," and the latter the "diplex."</p> - -<p>Duplexing was accomplished by varying the <i>strength</i> of the current, -and diplexing by <i>also</i> varying the <i>direction</i> of the current. In -this invention there was the germ of the quadruplex, and now Edison -redoubled his efforts toward completing the latter system, for, while -duplexing doubled the capacity of a line, the quadruplex would increase -it four times.</p> - -<p>He was working also on other inventions, but the quadruplex claimed -most of his attention. He says: "This problem was of the most difficult -and complicated kind, and I bent all my energies toward its solution. -It required a peculiar effort of the mind, such as the imagining of -eight different things moving simultaneously on a mental plane without -anything to demonstrate their efficiency."</p> - -<p>It is, perhaps, hardly to be wondered at that, when notified he would -have to pay twelve and one-half per cent, extra if his taxes in Newark -were not at once paid, he actually forgot his own name when asked for -it suddenly at the City Hall, and lost his place in the line!</p> - -<p>He succeeded, however, in inventing a successful quadruplex system by -a skilful combination of the duplex and diplex with other ingenious -devices. The immense value of this invention may be realized when it is -stated that it has been estimated to have saved from fifteen million to -twenty million dollars in the cost of line construction in America. But -Mr. Edison received only a small amount for it. We will let him tell -the story in his own words:</p> - -<p>"About this time I invented the quadruplex. I wanted to interest the -Western Union Telegraph Company in it, with a view of selling it, but -was unsuccessful until I made an arrangement with the chief electrician -of the company, so that he could be known as a joint inventor and -receive a portion of the money. At that time I was very short of money, -and needed it more than glory. This electrician appeared to want glory -more than money, so it was an easy trade. I brought my apparatus over -and was given a separate room with a marble-tiled floor—which, by the -way, was a very hard kind of floor to sleep on—and started in putting -on the finishing touches.</p> - -<p>"After two months of very hard work I got a detail at regular times of -eight operators, and we got it working nicely from one room to another -over a wire which ran to Albany and back. Under certain conditions of -weather one side of the quadruplex would work very shakily, and I had -not succeeded in ascertaining the cause of the trouble. On a certain -day, when there was a board meeting of the company, I was to make an -exhibition test. The day arrived. I had picked the best operators in -New York, and they were familiar with the apparatus. I arranged that, -if a storm occurred and the bad side got shaky, they should do the best -they could and draw freely on their imaginations. They were sending old -messages. About twelve o'clock everything went wrong, as there was a -storm somewhere near Albany, and the bad side got shaky. Mr. Orton, the -president, and William H. Vanderbilt and the other directors came in. -I had my heart trying to climb up around my Å“sophagus. I was paying a -sheriff five dollars a day to withhold execution of judgment which had -been entered against me in a case which I had paid no attention to; and -if the quadruplex had not worked before the president I knew I was to -have trouble and might lose my machinery. The New York <i>Times</i> came out -next day with a full account. I was given five thousand dollars as part -payment for the invention, which made me easy, and I expected the whole -thing would be closed up. But Mr. Orton went on an extended tour just -about that time. I had paid for all the experiments on the quadruplex -and exhausted the money, and I was again in straits. In the meantime I -had introduced the apparatus on the lines of the company, where it was -very successful.</p> - -<p>"At that time the general superintendent of the Western Union was Gen. -T. T. Eckert (who had been Assistant Secretary of War with Stanton). -Eckert was secretly negotiating with Gould to leave the Western Union -and take charge of the Atlantic and Pacific—Gould's company. One -day Eckert called me into his office and made inquiries about money -matters. I told him Mr. Orton had gone off and left me without means, -and I was in straits. He told me I would never get another cent, but -that he knew a man who would buy it. I told him of my arrangement with -the electrician, and said I could not sell it as a whole to anybody; -but if I got enough for it I would sell all my interest in any share -I might have. He seemed to think his party would agree to this. I had -a set of quadruplex over in my shop, 10 and 12 Ward Street, Newark, -and he arranged to bring him over next evening to see the apparatus. -So the next day Eckert came over with Jay Gould and introduced him -to me. This was the first time I had ever seen him. I exhibited and -explained the apparatus, and they departed. The next day Eckert sent -for me, and I was taken up to Gould's house, which was near the Windsor -Hotel, Fifth Avenue. In the basement he had an office. It was in the -evening, and we went in by the servants' entrance, as Eckert probably -feared that he was watched. Gould started in at once and asked me how -much I wanted. I said, 'Make me an offer.' Then he said, 'I will give -you thirty thousand dollars.' I said, 'I will sell any interest I may -have for that money,' which was something more than I thought I could -get. The next morning I went with Gould to the office of his lawyers, -Sherman & Sterling, and received a check for thirty thousand dollars, -with a remark by Gould that I had got the steamboat <i>Plymouth Rock</i>, as -he had sold her for thirty thousand dollars, and had just received the -check. There was a big fight on between Gould's company and the Western -Union, and this caused litigation. The electrician, on account of the -testimony involved, lost his glory. The judge never decided the case, -but went crazy a few months afterward."</p> - -<p>Mr. Gould controlled the Atlantic and Pacific Telegraph Company and was -aiming to get control of the Western Union Company, and his purchase -of Edison's share in the quadruplex was an important move in this -direction.</p> - -<p>Having learned of the success of Edison's automatic system, mentioned -in the early part of this chapter, Mr. Gould's next move was to get -control of that. It was owned by Mr. Edison and his associates of -the Automatic Telegraph Company, and that company was bought by Mr. -Gould under an agreement to pay four million dollars in stock. As to -this, Mr. Edison says: "After this, Gould wanted me to help install -the automatic system in the Atlantic and Pacific Company, of which -General Eckert had been elected president, the company having bought -the Automatic Telegraph Company. I did a lot of work for this company -making automatic apparatus in my shop at Newark."</p> - -<p>Unfortunately for the inventor and his associates, the terms of the -contract have never been carried out. Mr. Edison remarks in regard to -this: "He" (Gould) "took no pride in building up an enterprise. He -was after money, and money only. Whether the company was a success -or a failure mattered not to him. After he had hammered the Western -Union through his opposition company and had tired out Mr. Vanderbilt, -the latter retired from control, and Gould went in and consolidated -his company and controlled the Western Union. He then repudiated the -contract with the Automatic Telegraph people, and they never received -a cent for their wires or patents, and I lost three years of very hard -labor. But I never had any grudge against him, because he was so able -in his line, and as long as my part was successful the money with me -was a secondary consideration. When Gould got the Western Union I knew -no further progress in telegraphy was possible, and I went into other -lines."</p> - -<p>One of the most remarkable suits in the history of American -jurisprudence arose out of this transaction. Mr. Edison and his -associates sued Mr. Gould in 1876 for the recovery of the contract -price of these inventions, and, at this writing, thirty-five years -later, the suit has not been finally decided. It is now on appeal to -the United States Supreme Court.</p> - -<p>A busier shop than that of the young inventor during the years 1870 to -1874 would be difficult to find. Not only was he and it engaged on the -tremendous problems of the automatic and quadruplex systems, but the -shop was also busy making stock tickers. The hours were endless; and on -one occasion when an order was on hand for a large quantity of these -instruments Edison locked the men in until the job had been finished of -making the machine perfect, and "all the bugs taken out," which meant -sixty hours of hard work before the difficulties were overcome.</p> - -<p>In addition to all this work, Edison gave attention to many other -things. One of them was the first typewriter. In the early 'seventies -Mr. D. N. Craig, who was interested in the automatic, brought with him -from Milwaukee a Mr. Sholes, who had a wooden model of a machine to -which had been given the then new and unfamiliar name of "typewriter." -Mr. Craig was interested in the machine and put the model in Edison's -hands to perfect.</p> - -<p>"This typewriter proved a difficult thing," says Edison, "to make -commercial. The alignment of the letters was awful. One letter would -be one-sixteenth of an inch above the others, and all the letters -wanted to wander out of line. I worked on it till the machine gave -fair results. Some were made and used in the office of the Automatic -Company. Craig was very sanguine that some day all business letters -would be written on a typewriter. He died before that took place; -but it gradually made its way. The typewriter I got into commercial -shape is now known as the Remington. I now had five shops, and with -experimenting on this new scheme I was pretty busy—at least I did not -have ennui."</p> - -<p>Later on, after the automatic was completed, and Edison was installing -the system for the Atlantic and Pacific Telegraph Company he says: -"About this time I invented a district messenger call-box system, and -organized a company called the Domestic Telegraph Company, and started -in to install the system in New York. I had great difficulty in getting -subscribers, having tried several canvassers, who, one after the other, -failed to get subscribers. When I was about to give it up a test -operator named Brown, who was on the Automatic Telegraph wire between -New York and Washington, which passed through my Newark shop, asked -permission to let him try and see if he couldn't get subscribers. I had -very little faith in his ability to get any, but I thought I would give -him a chance, as he felt certain of his ability to succeed. He started -in, and the results were surprising. Within a month he had procured two -hundred subscribers, and the company was a success. I have never quite -understood why six men should fail absolutely, while the seventh man -should succeed. Perhaps hypnotism would account for it. This company -was sold out to the Atlantic and Pacific Company."</p> - -<p>This was not the first time that Edison had worked on district -messenger signal boxes, for as far back as 1872 he had applied for a -patent on a device of this kind. Although he was not the first, he was -a very early inventor in this field.</p> - -<p>It will be seen, therefore, that not all of his problems and inventions -were connected with telegraphy. He seemed to find relief in working -on several lines that were quite different and distinct, but all -were useful and capable of wide application. For instance, when we -take a piece of paraffin paper off candy, chocolate, chewing-gum or -other articles, we scarcely realize that it owes its introduction to -Mr. Edison. Yet such is the fact, and we relate it in his own modest -words: "Toward the latter part of 1875, in the Newark shop, I invented -a device for multiplying copies of letters, which I sold to Mr. A. -B. Dick, of Chicago, and in the years since it has been introduced -universally throughout the world. It is called the mimeograph. I also -invented devices for making, and introduced, paraffin paper, now used -universally for wrapping up candy, etc."</p> - -<p>In the mimeograph a stencil is prepared by writing with a pointed -pencil-like stylus on a tough prepared paper placed on a finely grooved -steel plate. The pressure of the stylus causes the letters to be -punctured in the sheet by a series of minute perforations, thus forming -a stencil from which hundreds of copies can be made.</p> - -<p>Edison accomplished the same perforating result by two other -inventions, one a pneumatic and the other an electric motor. The latter -was the one which came into extensive use, and was called the "Edison -electric pen." A tiny electric motor was mounted on a pencil-like tube -in which a pointed stylus (connected to the motor) traveled to and fro -at a very high rate of speed. Current from a battery was supplied to -the motor through a flexible cord, and the tube was held and used like -a pencil, as in the other case. As many as three thousand copies have -been made from such a stencil.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_1_2" id="Footnote_1_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_2"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> The sand battery is now obsolete. In this type the cell -containing the elements was filled with sand, which was kept moist with -an electrolyte.</p></div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h3><a id="XI"></a>XI<br /><br /> - -THE TELEPHONE, MOTOGRAPH, AND MICROPHONE</h3> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p>It is well known that to Mr. Alexander Graham Bell belongs the credit -for transmitting the articulate voice over an electric circuit by -talking against a diaphragm placed in front of an electromagnet. -But after Mr. Bell brought out the telephone Mr. Edison made some -remarkable improvements.</p> - -<p>In the year 1875 Edison took up the study of harmonic telegraphs, in -addition to his other work, with the idea of developing a system of -multiple transmission by sending sound waves over an electric circuit.</p> - -<p>One of the devices he then made is illustrated in an interesting -drawing on file at the Orange Laboratory, entitled "First Telephone -on Record." This device is described by Edison in a caveat filed in -the Patent Office January 14, 1876, a month before Bell filed his -application for patent.</p> - -<p>Mr. Edison states, however, that while this device was crudely capable -of use as a magneto telephone, he did not invent it for transmitting -speech, but as an apparatus for analyzing the complex waves arising -from various sounds. He did not try the effects of sound waves produced -by the human voice until after Bell's discovery was announced, but then -found that this device was capable of use as a telephone.</p> - -<p>This was a curious coincidence, but it must be understood that Mr. -Edison in his testimony and public utterances has always given Mr. -Bell full credit for the original discovery of transmitting articulate -speech over an electric circuit.</p> - -<p>In order to understand the value of Edison's work in this field it -should be stated that, while Bell's telephone transmitted speech and -other sounds, it was only practicable for short lines. Bell had no -separate transmitter, but used a single apparatus both as transmitter -and receiver. This instrument was similar to the receiver used to-day, -having a metallic diaphragm placed near the pole of a magnet. The -vibrations of the diaphragm induced very weak electric impulses in the -magnetic coil. These impulses passed over the line to the receiving -end, energizing the magnet coil there, and, by varying the magnetism, -caused the receiving diaphragm to be similarly vibrated, and thus -reproduce the sounds. Under such conditions the telephone would be -practicable upon lines of only a few miles in extent, as the amount of -power generated by the human voice is necessarily quite limited.</p> - -<p>The Western Union Company requested Edison to experiment on the -telephone so that it would be commercially practicable. He then went to -work with a corps of helpers, and, after months of hard work day and -night and the performance of many thousands of experiments, invented -the carbon transmitter. This, with his plan of using an induction coil -and constant battery current on the line, were the needed elements of -success, and it made the telephone a commercial possibility. Every -one of the many millions of telephones in use all over the world -to-day bears the imprint of Edison's genius in the employment of the -principles he then established.</p> - -<p>What Edison accomplished was this: Instead of using one single -apparatus for transmitting and receiving, he made a separate -transmitter of special design. In this he used carbon, which varies -in electrical resistance with the pressure applied. The carbon was an -electrode in connection with the vibrating diaphragm, and was in a -closed circuit through which flowed a battery current. The vibrations -of the diaphragm caused variations of pressure on the carbon and -consequent variations in the current. These in turn resulted in -corresponding impulses in the receiving magnet, and the diaphragm of -the receiver was vibrated accordingly, thus reproducing the sounds. -Edison's plan also included the passing of the current through an -induction coil, the secondary of which was connected with the main -line. By this means electrical impulses of enormously high potential -are sent out on the main line to the receiving end.</p> - -<p>Thus it will be seen that with Bell's telephone the sound-waves -themselves generate the electric impulses, which are hence extremely -weak. With Edison's telephone the sound-waves actuate an electric -valve, so to speak, and permit variations in a current of any desired -strength.</p> - -<p>Mr. Edison's own story of his telephone work is full of interest: "In -1876 I started again to experiment for the Western Union and Mr. Orton. -This time it was the telephone. Bell invented the first telephone, -which consisted of the present receiver, used both as a transmitter -and a receiver (the magneto type). It was attempted to introduce -it commercially, but it failed on account of its faintness and the -extraneous sounds which came in on its wire from various causes. -Mr. Orton wanted me to take hold of it and make it commercial. As I -had also been working on a telegraph system employing tuning-forks, -simultaneously with both Bell and Gray, I was pretty familiar with the -subject. I started in, and soon produced the carbon transmitter, which -is now universally used.</p> - -<p>"Tests were made between New York and Philadelphia, also between New -York and Washington, using regular Western Union wires. The noises -were so great that not a word could be heard with the Bell receiver -when used as a transmitter between New York and Newark, New Jersey. -Mr. Orton and W. K. Vanderbilt and the board of directors witnessed -and took part in the tests of my transmitter. They were successful. -The Western Union then put the transmitters on private lines. Mr. -Theodore Puskas, of Budapest, Hungary, was the first man to suggest -a telephone exchange, and soon after exchanges were established. The -telephone department was put in the hands of Hamilton McK. Twombly, -Vanderbilt's ablest son-in-law, who made a success of it. The Bell -Company, of Boston, also started an exchange, and the fight was on, -the Western Union pirating the Bell receiver and the Boston company -pirating the Western Union transmitter. About this time I wanted to be -taken care of. I threw out hints of this desire. Then Mr. Orton sent -for me. He had learned that inventors didn't do business by the regular -process, and concluded he would close it right up. He asked me how much -I wanted. I had made up my mind it was certainly worth twenty-five -thousand dollars if it ever amounted to anything for central station -work; so that was the sum I had in mind to obstinately stick to and -get. Still it had been an easy job, and only required a few months, -and I felt a little shaky and uncertain. So I asked him to make me an -offer. He promptly said he would give me one hundred thousand dollars. -'All right,' I said, 'it is yours on one condition, and that is that -you do not pay it all at once, but pay me at the rate of six thousand -dollars a year for seventeen years—the life of the patent.' He seemed -only too pleased to do this, and it was closed. My ambition was about -four times too large for my business capacity, and I knew that I would -soon spend this money experimenting if I got it all at once; so I fixed -it that I couldn't. I saved seventeen years of worry by this stroke."</p> - -<p>Edison continued his telephone work through a number of years and made -and tested many other kinds of telephones, such as the water telephone, -electrostatic telephone, condenser telephone, chemical telephone, -various magneto telephones, inertia telephone, mercury telephone, -voltaic pile telephone, musical transmitter, and the electromotograph.</p> - -<p>The principle of the electromotograph was utilized by him in more -ways than one; first of all in telegraphy. Soon after the time he had -concluded the telephone arrangement just mentioned a patent was issued -to a Mr. Page. This patent was considered very important. It related to -the use of a retractile spring to withdraw the armature lever from the -magnet of a telegraph or other relay or sounder, and thus controlled -the art of telegraphy, except in simple circuits.</p> - -<p>"There was no known way," remarks Edison, "whereby this patent could -be evaded, and its possessor would eventually control the use of what -is known as the relay and sounder, and this was vital to telegraphy. -Gould was pounding the Western Union on the Stock Exchange, disturbing -its railroad contracts, and, being advised by his lawyers that this -patent was of great value, bought it. The moment Mr. Orton heard -this he sent for me and explained the situation, and wanted me to go -to work immediately and see if I couldn't evade it or discover some -other means that could be used in case Gould sustained the patent. It -seemed a pretty hard job, because there was no known means of moving -a lever at the other end of a telegraph wire except by the use of a -magnet. I said I would go at it that night. In experimenting some -years previously I had discovered a very peculiar phenomenon, and that -was that if a piece of metal connected to a battery was rubbed over -a moistened piece of chalk resting on a metal connected to the other -pole, when the current passed the friction was greatly diminished. When -the current was reversed the friction was greatly increased over what -it was when no current was passing. Remembering this, I substituted a -piece of chalk, rotated by a small electric motor for the magnet, and -connecting a sounder to a metallic finger resting on the chalk, the -combination claim of Page was made worthless. A hitherto unknown means -was introduced in the electric art. Two or three of the devices were -made and tested by the company's expert. Mr. Orton, after he had had -me sign the patent application and got it in the Patent Office, wanted -to settle for it at once. He asked my price. Again I said, 'Make me -an offer.' Again he named one hundred thousand dollars. I accepted, -providing he would pay it at the rate of six thousand dollars a year -for seventeen years. This was done, and thus, with the telephone money, -I received twelve thousand dollars yearly for that period from the -Western Union Telegraph Company."</p> - -<p>A year or two later the electromotograph principle was again made -use of in a curious manner. The telephone was being developed in -England, and Edison had made arrangements with Colonel Gouraud, his old -associate in the automatic telegraph, to represent his interests.</p> - -<p>A company was formed, a large number of instruments were made and -sent to London, and prospects were bright. Then there came a threat -of litigation from the owners of the Bell patent, and Gouraud found -he could not push the enterprise unless he could avoid using what was -asserted to be an infringement of the Bell receiver.</p> - -<p>He cabled for help to Edison, who sent back word telling him to hold -the fort. "I had recourse again," says Edison, "to the phenomenon -discovered by me some years previous, that the friction of a rubbing -electrode passing over a moist chalk surface was varied by electricity. -I devised a telephone receiver which was afterward known as the -'loud-speaking telephone,' or 'chalk receiver.' There was no magnet, -simply a diaphragm and a cylinder of compressed chalk about the size -of a thimble. A thin spring connected to the center of the diaphragm -extended outwardly and rested on the chalk cylinder, and was pressed -against it with a pressure equal to that which would be due to a weight -of about six pounds. The chalk was rotated by hand. The volume of sound -was very great. A person talking into the carbon transmitter in New -York had his voice so amplified that he could be heard one thousand -feet away in an open field at Menlo Park. This great excess of power -was due to the fact that the latter came from the person turning the -handle. The voice, instead of furnishing all the power, as with the -present receiver, merely controlled the power, just as an engineer -working a valve would control a powerful engine.</p> - -<p>"I made six of these receivers and sent them in charge of an expert on -the first steamer. They were welcomed and tested, and shortly afterward -I shipped a hundred more. At the same time I was ordered to send twenty -young men, after teaching them to become expert. I set up an exchange -of ten instruments around the laboratory. I would then go out and get -each one out of order in every conceivable way, cutting the wires of -one, short-circuiting another, destroying the adjustment of a third, -putting dirt between the electrodes of a fourth, and so on. A man would -be sent to each to find out the trouble. When he could find the trouble -ten consecutive times, using five minutes each, he was sent to London. -About sixty men were sifted to get twenty. Before all had arrived, -the Bell Company there, seeing we could not be stopped, entered into -negotiations for consolidation. One day I received a cable from Gouraud -offering 'thirty thousand' for my interest. I cabled back I would -accept. When the draft came I was astonished to find it was for thirty -thousand pounds. I had thought it was dollars."</p> - -<p>After the consolidation of the Bell and Edison interests in England the -chalk receiver was finally abandoned in favor of the Bell receiver—the -latter being more simple and cheaper. Extensive litigation with -newcomers into the telephone field followed, and Edison's carbon -transmitter patent was sustained by the English courts, while Bell's -was declared invalid.</p> - -<p>In America, the competition between the Western Union and Bell -companies, which had been keen and strenuous, was finally brought to -an end under an agreement, the former company agreeing to retire from -the telephonic field and the latter company agreeing to stay out of the -telegraphic field. Through its ownership of Edison's carbon transmitter -invention, the Western Union company came to enjoy an annual income of -several hundred thousand dollars for some years as a compensation for -its retirement from telephony under this agreement.</p> - -<p>The principle involved in Edison's carbon-transmitter gave birth to -another interesting device called the microphone, by means of which -the faintest sounds could be very plainly heard. For instance, the -footsteps of a common house-fly make a loud noise when the hearing -is assisted by the microphone. As every one knows, the microphone is -universally used in our modern radio.</p> - -<p>This invention was claimed at the time for Professor Hughes, of -England. Whatever credit might be due to him for the form he proposed, -a standard history ascribes two original forms of the microphone to -Edison, and he himself remarks: "After I sent one of my men over to -London especially to show Preece the carbon transmitter, when Hughes -first saw it, and heard it—then within a month he came out with the -microphone, without any acknowledgment whatever. Published dates will -show that Hughes came along after me."</p> - -<p>The carbon transmitter has not been the only way in which Edison has -utilized the peculiar property that carbon possesses of altering -its resistance to the passage of current according to the degree of -pressure brought to bear on it.</p> - -<p>For his quadruplex system he constructed a rheostat, or resistance box, -with a series of silk disks saturated with plumbago and well dried. The -pressure on the disks can be regulated by an adjustable screw, and in -this way the resistance of the circuit can be varied.</p> - -<p>He also developed a "pressure," or carbon, relay, by means of which -signals of variable strength can be transferred from one telegraphic -circuit to another. The poles of the electromagnet in the local or -relay circuit are hollowed out and filled up with carbon disks or -powdered plumbago.</p> - -<p>If a weak current passes through the relay the armature will be but -feebly attracted and will only compress the carbon slightly. Thus the -carbon will offer considerable resistance and the signal on the local -sounder will be weak.</p> - -<p>If, on the contrary, the incoming current be strong, the armature -will be strongly attracted, the carbon will be more compressed, thus -lowering the resistance and giving a loud signal on the local sounder.</p> - -<p>Another beautiful and ingenious use of carbon was made by Edison in an -instrument invented by him called the tasimeter. This device was used -for indicating most minute degrees of heat, and was so exceedingly -sensitive that in one case the heat of rays of light from the remote -star Arcturus showed results.</p> - -<p>The tasimeter is a very simple instrument. A strip of hard rubber rests -vertically on a platinum plate, beneath which is a carbon button, under -which again lies another platinum plate. The two plates and the carbon -button form part of an electric circuit containing a battery and a -galvanometer. Hard rubber is very sensitive to heat, and the slightest -rise of temperature causes it to expand, thus increasing the pressure -on the carbon button. This produces a variation in resistance shown by -the swinging of the galvanometer needle.</p> - -<p>This instrument is so sensitive that with a delicate galvanometer the -heat of a person's hand thirty feet away will throw the needle off the -scale.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h3><a id="XII"></a>XII<br /><br /> - -MAKING A MACHINE TALK</h3> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p>If one had never heard a phonograph, it would seem as though it would -be impossible to take some pieces of metal and make a machine that -would repeat speaking, singing, or instrumental music just like life.</p> - -<p>So, before the autumn of 1877, when Edison invented the phonograph, the -world thought such a thing was entirely out of the question. Indeed, -Edison's own men in his workshop, who had seen him do some wonderful -things, thought the idea was absurd when he told them that he was -making a machine to reproduce human speech.</p> - -<p>One of his men went so far as to bet him a box of cigars that the thing -would be an utter failure when finished, but, as every one knows, -Edison won the bet, for the very first time the machine was tried it -repeated clearly all the words that were spoken into it.</p> - -<p>A story has often been told in the newspapers that the invention was -made through Edison's finger being pricked by a point attached to a -vibrating telephone diaphragm, but this is not true.</p> - -<p>The invention was not made through any accident, but was the result -of pure reasoning, and in this case, as in many others, fact is more -wonderful than fiction. Mr. Edison's own account of the invention of -the phonograph is intensely interesting.</p> - -<p>"I was experimenting," he says, "on an automatic method of recording -telegraph messages on a disk of paper laid on a revolving platen, -exactly the same as the disk talking-machine of to-day. The platen had -a spiral groove on its surface, like the disk. Over this was placed -a circular disk of paper; an electromagnet with the embossing point -connected to an arm travelled over the disk, and any signals given -through the magnets were embossed on the disk of paper. If this disk -was removed from the machine and put on a similar machine provided -with a contact point the embossed record would cause the signals to be -repeated into another wire. The ordinary speed of telegraphic signals -is thirty-five to forty words a minute; but with this machine several -hundred words were possible.</p> - -<p>"From my experiments on the telephone I knew of the power of a -diaphragm to take up sound vibrations, as I had made a little toy which -when you recited loudly in the funnel would work a pawl connected to -the diaphragm; and this, engaging a ratchet-wheel, served to give -continuous rotation to a pulley. This pulley was connected by a cord -to a little paper toy representing a man sawing wood. Hence, if one -shouted: 'Mary had a little lamb,' etc., the paper man would start -sawing wood. I reached the conclusion that if I could record the -movements of the diaphragm properly I could cause such records to -reproduce the original movements imparted to the diaphragm by the -voice, and thus succeed in recording and reproducing the human voice.</p> - -<p>"Instead of using a disk I designed a little machine, using a cylinder -provided with grooves around the surface. Over this was to be placed -tin-foil, which easily received and recorded the movements of the -diaphragm. A sketch was made, and the piece-work price, eighteen -dollars, was marked on the sketch. I was in the habit of marking the -price I would pay on each sketch. If the workman lost, I would pay -his regular wages; if he made more than the wages, he kept it. The -workman who got the sketch was John Kruesi. I didn't have much faith -that it would work, expecting that I might possibly hear a word or so -that would give hope of a future for the idea. Kruesi, when he had -nearly finished it, asked what it was for. I told him I was going to -record talking, and then have the machine talk back. He thought it -absurd. However, it was finished; the foil was put on; I then shouted -'Mary had a little lamb,' etc. I adjusted the reproducer, and the -machine reproduced it perfectly. I was never so taken back in my life. -Everybody was astonished. I was always afraid of things that worked -the first time. Long experience proved that there were great drawbacks -found generally before they could be made commercial; but here was -something there was no doubt of."</p> - -<p>No wonder that John Kruesi, as he heard the little machine repeat the -words that had been spoken into it, ejaculated in an awe-stricken tone: -"Mein Gott im Himmel!" No wonder the "boys" joined hands and danced -around Edison, singing and shouting. No wonder that Edison and his -associates sat up all night fixing and adjusting it so as to get better -and better results—reciting and singing and trying one another's -voices and listening with awe and delight as the crude little machine -repeated the words spoken or sung into it.</p> - -<p>The news quickly became public, and the newspapers of the world -published columns about this wonderful invention. Mr. Edison was -besieged with letters from every part of the globe. Every one wanted -to hear this machine; and in order to satisfy a universal demand for -phonographs to be used for exhibition purposes he had a number of them -made and turned them over to various individuals, who exhibited them to -great crowds around the country. These were the machines in which the -record was made on a sheet of tin-foil laid around the cylinder.</p> - -<p>They created great excitement both in America and abroad. The -announcement of a phonograph concert was sufficient to fill a hall with -people who were curious to hear a machine talk and sing.</p> - -<p>In the next year, 1878, Edison entered upon his experiments in electric -lighting. His work in this field kept him intensely busy for nearly ten -years, and the phonograph was laid aside as far as he was concerned.</p> - -<p>He had not forgotten it, however, for he had fully realized its -tremendous possibilities very quickly after its invention. This -is shown by an article he wrote for the <i>North American Review</i>, -which appeared in the summer of 1878. In that article he predicted -the possible uses of the phonograph, many of which have since been -fulfilled.</p> - - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<div class="figcenterl"> -<a id="ed0153"></a> -<img src="images/ed0153.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption">MR. EDISON AT THE CLOSE OF FIVE DAYS AND NIGHTS -OF CONTINUED WORK IN PERFECTING THE EARLY WAX-CYLINDER TYPE OF -PHONOGRAPH—JUNE 16, 1888<br /> - -This is the longest continuous session of labor he ever performed.</p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p>In 1887, having finished the greatest part of his work on the electric -light, he turned to the phonograph once more. Realizing that the -tin-foil machine was not an ideal type and could not come into common -use, he determined to re-design it, and make it an instrument that -could be handled by any one.</p> - -<p>This meant the design and construction of an entirely different type of -machine, and resulted in the kind of phonograph with which every one is -familiar in these modern days. One of the chief differences was the use -of a wax cylinder instead of tin-foil, and, instead of indenting with a -pointed stylus, the record is cut into the wax with a tiny sapphire, -the next hardest jewel to a diamond.</p> - -<p>Into his improvements of the phonograph Mr. Edison has put an enormous -amount of time and work. He has never lost interest, but has worked on -it more or less through all the intervening years up to the present -time. Even during recent years he has expended a prodigious amount of -energy in improving the reproducer and other parts, spending night -after night, and frequently all night, at the laboratory.</p> - -<p>Inasmuch as great quantities of phonographs were sold, requiring -millions of records, one of the difficulties to be overcome was to make -large numbers of duplicates from an original record made by a singer, -speaker, or band of musicians.</p> - -<p>This difficulty will be perceived when it is stated that the record -cut into the wax cylinder is hardly ever greater than one-thousandth -of an inch deep, which is less than the thickness of a sheet of tissue -paper, and in a single phonograph record there are many millions of -sound-waves so recorded.</p> - -<p>Through endless experiments of Edison and his working force, and with -many ingenious inventions, however, these difficulties were overcome -one by one.</p> - -<p>It may be added that the phonograph was an invention so absolutely new -that when Mr. Edison applied for his original patent, in 1877, the -Patent Office could not find that any such attempt had ever before been -made to record and reproduce speech or other sounds, and the patent -was granted immediately. He has since taken out more than one hundred -patents on improvements.</p> - -<p>The original patent has long since expired, and many kinds of -talking-machines are now made by others also, but they all operate on -the identical principle which Edison was the first to discover and put -into actual practice.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h3><a id="XIII"></a>XIII<br /><br /> - -A NEW LIGHT IN THE WORLD</h3> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p>In these modern times an incandescent electric lamp is such an -every-day affair as to be a familiar object even to a small child. But -only a few years ago—a little over thirty—the man who proposed and -invented it was derided in the newspapers, and called a madman and a -dreamer.</p> - -<p>If among Edison's numerous inventions there should be selected one or a -class that might be considered the greatest, it seems to be universal -opinion that the palm would be awarded to the incandescent lamp and his -<i>complete system</i> for the distribution of electric light, heat, and -power. These inventions as a class, and what has sprung from them, have -brought about most wonderful changes in the world.</p> - -<p>The year 1877 was a busy one at Edison's laboratory at Menlo Park. -He was engaged on the telephone, on acoustic electric transmission, -sextuplex telegraphs, duplex telegraphs, miscellaneous carbon articles, -and other things. He also commenced experimenting on the electric light.</p> - -<p>Besides, as we have seen in the previous chapter, he invented the -phonograph. The great interest and excitement caused by the latter -invention took up nearly all of his time and attention for many months, -and, indeed, up to July, 1878. He then took a vacation and went out to -Wyoming with a party of astronomers to observe an eclipse of the sun -and to make a test of his tasimeter.</p> - -<p>He was absent about two months, coming home rested and refreshed. Mr. -Edison says: "After my return from the trip to observe the eclipse -of the sun I went with Professor Barker, professor of physics in the -University of Pennsylvania, and Dr. Chandler, professor of chemistry -in Columbia College, to see Mr. Wallace, a large manufacturer of brass -in Ansonia, Connecticut. Wallace at this time was experimenting on -series arc lighting. Just at that time I wanted to take up something -new, and Professor Barker suggested that I go to work and see if I -could subdivide the electric light so it could be got in small units -like gas. This was not a new suggestion, because I had made a number of -experiments on electric lighting a year before this. They had been laid -aside for the phonograph. I determined to take up the search again and -continue it. On my return home I started my usual course of collecting -every kind of data about gas; bought all the transactions of the gas -engineering societies, etc., all the back volumes of gas journals, etc. -Having obtained all the data, and investigated gas-jet distribution in -New York by actual observations, I made up my mind that the problem -of the subdivision of the electric current could be solved and made -commercial."</p> - -<p>The problem which Edison had undertaken to solve was a gigantic one. -The arc light was then known and in use to a very small extent, but the -subdivision of the electric light—as it was then called—had not been -accomplished. It had been the dream of scientists and inventors for a -long time.</p> - -<p>Innumerable trials and experiments had been made in America and Europe -for many years, but without success. Although a great number of -ingenious lamps had been made by the foremost inventors of the period, -they were utterly useless as part of a scheme for a system of electric -lighting. In fact, these efforts had been so unsuccessful that many of -the leading scientists of the time, even as late as 1879, declared that -the subdivision of the light was an impossibility.</p> - -<p>The chief trouble was that the early experimenters did not conceive the -idea of a <i>system</i>, and worked only on a lamp. They all seemed to have -the idea that an electric lamp was the main thing and that it should -be of low resistance and should be operated on a current of very low -voltage, or pressure. They, therefore experimented on lamps using short -carbon rods or strips for burners, which required a large quantity of -current.</p> - -<p>Electric lighting with this kind of lamp was indeed a practical -impossibility. The quantity of current required for a large number of -them would have been prodigious, giving rise to tremendous problems on -account of the heating effects. Besides, the most fatal objection was -the cost of copper for conductors, which for a city section of about -half a mile square would have cost not less than a hundred million -dollars, on account of the enormous quantity of current that would be -required.</p> - -<p>Mr. Edison realized at the beginning that previous experimenters had -failed because they had been following the wrong track. He knew that -electric lighting could not be a success unless it could be sold to the -public at a reasonable price and pay a profit to those who supplied it. -With such lamps as had been proposed, requiring such an enormous outlay -for copper, this would have been impossible. Besides, there would not -have been enough copper in the world to supply conductors for one large -city.</p> - -<p>Edison did what he has so often done before and since. He turned about -and went in the opposite direction. He reasoned that in order to -develop a successful system of electric lighting the cost of conductors -must come within very reasonable limits. To insure this, he must -invent a lamp of comparatively high resistance, requiring only a small -quantity of current, and with a burner having a small radiating surface.</p> - -<p>Having the problem clearly in mind, Edison went to work in the fall -of 1878 with that enthusiastic energy so characteristic of him. His -earliest experiments were made with carbon as the burner for his lamp. -In the previous year he had also experimented on this line, beginning -with strips of carbon burned in the open air, and then <i>in vacuo</i> -by means of a hand-worked air-pump. These strips burned only a few -minutes. On resuming his work in 1878 he again commenced with carbon, -and made a very large number of trials, all <i>in vacuo</i>. Not only did he -try ordinary strips of carbonized paper, but tissue-paper coated with -tar and lampblack was rolled into thin sticks, like knitting-needles, -carbonized and raised to the white heat of incandescence <i>in vacuo</i>.</p> - -<p>He also tried hard carbon, wood carbon, and almost every conceivable -variety of paper carbon in like manner. But with the best vacuum that -he could then get by means of the ordinary hand-pump the carbons -would last at the most only from ten to fifteen minutes in a state of -incandescence.</p> - -<p>It was evident to Edison that such results as these were not of -commercial value. He feared that, after all, carbon was not the ideal -substance he had thought it was for an incandescent lamp-burner. The -lamp that he had in mind was one which should have a tough, hair-like -filament for a light-giving body that could be maintained at a white -heat for a thousand hours before breaking.</p> - -<p>He therefore turned his line of experiments to wires made of refractory -metals, such as platinum and iridium, and their alloys. These metals -have very high fusing points, and while they would last longer than the -carbon strips, they melted with a slight excess of current after they -had been lighted but a short time.</p> - -<p>Nevertheless, Edison continued to experiment along this line, making -some improvements, until about April, 1879, he made an important -discovery which led him to the first step toward the modern -incandescent lamp. He discovered that if he introduced a piece of -platinum wire into an all-glass globe, completely sealed and highly -exhausted of air, and passed a current through the platinum wire -while the vacuum was being made the wire would give a light equal to -twenty-five candle-power without melting. Previously, the same length -of wire would melt in the open air when giving a light equal to four -candles.</p> - -<p>He thus discovered that the passing of current through the platinum -while the vacuum was being obtained would drive out occluded gases -(<i>i.e.</i>, gases mechanically held in or upon the metal). This was -important and soon led to greater results.</p> - -<p>Edison and his associates had been working night and day at the Menlo -Park laboratory, and now that promising results were ahead their -efforts went on with greater vigor than ever. Taking no account of -the passage of time, with an utter disregard of meal-times, and with -but scanty hours of sleep snatched reluctantly at odd periods, Edison -labored on, and the laboratory was kept going without cessation.</p> - -<p>Following up the progress he had made, Edison made improvement after -improvement, especially in the line of high vacua, and about the -beginning of October had so improved his pumps that he could produce -a vacuum up to the one-millionth part of an atmosphere. It should -be understood that the maintaining of such a high vacuum was only -rendered possible by Edison's invention of a one-piece all-glass globe, -hermetically sealed during its manufacture into a lamp.</p> - -<p>In obtaining this perfection of vacuum apparatus Edison realized that -he was drawing nearer to a solution of the problem. For many reasons, -however, he was dissatisfied with platino-iridium filaments for -burners, and went back to carbon, which from the first he had thought -of as an ideal substance for a burner.</p> - -<p>His next step proved that he was correct. On October 21, 1879, after -many patient trials, he carbonized a piece of cotton sewing-thread bent -into a loop or horseshoe form, and had it sealed into a glass globe -from which he exhausted the air until a vacuum up to one-millionth of -an atmosphere was produced. This lamp, when put on the circuit, lighted -up brightly to incandescence and maintained its integrity for over -forty hours, and lo! the practical incandescent lamp was born. The -impossible, so called, had been attained; subdivision of the electric -current was made practicable; the goal had been reached, and one of the -greatest inventions of the century was completed.</p> - -<p>Edison and his helpers stayed by the lamp during the whole forty hours -watching it, some of the men making bets as to how long it would burn. -It may well be imagined that there was great jubilation throughout the -laboratory during those two days of delight and anxiety.</p> - -<p>But now that the principle was established work was renewed with great -fervor in making other lamps. A vast number of experiments were made -with carbons made of paper, and the manufacture of lamps with these -paper carbons was carried on continuously. A great number of these were -made and put into actual use.</p> - -<p>Edison was not satisfied, however. He wanted something better. He began -to carbonize everything that he could lay hands on. In his laboratory -note-books are innumerable jottings of the things that were carbonized -and tried, such as tissue-paper, soft paper, all kinds of cardboards, -drawing paper of all grades, paper saturated with tar, all kinds of -threads, fish-line, threads rubbed with tarred lampblack, fine threads -plaited together in strands, cotton soaked in boiling tar, lamp-wick, -twine, tar and lampblack mixed with a proportion of lime, vulcanized -fiber, celluloid, boxwood, cocoanut hair and shell, spruce, hickory, -baywood, cedar, and maple shavings, rosewood, punk, cork, bagging, -flax, and a host of other things.</p> - -<p>He also extended his searches far into the realms of nature in the -line of grasses, plants, canes, and similar products, and in these -experiments at that time and later he carbonized, made into lamps, -and tested no fewer than six thousand different species of vegetable -growths.</p> - -<p>At this time Edison was investigating everything with a microscope. One -day he picked up a palm-leaf fan and examined the long strip of cane -binding on its edge. He gave it to one of his assistants, telling him -to cut it up into filaments, carbonize them, and put them into lamps.</p> - -<p>These proved to be the best thus far obtained, and on further -examination Edison decided that he had now found the best material so -far tried, and a material entirely suitable for his lamps.</p> - -<p>Within a very short time he sent a man off to China and Japan to search -for bamboo, with instructions to keep on sending samples until the -right one was found. This man did his work well, and among the species -of bamboo he sent was one that was found satisfactory. Mr. Edison -obtained a quantity of this and arranged with a farmer in Japan to grow -it for him and to ship regular supplies. This was done for a number of -years, and during that time millions of Edison lamps were regularly -made from that particular species of Japanese bamboo.</p> - -<p>Mr. Edison did not stop at this, however. He was continually in search -of the best, and sent other men out to Cuba, Florida, and all through -South America to hunt for something that might be superior to what he -was using. Another man was sent on a trip around the world for the same -purpose.</p> - -<p>Some of these explorers met with striking adventures during their -travels, and all of them sent vast quantities of bamboos, palms, and -fibrous grasses to the laboratory for examination, but Edison never -found any of them better for his purposes than the bamboo from Japan.</p> - -<p>In this remarkable exploration of the world for such a material will -be found an example of the thoroughness of Edison's methods. He is not -satisfied to believe he has the best until he has proved it, and this -search for the best bamboo was so thorough that it cost him altogether -about one hundred thousand dollars.</p> - -<p>In the meantime he was experimenting to manufacture an artificial -filament that would be better than bamboo. He finally succeeded in his -efforts, and brought out what is known as a "squirted" filament. This -was made of a cellulose mixture and pressed out in the form of a thread -through dies. This kind of filament has gradually superseded the bamboo -in the manufacture of lamps.</p> - -<p>We have been obliged to confine ourselves to a very brief outline -history of the invention and development of the incandescent lamp. -To tell the detailed story of the intense labors of the inventor and -his staff of faithful workers would require a volume as large as the -present one.</p> - -<p>All that could be done in the space at our disposal was to try and give -the reader a general idea of the clear thinking, logical reasoning, -endless experimenting, hard work, and thoroughness of method of Edison -in the creation of a new art.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h3><a id="XIV"></a>XIV<br /><br /> - -MENLO PARK</h3> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p>In the history of the world's progress, Menlo Park, New Jersey, will -ever be famous as the birthplace of the carbon transmitter, the -phonograph, the incandescent lamp, the commercial dynamo, and the -fundamental systems of distributing electric light, heat, and power.</p> - -<p>In this list might also be included the electric railway, for while -others had previously made some progress in this direction, it was in -this historic spot that Edison did his pioneer work that advanced the -art to a stage of practicability.</p> - -<p>The name of Menlo Park will not have as striking a significance to the -younger readers as to their elders whose recollections carry them back -to the years between 1876 and 1886. During that period the place became -invested with the glamor of romance by reason of the many startling and -wonderful inventions coming out of it from time to time.</p> - -<p>Edison worked there during these ten years. He had adopted Invention -as a profession. As we have seen, he had always had a passion for a -laboratory. Thus, from the little cellar at Port Huron, from the scant -shelves in a baggage car, from the nooks and corners of dingy telegraph -offices, and the grimy little shops in New York and Newark, he had come -to the proud ownership of a <i>real</i> laboratory where he could wrestle -with Nature for her secrets.</p> - -<p>Here he could experiment to his heart's content, and invent on a bolder -and larger scale than ever before. All the world knows that he did.</p> - -<p>Menlo Park was the merest hamlet, located a few miles below Elizabeth. -Besides the laboratory buildings, it had only a few houses, the -best-looking of which Edison lived in. Two or three of the others -were occupied by the families of members of his staff; in the others -boarders were taken.</p> - -<p>During the ten years that Edison occupied his laboratory there, life in -Menlo Park could be summed up in one short word—work. Through the days -and through the nights, year in and year out, for the most part, he -and his associates labored on unceasingly, snatching only a few hours -of sleep here and there when tired nature positively demanded it. Such -a scene of concentrated and fruitful activity the world has probably -never seen.</p> - -<p>The laboratory buildings consisted of the laboratory proper, the -library and office, a machine shop, carpenter shop, and some smaller -buildings, and, later on, a wooden building, which was used for a short -time as an incandescent lamp factory.</p> - -<p>Here Edison worked through those busy years, surrounded by a band of -chosen assistants, whose individual abilities and never-failing loyalty -were of invaluable aid to him in accomplishing the purposes that he had -in mind.</p> - -<p>As to these associates, we quote Mr. Edison's own words from an -autobiographical article in the <i>Electrical World</i> of March 5, 1904: -"It is interesting to note that in addition to those mentioned above -(Charles Batchelor and Francis R. Upton), I had around me other men who -ever since have remained active in the field, such as Messrs. Francis -Jahl, William J. Hammer, Martin Force, Ludwig K. Boehm, not forgetting -that good friend and co-worker, the late John Kruesi. They found plenty -to do in the various developments of the art, and as I now look back I -sometimes wonder how we did so much in so short a time."</p> - -<p>To this roll of honor may be added the names of a few others: The -Carman brothers, Stockton L. Griffin, Dr. A. Haid, John F. Ott (still -with Mr. Edison at Orange), John W. Lawson, Edward H. Johnson, Charles -L. Clarke, William Holzer, James Hippie, Charles T. Hughes, Samuel D. -Mott, Charles T. Mott, E. G. Acheson, Dr. E. L. Nichols, J. H. Vail, W. -S. Andrews, and Messrs. Worth, Crosby, Herrick, Hill, Isaacs, Logan, -and Swanson.</p> - -<p>To these should be added the name of Mr. Samuel Insull, who, in 1881, -became Mr. Edison's private secretary, and who for many years afterward -managed all his business affairs.</p> - -<p>Mr. Insull's position as secretary in the Menlo Park days was not a -"soft snap," as his own words will show. He says: "I never attempted to -systematize Edison's business life. Edison's whole method of work would -upset the system of any office. He was just as likely to be at work in -his laboratory at midnight as midday. He cared not for the hours of the -day or the days of the week. If he was exhausted he might more likely -be asleep in the middle of the day than in the middle of the night, as -most of his work in the way of invention was done at night. I used to -run his office on as close business methods as my experience admitted, -and I would get at him whenever it suited his convenience. Sometimes -he would not go over his mail for days at a time, but other times he -would go regularly to his office in the morning. At other times my -engagements used to be with him to go over his business affairs at -Menlo Park at night, if I was occupied in New York during the day. In -fact, as a matter of convenience I used more often to get at him at -night as it left my days free to transact his affairs, and enabled me, -probably at a midnight luncheon, to get a few minutes of his time to -look over his correspondence and get his directions as to what I should -do in some particular negotiation or matter of finance. While it was -a matter of suiting Edison's convenience as to when I should transact -business with him, it also suited my own ideas, as it enabled me after -getting through my business with him to enjoy the privilege of watching -him at his work, and to learn something about the technical side of -matters. Whatever knowledge I may have of the electric light and power -industry I feel I owe it to the tuition of Edison. He was about the -most willing tutor, and I must confess that he had to be a patient one."</p> - -<p>It must not be supposed that the hard work of these times made life -a burden to the small family of laborers associated with Edison. On -the contrary, they were a cheerful, happy lot of men, always ready to -brighten up their strenuous life by the enjoyment of anything of a -humorous nature that came along.</p> - -<p>Often during the long, weary nights of experimenting Edison would call -a halt for refreshments, which he had ordered always to be sent in at -midnight when night work was in progress. Everything would be dropped, -all present would join in the meal, and the last good story or joke -would pass around.</p> - -<p>Mr. Jehl has written some recollections of this period, in which he -says: "Our lunch always ended with a cigar, and I may mention here that -although Edison was never fastidious in eating, he always relished -a good cigar, and seemed to find in it consolation and solace.... -It often happened that while we were enjoying the cigars after our -midnight repast, one of the boys would start up a tune on the organ -and we would sing together, or one of the others would give a solo. -Another of the boys had a voice that sounded like something between -the ring of an old tomato-can and a pewter jug. He had one song that -he would sing while we roared with laughter. He was also great in -imitating the tin-foil phonograph. When Boehm was in good humor he would -play his zither now and then, and amuse us by singing pretty German -songs. On many of these occasions the laboratory was the rendezvous of -jolly and convivial visitors, mostly old friends and acquaintances of -Mr. Edison. Some of the office employees would also drop in once in a -while, and, as every one present was always welcome to partake of the -midnight meal, we all enjoyed these gatherings. After a while, when we -were ready to resume work, our visitors would intimate that they were -going home to bed, but we fellows could stay up and work, and they -would depart, generally singing some song like 'Good-night, Ladies!'... -It often happened that when Edison had been working up to three or -four o'clock in the morning he would lie down on one of the laboratory -tables, and with nothing but a couple of books for a pillow, would fall -into a sound sleep. He said it did him more good than being in a soft -bed, which spoils a man. Some of the laboratory assistants could be -seen now and then sleeping on a table in the early morning hours. If -their snoring became objectionable to those still at work, the 'calmer' -was applied. This machine consisted of a Babbitt's soap-box without a -cover. Upon it was mounted a broad ratchet-wheel with a crank, while -into the teeth of the wheel there played a stout, elastic slab of wood. -The box would be placed on the table where the snorer was sleeping -and the crank turned rapidly. The racket thus produced was something -terrible, and the sleeper would jump up as though a typhoon had struck -the laboratory. The irrepressible spirit of humor in the old days, -although somewhat strenuous at times, caused many a moment of hilarity -which seemed to refresh the boys, and enabled them to work with renewed -vigor after its manifestation."</p> - -<p>The "boys" were ever ready for a joke on one of their number. Mr. -Mackenzie, who taught Edison telegraphy, spent a great deal of time at -the laboratory. He had a bushy red beard, and was persuaded to give -a few hairs to be carbonized and used for filaments in experimental -lamps. When the lamps were lighted the boys claimed that their -brightness was due to the rich color of the hairs.</p> - -<p>The history of the busy years at Menlo Park would make a long story -if told in full, but only a hint can be given here of the gradual -development of many important inventions. These include the innumerable -experiments on the lamp, on different kinds and weights of iron for -field magnets and armatures, on magnetism, on windings and connections -for field magnets and armatures, on distribution circuits, control, and -regulation, and so on through a long list.</p> - -<p>All these things were new. There was nothing in the books to serve as a -guide in solving these new problems, but Edison patiently worked them -out, one by one, until a complete system was the result of his labors.</p> - -<p>Menlo Park was historic in one other particular. It was the very first -place in the world to see incandescent electric lighting from a central -station.</p> - -<p>The newspapers had been so full of the wonderful invention that there -was a great demand to see the new light. Edison decided to give a -public exhibition, and for this purpose put up over four hundred lights -in the streets and houses of Menlo Park, all connected to underground -conductors which ran to the dynamos in one of the shop buildings.</p> - -<p>On New Year's Eve, 1879, the Pennsylvania Railroad ran special trains, -and over three thousand people availed themselves of the opportunity to -witness the demonstration. It was a great success, and gave rise to a -wide public interest.</p> - -<p>Edison's laboratory at Menlo Park had never suffered for lack of -visitors, but now it became a center of attraction for scientific and -business men from all parts of the world. Pages of this book could be -filled with the names of well-known visitors at this period, but it -would be of no practical use to give them; besides we must now pass on -to the time when the light was introduced to the world.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h3><a id="XV"></a>XV<br /><br /> - -BEGINNING THE ELECTRIC LIGHT BUSINESS</h3> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p>The close of the last two chapters found us attending the birth of an -art that was then absolutely and entirely new—the art of electric -lighting by incandescent lamps. It will now be interesting to take a -brief glance at the way in which it was introduced to the world.</p> - -<p>Edison invented not only a lamp and a dynamo, but a complete <i>system</i> -of distributing electric light, heat, and power from central stations. -This included a properly devised network of conductors fed with -electricity from several directions and capable of being tapped to -supply current to each building; a lamp that would be cheap, lasting, -take little current, be easy to handle, and each to be independent of -every other lamp; means for measuring electricity by meter; means for -regulating the current so that every lamp, whether near to or far away -from the station, would give an equal light; the designing of new and -efficient dynamos, with means for connecting and disconnecting and -for regulating and equalizing their loads; the providing of devices -that would prevent fires from excessive current, and the providing of -switches, lamp-holders, fixtures, and the like.</p> - -<p>This was a large program to fill, for it was all new, and there was -nothing in the world from which to draw ideas, but Edison carried out -his scheme in full, and much more besides. By the end of 1880 he was -ready to launch his electric light system for commercial use, and the -Edison Electric Light Company, that had been organized for the purpose, -rented a mansion at No. 65 Fifth Avenue, New York, to be used for -offices. Edison now moved some of his Menlo Park staff into that city -to pursue the work.</p> - -<p>Right at the very beginning a most serious difficulty was met with. -None of the appliances necessary for use in the lighting system could -be purchased anywhere in the world.</p> - -<p>They were all new and novel—dynamos, switchboards, regulators, -pressure and current indicators, incandescent lamps, sockets, small -switches, meters, fixtures, underground conductors, junction boxes, -service boxes, manhole boxes, connectors, and even specially made wire. -Not one of these things was in existence; and no outsider knew enough -about such devices to make them on order, except the wire.</p> - -<p>Edison himself solved the difficulty by raising some money and -establishing several manufacturing shops in which these articles could -be made. The first of all was a small factory at Menlo Park to make the -lamps, Mr. Upton taking charge of that branch.</p> - -<p>For making the dynamos he secured a large works on Goerck Street, New -York, and gave its management to Mr. Batchelor. For the underground -conductors and their parts a building on Washington Street was rented -and the work done under the superintendence of Mr. Kruesi. In still -another factory building there were made the smaller appliances, such -as sockets, switches, fixtures, meters, safety fuses and other details. -This latter plant was at first owned by Mr. Sigmund Bergmann, who had -worked with Edison on telephones and phonographs, but later Mr. Edison -and E. H. Johnson became partners.</p> - -<p>Still another difficulty presented itself. There were no men who knew -how to do wiring for electric lights, except those who had been with -Edison at Menlo Park. This problem was solved by opening a night-school -at No. 65 Fifth Avenue in which a large number of men were educated and -trained for the work by Edison's associates. Many of these men have -since become very prominent in electrical circles.</p> - -<p>Thus, in planning these matters, and in guiding the operations in -these four shops in New York, and with all the work he was doing on -new experiments and inventions there and at Menlo Park, and in making -preparations for the first central station in New York City, Edison was -a prodigiously busy man. He worked incessantly, and it is safe to say -that he did not average more than four hours' sleep a day.</p> - -<p>He was the center and the guiding spirit of those intensely busy times. -The aid of his faithful associates was invaluable in the building up of -the business, but he was the great central storehouse of ideas, and it -is owing to his undaunted courage, energy, perseverance, knowledge and -foresight, that the foundations of so great an art have been so well -laid.</p> - -<p>As has been well said by Major S. B. Eaton, who was president and -general manager of the Edison Electric Light Company in its earliest -years: "In looking back on those days and scrutinizing them through -the years, I am impressed by the greatness, the solitary greatness, I -may say, of Mr. Edison. We all felt then that we were of importance, -and that our contribution of effort and zeal was vital. I can see now, -however, that the best of us was nothing but the fly on the wheel. -Suppose anything had happened to Edison? All would have been chaos and -ruin. To him, therefore, be the glory, if not the profit."</p> - -<p>Early in 1881 comparatively few people had seen the incandescent light. -In order to make the public familiar with it, the Edison company -equipped its office building with fixtures and lamps, the latter -being lighted by current from a dynamo in the cellar. In the evenings -the house was thrown open to visitors until ten or eleven o'clock. -Thousands of people flocked to see the new light, which in those days -was regarded as wonderful and mysterious, for while the lamps gave a -soft, steady illumination, there was no open flame, practically no -heat, no danger of fire, and no vitiation of air. For the most part of -four years the writer spent his evenings receiving these visitors if no -important business was in progress at the moment.</p> - -<p>Mr. Edison and his shops had scarcely time to get well on their feet -before a rush of business set in. How this business rapidly developed -and grew until it became of very great magnitude is a matter of -history, which we shall not attempt to relate here.</p> - -<p>Some idea of this wonderful development, as it has gone on through the -years that have passed since 1880, may be formed when it is stated that -at this time there are more than one hundred millions of incandescent -lamps in daily use in the United States alone. Every one of these lamps -and the fundamental principles upon which they are operated rest upon -the foundations which Edison laid so well.</p> - -<p>One of Mr. Edison's interesting stories of the early days relates to -the making of the lamps. He says:</p> - -<p>"When we first started the electric light we had to have a factory for -manufacturing lamps. As the Edison light company did not seem disposed -to go into manufacturing, we started a small lamp factory at Menlo Park -with what money I could raise from my other inventions and royalties -and some assistance. The lamps at that time were costing about one -dollar and twenty-five cents each to make, so I said to the company: -'If you will give me a contract during the life of the patents I will -make all the lamps required by the company and deliver them for forty -cents.' The company jumped at the chance of this offer, and a contract -was drawn up. We then bought at a receiver's sale at Harrison, New -Jersey, a very large brick factory building which had been used as an -oil-cloth works. We got it at a great bargain, and only paid a small -sum down, and the balance on mortgage. We moved the lamp works from -Menlo Park to Harrison. The first year the lamps cost us about one -dollar and ten cents each. We sold them for forty cents; but there were -only about twenty or thirty thousand of them. The next year they cost -us about seventy cents, and we sold them for forty. There were a good -many, and we lost more money the second year than the first. The third -year I succeeded in getting up machinery and in changing the processes, -until it got down so that they cost somewhere around fifty cents. I -still sold them for forty cents, and lost more money that year than any -other, because the sales were increasing rapidly. The fourth year I got -it down to thirty-seven cents, and I made all the money in one year -that I had lost previously. I finally got it down to twenty-two cents, -and sold them for forty cents; and they were made by the million. -Whereupon the Wall Street people thought it was a very lucrative -business, so they concluded they would like to have it, and bought us -out.</p> - -<p>"When we formed the works at Harrison we divided the interests into -one hundred shares or parts at one hundred dollars par. One of the -boys was hard up after a time, and sold two shares to Bob Cutting. -Up to that time we had never paid anything, but we got around to the -point where the board declared a dividend every Saturday night. We had -never declared a dividend when Cutting bought his shares, and after -getting his dividends for three weeks in succession he called up on the -telephone and wanted to know what kind of a concern this was that paid -a weekly dividend. The works sold for $1,085,000."</p> - -<p>We have been obliged to confine ourselves to a very brief and general -description of the beginnings of the art of electric lighting, but this -chapter would not be complete without reference to Edison's design and -construction of the greatest dynamo that had ever been made up to that -time.</p> - -<p>The earliest dynamos he made would furnish current only for sixty lamps -of sixteen candle-power each. These machines were belted up to an -engine or countershaft. He realized that much larger dynamos would be -needed for central stations, and in 1880 constructed one in Menlo Park, -but it was not entirely successful.</p> - -<p>In the spring of 1881, however, he designed a still larger one, to be -connected direct to its own engine and operated without belting. Its -capacity was to be twelve hundred lamps, instead of sixty.</p> - -<p>At that time such a project was not dreamed of outside the Edison -laboratory, and once more he was the subject of much ridicule and -criticism by those who were considered as experts. They said the thing -was impossible and absolutely impracticable.</p> - -<p>Such opinions, however, have never caused a moment's hesitation to -Edison when he has made up his mind that a thing can be done. He calmly -went ahead with his plans, and although he found many difficulties, -he overcame them all. He worked the shops night and day, until he had -built this great machine and operated it successfully.</p> - -<p>The dynamo was finished in the summer of 1881. At that time there was -in progress an international Electrical Exposition in Paris, at which -Edison was exhibiting his system of electric lighting. He had promised -to send this great dynamo over to Paris.</p> - -<p>When the dynamo was finished and tested there were only four hours -to take it and the engine apart and get all the parts on board the -steamer. Edison had foreseen all this, and had arranged to have sixty -men get to work all at once to take it apart. Each man had written -instructions just what to do, and when the machine was stopped every -man did his own particular work and the job was quickly accomplished.</p> - -<p>Arrangements had been made with the police for rapid passage through -the streets from the shops to the steamship. The trucks made quick time -of it, being preceded by a wagon with a clanging bell. Street traffic -was held up for them, just as it is for engines and hose-carts going to -a fire. The dynamo and engine got safely down to the dock without delay -and were loaded on the steamer an hour before she sailed.</p> - -<p>This dynamo and engine weighed twenty-seven tons, and was then, and -for a long time after, the eighth wonder of the scientific world. Its -arrival and installation in Paris were eagerly watched by the most -famous scientists and electricians in Europe.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h3><a id="XVI"></a>XVI<br /><br /> - -THE FIRST EDISON CENTRAL STATION</h3> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p>From the beginning of his experiments on the electric light Edison had -one idea ever in mind, and that was to develop a system of lighting -cities from central stations. His plan was to supply electric light and -power in much the same way that gas is furnished.</p> - -<p>He never forsook this idea for a moment. Indeed, it formed the basis of -all his plans, although the scientific experts of the time predicted -utter failure. While the experiments were going on at Menlo Park he had -Mr. Upton and others at work making calculations and plans for city -systems.</p> - -<p>Soon after he had invented the incandescent lamp he began to take -definite steps toward preparing for the first central station in -the city of New York. After some consideration, he decided upon the -district included between Wall, Nassau, Spruce and Ferry Streets, Peck -Slip and the East River, covering nearly a square mile in extent.</p> - -<p>He sent into this district a number of men, who visited every building, -counted every gas-jet and found out how many hours per day or night -they were burned.</p> - -<p>These men also ascertained the number of business houses using power -and how much they consumed. All this information was marked in colored -inks on large maps, so that Edison could study the question with all -the details before him.</p> - -<p>All this work had taken several months, but, with this information -to guide him, the main conductors to be laid in the streets of this -district were figured, block by block, and the results were marked upon -the maps. It was found, however, that the quantity of copper required -for these conductors would be exceedingly large and costly, and, if -ever, Edison was somewhat dismayed.</p> - -<p>This difficulty only spurred him on to still greater effort. Before -long he solved the problem by inventing the "feeder and main" system, -for which he signed an application for patent on August 4, 1880.</p> - -<p>By this invention he saved seven-eighths of the amount of copper -previously required. So the main conductors were figured again, at only -one-eighth the size they were before, and the results were marked upon -enormous new maps which were now prepared for the actual installation.</p> - -<p>It should be remembered that from the very start Edison had determined -that his conductors should be placed underground. He knew that this was -the only method for permanent and satisfactory service to the public.</p> - -<p>Our young readers can scarcely imagine the condition of New York -streets at that time. They were filled with lines of ugly wooden -poles carrying great masses of telegraph, telephone, stock ticker, -burglar alarm and other wires, in all conditions of sag and decay. The -introduction of the arc-lamp added another series of wires which with -their high potentials carried a menace to life. Edison was the first to -put conductors underground, and the wisdom of so doing became so clear -that a few years later laws were made compelling others to do likewise.</p> - -<p>But to return to our story. Just before Christmas in 1880 the Edison -Electric Illuminating Company of New York was organized, and a license -was issued to it for the use of the Edison patents on Manhattan Island.</p> - -<p>The work for the new station now commenced in real earnest. A double -building at 255 and 257 Pearl Street was purchased, and the inside of -one half was taken out and a strong steel structure was erected inside -the walls.</p> - -<p>Work on the maps and plans for the underground network of conductors -was continued at Menlo Park. Mr. Edison started his factories for -making dynamos, lamps, underground conductors, sockets, switches, -meters, and other details. Thus, the wheels of industry were humming -merrily in preparation for the installation of the system. Every detail -received Edison's personal care and consideration. He had plenty of -competent men, but he deemed nothing too small or insignificant for his -attention in this important undertaking.</p> - -<p>In the fall of 1881 the laying of the underground conductors was begun -and pushed forward with frantic energy. Here again Edison left nothing -to chance. Although he had a thousand things to occupy his mind he also -superintended this work. He did not stand around and give orders, but -worked with the men in the trenches day and night helping to lay tubes, -filling up junction boxes, and taking part in all the infinite detail.</p> - -<p>He would work till he felt the need of a little rest. Then he would go -off to the station building in Pearl Street, throw an overcoat on a -pile of iron tubes, lie down and sleep a few hours, rising to resume -work with the first gang.</p> - -<p>It is worth pausing just a moment to glance at this man taking a fitful -rest on a pile of iron pipe in a dingy building. His name is on the -tip of the world's tongue. Distinguished scientists from every part -of Europe seek him eagerly. He has just been decorated and awarded -high honors by the French government. He is the inventor of wonderful -new apparatus and the exploiter of novel and successful arts. The -magic of his achievements and the rumors of what is being done have -caused a wild drop in gas securities and a sensational rise in his -own electric-light stock from one hundred dollars to thirty-five -hundred a share. Yet these things do not at all affect his slumber or -his democratic simplicity, for in that, as in everything else, he is -attending strictly to business, "doing the thing that is next to him."</p> - -<p>The laying of the underground conductors was interrupted by frost in -the winter of 1881, but in the following spring the work was renewed -with great energy until there had been laid over eighty thousand feet. -In the mean time the buildings of the district were being wired for -lamps, and the machine-works had been busy on the building of three of -the "Jumbo" dynamos for the station. These were larger than the great -dynamo that had been sent to Paris.</p> - -<p>These three dynamos were installed in the station, and the other parts -of the system were completed. A bank of one thousand lamps was placed -in one of the buildings; and in the summer a whole month was spent in -making tests of the working of the system, using this bank of lamps -instead of sending current out to customers' premises. Edison and his -assistants made the station their home during this busy month. They -even slept there on cots that he had sent to the station for this -purpose.</p> - -<p>The system tested out satisfactorily, and finally, on September 4, -1882, at three o'clock in the afternoon, the station was started by -sending out current from one of the big dynamos through the conductors -laid in the streets, and electric light was supplied for the first time -to a number of customers in the district.</p> - -<p>The station was now started and everything went well. New customers -were added daily, and very soon it became necessary to supply more -current. This called for the operation of two dynamos at one time. -As this involved new problems, Edison chose a Sunday to try it, when -business places would be closed. We will let him tell the story. He -says: "My heart was in my mouth at first, but everything worked all -right.... Then we started another engine and threw the dynamos in -parallel. Of all the circuses since Adam was born, we had the worst -then! One engine would stop, and the other would run up to about a -thousand revolutions, and then they would see-saw. The trouble was with -the governors. When the circus commenced the gang that was standing -around ran out precipitately, and I guess some of them kept running -for a block or two. I grabbed the throttle of one engine, and E. H. -Johnson, who was the only one present to keep his wits, caught hold of -the other, and we shut them off."</p> - -<p>One of the gang that ran, but, in this case, only to the end of the -room, afterward said: "At the time it was a terrifying experience, as -I didn't know what was going to happen. The engines and dynamos made a -horrible racket, from loud and deep groans to a hideous shriek, and the -place seemed to be filled with sparks and flames of all colors. It was -as if the gates of the infernal regions had been suddenly opened."</p> - -<p>Edison attacked this problem in his strenuous way. Although it was -Sunday, he sent out and gathered his men and opened the machine-works -to make new appliances to overcome this trouble.</p> - -<p>Space will not permit of telling all the methods he applied until the -difficulty was entirely conquered. It was only a short time, however, -before he was able to operate two or any number of dynamos all together -as one, in parallel, without the least trouble.</p> - -<p>This early station grew and prospered, and continued in successful -operation for more than seven years, until January 2, 1890, when -it was partially destroyed by fire. This occurrence caused a short -interruption of service, but in a few days current was again supplied -to customers as before, and the service has never since ceased.</p> - -<p>Increasing demands for service soon afterward led to the construction -of other stations on Manhattan Island, until at the present time -the New York Edison Company (the successor to the Edison Electric -Illuminating Company of New York) is operating over forty stations and -sub-stations. These supply current for about 800,000 customers, wired -for 17,000,000 incandescent lamps and for about 1,300,000 horse-power -in electric motors.</p> - -<p>The early success of the first central station in New York led to the -formation of new companies in other cities, and the installation of -many similar plants. The business has grown by leaps and bounds, until -at the present time there are many thousands of central stations spread -all over the United States, furnishing electric light, heat, and power, -chiefly by use of the principles elaborated so many years ago by Mr. -Edison.</p> - -<p>We ought to mention that this tremendous growth has also been largely -due to another invention made by him in 1882, called the "three-wire -system." Its value consists in the fact that it allowed a further -saving of sixty-two and one-half per cent, of copper required for -conductors. This invention is in universal use all over the world.</p> - -<p>It may be mentioned here that at the opening ceremonies of the -Electrical Exposition in New York, on October 11, 1911, the leading -producers and consumers of copper presented Mr. Edison with an -inscribed cubic foot of that metal in recognition of the stimulus -of his inventions to the industry. The inscription shows that the -yearly output of copper was 377,644,000 pounds at the time of Edison's -first invention in 1868, and in October, 1911, the yearly output had -increased to 1,910,608,000 pounds.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h3><a id="XVII"></a>XVII<br /><br /> - -EDISON'S ELECTRIC RAILWAY</h3> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p>It is quite likely that many of our young readers have never seen a -horse-car. This is not strange, for in a little over twenty years the -victorious trolley has displaced the old-time street-cars drawn by one -or two horses. Indeed, a horse-car is quite a curiosity in these modern -days, for such vehicles have almost entirely disappeared from the -streets.</p> - -<p>The first horse railroad in the United States was completed in 1827, -and it was only seven years afterward that a small model of a circular -electric railroad was made and exhibited by Thomas Davenport, of -Brandon, Vermont. Other inventors also worked on electric railways -later on, but they did not make much progress, because in their day -there were no dynamos, and they had to use primary batteries to obtain -current. This method of generating current was far too cumbersome and -expensive for general use.</p> - -<p>In 1879, after dynamos had become known, the firm of Siemens exhibited -at the Berlin Exhibition a road about one-third of a mile in length, -over which an electric locomotive hauled three small cars at a speed of -about eight miles an hour.</p> - -<p>This was just before Edison had developed the efficient commercial -dynamo with low-resistance armature and high-resistance field, which -made it possible to generate and use electric power cheaply. Thus we -see that Edison was not the first to form the broad idea of a electric -railway, but his dynamo and systems of distribution and regulation of -current first made the idea commercially practicable.</p> - -<p>When Edison made his trip to Wyoming with the astronomers in 1878 he -noticed that the farmers had to make long hauls of their grain to the -railroads or markets. He then conceived the idea of building light -electric railways to perform this service.</p> - -<p>As we have already noted, he started on his electric-light experiments, -including the dynamo, when he returned from the West. He had not -forgotten his scheme for an electric railway, however, for, early in -1880, after the tremendous rush on the invention of the incandescent -lamp had begun to subside, he commenced the construction of a stretch -of track at Menlo Park, and at the same time began to build an electric -locomotive to operate over it.</p> - -<p>The locomotive was an ordinary flat dump-car on a four-wheeled iron -truck. Upon this was mounted one of his dynamos, used as a motor. -It had a capacity of about twelve horse-power. Electric current was -generated by two dynamos in the machine-shop, and carried to the rails -by underground conductors.</p> - -<p>The track was about a third of a mile in length, the rails being of -light weight and spiked to ties laid on the ground. In this short -line there were some steep grades and short curves. The locomotive -pulled three cars; one a flat freight-car; one an open awning-car, -and one box-car, facetiously called the "Pullman," with which Edison -illustrated a system of electromagnetic braking.</p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<div class="figcenterl"> -<a id="ed0193"></a> -<img src="images/ed0193.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption">THE EDISON ELECTRIC RAILWAY AT MENLO PARK—1880</p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p>On May 13, 1880, this road went into operation. All the laboratory -"boys" made holiday and scrambled aboard for a trip. Things went well -for a while, but presently a weakness developed and it became necessary -to return the locomotive to the shop to make changes in the mechanism. -And so it was for a short time afterward. Imperfections of one kind -and another were disclosed as the road was operated, but Edison was -equal to the occasion and overcame them, one by one. Before long he had -his locomotive running regularly, hauling the three cars with freight -and passengers back and forth over the full length of the track. -Incidentally, the writer remembers enjoying a ride over the road one -summer afternoon.</p> - -<p>The details of the various improvements made during these months are -too many and too technical to be given here. It is a fact, however, -that at this time Edison was doing some heavy electric railway -engineering, each improvement representing a step which advanced the -art toward the perfection it has reached in these modern days.</p> - -<p>The newspapers and technical journals lost no time in publishing -accounts of this electric railroad, and once again Menlo Park received -great numbers of visitors, including many railroad men, who came to see -and test this new method of locomotion.</p> - -<p>Of course, in operating this early road there were a few mishaps, -fortunately none of them of a serious nature. In the correspondence of -the late Grosvenor P. Lowry, a friend and legal adviser of Mr. Edison, -is a letter dated June 5, 1880, giving an account of one experience. -The letter reads as follows: "Goddard and I have spent a part of the -day at Menlo, and all is glorious. I have ridden at forty miles an hour -on Mr. Edison's electric railway—and we ran off the track. I protested -at the rate of speed over the sharp curves, designed to show the power -of the engine, but Edison said they had done it often. Finally, when -the last trip was to be taken, I said I did not like it, but would go -along. The train jumped the track on a short curve, throwing Kruesi, -who was driving the engine, with his face down in the dirt, and another -man in a comical somersault through some underbrush. Edison was off -in a minute, jumping and laughing, and declaring it a most beautiful -accident. Kruesi got up, his face bleeding, and a good deal shaken; and -I shall never forget the expression of voice and face in which he said, -with some foreign accent: 'Oh yes! pairfeckly safe.' Fortunately no -other hurts were suffered, and in a few minutes we had the train on the -track and running again."</p> - -<p>This first electric railway was continued in operation right along -through 1881. In the fall of that year Edison was requested by the late -Mr. Henry Villard to build a longer road at Menlo Park, equipped with -more powerful locomotives, to demonstrate the feasibility of putting -electric railroads in the Western wheat country.</p> - -<p>Work was commenced at once, and early in 1882 the road and its -equipment were finished. It was three miles long, and had sidings, -turn-tables, freight platform and car-house. It was much more complete -and substantial than the first railroad. There were two locomotives, -one for freight and the other for passenger service.</p> - -<p>The passenger locomotive was very speedy and hauled as many as ninety -persons at a time. Many thousands of passengers traveled over the road -during 1882. The freight locomotive was not so speedy, but could pull -heavy trains at a good speed. Taken altogether, this early electric -railway made a great advance toward modern practice as its exists -to-day.</p> - -<p>There are many interesting stories of the railway period at Menlo Park. -One of them, as told by the late Charles T. Hughes, who worked with -Edison on the experimental roads, is as follows: "Mr. Villard sent J. -C. Henderson, one of his mechanical engineers, to see the road when -it was in operation, and we went down one day—Edison, Henderson, and -I—and went on the locomotive. Edison ran it, and just after we started -there was a trestle sixty feet long and seven feet deep, and Edison put -on all the power. When we went over it we must have been going forty -miles an hour, and I could see the perspiration come out on Henderson. -After we got over the trestle and started on down the track Henderson -said: 'When we go back I will walk. If there is any more of that kind -of running I won't be in it myself.'"</p> - -<p>The young reader, who is now living in an age in which the electric -railway is regarded as a matter of course, will find it difficult to -comprehend that there should ever have been any doubt on the part of -engineering experts as to the practicability of electric railroads. -But in the days of which we are writing such was the case, as the -following remarks of Mr. Edison will show: "At one time Mr. Villard -got the idea that he would run the mountain division of the Northern -Pacific Railroad by electricity. He asked me if it could be done. I -said: 'Certainly; it is too easy for me to undertake; let some one else -do it.' He said: 'I want you to tackle the problem,' and he insisted on -it. So I got up a scheme of a third rail and shoe and erected it in my -yard here in Orange. When I got it all ready he had all his division -engineers come on to New York, and they came over here. I showed them -my plans, and the unanimous decision of the engineers was that it was -absolutely and utterly impracticable. That system is on the New York -Central now, and was also used on the New Haven road in its first work -with electricity."</p> - -<p>Mr. Edison knew at the time that these engineers were wrong. They were -prejudiced and lacking in foresight, and had no faith in electric -railroading. Indeed, these particular engineers were not by any means -the only persons who could see no future for electric methods of -transportation. Their doubts were shared by capitalists and others, -and it was not until several years afterward that the business of -electrifying street railroads was commenced in real earnest.</p> - -<p>In the mean time, however, Edison's faith did not waver, and he -continued his work on electric railways, making innumerable experiments -and taking out a great many patents, including a far-sighted one -covering a sliding contact in a slot. This principle and many of those -covered by his earlier work are in use to-day on the street railways in -large cities.</p> - -<p>The early railroad at Menlo Park has gone to ruin and decay, but the -crude locomotive built by Edison has become the property of the Pratt -Institute, of Brooklyn, New York, to whose students it is a constant -example and incentive.</p> - -<p>Down to the present moment Edison has kept up an active interest in -transportation problems. His latest work has been in the line of -operating street-cars with his improved storage battery. During the -time that this book has been in course of preparation he has given a -great deal of time to this question.</p> - -<p>Some years ago there were a number of street-cars in various cities -operated by storage batteries of a class entirely different from the -battery invented by Edison. We refer to storage batteries containing -lead and sulphuric acid. These were found to be so costly to operate -and maintain that their use was abandoned.</p> - -<p>Mr. Edison's new nickel and iron storage battery with alkaline -solution has been found by practical use to be entirely satisfactory -for operating street-cars, not only at a low cost, but also with ease -of operation and at a trifling expense for maintenance. Of course -there have been many problems, but he has surmounted the principal -difficulties, and there are now quite a number of street-cars operated -by his storage battery in various cities. These cars are earning -profits and their number is steadily increasing.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h3><a id="XVIII"></a>XVIII<br /><br /> - -GRINDING MOUNTAINS TO DUST</h3> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p>On walking along the sea-shore the reader may have noticed occasional -streaks or patches of bluish-black sand, somewhat like gunpowder in -appearance. It is carried up from the bed of the sea and deposited by -the waves on the shore to a greater or lesser extent on many beaches.</p> - -<p>If a magnet be brought near to this "black sand" the particles will be -immediately attracted to it, just as iron filings would be in such a -case. As a matter of fact, these particles of black sand are grains of -finely divided magnetic iron in a very pure state.</p> - -<p>Now, if we should take a piece of magnetic iron ore in the form of a -rock and grind it to powder the particles of iron could be separated -from the ground-up mass by drawing them out with a magnet, just as they -could be drawn out of a heap of seashore sand. If all the grains of -iron were thus separated and put together, or concentrated, they would -be called concentrates.</p> - -<p>During the last century a great many experimenters besides Edison -attempted to perfect various cheap methods of magnetically separating -iron ores, but until he took up the work on a large scale no one seems -to have realized the real meaning of the tremendous problems involved.</p> - -<p>The beginning of this work on the part of Edison was his invention -in 1880 of a peculiar form of magnetic separator. It consisted of a -suspended V-shaped hopper with an adjustable slit along the pointed -end. A long electromagnet was placed, edgewise, a little below the -hopper, and a bin with a dividing partition in the center was placed on -the floor below.</p> - -<p>Crushed ore, or sand, was placed in the hopper. If there was no -magnetism this fine material would flow down in a straight line past -the magnet and fill the bin on one side of the partition. If, however, -the magnet were active the particles of iron would be attracted out -of the line of the falling material, but their weight would carry -them beyond the magnet and they would fall to the other side of the -partition. Thus, the material would be separated, the grains of iron -going to one side and the grains of rock or sand to the other side.</p> - -<p>This separator, as afterward modified, was the basis of a colossal -enterprise conducted by Mr. Edison, as we shall presently relate. But -first let us glance at an early experiment on the Atlantic seashore in -1881, as mentioned by him. He says:</p> - -<p>"Some years ago I heard one day that down at Quogue, Long Island, -there were immense deposits of black magnetic sand. This would be very -valuable if the iron could be separated from the sand. So I went down -to Quogue with one of my assistants and saw there for miles large -beds of black sand on the beach in layers from one to six inches -thick—hundreds of thousands of tons. My first thought was that it -would be a very easy matter to concentrate this, and I found I could -sell the stuff at a good price. I put up a small magnetic separating -plant, but just as I got it started a tremendous storm came up, and -every bit of that black sand went out to sea. During the twenty-eight -years that have intervened it has never come back."</p> - -<p>In the same year a similar separating plant was put up and worked on -the Rhode Island shore by the writer under Mr. Edison's direction. More -than one thousand tons of concentrated iron ore of fine quality were -separated from sea-shore sand and sold. It was found, however, that it -could not be successfully used on account of being so finely divided. -Had this occurred a few years later, when Edison invented a system of -putting this fine ore into briquettes, that part of the story might -have been different.</p> - -<p>Magnetic separation of ores was allowed to rest for many years after -this, so far as Edison was concerned. He was intensely busy on the -electric light, electric railway, and other similar problems until -1888, and then undertook the perfecting and manufacturing of his -improved phonograph, and other matters. Somewhere about 1890, however, -he again took up the subject of ore-separation.</p> - -<p>For some years previous to that time the Eastern iron-mills had been -suffering because of the scarcity of low-priced high-grade ores. If -low-grade ores could be crushed and the iron therein concentrated and -sold at a reasonable price the furnaces would be benefited. Edison -decided, after mature deliberation, that if these low-grade ores -were magnetically separated on a colossal scale at a low cost the -furnace-men could be supplied with the much-desired high quality of -iron ore at a price which would be practicable.</p> - -<p>He appreciated the fact that it was a serious and gigantic problem, -but was fully satisfied that he could solve it. He first planned a -great magnetic survey of the East, with the object of locating large -bodies of magnetic iron ore. This survey was the greatest and most -comprehensive of the kind ever made. With a peculiarly sensitive -magnetic needle to indicate the presence of magnetic ore in the earth, -he sent out men who made a survey of twenty-five miles across country, -all the way from lower Canada to North Carolina.</p> - -<p>Edison says: "The amount of ore disclosed by this survey was simply -fabulous. How much so may be judged from the fact that in the three -thousand acres immediately surrounding the mills that I afterward -established at Edison, New Jersey, there were over two hundred million -tons of low-grade ore. I also secured sixteen thousand acres in which -the deposit was proportionately as large. These few acres alone -contained sufficient ore to supply the whole United States iron trade, -including exports, for seventy years."</p> - -<p>Given a mountain of rock containing only one-fifth to one-fourth -magnetic iron, the broad problem confronting Edison resolved itself -into three distinct parts—first, to tear down the mountain bodily and -grind it to powder; second, to extract from this powder the particles -of iron mingled in its mass; and third, to accomplish these results at -a cost sufficiently low to give the product a commercial value.</p> - -<p>From the start Edison realized that in order to carry out this program -there would have to be automatic and continuous treatment of the -material, and that he would have to make the fullest possible use of -natural forces, such as gravity and momentum. The carrying out of -these principles and ideas gave rise to some of the most brilliant -engineering work that has ever been done by Edison. During this period -he also made many important inventions, of which several will now be -mentioned.</p> - -<p>As he proposed to treat enormous masses of material, one of the chief -things to be done was to provide for breaking the rock and crushing it -to powder rapidly and cheaply. After some experimenting, he found there -was no machinery to be bought that would do the work as it must be -done. He was therefore compelled to invent a series of machines for the -purpose.</p> - -<p>The first of these was an invention quite characteristic of Edison's -daring and boldness. It embraced a gigantic piece of mechanism, called -the "Giant Rolls," which was designed to break up pieces of rock that -might be as large as an ordinary upright piano, and weighing as much as -eight tons.</p> - -<p>A pair of iron cylinders five feet long and six feet in diameter, -covered with steel knobs, were set fifteen inches apart in a massive -frame. The rolls weighed about seventy tons. By means of a steam engine -these rolls were revolved in opposite directions until they attained -a peripheral speed of about a mile a minute. Then the rocks were -dumped into a hopper which guided them between the rolls, and in a few -seconds, with a thunderous noise, they were reduced to pieces about -the size of a man's head. The belts were released by means of slipping -friction clutches when the load was thrown on the rolls, the breaking -of the rocks being accomplished by momentum and kinetic energy.</p> - -<p>The broken rock then passed through similar rolls of a lesser size, -by means of which it was reduced to much smaller pieces. These in -their turn passed through a series of other machines in which they -were crushed to fine powder. Here again Edison made another remarkable -invention, called the "Three-High Rolls," for reducing the rock to fine -powder. The best crushers he had been able to buy had an efficiency -of only eighteen per cent, and a loss by friction of eighty-two per -cent. By his invention he reversed these figures and obtained a working -efficiency of eighty-four per cent, and reduced the loss to sixteen per -cent.</p> - -<p>The problems of drying and screening the broken and crushed material -were also solved most ingeniously by Edison's inventive skill and -engineering ability, and always with the idea and purpose in mind of -accomplishing these results by availing himself to the utmost of one of -the great forces of Nature—gravity.</p> - -<p>The great extent of the concentrating works may be imagined when we -state that two hundred and fifty tons of material per hour could be -treated. Altogether, there were about four hundred and eighty immense -magnetic separators in the plant, through which this crushed rock -passed after going through the numerous crushing, drying, and screening -processes.</p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<div class="figcenterp"> -<a id="ed0207"></a> -<img src="images/ed0207.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption">EDISON AT THE OFFICE DOOR OF THE ORE-CONCENTRATING PLANT -AT EDISON, NEW JERSEY, IN THE 'NINETIES</p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p>If it had been necessary to transfer this tremendous quantity of -material from place to place by hand the cost would have been too -great. Edison, therefore, designed an original and ingenious system -of mechanical belt conveyors that would automatically receive and -discharge their loads at appointed places in the works, covering about -a mile in transit. They went up and down, winding in and out, turning -corners, delivering material from one bin to another, making a number -of loops in the drying-oven, filling up bins, and passing on to the -next one when full. In fact, these conveyors in automatic action seemed -to play their part with human intelligence.</p> - -<p>We have been able to take only a passing glance at the great results -achieved by Edison in his nine years' work on this remarkable plant—a -work deserving of most serious study. The story would be incomplete, -however, if we did not mention his labors on putting the fine ore in -the form of solid briquettes.</p> - -<p>When the separated iron was first put on the market it was found that -it could not be used in that form in the furnaces. Edison was therefore -obliged to devise some other means to make it available. After a long -series of experiments he found a way of putting it into the form of -small, solid briquettes. These answered the purpose exactly.</p> - -<p>This called for a line of new machinery, which he had to invent to -carry out the plan. When this was completed, the great rocks went in at -one end of the works and a stream of briquettes poured out of the other -end, being made by each briquetting machine at the rate of sixty per -minute.</p> - -<p>Thus, with never-failing persistence, infinite patience, intense -thought and hard work, Edison met and conquered, one by one, the -difficulties that had confronted him. Furnace trials of his briquettes -proved that they were even better than had been anticipated. He had -received some large orders for them and was shipping them regularly. -Everything was bright and promising, when there came a fatal blow.</p> - -<p>The discovery of rich Bessemer ore in the Mesaba range of mountains in -Minnesota a few years before had been followed by the opening of the -mines there about this time. As this rich ore could be sold for three -dollars and fifty cents per ton, as against six dollars and fifty cents -per ton for Edison's briquettes, his great enterprise must be abandoned -at the very moment of success.</p> - -<p>It was a sad blow to Edison's hopes. He had spent nine years of hard -work and about two millions of his own money in the great work that had -thus been brought to nought through no fault of his. The project had -lain close to his heart and ambition, indeed he had put aside almost -all other work and inventions for a while.</p> - -<p>For five of the nine years he had lived and worked steadily at Edison -(the name of the place where the works were located), leaving there -only on Saturday night to spend Sunday at his home in Orange, and -returning to the plant by an early train on Monday morning. Life at -Edison was of the simple kind—work, meals, and a few hours' sleep day -by day, but Mr. Edison often says he never felt better than he did -during those five years.</p> - -<p>After careful investigations and calculations it was decided to close -the plant. Mr. W. S. Mallory, his close associate during those years of -the concentrating work, says: "The plant was heavily in debt, and, as -Mr. Edison and I rode on the train to Orange, plans were discussed as -to how to make enough money to pay off the debt. Mr. Edison stated most -positively that no company with which he had been personally actively -connected had ever failed to pay its debts, and he did not propose to -have the concentrating company any exception.</p> - -<p>"We figured carefully over the probabilities of financial returns from -the phonograph works and other enterprises, and, after discussing many -plans, it was finally decided that we would apply the knowledge we had -gained in the concentrating plant to building a plant for manufacturing -Portland cement, and that Mr. Edison would devote his attention to the -developing of a storage battery which did not use lead and sulphuric -acid.</p> - -<p>"He started in with the maximum amount of enthusiasm and ambition, -and in the course of about three years we succeeded in paying off the -indebtedness of the concentrating works.</p> - -<p>"As to the state of Mr. Edison's mind when the final decision was -reached to close down, if he was specially disappointed there was -nothing in his manner to indicate it, his every thought being for the -future."</p> - -<p>In this attitude we find a true revelation of one conspicuous trait -in Mr. Edison. No one ever cried less over spilled milk than he. He -had spent a fortune and had devoted nine years of his life to the most -intense thought and labor in the creation and development of this vast -enterprise. He had made many remarkable inventions and had achieved -a very great success, only to see the splendid results swept away -in a moment. He did not sit down and bewail his lot, but with true -philosophy and greatness of mind applied himself with characteristic -energy to new work through which he might be able to open up a more -promising future.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h3><a id="XIX"></a>XIX<br /><br /> - -EDISON MAKES PORTLAND CEMENT</h3> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p>Long before Edison ever thought of going into the manufacture of cement -he had very pronounced opinions of its value for building purposes. -More than twenty-five years ago, during a discussion on ancient -buildings, he remarked: "Wood will rot, stone will chip and crumble, -bricks disintegrate, but a cement and iron structure is apparently -indestructible. Look at some of the old Roman baths. They are as solid -as when they were built."</p> - -<p>With such convictions, and the vast fund of practical knowledge and -experience he had gained at Edison in the crushing and handling of -enormous masses of finely divided material, it is not surprising that -he should have decided to engage in the manufacture of cement.</p> - -<p>He was fully aware of the fact that he was proposing to "butt into" an -old-established industry, in which the principal manufacturers were -concerns which had been in business for a long time. He knew there were -great problems to be solved, both in manufacturing and selling the -cement. These difficulties, however, only made the proposition more -inviting to him.</p> - -<p>Edison followed his usual course of reading up all the literature -on the subject that he could find, and seeking information from all -quarters. After thorough study he came to the conclusion that with his -improved methods of handling finely crushed material, and with some new -inventions and processes he had in mind, he could go into the cement -business and succeed in making a finer quality of product. As we shall -see later, he "made good."</p> - -<p>This study of the cement proposition took place during the first few -months of his experimenting on a new storage battery. In the mean time -Mr. Mallory had been busy arranging for the formation of a company with -the necessary money to commence and carry on the business. One day he -went to the laboratory and told Mr. Edison that everything was ready -and that it was now time to engage engineers to lay out the works.</p> - -<p>To this Edison replied that he intended to do that himself, and -invited Mr. Mallory to go with him to one of the draughting-rooms -up-stairs. Here Edison placed a sheet of paper on a draughting-table -and immediately began to draw out a plan of the proposed works. He -continued all day and away into the evening, when he finished; thus -completing within twenty-four hours the full lay-out of the entire -plant as it was subsequently installed. If the plant were to be rebuilt -to-day no vital change would be necessary.</p> - -<p>It will be granted that this was a remarkable engineering feat, for -Edison was then a newcomer in the cement business. But in that one -day's planning everything was considered and provided for, including -crushing, mixing, weighing, grinding, drying screening, sizing, -burning, packing, storing, and other processes.</p> - -<p>From one end to the other the cement plant is about half a mile long, -and through the various buildings there passes, automatically, each day -a vast quantity of material under treatment. In practice this results -in the production of more than two and a quarter million pounds of -finished cement every twenty-four hours.</p> - -<p>Not only was all this provided for in that one day's designing, but -also smaller details, such, for instance, as the carrying of all -steam, water and air pipes and electrical conductors in a large subway -extending from one end of the plant to the other; also a system by -which the ten thousand bearings in the plant are oiled automatically, -requiring the services of only two men for the entire work.</p> - -<p>Following this general outline plan of the whole plant by Edison -himself there came the preparation of the detail plans by his -engineers. As the manufacture of cement also involves the breaking and -grinding of rocks, the scheme, of course, included using the giant -rolls and other crushing, drying, and screening machinery invented by -him for the iron-concentrating work, as mentioned in our last chapter.</p> - -<p>No magnetic separator is necessary in cement-making, but there were -other processes to provide for that did not occur in concentrating iron -ore. One of them relates to burning the material, which is one of the -most important processes in manufacturing cement.</p> - -<p>Perhaps it may be well to state for the information of the reader that -in cement-making, generally speaking, cement-rock and limestone in -the rough are mixed together and ground to a fine powder. This powder -is "burned" in a kiln and comes out in the form of balls, called -"clinker." This again is crushed to a fine powder, which is the cement -of commerce.</p> - -<p>It will be seen, therefore, that the quantity of finished cement -produced depends largely upon the capacity of the kilns. When Edison -first thought of going into cement-making he expected to use the old -style of kilns, which were about sixty feet long and six feet in -diameter, and had a capacity of turning out about two hundred barrels -of clinker every twenty-four hours. He is never satisfied, however, to -take the experience of others as final, and thought he could improve on -what had been done before.</p> - -<p>He discussed the project with Mr. Mallory, who says: "After having -gone over this matter several times, Mr. Edison said, 'I believe I -can make a kiln which will give an output of one thousand barrels -in twenty-four hours.' Although I had then been closely associated -with him for ten years and was accustomed to see him accomplish great -things, I could not help feeling the improbability of his being able -to jump into an old-established industry—as a novice—and start by -improving the 'heart' of the production so as to increase its capacity -four hundred per cent. But Mr. Edison went to work immediately and -very soon completed the design of a new type of kiln which was to be -one hundred and fifty feet long and nine feet in diameter, made up -in ten-foot sections of cast iron bolted together and arranged to be -revolved on fifteen bearings. He had a wooden model made, and studied -it very carefully through a series of experiments. These resulted so -satisfactorily that this form was finally decided upon, and ultimately -installed as part of the plant.</p> - -<p>"Well, for a year or so the kiln problem was a nightmare to me. We -could only obtain four hundred barrels at first, but gradually crept -up through a series of heart-breaking trials until we got over eleven -hundred barrels a day. Mr. Edison never lost his confidence throughout -the trials, but on receiving a disappointing report would order us to -try it again."</p> - -<p>Although the older cement manufacturers predicted utter failure, they -have since recognized the success of Edison's long kiln, and it is now -being used quite generally in the trade.</p> - -<p>Another invention of minor nature but worthy of note relates to the -weighing of the proportions of cement-rock and limestone. In most cases -the measurement is usually by barrow loads, but Edison determined that -it must be done accurately to the pound, and devised a means of doing -it automatically, for, as he remarked, "The man at the scales might -get to thinking of the other fellow's best girl, so fifty or a hundred -pounds of rock, more or less, wouldn't make much difference to him."</p> - -<p>With Edison's device the scales are set at certain weights and the -materials are fed from hoppers. The moment the scale-beam tips an -electrical connection automatically stops the feed and no more can be -put on the scale until the load is withdrawn.</p> - -<p>Another and important new feature introduced by Edison was in raising -the standard of fine grinding of cement ten points above the regular -standard of seventy-five per cent, through a two-hundred-mesh screen. -By reason of the great improvement he had made in grinding machinery -he could grind cement so that eighty-five per cent, passed through a -two-hundred-mesh screen. As cement is valuable in proportion to its -fineness, it will be seen that he has thus made an advance of great -importance to the trade.</p> - -<p>We cannot enter into all the details of the numerous inventions and -improvements that Edison has introduced into his cement plant during -the last eight or nine years. It is sufficient to say that by his -persistent and energetic labors during that period he has raised his -plant from the position of a newcomer to the rank of the fifth largest -producer of cement in this country.</p> - -<p>A remarkable instance of the power of Edison's memory may be related -here. Some years ago, when the cement plant was nearly finished and -getting ready to start, he went up to look it over and see what needed -to be done.</p> - -<p>On the arrival of the train at ten-forty in the morning he went to the -mill, and, starting at one end, went through the plant to the other -end, examining every detail. He made no notes or memoranda, but the -examination required all day.</p> - -<p>In the afternoon, at five-thirty, he took a train for home, and on -arriving there a few hours later got out some note-books and began to -write from memory the things needing change or attention. He continued -on this work all night and right along until the next afternoon, when -he completed a list of nearly six hundred items. This memory "stunt" -was the more remarkable because many of the items included all the -figures of new dimensions he had decided upon for some of the machinery -in the plant.</p> - -<p>Each item was numbered consecutively, and the list copied and sent -up to the superintendent, who was instructed to make the changes and -report by number as they were done. These changes were made and their -value was proven by later experience.</p> - -<p>Edison's achievements have made a deep impression on the cement -industry, but it is likely that it will become still deeper when his -"Poured Cement House" is exploited.</p> - -<p>A few years ago he conceived the idea of pouring a complete concrete -house in a few hours. He made a long series of experiments for -producing a free-flowing combination of the necessary materials, and -at length found one that satisfied him that his idea was feasible, -although experts said it could not be done.</p> - -<p>His plan is to provide two sets of iron molds, one inside the other, -with an open space between. These molds are made in small pieces and -set up by being bolted together. When erected, the concrete mixture is -poured in from the top in a continuous stream until the space between -the molds is filled.</p> - -<p>The pouring will be done in about six hours, after which the molds will -be left in position about four days in order that the concrete may -harden. When the molds are removed there will remain standing an entire -house, complete from cellar to roof, with walls, floors, stairways, -bath and laundry tubs, all in one solid piece. These houses, when built -in quantity, can be produced at a very moderate cost.</p> - -<p>Mr. Edison intends this house for the workingman, and in its design -has insisted on its being ornamental as well as substantial. As he -expressed it: "We will give the workingman and his family ornamentation -in their house. They deserve it, and besides, it costs no more after -the pattern is made to give decorative effects than it would to make -everything plain."</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h3><a id="XX"></a>XX<br /><br /> - -MOTION-PICTURES</h3> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p>Through his invention and introduction of the phonograph and of his -apparatus for taking and exhibiting motion-pictures Edison has probably -done more to interest and amuse the world than any other living man. -These two forms of amusement have more audiences in a week than all the -theaters in America in a year.</p> - -<p>It is a curious fact that while instantaneous photography is necessary -to produce motion pictures, the <i>suggestion</i> of producing them was made -many years before the instantaneous photograph became possible.</p> - -<p>One of the earliest efforts in this direction was made before Edison -was born, and shown by a toy called the Zoetrope, or "Wheel of Life." -A number of figures showing fractional parts of the motion of an -object—such, for instance, as a boy skating—were boldly drawn in -silhouette on a strip of paper. This paper was put inside an open -cylinder having small openings around its circumference. The cylinder -was mounted on a pivot, and, when revolved, the figures on the paper -seemed to be in motion when viewed through the openings.</p> - -<p>The success of this and similar toys, as well as of modern -motion-pictures, depends upon a phenomenon known as the "persistence -of vision." This means that if an object be presented to the vision -for a moment and then withdrawn, the image of that object will remain -impressed on the retina of the eye for a period of one-tenth to -one-seventh of a second.</p> - -<p>If, for instance, a bright light be moved rapidly up and down in front -of the eye in a dark room it appears not as a single light, but as a -line of fire, because there is not time for the eye to lose the image -of the light between the rapid phases of its motion. For the same -reason, if a number of pictures exactly alike were rapidly presented to -the eye in succession it would seem as if a single picture were being -viewed.</p> - -<p>Thus, if a number of photographs, say at the rate of fifteen per -second, be taken of a moving object, each successive photograph will -show a fraction of the movements. Now if these photographs be thrown -on a screen in the same order and at the same rate at which they were -taken the movements of the object would apparently again take place, -because the eye does not have time to lose the image of one fractional -movement before the next follows.</p> - -<p>One of the earliest suggestions of reproducing animate motion was made -by a Frenchman named Ducos about 1864. He was followed by others, but -they were all handicapped by the fact that dry-plates and sensitized -film were entirely unknown, and the wet plates then used were entirely -out of the question for the development of a practical commercial -scheme.</p> - -<p>The first serious attempt to secure photographs of objects in motion -was made in 1878 by Edward Muybridge. At this time very rapid -wet-plates were known. By arranging a line of cameras along a track -and causing a horse in trotting past them to strike wires or strings -attached to the shutters, the plates were exposed and a series of clear -instantaneous photographs of the horse in motion was obtained.</p> - -<p>Positive prints were made which were mounted in a modified form of -Zoetrope and projected upon a screen. The horse in motion was thus -reproduced, but, differing from the motion-pictures of to-day, always -remained in the center of the screen in violent movement and making no -progress.</p> - -<p>Early in the 'eighties dry-plates were introduced, and other -experimenters took up the work, but they were handicapped by the -fact that plates were heavy and only a limited number could be used. -This difficulty may be easily understood when it is realized that a -modern motion-picture reel lasting fifteen minutes comprises about -sixteen thousand separate and distinct photographs. The impossibility -of manipulating this large number of glass plates to show one -motion-picture play will be seen at once.</p> - -<p>This was the condition of the art when Edison entered upon the work. -He himself says, "In the year 1887 idea occurred to me that it was -possible to devise an instrument which should do for the eye what the -phonograph does for the ear, and that by a combination of the two all -motion and sound could be recorded and reproduced simultaneously."</p> - -<p>Two very serious difficulties lay in the way, however—first, a -sensitive surface of such form and weight as could be successively -brought into position and exposed at a very high rate; and, secondly, -the making of a camera capable of so taking the pictures. Edison -proved equal to the occasion, and, after an immense amount of work -and experiment, continuing over a long period of time, succeeded in -producing apparatus that made modern motion-pictures possible.</p> - -<p>In his earliest experiments a cylinder about the size of a phonograph -record was used. It was coated with a highly sensitized surface, -and microscopic photographs, arranged spirally, were taken upon it. -Positive prints were made in the same way, and viewed through a -magnifying-glass. Various forms of this apparatus were made, but all -were open to serious objections, the chief trouble being with the -photographic emulsion.</p> - -<p>During this experimental period the kodak film was being developed by -the Eastman Kodak Company, under the direction of Mr. George Eastman. -Edison recognized that in this product there lay the solution of that -part of the problem. At first the film was not just what he required, -but the Eastman Company after a time developed and produced the highly -sensitized surface that Edison sought.</p> - -<p>It then remained to devise a camera by means of which from twenty to -forty pictures per second could be taken. Every user of a film camera -can appreciate the difficulty of the problem. A long roll of film must -pass steadily behind the lens. At every inch it must be stopped, the -shutter opened for the exposure, and then closed again. The film must -be advanced say an inch, and these operations repeated twenty to forty -times a second throughout, perhaps, a thousand feet of film.</p> - -<p>Who but an Edison would assume that such a device could be made, and -with such exactness that each picture should coincide with the others? -After much experiment, however, he finally accomplished it, and in the -summer of 1889 the first modern motion-picture camera was made. From -that day to this the Edison camera has been the accepted standard for -securing pictures of objects in motion.</p> - -<p>The earliest form of exhibiting apparatus was known as the kinetoscope. -It was a machine in which a positive print from the negative roll -of film obtained in the camera was exhibited directly to the eyes -through a peep-hole. About 1895 the pictures were first shown through -a modified form of magic lantern, and have so continued to this day. -The industry has grown very rapidly, and for a long time the principal -American manufacturers of motion-pictures paid a royalty to Edison -under his basic patents.</p> - -<p>The pictures made in the earliest days of the art were simple and -amusing, such as Fred Ott's sneeze, Carmencita dancing, Italians -and their performing bears, fencing, trapeze stunts, horsemanship, -blacksmithing, and so on. No attempt was made to portray a story or -play. The "boys" at the laboratory laugh when they tell of a local -bruiser who agreed to box a few rounds with "Jim" Corbett in front of -the camera. When this local "sparring partner" came to face Corbett he -was so paralyzed with terror he could hardly move.</p> - -<p>These early pictures were made in the yard of Edison's laboratory at -Orange, in a studio called the "Black Maria." It was made of wood, -painted black inside and out, and could be swung around to face the -sunlight, which was admitted by a movable part of the roof.</p> - -<p>This is all very different in these modern days. The studios in which -interior motion-pictures are made are expensive and pretentious -affairs. An immense building of glass, with all the properties and -stage settings of a regular theater, are required. Of course many of -the plays are produced out of doors, in portions of the country suited -to the story.</p> - -<p>All the companies producing motion-pictures employ regular stock -companies of actors and actresses, selected especially for their skill -in pantomime, although, as may be suspected, in the actual taking -of the pictures they are required to carry on an animated dialogue -as if performing on the real stage. This adds to the smoothness and -perfection of the performance.</p> - -<p>Motion-picture plays are produced under the direction of skilled -stage-managers who must be specially trained for this particular -business. Their work is far from being easy, for an act in a -picture-play must be exact and free from mistakes, and must take place -in a very short time. For instance, an act in such a play may take less -than five minutes to perform, but it must be carefully rehearsed for -several weeks beforehand.</p> - -<p>There is plenty of scope for patience and ingenuity in taking -motion-picture plays. If trained children or animals are required they -must be found or trained; and all the resources of trick and stop -photography are called upon from time to time as the occasion requires.</p> - -<p>Edison has always held to his idea of a combination of the phonograph -and motion-picture. Some time ago he said, "I believe that in coming -years, by my own work and that of Dickson, Muybridge, Marey, and others -who will doubtless enter the field, grand opera can be given at the -Metropolitan Opera House in New York without any material change from -the original, and with artists and musicians long since dead."</p> - -<p>This prediction has been partly fulfilled, for Edison's successful -talking motion-pictures marked the beginning of the "talkies" which are -flourishing to-day.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h3><a id="XXI"></a>XXI<br /><br /> - -EDISON INVENTS A NEW STORAGE BATTERY</h3> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p>Many an invention has been made as the result of some happy thought or -inspiration, but most inventions are made by men working along certain -lines, who set out to accomplish a desired result. It is rarely, -however, that man starts out deliberately, as Edison did, to invent an -entirely new type of such an intricate device as a storage battery, -with only a vague starting point.</p> - -<p>Previous to Edison's work the only type of storage battery known was -the one in which lead plates and sulphuric acid were employed. He had -always realized the value of a storage battery as such, but never -believed that the lead-acid type could fulfil all expectations because -of its weight and incurable defects.</p> - -<p>About the time that he closed the magnetic iron ore concentrating plant -(in the beginning of the present century) Edison remarked to Mr. R. -H. Beach, then of the General Electric Company: "Beach, I don't think -nature would be so unkind as to withhold the secret of a <i>good</i> storage -battery if a real earnest hunt for it is made. I'm going to hunt." And -before starting he determined to avoid lead and sulphuric acid.</p> - -<p>Edison is frequently asked what he considers to be the secret of -achievement. He always replies, "Hard work, based on hard thinking." He -has consistently lived up to this prescription to the utmost.</p> - -<p>Of all his inventions it is doubtful whether any one of them has -called forth more original thought, work, perseverance, ingenuity, and -monumental patience than the one we are now dealing with. One of his -associates who has been through the many years of the storage-battery -drudgery with him said: "If Edison's experiments, investigations, and -work on this storage battery were all that he had ever done, I should -say that he was not only a notable inventor, but also a great man. It -is almost impossible to appreciate the enormous difficulties that have -been overcome."</p> - -<p>From a beginning which was made practically in the dark, it was not -until he had completed more than ten thousand experiments that he -obtained any positive results whatever. Month after month of constant -work by day and night had not broken down Edison's faith in success, -and the failure of an experiment simply meant that he had found -something else that would <i>not</i> do, thus bringing him nearer the -possible goal.</p> - -<p>After this immense amount of preliminary work he had obtained promising -results in a series of reactions between nickel and iron, and was -then all afire to push ahead. He therefore established a chemical -plant at Silver Lake, New Jersey, and, gathering around him a corps of -mechanics, chemists, machinists, and experimenters, settled down to one -of his characteristic struggles for supremacy. To some extent it was a -revival of the old Menlo Park days and nights.</p> - -<p>The group that took part in these early years of Edison's arduous -labors included his old-time assistant, Fred Ott, together with his -chemist, J. W. Aylsworth, as well as E. J. Ross, Jr.; W. E. Holland, -and Ralph Arbogast, and a little later W. G. Bee, all of whom grew -up with the battery and devoted their energies to its commercial -development.</p> - -<p>One of these workers, relating the strenuous experiences of these few -years, says: "It was hard work and long hours, but still there were -some things that made life pleasant. One of them was the supper-hour -we enjoyed when we worked nights. Mr. Edison would have supper sent in -about midnight, and we all sat down together, including himself. Work -was forgotten for the time, and all hands were ready for fun. I have -very pleasant recollections of Mr. Edison at these times. He would -always relax and help to make a good time, and on some occasions I have -seen him fairly overflow with animal spirits, just like a boy let out -of school. He was very fond of telling and hearing stories, and always -appreciated a joke. After the supper-hour was over, however, he again -became the serious, energetic inventor, deeply immersed in the work in -hand."</p> - -<p>Another interesting and amusing reminiscence of this period of activity -has been told by another of the family of experimenters: "Sometimes -when Mr. Edison had been working long hours he would want to have a -short sleep. It was one of the funniest things I ever witnessed to see -him crawl into an ordinary roll-top desk and curl up and take a nap. -If there was a sight that was still more funny, it was to see him turn -over on his other side, all the time remaining in the desk. He would -use several volumes of <i>Watts' Dictionary of Chemistry</i> for a pillow, -and we fellows used to say that he absorbed the contents during his -sleep, judging from the flow of new ideas he had on waking."</p> - -<p>Such incidents as these serve merely to illustrate the lighter moments -that relieved the severe and arduous labors of the strenuous five -years of the early storage-battery work of Edison and his associates. -Difficulties there were a-plenty, but these are what Edison usually -thrives on. As another coworker of this period says: "Edison seemed -pleased when he used to run up against a serious difficulty. It would -seem to stiffen his backbone and make him more prolific of new ideas. -For a time I thought I was foolish to imagine such a thing, but I could -never get away from the impression that he really appeared happy when -he ran up against a serious snag."</p> - -<p>It would be out of the question in a book of this kind to follow -Edison's trail in detail through the innumerable twists and turns of -his experimentation on the storage battery, for they would fill a -big volume. The reader may imagine how extensive they were from the -reply of one of his laboratory assistants, who, when asked how many -experiments were made on the storage battery since the year 1900, -replied: "Goodness only knows! We used to number our experiments -consecutively from one to ten thousand, and when we got up to ten -thousand we turned back to one and ran up to ten thousand again, and so -on. We ran through several series—I don't know how many, and have lost -track of them now, but it was not far from fifty thousand."</p> - -<p>The mechanical problems in devising this battery were numerous and -intricate, but the greatest difficulty that Edison had to overcome was -the proper preparation of nickel hydrate for the positive and iron -oxide for the negative plate. He found that comparatively little was -known by manufacturing chemists about these compounds. Hence it became -necessary for him to establish his own chemical works and put them in -charge of men specially trained by himself.</p> - -<p>After an intense struggle with these problems, lasting over several -years, the storage battery was at length completed and put on the -market. The public was ready for it and there was a rapid sale.</p> - -<p>Continuous tests of the battery were carried on at the laboratory, -as well as practical and heavy tests in automobiles, which were kept -running constantly over all kinds of roads under Edison's directions. -After these tests had been going on for some time the results showed -that occasionally a cell here and there would fall short in capacity.</p> - -<p>This did not suit Edison. He was determined to make his storage battery -a complete success, and after careful thought decided to shut down -until he had overcome the trouble. The customers were satisfied and -wanted to buy more batteries, but he was not satisfied and would sell -no more until he had made the battery perfect.</p> - -<p>He therefore shut down the factory and went to experimenting once more. -The old strenuous struggle set in and continued nearly three years -before he was satisfied beyond doubt that the battery was right. In -the early summer of 1909 Edison once more started to manufacture and -sell the batteries, and has since that time continued to supply them as -quickly as they are made. At the present writing the factory is running -day and night in attempting to keep up with orders.</p> - -<p>One of the principal troubles of the earlier cells was a lack of -conductivity between the nickel hydrate and the metal tube in which it -was contained. Edison had used graphite to obtain this conductivity, -but this material proved to be uncertain in some cases. After a long -course of study and experiment he solved this problem in a satisfactory -manner by using flakes of pure nickel, which he obtained by a most -fascinating and ingenious process.</p> - -<p>A metallic cylinder is electroplated with alternate layers of copper -and nickel, one hundred of each. The combined sheet, which is only as -thick as a visiting-card, is stripped off the cylinder and cut into -tiny squares of about one-sixteenth of an inch each. These squares -are put into a bath which dissolves out the copper. This releases the -layers of nickel, so that each of these squares becomes one hundred -tiny sheets, or flakes, of pure metallic nickel, so thin and light -that when they are dried they will float in the air. These flakes are -automatically pressed into the positive tubes with the nickel hydrate -in an ingenious machine which had to be specially invented for the -purpose.</p> - -<p>Not only was this machine specially invented, but it was necessary -to invent and design practically all the other machinery that it was -necessary to use in manufacturing the battery. Thus, we see that in -this, as in many other of Edison's inventions, it is not only the thing -itself that has been invented, but also the special machinery and tools -to make it.</p> - -<p>The principal use that Edison has had in mind for his storage battery -is the transportation of freight and passengers by truck, automobile, -and street-car. Although at the time of writing this book the improved -battery has been on the market a little over two years, great strides -have been made in carrying his ideas into effect.</p> - -<p>The number of trucks and automobiles using Edison's storage battery -already run into the thousands, with more orders than can be -immediately filled.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h3><a id="XXII"></a>XXII<br /><br /> - -EDISON'S MISCELLANEOUS INVENTIONS</h3> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p>Thus far the history of Edison's career has fallen naturally into a -series of chapters each aiming to describe a group of inventions in the -development of some art. This plan has been helpful to the writer and -probably useful to the reader.</p> - -<p>It happens, however, that the process has left a vast mass of discovery -and invention untouched, and it is now proposed to make brief mention -of a few of the hundreds of things that have occupied Edison's -attention from time to time.</p> - -<p>Beginning with telegraphy, we find that Edison did some work on -wireless transmission. He says: "I perfected a system of train -telegraphy between stations and trains in motion, whereby messages -could be sent from the moving train to the central office; and this -was the forerunner of wireless telegraphy. This system was used for a -number of years on the Lehigh Valley Railroad on their construction -trains. The electric wave passed from a piece of metal on top of the -car across the air to the telegraph wires, and then proceeded to the -despatcher's office. In my first experiments with this system I tried -it on the Staten Island Railroad and employed an operator named King -to do the experimenting. He reported results every day, and received -instructions by mail; but for some reason he could send messages all -right when the train went in one direction, but could not make it go -in the contrary direction. I made suggestions of every kind to get -around this phenomenon. Finally I telegraphed King to find out if he -had any suggestions himself, and I received a reply that the only way -he could propose to get around the difficulty was to put the island on -a pivot so it could be turned around. I found the trouble finally, and -the practical introduction on the Lehigh Valley road was the result. -The system was sold to a very wealthy man, and he would never sell any -rights or answer letters. He became a spiritualist subsequently, which -probably explains it."</p> - -<p>The earlier experiments with wireless telegraphy were made at Menlo -Park during the first days of the electric light, and it was not until -1886 that Edison had time to spare to put the system into actual -use. At that time Ezra T. Gilliland and Lucius J. Phelps, who had -experimented on the same lines, became associated with him in the work.</p> - -<p>Although the space between the train and the pole line was not more -than fifty feet, Edison had succeeded at Menlo Park in transmitting -messages through the air at a distance of five hundred and eighty -feet. Speaking of this and of his other experiments with induction -telegraphy by means of kites, he said, recently: "We only transmitted -about two and one-half miles through the kites. What has always puzzled -me since is that I did not think of using the results of my experiments -on 'etheric force' that I made in 1875. I have never been able to -understand how I came to overlook them. If I had made use of my own -work I should have had long-distance wireless telegraphy."</p> - -<p>These experiments of 1875, as recorded in Edison's famous note-books, -show that in that year he detected and studied some then unknown and -curious phenomena which made him think he was on the trail of a new -force. His representative, Mr. Batchelor, showed these experiments with -Edison's apparatus, including the "dark box," at the Paris Exposition -in 1881. Without knowing it, for he was far in advance of the time, -Edison had really entered upon the path of long-distance wireless -telegraphy, as was proven later when the magnificent work of Hertz was -published.</p> - -<p>When Roentgen made the discovery of the X-ray in 1895 Edison took -up experimentation with it on a large scale. He made the first -fluoroscope, using tungstate of calcium for the screen. In order to -find other fluorescent substances he set four men to work and thus -collected upward of eight thousand different crystals of various -chemical combinations, of which about eighteen hundred would fluoresce -to the X-ray. He also invented a new lamp for giving light by means of -these fluorescent crystals fused to the inside of the glass. Some of -these lamps were made and used for a time, but he gave up the idea when -the dangerous nature of the X-ray became known.</p> - -<p>It would be possible to go on and describe in brief detail many more of -the hundreds of Edison's miscellaneous inventions, but the limits of -our space will not permit more than the mere mention of a <i>few</i>, simply -to illustrate the wide range of his ideas and work. For instance:</p> - -<ul> -<li>A dry process of separating placer gold; the rapid disposal of heavy -snows in cities.</li> -<li>Experiments on flying machines with an engine operated by explosions of -guncotton.</li> -<li>The joint invention, with M. W. Scott Sims, of a dirigible submarine -torpedo operated by electricity.</li> -<li>Pyromagnetic generators for generating electricity directly from the -combustion of coal.</li> -<li>Pyromagnetic motors operated by alternate heating and cooling.</li> -<li>A magnetic bridge for testing the magnetic qualities of iron.</li> -<li>A "dead-beat" galvanometer without coils or magnetic needle.</li> -<li>The odoroscope, for measuring odors; preserving fruit <i>in vacuo</i>; -making plate glass; drawing wire.</li> -<li>Metallurgical processes for treatment of nickel, gold, and copper ores.</li> -</ul> - -<p>From first to last Edison has filed in the United States Patent Office -more than fourteen hundred applications for patents. Besides, he filed -some one hundred and twenty caveats, embracing not less than fifteen -hundred additional inventions. The caveat has now been abolished in -patent-office practice, but such a document could formerly be filed by -an inventor to obtain a partial protection for a year while completing -his invention. As an example of Edison's fertility and the endless -variety of subjects engaging his attention the following list of -matters covered by <i>one</i> of his caveats is given. All his caveats are -not quite so full of "plums," but this is certainly a wonder:</p> - -<ul> -<li>Forty-one distinct inventions relating to the phonograph, covering -various forms of recorders, arrangement of parts, making of records, -shaving tool, adjustments, etc.</li> -<li>Eight forms of electric lamps using infusible earthy oxides and brought -to high incandescence <i>in vacuo</i> by high potential current of several -thousand volts; same character as impingement of X-rays on object in -bulb.</li> -<li>A loud-speaking telephone with quartz cylinder and beam of ultra-violet -light.</li> -<li>Four forms of arc-light with special carbons.</li> -<li>A thermostatic motor.</li> -<li>A device for sealing together the inside part and bulb of an -incandescent lamp mechanically.</li> -<li>Regulators for dynamos and motors.</li> -<li>Three devices for utilizing vibrations beyond the ultra-violet.</li> -<li>A great variety of methods for coating incandescent lamp filaments with -silicon, titanium, chromium, osmium, boron, etc.</li> -<li>Several methods of making porous filaments.</li> -<li>Several methods of making squirted filaments of a variety of materials, -of which about thirty are specified.</li> -<li>Seventeen different methods and devices for separating magnetic ores.</li> -<li>A continuously operative primary battery.</li> -<li>A musical instrument operating one of Helmholtz's artificial larynxes.</li> -<li>A siren worked by explosion of small quantities of oxygen and hydrogen -mixed.</li> -<li>Three other sirens made to give vocal sounds or articulate speech.</li> -<li>A device for projecting sound-waves to a distance without spreading, -and in a straight line, on the principle of smoke-rings.</li> -<li>A device for continuously indicating on a galvanometer the depths of -the ocean.</li> -<li>A method of preventing in a great measure friction of water against the -hull of a ship and incidentally preventing fouling by barnacles.</li> -<li>A telephone receiver whereby the vibrations of the diaphragm are -considerably amplified.</li> -<li>Two methods of "space" telegraphy at sea.</li> -<li>An improved and extended string telephone.</li> -<li>Devices and method of talking through water for a considerable distance.</li> -<li>An audiphone for deaf people.</li> -<li>Sound-bridge for measuring resistance of tubes and other materials for -conveying sound.</li> -<li>A method of testing a magnet to ascertain the existence of flaws in the -iron or steel composing the same.</li> -<li>Method of distilling liquids by incandescent conductor immersed in the -liquid.</li> -<li>Method of obtaining electricity direct from coal.</li> -<li>An engine operated by steam produced by the hydration and dehydration -of metallic salts.</li> -<li>Device and method of telegraphing photographically.</li> -<li>Carbon crucible kept brilliantly incandescent by current <i>in vacuo</i> for -obtaining reaction with refractory metals.</li> -<li>Device for examining combinations of odors and their changes by -rotation at different speeds.</li> -</ul> - -<p>It must be borne in mind that the above and hundreds of others are not -merely <i>ideas</i> put in writing, but represent actual inventions upon -which Edison worked and experimented. In many cases the experiments ran -into the thousands, requiring months for their performance.</p> - -<p>To describe Edison's mere ideas and suggestions for future work would -of itself fill a volume. These are written in his own handwriting in a -number of large record-books which he has shown to the writer. Judging -from a hasty inspection, there is enough material in these books to -occupy the lifetime of several persons.</p> - -<p>The immense range of Edison's mind and activities cannot well be -described in cold print, but can only be adequately comprehended by -those who have been closely associated with him for a length of time, -and who have had opportunity of studying his voluminous records.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h3><a id="XXIII"></a>XXIII<br /><br /> - -EDISON'S METHOD IN INVENTING</h3> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p>If one were allowed only two words with which to describe Edison it is -doubtful whether a close examination of the entire dictionary would -disclose any others more suitable than "experimenter-inventor." These -would express the overruling characteristics of his eventful career.</p> - -<p>His life as child, boy, and man has revealed the born investigator with -original reasoning powers, unlimited imagination, and daring method. It -is not surprising, therefore, that a man of this kind should exhibit a -ceaseless, absorbing desire for knowledge, willing to spend his last -cent in experimentation to satisfy the cravings of an inquiring mind.</p> - -<p>There is nothing of the slap-dash style in Edison's experiments. While -he "tries everything," it is not merely the mixing of a little of -this, some of that, and a few drops of the other, in the <i>hope</i> that -<i>something</i> will come of it. On the contrary, his instructions are -always clear-cut and direct, and must be followed out systematically, -exactly, and minutely, no matter where they lead nor how long the -experiment may take.</p> - -<p>Unthinking persons have had a notion that some of Edison's successes -have been due to mere dumb fool luck—to fortunate "happenings." -Nothing could be farther from the truth, for, on the contrary, it is -owing almost entirely to his comprehensive knowledge, the breadth -of his conception, the daring originality of his methods, and -minuteness and extent of experiment, combined with patient, unceasing -perseverance, that new arts have been created and additions made to -others already in existence.</p> - -<p>One of the first things Edison does in beginning a new line of -investigation is to master the literature of the subject. He wants to -know what has been done before. Not that he considers this as final, -for he often obtains vastly different results by repeating in his own -way the experiments of others.</p> - -<p>"Edison can travel along a well-used road and still find virgin soil," -remarked one of his experimenters recently, who had been trying to make -a certain compound, but with poor success. Edison tried it in the same -way, but made a change in one of the operations and succeeded.</p> - -<p>Another of the experimental staff says: "Edison is never hindered by -theory, but resorts to actual experiment for proof. For instance, when -he conceived the idea of pouring a complete concrete house it was -universally held that it would be impossible because the pieces of -stone in the mixture would not rise to the level of the pouring-point, -but would gravitate to a lower plane in the soft cement. This, however, -did not hinder him from making a series of experiments which resulted -in an invention that proved conclusively the contrary."</p> - -<p>Having conceived some new idea and read everything obtainable relating -to the subject in general, Edison's fertility of resource and -originality come into play. He will write in one of the laboratory -note-books a memorandum of the experiments to be tried, and, if -necessary, will illustrate by sketches.</p> - -<p>This book is then given to one of the large staff of experimenters. -Here strenuousness and a prompt carrying on of the work are required. -The results of each experiment must be recorded in the notebook, and -daily or more frequent reports are expected. Edison does not forget -what is going on, but in his daily tours through the laboratory keeps -in touch with the work of all the experimenters. His memory is so keen -and retentive that he is as fully aware of the progress and details of -each of the numerous experiments constantly going on as if he had made -them all himself.</p> - -<p>The use of laboratory note-books was begun early in the Menlo Park days -and has continued ever since. They are plain blank-books, each about -eight and a half by six inches, containing about two hundred pages. -At the present time there are more than one thousand of these books -in the series. On their pages are noted Edison's ideas, sketches, and -memoranda, together with records of countless thousands of experiments -made by him or under his direction during more than thirty years.</p> - -<p>These two hundred thousand or more pages cover investigations into -every department of science, showing the operations of a master mind -seeking to surprise Nature into a betrayal of her secrets by asking -her the same question in a hundred different ways. The breadth of -thought, thoroughness of method, infinite detail, and minuteness of -investigation proceeding from the workings of one mind would surpass -belief were they not shown by this wonderful collection of note-books.</p> - -<p>A remark made by one of the staff, who has been experimenting at the -laboratory for over twenty years, is suggestive. He said: "Edison -can think of more ways of doing a thing than any man I ever saw or -heard of. He tries everything and never lets up, even though failure -is apparently staring him in the face. He only stops when he simply -can't go any farther on that particular line. When he decides on any -mode of procedure he gives his notes to the experimenter and lets him -alone, only stopping in from time to time to look at the operations and -receive reports of progress."</p> - -<p>The idea of attributing great successes to "genius" has always been -repudiated by Edison, as evidenced by his historic remark that "genius -is one per cent, inspiration and ninety-nine per cent, perspiration." -Again, in a conversation many years ago between Edison, Batchelor, and -E. H. Johnson, the latter made allusion to Edison's genius, when Edison -replied:</p> - -<p>"Stuff! I tell you genius is hard work, stick-to-it-iveness, and common -sense."</p> - -<p>"Yes," said Johnson, "I admit there is all that to it, but there's -still more. Batch and I have those qualifications, but, although we -knew quite a lot about telephones, and worked hard, we couldn't invent -a brand-new non-infringing telephone receiver as you did when Gouraud -cabled for one. Then, how about the subdivision of the electric light?"</p> - -<p>"Electric current," corrected Edison.</p> - -<p>"True," continued Johnson; "you were the one to make that very -distinction. The scientific world had been working hard on subdivision -for years, using what appeared to be common sense. Results, worse than -nil. Then you come along, and about the first thing you do, after -looking the ground over, is to start off in the opposite direction, -which subsequently proves to be the only possible way to reach the -goal. It seems to me that this is pretty close to the dictionary -definition of genius."</p> - -<p>It is said that Edison replied rather incoherently and changed the -topic of conversation.</p> - -<p>This innate modesty, however, does not prevent Edison from recognizing -and classifying his own methods of investigation. In a conversation -with two old associates a number of years ago he remarked: "It has -been said of me that my methods are empirical. That is true only so -far as chemistry is concerned. Did you ever realize that practically -all industrial chemistry is colloidal in its nature? Hard rubber, -celluloid, glass, soap, paper, and lots of others, all have to deal -with amorphous substances, as to which comparatively little has been -really settled. My methods are similar to those followed by Luther -Burbank. He plants an acre, and when this is in bloom he inspects it. -He has a sharp eye, and can pick out of thousands a single plant that -has promise of what he wants. From this he gets the seed, and uses his -skill and knowledge in producing from it a number of new plants which, -on development, furnish the means of propagating an improved variety in -large quantity. So, when I am after a chemical result that I have in -mind I may make hundreds or thousands of experiments out of which there -may be one that promises results in the right direction. This I follow -up to its legitimate conclusion, discarding the others, and usually -get what I am after. There is no doubt about this being empirical; but -when it comes to problems of a mechanical nature, I want to tell you -that all I've ever tackled and solved have been done by hard, logical -thinking." The intense earnestness and emphasis with which this was -said were very impressive to the auditors.</p> - -<p>If, in following out his ideas, an experiment does not show the results -that Edison wants, it is not regarded as a failure, but as something -learned. This attitude is illustrated by his reply to Mr. Mallory, who -expressed regret that the first nine thousand and odd experiments on -the storage battery had been without results. Edison replied, with a -smile: "Results! Why, man, I have gotten a lot of results! I have found -several thousand things that won't work."</p> - -<p>Edison's patient, plodding methods do not always appear on the -note-books. For instance, a suggestion in one of them refers to a -stringy, putty-like mass being made of a mixture of lampblack and tar. -Some years afterward one of the laboratory assistants was told to make -some and roll it into filaments. After a time he brought the mass to -Edison and said:</p> - -<p>"There's something wrong about this, for it crumbles even after -manipulating it with my fingers."</p> - -<p>"How long did you knead it?" asked Edison.</p> - -<p>"Oh, more than an hour," was the reply.</p> - -<p>"Well, keep on for a few hours more and it will come out all right," -was the rejoinder. And this proved to be correct.</p> - -<p>With the experimenter or employee who exercises thought Edison has -unbounded patience, but to the careless, stupid, or lazy person he is a -terror for the short time they remain around him. Once, when asked why -he had parted with a certain man, he said: "Oh, he was so slow that it -would take him half an hour to get out of the field of a microscope."</p> - -<p>Edison's practical way of testing a man's fitness for special work is -no joke, according to Mr. J. H. Vail, formerly one of the Menlo Park -staff. "I wanted a job," he said, "and was ambitious to take charge of -the dynamo-room. Mr. Edison led me to a heap of junk in a corner and -said: 'Put that together and let me know when it is running.' I didn't -know what it was, but received a liberal education in finding out. It -proved to be a dynamo, which I finally succeeded in assembling and -running. I got the job."</p> - -<p>A somewhat similar experience is related by Mr. John F. Ott, who, in -1869, applied for work. This is the conversation that took place, led -by Edison's question:</p> - -<p>"What do you want?"</p> - -<p>"Work."</p> - -<p>"Can you make this machine work?" (exhibiting it and explaining its -details).</p> - -<p>"Yes."</p> - -<p>"Are you sure?"</p> - -<p>"Well, you needn't pay me if I don't."</p> - -<p>And thus Mr. Ott went to work and accomplished the results desired. Two -weeks afterward Edison put him in charge of the shop. From that day to -this, Mr. Ott has remained a member of Mr. Edison's staff.</p> - -<p>Examples without number could be given of Edison's inexhaustible -fund of ideas, but one must suffice by way of example. In the -progress of the ore-concentrating work one of the engineers submitted -three sketches of a machine for some special work. They were not -satisfactory. He remarked that it was too bad there was no other way -to do the work. Edison said, "Do you mean to say that these drawings -represent the only way to do this work?" The reply was, "I certainly -do." Edison said nothing, but two days afterward brought in his own -sketches showing <i>forty-eight</i> other ways of accomplishing the result, -and laid them on the engineer's desk without a word. One of these -ideas, with slight changes, was afterward adopted.</p> - -<p>This chapter could be continued to great length, but must now be closed -in the hope that in the foregoing pages the reader may have caught an -adequate glance of Mr. Edison at work.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h3><a id="XXIV"></a>XXIV<br /><br /> - -EDISON'S LABORATORY AT ORANGE</h3> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p>If Longfellow's youth "Who through an Alpine village passed" had -been Edison, the word upon his banner would probably not have been -"Excelsior" but "Experiment." This seems to be the watchword of his -life, and is well illustrated by a remark made to Mr. Mason, the -superintendent of the cement works: "You must experiment all the time; -if you don't the other fellow will, and then he will get ahead of you."</p> - -<p>For some years after closing the little laboratory in his mother's -cellar Edison made a laboratory of any nook or corner and experimented -as long as he had a dollar in his pocket. The first place he began to -do larger things was in Newark, where he established his first shops.</p> - -<p>While life there was very strenuous, he tells of some amusing -experiences: "Some of my assistants in those days were very green in -the business. One day I got a new man and told him to conduct a certain -experiment. He got a quart of ether and started to boil it over a -naked flame. Of course it caught fire. The flame was about four feet -in diameter and eleven feet high. The fire department came and put a -stream through the window. That let all the fumes and chemicals out and -overcame the firemen.</p> - -<p>"Another time we experimented with a tubful of soapy water and put -hydrogen into it to make large bubbles. One of the boys, who was -washing bottles in the place, had read in some book that hydrogen was -explosive, so he proceeded to blow the tub up. There was about four -inches of soap in the bottom of the tub, which was fourteen inches -high, and he filled it with soap-bubbles up to the rim. Then he took a -bamboo fish-pole, put a piece of lighted paper at the end and touched -it off. It blew every window out of the place."</p> - -<p>We have seen that Edison moved to Menlo Park, where he had a very -complete laboratory, in which he brought out a large number of -important inventions. After a time, however, this establishment was -outgrown and lost many of its possibilities, and he began to plan a -still greater one which should be the most complete of its kind in the -world.</p> - -<p>The Orange laboratory, as was originally planned, consisted of a main -building two hundred and fifty feet long and three stories in height, -together with four other structures, each one hundred by twenty-five -feet and only one story in height. All these were substantially built -of brick. The main building was divided into five chief divisions—the -library, office, machine-shops, experimental and chemical rooms, and -stock-rooms. The small buildings were to be used for various purposes.</p> - -<p>A high picket fence, with a gate, surrounded these buildings. A keeper -was stationed at the gate with instructions to admit no strangers -without a pass. On one occasion a new gateman was placed in charge, -and, not knowing Edison, refused to admit him until he could get some -one to come out and identify him.</p> - -<p>The library is a spacious room about forty by thirty-five feet. -Around the sides of the room run two tiers of gallery. The main -floor and the galleries are divided into alcoves, in which, on the -main floor, are many thousands of books. In the galleries are still -more books and periodicals of all kinds, also cabinets and shelves -containing mineralogical and geological specimens and thousands of -samples of ores and minerals from all parts of the world. In a corner -of one of the galleries may be seen a large number of magazines -relating to electricity, chemistry, engineering, mechanics, building, -cement, building materials, drugs, water and gas power, automobiles, -railroads, aeronautics, philosophy, hygiene, physics, telegraphy, -mining, metallurgy, metals, music, and other subjects; also theatrical -weeklies, as well as the proceedings and transactions of various -learned and technical societies. All of these form part of Mr. Edison's -current reading. At one end of the main floor of the library, which is -handsomely and comfortably furnished, is Mr. Edison's desk, at which he -may usually be seen for a while in the early morning hours or at noon -looking over his mail.</p> - -<p>The centre of the library is left open for the reception of visitors, -and one corner is partitioned off to provide a private office for Mr. -Edison's son, Charles, who is the President and active manager of the -various Edison industries. Directly opposite to the entrance-door -is a beautiful marble statue representing the supremacy of electric -light over gas. This statue was purchased by Mr. Edison at the Paris -Exposition in 1889.</p> - -<p>A glance at the book-shelves affords a revelation of the subjects in -which Edison is interested, for the titles of the volumes include -astronomy, botany, chemistry, dynamics, electricity, engineering, -forestry, geology, geography, mechanics, mining, medicine, metallurgy, -magnetism, philosophy, psychology, physics, steam, steam-engines, -telegraphy, telephony, and many others. These are not all of Edison's -books by any means, for he has another big library in his house on the -hill.</p> - -<p>Turning to pass out of the library, one's attention is arrested by a -cot standing in one of the alcoves near the door. Sometimes during long -working hours Mr. Edison will throw himself down for a nap. He has -the ability to go to sleep instantly, and, being deaf, noises do not -disturb his slumber. The instant he awakes he is in full possession of -his faculties and goes "back to the job" without a moment's hesitation.</p> - -<p>Immediately outside the library is the famous stock-room, about which -much has been written. Edison planned to have in this stock-room -some quantity, great or small, of every known substance not easily -perishable, together with the most complete assortment of chemicals and -drugs that experience and knowledge could suggest. His theory was, and -is, that he does not know in advance what he may want at any moment, -and he planned to have anything that could be thought of ready at hand.</p> - -<p>Thus, the stock-room is not only a museum, but a sample-room of nature, -as well as a supply department. At first glance the collection is -bewildering, but when classified is more easily comprehended.</p> - -<p>The classification is natural, as, for instance, objects pertaining to -various animals, birds, and fishes, such as skins, hides, hair, fur, -feathers, wool, quills, down, bristles, teeth, bones, hoofs, horns, -tusks, shells; natural products such as woods, barks, roots, leaves, -nuts, seeds, gums, grains, flowers, meals, bran; also minerals in great -assortment; mineral and vegetable oils, clay, mica, ozokerite, etc. -In the line of textiles, cotton and silk threads in great variety, -with woven goods of all kinds, from cheese-cloth to silk plush. As for -paper, there is everything in white and color, from thinnest tissue up -to the heaviest asbestos, even a few newspapers being always on hand. -Twines of all sizes, inks, wax, cork, tar, rosin, pitch, asphalt, -plumbago, glass in sheets and tubes, and a host of miscellaneous -articles are revealed on looking around the shelves, as well as an -interminable collection of chemicals including acids, alkalies, salts, -reagents, every conceivable essential oil, and all the thinkable -extracts. It may be remarked that this collection includes the eighteen -hundred or more fluorescent salts made by Edison during his experiments -for the best material for a fluoroscope in the early X-ray period. All -known metals in form of sheet, rod, and tube, and of great variety -in thickness, are here found also, together with a most complete -assortment of tools and accessories for machine-shop and laboratory -work.</p> - -<p>The list above given is not by any means complete. In detail it would -stretch out to a rather large catalogue. It is not by any means an -idle collection, for a stock clerk is kept busy all the day answering -demands upon him.</p> - -<p>Beyond the stock-room is a good-sized machine-shop, well equipped, in -which the heavier class of models and mechanical devices are made. -Attached to these are the engine-room and boiler-room. Above, on the -second floor, is another machine-shop, in which is carried on work -of greater precision and fineness in the construction of tools and -experimental models.</p> - -<p>There are many experimental rooms on the second and third floors of the -laboratory building. In these the various experimenters are at work -carrying out the ideas of Mr. Edison on the great variety of subjects -to which he is constantly devoting his attention. One cannot go far in -the upper floors without being aware that efforts are being made to -improve the phonograph, for the sounds of vocal and instrumental music -can be heard from all sides.</p> - -<p>On the third floor the visitor may see a number of glass-fronted -cabinets containing a multitude of experimental incandescent lamps, -and an immense variety of models of phonographs, motors, telegraph and -telephone apparatus, and a host of other inventions, upon which Mr. -Edison's energies have at one time or other been bent. Here are also -many boxes of historical instruments and models. In fact, this hallway, -with its variety of contents, may well be considered a scientific attic.</p> - -<p>In the early days of the Orange laboratory some of the upper rooms -contained cots for the benefit of the night-workers. In spite of the -strenuous nights and days the spirit of fun was frequently in evidence. -One instance will serve as an illustration.</p> - -<p>One morning about two-thirty the late Charles Batchelor said he was -tired and would go to bed. Leaving Edison and the others busily -working, he went out and returned quietly in slippered feet, with -his night-gown on, the handle of a feather-duster down his back -with the feathers waving over his head, and his face marked. With -unearthly howls and shrieks, <i>a l'Indien</i>, he pranced about the room, -incidentally giving Edison a scare that made him jump up from his work. -He saw the joke quickly, however, and joined in the general merriment -caused by this prank.</p> - -<p>A description of the laboratory building would be incomplete without -mention of room Number 12. This is one of Edison's favorite rooms, -where he may frequently be found seated at a plain table in the center -of the room deeply intent on one of his numerous problems. It is a -plain little room, but seems to exercise a nameless fascination for him.</p> - -<p>Passing out of the building, we come to the four smaller buildings, -which are known as Numbers One, Two, Three, and Four. The building -Number One is called the galvanometer room. Edison originally planned -that this should be used for the most delicate and minute electrical -measurements. He went to great expense in fitting it up and in -providing a large number of costly instruments, but the coming of the -trolley near by a few years afterward rendered the room utterly useless -for this purpose. It is now used as an experimental room, chiefly for -motion-picture experiments.</p> - -<p>Building Number Two is quite an important one. As the visitor arrives -at the door he is quite conscious that it is a chemical-room. Here -a corps of chemists is constantly kept busy in carrying out the -various experiments Mr. Edison has given them to perform. This room is -also one of his special haunts. He may be seen here very frequently -experimenting in person, or seated at a plain little table figuring out -some new combination that he has in mind.</p> - -<p>A chemical store-room and a pattern-maker's shop occupy building Number -Three, while Number Four, which was formerly used for ore concentrating -experiments, is now used as a general stock-room.</p> - -<p>We have only attempted to afford the reader a passing glance of this -interesting laboratory, which for many years has been the headquarters -of Edison and the central source of inspiration for the great -industries he has established at Orange. Around it are grouped a number -of immense concrete buildings in which the manufacture of phonographs, -motion-pictures, and storage batteries is carried on, giving employment -to as many as four thousand people during busy times.</p> - -<p>Needless to say, the laboratory has many visitors. Celebrities of all -kinds and distinguished foreigners are numerous, coming from all parts -of the world to see the great inventor and the scene of his activities.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h3><a id="XXV"></a>XXV<br /><br /> - -EDISON HIMSELF</h3> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p>Let us turn from what Edison has done to what Edison is. It is worth -while to know "the man behind the guns." Who and what is the personal -Edison?</p> - -<p>Certainly there must be tremendous force in a personality which has -been one of the most potent factors in bringing into existence new -industries now capitalized at tens of billions of dollars, earning -annually sums running into billions, and giving employment to an army -of more than two million people.</p> - -<p>It must not be thought that there is any intention to give entire -credit to Edison for the present magnificent proportions of these -industries. The labors of many other inventors and the confidence of -capitalists and investors have added greatly to their growth. But -Edison is the father of some of these arts and industries, and as to -some of the others it was the magic of his touch that helped make them -practicable.</p> - -<p>How then does Edison differ from most other men? Is it that he combines -with a vigorous body a mind capable of clear and logical thinking, -and an imagination of unusual activity? No, for there are others of -equal bodily and mental vigor who have not accomplished a tithe of his -achievements.</p> - -<p>We must answer then, first, that his whole life is concentrated upon -his work. When he conceives a broad idea of a new invention he gives -no thought to the limitations of time, or man, or effort. Having his -body and mind in complete subjection through iron nerves, he settles -down to experiment with ceaseless, tireless, unwavering patience, never -swerving to the right or left nor losing sight of his purpose. Years -may come and go, but nothing short of success is accepted.</p> - -<p>A good example of this can be found in the development of the nickel -pocket for the storage battery, an element the size of a short -lead-pencil. More than five years were spent in experiments costing -upward of a million dollars to perfect it. Day after day was spent on -this investigation, tens of thousands of tubes and an endless variety -of chemicals were made, but at the end of five years Edison was as much -interested in these small tubes as when the work was first begun.</p> - -<p>So far as work is concerned, all times are alike to Edison, whether it -be day or night. He carries no watch, and, indeed, has but little use -for watches or clocks except as they may be useful in connection with -an experiment in which time is a factor. The one idea in mind is to go -on with the work incessantly, always pushing steadily onward toward the -purpose in view, with a relentless disregard of effort or the passage -of time.</p> - - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<div class="figcenterp"> -<a id="ed0261"></a> -<img src="images/ed0261.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption">THOMAS ALVA EDISON—1911</p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p>A second and very marked characteristic of Edison's personality is an -intense and courageous hopefulness and self-confidence, into which -no thought of failure can enter. The doubts and fears of others have -absolutely no weight with him. Discouragements and disappointments -find no abiding place in his mind. Indeed, he has the happy faculty -of beginning the day as open-minded as a child, yesterday's -discouragements and disappointment discarded, or, at any rate, -remembered only as useful knowledge gained and serving to point out the -fact that he had been temporarily following the wrong road.</p> - -<p>Difficulties seem to have a fascination for him. To advance along -smooth paths, meeting no obstacles or hardships, has no charm for -Edison. To wrestle with difficulties, to meet obstructions, to attempt -the impossible—these are the things that appear to give him a high -form of intellectual pleasure. He meets them with the keen delight of a -strong man battling with the waves and opposing them in sheer enjoyment.</p> - -<p>Another marked characteristic of Edison is the fact that his happiness -is not bound up in the making of money. While he appreciates a good -balance at his banker's, the keenness of his pleasure is in overcoming -difficulties rather than the mere piling up of a bank account. Had -his nature been otherwise, it is doubtful if his life would have been -filled with the great achievements that it has been our pleasure to -record.</p> - -<p>In a life filled with tremendous purpose and brilliant achievement -there must be expected more or less of troubles and loss. Edison's life -has been no exception, but, with the true philosophy that might be -expected of such a nature, he remarked recently: "Spilled milk doesn't -interest me. I have spilled lots of it, and, while I have always felt -it for a few days, it is quickly forgotten, and I turn again to the -future."</p> - -<p>Edison to-day has a fine physique, and, being free from serious -ailments, enjoys a vigorous old age. His hair has whitened, but it is -still abundant, and though he uses glasses for reading, his gray-blue -eyes are as keen and bright and deeply lustrous as ever, with the -direct, searching look in them that they have ever worn.</p> - -<p>Edison in his 'eighties still has a fine physique, weighs over one -hundred and sixty-five pounds, and has varied little as to weight in -the last forty years. He is very abstemious, hardly ever touching -alcohol and caring little for meat. In fact, the chief article of his -diet is warm milk, which he finds satisfactory for his need.</p> - -<p>He believes that people eat too much, and governs himself accordingly. -His meals are simple, small in quantity, and take but little of his -time at table. If he finds himself varying in weight he will eat a -little more or a little less in order to keep his weight constant.</p> - -<p>As to clothes, Edison is simplicity itself. Indeed, it is one of the -subjects in which he takes no interest. He says: "I get a suit that -fits me, then I compel the tailors to use that as a jig, or pattern, -or blueprint, to make others by. For many years a suit was used as a -measurement; once or twice they took fresh measurements, but these -didn't fit, and they had to go back. I eat to keep my weight constant, -hence I never need changed measurements."</p> - -<p>This will explain why a certain tailor had made Edison's clothes for -twenty years and had never seen him.</p> - -<p>In 1873 Mr. Edison was married to Miss Mary Stilwell, who died in 1884, -leaving three children—Thomas Alva, William Leslie, and Marion Estelle.</p> - -<p>Mr. Edison was married again in 1886 to Miss Mina Miller, daughter of -Mr. Lewis Miller, a distinguished pioneer inventor and manufacturer -in the field of agricultural machinery, and equally entitled to fame -as the father of the "Chautauqua idea," and the founder with Bishop -Vincent of the original Chautauqua, which now has so many replicas all -over the country. By this marriage there are three children—Charles, -Madeline, and Theodore.</p> - -<p>For over twenty years Edison's happy and perfect domestic life has -been spent at Glenmont, a beautiful property in Llewellyn Park, on the -Orange Mountain, New Jersey. Here, amid the comforts of a beautifully -appointed home, in which may be seen the many decorations and medals -awarded to him, together with the numerous souvenirs sent to him by -foreign potentates and others, Edison spends the hours that he is away -from the laboratory. They are far from being idle hours, for it is here -that he may pursue his reading free from interruption.</p> - -<p>His hours of sleep are few, not more than six in the twenty-four, -and not as much as that when working nights at the laboratory. In a -recent conversation a friend expressed surprise that he could stand -the constant strain, to which Edison replied that he stood it easily, -because he was interested in everything. He further said: "I don't live -with the past; I am living for to-day and to-morrow. I am interested -in every department of science, art, and manufacture. I read all the -time on astronomy, chemistry, biology, physics, music, metaphysics, -mechanics, and other branches—political economy, electricity, and, in -fact, all things that are making for progress in the world. I get all -the proceedings of the scientific societies, the principal scientific -and trade journals, and read them. I also read some theatrical and -sporting papers and a lot of similar publications, for I like to know -what is going on. In this way I keep up to date, and live in a great, -moving world of my own, and, what's more, I enjoy every minute of it."</p> - -<p>In conversation Edison is direct, courteous, ready to discuss a topic -with anybody worth talking to, and, in spite of his deafness, an -excellent listener. No one ever goes away from him in doubt as to what -he thinks or means, but, with characteristic modesty, he is ever shy -and diffident to a degree if the talk turns on himself rather than on -his work.</p> - -<p>He is a normal, fun-loving, typical American, ever ready to listen to -a new story, with a smile all the while, and a hearty, boyish laugh at -the end. He has a keen sense of humor, which manifests itself in witty -repartee and in various ways.</p> - -<p>In his association with his staff of experimenters the "old man," as he -is affectionately called, is considerate and patient, although always -insisting on absolute accuracy and exactness in carrying out his ideas. -He makes liberal allowance for errors arising through human weakness of -one kind or another, but a stupid mistake or an inexcusable oversight -on the part of an assistant will call forth a storm of contemptuous -expression that is calculated to make the offender feel cheap. The -incident, however, is quickly a thing of the past, as a general rule.</p> - -<p>If there is anything in heredity, Edison has many years of vigor and -activity yet before him. What the future may have in store in the way -of further achievement cannot be foreshadowed, for he is still a mighty -thinker and a prodigy of industry and hard work.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h3><a id="XXVI"></a>XXVI<br /><br /> - -EDISON'S NEW PHONOGRAPH</h3> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p>As related in a preceding chapter of this work, the first commercial -phonograph was of the wax cylinder type. Celluloid afterwards -superceded wax as a material for the cylinder record, because of its -indestructibility. Edison's work on the disc phonograph and record, -invented by him in 1878, is related in the following pages.</p> - -<p>From the time of his conception of the phonograph in 1877 to the -present day Edison has had a deep conviction that people want good -music in their homes. That this is not a conviction founded upon -commercialism may be appreciated on reading his own words: "Of all -the various forms of entertainment in the home, I know of nothing -that compares with music. It is safe and sane, appeals to all finer -emotions, and tends to bind family influences with a wholesomeness -that links old and young together. If you will consider for a moment -how universally the old 'heart songs' are loved in the homes, you will -realize what a deep hold music has in the affections of the people. It -is a safety-valve in the home."</p> - -<p>Throughout the years that followed the advent of the earlier type of -phonograph with the cylindrical wax records Edison never lost sight of -his determination to make it a more perfect instrument, for, of all -the children of his brain, the phonograph seems to be the one he loves -most. He is the most severe critic of his own work and is never content -with less than the best obtainable.</p> - -<p>Thus it came about that, some thirteen years ago, having reached the -apex of his dissatisfaction with what he thought were the shortcomings -of the phonograph and records of that time, he began work on a -long-cherished plan of refining the machine and the records so that he -could reproduce music, vocal and instrumental, with all its original -beauty of tone and sweetness—in fact, a true "re-creation." As the -world knows, he has succeeded.</p> - -<p>With his characteristic vigor and earnestness Edison plunged into -this campaign, fully realizing the immense difficulties of the task -he had undertaken. In order to accomplish the desired end he must, in -the first place, devise entirely new types of recorder and reproducer -which would have essentially different characteristics from any then -in existence. In addition to this, an entirely new material must be -found and adapted for the surface of the records, a material pliable, -indestructible, and, above all, so exceedingly smooth that there should -be no rasping, scratching sounds to mar the beauty of the music.</p> - -<p>In planning this campaign Edison had decided to return to the disc type -of machine and record, which he had invented away back in 1878, and -which he now took up again, as it would afford him the greatest scope -for his latest efforts.</p> - -<p>While simultaneously carrying on a formidable line of experiments to -produce the desired material for the records he labored patiently -through the days and away into the nights for many months in evolving -the new recorder and reproducer, pausing only to snatch a few hours of -sleep, which sometimes would be taken at home and at other times on a -bench or cot in the laboratory. After some thousands of experiments, -extending over a period of more than ten months and conducted with the -never-wearying patience so characteristic of him, he perfected his -recorder and the diamond-point reproducer which gave him the results -for which he strove so many years. This was on the eve of his departure -for Europe in August, 1911.</p> - -<p>When Edison thinks he has perfected any device his next step is to find -out its weakness by trying his best to destroy it. Illustrative of this -there may be quoted two instances of severe tests in connection with -his alkaline storage battery. After completing it he rigged up a device -by means of which a set of batteries were subjected to a series of -1,700,000 severe bumps in the effort to destroy them. When this failed, -they were mounted on a heavy electric car, which was propelled with -terrific force a number of times against a heavy stone wall, only to -show that they were proof against injury by any such means.</p> - -<p>His new phonograph reproducer was not exempted from this policy -of attempted destruction, and before leaving for Europe he gave -instructions for a grilling test, which was, of course, carried out -faithfully, but the diamond point was found to be uninjured after -playing records more than four thousand times. With such results he -deemed it a safe proposition.</p> - -<p>On his return from Europe in October, 1911, Edison resumed his attack -on the evolution of the new indestructible disc record with a smooth -surface, the main principles of which had been determined upon before -his departure. In addition, there arose the problem of manufacturing -such records in great quantities. The difficulties that confronted him -completely baffle description. The whole battle was carried on with -the aid of powerful microscopes, which even at their best would fail -to reveal the obscure cause of temporary discomfiture. Differences -in material, dirt, dust, temperature, water, chemical action, thumb -marks, breath marks, cloth and brush marks, and a host of major and -minor incidentals, were patiently and painstakingly investigated with a -thoroughness that is almost beyond belief to the layman.</p> - -<p>Day and night the work was carried on incessantly. During the height -of the investigation, toward the close of this five-year campaign, -Edison and a few of his faithful experimenters—facetiously called "The -Insomnia Squad"—stayed steadily at the works for a period of over five -weeks—eating, drinking, working, and sleeping (occasionally) there. -During that time Edison went home only four or five times, and then -merely to change his clothing. He and the men slept for short periods -in the works or in the library, on benches and tables, resuming their -labors immediately on waking up. Edison had arranged for an abundant -supply of good substantial food which they themselves cooked, hence -the inner man was well cared for. The wives of the men came around at -intervals with changes of clothing for their husbands. This intense -application to work left no time for shaving, with the result that all -hands might well have been taken for a gang of traditional pirates from -their unkempt appearance.</p> - -<p>They were all happy, however, and, strange to say, all increased in -weight, although a contrary result might naturally have been expected. -The intense work has never ceased, but there has been no similar -protracted siege since, as the main principles were practically -settled at that time. The foregoing instance has been merely mentioned -to illustrate the fierce vigor with which Edison works when he is -seeking to complete one of his inventions. He has been, and still is, -prosecuting his labors with the same energy to bring about the utmost -perfection that is possible.</p> - -<p>He has not confined his work to the refinement of the merely mechanical -parts, such as the instrument and the records, but during the last -ten years he has devoted an immense amount of time to music itself. -Becoming convinced that the public desired really beautiful music, -he set himself to a thorough study of the subject, not only of -compositions, but also of the human voice, its powers and limitations, -and of different effects of various styles of orchestration. He -determined to hear for himself music of all kinds, and with this object -in view hired a number of sight-reading players and singers to render -musical selections by the hour.</p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<div class="figcenterl"> -<a id="ed0273"></a> -<img src="images/ed0273.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption">"THE INSOMNIA SQUAD"—Copyright by Thomas A. Edison</p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p>In the past ten years he has heard upward of twenty-five thousand -compositions of a wide range, from grand opera to ragtime. As he hears -them he indicates his opinions, which range from "beautiful" to "punk," -according to his idea of availability for the phonograph. An elaborate -card system preserves these indications for further application in -selecting music for the phonograph.</p> - -<p>It might seem dogmatic to have the reproduction of musical compositions -depend upon his opinion, but it must be said that he is not entirely -committed to such drastic measures if there is a real demand for some -musical selection which does not seem to merit his good opinion. His -decision as to a composition is not based on a merely personal whim or -fad, but upon his opinion of it from the standpoint of an inventor. He -has said to the writer more than once: "There is invention in music -just as much as in the arts. Composers such as Verdi, Rossini, Bellini, -Donizetti were inventors. They did not copy, nor did some of the other -great composers. But the rank and file of musicians are not inventors; -they have copied the ideas of the others, consciously or unconsciously. -If you will sit down for a few hours and have a lot of miscellaneous -compositions played you will be convinced of it."</p> - -<p>Edison has had no musical training, as the term is generally -understood, and the writer must confess that before hearing the above -expression he failed to comprehend the true basis of the inventor's -opinions of the various compositions played or sung for him. On several -occasions he therefore arranged (unknown to Edison) to have one or more -compositions played or sung again after a lapse of some weeks, to see -whether or not there would be any similarity of opinion to that first -indicated. In every case Edison's judgment was practically, and in some -cases precisely, the same as before, thus proving that the opinion -first given was not merely a whim, but was based upon some definite -line of thought in the inventor's brain.</p> - -<p>His excursion into the musical realm has also included the personal -hearing of many singers so as to determine their fitness for making -phonograph records. This proved to be a wonderfully interesting -field of investigation, and he has given a great deal of time to it, -listening critically to each voice, good, bad, or indifferent, and -patiently writing out his criticism in each case. Not only has he heard -a large number of singers who have visited the laboratory for the -purpose, but he also had a representative scouring Europe for voices -several years ago. This man visited the principal cities and towns -of Europe and took phonograph records of the voices of the operatic -and other prominent singers in each place and shipped them over to -Edison, who listened to each one and recorded his opinion in a series -of note-books kept for the purpose. He has in the laboratory at Orange -nearly two thousand voice records of this kind. All this is done with -the object of securing the really best voices in the world. Probably -this is the most unique "voice library" in existence.</p> - -<p>He is very deaf, but has a wonderfully acute inner ear, which, being -protected by his deafness from the ordinary sounds of life, will catch -minute imperfections that are imperceptible to the person of ordinary -hearing. In listening to a voice he uses a peculiarly shaped horn which -is held close to the ear, and such is the acuteness of his hearing -that he at once distinguishes minute changes of register, extra waves, -tremolo, non-periodic vibrations, and other minor defects that detract -from the true beauty of vocal sounds. In addition, he can immediately -recognize the number of overtones and rate of tremolo, which may -afterward be verified by a microscopic examination of a record of the -same voice.</p> - -<p>Edison contends that the phonograph will give the "acid test" of a -voice, for it will record nothing more and nothing less than what -is in the voice itself, and the record is unchangeable. In his -judgment, operatic voices are not necessarily the most perfect ones, -for, as he says: "the vocal cords of opera singers are always at the -straining-point. They usually sing on roomy stages in large theaters -with a large orchestra in front of them, and their voices must go out -above all these instruments so as to be heard to the farthest limits of -the house. Consequently, they are always doing their utmost and their -vocal cords become adapted to heavy work only. People often wonder why -their favorite operatic singers do not charm them as much in concert -or through the phonograph as they did at the opera, but do not stop to -think of the difference between the opera-house and the concert-hall or -parlor. I don't mean to say a word of detraction in regard to operatic -singers, for I have a great admiration for their wonderful art and for -many of their voices, and a great number of them have now recognized -the value of special effort to acquire the distinct art and technique -of singing for the phonograph (which is a parlor instrument), and have -made some really beautiful records."</p> - -<p>The writer was one day discussing with Edison the temperament of -singers generally and the good opinion that each one usually has of -his or her own voice irrespective of any artistic use he or she could -make of it. He said: "I don't see what they have to be conceited about. -The Almighty has given them a little piece of meat in their throats -that differs slightly from the corresponding piece of meat in somebody -else's throat. They can take no credit for that, but if they use their -brains to interpret and perfect the use of what has been given them, -they have accomplished something. What I want is voices that will stand -the test of the phonograph and give permanent pleasure to people, -irrespective of stage environment, or the press agent, or pleasing -personality."</p> - -<p>This chapter could be extended to a great length in setting forth the -results of Edison's deep study of music which he undertook solely for -the purpose of bringing his latest achievement up to the high standard -which he set for it so many years ago, but enough has been said to -indicate the immense amount of work he has done and the trend of his -ideas. That he has been able, amid the round of his multitudinous -duties and work, which occupy his time and attention from sixteen to -eighteen hours a day, to delve into the subject so profoundly and -to evolve ideas that are confessedly awakening the musical world is -sufficient to indicate that in spite of his years and herculean labors -in the past he has not lost any of the vim or pertinacity that have so -distinguished him in days gone by.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h3><a id="XXVII"></a>XXVII<br /><br /> - -EDISON'S WORK DURING THE WAR</h3> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p>With the shattering of the world's peace by the great conflict which -commenced on July 28, 1914, there came a universal disturbance of -industrial conditions. The Edison industries were not exempt.</p> - -<p>Edison's activities during the years of the war were of the same -intensely vigorous and energetic nature so characteristic of him -throughout his busy life. His work during this period is divisible -into two distinct sections: first, the working out of processes and -the design and construction of nine chemical and two benzol plants to -supply chemicals and materials greatly needed by our country; and, -second, his war work for the United States government. We will discuss -these in the above order.</p> - -<p>For many years before the war America had been a large importer of raw -materials and manufactured products from England, Germany, and other -European countries. Among these may be mentioned potash, dyes, carbolic -acid, aniline oil, and other coal-tar products. After hostilities -began the activities of the Allied fleets prevented all exportations -by Germany and the Central Powers. On the other hand, England and her -allies placed embargoes on the exportation from their countries of all -materials and products which could be used for food or munitions of war.</p> - -<p>Thus there suddenly came a great embarrassment to numerous American -industries. By reason of our continued importation for many years -our country had become dependent upon Europe for supplies of various -products and had made practically no provision for the manufacture of -these products within our own borders.</p> - -<p>Inasmuch as our narrative concerns Edison and his work, we shall not -attempt to name all the industries thus affected, but will confine -ourselves to a mention of the items relating to his own needs and -of those which he promptly took steps to produce for the relief of -many industries and for the general good of the country. These items -were carbolic acid, aniline oil, myrbane, aniline salts, acetanilid, -para-nitro-acetanilid, paraphenylenediamine, para-amidophenol, -benzidine, benzol, toluol, xylol, solvent naphtha, and naphthaline -flakes.</p> - -<p>Edison's principal requirements were potash for his storage battery and -carbolic acid and paraphenylenediamine for use in the manufacture of -disc phonograph records. After a great deal of experimenting he found -that caustic soda could be used in his storage battery and therefore -employed it until new supplies of potash were obtainable.</p> - -<p>Carbolic acid and paraphenylenediamine had been previously imported -from England and Germany and as there was practically none produced in -the United States and no possibility of substituting other products -Edison realized that he would be compelled to manufacture them -himself, as the source of supply was cut off. He, therefore, as usual, -gathered together all available literature and plunged into a study of -manufacturing processes and quickly set his chemists to work on various -lines of experiment.</p> - -<p>Having decided through these experiments on the process by which he -would manufacture carbolic acid synthetically, Edison designed his -first plant, gathered the building material and apparatus together and -instructed his engineers to rush the construction as fast as possible. -By working gangs of men twenty-four hours a day the plant was rapidly -completed and on the eighteenth day after the work of construction was -begun it commenced turning out carbolic acid. Within a month this plant -was making more than a ton a day and gradually increased its capacity -until, a few months afterward, it reached its maximum of six tons a day.</p> - -<p>It soon became publicly known that Edison was manufacturing carbolic -acid, and he was overwhelmed with offers to purchase the excess over -his own requirements. The demand for carbolic acid became so great -that he decided to erect a second plant. This was quickly constructed -and its capacity, which was also six tons per day, was contracted for -before the plant was fully completed. It is interesting to note that -the army and navy departments of the United States were among the first -to make long contracts with Edison for his carbolic acid, from which -they made explosives that were badly needed.</p> - -<p>We must digress here to show an emergency that had arisen during the -early days of the first carbolicacid plant. There had come about -a serious shortage of benzol, which is a basic material in the -manufacture of synthetic carbolic acid. Benzol is a product derived -from the gases arising from the destructive distillation of coal in -coke ovens. At the time of which we are writing (beginning of 1915) -there was only a comparatively small quantity of benzol produced in the -United States.</p> - -<p>Mr. Edison realized that without a continuous and liberal supply -of benzol he would be unable to carry out his project of producing -carbolic acid in large quantities. He had also been approached -by various textile manufacturers to make aniline oil, which was -essential to their continuance in business, and of which there was -practically no supply in the country. Without it he could not make -paraphenylenediamine. Benzol is also a basic material in making aniline -oil.</p> - -<p>Therefore, it became doubly important to arrange for an adequate and -continuous supply of benzol. Edison made a study of the methods and -processes of producing benzol and then made proposals to various steel -companies to the effect that he would, with their permission, erect a -benzol plant at their coke ovens, operate the same at his own expense, -and pay them a royalty for every gallon of benzol, toluol, xylol, or -solvent naphtha taken from their gases. Such arrangement would not -only meet his requirements, but at the same time would give the steel -companies an income from something which they had been allowing to -pass away into the air. He succeeded in making arrangements with two -of the companies—namely, the Cambria Steel Company at Johnstown, -Pennsylvania, and the Woodward Iron Company, Woodward, Alabama.</p> - -<p>Ordinarily, it requires from nine to ten months to erect a benzol -plant, but before making his proposal to the steel companies Edison had -worked out a plan for erecting a practical plant within sixty days, -and had laid it out on paper. He was sure of his grounds, because from -his vast experience he knew where to pick up the different pieces of -apparatus in various parts of the country.</p> - -<p>The contract for his first benzol plant at Johnstown, Pennsylvania, -was signed on January 18, 1915, and the actual work was begun an hour -after the contract was signed, with the final result that in forty-five -days afterward the benzol plant was completed and commenced working -successfully. The second plant, at Woodward, Alabama, was completed -within sixty days after breaking ground, the two weeks difference -in time being accounted for by the fact that Woodward was farther -away from the base of supplies and there were delays in railroad -transportation of materials.</p> - -<p>Being sure, through these contracts, of a continuous supply of benzol, -Edison designed a plant for making aniline oil. By working gangs of men -day and night, the erection of this plant was completed in forty-five -days. The capacity of the plant, four thousand pounds per day, was -fully contracted for by anxious manufacturers long before the machinery -was in place.</p> - -<p>Let us now consider Edison's work on paraphenylenediamine. This is a -chemical product which is largely used in dyeing furs black. America -had imported all her requirements from Germany, but within a few -months after the beginning of hostilities the visible supply was -exhausted and no more could be expected during war-times. Fur-dyers -were in despair. This product being also absolutely essential in the -manufacture of phonograph records, Edison worked out a process for -making it, and as his requirements were very moderate he established a -small manufacturing plant at the Orange laboratory and soon began to -produce about twenty-five pounds a day. In some way the news reached -the ears of many desperate fur-dyers, and Edison was quickly besieged -with most urgent requests for such portion of his output as could be -spared. Fortunately, a small proportion of the output was available -and was distributed daily in accordance with the necessities of those -concerned. This small quantity being merely a drop in the bucket, the -fur-dyers earnestly besought Edison to establish a larger plant and -supply them with greater quantities of paraphenylenediamine, as their -business had come almost to a standstill for lack of it. He, therefore, -designed and constructed rapidly a larger plant, which, when put into -operation, was soon producing two hundred to three hundred pounds a -day, thus saving the situation for the fur-dyers. The capacity of this -plant was gradualy increased until it turned out upward of a thousand -pounds a day, of which a goodly proportion was exported to Europe and -Japan.</p> - -<p>Lack of space has prevented the narration of more than a mere general -outline of some of Edison's important achievements during part of -the war years along chemical and engineering lines and in furnishing -many of the industries of the country with greatly needed products -that, for a time at least, were otherwise unobtainable. Much could -be written about his work on producing myrbane, aniline salts, -acetanilid, para-nitro-acetanilid, para-amido-phenol, benzidine, -toluol, xylol, solvent naphtha, and naphthaline flakes—how his -investigations and experiments on them ran along with the others, -team fashion, so to speak, how he brought the same resourcefulness -and energy to bear on many problems, and how he eventually surmounted -numerous difficulties—but limitations of space forbid. Nor can we -make more than a mere passing mention of the assistance he gave to -the governments in the quick production of toluol and in furnishing -plans and help to construct and operate two toluol plants in Canada. -Suffice it to say that his achievements during this episode in his -career were fully in accord with the notable successes he had already -scored. It may be noted that in the three years following 1914 others -went into the business of manufacturing the above chemicals, and as -they installed and operated plants and furnished supplies needed in the -industries Edison withdrew and shut down his special plants one after -another.</p> - -<p>Let us now take a brief glance at the patriot-inventor at work for his -government in war-times and especially during the last two years of the -Great War.</p> - -<p>In the late summer of 1915 the Secretary of the Navy, Hon. Josephus -Daniels, communicated to Mr. Edison an idea he had conceived of -gathering together a body of men preeminent in inventive research to -form an advisory board which should come to the aid of our country -in an inventive and advisory capacity in relation to war measures. -In this communication Secretary Daniels made an appeal to Edison's -patriotism and asked him to devote some of his effort in the service -of the country and also to act as chairman of the board. Although he -was already working about eighteen hours a day, Edison signified his -consent. In the fall of 1915 the board was organized and subsequently -became known as the Naval Consulting Board of the United States. Mr. -Edison was at first chairman and subsequently became president of the -board.</p> - -<p>The history of the work and activities of the board is too extensive -to be related here in detail and can only be hinted at. Indeed, it is -the subject of a separate volume which is being published by the Navy -Department. We shall, therefore, confine our narrative to the story of -Edison's work.</p> - -<p>In December, 1916, Secretary Daniels expressed a desire that Mr. Edison -visit him in Washington for an important conference. At that time it -seemed almost inevitable that the United States would be drawn into the -conflict with Germany sooner or later, and at the conference Secretary -Daniels asked Edison to devote more of his time to the country by -undertaking experiments on a series of problems, a list of which was -handed to him.</p> - -<p>Edison signified his assent, agreeing to give his whole time to -the government without charge, and returned to his laboratory. He -immediately put everything else aside, and with characteristic -enthusiasm and energy delved into the work he had undertaken. The -problems referred to covered a wide range of the sciences and arts, and -time being an essential element, he added to his laboratory staff by -gathering together from various sources a number of young men, experts -in various lines, to assist him in his investigations.</p> - -<p>Inasmuch as Edison's war work for the government occupied his entire -time for upward of two years, it is manifestly out of the question to -narrate the details within the limits of a chapter. We must, therefore, -be content to itemize the principal problems upon which he occupied -himself and assistants and as to which he reported definite results to -Washington. The items are as follows:</p> - -<ol> -<li>Locating position of guns by sound-ranging.</li> -<li>Detecting submarines by sound from moving vessels.</li> -<li>Detecting on moving vessels the discharge of torpedoes by submarines.</li> -<li>Quick turning of ships.</li> -<li>Strategic plans for saving cargo boats from submarines.</li> -<li>Collision mats.</li> -<li>Taking merchant-ships out of mined harbors.</li> -<li>Oleum cloud shells.</li> -<li>Camouflaging ships and burning anthracite.</li> -<li>More power for torpedoes.</li> -<li>Coast patrol by submarine buoys.</li> -<li>Destroying periscopes with machine-guns.</li> -<li>Cartridge for taking soundings.</li> -<li>Sailing-lights for convoys.</li> -<li>Smudging sky-line.</li> -<li>Obstructing torpedoes with nets.</li> -<li>Under-water search-light.</li> -<li>High-speed signaling with search-lights.</li> -<li>Water-penetrating projectile.</li> -<li>Airplane detection.</li> -<li>Observing periscopes in silhouette.</li> -<li>Steamship decoys.</li> -<li>Zigzagging.</li> -<li>Reducing rolling of warships.</li> -<li>Obtaining nitrogen from the air.</li> -<li>Stability of submerged submarines.</li> -<li>Hydrogen detector for submarines.</li> -<li>Induction balance for submarine detection.</li> -<li>Turbine head for projectile.</li> -<li>Protecting observers from smoke-stack gas.</li> -<li>Mining Zeebrugge harbor.</li> -<li>Blinding submarines and periscopes.</li> -<li>Mirror-reflection system for warships.</li> -<li>Device for look-out men.</li> -<li>Extinguishing fires in coal bunkers.</li> -<li>Telephone system on ships.</li> -<li>Extension ladder for spotting-top.</li> -<li>Preserving submarine and other guns from rust.</li> -<li>Freeing range-finder from spray.</li> -<li>Smudging periscopes.</li> -<li>Night glass.</li> -<li>Re-acting shell.</li> -</ol> - -<p>It will be seen that Mr. Edison's inventive imagination was permitted -a wide scope. He fairly reveled in the opportunity of attacking so -many difficult problems and worked through the days and nights writh -unflagging enthusiasm. He committed his business interests to the -care of his associates, and during the two years of his work for the -government kept in touch with his great business interests only by -means of reports which were condensed to the utmost. In addition, for -two successive winters, he gave up his regular winter vacation on his -Florida estate, usually a source of great enjoyment to him. But it was -all done willingly and without a word of regret or dissatisfaction so -far as the writer's knowledge goes.</p> - -<p>Although we cannot take space to discuss the above items in detail, the -reader will probably have a desire to know something of Edison's work -in regard to the submarines.</p> - -<p>In view of the vast destruction of shipping, perhaps it is not an -overstatement to say that the most vital problem of the late war was -to overcome the menace of the submarine. Undoubtedly there was more -universal study and experiment on means and devices for locating and -destroying submarines than on any other single problem.</p> - -<p>The class of apparatus most favored by investigators comprised various -forms of listening devices by means of which it was hoped to detect and -locate by sound the movement of an entirely submerged submarine. The -difficulties in obtaining accurate results were very great even when -the observing vessel was motionless, but were enormously enhanced on -using listening devices on a vessel under way, on account of the noises -of the vessel itself, the rushing of the water, and so on.</p> - -<p>Edison's earliest efforts were confined to the induction balance, but -after two months of intensive experimenting on that line he gave it up -and entered upon a long series of experiments with listening devices, -employing telephones, audions, towing devices, resonators, etc. The -Secretary of the Navy provided Edison with a 200-foot vessel for his -experiments, and in the summer and fall of 1917 they had progressed -sufficiently to enable him to detect sounds of moving vessels as far -distant as five thousand yards. This, however, was when the observing -vessel was at anchor. The results with the vessel under way, at full -speed, were not poor.</p> - -<p>Having pushed the possibilities along this line to their reasonable -limit, Edison was of the opinion that this plan would not be practical -and he turned his thoughts to another solution of the problem—namely, -to circumvent the destructive operation of the submarine and avoid the -loss of ships. He had discovered in his experimenting that the noise -made by a torpedo in its swift passage through the water was very -marked and easily distinguishable from any other sound.</p> - -<p>With this fact as a basis, Edison, therefore, evolved a new plan, -which had two parts: first, to provide merchant-ships with a listening -apparatus that would enable them, while going at full speed, to hear -the sound of a torpedo as soon as it was launched from a submarine; -and, second, to provide the merchant-ships with means for quickly -changing their course to another course at right angles. Thus, the -torpedo would miss its mark and the merchantship would be saved. If -another torpedo should be launched, the same tactics could be repeated.</p> - -<p>His further investigations were conducted along this line. After -much experimenting he developed a listening device in the form of an -outrigger suspended from the bowsprit. This device was so arranged that -it hung partly in the water and would always be from 10 to 20 feet -ahead of the vessel, but could be swung inboard at any time. The device -was about 20 feet long and about 16 inches in width and was made of -brass and rubber. It contained brass tubes, with a phonograph diaphragm -at the end which hung in the water. The listening apparatus was placed -in a small room in the bow of the vessel. There were no batteries used. -With this listening apparatus, and while the vessel was going full -speed, moving boats 1,000 yards away could be easily heard in rough -seas. This meant that torpedoes could be heard 3,000 yards away, as -they are by far the noisiest craft that "sail" the ocean.</p> - -<p>The second step in Edison's plan—namely, the quick changing of a -ship's course, was accomplished with the "sea anchor." This device -consists of a strong canvas bag which is attached to a ship by long -ropes. When thrown overboard the bag opens, fills with water, and acts -as a drag on a ship under way. Edison's plan was to use four or more -sea anchors simultaneously. In a trial made with a steamship 325 feet -long, draught 19 feet 6 inches, laden with 4,200 tons of coal, by the -use of four sea anchors, the vessel going at full speed, was turned at -right angles to her previous course with an advance of only 200 feet, -or less than her own length. This means that if an enemy submarine -had launched a torpedo against the ship while she was on her original -course it would have passed by without harming her, thus making -submarine torpedo attack of no avail. It may be noted parenthetically -that this apparatus has its uses in the merchant-marine in peacetimes. -For instance, should the look-out on a steamship running at full speed -sight an iceberg 300 or 400 feet ahead this device could be instantly -put into use and the ship could be turned quickly enough to avoid a -collision.</p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<div class="figcenterp"> -<a id="ed0293"></a> -<img src="images/ed0293.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption">EDISON AT WORK ON RUBBER EXPERIMENTS. FROM A MOVING -PICTURE TAKEN DECEMBER, 1928</p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p>There is only space for a passing mention of the immense amount of -data which Edison gathered, tabulated, and charted in his study and -evolution of strategical plans suggested by him to the government in -the line of lessening the destruction by submarines. He spent day and -night for several months with a number of assistants working out these -plans. It is not possible to make more specific mention of them here, -as they are too voluminous for these pages.</p> - -<p>With this tremendous amount of work pressing on him he retained his -accustomed good health and buoyancy, due, undoubtedly, to his cheerful -spirit, philosophical nature, and abstemious living. Soon after the -armistice was signed his experimental work for the government came to -an end, and he then switched back to the general supervision of his -business interests and to his ceaseless experiments through which he -is continually making improvements and refinements in the products of -the large industries which he established and in which he is so greatly -interested.</p> - -<p>Mention should also be made of another extensive project he has -undertaken, and that is the production of rubber from plants, weeds, -bushes, shrubs, etc., grown in the United States. This he speaks of as -"emergency" rubber, to be resorted to in case our country should ever -be embarrassed in obtaining a supply of rubber from present sources. -This is a tremendous problem, but he is applying to its solution the -same resourceful powers that have characterized his previous endeavors.</p> - -<p>Herein, and in the development of new ideas, lies Edison's daily work -and pleasure, and although he is in his eighties at this writing, with -still boundless energy, it may be said of him</p> - -<p class="blockquot"> -"Age cannot wither him, nor custom stale<br /> -His infinite variety."<br /> -</p> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's The boys' life of Edison, by William Meadowcroft - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOYS' LIFE OF EDISON *** - -***** This file should be named 50523-h.htm or 50523-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/0/5/2/50523/ - -Produced by Madeleine Fournier. 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